*gavp^«*-~- HD8051.A3 1902 Cornell University Library rrade and technical education. 3 1924 002 403 065 CORNELL UNIVERSITY LIBRARY NEW YORK STATE SCHOOL OF INDUSTRIAL AND LABOR RELATIONS THE GIFT OF DEPT. of LABOR LIBEAET Cornell University Library The original of tiiis book is in tine Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924002403065 SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPOllT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 1 9 O 3. TIIADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION. PROPERTY OF LIBRARY NEW YOMJSIAILSCHOOL INDUSTRIAL AND LABOR RELATIONS CORNELL UNIVERSITY WASHmGTON: GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 19 2. Pago. Introduction - 7-15 ■Chapter I. — Trade and Technical Education in the United States 17-366 Introduction 19-24 Building and mechanical trade schools 24-94 Brewers' schools 94-99 Dairy schools 99-110 Schools of dressmaking, millinery, domestic training, etc 111-132 Textile schools ' 132-157 Schools for watchmakers, engravers, etc 157-166 Barbers' schools - 166-170 Miscellaneous trade schools 171-180 Technical and continuation schools 180-211 Young Men's Christian Association schools 211-223 Instruction by correspondence 223-234 Schools of industrial drawing and design 235-281 Industrial schools in the South for the colored race 281-354 Industrial schools in the South for whites 354-366 Chapter II. — Attitude of Employees, Graduates of Trade and Tech- nical Schools, and Labor Unions in the United St.vtes toward Trade and Technical Education 367-424 Attitude of employers , 369-395 Attitude of graduates of trade and technical schools 395-413 Attitude of labor unions 413-424 Chapter III. — Trade and Technical Education ix Austria 425-563 Introduction 427-437 Classes of institutions 437-451 Development and supervision of the apprenticeship system 451-455 Individual schools 455-560 Central industrial educational institutions 455-475 Schools for important groups of trades 475-490 Schools for particular trades 490-548 Schools for lace work and embroidery 490^92 Schools for weaving 492-505 Schools for wood, iron, and stone work 505-526 Schools for earthenware and glasswork ..- 527-535 Schools for metal working 535-542 Schools for other trades - 543-548 Industrial continuation schools - - 548-560 Attitude of educators, employers, and graduates of trade and technical schools toward trade and technical education 560-563 4 CONTENTS. Page. Chapter IV. — Trade and Technical Education in Belgium 565-684 Introduction 567-570 Clai9ses of institutions '. 570-604 Individual schools ' 60-t-672 Trade schools for females 604-619 Trade schools proper 604-615 Trade and housekeeping schools 615-618 Housekeeping and trade schools 618, 619 Trade courses for females 619, 620 Apprenticeship shops for females 620 Industrial schools 621-643 Trade schools for males 644-654 Day trade schools 644-649 Trade continuation schools - 649-654 Trade schools of fishing 654 Superior trade and technical schools 654-662 Saint Luke trade schools 662-667 Apprenticeship shops for males - 667-671 Trade courses for males 671, 672 Attitude of employers, graduates of trade and technical schools, and labor unions toward trade and technical education 672-684 Attitude of employers 673-675 Attitude of graduates of trade and technical schools 676-681 Attitude of labor unions 682-684 Chapter V. — Trade and Technical Education in C-VNADa 685-699 Chapter VI. — Trade and Technical Education in France 701-868 Introduction 703-715 Classes of institutions 715-739 Individual schools , 740-853 Schools for advanced industrial education 740-755 Schools for decorative and industrial art 755-760 Practical schools of commerce and industry 760-771 National trade schools 772-775 Trade schools for several trades 775-802 Trade schools for single trades 802-818 General industrial schools 818-826 Trade and technical continuation schools and courses 826-849 Industrial drawing schools 849-853 Attitude of employers and graduates of trade and technical schools toward trade and technical education 853-868 Attitude of employers 854-860 Attitude of graduates of trade and technical schools 860-868 Chapter VII. — Trade and Technical Education i\ Germany 869-984 Introduction 871-877 Classes of institutions 877-898 Development and supervision of the apprenticeship i^ysteni 899-906 Individual schools 907-984 Schools and museums of industrial art 907-919 Schools for foremen 919-927 Schools for the building trades 927-934 Schools for the textile trades : 935-946 Trade and industrial continuation schools 947-984 Trade schools for single trades 947-963 Trade continuation schools 963-984 CONTEKTTS. 5 Page. Chapter VIII. — Trade and Technical Education in Great Britain.. 985-1152 Introduction 987-990 Character a,nd extent of technical education iu England 990-996 Obstacles of technical instruction 996-1000 The selection of teachers 1000 Benefits of technical education 1000, 1001 Individual schools 1001-1129 England 1001-1123 Scotland 1123-1128 Ireland 1129 Attitude of employers, graduates of trade and technical schools, and labor unions toward trade and technical education 1129-1152 Attitude of employers 1130-1137 Attitude of graduates of trade and technical schools 1137-1142 Attitude of labor unions _ 1142-1152 Chapter IX. — Trade and Technical Education in Hungary 1153-1165 Introduction 1155-1159 Apprentice schools 1159, 1160 Schools for trade journeymen 1160 School workshops 1160 Industrial technical schools 1161-1163 State industrial schools 1163, 1164 Industrial schools for women 1164 Industrial drawing schools 1164 Lower industrial schools 1164, 1165 Manual training schools 1165 Industrial museums 1165 Chapter X. — Trade and Technical Education in Italy _ . . 1167-1212 Introduction 1169-1176 Industrial schools and schools of arts and trades 1176-1199 Schools of art applied to industry and schools of industrial drawing.. 1200-1212 Chapter XI. — Trade and Technical Education in Switzerland 1213-1305 Introduction 1215-1223 Classes of institutions ' 1223-1236 Supervision of the apprenticeship system 1236-1244 Individual schools 1245-1299 Secondary technical schools 1245-1264 Industrial art schools 1264-1270 Trade schools and apprenticeship shops 1270-1295 Housekeeping and domestic-service schools 1296, 1297 Industrial continuation and handicraft schools and trade courses. 1297-1299 Attitude of educators, employers, graduates of trade and technical schoolSj'and labor unions toward trade and technical education. 1299-1305 Attitude of educators 1299-1303 Attitude of employers 1303, 1304 Attitude of graduates of trade and technical schools 1 304, 1 305 Attitude of labor unions 1305 Erratum. On page 570 the section beginning with " Classes of Institutions " and ending with " 6. Trade courses " should be transposed to follow line 3 on page 571. INTRODUCTION. The Eighth Annual Report of the Commissioner of Labor, the report for the year 1892, presented the results of an investigation undertaken pursuant to an act of Congress directing ' ' the investiga- tion of, and report upon, the various industrial-school sjstems, and also technical-school systems, of the United States and foreign coun- tries." The terms of the act were construed to include the systems of manual training, of apprenticeship, and of technical instruction in vogue in the several classes of special schools, as well as the public schools, at home and abroad. The object kept steadily in view throughout the inquiry was to compare foreign sj'stems of industrial education with our own, and by this means to obtain fi'om the older civilization of Europe some useful hints for the improvement of American schools, but above all the purpose was to ascertain the pre- cise effects of manual and technical training upon local and national industiies, upon the pupil, upon the quality of his work, his capacity for wage-earning, his value to his employer, etc. In pursuance of this plan, the report gave for the United States and each principal European country, first, a general survej' of the system of industrial schools with reference to their organization and adminis- tration and the relation of the various classes of schools to each other and to the industries of the countr3% and, second, a description of the leading individual schools, showing their aims, equipment, and management, courses and methods of instruction, and statistical details. Besides this material, which formed the bulk of the report, the results of special original investigations were given and discussed at some length in chapters on the kindergarten in relation to manual training, manual training in conjunction with book work, manual training and trade instruction in reformatories, and the effect of industrial education upon the individual. In the ten years that have elapsed since this investigation and the publication of the report many changes have taken place in the schools for industrial education. The courses in the older schools 7 O INTRODUCTION. have been modified and developed along the lines determined by the experience of their earlier years, and new schools have been estab- lished with all the ad\antages gained from the experiments of the pioneer institutions and a study of the best foreign schools. The period of depression through which the industries of the country have recently passed has made the business interests keenly alive to the need of providing foreign outlets for surplus products, and the swift expansion of American industries and foreign trade has more than ever before brought American manufactures into competition with foreign goods and led to a desire to study the methods of foreign competitors. Special trade and technical schools have been judged both in this country and abroad as most efficient means for promoting the growth of industries and the improvement of the product. Manufac- turers everywhere are turning to the subject of industrial education, no longer with any question as to its A'alue, but merely as to the best means and methods. From manufacturers, from v/orkmen, and from educators inquiries have come to this Department for fresh informa- tion in regard to trade and technical schools, for details in regard to the newer schools, for facts in regard to the present status of the old schools, for the methods employed in foreign schools, and for the results obtained. Thus it has seemed that both the progress of ten years and the strong interest of manufacturer and workman alike urged a fresh investigation and a report of the best and latest in the line of trade and technical education at home and abroad. This report differs in several important particulars from that of ten years ago. In the earlier report industrial education was considered in the broadest- sense. Considerable space was devoted to manual training, then just becoming firmly established in the public schools. The agricultural colleges and the institutes of technology were also included, as representing the earliest schools with an industrial tend- ency, although both classes are perhaps largelj^ in the categor}^ with colleges and professional schools. In the present report, only indus- trial schools, properly so called, have been studied, and the classes of schools just mentioned have been omitted from any detailed treatment. Manual training seems to have made for itself a permanent place in the public-school work, not as a means of teaching trades or even the elements of any trade, but as an educative study in the same way as dravv'ing, which preceded it in the public schools only a few years, or any bookwoi'k of the school course. The schools of technology have INTEODUCTION. 9 been entirely omitted. Their graduates, it is true, go into many industries, but the school training is specialized in purely scientific rather than in industrial lines. The agricultural colleges have devel- oped, to a large extent, in the same direction as the technological schools, although all of them oflfer courses of college grade on agricul- tural lines. The rule was adhered to of considering no course of instruction which led to a degree. A somewhat recent development in connection with agricultural colleges — the dairj'' school — has been described at some length in this report. It represents one of the most notably successful efforts to benefit an industry by the application of scientific knowledge to its processes. In the present investigation, as in the earlier one, it has been the purpose to present outlines of the systems in use in European coun- tries and details of typical trade and technical schools of each class, showing especially such facts as the aim of the school, equipment as to grounds, buildings, laboratories and workshops, machinery and tools, etc., endowment, costs, method of management and maintenance, instructors, courses and methods of- instruction, nu.mber of pupils, number of graduates, etc. Special inquiries, also, were directed to securing suggestions as to the improvement of the instruction in the schools investigated, and to ascertaining the influence of the schools upon the pupils, upon apprenticeship, and upon any industries, as well as the attitude of employers, of school graduates, and of labor unions toward industrial education. Having indicated some of the schools which have been passed over in making this investigation, it will be necessary to indicate the classes of schools which have been considered as industrial, properly so called, and included in this report. It should be said, however, at the outset that usage in regard to such terms as manual training schools, trade schools, and technical schools is far from uniform. It will be the pur- pose here merely to indicate in a general way the characteristics of the several classes of schools. In general, the schools included in this report are of three classes, namely, trade schools, technical schools, and schools of industrial drawing and design. In the trade school in its simplest form the instruction is confined entirely or chiefly to the workshop, and consists in perfecting the pupil in the practice of the manipulations and operations of skilled workmen at particular trades. These schools differ according as the practice 10 INTEODUCTIOJT. work extends over a longer or shorter period and as more or le-^s explanation and instruction in scientific principles are added to give a thorough understanding of the practice work. Thej' are apprentice- ship schools, and usually claim to graduate apprentices fullj' equipped except as to speed, it being generallj' considered that this is better acquired under ordinarj- worldng conditions in the trade. The sole or primary aim of the trade school is to give the pupil a thorough practical knowledge of some handicraft. Incidentalh" much general information may be imparted in connection with the trade instruction, especially in drawing, mathematics, and scientific branches, but always in direct application to the work of the trade. Thus the trade school is clearly distinguished from the manual-training school where instruction is given in various kinds of tool work as an educa- tional discipline. The difference may be illustrated by contrasting the course pursued in the New York Trade School, for example, with that in the St. Louis Manual-Training School and in the public manual- training high schools. In the one, the course is of short duration, and is limited to a severe drill in the tlieory and practice of a trade. The course in the others lasts three or four years, comprising hig-h-school studies with manual practice in wood and iron work as a coordinate branch of education. In some of the nev^er American trade schools, the Williamson School near Philadelphia and the two San Francisco trade schools, for instance, we have a new type of school. The practice in the operations of the trade has been extended over four years and the theoretical instruction covers substantially the same subjects as that in the manual-training high schools with special adaptation in the last half of the course to the particular trade which the pupil is learning. The aim of these schools is to give their graduates a much broader educational foundation to the trade than is possible in the short courses of the New York Trade School. The pupil is taught not only how to perform every opei-a- tion expected of a skilled workman in the trade, but to understand thoroughlj' the scientific principles invol\'ed in each operation. Such training is expected to insure rapid advancement beyond the o-rade of journejman. Training in trade schools in the United States is intended to supply the place of the old-time apprenticeship, which has nearly disap- peared under the conditions of present Any industry. The trade-school graduates in many cases are able to begin work at the trade at INTEODTJCTIOW. 11 wages but slightly less than those of the practiced journeyman, and after a little experience receive full journeymen's wages. The courses of instruction in most American trade schools haye been arranged to train pupils in the shortest possible time to become wage- earners at the trade. This has been the result of the demands of both pupil and parent; the teachers and the employers are practicall}' a unit in urging longer school preparation. In the foreign schools, on the other hand, longer and more detailed courses are the rule. This has been largely due to the restraining influence of the labor unions and their insistence upon the full period of apprenticeship. As the American schools grow in resources and pupils the tendency is to lengthen and improve the courses. In the technical school in its simplest form the instruction is limited entireljr or chiefly to the school room or the laboratory, and consists in only such use of tools and machines bj' the instructor as will clearly illustrate the application of the theoretical and scientific teaching to the particular trades. Many such schools make no provision for the use of tools or machines on the part of the pupil. Others introduce a good deal of such practice that the j)upil may acquire a familiarit}' with all the processes of the trade. But the important distinction is that the school is supplementary to the work at the trade. The courses are arranged to provide theoretical and scientific instruction adapted for apprentices and workmen already at work at their trades. The purpose is to give the workman an understanding of the scientific principles involved in the work that he maj- be called upon to do at his trade and to increase his intelligence generallj'. Most of the schools of this class are evening schools. Good exam- ples of schools offering such instruction in this countrj- are the school of Hoe & Co., the printing press manufacturers, Drexel and Spring Garden institutes, Kochester Athenfeum, the Young Men's Christian Association schools, and the correspondence schools. In England this is the favorite type of instruction. Most of the instruction in the schools known there as polytechnics and technical schools is of this character. These English schools are officially' regarded as wholly technical and as in no case taking the place of apprenticeship, the teaching of the practice of trades being expressly forbidden by the act under which they came into being and under which they derive their support. The technical instruction is very highly specialized and the shopwork is to explain the scientific instruction, to enable the pupil to learn how 1-2 INTRODUCTION. to do — but carefully refrains from giving sufficient practice to enable the pupil to acquire dexterity or in any manner do away with the necessity of a regular apprenticeship in the trade. In fact in nearly all these English schools only those who are at work in the trade already are permitted to receive the benefits of the instruction. This has been a necessary concession to organized labor. The influence of the English labor unions and the rigidit}' with which the would-be artisan is held in control will be appreciated when the length of apprenticeship — as much as seven years in some cases — is com- pared with the preparation demanded in this country and the elasticity of even this requirement. For while three or four years' apprenticeship is required here, it is not to be doubted that many attain to journey- men's full wages without ever undergoing any such exacting service. This is rendered much easier by the facility with which the workman can move from place to place. But the length of the apprenticeship is not all the difference. During the long period of the English work- man's apprenticeship very low wages are received, while in the United States the apprentice from the beginning earns a living wage. The greater number of opportunities open to the bright, ambitious boy in this country is in large part the cause of this great difference. In Germany also the private-shop apprenticeship with evening and Sunday instruction is favored. Education is compulsory up to the four- teenth jear, but the great majority of the laboring classes begin work at this age. For the special purpose of continuing the instruction of the j^oung workers after they are forced to enter the shops to earn a livelihood, the so-called continuation schools were created. They prdved so well adapted to the needs of the workmen that the}' have been specialized for particular trades and have multiplied all over the Empire. As the length of the period of instruction in the trade school increases the amount of theoretical instruction is added to more and more. In the continental countries in many cases trade schools of very high grade are known as technical schools; in these, while a craft is taught, the scientific principles upon which it is grounded are also exhaustively studied and exemplified in their applications to art and industiy. Such also are the American textile schools modeled on the older German textile schools. These schools, like those in Germany, repre- sent a direct effort on the part of the textile interests to foster a local INTRODUCTION. 13 industry by the education of the workmen in art, and science as applicable to manufacture. They represent, too, the most important instances in this country where trade schools have received the assist- ance of- the State and the municipality. These textile schools are all trade schools, but in their longer courses, extending over four years in the day school, the most thorough scientific and technical instruc- tion is given. In the schools of industrial drawing and design general instruction is given in freehand and mechanical drawing and in design applied to various industries. In the best of these courses a good deal of attention is given in^the latter part of the course to the study of the processes of manufacture that the designer may understand the prac- tical requirements of each particular product. Much practical good has alread};- resulted from this kind of instruction, especially in cotton and woolen manufacturing. Many of the American schools show the influence of European example, and the modifications and improvements have been notable. Manual training has long been in general use in European schools, but the manual-training high school is a distinct American tj^pe. The New York Trade School, too, has no European prototype, though the institution was established after careful study of foreign experi- ence. No European school offers short trade courses of so distinctly practical a character. Doubtless the influence of the trade unions would be too strongly against courses so short. England has no trade schools in the sense of schools of apprenticeship. The so-called con- tinuation school, so common in Germany for many years, represents a kind of instruction the need of which seems to be much felt just at present. The success of the Young Men's Christian Association classes and the rapid growth of the correspondence schools seem to be proof of this. Instruction of this character has been carried on by several notable schools for many years — for example, Spring Garden Institute of Philadelphia and the General Society of Mechanics and Tradesmen of New York. The fact must not be overlooked that the mode of educational organization in European countries differs radically from that in the United States. In several continental countries, for example, a com- plete system of industrial education, from the kindergarten and manual training up through trade and technical schools to the higher 14 1WTK0DUCTI0N. engineering and scieiitific institutions, is establisiied b}' law and sub- sidized and administered by the State. With us, on the contraiy, there is not only no such complete system, but there are, with the exception of a few recently estalslished schools, no schools of an industrial character receiving governmental aid. Where public man- ual training schools have been established, the work has been done by municipal boards or by private enterprise. Hence thei'e is no uniform system of manual training nor does any one of the manual training schools have any relation to any trade or technical school. In spite of this there are several incorporated manual training schools in the United States, and a number of public manual training high schools of the same character, which surpass anj^thing of the kind to be found abroad. In these something more is taug^ht than the use of mere hand tools. Machine tools for vrood and metal work abound, and the_ colossal mechanical appliances for testing the strength of materials, etc., seen in some of the schools, dwarf into insignificance the relativel}^ meager equipment of the foreign schools of this class. In respect to trade and technical schools of the best class, the con- ditions are, with a few exceptions, quite the reverse. The thorough- ness of their courses is proverbial, and the specialization of their training comprehends the minutest details. The German JFachschiih; where a single specialty is taught — upholstering, for example — turns out, at the end oi the course, a thoroughlj- competent workman. The dyer who learns his art in the Cref eld laboratories is versed in all the subtile chemistry of colors; and from his knowledge of the composi- tion of fabrics understands, to the fraction of a pfennig, the cost of dyeing a given number of yards blue or j-ellow. A like thoroughness characterizes the instruction given in the horo- logical schools at Besanpon, Geneva, and Coventry — great centers of the watchmaking industry. It is a marked feature, also, of the trade schools of tailoring, dressmaking, and artificial flower making in France, Belgium, and Switzerland; of the Austrian wood-carving and cabinetmaking schools; of the German schools for locksmiths and horseshoers; and even of the fishing schools of the Scandinavian peninsula. A few of the trade and technical schools of the United States take rank with their European prototypes. Of these, the New York Trade School, the Williamson and the San Francisco trade schools INTEODUCTION. 15 Drexel and Pratt institutes, the textile schools, and the New York Institute for Artist-Artisans are examples, and the number is yearly increasing. But the most of our schools of this class are inferior, in respect to the fullness and completeness of their teaching, to the foreign models. Of many, it is true, it may be said that the courses are as thorough and as long as the circumstances of the persons for whom they are arranged will permit. The schools must develop both supply and demand side by side. In considering the subject of the present status of industrial educa- tion in the succeeding chapters, no attempt has been made to take a census of the various institutions in this and other countries in which trade and technical instruction in any form constitutes a feature. At the present time the number of institutions equipped for such train- ing is of no great conseqaence. It is rather the organization and methods of representative schools that are something more than experiments that we wish to know. The chief object, therefore, has been to draw from original and other sources the facts which should most clearly show the actual progress that has been made in trade and technical schools, and their influence upon industry and the indi- vidual. Only those sources which are considered authentic have been used to supplement the original inquiries of the Depai'tment. When this investigation relating to trade and technical schools was first taken up the intention was to publish the results in the bimonthly Bulletin of the Department; but as it progressed it was found that the information to be obtained would make a report altogether too bulky for the Bulletin, hence a larger number of experts were employed than was originally intended, and the results of the inquiry are, therefore, made the subject of an annual report. In submitting this report, I wish to acknowledge the valuable serv- ices of Messrs. William F. Willoughby and Edward W. Bemis in connection with the collection and preparation of the data relating to foreign schools, and of Mr. G. W. W. Hanger, chief clerk, and Messrs. Chas. H. Verrill and G. A. Weber, all of whom have ren- dei'ed most valuable aid in the preparation and editing of the material collected. Caeeoll D. Weight, Commissione7\ Depaetment of Laboe, Washington, D. C, August 1, 190^. CHAPTER I. TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES. 17 9257—02 2 CHAPTER I. TEADE AHD TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN THE TTNITED STATES. INTRODUCTION. In looking for the beginnings of education of an industrial character in theUnited States, attention must be directed to the early efforts of the institutes of technology. These schools, to be sure, are primarily schools of science and engineering of collegiate grade, but their con- tribution to the extraordinary industrial progress of the past quarter of a centurj^ both directly and through their influence upon scientific instruction in the colleges of the country, has been very large. Although .the earliest of these schools, Rensselaer Polytechnic Insti- tute, was established in 1824, the period of their real activity began immediately following the close of the civil war. The Massachusetts Institute of Technology opened its doors in 1865, and was followed in 1868 by the Worcester Polytechnic Institute, in 1866 by Lehigh Uni- versity, and in 1871 by the Stevens Institute of Technology. Since then many other institutions of like character have been established, and the attendance of students pursuing scientific and engineering courses of this grade has grown to large-proportions. Scientific education received a decided impetus in the passage of the land-grant act of July 2, 1862. The colleges of agriculture and the mechanic arts in the several States, numbering about 60, founded from time to time under this act or compl3'ing v^'ith its terms, have received from the General Government under this act in the aggregate more than 116,000,000. These institutions have applied themselves to a great extent to the promotion of agricultural education. In several instances, however, the benefit of the grant has gone to institutions almost exclusively scientific or technological, while in many cases courses of such a character were established side by side with the agri- cultural courses. In most cases the industrial results of the work of these schools, except in the agricultural courses, have been, as in the institutes of technologj^, indirect rather than strictly industrial. The agricultural tendencj^ of these schools was given a fresh impetus by the act of March 2, 1887, by which the sum of $16,000 per annum went to each State for the establishment and maintenance of agricul- tui-al experiment stations connected with the colleges founded under 19 20 KEPOKT OF THE COMMISSIONEK OF LABOR. the land-grant act. Further governmental support was given the work of these schools b}^ the act of August 30, 1890, under which |15,000 was voted to each State, this sum to be increased by $1,000 each j-ear for ten years, after which the annual aid was fixed at $25,000. The act stipulated that this money should "be applied only to instruction in agriculture, the mechanic arts, the English language,, and the various branches of mathematical, physical, natural, and economic science, with special reference to their applications in the industries of life." These institutions have in recent years greatly extended their work, not only in agricultural but in the South in industrial lines. The dairy courses established in Wisconsin, Minnesota, and Iowa, in 1891, and later in a number of other States have proved remarkably successful. Short winter courses in agriculture for the farmers have been a recent development, and the correspondence courses for farmers, a successful expc 'iment initiated by the agricultural department of Cornell Univer- sity, is the latest. Some of' the agricultural colleges now offer instruction professedly of an industrial character and not of a grade leading to a degree. In the colored Agricultural and Mechanical College, Greensboro, N. C, which Tfill serve as the example for a number in the South, there are three departments: Department of agriculture and chemistry, depart- ment of mechanical engineering and architecture, and department of mechanics. In the department of mechanics the leading mechanical trades are taught in four-year courses. During the first two years of the course the time is largely devoted to shopwork at the chosen trade, supplemented by drawing, elementary mathematics, and science. In the last tvv^o years advanced work at the trade follows, with general shop training and instruction in advanced mathematics and science. Similar courses are offered in a number of the Southern institutions. Another Southern institution, Clemson College, in South Carolina, added a textile department in 1898 and erected a building and equipped it with a full line of cotton-mill machinery for illustrating the manu- facture of j'arns and woven fabrics of all descriptions. Courses in carding, spinning, weaving, dyeing, designing, etc., are offered. A similar department was established in 1899 at the North Carolina Col- lege of Agriculture and Mechanical Arts, and in 1900 at the Mississippi Agricultural and Mechanical College. A num.ber of schools of art had long existed and some instruction in industrial drawing and design had been given in connection with the art courses. No schools of an industrial character or even with instruction of an industrial tendency, other than the classes of schools already mentioned, Avere in existence up to 1870. That year was notable as marking the introduction of industrial drawing into the schools of TEABE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION UNITED STATES. 21 Massachusetts. The exhibit of the work in drawing of the Boston public schools and of the Massachusetts Normal Art School at the Centennial in 1876 attracted wide attention to the advantages of such training. Tlie work of the pupils of the Russian schools in metal and of the Swiss schools in wood (sloid) at the same time drew the atten- tion of educators to the educational possibilities of manual training. The extension of drawing in the public schools has steadily gone on since that time so that it is now a generally required study in the larger towns and cities of the country. In 1890 the Massachusetts State Board of Education reported that industrial drawing was taught in the public schools in 201 out of the 351 cities and towns of the State. According to the law enacted in 1898 every Massachusetts town and city must give instruction in drawing in its public schools, and any town or city may, and every town and city of 10,000 or more inhabitants must, maintain evening schools for the instruction of per- sons over 14 years of age in industrial drawing, both freehaiid and mechanical (among other studies). ' Manual training followed close upon drawing in its j extension in the public schools. As early as 1870 instruction in sewing was obligator^' .in every public girls' school in Boston. Manual train- ing in the form of typesetting was offered to the boys and girls of the Jamestown, N. Y., public schools in 1874 as an experiment. The Centennial exhibits of foreign work, as has been said, attracted marked attention to the possibilities of manual training, and sporadic experiments followed in a number of cities. Progress at first was slow. Difficulties were experienced in raising funds, securing equip- ment, providing places for instruction, etc. ; but the work went stead- iljr forward. ^Vherever the experiment was tried the training soon became a part of the public-school instruction. In 1890, according to the Report of the Commissioner of Education for 1899-1900, manual training was offered in the public schools in 37 cities and towns of 8,000 population or over. In 1894 this number had increased to 95; in 1896 the number was 121, and in 1900 the total number was 169. Massachusetts now requires that "every town and city of 20,000 or more inhabitants shall maintain as part of both its elementary and its high-school sj^stem the teaching of manual training." , '<' The character and extent of the manual training offejt-ed in the pub- lic schools of the country are diverse. In many places only the sim- ple exercises in drawing, woodworking, and sewing are introduced as electives in the grammar grades. In other schools one or all of these exercises are required of all the pupils; in other places much more complex courses have gradually been worked out; while in other places still, in the larger cities, the manual-ti'aining high school has been added, where alongside the literature, mathematics, and science of the ordinarjr high-school course four years' manual practice is given 22 BEPOET OF THE COMMISSIONBB OF LABOB. in drawing, carpentiy, wood turning, pattern making, cabinetwork, foundry work, forging, machine-shop work, etc. The public schools can not, as a rule, carry manual training much beyond the elementary exercises of drav/iug, woochvorking, sewing, and cooking in the gram- mar gradeii. The expense of equipment and cost of maintenance forbid the further extension of the instru(;tion, at least outside the larger cities. At the same time with the movement for industrial drawing and manua;l training in the public schools in Massachusetts ai'ose.a desire for more adequate provision for training in industrial design. The Lowell School of Practical Design, as a result, was established in 1873 for instruction in textile design. In Philadelphia the School of Indus- trial Art followed in 1877; in Providence the Rhode Island School of Design in 1878, and within more recent years a largenumber of others. An outgrowth of the Philadelphia school, and associated with it as a department, is the Textile School. This school was opened in 1SS3, and was one of the earliest American trade schools, and is still one of the best. It is notable as the earliest attempt to promote the interests of a manufacturing industry by means of industrial teaching, whether by State or individual support. The school was established and equip- ped hj the manufacturers of Philadelphia, but the State of Pennsjd- vania has contributed liberallj^ ton^ard its support. So successful has been the work of the school that similar schools have recently been opened at Lowell, New Bedford, and Fall River, Mass., Atlanta, Ga., Raleigh, N. C, Clemson College, S. C, and in Mississippi. In trade education forthe building and mechanical trades the New York Trade School was the pioneer, in 1881. Since then many schools have adopted its methods in a few courses in conjunction with their other work, but it still stands as the only school of its kind. The Williamson Free School of Mechanical Trades, opened in 1891 near Philadelphia, represents different methods — a four years' course of theoretical and scientific instruction in connection with four 3'ears' manual work in the school shops. San Francisco has two schools of the same type — one for the building trades and one for the mechan- ical trades. The success of all these schools has been marked from the first. In the South industrial training for the colored race has taken a special development. The slender resources of the schools and pupils, the ignorance of the people, and the needs of a country undeveloped industrially, altogether presented a peculiar problem. Hampton Institute, the isioneer school of the class, opened in 1868, attempted to solve the problem by teaching trades to the colored pupils. The pupils are allowed to. pay a portion of the expenses of their schooling by working in the school shop and on the farm. The result has been from the first remarkably successful. A large number of schools TBADE ATTD TECHNICAL EDUCATION UNITED STATES. 23 ;emplo3'ing the same methods have been established all over the South. The most notable of these is the school at Tuskegee, Ala., which has over 1,000 pupils. Among the oldest schools giving instraction for the benefit either of industry or the workmen are those schools where drawing, mathe- matics, physics, etc, sive taught to workmen in evening classes. In this country they have frequently been referred to as technical schools, and sometimes as continuation schools, from their likeness to theGerman continuation schools. Although one of the oldest types, the appreciation of the need of such instruction on the part of work- man and employer has within a few years given education of this class new life. Spring Garden Institute, Philadelphia, and the School of the General Society of .Mecha;nics and Tradesmen, New York, the School of Hoe ^& -Co., and the Newark Technical School are examples df the older schools. Drexel Institute and the Rochester Athenssum are notable examples of recent progress on these lines. In this con- nection (for their aim is to give instruction of the same character to pupils of the same class) should be mentioned the industrial evening classes of the Young Men's Christian Association and the correspond- !ence school classes. In the .former about 6,000 pupils are in attend- ance and in :tlie latter schools an enrbllment of more than 300,000 pupils is claimed. As will be seen from what has been said, no comijlete system of industrial schools exists either in the United States or in any State. The progress has been made in the way of independent growth, for no coordination exists between the different classes of schools. Manual training has for the most part grown up in the public schodls, but even where it has had the encouragement of State law, as in Massa- chusetts, or of State aid, as in New Jersej^, each localboard has con- trolled the direction and method of ;growth. The same is true of drawing, the basis of all industrial training. Trade, technical, and technological schools have been almost entirely the result of privstte initiative and support. The exceptions relate to textile trade schools 'which have had Stsite and municipal aid and to those technological schools that are departments of State universities or of agricultural and mechanical colleges. The agricultural and mechanical colleges have all had the aid of the Federal Government to a generous extent. Wanj, too, in their positions as State institutions have had the finan- cial support of the State governments. But each institution is inde- pendent of any other as to courses and methods of instruction and as to all matters of administration. The only coordination is such as has resulted from the influence of successful example and of voluntary cooperation. With such a histor}^ and with such lack of any complete uniform •S3'stem of industrial schools the difficulty of any exact classification of 24 EEPOKT OP THE COMMISSIONEE OP LABOR. schools will be readilj^ understood. Any classification that might be made would be arbitrary and open to criticism. The classification that has been adopted had for its aim the bringing together of schools of the same general purposes and character. It was thought that a clearer idea could thus be gained of what has been accomplished along the different lines followed by the various schools. As presented in this chapter, a description of t3^pical individual schools is given, arranged in the following classes: Trade schools, including schools for teaching building and mechan- ical trades, barbering, brewing, dairj-ing, domestic science, dressmak- ing, tailoring, and millinery, textile manufacture, watchmaking, and several miscellaneous trades; technical and continuation schools; Young Men's Chriatian Association industrial classes; correspondence schools; schools of industrial drawing and design; industrial schools in the South for the colored race, and industrial schools in the South for the whites. As already explained, only trade schools, tecnnical schools, and schools of industrial drawing and design as above enumerated arc here described. This excludes from consideration the several impor- tant classes of manual training schools, agricultural colleges (except such as have trade courses) and institutes of technologj^, and all courses of instruction leading to a degree. BUILDING AND MECHANICAL TRADE SCHOOLS. In this country schools for the teaching of the building trades and other mechanical trades are those usually meant when trade schools are spoken of, and the New York Trade School is the best known school of the type. In this school the various building trades are chiefly taught, although classes in blacksmithing and printing have been under training. The method used employs not onlj- manual practice but instruction in the scientific principles on which such practice is based. In the day classes four consecutive months are required to complete the course. For evening classes a much longer time is necessary. Schools of this class vary considerably in their scope and methods, as will be seen on an examination of their courses of study. Another type of schools of this class is represented by the William- son Free School of Mechanical Trades. In this school the course goes beyond the principles of the trade operations, and is designed to give such academic instruction as will lay a good foundation in the physical sciences, mathematics, and mechanical drawing. This corresponds to a large extent with the academic part of the course in the manual- training high schools. The aim in the shorter trade courses is to train the pupil to make a good journeyman at the trade; in the other not only to prepare for the trade, but to lay such a broad foundation as ' will assure future promotion above the grade of journeyman. Two TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION UNITED STATES. 25 other schools which represent the most advanced experience in this direction are the California School of Mechanical Arts and the Wil- merding School of Industrial Arts, both at San Francisco. Nearly all the industrial schools scattered throughout the South give instruction in these trades. Their work is fully described iu another part of this report, where the schools are grouped by themselves. In connection with this class of schools attention should be called to the apprenticeship system in use in the machine shops of the Baldwin Locomotive Works and the Brown & Sharpe Company, referred to elsewhere (see pp. 382 to 388). In both these shops the apprentices are required, in addition to their shopwork, to take up a course of technical studies in evening schools. The shopwork of these appren- tices, unlike that in the schools, is paid productive work, differing from other productive work in the same shops only in that the appren- tices are in charge of a special instructor, and that they are retained at each operation only long enough to thoroughly learn it. In either establishment the number of apprentices is sufficiently large to bear comparison with the largest of the trade schools, and in the Baldwin Works more than a thousand apprentices are receiving the benefits of the training. NEW TOB.K TRADE SCHOOL, KTEW TOBE, BT. Y. This school is undoubtedly the largest and most thoroughly equipped exclusively trade school in the countr3^ The following regarding ita purpose and system of instruction is for the most part taken from the catalogue of the school: The New York Trade School was founded in 1881 by the late Col. Richard T. Auchmuty. The purpose of the school is to provide instruction for young men in certain trades, and to afford .young men already in those trades the opportunity to acquire additional skill and knowledge. Owing to its decadence, the apprenticeship system no longer affords young men wishing to learn a trade that careful, syste- matic, and thorough training which they should receive if they are to be mechanics of the highest skill. Colonel Auchmuty clearly saw the serious need this problem presented, and to his philanthropy and per- sonal effort is due the establishment of the New York Trade School. While a charge is made for admission, the terms of tuition are merely nominal and meet but a small part of the cost of maintaining the school. A liberal endowment, vvhich the school possesses, enables the institu- tion to carry out the object for which it was founded. The sj'stem of instruction followed at the school is what is known as the "Auchmuty sj^stem," and was originated by the founder. By this sj^stem a course is arranged in which both the practical and theoretical branches of the trade are taught, so that not only is skill quickly acquired, but the scientific principles that underlie the work are also 26 EEPOET OP THE COMMISSIONEE OP LABOK. studied. This system differs from anything heretofore attempted in trade instruction. It has producedremarkable results and has attracted much attention in this country and in Europe. As a result of the development of the various courses to their present efficiency, it can safely be said that the purpose for which the system followed at the New York Trade School was devised has been accomplished, namely, to enable 3'oung men to learn the science and practice of certain trades thoroughly, expeditiously, and economically, leaving speed of execu- tion and experience to be acquired at real work after leaving the school. For each trade taught at the school a course of instruction has been prepared. These courses outline the work which the student is required to go throtigh. At first the student is put on work that is simple, but as skill and a workmanlike use of the tools are acqviired he is advanced to Avork that is more difficult and complicated until he is made.familiar with the various branches of his trade. The work given the student is of a thoroughly practical character, such as will be met with in actual practice at the trade. The scientific instruction imparts knowledge of the trade that is of the highest value, and is given by means of caref ull}' prepared lectures, manuals, diagrams, and experiments. Mechanics of skill and long experience act as instructors, and each student receives individual care and attention. Careful explanation is made of every step in the course. The instructors are constantly with the students, and each member of the class is shown how to handle his tools and how each piece of work should be done. The school is located on First avenue, Six;ty-seventh and Sixty- eighth streets, and covers a plot of ground measuring 200 feet on the avenue, 325 feet on Sixty-seventh sti'eet, and 113 feet on Sixty-eighth street. The main entrance is on First avenue. The buildings are built of brick and are one stor}- in height, except those erected in, 1892 and 1896. These later additions are three stories high. The various workshops and lecture rooms are spacious, well lighted and ventilated, and are heated In' steam. The library contains a collection of the best class of literature, and these boolis the members of the school are privileged to take home. Trade and technical papers are also kept on file for the use of the students. The equipment of the respective workshops of the school affords every facility for instruction. Each student is provided with all necessary tool* and material and is given ample bench room. The evening classes are intended to afford young men already in the trades an opportunity to improve themselves, and to give joimg men who are earning their living at other occupations during the day a chance to learn a trade. The hours of attendance of the evening classes are from 7 to 9.30 o'clock, and enable those who are regular in attendance to learn in a term more than can be acquired in a shop in TKADE ANP TECHNICAL EDUCATION UNITED STATES. 27 manj' 3"ears. On school nights the reading room is opened at 6 o'clock, and young men who choose may occupy this room until the hour when class work begins. The day classes, which are also open to beginners as well as to those who have some knowledge of the trade, graduate young men who are possessed of the skill of the average journeyman and have a wider knowledge of the trade in all its branches. In the past few years much work of an advanced character has been introduced in the various day courses, and the constant practice gained by continuous application, such as the hours of the day classes afford, enables a pupil to rapidly acquire both skill and proficiency'. The hours of attendance of the day classes are from 8.30 a. m. to 4 p. m., excepting on Saturday, when the school closes at noon. The charges for tuition in the daj^ classes range from $25 per term for the course in sign painting to f 35 for the course in carpentry and ^?40 each for the courses in bricklaying, cornice work, electrical work, house painting, plumbing, and steam and hot-water fitting. In the evening classes the charges are as follows: Drawing, f6 per term; blacksmith in g, cornice work, fresco and sign painting, $12 each; plumbing, printing, and steam and hot-water fitting, fli each; brick- laj^ing, carpentrj^j electrical work, house painting, and plastering, $16 each. At the termination of the course of instruction a careful examina- tion is held of both the day and evening classes. To those who attain the required standard in workmanship, theoretical knowledge, and general proficiency a certificate is given. To those who have not advanced sufiicienth^ in manual work, but otherwise pass a satisfactoiy examination, a testimonial of merit is issued. Owing to the limited amount of time in an evening course, it is not always possible for a Student of an evening class to get far enough in the manual course to obtain a certificate the first year; but many evening students return to continue their studies and by completing the course of instruction obtain a certificate. The testimonial of merit entitles the recipient, should he not complete the school course, to apply for reexamination at the school within three years, and if in the meantime by working at the trade the necessary proficiency has been acquired a certificate will be issued. Students who obtain a certificate or a testimonial of merit are given the privilege of entering the following year at half the I'egular tui- tion, provided the same course is taken. This reduction is allowed onlj in the evening courses. The school year opens the middle of October and closes the middle of April. The day classes meet six daj's in the week. The sessions of the evening classes in drawing are held two nights each week, and in the house and fresco painting classes four nights. All the other 28 REPOET OF THE COMMISSIONEK OF LABOB. evening classes meet three nights each week. The age limits govern- ing admission to the several classes are as follows: In electrical work, pattern making, plumbing, printing, and the night class in bricklaying applicants must be between 17 and 22 years of age; in carpentry, house, fresco, and sign painting, and in the day class in bricklaying they must be between 17 and 24 years of age; and in drawing, blacksmithing, steam and hot water fitting, plastering, and cornice making they must be between 17 and 25 years of age. In the course in steam and hot water litting an attendance of three consecutive months in the day school, or two consecutive terms of six months each in the night school is necessary to qualify for a certificate. In the other branches the pupils in the day schools are required to complete four consecutive months, and those in the night school three terms of six months each. The school also conducts a course of lectures for electrical workmen and a course for steam engineers. Each course consists of ten lectures. By these lectures it is intended to provide information that will be of value to the journeyman in his practical work. In connection with the school there is a students' dormitory v/here young men who come from distant points may obtain accommoda- tions. This building is within five minutes' walk of the school, and contains pleasant, well-furnished rooms which are arranged for one, two, or three occupants. Each student has his own bed. The rate for lodgings is §'5 per month. Meals can be had in nearby restaurants and boarding houses at from §3 to $3.50 per week. The evening classes consist very largely of students who reside in Greater IS'ow York and nearby cities. In the day classes fortj^ different States, the Dominion of Canada, Mexico, and Central America are represented. The only requirements for admission are that the appli- cant be respectable in appearance and capable of reading and writing. The courses of instruction are as follows: Drawing: This course offers, by means of evening classes, instruction suitable to those in the plumbing, bricklaying, carpentry, and steam fitting trades. The course does not aim to niake expert draftsmen. The idea will be to give instruction that v/ill enable young men in the trades mentioned to read and understand plans and drawings that are met with in daily work. No certificate is awarded for drawing, and no examination will be held at the end of the term, as in the other departments of the school. House painting: Instruction is furnished in both day and evening classes. The painting department is under the supervision of a trade school committee appointed by the Master Painters' and Decorators' Association of New York. In house painting, the manual instruction is as follows: Care of brushes and pots; glazing; treatment of new wood, including killing knots, priming, puttying, and sandpapering, second and third coats; burning off paint; painting brickwork, wood- work, and plaster walls; lining; mixing white paint, materials required for same; names of the ordinary colors and stainers and their use; mixing oil colors; mixing calcimine colors; painting in three shades; flatting; stippling; calcimining, includ- ing preparation of size, sizing, and preparation of calcimine; staining; varnishing; TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION UNITED STATES. 29 treatment of hard wood; polish white; gilding, bronzing, graining, and marbling. Particular attention is devoted to practice in mixing both oil and calcimine colors. In mixing the paints, colors of various shades are given, which the pupil is required to match. The scientific instruction in house painting treats of the following subjects: Gen- eral painting, preparation of surfaces, colors, materials, enameling, treatment of hard- wood, staining, graining, varnishing, treatment of plastered surfaces for paint and calcimine, gilding, bronzing, and frescoing. In the evening department, the instruction during the first term is arranged so that the student will acquire a thorough training in the groundwork of painting that he may become a good brush hand. The instruction comprises plain painting on wood, brick, and plastered surfaces, doors, windows, etc.; burning off paint; mixing and matching of oil and calcimine colors, calcimining, the preparation of calcimine and size, preparing plastered surfaces; cutting out cracks, etc. The advanced branches enumerated in the course occu]jy the second and third terms, except graining and marbling, which is taught only during the third term. In addition to the course outlined, the day class receives instruction in paper hang- ing and elementary fresco painting. The fresco painting is of the kind that a house painter is frequently called upon to do, especially in the small towns. Fresco painting: Instruction in this department is given only to evening classes. The instruction consists in preparing walls and ceilings for calcimine; treatment of cracks and stains; preparation of size and how to mix calcimine; lining; how to make and cut stencils; laying in panels; how to make pounces; how to lay on a flat ornament; how to shade from the fiat; how to shade an ornament; moldings and how to shade them; tinting; wall and ceiling work. In the fresco class, the work is done on plastered walls and ceilings, and on canvas screens. The Avails are arranged in alcove fashion, and measure six feet by nine, affording an excellent area for painting. The fresco department, in addition to being one of the oldest in the school, is also, by reason of the beautiful work that is done from season to season, one of tlie most attractive. Many excellent specimens of decora- tive painting are on exhibition at the school. As an aid to the work in colors, instruc- tion in drawing is also given. This drawing is of a character that is particularly val- uable to one studying fresco painting, and greatly assists the student in grasping the principles of light and shade, as well as tending to give the training necessary to develop accuracy of the eye and hand. The drawing is done from plates and casts. The instruction in drawing is given one evening in the week, the other evenings the class meets being devoted to painting. Only those who can take both drawing and painting are admitted to the class. Sign painting: Day and evening classes receive instruction. The manual instruc- tion is as follows: The proper way of making boards for signs, and the method of preparing them for lettering; treatment of old signs for the purpose of relettering; styles of letters and spacing; lettering, one color; lettering, two or more colors; shading, blocking, and lining; smalting; gilding on wood and on glass; lettering on japanned plates; lettering on muslin; lettering on wire. The scientific instruction consists of lectures on the colors principally used, and how they should be mixed to meet the requirements of different kinds of work; what colors should be used in shading and blocking to produce the effect desired. Style, proportions, and spacing of letters. Laying out work. Preparation of size; applica- tion of size and leaf, and the difference in the treatment of gilding on wood and on glass. Use of japans and driers, smalting, and such other subjects of a technical character a-s can only be acquired in a workshop in many years. In the evening department, the work begins with plain lettering in the first term, and leads up to gilding on wood and glass in the third term. 30 EEPOET OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOE. After understanding how to prepare a new as well as an old signboard for work, the pupil is practiced in forming the letters of the alphabet in roinan, block, and Egyptian styles, so as to impress on the mind the shape and proportion of each let- ter. Then, with palette and pencil, signs are painted from designs furnished by the instructor. In a short time the pupil understands not only how to letter, but can also lay out his work. The work. given pupils is of the same character and- variety as done in a shop, even to laying out and painting large figns requiring the use of a ladder to work from. Blacksmiths' work: This course is given to evening classes and embraces -general blacksmithing, tool making, railing, and ornamental work. In forging, the instruc- tion is ill' the management of the fires, in drawing down, bending, shortening, weld- ing, splitting, punching, chamfering, riveting, railing, and housework. In vise work the instruction is in filing to line, fitting tongues and grooves, chipping, bevels, scraping, ring work, drilling, etc. In tool making the instruction includes machine, lathe, millers', stonecutters', carpenters', pilumbers', pipe and steam fitters' , tin and copper smiths' tools; also in the principle of tempering. The student is advanced as rapidly as his proficiency will permit. At the outset of the course simple work is done, and as the student acquires skill he is advanced to work of a more intricate character. The shop' has a modern equipment, comprising a blast and exhaust system and standard forges. Steam and hot- water fitting: Both day and evening classes receive the instruction given in this course. The fitting department is under the supervision of a trade- school committee appointed by the Master- Steam and Hot- Water Fitters' Association of -New York. In the practical part of the course the students in both the evening and day classes are taught how to set and connect different kinds of radiators and how to make" the various kinds of coils in common use, such as return coils, miter coils, corner coils, etc. These coils are constructed in various sizes, three-quarter to 2-inch pipe being used. Then follows instruction in piping of dwellings and buildings, and the various systems of heating, such as steam one-pipe, steam two-pipe, hot-water, direct-indirect, -and high and low pressure, each being erected in turn. The students are given a set of plans and on these plans are drawn the actual heating plan that wo-uld be required for a building of the kind represented. The measurement of each piece of pipe is taken from the plan, and the fittings, valves, and other fixtures required to make a complete job are used in the construction of the work. In the workshop there is an arrangement of girders and beams to which the work is suspended, the pipes being run with a proper pitch, the same as would be demanded in actual practice. On the completion of each job, connection is made with one of the steam lines of the school and the work which has been erected receives a thorough test. The scientific instruction consists of lectures on the principles of steam and hot- water heating. The lectures include the following sribjects : Tools, fittings, and pipe; general heating; low-pressure steam; indirect steam heating; single-pipe low-pressure steam; hot- water heating; high-pressure steam heating; steam-power plant; exhaust- steam heating; power fan or blower system of .steam heating and ventilating. During the first term in the evening department the instruction includea-steam one and two pipe, and hot-water system.'^, with lectures thereon. The second term embraces the balance of the course in practical work as well as lectures. The evening course in drawing affords the members of the evening department in fitting the opportunity of studying plan worlt should this instruction be desired. In the day class the drawing of plans is included in the course. Bricklaying: Day and evening classes receive instruction in this line of work. The manual instruction in bricklaying includes the building of 8, 12, 16, and 20 inch straight walls; return corners and intersecting walls; piers, arches, fireplaces and flues; setting window frames, sills, and lintels; blocking, toothing, and corbeling TEADE AND TECHNICAL EDTJCATION — UNITED STATES. 31 Fireproof brickwork and the manner of laying- solid, hollow, and annular slabs and how fitted into beams, walls, floors, and arches is also included in the course. The scientific instruction iff upon the properties of mortar and cement and how ' they should be mixed; arches; their various styles and the advantages of each; flues, ■ their construction and utility; foundations, walls, -bonding, etc. ■ In the bricklaying classes the young men are taught first how to handle the trowel and how to spread mortal. After this they are practiced on 8 and 12 inch straight - walls. When these can be carried up plumb and the courses of brick laid level, the class builds, successively, walls returned at right angles, piers, arches, fireplaces, and flues, etc. In all work great care is exercised that each brick is properly laid and that the joints are neatly pointed. The brick work is carried up as high as the young men can conveniently work; it is then torn down and the bricks cleaned, to be used again. Before an exercise is commenced the instructors sho\\: how it should be done. The young men are then required to practice under the constant super- vision Of the instructors, until they can do the work well. In the evening department the first term is devoted to straight Avails, blocking . and toothing, piers, return corners, and intdsecting walls. The second term com- prises arches, flreplaces;flues, setting and building around window frames, and other advanced work. In the third term fireproof work is taught. Should the evening student desire to obtain instruction in plan work, the regular evening drawing class ' gives him this opportunity. Besides the above, the students- of the day class have the privilege oi attending the evening class in plastering, without additional charge. Drawing of plans is a part of the day -course. Plastering:' Evening class instruction is given in this course, which includes lath- ing, scratch and brown coat work, hard finishing, and cornicing. The course in plastering is arranged for beginners as well as those who are working at the trade. The work of the first term includes the putting on of the various coats, and simple cornicing. The second term continues this work, but more elaborate cornicing is done. The third texm completes the course in cornice work. The plastering room is divided into compartments measuring 8 by 10 feet and 9 feet high, the walls a.nd ceilings being lathed in the usual manner. The students are taught how to apply the scratch coat on walls and ceilings. This coat is taken -off by laborers after each evening's work, leaving the laths ready for the youngmen to replaster on the following evening. The class is exercised on this work until it can be done -neatly and rapidly. The scratch coat is then allowed to harden, and the young men apply the brown-coat work, and finally hard finishing and cornice work is done. Cornice arid -skylight work: Day and evening classes are given instruction in this ' course as follows: Part I. Cutting curves and circles, showing the use of the shears; filing and tin- ning the soldering copper; -soldering flat seam^s; soldering upright seams; forming simple moldings; problems in practical geometry; drawing simple details from scale drawings. Part II. Drawing details, -obtaining patterns from same, and setting together the following work: A molded gutter with flat and return head; a square molded leader head; an octagon molded leader head; a plain window cap; an ornamental window cap; raised panel work; a plain cornice with modillions; an ornamental cornice with brackets; square turrets;- -flnials; crosses; pediments; dormers; ventilators; flat sky- lights; hip -skylights; bay windows; special problems. Part III. Hammer work. This section comprises the drawing of details, obtaining patterns from same, and constructing the following, viz: In hand work— Making a 6-ineh full ball in six gore sections; making a 6-inch full ball in six horizontal sec- tions; round finial; center piece for a ceiling. In machine work — Circular panel in 32 KEPORT OP THE COMMISSIOlfEB 0¥ LABOE. two pieces, using machine profiles; circular molding in two pieces, using machine profiles; segmental pediments with columns. Students are advfmced as rapidly as their proficiency will permit. When a student shows that he understands an exercise and can get out the pattern readily, he is advanced to the next problem. By this course it is intended to provide for young men in the roofing and cornice trade an opportunity to advance themselves in the work of cornice making. Carpentry: This department provides a very thorough and practical course in house carpentry and framing for young men, and includes also the drawing of plans. Instruction is given to day classes. The course at the beginning embraces a variety of bench work which brings into use all the tools commonly used in the trade. It is necessary that the student first obtain a knowledge of how to properly use his tools and how to care for the same. Great care is taken that each student acquires a workmanlike and skillful use of the various tools, and that he understands how to keep them in fit condition for work. Continuing in the course, the student is taught how to lay out and construct centers and window frames; make, case, and hang doors; lay beams and set bridging in same; erect stud partitions and lay flooring. A complete course in joinery work is also given. In addition to the work outlined, the course includes house construction and framing. Although the lack of space prevents the erection of a frame house of full dimensions, the same attention is devoted to all the details of construction as would be required in similar work on a larger scale. In work of this kind the pupils obtain a knowledge of the erection of framing for a house; also of sheathing and shingling. The window frames, sashes, doors, etc., are all made and set in position by the young men. Lectures imparting the scientific features of the trade are also given during the progress of the course. This course of instruction gives each member of the class a varied amount of work, and is arranged for those desiring to enter the trade as well as those who are work- ing in shops. Pattern making: Evening class instruction is given in this course. In practical v/ork the course embraces the following divisions: 1. A series of exercises that brings into use the various bench tools used in pattern making. The student is taught what the different tools are for, and how to use and keep them in order. The exercises afford varied practice with the tools, so that the student acquires manual dexterity. 2. A complete course in joinery, making the student familiar with this important feature of pattern making. 3. V\'ood turning. Under this section the student is taught all about the lathe, its parts, how to regulate and control, what the wood-turning tools are, the purpose and use of each. Suitable exercises give necessary practice to enable the student to become familiar in working at the lathe and using the tools. 4. Tiie following work in the line of pattern making is included in the full course, namely: Cylinders, pipe elbows and tees, core boxes, cone pulleys, propeller wheels, fly wheels, parts of a lathe, various parts of machinery, and other practical work. Drawing is taught in conjunction with the practical work. The students prepare and make drav/ings of patterns, and work from same. This instruction enables them to readily read plans and drawings such as como before the pattern maker. The scientific instruction includes the following subjects, namely: Woods and their grain, the kind best adapted for pattern making, drying, and seasoning; metalsj their weight and shrinkage; shrinkage of patterns and castings; wood bending; making cores, and the materials required; shellac varnish and why used. Printing: Instruction in this course is given to an evening class, and consists of all kinds of mercantile printing, such as billheads, note heads, statements, letter heads, business cards, dodgers, circulars, blank forms, tabular work," cutting and mitering TEADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION — UNITED STATES. 33^ rnles; also making ready for press and presswork. In work of this character it isf not a matter of typesetting alone. The general principles that apply to good display are carefully explained in each piece of work undertaken by the student. The- printing office of the school contains an equipment in the way of type, presses, and machinery that affords every facility for instructive purposes, and every detail of job composition is taught. Electrical work: Both day and evening classes receive instruction in electrical work. The different divisions included in the course are bellwork, burglar-alarmi; systems, electric gas lighting, and electric wiring. In bell work the student is first taught how to make, solder, and tape joints; tack up wires, and install wire on cleats and insulators. Then follows a series of exer- cises in practical bell work, in which the various problems a bellman should under- stand are illustrated. The exercises provided for in this section of the course teach the student the principles of making connections for bells, push buttons, switches^ strap keys, buzzers, floor attachments, annunciators, letter boxes, door attachmentSr and batteries. In that part of the course devoted to burglar-alarm systems the student acquires-- a knowledge of how to wire for, and to make connections with, window, door, and transom springs, and the arrangement of alarm bells. In electric gas lighting the work includes making connections for automatic gas- burners, automatic push buttons, spark coils, induction coils, multiple and ratchet, burners. On the completion of the foregoing courses electric wiring is then taken up. This- section embraces wiring on cleats and insulators, also molding and tube work. Everything pertaining to work of this character is taught, and all fixtures and attach- ments commonly used in electric wiring are utilized in the erection and running of wires. In the evening department lectures relating to work that the student is on at the- time are given at intervals during each of the three terms. Drawing is a part of the- work of the third term. For the day students drawing of plans is included in the- course. Plumbing. Instruction in this course is given to both day and evening classes. The plumbing department is under the supervision of a trade school committee appointed by the Master Plumbers' Association of New York. In practical work the course is as follows: Seams; overcast joint; cup joint; run- ning and calking soil pipe; wiping f-inch horizontal round, horizontal branch, and' upright round joints; making quarter bend; wiping |-inch upright branch; stop- cock; floor flange; 2-inch ferrule; bath plug; vertical branch; wall flange; making half S and S traps; wiping large and small soldering nipples; 4-inch upright and horizontal ferrules; upright and horizontal tank seams; J-inch horizontal round,. horizontal branch; upright round and vertical branch joints; f-inch oblique round and overhead round j.oints; plain bib vertical branch; 2-inch horizontal round; upright round; upright branch and vertical branch joints; 2-inch short bend with*^ ferrule; 4-inch short bend with ferrule; setting up sinks, basins, boilers, wash trays^ closets, bath tubs, and miscellaneous work. The scientific instruction includes the following subjects: Drain, soil, and waste- pipes; trapping and ventilation of drain, soil, and waste pipes; supply pipes; boilers;, tanks; fixtures; trapping of fixtures; pumps; disposal of sewage in country houses; water supply for country houses; miscellaneous; correcting diagrams of improper plumbing. In the day class the drawing of plans is included in the course. In the evening department the series of lectures is given during the student's first term, which allows two nights each week for practical work and one night for lecture. During the succeeding terms three evenings each week are devoted to- 9257— U2 3 34 KEFOBT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOE. practical work. Should a member of the evening class desire to study drawing, the regular evening drawing class offers an opportunity of obtaining a knowledge of building and plumbing plans. The work benches are equipped with furnaces and pots of special make, which allows the solder to be heated by gas. Ventilating fans keep the air in the shop pure and wholesome. Each student is advanced as rapidly as his proficiency allows. When a student shows he can do a piece of work properly he is ad^•anced to the succeeding exercise, and as each piece of work is completed it is approved and marked by the instructor and put away in the student's locker until the end of the term. A series of lectures treating on the science of the trade has been arranged with great detail and thoroughness. For each of the subjects printed forms are furnished, containing questions, with blanks left for the answers. The lecturer reads a question and writes the answer to it on the blackboard. This answer is copied by the young men in the blank space in the printed forms. The lecturer then proceeds to explain fully what is meant, to illustrate his meaning by diagrams, and to answer questions put by members of the class. The printed forms, after being filled up, are kept by the young men for future reference. Diagrams are also given the members of the class, of improperly arranged plumbing, to correct. Many of these diagrams of improper plumbing are reproductions of actual work that Ms been erected by incompetent workmen. By this course of manual and theoretical instruction a knowledge of plumbing is acquired which could not be obtained in any other way. The school is under the general management of a board of trustees. There are 28 instructors, all of whom are practical mechanics, and a few are trade-school graduates also. The number of pupils in each class during the last session was as follows: Day classes. Plumbing 118 Carpentry 22 Electrical work 38 Bricklaying 17 Sign painting 3 House and fresco painting 8 Sheet metal and cornice work 4 Steam and hot- water fitting 13 Total 223 Evening daises. Plumbing 166 Carpentry 21 Electrical work 54 Bricklaying 32 Plastering. 9 Blacksmiths' work 19 Sheet-metal and cornice work 38 Steam and hot- water fitting 19 House painting 12 Fresco painting 31 Sign painting 17 Printing , 16 Drawing 14 Total 448 Since the school was established 8,674 pupils have been enrolled in the different classes, and of this number 2,900 have received certificates of proficiency. The land, buildings, and equipment, which to the present time have cost $300,000, were provided by the founder, Col. Eichard T. Auch- muty. The school is supported by tuition fees and an income from an endowment fund provided by the founder. The cost of maintenance during the year 1899-1900 was |33,000. TRADE ANB TECHNICAL EDUCATION — UNITED STATES. 85 Aocordiag to a statement furnished by the officials in charge of the school the present courses of training and study are considered ade- quate. The aim being alwaj^s to maintain a high standard of proficiency in this respect, new features are introduced and made use of whenever changes in the different trades require it. The building-trades industry in Greater New York and vicinity has derived inestimable benefit from the work of this school. The young men who have completed the various courses .and gone out into the trades as helpers and appren- tices have a thorough understanding of the principles which govern their work, and consequently the}'' make better progress. In the end they are more valuable to their employers than mechanics who have not had a trade-school training. The day classes being composed of pupils from distant States, the influence and benefits derived from their training are bound to be far-reaching. It is claimed, also, that the school has helped to raise the standard of intelligence and efficiency among the working classes generally, and has tended to promote industrial, educational, and social development. There has been some opposition from labor unions, on the ground that ti'ade schools generally create an oversupply of labor. It is claimed that this contention is wrong and can not be supported by facts. The school aims to give its pupils such preliminary knowledge and training as is necessary to enable them to become first-class workmen, and the master mechanics and builders state that the number of first-class mechanics never equals the demand. So far as the graduates are concerned, because of their careful train- ing in the school they are preferred by employers over merely shop- trained apprentices and workmen. After having had a reasonable amount of practical experience in the trades they have no difficulty in obtaining steady employment, in some instances at higher wages than the ordinary mechanics. As regards improvement in ordinary shop training, the school has had no appreciable effect upon the same. Ordinarily the trade-school graduate can not take up the practical work in his trade without first undergoing a period of apprenticeship. Experience, facility, and speed of execution are essential in a thorough mechanic. These qualities can not be secured in a trade school, but must be acquired outside at real work. It is the combination of the trade school and the workshop that is best suited to modern conditions and alwaj^s produces the best I'esults. A course in a trade school gives the pupil a thorough knowledge of the use of tools and materials. It teaches him the theoretical and technical principles which apply to the particular trade he is studying, and gives him sufficient practical expe- rience to enable him to do good work before he leaves the school. In every instance a trade-school training lessens the usual period of apprenticeship. In many cases the graduates have taken up practical work immediately after leaving the school and they have met with 36 KEPOKT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOE. the very best success. Some of them are among the leading employers and builders in their respective localities. This school has proved eminently satisfactory and has long since attained the end for which it was established. PKATT INSTITTJTE, BROOKLYN, N. Y. Pratt Institute, Brooklyn, was established in 1887, after several years' careful investigation of existing schools both in this country and in Europe, on the part of the founder, the late Charles Pratt, The work of the institute includes industiial, trade, and technical education, as well as normal and general education in art, science, and literature. The fundamental idea, however, is industrial and technical education, and the normal and general courses have only come into the work in order to provide for certain local necessities, or to round out the curriculum and make it more complete in certain directions. Mr. Pratt was a public-spirited citizen of Brooklyn, and the interest and pride which he took in the welfare of the city, together with his desire to do for boys what he had needed in his own youth, are responsible for the establishment of the institute. Mr. Pratt felt that existing schools did not give the proper prepara- tion for the life work of the. great majority of our people who must needs fearn their daily bread through their own toil and skill and prac- tical intelligence. He believed that the training given to our Ameri- can youths should be such as to give them some practical equipment which would better enable them to earn their own livelihood, and he hoped to make them better citizens by first making them more capable and intelligent workers, so that they could take more pride and pleas- ure in their daily occupations and be of more service to the community. He believed, furthermore, that some way could be found to make indus- trial skill and activity, the pi-actical application of science, and many forms of art, enter into the system of education which would make it worth while for young men and young women to remain in school long enough to get a training which would directly fit them for their actual life work, and yet give them sufficient intelligence and character to enable them to grow into positions of greater responsibility. The object of the institute, as stated in its catalogue, is: To promote manual and industrial education, as well as cultivation in science, liter- ature and art; to inculcate habits of industry and thrift; to foster all that makes for right living and good citizenship, and to aid those who are willing to help themselves. It seeks to provide facilities by which persons wishing to engage in mechanical, scientific, artistic, educa- tional, domestic, commercial, or allied employments, may lay the foundation of a thorough knowledge, theoretical and practical, or per- fect themselves in those occupations in which they are already engaged. Its classes, lectures, workshops, library, reading ropm, and collections are designed to serve these purposes; and while tuition fees are TRADE AND TECJINICAL EDUCATION UNITED STATES. 87 required, there is an endeavor to malce possible, by some means con- sistent with self -helpfulness and self-respect the admission of every worthy applicant. The institute is based upon an appreciation of the dignity as well as the value of intelligent handicraft and skilled labor. It endeavors to giA'e opportunities for symmetrical and harmonious education, to develop those qualities which produce a spirit of self- reliance, and to teach that personal character is of greater consequence than material productions. In accordance with these principles, the work of the institute is l^rosecuted upon several lines, with four distinct aims in view: 1. Educational, pure and simple, the purpose being the harmonious development of the faculties, as in the work of the high school. 2. Normal, the ultimate aim being the preparation of the student to become a teacher. Normal training is at present given in the depart- ment of fine arts, in the department of domestic science, and in the department of kindergartens. 3. Technical, or special training to secure practical skill in the vari- ous branches of the fine, industrial, and domestic arts, the handicrafts, the applied sciences, and the mechanical trades. i. Supplementary and special, intended for the benefit of those who wish to supplement the training of school or college by attention to special subjects conducing to more intelligent direction of domestic, financial, social, or philanthropical interests. The institute occupies six buildings. The main building is 100 feet by 86 feet, and six stories high. The high-school building, completed January 1, 1892, is i8 feet by 81 feet, and is four stories high. The trade-school building, recently erected, is 32 feet by 110 feet, and four stories high. It contains large and well-equipped steam and electrical laboratories, as well as workrooms for the trade classes. The gymna- sium building is 100 feet by 95 feet, and contains floor space for work, finely appointed bath and locker rooms, and a large swimming tank. The buildings are of brick, with trimmings of stone and terra cotta, and are heated by steam and lighted by electricity. The main build- ing is provided with a passenger elevator, which runs at all hours when classes are in session. Regarded in the light of an educational force, the institute library has a responsibility second to none. It contains a stack room with a capacity of 200,000 volumes, a general reading room, a children's reading room, a general reference room, a special art and photographic reference room, class rooms, and workrooms. The building is fire- proof, and is equipped, heated, and ventilated with the latest improved apparatus. The collection in the main library consists of about 67,000 volumes, in addition to which there are 7,500 volumes in a branch library, which is maintained for the use of residents in another part of the city. 38 KEPOET OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOE. The reference collection contains about 18,000 volumes, including reference books proper, sets of bound periodicals. Government and State documents, catalogues, reports and transactions of societies and institutions, and is free to all for consultation. Two of these rooms are fitted up as study rooms, with chairs and well-lighted tables, and are presided over by assistants well acquainted with the resources of the collection. The reading room is supplied by purchase with 230 periodicals, and by gift and exchange with 91 additional. Of the first 207 are in Eng- lish, 10 in French, 10 in German, and 3 in Italian. There is also a separate library for children under 14 years of age, consisting of 2,535 A^olumes. The library and its branch is free to all citizens of Brooklyn Bor- ough for the home use of books, and to all persons for consultation. There is no age limit, children under 14. years being admitted to the privileges of the children's library. Another important feature of the institute is its system of lecture courses given in the various departments. These bear directly upon the work of the institute in all its phases, and include practical instruc- tion upon those matters which pertain to right modes of living, the problems of political and social economy, sanitary science, literary culture, art, etc. While many of these courses are given to pupils as a part of the regular work of the institute, many others are so arranged as to meet the wants of those not otherwise connected with the insti- tute who wish the opportunity to obtain instruction upon subjects of interest and importance. The institute possesses valuable collections of illustrative material, which are placed in the hallways and class rooms of the several depart- ments. In the art reference room of the library building is a collec- tion of 16,000 mounted photographs, illustrating architectiu-e, sculp- ture, painting, and oxnaraent. The special collection of textiles given to the institute in 1897 by Mrs. Charles Pratt is also in the library building. The collection of ceramics is arranged in the hallways of the department of fine arts on the fourth and fifth floors of the main building. The science and technology building contains the woods and minerals, as well as a collection of applied-art work in metal. The regular school year opens in the latter part of September and closes the middle of June. The evening classes complete their work about the latter part of March. In nearly all departments morning, afternoon, and evening classes are held. The work of the different sessions is similar in character, although in the evening classes, and in those classes not meeting every day, the courses are of necessity abridged. Both sexes are admitted on an equal footing. The require- ments for admission are as simple as possible, being intended to prove TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION — UNITED STATES. 39 only that the applicant has sufficient maturity and intelligence to profit by the work. The charges for tuition range as follows: Art department: Full-day classes, fl5 per term; half-day classes, $10 to $12. Evening classes, $5 per term for each course. Department of domestic art: Day classes, sewing, drafting, and costume design, $15 per term; dressmaking and millinery, $25; art needlework, $5 to $10; basketry, $5. Evening class, sewing and bas- ketry, $2; dressmaking, $5 to $10; drafting, $10; millinery, $5. Department of science and technology: Day classes, $15 per term. In the evening classes the fee for the technical courses is $15 each for six months, except the courses in steam and the steam engine and strength of materials, which are $8 each per term. The fee in the trade courses is $15 each for six months' tuition. New applications must be presented at the beginning of each school year, and renewal blanks at the opening of the winter and spring terms. Diplomas and certificates are granted for the quality of the work done and not for the number of years spent in study. Progress in all courses depends upon individual ability and application. While the institute was established primarily for instruction in the trades, it has developed into its present organization by sheer growth of ideas and the force of experience and circumstances, and by the enlarging and broadening of the scope of its industrial training. Under the present plan of organization the work of the institute is divided among the following departments: High school, fine arts, ;^omestic art, domestic science, science and technology, kindergartens, libraries, and physical training. For the purpose of this report, how- ever, only such courses as are of an industrial or technical character will be considered in detail. In the high-school department there is a four-year course, which is intended as a course of general education. More than two-fifths of the entire time during the course is devoted to advanced manual training. The object of the art school is to provide thorough and systematic instruction in the fine and decorative arts. The various divisions in the day school are as follows: Regular art course, which requires four years; and two-year courses in modeling, practical design, architectural drawing, art metal work, and wood carving. There are also evening classes in general free-hand drawing, compo- sition, cast drawing, life drawing, architectural drawing, decorative and applied design, clay and wax modeling, art metal work, and wood carving, which pursue lines of work similar to those of the day classes, but necessarily abridged. In the department of domestic art there are courses in sewing, dress- making, millinery, costume design, art needlework, and basketry. All these courses are technical in their purpose and are intended to fit 40 REPOBT OF THE COMMISSIONEB OE' LABOK. young women for different positions in the tTades. TLig evening courses in tliis department include sewing, dressmaking, and millinery. The purpose of the department of domestic science is to affoi-d train- ing in subjects which pertain to life in the home, and includes the fol- lowing courses: Normal course for teachers; general course, including bacteriolog}'-, home nursing and hygiene, plain cookery, household economics, laundry work, technical courses in cookery for nurses and housekeepers, and a serving course for waitresses. The evening courses embrace cookery for housekeepers, nurses, and cooks, a serv- ing course for waitresses, and laundry work. The department of science and technology takes in all the courses especially fitted for men. The following interesting statement regard- ing the general character of these courses, together with a brief sketch of their development and the need for such instruction, was kindly furnished by the director of this department: The courses are divided into three classes, with somewhat distinct aims and objects for each. First, the day school provides technical courses in mechanical and electrical work which cover a period of two years; second, evening technical courses in physics, chemistry, applied electricity, mechanical drawing and machine design, steam and the steam engine, and strength of materials; and, third, evening trade classes in carpentry, pattern making, machine work, mechanical drawing, plumbing, sign painting, and fresco painting. While the evening courses from their namfe appear to be scientific rather than technical, yet, as conducted by the institute, they really come under the latter division, as they are intended for young men who are engaged in practical work during the day, but who do not understand the theoretical principles pertaining to the same. Thus, for young men who are employed in chemical manufacturing concerns and in other places where the knowledge of chemistry is absolutely essential to success, the course in chemistr^'^ is made as practical and technical as possible, applying directly to the needs of such men. The classes are made up almost entirely of this type of students. The evening trade classes are intended for young men who are engaged in the trades during the day, either as apprentices, helpers, or journeymen, and who wish to gain further knowledge, experience, and skill in order to get ahead. The day courses do not offer a strictly trade instruction, nor do they afford a purely scientific training similar to the colleges of engineer- iiig. They attempt to occupy a place halfway between these two fields, to give young men a training which will enable them to rise above the grade of journeymen mechanics to positions as foremen, assistant superintendents, etc., and the experience of the institute shows that there is a very large class of these positions in connection with thedesign, construction, installation, and operation of all classes of machinery which call for this type of training, and which require men of sufiScient intelligence and knowledge of fundamental prin- ciples to be able to grasp properly the plans of their superiors and direct their execution by the mechanics who do the actual labor. The aim is to give sufficient practical trade instruction so that the graduates will be able in the drafting room or shop of any mechan- TEADE AND TECHITICAL EDUCATION — UNITED STATES. 41 ical or electrical plant, to find a ready demand for their services in these positions; but we have found that this can best be accom- plished by at the same time giving them suiEcient instruction in the fundamental principles of those sciences upon which their work is founded to enable them to advance to the more important positions when opportunity offers. When the institute was founded the idea was to make the instruction as practical as possible for the benefit of those who wished to enter any of those trades which are fundamental to the machine trade. There were day courses in carpentry, pattern making, machine work, etc. , and eight hours per day were devoted to instruction along these lines in the shops, but we gradually discov- ered by experience that the type of American boy who ought to take up this line of work, if these industries were to continue their advance- ment in the world's competition, was not willing to enter any field of labor which did not hold out to his ambition a possibility of self- advancement- And for this reason, these purely trade classes Avere never very popular. But, more than this, we discovered that it was difiicult to train young men to be good mechanics in our shops alone. The fact is that the difference between a good mechanic and a poor one is largely a question of intelligence and not of manual skill, and it is almost a universal rule that wherever you find a mechanic with a good head on his shoulders you find a good mechanic; and the converse is equally true, that wherever you find a really good mechanic you find a man of a very considerable degree of intelligence, at least along the lines of this particular work. As we gradually came to appreciate these facts, we introduced into the technical courses, along with the work in the shop or drafting room, courses in practical mathematics, physics, and elementary mechanics, bringing out clearly in the class room the principles on which the practical work depended. The success of this idea proved so great that more work of the same kind was introduced until about half of the time was devoted to work of this character and the other half to practical work in laboratory or shop, including several kinds of shopwork in each course instead of having the whole time spent in a single shop, thus giving the student a slight knowledge of several trades besides the one which he was likely to follow. I can not emphasize too much the need which I believe exists for this kind of secondary training, and additional proof of its need is coming to me every day. Indeed, it is of vital importance to all our industries that more adequate means be furnished for train- ing the great number of young men who must enter them. A few years ago the commission which was sent over here from England to examine our industries and report to the English Government upon them gave as their reason for the remarkable success of American manufacturing enterprises the excellent public-school system, which gave every boy and girl a good knowledge of English and arithmetic; and unquestionably ability to read, to reason, and to calculate has had much to do in the past with the success and rapid advancement of the American mechanic and American industries. But to-day's methods of manufacture are becoming so complicated — and the introduction of science and scientific methods into all branches of industry and the rapidity with which changes in methods of manufacture are taking place make it necessary for the young man who is going to succeed in manu- facturing establishments of any kind to have a training something beyond reading, writing, and arithmetic. 42 EEPOKT OF THE COMMISSIONEE OF LABOR. The old system of apprenticeship has gone, or is fast goin^, and nothing has yet been found to take its place throughout the country as a whole. Furthermore, there is a very strong feeling in many indus- tries that it is becoming more and more difficult to get the right class of young men to enter them, and to get either skilled mechanics or efficient foremen, superintendents, and managers to direct the work. On the other hand, more than half of the boys who graduate from our grammar schools do not enter the high school, and in the majority of localities nearly half of those who enter the high school leave at the end of the first or second year. The parents of these boys and j^oung men are confronted with the question, Will it pay me to send my son to school for another year, or will he receive sufficient benefit from it to warrant my making the necessary sacrifice ? The fact that such a very large proportion of the parents in the community answer this question as they do is proof to me that something should be done toward affording more adequate means for secondary technical educa- tion. Thus from all sides — from the manufacturer, who feels the need of more intelligent workers; from the young men, who desire a train- ing which will directly help them in a practical way; from their par- ents, who have to make the sacrifice in order that they may get more training; from every direction — we are getting more and more proof of this need for the kind of technical training, adapted to the needs of those who are going to enter our industries as artisans, such as is here described. Those courses which are industrial in their character are given more in detail in the following pages: DEPARTMENT OP FINE ARTS. The object of this department is to provide thorough and systematic instruction in the fine and decorative arts. The various divisions are as follows: Regular art course, modeling, design, architecture, art metal course, and wood carving. Lectures are given on perspective, design, color, composition, and anatomy. A course of twenty-five illustrated lectures on the history of architecture, sculpture, painting, and ornament, given by the director of the department, is open to students of the institute and to the public. These lectures begin in October and occur on Wednesday afternoons at 4 o'clock. Written application mast be made for admission to all classes. Applicants for elementary and advanced courses in free-hand drawing must present such drawings and letters as will give evidence of ability to undertake the work. Applicants for the course in architecture and the course in design must take the special examinations explained in the descriptive text.of these courses. No examinations are required of applicants for evening work. All students are required to pursue various lines of work complementary to one another, which is made possible by the variety and number of classes. There are also evening classes in general free-hand drawing, composition, cast drawing, life, drawing, architectural drawing, decorative and applied design, clay and wax modeling, art metal work, and wood carving, which pursue lines of' work similar to those of the day classes, but necessarily abridged. All courses of study begin in September, punctually at the time announced for the various classes. The sessions are from 9 a. m. to 12 m. and from 1.20 to 4 p. m. on five days of the week. Evening classes meet for instruction Monday, Wednesday and Friday from 7.30 to 9.30. TKADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION UNITED STATES. 43 Regular art course. This course occupies five days a week, and requires four years. The work of the first year consists of light-aiid-shade drawings from the antique, free-hand perspec- tive, sketching, elementary composition, and lectures upon the history of art. Oppor- tunity is given in the afternoon for additional work in cast drawing, drawing from still life, and sketching from the costumed figure. Members of all-day classes who reach a required standard iu drawing are allowed during the second half of the school year to work in color and to draw from life. Portrait and life drawing, sketching, composition, and the study of anatomy are continued throughout the second year, and all students have opportunity to work in color. The course for the third and fourth years is a further development of the second year's work. Students draw from the figure from life in the morning session, work in color in the portrait class in the afternoon, and continue the course in composi- tion. On two days of the week opportunity is given to work from the model in action. The study of composition is also a very important feature of the entire course. Subjects are assigned and composition drawings are required every week. A special advanced course is open to all students who fulfill requirements. Classes in illustration are open to students of any year who reach a required standard. Modeling. The work of the classes is carried on in several divisions. The first provides train- ing for those who wish to study sculpture as a profession, and every opportunity is furnished for serious and thorough work from the antique and from life. The sec- ond is intended to supplement free-hand drawing from the antique and from life. The third is planned to meet the requirements of pupils in the architectural, art metal, and wood-carving classes. Students model from casts, photographs, and plants, and study the principles of decorative design as applied to stone, wood, and metal. The course requires two years to complete. Design. This course requires an attendance of five days a week at both morning and afternoon sessions, the mornings being given entirely to design and the afternoons to design, free-hand drawing, and water color. Two years' attendance is called for to com- plete the course. Applicants are admitted in September, and an examination is required in free-hand drawing from natural and decorative forms. The course of study is as follows: Free-hand drawing: Practice is given in drawing from ornament, natural objects, and casts in outline and light and shade. Designs for household decoration require a clear understanding and a free rendering of perspective principles. The course therefore provides instruction in free-hand perspective and sketching, these subjects being studied in such a way as to enable students to render artistically the perspec- tive appearance of common objects, furniture, and house interiors. Water color: Light and shade drawing and free-hand sketching lead to water-color painting. The student selects and works from fiowers and from groups of objects illustrating beauty of form and color, represents color effects and values in a simple artistic manner, and applies this knowledge in designs for interior decoration. Historic ornament: Illustrated lectures are given on the history of art. The his- toric styles are studied and the typical features of each carefully worked out. Principles of design and composition: Plan, order, repetition, radiation, symmetry, balance, proportion, and other principles are taught in both simple and complex designs. The essential qualities of design— simplicity, strength, stability, truth, and 44 KEPOBT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOK. beauty — and the treatment of motives in a manner literal, conventional, or symbol- ical are studied. Applied design: Throughout the course much practice is given in applied design, including general ornament, surface patterns, borders, designs for tiles, book covers, prints, wall papers, carpets, metal, stained glass, furniture, and interior decoration. When students have become proficient in drawing and in general designing they may elect one or more subjects for professional work. Arddtecture. The training of students is accomplished by lectures, recitations, original inves- tigation, and individual study and practice of the principles of construction and architectural design. The work occupies five days a week for two years. Entrance examinations are held in June and September in free-hand drawing from ornament and common objects, in arithmetic, including fractions, percentage, pro- portion, square root, and mensuration, and in English grammar and composition. Applicants must be at least 16 years of age and must present a letter testifying to their general ability and moral character. Students are admitted for special work if they give evidence of ability to carry on such work successfully. The following subjects are comprised in the course of study: Instrumental drawing: The work in instrumental drawing includes projection, descriptive geometry, projection of shadows, plans, elevations, framing plans, details of ordinary frame, brick, and stone construction, and instrumental perspective and cast shadows. Free-hand drawing: This subject includes drawing of ornament from cast, free-hand perspective, light-and-shade drawing, pen and pencil sketching, and water color. Construction: This subject is covered by a series of lectures upon the materials and processes employed in ordinary building operations. They are supplemented by problems from given data and by work in the department of science and tech- nology, including practice in joinery, framing, and details of house construction, and by work in the testing laboratories. Elements of architecture and architectural design: Lectures and exercises upon the forms and proportions of the Greek and Eoman orders, balustrades, doors and windows, vaults and domes, are followed by problems in architectural design, drawn in plan, elevation, section, or perspective. The drawings are rendered in line, light and shade, or color. Furniture design is one of the special studies of the second year. History: The study of the history of architecture is pursued by means of lectures and by reports from the students upon assigned topics. The reports are illustrated by drawings and sketches. Mathematics and strength of materials: A course in algebra, ■ plane and solid geometry, and trigonometry is followed by one in strength of materials, which by recitation and laboratory work takes up the stresses and strains in beams, girders, columns, roof trusses, etc., and also graphical statics. Theory and practice: The purpose of the lectures introduced under this head is to show the relation of theory to practice. The subjects include the position of archi- tecture among the arts, sanitation, and methods of office work. yirt metal course. The art metal course, including chasing, engraving, die sinking, and enameling has been established in recognition of the ever-increasing demand for art work in useful objects and the difliculty experienced by manufacturers in securing the serv- ices of American artist-artisans whose knowledge of the crafts is sufficient to guaran- tee good workmanship. The instruction in drawing, designing, and modeling in the TEADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION — UNITED STATES. 45 course is given by the special instructors of these subjects, while the chasing, die sinking, engraving, and enameling are taught by one whose valuable experience as an expert craftsman amply qualifies him to train students for professional art work in silver, gold, and other metals. The course in both day and evening classes pro- vides for practical application on a strictly professional basis, and students completing the course will be equipped not only with artistic appreciation and power of execu- tiorf, but also with a knowledge of the requirements of the trade. Wood carving. This course aims to give students a general training in the fundamental principles of art in drawing, design, clay modeling, and historic ornament, while practical application of these principles is made in the special work of wood carving. The full course requires five days a week for two years. The course includes preliminary exercises in the care and use of tools, horizontal and vertical decoration, plane and curved surface carving, incised model carving, low relief, high relief, letters and inscriptions, cabinet work in historic styles, and sculptured ornament. A course in light carpentry or cabinet work may be taken in the department of science and technology. DEPARTMENT OF DOMESTIC ART. The courses in this department include sewing, dressmaking, millinery, costume design, art needlework, and basketry. All courses begin in September. Classes in the special courses for use in the home are organized also, so far as accommodation will permit, at the beginning of the winter and spring terms. The school year is divided into three terms of three months each, beginning in September, January, and April. In all branches of instruction there are morning, afternoon, and evening classes, except in art needlework and drawing, which are restricted to mornings and after- noons. Evening classes in sewing, dressmaking, and millinery meet twice a week during the fall and winter terms. The courses of study differ from those of the day classes and are arranged with reference to the needs and limited time of the student. Lectures on subjects closely related to the work are given during the year. All institute lectures are open to the students of the department. The director gives a course of ten lectures on historic costume from the earliest times to the present. These are illustrated by lantern views of famous portraits and of French costume plates. The aim of these lectures is to make the students acquainted with the styles of costume worn in different countries during noted epochs, and special attention is called to the designs most effective and most readily adapted to modern dress. These lectures are open to the public as well as to the students. Sewiiig. This course is organized in September only. It has been arranged for those who can devote their whole time for a year to the study, and work at home is required. The first half of the year is devoted to practice in the various kinds of hand and machine sewing, and to learning the principles of drafting, cutting, and fitting under- garments and children's dresses. Students who satisfactorily complete this part of the course may take orders for work, and thus put into practice the principles already learned. Instruction in all kinds of mending is included in the course, that all branches of the work may be covered, and throughout the course the student is given opportunity to develop her own ideas in design and color. This course is considered necessary as a preparation for the dressmaking training of those who have had but little experience in hand sewing or simple garment making. Applicants should have some experience in hand sewing, and should be at least 15 years of age. 46 KEPOBT 0¥ THE OOMMISSIOWEP, OF LABOB. DressmaJdng. This course is arranged to give a thorough training in the principles of dressmaking, with as much practice in their apphcation as the time will allow. It fits the pupils to do intelligent work, under direction, in an establishment. An opportunity will be offered in a second year to those who give evidence of ability in cutting, fitting, and designing to do more independent work, until they prove themselves competent to be recommended or to receive a certificate. This class is organized in September only, and continues through the school year. Sessions are held daily, except on Saturday. Two afternoons in a week are given to the course in design, and the students attend the lectures on the history of costume. Applicants must be over 16 years of age and have some knowledge of the making of dresses from pattern. They must bring for inspection a dress proving their ability to do good work, and must pass a written examination on the making of a simple dress. Women who have had previous experience in dressmaking may be admitted to advanced work upon passing an examination which will prove their fitness. The course of study comprises drafting, cutting, and fitting unlined shirt waists and skirts; instruction in drafting skirts and waists with chart; exercises with practice material in fitting and designing and in making dress trimmings and finishings; study of color, form, line, and texture; drafting and making walking skirt; cutting, fitting, and making lined waist; study of the contour and poise of the body; match- ing stripes and plaids; drafting and making princess gowns; practice in designing; study of artistic principles; drafting, cutting, and making jacket; study of woolen textiles; drafting and m.aking evening gown. Drawing, water color, elementary design: Practice in the use of the pencil and of water color; appearance of objects, bows, gowns, and drapery; outline and propor- tion of the human form; study of historic costume; practice in designing gowns for home and evening wear. Drafting by chart is taught in a separate class to dressmakers or to those who wish to be able to draft patterns for themselves or their families. For those who already have a knowledge of dressmaking and wish to learn how to do ladies' tailoring a course is offered in the making of jackets and coats. Ifillinery. The object of this course is to afford training in the practical and artistic principles of millinery according to the best methods, and also to cultivate taste in color and design as related to costume. The class, completing in four months the full course, is organized in September and February, and has been arranged for those who wish to prepare to become milliners. The class meets daily, except on Saturday. Part of the time in the afternoon is devoted to the course in design. There ai-e also lectures upon hygienic, artistic, and historic dress, and instruction is given in the methods of keeping accounts. Applicants mast bring for inspection a hat showing some talent in the trimming and making, and they should be able to work rapidly, since the tune devoted to this course is short, in order to be ready for the workroom seasons. The class organized in September prepares students to take positions at the opening of the spring season, while the class beginning in February fits them for the fell season. They should be over 16 years of age and able to do good hand sewing. Familiarity with the use of th« tape measure and ability to cut accurately are requisites. In the course of study are included facing and finishing hat brims; making bows; trimming hats; study of form, line, color, and textiles; designing, drafting, and mak- ing frames; making and trimming covered hats and bonnets; making velvet hats and bonnets, toques and evening bonnets; making wire frames and straw hats; lace and shirred hats and bonnets; children's hats. TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION UNITED STATES. 47 Drawing, water color, elementary design ; Practice in tiie use of the pencil and of water color; appearance of objects, drapery, bows, hats; outline and proportion of the head; study of historic costume; designing of hats. Costume design. The object of this course is to train students to become illustrators or designers of costume. Th^ee years are required. The first two years are spent either in the regular art course or in the two-year course in design in the department of fine arts. The entranee examination is the same as for those courses. The instruction is given in the regular classes of that department, and embraces cast drawing from ornament aad the antique, freehand perspectiye, color, life, and portrait drawing, sketching from "the flgur-e, composition, design, and the history of art. A part of th« second year and the whole of the third year are given to special study of costume design in the department of domestic art. The work covers study of the figure and head, and sketching and designing costumes in pencil, ink, and water color. Th« study of historic costume is included in the course, and students attend the lectures on this subject and on the history of art. The full time of the student is required throughout the three years. To enter upon the special work of the third year, students must perform in a satisfactory manner the work of the first two years in the department of fine arts and also submit such sketches of the costumed figure in pencil and water color as will prove their ability to undertake the special work of costume design. Applicants who have had thorough training elsewhere and wish to enter advanced classes must present such drawings as will justify their admission. Ah needlework. This course of two years is for those who desire to make a profession of art needle- work, as well as for those who wish a knowledge of the principles and methods of the art for use in home decoration. The instruction cultivates artistic feeling and judgment in the choice of design, color, and texture. The study of drawing and design, which is necessary for a correct appreciation of artistic needlework and the development of originality, is taken up two mornings in the week. The remaining sessions are devoted to the study of the varieties of stitchery. DErAETMENT OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY. The instruction afforded by this department of the institute includes the tvro-year technical course in steam and machine design and in applied electricity, besides a number of evening technical courses and evening trade classes. Steam and machine design. The primary aim of this course is to furnish as sound and complete a technical and mechanical training as is possible in the limit of two years, and it is especially designed to furnish those who wish to enter manufacturing or industrial pursuits or in other ways come directly in contact with the design, construction, and operation of machinery of any kind, with a training which will be of immediate value to them, and, at the same time, one which is thorough enough to enable them to rise to posi- tions of responsibility. It is not the aim of the course to train the professional or expert engineer, but rather to give young men who wish to enter mechanical enterprises, either in the drafting room or shop, a training that will especially fit them for positions as designers of machinery or supervisors of its construction and operation. For this 48 EEPOBT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOK. reason much time is devoted to the subjects of machine design and machine con- struction, so that the graduate may bs famihar with the processes and treatment of material in different hues of manufacture, and thus be able to intelligently superintend and direct them. The following is the course of study: « FIRST YEAR. Fall term. Winter term. Spring term. Mathematics (algebra) 5 Physics (mechanics) 5 Physical laboratory 4 Mechanical drawing (projec- tions) 5 Freehand drawing 1 Shopwork (carpentry and pat- tern making) 5 Mathematics (plane geome- try) 5 Mathematics (plarie trigonom- etry) B Physics (electricity) 5 Physical laboratory 4 Mechanical drawing (shop drawing) 5 Freehand drawing 1 Shopwork(foundry and forge) 5 Physical laboratory i Mechanical drawing (engine details) 5 Freehand drawing 1 Shopwork (forge and visework) 5 SECOND YEAR. Mathematics (advanced alge- bra) 6 Mechanism 5 Machine design 5 Mechanical laboratory 4 Shopwork (machine work)... 5 Mathematics (solid geometry) 5 Steam engine and steam boil- ers 5 Machine design 5 Steam laboratory 4 Shopwork (machine constrnc- tion) 5 Mathematics (analytical geom- etry) 5 Mechanics and strength of materials 5 Machine design 5 Strength of materials (labora- tory) 4 Shopwork (tool making) 5 Applied electrieUy. It is the aim of this course to furnish special and practical training which will qualify the graduates to fill such positions as operators, superintendents, and mana- gers of electric lighting, railway, and power plants; constructors, and designers in. some of the various lines of applied electricity; or commercial and executive posi- tions connected with the business end of such industries. The course of study is as follows: « FIRST YEAR. Winter term. Spring term. Mathematics ^algebra) 5 Physics (mechanics) 5 Physical laboratory 4 Chemistry (nonmetals) 2 Chemical laboratory 2 Mechanical drawing (projec- tions) 3 Shopwork (carpentry and pat- tern making) 3 Mathematics (plane geom- etry) 5 Physics (heat, light, sound) .. 5 Physical laboratory 4 Chemistry (metals) 2 Chemical laboratory 2 Mechanical drawing (shop drawing) 3 Shopwork (pattern making and foundry) 3 Mathematics (plane trigonom- etry) 5 Physics (electricity) 5 Physical laboratory 4 Chemistry (qualita,tive anal- ysis) 2 Chemical laboratory 2 Mechanical drawing (engine details) 3 Shopwork (forging) 3 SECOND YEAR. Mathematics (advanced alge- bra) 5 Mechanics (steam) 3 Applied electricity (genera- tion) 2 Applied electricity (labora- tory) 4 Mechanical drawing (dynamo details) 3 Shopv/ork (forge, visework).. S Mathematics (solid geome- try) 5 Mechanics (prime movers).., 3 Applied electricity (transmis- sion) 2 Applied electricity (labora- tory) 4 Mechanical drawing (wiring plans) 3 Shopwork (machine work) ... 3 Mathematics (analytical ge- ometry) 6 Mechanics (strength of mate- rials) 3 Applied electricity (motors and lighting) 2 Applied electricity (labora- tory) 4 Mechanical drawing (power plants) 3 Shopwork (dynamo construc- tion) 3 a The figure after each study represents the number of periods a week. All periods in drawing, shopwork, and laboratory are 2 hours long; all other periods are 1 hour each. TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION — UNITED STATES. 49 EVENING TECHNICAL COURSES. The following evening courses are provided for those whose regular occupation prevents them from attending a day course. The aim is, so far as the time allows, to furnish a thorough and practical training in the various branches which will be of immediate value to the student, not only by increasing his general information, but also by enabling him to advance to positions of greater responsibility in his special line. By attendance in succession upon several of these courses a fairly complete mechanical or electrical course may be obtained. In these courses the theoretical instruction in every case is supplemented in each session by individual practice in the laboratories or drawing-rooms, and all of the apparatus and laboratories of this department are available for these classes. The outfit lent each student includes everything needed for the most thorough individual work, and the size of all the classes is limited so that each student may have abundant room to carry on his work under the personal oversight of the instructor. Entrance examinations in arithmetic and algebra through simple equations are required for the course in applied electricity, and one in arithmetic for the courses in steani and the steam engine, and strength of materials. Applicants who have taken the course in physics will be given preference in admis- sion to all the other courses. All classes meet on Monday,, Wednesday, and Friday evenings from 7.30 to 9.3@ between September and March. The courses of study are as follows: Physics (one year): Principles of mechanics; equilibrium of forces, pressure o£ gases, laws of motion, work, energy, and friction; heat and ventilation; magnetism, static and current electricity, and electrical measurements. Two lectures and four hours of laboratory work each week. Chemistry (three years) : First year — Principles of general chemistry and of chem- ical combinations, properties of the nonmetallic and metallic elements and their com- pounds. Second year — Qualitative analysis; solubility of different substances; ana- lytical reactions of each base; analysis of solutions and solids; and determination of acid radicals. Third year — Quantitative analysis, gravimetric and volumetric; assay- ing and elements of organic analysis. Lectures and laboratory throughout the three years. Applied electricity (one year): Lectures and laboratory practice in operation of dynamos and motors; principles of dynamic electricity and magnetism and their application in practice. Mechanical drawing (two years) : First year — Use of instruments; principles of working drawings; projection and shop drawing. Second year — Advanced drawing; machine design. Mechanism (one year): Lectures and drawing. Mechanical movements carefully analyzed and worked out on the drawing board. Problems on cams, gear teeth, dif- ferent forms of link work, etc. The course in mechanical drawing or an equivalent is requined for admission. Steam and the steam engine (first term only): Lectures dealing with laws of heat, combustion of fuel, and steam generation; properties of steam; condensing and non- condensing engines; value of single, compound, and triple expansion. Laboratory practice in setting slide valves, taking indicator cards, and calculating horse power and other data, and making tests of engine efficiency. Strength of materials (second term only): The instruction deals with the stresses and strains in floors, beams, and girders, columns, shafting, boilers, and riveted joints, etc., and the behavior of the material of construction under such strain. Individual experiments and tests on large specimens form an important feature of the work. 9257—02 4 50 EEPOET OF THE COMMISBIONEB OF LABOR. EVENING TRADE CLASSES. The evening trade classes aim to furnish a thorough practical training in the vari- ous trades which will be of immediate value to each one attending.by giving him skill, accuracy, and a thorough knowledge of the technical points of his trade, familiarizing him with modern methods, preparing him for advancement, and increasing his earning power. Each one of the shops is provided with all the machines, tools, or special appara- tus for the particular trade which can promote the objects and increase the value of the instruction. Applicants for these evening trade classes must be between 16 and 25 years of age, and applications should be made before the term opens. All classes meet on Monday, Wednesday, and Friday evenings from 7.30 to 9.30, from September to March. The courses of study comprise: Carpentry (two years): Practice in use of carpentry tools, instruction in joinery, practical examples of house framing, doors, sashes, etc. Also an advanced course, taking up problems in roof framing, stair building, or pattern making, as the student may elect. Machine work (tv/o years) : One term of bench work and one term of practice on the engine lathe, planer, shaper, and milling machine. This is followed by actual machine construction and high-grade machine work, including tool making, with considerable practice on the milling machine and grinding machine. Experienced machinists will find this work of great value. Plumbing (two years): The Journeymen Plumbers' Association of Brooklyn coop- erates in the direction of this class, and awards certificates to those showing satisfactory proficiency, which entitle the holders to admission to the association. The manual work includes practice in soldering and wiping the various types of joints; making bends, traps, and other practical work. The lectures deal with the proper arrange- ment of drain, soil, and waste pipes; trapping; ventilation; supply pipes; boilers; tanks; fixtures, etc. Sign painting (two years) : Practice in spacing and plain lettering; ornamental let- tering in gold and colors on wood, glass, and metal. Also composition of signs; scroll work; wagon painting; striping; and pictorial work. Fresco painting (two years): Preparing walls and ceilings in calcimine; lining; stencil work; flat and shaded ornament; fiower painting; and paper hanging. Study of design and advanced ornamental decoration on wall and ceiling. The institute is under the control of a board of trustees, with a secretary as executive oiEcer, and a faculty composed of 7 members, each one of whom is the director of a separate department. Altogether there are 128 instructors, of whom 76 are engaged in the departments considered in this report. Most of the instructors are graduates of colleges or scientific schools, and many of the technical instructors were educated in the institute. In the trade work the instructors are men who have gained prominence in their several trades and are, for the most part, self-educated or were trained in the institute. TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION — UNITED STATES. 51 The number of students enrolled in the departments herein con- sidered during the year 1900-01" was as follows: STUDENTS ENROLLED IN SELECTED DEPARTMENTS OP PRATT INSTITUTE, 1900-01. Department. Day courses. Evening courses. Total. Fine arts (a) Domestic art (6) Science and teclinology Total 283 464 117 220 72 ■346 503 536 463 864 a Not including 245 students in the normal and children's classes. i> Not including 195 students in the children's classes and those who take instruction for home use. In the day course in the department of science and technology the several branches are combined. In the evening course each su])ject may be, and usually is, taken separately. Of the 346 pupils in the evening courses the following is the number in each class: Evening technical. Physics 24 Chemistry 48 Applied electricity 25 Mechanical drawing and mechan- ism , 59 Steam and steam engine 21 Strength of materials 18 Total 195 Evening trade. Carpentry : Machine work . Blumbing Sign painting Fresco painting Total . . . . 26 44 54 16 11 151 The department of domestic science is not considered in detail for the reason that the classes are made up almost wholly of normal stu- dents, children, and those who take instruction for home use. There were 310 students in this department. The diploma of the institute is given to those students who successfully complete the normal and high school courses. The certificate attests the successful completion of anj^ of the day courses representing from one to four years' work in the departments of fine arts, domestic art, science and technology, domestic science, and libraries. As diplomas or certificates are not awarded to students in the evening classes, it is impossible to state exactlj^ the number of graduates. It is safe to assume, however, that out of more than 40,000 individual students who have received instruction in the institute at least 10,000 have completed the courses covered by this report. The cost of the buildings, grounds, and equipment of the institute is approximately 11,200,000. Everything was provided for by an endowment fund given for the purpose by the founder, and this fund has been added to by the trustees of the Pratt estate. At the pres- ent time the fund amounts to $2,500,000. Approximately $250,000 annually is required for the maintenance of the work of the institute. 52 REPOET OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. This amount is derived almost entirely from the endowment fund, with slight addition from tuition fees. In the opinion of the officials the courses of studj' prescribed are founded on wise lines. They are improving in detail as experience increases and it is found possible to introduce into the work more of true art or more breadth of technical and scientific training. Regard- ing the benefits accruing to local industries, it is difficult to definitely determine what practical benefits have accrued to the industries in the locality as the result of the establishment of the institute. The indi- rect influence is oftentimes as important as the direct. A large insti- tution with high ideals does much toward elevating public sentiment, awakening new standards of excellence and new lines of thought in many waj's and in many places, and these are things which it is impos- sible to measure. High standards of work and the amount one expects to be able to accomplish in a given length of time always increase as the possibilities for accomplishment increase; so that it would be impossible for the most accurate observer to give an exact estimate of the influence that an}^ school has had on any special industry. Nevertheless evidences come from many sources that the institute is exerting a very strong influence-for good and that these benefits reach over a very wide area, including, to some extent at least, a large part of the entire countrjr. The trustees feel that the large sum of money expended annually yields the greatest possible return, because of the influence it is exert- ing on the community and the countr}'' at large; and the very high regard in which the institute is held by everyone who speaks of it is, to some extent, an indication of the great good that it is doing. The following statement regarding the evening trade class in machine work conveys some idea as to the local influence in one particular line: For this class, which is limited to 50 students, there were at the open- ing session last year 200 machinists who were anxious to be admitted, simply because they were aware of the benefit that the instruction had been to others in their trade, and more than 100 of those who could not be accepted wished their names placed on the waiting list for next j^ear. In the early history of the institute there was some opposition from one of the local labor unions, which arose from a misconception of its purpose and was not well founded. During the past ten years the Journeymen Plumbers' Association of Brooklyn has cooperated in the direction of the class in plumbing and awards certificates to those showing satisfactory proficiency, which entitle the holders to admis- sion to the association. The Master Painters' Association cooperates with the evening classes in sign and fresco painting in a similar way and grants certificates, to those showing proficiency, at the completion of the course. A recent number of the institute monthly contains TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION UNITED STATES. 53 ample evidence as regards the benefits derived by those who have been under instruction in the institute, and the alumni notes show a list of more than 100 students who have graduated in the past five years and are now holding important positions in leading industrial establishments throughout the country. In speaking of the success met by the students of the evening trade classes, the record of the class in plumbing for the year 1895-96 was referred to. There were 49 members in this class and a recent effort to ascertain their whereabouts resulted as follows: Nine could not be located, 1 was in Manila, 1 perished on the Ma,ine, 22 were regular journeymen plumbers, 7 were master plumbers, 5 were salesmen in plumbers' suppl}' houses, 1 was superintendent of a large plumbing firm, 1 was a draftsman on plumbing plans, 1 was a sanitary engineer for a trade paper, and 1 (the only one who had left the trade) was a policeman. Thus, of the 40 members heard from, many had, in the short time since they left the institute, stepped up at least one notch in the social scale, and instead of getting 75 cents or a dollar a day as plumbers' helpers, were receiving at least the regular journeyman's wages of $21 per week. Nearly half had stepped up another notch and were doing even better, as master plumbers, salesmen, and the like. This is an exceedingly creditable record. In the evening classes these young men had been taught to think in connection with their work, and they have kept on thinking ever since in competition with men who are not in the habit of putting over-much thought into what they do. The result is that they have began to advance in the industrial scale, and in all probability thej^ will continue to get further ahead so long as they continue to work more intelligently than those with whom they come in contact. In the matter of receiving preference over shop-trained apprentices and workmen, it is pointed out that the civil-service examinations in Greater New York City for licensed plumbers, plumbing inspectors, and the like ask as their first question, "Are j^ou a graduate of any trade school ? " and give an increased per cent for an affirmative answer. It is seldom that a graduate fails to obtain a good position if he takes a letter of recommendation from the institute. One leading manu- facturer, of national repute, states that he can always find room for any young man whom the institute will recommend. Yet many of the firms who can find room for the graduates in their works have from 100 to 200 applicants on their waiting lists. Good positions and better opportunities await the graduates each succeeding year. The reputation of the institute and the character and ability of its gradu- ates have become so thoroughly established that some of the leading manufacturers of the country have expressed the desire to employ all the young men who complete the courses in the day school. Some idea of the demand for young men of this class may be had from the 54 "REPOKT OF THE COMMISSIONER OE LABOR. fact that within six months after the last graduation the institute had applications for more than four times as manj^ graduates as there were in the day classes. As regards the possibilities of a trade or technical school graduate taking up practical work without undergoing a period of apprentice- ship, it is said, "no school can turn out a finished workman. The time is too short to give the necessary experience, and it would be unwise to prolong the course of study to a point where all the neces- sarj^ experience could be gained in the school. In general, the school has accomplished its object if the fundamental principles underlj^ng the trade have been taught, and intelligence and skill and breadth of mind have been acquired, so that the graduate maj" find ready employ- naent and have the power to rapidly acquire the necessary experience in practical work to enable him to rise to responsible positions. " In very many cases, where the graduates follow a trade, the period of apprenticeship is shortened considerably, as their progress depends upon their ability to do good work rather than the number of years that thej^ have been engaged in the trade. The institute has proved highly satisfactory in every particular, but it has never fully attained the end for which it was established, for its ideals and aims are verj- far-reaching. The fact that from a small beginning of 12 students in 1887 the institute has grown so that it is to-day giving instruction to 3,474 students, and in the past fourteen years has given instruction to more than 40,000 individual students shows in a general way that the public have confidence in its methods and work and that it has achieved well-deserved success. The institute has lost the direct inspiration of its founder, who was personally in touch with the work during the first four years of its existence, and to whom, more than to anj'one else, is due the spirit of loyalty, coop- eration, and unselfishness which pervades its activities. The useful- ness of the institute is widened as the number of its graduates is multiplied and as they carry its methods and ideas abroad. In the growth and de\-elopinent of the institute the trustees and the faculty have kept close to the original ideas of the founder, and no better proof could be found of the fundamental truth underlying these ideas and the urgent necessity for the kind of industrial and technical training that it stands for than in the remarkable growth of this insti- tution since it first opened its doors to the public. ST. GEOEGE'S EVENING TRADE SCHOOL, NEW YORK, N. Y. This school was established in New York City in the fall of 1892, and by its useful career has firmly established itself as a valuable adjunct of St. George's Protestant Episcopal Church. Started primarily as a boys' club, to bind the boys together, amuse them, and keep them from the streets in the evening, it has now become TKADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION UNITED STATES. 55 a salient factor in their lives, enabling them to select the lines of work for which their characters and dispositions are best adapted, and to become eventually skilled mechanics. The school, with its evening classes, allows not only the boys who go to the public schools to attend, but also the young men who work during the day in stores and offices. Theoretical instruction in the form of short lectures is given each evening in the class rooms on subjects which, bearing directly upon the work in hand, tend to open the ej^es of the pupils to facts closely related to their studies and acquaint them with the rapid strides being made outside the school in their special line of work. In. addition to the benefits derived from the school, there is an employment bureau, which is conducted for the purpose of finding positions for the boys which will enable them to work during the day at the trades they are being taught in the evening, thereby insuring a livelier interest in the work as well as more lasting impressions derived from it. The church also conducts a manual training school for boys under 10 years of age, from which a large proportion of the pupils in the trade school are drawn. The school year opens on the third Monday in September and closes on the last Friday in May. Tuition is free. All pupils must be mem- bers of St. George's Sunday School and over 10 years of.age. Sessions are held every evening except Saturday and Sundaj'', from 7.30 to 9 o'clock. The school is closed on all legal holidays, as well as for about ten days during the Christmas holidays. The course of instruction covers a period of three years, and embraces carpentry, plumbing, printing, and free-hand and mechan- ical drawing. The drawing department covers effectually all the practical instruc- tion necessary to a mechanic or artisan in geometrical, mechanical, working, machine, and free-hand drawing. The carpentry department, which is elaborately equipped with all modern bench tools, takes in not only carpentry, but joinery, pattern making, and cabinetmaking, devoting varying periods of time to the boys in each kind of work, as evinced by their ability to stride with or ahead of their classmates. The printing department includes in its work the issuing of the Industrial Herald, a school paper printed monthly b}^ the boys. This department embraces in a very practical sense all the work in a print- ing office from typesetting to presswork. The plumbing department is devoted entirely to plumbing and gas and steam fitting. A visit to this department when in ojperation is not dissimilar to a visit to any outside shop, as each piece of work is stamped with its own utility. The general management is vested in a board of directors chosen by the church. There are 6 instructors, of whom 1 is a college graduate, 56 BEPOKT OF THE COMMISSIONEK OF LABOR. and the others are men who have received a practical training in the trades. The number of pupils in each depal-tment and class during the }'ear 1900-01 was as follows: PUPILS IN EACH DEPAP.TMENT OF ST. GEORGE'S EVENING TRADE SCHOOL, 1900-01. Department. First-year class. Second- year class. Third-year class. Total. Carpentry . 40 24 25 30 20 20 20 30 20 16 15 20 80 60 Printing 60 Free-hand and mechanical drawing 80 Total 119 90 71 280 In addition to the above there were 85 pupils in the manual-training school. In past years a large proportion of the pupils failed to com- plete the full courses, and therefore the number of graduates is small. Thus far onl}^ 260 diplomas have been awarded by the school. The present school building is located at 505 East Sixteenth street, and was occupied for the first time in the fall of 1900. It is a four-story brick structure with about 8,000 square feet of floor space, and together with the equipment cost about $8,000. The funds for the building and equipment were furnished by a prominent member of the church. This same member pays the expense of maintaining the school, which amounts to $5,000 per annum. The benefits accruing from the establishment of the school are apparent to all. It has attracted many boys to the Sunday school and the church. It has brought them in contact with men of high ideals, and has exercised a very considerable influence toward promoting industrial, educational, and social development in the community. The eftect upon those who have been under instruction has been bene- ficial in every respect. The school has helped the boys to be accurate in the use of hands and head. They have been fitted to take up trades which pay them from $12 to $20 per week, rather than store or office positions which are always crowded and afford small compensation. Their training has stimulated them with the desire for more advanced education, which many have obtained in the higher technical schools. As a rule, they have received higher wages and had steadier employ- ment than those boys in the Sunday school who have not attended the trade courses. It is said that, having had the advantages of individuai instruction such as do not ordinarily obtain among employees in the average workshop, the graduates are preferred by employers over shop-trained apprentices. The school does not claim to turn out skilled mechanics. The main object is to train the pupils so that when they leave the school they can take up positions as apprentices or helpers in the several tradep with the cheerful prospect that the knowledge they have already acquired will enable them to make rapid -advancement to the higher positions. The officials state that the courses of training and atudy TEADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION UNITED STATES. 57 could bo improved by extending the scope of the work and by having additional equipment in some of the class rooms. At present the out- look for this is uncertain. The school has proved satisfactory in eYevy way. It has demon- strated its value in training pupils, not only for their life work, but for tlieir general usefulness in the community. It forms the principal work of the church among the boys and young men, and has fully attained the end for which it was established. M'ALPIN TRADE SCHOOIi, NEW YOKE, N. Y. Like the St. George's Evening Trade School, which is connected with St. George's Episcopal Church, the McAlpin Trade School had its origin in a boys' club connected with the West Side Mission of the Brick Presbyterian Church located at ilO Fifth avenue, New York City. The boys' club was established for the purpose of providing a place where the boj^s in the vicinity of the church might spend the even- ings in innocent amusement, etc., the main object being to make the club and its privileges sufficiently attractive and entertaining to induce the boys to pass the time there and thus be the means of keeping them from the streets. In the fall of 1900 the church officials concluded to enlarge the scope of the club and if possible make it more useful and more productive of practical benefit to the boys. With this purpose in view the trade school was established. The boys' club is nonsecta- rian. The cost of membership is 10 cents per month for boys under 16 years of age, and 20 cents per month for boys over 16 j^ears. The privileges of the club include the use of the library, reading room, game rooms, gymnasium, athletic grounds in the summer, free admis- sion to church entertainments, and free tuition in the trade school. All pupils must be members of the boys' club. The school opens the first week in October and closes the last week in June. Sessions are held every evening in the week except Sunday from 7.30 to 9.30. The present courses of instruction include carpentry, iron work, and free-hand drawing. There is also a course in manual training for the smaller boys. The school is under the management of a council, which is composed of prominent members of the church. There are 5 regu- lar and 7 assistant instructors, all of whom acquired their training in practical work. The number of pupils in each class during the past year was as follows: Carpentry, 25; iron work, 32; free-hand draw- ing, 32. As the course of instruction covers a period of three years, it is too early yet for the school to have any graduates. The building and equipment cost 127,000, which amount was donated by a prominent member of the church. The school is maintained by the Brick Pres- byterian Church. The cost of maintenance daring the past year was about $2,500. The officials state that the school is greatly in need of 58 BEPOET OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. more space, and that the courses of training and study could be im- proved by extending the scope of the work so as to include plumbing, printing, machine work, and mechanical drawing. The outlook is very promising. Tentative plans have already been made for a new school building that will accommodate 500 pupils. The school has not been long enough in existence to have accom- plished anything definite in the way of benefiting local industries or those who have been under instruction. It is a new feature of church work, and the results already attained are both pleasing and satisfac- tory and are such as to warrant the prediction that the future is full of promise both for the school and the boys and young men who will be so fortunate as to be able to attend it. BAE.ON DE HIB,SCH TSADE SCHOOL, NEW YORK, N. Y. The Baron de Hirsch Trade School in New York City is one of sev- eral similar institutions which have been established, both in this coun- try and in Europe, through the munificence of the late Baron de Hirsch. In keeping with his general purpose to aid indigent Hebrews in Hun- gary, Eussia, Galicia, and Roumania to emigrate to other countries and there establish themselves upon a self-supporting basis, Baron de Hirsch created what has since.been known as the Baron de Hirsch fund for the benefit of needy Hebrew immigrants in the United States. In Februarj^, 1891, the fund, amounting to ^2,400,000, was conveyed to a board of trustees in New York City to be invested in the United States. The specific purpose of the fund is to furnish mechanics with tools, teach easy trades, aid in securing employment, and in exceptional cases to be-loaned out to immigrants until thej- become self-support- ing. Besides establishing colonies in various States and aiding in the education of Hebrews in all the larger cities, the trustees have also established a flourishing agricultural school at Woodbine, N. J., where, in addition to teaching everj'thing pertaining to the art of agriculture, the pupils also rec.-eive instruction in manual training and industrial work. The object of the trade school is to fit j^oung men in as short a time as possible to enter one of the mechanical trades for a livelihood. All instiniction is free and is limited to Jewish young men. Preference in admission is made in the following order: (1) Those born in Russia and Roumania, (2) those born elsewhere in foreign countries, (3) those born in the United States of foreign parentage, (4) those born in the United States of American parentage. Applicants must be able-bodied and at least 16 years of age .and must show that they have some means of support while in attendance, as nothing in addition to the instruc- tion is provided by the school. All applicants are taken on trial for the period of fourteen working days, at the end of which time, if the applicant shows that he possesses suflicient ability to learn a trade TEADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION — UNITED STATES. 59 and has proved himself worthy of acceptance as a pupil, his name is enrolled as a member of the school. Applicants are assigned to what- ever course they seem best adapted for, due regard being given to their own inclination as to the trade they wish to learn. No certifi- cate is given to any pupil who does not remain throughout the entire course. For the present there are day classes only. Owing to lack of in- terest the evening class in elementary mathematics, which was intended for those engaged in mechanical work during the day, has been aban- doned. The school year is divided into two terms of five and a half months each. The winter term begins the 1st of February and the summer term on the 15th of August. The aim of each course is to give the pupil a practical working knowledge of some trade; with this in view, the first few months of each course are devoted to gaining a knowledge of the principles of each trade, the latter months to practice, showing the application of these principles. Shop methods, in practice, are followed as closel}'^ as possible, and each pupil is required to keep a notebook in which all practical points given by the instructors in lectures are required to be copied. All woi"k is, as far as practicable, done from working drawings, and instruc- tion in mechanical drawing is given to enable pupils to read and work understandingly from such drawings. For those pupils ignorant of English, instruction is provided in that language, and certificates will not be given to pupils who, at the end of their course, can not read and write a fair amount of English. At the satisfactory termination of any one of the courses, each grad- uate is given a kit of tools and a certificate stating that he has com- pleted one of the courses offered by the school. The sessions are held on Mondays, Tuesdaj^s, Wednesdays, and Thursdaj^s, and the hours are from 8 a. m. until 5 p. m., with an intermission of one hour at noon. On Friday the school closes at i p. m. The school is closed on all legal and Jewish holidays, and from July 15 to August 15 of each year. The courses of instruction include carpentrj', plumbing, machinists' work, house and sign painting, electric wiring, bell work, etc. Lec- tures are given throughout the course showing the principles involved, and explaining the various uses of tools, materials, etc. The school is under the general management of an advisory com- mittee. There are 8 instructors, each of whom acquired proficiency through work of a practical nature in his trade. The number of pupils in each class- during the last session was as follows: Carpentry, 16; plumbing, 15; machinists' work, 15; house painting, 15; sign painting, 15; electric wiring, etc., 15. Certificates of proficiency have been awarded to 432 pupils. The school building, which was completed in 60 REPOBT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOB. 1899, is situated on East Sixty-fourth street. It is a handsome four- story brick structure, with stone trimmings, and furnished throughout with all modern improvements. The class rooms are large and have ample light and ventilation, and are equipped with the latest facilities for instruction in the trades. The building and equipment cost $175,000, and the cost of maintenance during the year 1900-1901 was $lf),500. In the opinion of the officials, the courses of training and study are quite satisfactory. The effect upon those who have been under instruction in the school has in every instance been found to be most beneficial. So far as known, the school has been neither favored nor opposed by labor unions. It is the policy of the school to work in harmony with the labor unions, and the graduates are advised to join them. It is said that the graduates, when compared with young men of the same age seeking the same empioj^ment, always receive higher wages at the commencement and are promoted more rapidly. In manj' cases the graduates are preferred over shop-trained apprentices. It is said that this is due, iirst, to the fact that they are at once of value to the employer, and, secondly, because the S3^stematic preparation they receive in the school enables them to make more rapid advancement in practical work. It is possible in some cases for the graduates to work at their trades without undergoing a period of apprenticeship. As a rule, however, they start in as apprentices or helpers. HIGHLAND FALLS TRADE SCHOOL, HIGHLAND FALLS, N. T. This school was established in Highland Falls, N. Y., in the fall of 1896. Primarily the school was intended as an inducement to the boys and young men of the town to spend their spare time during the long evenings in learning to do something practical and useful. By so doing it was thought that two commendable objects would be attained. First, the pupils would be kept from the streets after sun- down and thrown in contact with elevating influences; and, second, they would be taught a good trade which they could follow for a livelihood. Tuition is free. Applicants must be 12 yeai's of age or over. The school opens the first week in October and closes the last week in May. Sessions are held six evenings each week from 7.30 to 9. The course of instruction covers a period of two years and includes elementary architectural drawing, which is designed to give a good knowledge of building construction and carpentrj^. The school is managed by a trade-school committee, which is com- posed of prominent citizens. There is but 1 instructor, and his training was acquired in practical work. Owing to lack of adequate accommodations the number of pupils is limited to 12 in each class. During the year 1900-01 there were 24 pupils in the first and second TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION — UNITED STATES. 61 year classes in carpentry and 12 in architectural drawing. There have been 36 graduates. The building occupied by the school is a two- story frame structure worth about $1,000, and the equipment is valued at 1250. The building and equipment were furnished and the school is maintained by a well-known society woman, who also maintains a free library for the use of the town. The cost of maintenance is $600 per annum. The oiEcials state that the school needs additional equip- ment and more space. With these advantages the courses of training and Study could be improved and the scope of the work extended so as to embrace other trades. Plans are being prepared for a larger building which will give ample facilities for all needed improvements. It is stated that in most cases the graduates are able to engage in practical work without serving a period of apprenticeship, and that they are preferred over shop-trained workmen because their knowledge of drawing enables them to do better work and thej' are considered more reliable. Some of the graduates are in business for themselves and others are earning from $1.50 to $3 per day in the carpentry trade. The school has proved very satisfactory and has practically attained the end for which it was established. NOBTH END 'UNION TKADE SCHOOL, BOSTON, MASS. The North End Union, of Boston, Mass., was started in 1892 as a continuation of the Hanover street chapel. It is under the Benevo- lent Fraternity of Churches, which was organized in 1834 and incorpo- rated in 1839. This fraternity is composed of delegates from twelve Unitarian churches, who appoint visiting committees to three free churches, to the Parker Memorial, and to the North End Union. The union is a social home for young people. It has clubs for boj^s and girls, gives instruction in many lines, and provides a free reading room, play rooms, public baths, and a Sunday school. Its trade school is a combination of three schools, a school of plumb- ing, established in 1894, and said to be the first real trade school established in New England, a school of dressmaking, established in 1895, and a school of printing, established in 1900. The starting of the schools or classes in the trades of plumbing and printing was primarily caused by the fact that there were so many boys without work and the realization that this was due to lack of skill and of the opportunity to acquire it. This would naturally have led to the taking into the schools of boys who had no experience in the trades, but for various reasons, some connected with the support received from the labor unions, it was determined to take as pupils only those who were already employed at the trade. The recognized inadequacy of the shop training was also the cause of the establish- ment of the school of dressmaking. To be admitted tp either the plumbing or printing schools pupils 62 REPOBT OF THE OOMMISSIONEE OF LABOB. must be aheady at work at their trade and at least 17 years of age, and to be admitted to the school of dressmaking pupils must be at least 18 years of age. Applicants for admission to the school of print- ing must have had at least six months' experience in the composing or press room of some printing establishment. The number of pupils at any one time are limited to, plumbing school 33; printing school 10, and dressmaking school 10. Tuition fees are: Plumbing school, |10 for the full course; printing school, $10 per term of fifteen weeks, two evenings per week, and dressmaking school, for nine months' course, $25, or $3 per month for less than the full course, also |5 extra for the "dressmaking system." The management of the school is in the hands of the superintendent of the union. There are 3 instructors of the trades taught, 1 being a a master or employing plumber, 1 an experienced dressmaker, and 1 a practical printer — a foreman in a printing office. The number of pupils in these trade classes in the school year 1900 was: Plumbing, 33; printing, 8, and dressmaking, 3. There have been 34 pupils who have taken the full course in plumbing since the opening of the school, but none have as yet finished full courses in dressmak- ing or printing. The value of that part of the North End Union building which is devoted to the teaching of these trades, together with its equipment, is about $3,000, and the annual cost of maintaining the trade courses is $600. The funds for supporting these schools are raised from voluntary contributions and from the tuition and other fees paid bj'^ the pupils. The courses of instruction are as follows: Plumbing school: Fifty lessons in practical shopwork, as follows: Seams, overcast joints, cup joints, wiping horizontal round joints, wiping horizontal branch joints, wiping upright round joints, one-fourth bends, wiping upright branch joints, wiping a stopcock, wiping a flange on a 2-inch pipe, wiping a 2-inch ferrule, wiping a bath plug, wiping a vertical branch, ^viping an upright flange, traps; also lectures on the science of plumbing. .On completion of the above course miscellaneous work is done, such as wiping 4-inch ferrules, making tank seams, wiping 2 and 3 inch joints, making service boxes, sand bends, and fancywork. Printing school: Ko elementary work, such as teaching at the case, is undertaken. The plan of instruction includes book composition, job composition, and presswork (hand and job). Special attention is given to teaching the principles of punctua- tion, capitalization, etc. One of the objects of the school is to instruct pupils in details that are often overlooked in a printing office. Pupils are instructed individ- ually, not as a class, thus affording an opportunity for advancement to those whose talents lead them in any special direction. From time to time evening talks before the school are given by men who have achieved success in the special branch of the trade. Dressmaking school: Course in sewing. In connection with the course in sewing, talks are given upon the various materials used, with special reference to judicious purchasing. A collection of specimens of different kinds and qualities of materials used is arranged in the class room for the inspection of the pupils. TKADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION — UNITED STATES. 63 Pupils are required to record in notebooks, "whicti are submitted for examination and correction, the instruction received at each lesson; and a written examination is given at the end of each term. Applicants are required to pass an examination in simple sewing. This course is devoted to advanced sewing. Practice is given in all the various stitches upon small pieces of suitable material, which'will be furnished by the school; other material must be provided by the pupil. The course of study is as follows: Proper use of needles, thread, and thimble; position of body while sewing; method of weaving explained; basting and overhanding; turning hem by measure, hemming and running; stitching and overcasting; backstitching and felling; gathering, strok- ing gathers, and putting on bands; making buttonholes and eyelets; sewing on but- tons; putting in gussets; talks on the nature and manufacture of cotton; herringbone stitch on flannel; patching; hemstitching, hemming and whipping ruffle; chain stitching, feather stitching, and mitering corners, french hem on damask; darning on scrim, stockinet, and cashmere; slip stitching and blind stitching; mending and darning. The pupil will then furnish material for making a petticoat. She will be taught to use the sewing machine. Then follows: Taking measures; drafting, cutting and making undergarments; talks on white embroidery; cutting, basting, and making nightdress; cutting, fitting, and making underwaist from pattern; cutting and making dressing sack from pattern; matching stripes and figures; talks on the manufacture of lace; cutting, fitting, and making a cotton dress without lining, also shirt waist and skirt of cambric or gingham; a child's dress made from pattern, by hand and machine. Talks are also given on the different articles of household linen, and the proper method of making and caring for the same shown. Dressmaking course: The pupil who intends to take up the study of dressmaking must have a fair knowledge of hand sewing and have made simple cotton dresses from pattern. The course of study is as follows: Instruction in' taking measures; cutting and mating skirt from measure; cutting, basting, and finishing one-half of model waist; pressing taught; practice in taking measures and drafting waist patterns of different styles; drafting sleeves; cutting waist and sleeves from pattern drafted; finishing waist; instruction in color and textiles applied to dresses; instruction in choice of materials; cutting and matching striped or plaid waist and skirt; talk on manu- facture of woolen dress goods; taking measures and drafting simple princess dress of cambric or gingham; planning fancy waist of silk or other material; cutting and making the same; talk on the manufacture of silk goods; the manufacture of cloth explained; drafting jackets otvarious styles; cutting, basting, fitting, and pressing; making of pockets and collars, lining and finishing. A variety of materials will be shown and the pupil instructed in regard to texture, color, and suitability of each for various uses and for different types of wearers. The talks on form treat of the most becoming manner of making a dress by adapt- ing the lines of the material to those of the figure, and in selecting trimming suited to the material and the character of the figure. Dresses are planned to carry out these principles. Talks on remodeling garments, cleansing, etc. , are given. Drawing lessons of three hours are given two afternoons each week. The course of study is made progressive and is carefully arranged to cover all important points, but it must be understood that the graduates of the trade school will have yet more to learn. Self-reliance, facility, and speed of execution must be acquired by practice in the trade itself. With the time available, it is the opinion of the school officials that these trade courses could hardly he improved, though the school as a whole could be improved by being enlarged and by teaching more trades. 64 EEPORT OP THE COMMISSIONEB OF LABOR. As to the plumbing course, the boy who takes it is often better fitted to do plumbing work thun the boy who has served the regular appren- ticeship to the trade for two or three years, for the former has actually handled tools, while the latter has only seen them handled. With more time to be devoted to this course it could be improved by giving more careful attention to the fundamental and scientific prin- ciples upon which the trade is based; that is, a more thorough training in the technical sciences, such as physics, sanitation, etc., would add greatly to the completeness of the course. The need in all trades is the broadest possible foundation in the sciences which underlie them, and in none of the courses taught in this school does such instruction go far enough. In this school the outlook for such improvement is fairly good, as manj' of those who are interested in trade schools are thinking along these lines. The boys who have gone through the plumbing school have had better instruction than they could have received in the shops alone, they have succeeded in passing their examinations and obtaining their licenses as master and journeyman plumbers much more readily, and they have made better workmen. One young man successfully passed an examination for the position of plumbing inspector of the city before he had completed his course at the school. These schools or courses have had a verj'^ beneficial effect upon those who have been under instruction therein, and as a rule steadier employment and more rapid promotion accrue to those who have taken the course, but in neither the plumbing nor the printing trade does the better prepai'ation for work of the graduates result in higher wages for any special class of work, as under agreement with the unions wages are the same for all workmen of the same grade regard- less of individual ability. For instance, the plumbers are divided into three classes — the helper, the plumber under instruction, and the journeyman plumber — and there is one rate of wages agreed on for each class, all the individuals in any one class receiving the same rate. The graduate of the plumbing school gets good wages quicker than the nongraduate, because he gets out of the position of helper quicker and often enters into employment immediately upon graduation as a plumber under instruction. Graduates of trade schools are undoubtedly preferred by employers to merely shop-trained workmen, because they make more intelligent workmen and are the only material out of which it is possible to make the competent foreman, superintendent, etc. So far there are not enough trade schools or graduates of such schools to have had &ny effect toward improving the shop training in the locality. In fact, in the plumbing trade the effect of the school has been to injure rather than to improve shop training, because those master plumbers who have hitherto endeavored to do something to TEADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION — UNITED STATES, 65 help the learner along in spite of the opposition of the journeymen are now giving up the effort, which could not be more than partially successful, and are advising their helpers to attend the trade school. The old-time apprenticeship system does not prevail, but in any trade where the unions control it is required that a new man or boj' begin in a subordinate position and pass a certain definite time therein, no matter what his knowledge or capacitj'' may be, and it is only in non- union shops that a graduate of a trade school can commence work as a journeyman mechanic or have his apprenticeship time shortened. The effect of instruction in the full trade-school course should reduce the period of apprenticeship at least one year, but it can not entirely do away with it. It does not teach the laying out of the work, and it can not teach the workman to meet emergencies successfully, to take the hazards of his work coolly, and to carry it on thoroughly and per- fectly when in the presence of danger, as frequently must be done. Nothing but the actual experience of working at a trade will teach these things. In a general way such trade schools as now exist in this locality are satisfactory as far as they go and are tending to attain the end for which established. This school has had little effect upon the public and the business community, except that its proved merits are awakening sentiment in favor of ti'ade schools and to the need of such facilities for education as the trade school gives. MASSACHUSETTS CHAEITABIiE MECHANIC ASSOCIATION TKADE SCHOOL, BOSTON, MASS. This school was opened October 29, 1900. Its object is twofold: First, to furnish a sufficient number of journeymen mechanics to fill the demand, and second, to give American boys an opportunity to learn a trade. It is under the management of the executive com- mittee of the Massachusetts Charitable Mechanic Association. The trades taught at present are bricklaying, carpentering, and plumbing. The work in these trades is managed by special commit- tees, appointed by the government of the association, from its mem- bers engaged in actual business in the trades taught, who examine and select the candidates for admission, and at the completion of the course examine them, and graduate them if found qualified. Each graduate is given a certificate, certifying to his mechanical ability and recom- mending him to the favor of employers in his trade. These commit- tees appoint instructors and manage all of the work. Other trades than those now taught will be added from time to time as means permit. There are three instructors, all of practical training and now employed as foremen in the three trades taught. At present 9267—02 5 66 EEPOKT OF THE COMMISSIONEE OF LABOR. a room in the building of the association is used for the school, and the equipment at the opening of the school had cost about $2,000. The funds were provided by appropriations from the treasury of the association, and the cost of maintaining the school will be defrayed from the same source and from the tuition fees. The sessions of the school are held in the evening only, on Mondays, Wednesdays, and Fridays of each week. Tuition is $15 for the term, covering also the cost of tools and materials, payable $8 when a pupil is accepted and $7 on January 1. Applicants must not be less than 17 years of age, able to read and write the EngUsh language, and must possess an elementary knowledge of the simple rules of arithmetic, fractions, and interest. They must be in good health, of good moral character, and each applicant must be vouched for by two rehable citizens. It is not thought that the courses now existing can be substantially improved, but the school itself will be improved by the establishment of courses in other trades. This school is too young to determine the practical benefits resulting from its establishment. Generally speaking, the trade unions as such seem to be afraid of trade schools. They have manifested no opposition to this one, but are inclined to support it. The masons' and bricklayers' unions of Boston were formerljr opposed in toto to trade schools, but are now favorably disposecl to such as take only workingmen as pupils. What they believe in is a trade school, holding night sessions only, where the young man already at work at his trade may go and learn the theory and underlying principles of his trade and all the innumerable points which he can only pick up slowly, if at all, in actual work at the trade. Schools of this kind, where they exist, are of great help to those under their instruction, and their graduates receive higher wages, obtain steadier employment, and get more rapid promotions. Manj' of them have been enabled to rise from the rank of mechanic and employee to that of master and employer. Graduates are always pre- ferred by the employer to the merely shop-trained man, as they have greater intelligence and are more competent. There are no formally articled apprentices in these times, but all beginners must pass several years on low pay as learners, and the graduates of this school, when there are any, will probably be no exception to this rule, though it is expected that one result of this school training will be to somewhat shorten this period. WILIilAMSON FREE SCHOOL OF MECHANICAL TKAEES, PENN- SYLVAHIA. A somewhat different type of school from any of the foregoing is the Williamson Free School of Mechanical Ti'ades, founded by the late Isaiah V. Williamson, a merchant of Philadelphia, and located at TKADE AND TECHliTICAL EDTJCATIOlir — UNITED STATES. 67 Williamson School, Delaware Couiit}^ Pa., about 16 miles from Phila- delphia. The course is considerably longer and nmch more academic work is required. The pupil during the course of three years is bound by articles of apprenticeship. In his endowment deed of trust, dated December 1, 1888, the fo.under states his motives and intentions: I am convinced that the abandonment or disuse of the good old cus- tom of apprenticeship to trades has resulted in many young men growing up in idleness, which leads to vice and crime and is fraught with great danger to Bociet3^ For nearly thir'ty years I have carefully considered this subject, with the intention at the proper time of -found- ing and endowing a free institution, to be located in the city of Phila- delphia or its vicmitj", where, subject to the control of proper mana- g'ers and under the direction and supervision of skillful and expert instructor, poor and deserving boys could be gratuitously instructed in the rudiments of a good English education and, what is of equal, if not greater, importance, trained to habits of industry and economy and taught such mechanical trades or handicrafts as may be suited to their capacities, so that when they arrive at manhood they may be able to support themselves decently by the labor of their own hands and become useful and respected members of society, as 1 am well convinced that in this country any able-bodied young man of industri- ous and economical habits who has learned a good mechanical trade can not only earn a good living and acquire an independence, but also become a useful and respected citizen. I request that the trustees shall at all times bear in mind the fact that the main object I have in view is to train young men to mechan- ical trades, so that they may earn their own living, and that while the acquisition of any branch of an English education which may be of aid to them in their several trades is necessary and important, any higher or advanced knowledge which might render them dissatisfied with or unfit for their emplo3'ments is unnecessary and may be disad- vantageous. I expressly direct that each and every scholar shall be compelled to learn and be thoroughly instructed in one good mechan- ical trade, so that when they leave the school on the completion of their indentures thej^ maj^ be able to support themselves by the labor of their own hands. I especially direct that the scholars shall be taught to speak the truth at all times, and that they shall be trained to £abits of frugalit}"-, economy, and industry, as above all others the one great lesson which I desire to have impressed upon every scholar and inmate of the school is that in this country every able-bodied, healthy young man who has learned a good mechanical trade and is truthful, honest, frugal, temperate, and industrious is. certain to suc- ceed in life and to become a useful and respected member of society. The par value of the securities transferred by the deed was $1,596,000, having an appraised value at the then market price of $2,119,250, and producing at that time an income approximating $100,000. A suitable site was selected, and the first buildings were completed and ready for occupancy on October 20, 1891. The benefits of the school are entirely free, no charge being made for board, clothing, or instruction. Admission of pupils is made in April in each year. Applicants must not be under 16 nor over 18 68 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. yeavH of age; thej^ must be able-bodied, healthj^ of good moral char- acter, and possessed of natural aptitude and liking for mechanical work. The scholastic examination for admission includes reading, ■writing, spelling, arithmetic, including fractions, weights and meas- ures, and interest, geography. United. States history, composition and language. Other things being equal, preference in admission is made in the following order: Those born in the city of Philadelphia; those born in Bucks Countj^, Pa. ; those born in Montgomerj' and Delaware counties, Pa.; those born elsewhere in Pennsylvania; those born in New Jersey; those born elsewhere in the United States. All pupils are bound as indentured apprentices to the trustees for the term of three years, with the provision that the indenture may be canceled at any time by the trustees for incompetency or bad con- duct or if for any other reasons the trustees think the pupil unworthy of future and continued support and education. By the indenture the pupils are obligated to conform to all regulations and restrictions pre- scribed by the trustees or their representatives, and all right or claim to control them during the period they remain at the school is vested in the trustees. Each pupil is given a preparatory course in woodworking and mechanical drawing in connection with studies in the schoolroom and extending through six months. At the end of that period pupils are placed at one of the following five trades, the selection of which is made by the trustees, due regard being given to the intention and adaptability of the pupils to the trades to which thejr are assigned: Carpentering; pattern and cabinet making; bricklaying, includiog range, furnace, and boiler setting, etc. ; machine trade in all its usual details; steam and electrical engineering, steam fitting, etc. Each pupil takes but one of the trades named, and his instruction in mechanical and free-hand drawing tends in the general direction of his trade. The branches taught in the acad^iic department are reading, writ- ing, arithmetic, algebra, geometry, physical and political geography, history, physical science, English literature, physiology and hygiene, civil government, chemistry, elementary vocal music, theory of the steam engine, strength of materials, and building construction. The school and shops are in session eight hours daily on five days of the week and four hours on Saturday, each pupil spending about four hours in the class rooms and four hours in the shops daily the first year, the proportion spent in the shops gradually increasing toward the close of the apprenticeship. The school term continues the entire year, but those pupils who merit it are given about two weeks vacation in summer and some days at Christmas. The domestic life of the school conforms, as far as is practicable, to TEADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION UNITED STATES. 69 good family government. To that end the pupils are divided into families of twenty-four, each having its matron and its own distinct home or cottage, cared for by its occupants. The homes contain no kitchens, dining rooms, or laundries, these being located in other buildings. The trustees deem it to be c^uite as essential to have the ]^)jJ'^'^ become good men as good mechanics, and special attentionrfe givi,ve(j [< their moral training. The school is nonsectarian, but each pupii, immediately aftei admission, is required to designate the religious denomination of his choice and thereafter attend its services regularly at its place of worship in the neighborhood. The school is under the general management of a board of trustees. The facultj' consists of a president, a superintendent, and ten instruct- ors. The instructors in the mechanical department are practical woikmen with expert knowledge of their respective trades. The number of pupils in each trade and grade during the past year was as follows: PUPILS IN EACH COURSE AT WILLIAMSON FREE SCHOOL OF MECHANICAL TRADES. Course. Grade. First year. Second year. Third year. Total. Carpentry Pattern and cabinet making Bricklaying, etc Machine trade Steam and electrical engineering, steam iitting, etc. Total 34 38 33 eo 9 174 Since the school was opened there have been upward of 670 pupils in attendance, and of this number 328 have received certificates of graduation. The school grounds cover an area of 200 acres. There are twenty- two buildings in all, most of them of very substantial construction of stone and brick. Exclusive of the teachers' residences, farm build- ings, etc., the aggregate floor space devoted to the use of the several departments is about 85,000 square feet. The income of the school is derived solely from the endowment given by the founder. The par value of the invested funds is $1,657,096. The cost of maintenance is about ^66,000 per annum. The courses of training and study arc based upon instructional methods. Kegarding the merits of the sj'stem it is said that to become a successful mechanic a j^oung man should be well grounded not only in the theory of his trade, but he should possess some knowledge of the physical sciences, mathematics, and mechanical drawing. As with the professions, so with the trades, a moderate practical experience is required to supplement the school training. The graduates nui.st have 70 EEPOKT OF THE COMMISSIONEE OF LABOR. time to become accustomed to shop or trade ways before they can expect to attain proficiency, lief erring to the benefits resulting from the establishment of the school, it is said that few of the graduates are employed in the vicinity of the school, as it is located in a country district. Most of them are employed in the leading manufacturing ^«»^\t"ers of the State, while a limited number have located in the East- ^n theVv^estern, and Southern States. -^- So far as it is possible to judge, the school has benefited both the graduates and their employers. The school has never been opposed by labor unions. At one time the Bricklayers' Union of Philadel- phia gave its positive moral support to the graduates, and at present it is not unfriendly to them. The effect upon those who have been under instruction has been most gratifying, indeed. The training they received has resulted in bringing them higher wages and better positions than they would otherwise have obtained. There is a steady demand for the graduates by employers, and it is generally conceded that within a comparatively short time after graduation they become superior workmen. Some employers prefer the graduates because of their good general education and scientific knowledge of the basic principles of their trades. Their knowledge of mechanical drawing is always of great advantage to them. In most cases the graduates engage in practical work immediately after leaving the school, and they soon acquire a good standing as skilled workmen. Regarding the success of the school, it is said: "It is partly due to the care exer- cised in the selection of the pupils. The school can^accommodate but one-fifth of those desiring admission, and onlj^ intelligent and deserv- ing j^oung men are taken." The ofiicials are highly pleased with the results already accomplished, and they believe that training by a care- fully graded instructional course in the basic principles of a trade is the best way to develop high-grade mechanics. THE CAIirFOKNIA SCHOOL OF MECHANICAL AKTS, SA.N FBANCISCO, CAL. This school is the outcome of the generous public spirit of James Lick, a citizen of California. Having been brought up in narrow circumstances, earning his living in earl}' manhood as a mechanic, he sympathized with the struggles of the young for a place in life, and resolved to found a school where those dependent upon themselves could receive such an education as would give them a foothold in the world. On September 21, 1876, Mr. Lick executed a deed of trust by which he conveyed to certain trustees a large amount of property for various purposes of public benefit, of which this school was one. This trust provided for the founding and Endowment, at a cost of $640,000, of an institution to be called The California School of Mechanical Arts, TEADJB AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION UNITED STATES. 71 the object of wbich should be to educate males and females in the practical arts of life, such as working in iron, wood, and stone, or any of the metals, and in whatever industry intelligent mechanical skill now is or can hereafter be applied. Such institution was to be open to all youths born in California. The trust named a board of trustees and provided for its perpetuation. The execution of this particular portion of the trust was delaj-'ed by prolonged litigation, and it was not until Januarj"^ 3, 1896, that the buildings were completed and the school formally established. On Monday, January 14, 1895, instruction was commenced, with an enroll- ment of 99 boj's and 33 girls. The first full class was graduated at the end of the school year 1897-98. The school is open free of tuition to any boy or girl of the State of California who has completed the eighth grade of the grammar schools, upon the following conditions: Applicants are admitted upon satis- factory recommendation from their fonner teachers, principals, or school superintendents. Applications received after June 1 are not acted upon until July 15, and if the number of applications exceeds the number of places remaining competitive examinations are held to determine who shall enter. These examinations are written, and cover clear and correct expression in English sentences, arithmetic covering common and decimal fractions and square root, and leading facts in United States history and descriptive geography. The hours of attendance are from 9 a. m. to 3.30 p. m. during the first two years of the course, and from 9 a. m. to 4.30 p. m. during the remaining two years. In formulating a general plan of instruction the fii'st thought was to comply with the broad and generous terms of the founder's bequest. At the time (1876) the deed of trust providing for the establishment of tho» school was executed the manual-training idea had not been developed in this country, and it is not probable that James Lick con- templated an institution the object and purpose of which should be restricted to giving to young men and young women simply the gen- eral culture and development that the ordinary course of manual train- ing is understood to impart. It is equally certain that Mr. Lick had in mind a school and not merelj' a number of workshops. He pro- vided for an institution to promote intelligent mechanical skill. To carry oiit the provisions of the endowment, as thus interpreted, a careful survey of the entire field of industrial education was made. Such features as could best be adapted to special needs and incorpo- rated into a scheme of instruction, and which would accomplish the following specific results, were selected: First. To give each student a thorough knowledge of the technique of some one industrial pursuit, from Avhich he can earn a living. 72 EEPOET OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. Second. To see that his acquaintance with tools and materials, and with science and art, is broad enough to allow the fullest development in his special iield and to permit of his ready adjustment to the new and varying conditions that are constantly taking place in all the mechanical and industrial arts. Third. To develop in him a degree of intelligence that will prepare him for the duties of active citizenship. It is the plan of the school to begin with a preliminary manual- training course, and when the student has nearly completed it to allow him to select one of thirteen mechanical and industrial arts, in order that he may devote to his chosen field of work his entire time for two 3'ears, making the full course four years in all. The preliminary course does not end abruptly at the end of the second year, but merges into the apprentice course for about six months. At the beginning of the third year any student who has completed the preliminary course satisfactorily may elect one of the trades or technical courses and pur- sue therein a formal apprenticeship for two j^ears, leading to a diploma of graduation ; or he is offered the piivilege of attending the third year with a view to receiving a certificate for the completion of the preliminarjr course. The courses of instruction are, therefore, arranged with an aim to solve the general problem of teaching trades to American boys as an integral jjart of their education and preparation for life. It is rather an ethic purpose, as compared with the guild schools of England and Germany, which are intended to meet the special industrial needs of the community in which thej' are located. A great variety of trades are included in these courses, besides one course designed as prepara- tory for a technical college course. The opening of the Wilmerding School has been a decided benefit to the California School, because the latter had been compelled to extend its efforts over a very wide field of instruction in order to meet the needs of its large clientage. The Wilmerding School (see pp. Y9 to 81) includes. in its curriculum a long list of building trades, and as it is the policy of the California School to expand along the lines of machinery trades the field of building trades is left to the Wilmerding School. In accordance with this plan the apprentice courses in carpentering, wood carving, and industrial modeling have been discontinued, and students desiring these courses are instructed in the Wilmerding School. Stu- dents in the Wilmerding School who desire instruction along lines not provided for in that school are received and instructed in the Cali- fornia School. While the two schools are controlled by separate and distinct boards, and their maintenance is derived from entirely differ- ent sources, yet they are under the direct supervision of the same Ijrincipal. It is therefore easy to adjust this interchange of work, and it has proved not only feasible but advantageous to both institutions. TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION — UNITED STATES. The courses of instruction are as follows: 73 PKELIMINAKY COUKSE. The preliminaiy course serves as a foundation for the different trades and tech- nical courses. This part of the curriculum is essentially the same as the course given in the so-called manual-training schools. It is different for boys and girls as regards tool work and domestic branches, but otherwise it is the same for all students, and is required of all. It divides its time equally between academic and industrial branches. The academic branches include English, mathematics, science, and history. One period of fifty minutes per day, for two years, is devoted to each of these subjects, with the exception of history, which is given on alternate days. The instruction in English includes word study, grammar, and rhetoric, practice in written and oral expression, and a study of literature through English classics. The mathematical instruction includes elementary algebra, plane, solid, and spherical geometry, and plane trigonometry. The science work consists of physics (except sound and light) during the first year; chemistry during the second year; and phj'sics (sound and light) during the first quarter of the ■fhird year. The industrial branches are made up of the three elements: Tool work, free-hand and mechanical drawing, and household art and science. The tool work is for boys only. During the first year it consists of a graded course of manual training woodwork, including instruction in the growth of woods and manufacture of lumber, sharpening saws and edge tools, elementary joinery, lathe work, notes and drawings of all work performed, foundry practice, and pattern mak- ing; forge work and molding during the second year; and during the first term of the third year machine-shop practice, including both bench work and lathe work. The work in household art and science begins in the first year with a course of plain sewing and the preliminary parts of cutting and fitting. Drafting and dress- making proper are completed during the first term of the second year. The rest.of the second year is used for millinery. The third year's work of this department comprises cooking; a comprehensive course in the direct application of science and art in the household (including interior decorations and furnishings, heating, light- ing, ventilating, and other sanitary conditions, and hygiene); and a course of chemistry (including chemistry of foods, sanitary chemistry, chemistry of cleaning, chemistry of dyestuffs, and use of microscope). SYNOPSIS or PP.ELIMINARY COURSE. FIRST YEAR. Course of study. Number ! Periods of weeks, per "week. Boijs and girls. English Mathematics (algebra) Science (physics) History (ancient) a Boys. General woodwork, molding, and pattern making Free-hand and mechanical drawing Girls. Sewing Free-hand and mechanical drawing 10 6 a Not given during 1899-1900. 74 BEPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. SYNOPSIS OF PRELIMINARY COURSE— Concluded. SECOND YEAR. Course of studj'. Number of weeks. Periods per week. Boys and gir English Malhematics (geometry) Science (chemistry) History (medieval and modem) " JSoys. ' Forge work and molding Free-hand and mechanical drawing Modeling or wood carving (optional). Qiiis. Dressmaking and millinery Free-hand and mechanical drawing Modeling or wood carving (optional). 5 5 5 2i 10 74 7i 6 THIRD YEAR. Mathematics (logarithms and trigonometry) Science (sound and light) United States history ana government Machine shop Girls. Science (sound and light) German (elective) Cookery Household art and science; chemistry of cooking Modeling or wood carving (optional). 10 6 10 5 20 5 20 to 40 10 10 5 40 6 40 10 40 5 n Not given during 1899-1900, "The school has facilities for teaching the following trades and technical courses, from which each student is allowed to make a selection at the beginning of his third year: Pattern making; forge work; molding; machine-shop practice; machine draw- ing and ship drawing; industrial chemistry; industrial art; cookery; dressmaking; millinery; preparatory for technical college course. Through these courses the school aims to give each student a thorough knowledge of the technique of some one industrial pursuit, from which he may earn his living. It offers, however, something more than the mere equivalent of a workshop apprenticeship. Before commencing work exclusively at his trade, each student must first complete the preliminary course of woodwork and ironwork, including the elements of car- pentry, pattern making, forging, molding, and iron fitting. The shop instruction throughout is based upon work that is selected, as far as pos- sible, for the benefit of the student, and not for the profit of his employer. Yet a reasonable proportion of each student's time is devoted to the manufacture of mar- ketable goods, in order that he may be made to realize the conditions that he will have to face in after life. Before leaving the school he must be able to execute his work in such a manner and at such a rate that the product of his labor, if placed upon the market, will stand the test of competition. About 75 per cent of the time of each apprentice course is devoted to technical instruction and the remaining time to supplementary instruction, as follows: All apprentices are required to meet one hour per week, either in a body or in sections, for the purpose of discussing papera and reports to be submitted by indi- vidual members, somewhat after the seminary plan. The subjects of these reports are selected or assigAed by the pupils themselves, as far as possible, and relate to manufacturing J)rocesses and devices, to topics from the history of art and industry, TBADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION UNITED STATES. 75 and to Ecientific subjects. Each report must be exhaustive, and is placed before the class as clearly as possible by means of printed abstracts and the stereopticon, the presentation to be followed by a thorough discussion. All apprentices are given a brief course in political economy, commercial geog- raphy, and the history and government of the United States. The instruction in mathematics and science is different for different apprentice courses, as indicated under each course. Nearly all apprentices take one or more of the following: Theoretical mechanics; strength of materials, including laboratory practice and tests; determination of stresses in framed structures by graphical and analytical methods; heat calculations and phenomena of combustion, including a gen- eral study of transformations of energy, hydrostatics, laws of gases; simple boiler and engine tests, dynamo tests; metallurgy of iron; bookkeeping and business forms. The free public library affords excellent opportunities for outside reading and study, and is well patronized by members of the school. In addition to a large and well-selected list of books on practical and technical subjects, it has also most of the leading scientific and technical periodicals. APPRENTICE COURSE OF PATTERN MAKING. Technical instruction: Continuous practice upon patterns for actual use in the foundry, including gear wheels, steam pumps, steam, engines, hoists, propeller blades, dynamo frames, core work, and sweep work; model making. Supplementary instruction: Study of advanced foundry work; methods of manu- facturing, preserving, and seasoning lumber; shop arrangement and management; woodworking machinery and mill methods; methods of storing and checking pat- terns; mechanical drawing; science and mathematics. APPRENTICE COURSE OE FORGE V.'ORK. Technical instruction: Continuous practice in forging difficult machine parts, such as engine shafts, connecting rods, and other parts; accessories for hoists; cranes; forge tools; lathe tools; carriage and wagon parts, etc. Also structural and orna- mental ironwork, and sundry selected jobs covering the entire field of forging. Supplementary instruction: Estimates, contracts, and specifications; properties, sources, and prices of materials used; metallurgy of iron; production of steel; manu- facture of rolled-steel shapes, and their uses; science and mathematics; Saturday excursions to ironworking establishments. APPRENTICE COURSE OF MOLDING. Technical instruction: Standard foundry practice in all its details. The articles of machinery manufactured at the school are both numerous and varied, requiring many castings in iron, brass, and other metals, and affording ample exercises in molding. Praxtice is also had in casting bronze figures, in piece molding, molding in gelatine, wax, and sulphur, and by the last wax process for undercut work, core work, sweep work, care of cupola, etc. Supplementary instruction: Estimates, contracts, and specifications; metallurgy of iron; science and mathematics; Saturday excursions to iron working establishments. APPRENTICE COURSE IN MACHINE SHOP. Technical instruction: Machine-shop practice in all its details, requiring work at the vise, and including the use of the lathe, planer, shaper, milling machine, drill press, etc. ; construction of engines, hoists, lathes, pumps, gas engines, etc. ; electrical construction— dynamos, motors, hoists, heating and lighting apphauces, etc. ; care of power plant. 76 REPORT OV THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. Supplementary instruction: Estimates, contracts, and specifications; prices, sources, and properties of materials used; metallurgy of iron and production of steel; science and mathematics; Saturday excursions to ironworking establishments. APPRENTICE COURSE OF MECHANICAL DRAWING. Technical instruction: Machine drawing — drawing familiar machine parts to scale; design of gear teeth with application to rack and pinion, spur, bevel, worm, and helical gears; sketching to measurement a machine involving gearing, and making the complete working drawings for shop use; drawing and detailing pumps, com- pressors, hoists, water wheels, oil burners, gas and oil engines, electric motors and dynamos; boiler settings, and auxiliary connections for complete steam plant; use of riiUed steel forms and calculations of columns, beams, and shafts; a study of valve diagrams; engine and boiler design — land and marine; the design of engine valves, link motions, governors, and fly wheels; a study of the types of engines and boilers. SHIP DRAWING. In this course the lines of a ship's body, the midship section, inboard and outboard profiles, are drawn to a suitable scale, and a wooden model is made in order to give the student a clear conception of the actual form represented by his lines. The sta- bility, carrying capacity, and displacement in tons are calculated from the drawings. Practice is given in the use of the rules of the classification societies, such as Lloyds, Bureau Veritas, and the American Bureau of Shipping. Practical points of ship construction are dealt with and the apprentice is given as much familiarity as possi- ble with shipyard methods. Tracing and blue printing throughout the course. Supplementary instruction: Estimates, contracts, and specifications; metallurgy of iron and the production of steel; science and mathematics; Saturday excursions. APPRENTICE COURSE OP INDUSTRIAL CHEMISTRY. This course is intended to meet the demand for workmen skilled in the use of chemical tools and appliances. It is not in anj' sense the equivalent of a college course of chemistry for the education of scientific investigators. It aims to give the student a thorough knowledge of chemistry as applied to industries based upon chemical prin- ciples. The course includes qualitative and quantitative analysis, applying the same to the analysis of sugars, wines, soaps, acids, paints, fertilizers, and other commer- cial products and by-products. Supplementary instruction: Science and mathematics; Saturday excursions. TECHNICAL COURSE OF INDUSTRIAL ART. This course is necessarily restricted by the lack of facilities at the school for exe- cuting dei-iigns for oilcloths, fabrics, stained glats, wall paper, mural decorations, etc., but this defect is corrected as far as possible by frequent visits to factories and by inquiries among manufacturers. Since the school itself has facilities for executing designs in wood, clay, terra cotta, and iron, the fundamental principles are especially applied to Avork done in those materials. In addition to the elementary principles of perspective light and shade, color, etc., studied during the preliminary course, the following topics will suggest the field of work in this course: History of art; draw- ings of the five orders; anatomy; plant analysis; copying of ornaments from casts, photographs, and natural objects; laws of composition and their application; desighs for furniture, ornamental iron, pottery, etc. ; excursions to museums, art exhibitions, etc. ; chemistry of materials used — their properties, preparation, etc. TECHNICAL COURSE OF COOKERY. A continuation of the third year's course of cooking from a more scientific stand- point; more advanced processes, as canning, preserving, pickling, desserts, ice creams, etc; cooking for invalids; physiological considerations and nutritive values; preparation of menus; table decorations. TEADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION — UNITED STATES. 77 TECHNICAL COURSE OF DRESSMAKING. Designing and manufacture of tea gowns, princess dresses, tailor- finished suits, jackets, children's garments, etc; history of costume; study of drajiery; sketching; hygienic principles; methods of manufacturing threads, cloths, and other materials used; excursions to manufactories. TECHNICAL COURSE OF JIILLIXERY. Covered hats and bonnets, crepe bonnets, shirred and velvet hats, etc. ; manufac- ture of frames and braids; trimming with choice materials; history of costume; sketching'; methods of manufacturing materials used. PREPARATORY FOR TECHNICAL COLLEGE COURSE. Graduates from this course are prepared to enter the universities in the conrj^es of civil, mechanical, electrical, and mining engineering. They are admitted to the engineering colleges of the University of California without examination. The school is under the control of a self-perpetuating board of trus- tees originallj" named by the founder. The facultj^ consists of 15 instructors. In the academic department all of the instructors are college graduates. The shop instructors are men who were holding responsible positions — foremen as a rule — in large manufactories when selected for positions in the school; they are all thorough masters of their respective trades. The total enrollment for both sexes in all grades since the open- ing of the institution, including the school }rear ending in 1902, has been 2,301. The enrollment for the single year 1901-02 was 372, distributed as shown below: PUPILS ENROLLED AT THE CALIFORNIA. SCHOOL OF MECHANICAL ARTS, 1901-02. First prelimi- nary. Second prelimi- nary. Junior appren- tice. Senior appren- tice. Un- graded. Visitors. Total. 99 33 38 18 32 14 20 6 85 18 10 1 284 Girls. 88 Total . ... 132 SI 46 26 103 11 372 Students who enter from other secondary schools receive credit for any part of the curriculum of this school which they may have com- pleted; such students usually follow a mixed programme of studies, filling out the balance of the regular course, and are designated as ' ' ungraded. " A few mature students — normal-school graduates, etc — have been admitted for a few weeks or a few months at a time, and are designated as "visitors." Up to and including the school year ending in 1902, the school had given diplomas of graduation to 163 students, distributed as follows: Pattern making 15, forge work 3, machine shop 36, machine draw- ing 12, architectural drawing 15, technical industrial art 6, technical modeling 2, technical dressmaking and millinery 22, technical course preparatory to college technical course 46, industrial chemistry 5, and in both pattern making and machine shop 2. In addition, certificates for completion of the preliminary course were granted to 41. (O EEPOBT OF THE COMMISSIONEK OF LABOR. There are two main buildings — the academic building and the shops. Both are built of stock brick, with artificial stone trimmings. The academic building is 71 by 123 feet and three stories high. This building contains recitation rooms, physical and chemical laboratories, and the domestic department. The shop building consists of a two- story portion l-O by 107 feet, and a one-story portion 60 by 155 feet, besides an additional cupola shed 10 by 13 feet. There is also a third building of corrugated iron over wooden structure, which surrounds the brass furnaces, core oven, and terra cotta kiln. The school is supported by the income from its original endowment. For the year ending June 30., 1900, the earnings of the endowment fund were $36,638.28, and the disbursements from these earnings for the same period were 126,232.27. Of the disbursements $18,71:7.11 went to pay salaries and other current expenses and $7,485.1.6 went for taxes. In November, 1900, the State constitution was amended by a vote of the people so as to exempt the propertj^ of the school from taxation. Besides the amount received from the endowment fund, each student pays $10 per year to cover expenses of materials, and a small revenue, about $2,500 per year, is derived from the sale of articles manufactured in the school. When the school was opened in 1895, it was expected that many desirable changes would suggest themselves as the work progressed, but experience has shown the original plans to be successful beyond expectation. There has been no trouble in finding an abundance of commercial work for the school shops, without interfering with local manufacturers. The school is flooded with applicants and it can not now accommodate more than half or two-thirds of those appljdng. One very important and interesting question has arisen concerning the length of time given to the preliminary course, which all students are required to complete before commencing their apprenticeships. Tliis preliminary training covers two years in this school, but it has been so modified as to allow credits for such subjects as students may have mastered in manual-training schools, thus reducing the time in some instances to six months. In some other schools of this character the preliminarjr training extends over onty six months or a year. While the two-year preliminary work has given, on the whole, excel- lent results, the management does not claim that it is the best. The graduates of the school have been before the public too short a time to alloAV conclusions to be reached as to any general or specific influence they have exerted upon the industries of the community. Labor unions have not formally expressed their recognition of the school, but there is evidence of their good will. The graduates of the school are accepted by local manufacturers as fourth-year apprentices, or "improvers," and at the end of one year they are rated as full-fledged journeymen. Employers seem to prefer that the school give an additional rating and recommendatioa to each TEADE AND TECHNICAL EDOCATION UNITED STATES. 79 graduate, rather than to attempt to lay down any general rating for all. Under this arrangement some of the graduates receive journey- men's pay from the beginning, while others still are rated as journey- men, but work for a time at slightly lower wages than are allowed journeymen. Local manufacturers, while properly looking after their own inter- ests in the matter, have at the same time shown a thorough apprecia- tion of the qualifications of the school graduates. Reports received from employers are very gratifying. They speak in terms of the highest commendation of pupils in their employ, and are constantly asking for "more like them." Positions are assured to all the grad- uates the school can turn out. In the matter of workmanship they are commended for both the thoroughness and completeness of their training. They are not only thoughtful, painstaking, self-reliant, and conscientious, but their efficiency is also increased by their high stand- ard of general intelligence. They have also won favor from their ■emploj^ers because of their good habits and gentlemanly bearing. The results of the work of this school might be summed up in the following conclusions : 1. It is feasible to teach trades (certain fundamental ones) to Ameri- can boys as an integral part of their education and preparation for life. 2. Such a school can be perfectly articulated with the grammar •school. In other words, it can rank as a strictlj' secondary school in grade, and be vocationary in character. 3. Besides the advantages enumerated in the course of instruction, there is another important consideration which necessitates a broader, more thorough, and more varied training for students in institutions of this kind than is ordinarily given to shop apprentices. In a large manufactory it is to the interest of the employer to find out what the apprentice can do most handily, and to keep him at such work. In other words, to restrict his instruction to a more or less narrow field. The trade school, on the other hand, can not anticipate exactly the position that will be open to anj^ given graduate, and hence must give him a training which will fortify him against any emergency and enable him to meet the special needs of an}^ position likelj^ to be open to him after graduation. In this waj^ the school has the advantage of exerting a broadening influence, as against a narrowing tendency likely to prevail in the ordinary shop apprenticeship. THE WILMEKDING SCHOOL OP INDUSTBIAL AETS, SAN FRAN- CISCO, CAL. The object of the Wilmerding School is to teach trades to bo3's. It was established through the generosity of the late J. C. Wilmerding. Mr. Wilmerding bequeathed to the regents of the University of Cali- fornia, the sum of ^00,000 "to establish and maintain a school, to 80 ETIPOBT OF THE "COlVrMISSIONEK OF LABOR. be called 'The Wilmerding School of Industrial Arts,' to teach boys trades, fitting them to make a living with their hands, with little study and plenty of work." In October, 1897, the board of regents actively began to carry out the provisions of their trust, and in 1899 the present building was erected and equipped. The building is a wooden structure and cost $20,000, the necessary ground cost ^23,000, and the equipment cost $16,000. The citizens of San Francisco, wishing that as little as pos- sible of the original fund should be expended for a site contributed $20,000 toward purchasing the necessary ground for the school. The present building is 60 by 160 feet and two stories high. It is substan- tial and convenient, but only temporary in design. A permanent struc- ture is now (1901) being built by the students. While the trust establishing the school is entirely independent of tliat joroviding for the California School of Mechanical Arts, yet both schools are under the direct supei-vision of the same principal. They are situated on adjacent lots and pupils in one school can go into the shops of the other when it is to their, advantage to do so. The courses of study and instruction are arranged with a view of carrying out the wishes of the founder, and cover the building trades, such as cai'pentry, cabinet making, brickla}dng, blacksmithing, plumb- ing, wood carving, clay modeling, and architecture. While the main work of the school is manual training in these trades, the pupil receives also the drawing and mathematics required hy a first-class workman, such training in English and business forms as will enable him to transact his business properly, such portions of geography and his- tory as arc most intimately associated with the development of mechan- ical arts, and such knowledge of the historj^ and principles of our Government as a good citizen should possess. In short, it is intended that the graduates of the school shall be well-instructed workmen in the trades which tlie}'- select, and intelligent citizens. The equipment of tools, machinery, and appliances is very complete. All the shops are equipped with the best of everything in this line and arranged according to the latest shop methods. The course is designed to cover four years. There is no cliarge for tuition, the use of tools, instru- ments, or materials. Any boy who has graduated from the eighth grade of a grammar school will be admitted to any department of this school. Boys who have finished only the seventh grade will also be admitted, provided they are over 16 years of age. The school in 1901 had enrolled but two classes, together number- ing 165. The faculty consists of 12 instructors. Those in the aca- demic departments are all college graduates, and the shop instructors are men who are thorough masters of their respective trades. The annual cost of maintenance is $21,600, and -is provided from the earn- ings of the original endowment. The school has not been in exist- ence long enough to send out a class of graduates, and therefore no TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION — UNITED STATES. 81 results as to the 'standing of its students with the manufacturing world can be given. The school is well equipped and its work is laid out upon lines that suggest a reasonable hope for gratifying results. HEBREW TECHNICAL INSTITUTE, NEW YORK, N. Y. The need for a school of this. particular kind arose from the fact that the large influx into New York City of Jewish immigrants, for the most part in straitened circumstances, resulted in a heavy strain on the Jewish charitable organizations. It was recognized that in many instances permanent relief for the older immigrants was hope- less, and that sure relief could come only through the proper train- ing of the children. In other words, the founders of the institute felt that the best and most practicable way to help the poorer class of Hebrews was to give the younger members such education as would fit them for success in mechanical trades, and thereby place them in a position to support themselves and those dependent upon them. With this purpose in view, the Hebrew Technical Institute was established in New York City in November, 1883. The buildings occupied by the institute are located at Nos. 34 and 36 Stuj'^vesant street and Nos. 225 and 227 East Ninth street. The school occupies a portion of the Ninth Street building, erected in 1892, and the whole of the adjacent Stuyvesant Street building, which was erected in 1896 as a thoroughly modern school building. The annual catalogue states that the institute partakes of the nature of a manual training school, a trade school, and a polytechnic school, without belonging distinctively to any one of these classes. Though founded and supported by those who are convinced of the worth and dignity of manual labor, and who are desirous of opening to Jewish ji-outh the life of usefulness which awaits the skillful and conscientious mechanic, the institute must, nevertheless, take into account the fact that its pupils are deprived of the advantages of hereditary experience in choosing the exact trade which they are to follow. Apprenticed to a single trade, they might not develop that particular aptitude necessary to success, while the transfer to another and more suitable branch might be hindered 'by a lack of general man- ual and intellectual training. Boys are therefore received at an early age and instructed during the first two years in those subjects which will be useful to them in whatever mechanical pursuits they may finally follow. In the third year thej' are encouraged to give special attention to that particular branch of work which seems most suitable for each, and which they can follow for a livelihood after leaving the school. In this the aim is at thoroughness, dexterity, and understand- ing in general, rather than at the acquirement of those special manipu- lations which can be rapidly acquired in practical work if the founda- tions have been properly laid. 9257—02 6 82 BEPOBT OF THE OOMMISSIONEB OF LABOK. While receiving a thorougli technical ti-aining, the students are not allowed to neglect that general education which is required in the public schools. A part of the daily work is therefore given up to the essentials of a good English education. The school contains a refer- ence library, consisting chiefly of books on mechanical and scientific subjects, and there is also a circulating library, containing books of travel, historj^, poetry, fiction, mechanics, and science. Candidates for admission must be of Jewish faith, residents of New York City, at least 12J years of age, healthy and strong, and must present satisfactory testimonials of scholarship and character. They must pass a satisfactory examination in arithmetic through denominate numbers, English, geography, and United States history. They must also be examined by the medical adviser in regard to their general health and strength. Boys who have already done all of the work of the junior or the middle class will be admitted to advanced standing. Tuition, books, and tools are furnished free. Warm lunches are pi'o- vided at a charge of 1 cent per day, or 5 cents per week. Shower baths are furnished free, and bathing forms a regular part of the school exercises. The full course requires three years for completion. No pupil will receive a diploma from the institute unless he shall have satisfactorily completed all of the work required for the full course in each of the several dep?irtments. The daily session of the institute begins at 9 a. m. and closes at 5 p. m., Mondays, Tuesdays, Wednesdaji-s, and Thursdays; at 4 p. m., Fridays. The junior class is alwaj'S dismissed at i p. m. There is a recess of one hour at noon. In July, August, and a part of September there are only half-day sessions, from 9 a. m. to 12 m. There is no session on Saturdays, Sundays, Jewish holidaj^s, and legal holidays. The school is closed during the first two weeks of July and the first two weeks of August. The regular course of instruction embraces elementary and advanced studies in English, mathematics, mechanical and free-hand drawing, applied science, including physics, chemistry, electricity, etc., and shop work in wood and metal. In addition to the regular work of the third year, each pupil is obliged to adopt one of the following courses as a specialty: Mechanical drawing (two hours perday ) : Parallel and angular perspective; architec- tural drawing; foundations; piers and walls; floors, roofs, and stairways; structural ironwork; round writing; artistic lettering; tinting. Machine drawing— isometric and cabinet projection; wheel gearing; boiler settings; details of steam engine and dynamo; details of special machines; assembled drawings. Wood w-orking (two hours per day): Advanced pattern making at the bench and lathe; molding and casting in lead; carpentry work; cabinetwork; wood carving. TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION UNITED STATES. 83 Metal working (two hom-s per day): IMachine work — building some machine or apparatus, as speed lathe, dynamo, or galvanometer; thread cutting, inside and out- side; use of milling machine; reaming and boring; making taps, chucks, and face plates; gear cutting; tool making. Tempering and grinding tools; diesinking; forging. Practical electricity (two hours per day) : Lectures and recitations, two hours per week. Experimental work — electro-magnetism; primary and storage batteries; dynamos and motors; electrical measuring with amperemeter; voltmeter and "Wheatstone bridge; electrical testing of dynamos, motors, and arc lamps; construction of appara- tus for use in demonstrations and experiments. The institute is controlled by a board of directors, partly elected by the Institute Society and partly delegated by the Hebrew Benevolent and Orphan Asylum Society, of New York City. The educational work is supervised by a subcommittee of the board of directors. There are 11 instructors, of whom 6 are college graduates, 1 a grad- uate of a technical school, and the others are men who have acquired a practical training in the several trades. The number of pupils in the different classes during the past year was as follows: Junior class, 91; middle class, 48; senior class, 41. The number of graduates is comparatively small, only 375 pupils having completed the full course. The land, buildings, and equipment are valued at $132,000, and the annual expense of maintenance is about $20,000. The funds for build- ing and equipping the school were provided by voluntary contributions from members of the Jewish community, and it is supported by the annual dues and contributions of members, voluntary contributions of nonmembers, legacies of deceased members and nonmembers, and by the proceeds of occasional benefit entertainments. In the opinion of the officials, the courses of training and study could be improved by the employment, in some instances, of more experienced teachers, by having better and more complete equipment, and by an increase in the space devoted to class work. Owing to lack of funds, the outlook for impi-ovements is not promising. The number of graduates form such a small proportion of the total number employed, it is impossible to trace such benefits as majr have accrued to the industries of the locality as a result of the establish- ment of the institute. It is thought that in a general way the institute has contributed its quota toward increasing the intelligence of the working classes and in promoting industrial, educational, and social development in the communit3^ The institute is opposed by one of the local labor unions, which represents a branch of the woodworking trade, on the ground that it is turning out too many j'oung men who enter that trade. This opposition is evidently without foundation, as the records of the school show that during the past fourteen j'ears there have been only seventeen graduates who have taken up wood- v/orking trades. Regarding the effect upon those who have been under 84 KEPOKT OF THE COMMISSIONEB OF LABOR. instruction, experience shows that the graduates in a short time can earn more and advance more rapidly than can boys who have passed through years of regular apprenticeship in a particular trade, while their opportunities for general development have, meanwhile, been far greater. The last report from the graduates shows that the aver- age Avages of 31 members of the class of 1899 amounted to $5.30 per week during the first j'ear after leaving school, and from this amount there is a gradual increase in the earning capacity of each class with the lapse of time. The class of 1893 report 22 members who averaged $17.76 per week, aiid 10 members of the class of 1886 report having averaged $26.. 50 per week during the j^ear 1900. It is the strong belief of the officials that but for the training received ])y these graduates thej^ could not have made such material progress. In fact, without that training the}' could not have occupied the positions which man}^ of them have held since leaving the school. At the present time not one of the graduates is known to be out of employment. The institute has many and constant requests from manufacturers for graduates. It is thought that this is a good indica- tion that the graduates are preferred over shop-trained apprentices. None of the graduates take up regular trade work without under- going a period of apprenticeship. The institute does not profess to teach trades with that degree of thoroughness that will fit the gradu- ates to take up the work of journeymen, on the contrary, it only aims to give such a knowledge and training in the fundamental prin- ciples as will enable the graduates to enter the trades either as appren- tices or helpers and make rapid progress thereafter. The officials feel that the institute has proved eminently' satisfactory and has f ullj^ attained the end for which it was established. BOSTON ASYLUM AND FARM SCHOOIi, BOSTON, MASS. This school was founded in 1814 for the purpose of training orphaned boys of deserving character to earn a livelihood. It was located in the historic old house of Sir William Phipps, on the corner of Salem and Charter streets, in Boston, where it remained until 1832, when Thomp- sons Island, in Boston Harbor, was purchased for the school, and there it has been located to the present day. This school is a pri\'ate insti- tution, and has no connection with the city of Boston, as might be inferred from its name, except that it is situated within the city limits. Thompsons Island has an area of 157 acres. It is 3 miles from the foot of State street and li miles from City Point, Boston. This school is conducted by a board of managers and is under the immediate management of a superintendent. It receives boys between the ages of 10 and 14 years, furnishes them with a comfortable home, affords them a grammar-school education, and teaches them to work, so that when old enough to go out into the world they are prepared to TKADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION — UNITED STATES. 85 meet and grapple with the problems which life will present. All the boys attend school one-half the day, and during the other half work at the various trades and occupations that are taught. At the age of 15 or 16 the boys are expected to have completed the course of study, and under certain circumstances they then return to their relatives or friends. If this is not the case, positions are found for them to work at the trades or occupations they have learned, or homes are found for them on farms in the country. A careful super- vision is kept over each boy until he is of age. He is visited at fre- quent intei'vals, advised in person and by letter, and an effort is made to have each boy earn and save as much money as possible. When a boy is admitted to the school a form of relinquishment must be made out by his guardian or surviving parent, giving him up to the school entirely during his legal minority. Careful attention is paid to the deportment of the pupils at all times and to their religious instruction. Plenty of recreation is allowed, and sports are encouraged. In summer the bathing is unsurpassed, and baseball and football clubs exist, and are supplied with uniforms and all the required paraphernalia. In winter there is excellent skating, coasting, and tobogganing. There is also a large and well- equipped gymnasium. A large library of carefully selected books is maintained. In addition to its academic course of instruction, the school has reg- ular courses for the teaching of carpentry, blacksmithing, printing, farming, marine engineering, music (for the training of band musicians), and piloting (training of pilots). In addition to the above, industrial training is given some of the boj's in the school bakery, laundry, and kitchen (cooking, etc.), and in its so-called "Cottage Row" the school has a feature much like the "Junior Republic," a city with its mayor and other officers, a bank, etc., and the boys are trained in the conduct of municipal affairs, bank- ing, buying and selling real estate, stocks, etc. The instructors in this school have had a normal or technical training. During the year ending in 1900, 45 pupils were engaged in studying carpentry, 6 blacksmithing, 6 printing, and 30 farming; on the steamer there were 6 engaged in studying marine engineering and piloting, and in the school band there were 22. From the establishment of the school 1,752 had been graduated in one occupation or another up to the year 1900. Many of the graduates have become prominent in busi- ness, in politics, or in the social world. They are to be found in all walks of life; one for fifteen years has been harbor master, another is a chief of police, others are doctors, lawyers, ministers, manufac- turers, postmasters, librarians, musicians, superintendents, foremen, overseers, pilots, engineers, mechanics, and farmers. 86 REPOET OP THE COMMISSION EB OF LABOE. On Januaiy 1, 1900, there were in the school 98 pupils, the smallest number during the year. The largest number at any one time was 102 and the whole number present during the year was 121. The average age of the boys admitted was 11 years 8 months and 2 days. The average age of boys discharged was 16 years 7 months and 3 da3's. Of the boys dischai'ged and relocated 6 returned to parents or guardians and lY were added to the ' ' out family " of the school. Of the latter number, 16 were employed as follows: 1 as a blacksmith, 8 on farms, 2 as machinists, 2 as office assistants, 1 in a factory, 1 in a market, and 1 as a roofer. The present buildings of the school cost about f50,000. The main building was erected in 1852, but has been added to since. The barns were built in 186i and the industrial building was built in 1885. The annual expense of maintaining the school averages about $20,000. The funds for this purpose come from invested funds, sales from the farm, amount paid by Boston board of overseers of the poor for board of city orphans at school, donations, etc. The courses of instruction could hardly be improved except as regards the farm. There the beginning of a grammar school course in farming would be an improvement, and such a course is being developed. Labor organizations have never paid any attention to this school so far as is known. This school has well equipped its graduates for employment and they are in great demand by employers, who prefer them to merely shop-trained boys, as they have learned to work stead- ily, obey promptly, and attend strictly to the work they are on. For these graduates higher wages, steadier emplojnnent, and more rapid promotion has been the rule, and those who have taken the courses in marine engineering, farming, and printing are able to begin work at their trades without undergoing a period of apprenticeship. This school has in a general way proved satisfactory and has long ago attained the end for which it was established. MILIiEB MAKTUAL-IiABOB SCHOOL OF ALBEMARLE, CBOZET, VA. This institution was established by an act of the legislature of Vir- ginia approved February 24, 1874, designed to carry into eilect the will of Samuel Miller. The will, after making numerous legacies, provided that the residue of the estate should be used for the benefit of the county of Albemarle bj' the "founding, establishment, and perpetual sujDport of a school on the manual-labor principle." The formation of a corporation was provided for consisting of the members of the State board of education and their successors in office and the ' second auditor of the State and his successor in office, to be known as the Miller Manual-Labor School of Albemarle. To this corporation TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION — UNITED STATES. 87 the executor of the will of Samuel Miller turned over stocks and bonds amounting to over $1,000,000. In October, 1878, the school opened at Crozet, Va., with 20 pupils. Under the terms of the bequest insti-uction in the school, free of expenses, was open to "as many poor orphan children, and other white children whose parents are unable to educate them (such orphans and other children to be residents of the county of Albemarle), as the profits and income of the funds herein devised and bequeathed will admit of." The school was started with boys only, but in November, ISSi, girls were for the first time admitted. Tlie scliool is both aca- demic and industrial in character, numerous trades being taught. The school trustees of the county of Albemarle and of the city of Charlottesville meet in January and July of each year. At these meet- ings those children who come under the requirements of Mr. Miller's will are selected and designated, and from their number the county court appoints the pupils of the school. Thej'' must be residents of Albe- marle County and must be between 10 and 1-1 years of age, though exceptions may be made in favor of children over 14 years of age whenever special benefits will thereby be conferred. The school is managed and controlled through the agency of the county court of Albemarle County. The court appoints annually two intelligent,- respetetable, and well-educated gentlemen, whose duty it is to seleet-and'em'ploy,!' whenever necessary, competent and suitable teachers for the school, subject to the approval of the county court. There is also a supeiintendent, a director of the department of prac- tical mechanics, a bookkeeper, a chaplain, a resident phj^sician, a matron, a librarian, and a secretary, with a full corps of teachers and instructors, all concerned in the management of the school. The courses taught are woodworking, including carpentr}^, cabinet- making, etc. , machine-shop work, foundry work, forge work, printing, steam and electrical plants, free-hand drawing, mechanical drawing, painting, plumbing, dressmaking, sewing, and cooking. For the year 1900-1901 there was a total of 49 oflicers, teachers, and instructors in the school, of whom 19 were employed in teaching the industrial courses. Of the latter 3 were trained in colleges and by teaching, 1 in an academy and by teaching, 2 in public schools and hy teaching, and the remainder were either graduates of the Miller school or practical workmen. In this year there were 40 pu.pils in wood woi'king, 24 in the machine shop, 24 in the foundr}% 24 in the forge shop, 3 in printing, 3 in the steam and electric plant, 35 in dress- making, sewing, etc., and 48 in cooking. The number taking the courses of free-hand and mechanical drawing was not obtained, and there appear to be no pupils in the courses of plumbing and painting. Since the establishment of the school there have been 70 actual gradu- ates. The majority of the pupils have left school before graduation. 88 KEPOKT OF THE COMMISSIONEK OF LABOE. There are 611 boys who have gone out from the school, and their present status (1901) is as follows: OCCUPATIONS OF BOYS WHO HAVE GONE OUT FROM THE MILLER SCHOOL. Occupations. Agent, baggage (R. R.) .. Agents: Station (R. R.) Insurance Bakers Blacksmiths Bookkeepers Brakemen (R. R.) Bricklayers Broker, commission Cabinetmakers Carpenters Carpenters, bridge (R. R.) Chemists Clerks Clerk, Railway Mail Serv- ice Conductors: Railroad Streetcar Constable Contractors: Brick Railroad Draftsmen Electricians Engineers; Civil Electrical and me- chanical Locomotive (R. R. ) . . . Stationary Farmers li'iremen: Locomotive (R. R.)... Stationary Fitters, shipyard Florists Foremen, shop Num- ber. Occupations. Foundry men Gardener Hammersmith Hostler Inspectors: Car (R. R.) Locomotive (E. K. ) . Instructors: Drawing Engineering Forge and foundry. Language and liter- ature Machine shop Manual training . . . Physics and mathe- matics Public school Woodworking Inventor Journalist Lawyers Machinists Mail carrier Managers: Furnace Restaurant Manufacturer Master of transporta- tion (R. R.) Merchants Motorman, street car. . . Newsboys Nurseryman Overseer Painters Pharmacists Photo-engraver Physicians Num- ber. Occupaticns Plumbers Postmasters Potter Preacher Printers Professors in colleges Property man, theater . . Railroad employees,mis- cellaneous Sailor Salesmen, traveling Sheriff, deputy Shoemaker Soldiers Stenographer Steward, hotel Stonecutters Students Superintendent: Railroads Water supply, (R.R.) Supervisor of bridges (R.R.) Telegraph operators (R. „B-) Town sergeant Train dispatchers (R. R.) Turners, wood Upholsterer Miscellaneous Total Unknown Blind Paralyzed Insane Dead Num- ber. 4 2 1 1 8 7 1 6 1 3 1 1 2 1 1 2 15 1 1 2 1 145 59 1 1 1 57 Of these boys 35 have attended higher institutions of learning. The average annual income of the entii'e number (not including dead, unknown, etc.) is $594. Of the graduates the average annual income is $1,000, and of the nongraduates $533. The status of 166 girls who have left the school is as follows: OCCUPATIONS OF GIRLS WHO HAVE GONE OUT FROM THE MILLER SCHOOL. Occupations. Number. Occupations. Number. Artist \ 5 1 4 1 1 1 3 1 Total Dressmakers 57 Proof reader Married 56 Student Dead . 9 The total number of pupils who had entered the school from its organization up to the j'ear 1901 was 1,022. Of these the majority remained in the school from four to seven j'^ears. TEADE AND TECHKIOAL EDUCATION — UNITED STATES. 89 The cost of the trades building was $36,000, and of its equipment $50,000, and the annual cost of maintaining the trade courses is f 7,000. The cost of maintaining "the school in all its branches for the year end- ing December 1, 1899, was $64,072.67, and the total amount expended for maintenance for twenty-two years of the school's existence was $1,668,695.81, of which $236,343.30 was for buildings. The funds used come entirely from an income of $75,000 per annum from the Miller endowment. It is said by the school officials that the courses of instruction are excellent and can hardly be improved upon, and that the industries in the locality of the school and in many other localities have been benefited by its establishment for the reason that it has made it pos- sible to obtain competent and skilled workmen. This and other simi- lar schools have increased the intelligence of the pupils who have exerted a strong influence for good wherever they have located and have promoted the social, industrial, and educational development of workingmen. The pupils have located in all parts of the United States. It is also said that there are no labor unions in the locality of the school, and as far as known no opposition to the school exists among labor organizations nor liave they rendered it aid of smy kind. The better preparation for work of the graduates has certainly procured them higher wages, steadier employment, and more rapid promotion. Employers generally prefer industrial-school men to the shop-trained workmen, because they are more intelligent and have more adaptability and they do not run so much in grooves and fixed ways. In many cases the graduates of this school are employed by manufacturing establish- ments without having to pass an apprenticeship; this is true of the Richmond Locomotive "Works, the Eoanoke Works, Toler & Sons, manufacturers of furniture, and others, but some firms do require a short apprenticeship. In the opinion of the educators connected with this institution, this and other similar industrial schools have proved eminently satisfac- tory, and generally speaking have fully attained the end for which they were established. INSTITUTE FOE COLOBED YOUTH, PHILADELPHIA, PA. The Institute for Colored Youth in Philadelphia was founded in the year 1837, upon the basis of a bequest by Mr. Richard Humphreys, which provided for the establishment of a school under the care of members of the Society of Friends, "having for its object tlie benevo- lent design of instructing descendants of the African race in school learning, in the various branches of the mechanic arts and trades, and in agriculture, in order to prepare, fit, and qualify them to act as teach- ers." The importance of instruction in the industrial arts having 90 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. claimed the consideration of tlie friends of the institute, and subscrip- tions having been made for the establisliment of a department for this purpose, a separate building was erected, and in 1889 trade instruc- tion was commenced. Instruction is free to colored persons 16 years of age or over, of good moral character. The school year begins October 1 and ends May 30. The courses of instruction include four-year courses in bricklaying, carpentry, printing, tailoring, and shoemaking, and two-year courses in millinery, dressmaking, and cooking. The classes in dressmaking, millinery, and cooking meet three days in the week. The hours for instruction in dressmaking and millinery are from 1 to. G p. m., and the class in cooking from 10 a. m. to 3 p. m. The classes in bricklaying, carpentry, printing, tailoring, and shoemaking meet three nights each week from 7.30 to 9.30. All pupils are first instructed in the use of tools, materials, etc., and then advanced by progressive steps until every detail is thoroughly mastered. The school is under the general management of a board of managers, which is composed of members of the Society of Friends. There are 8 instructors, all of whom have had j)i'actical training ia the trades. The number of pupils in the different trades and classes during the j^ear 1900-01 was as follows: PUPILS IN EACH CLASS OF INSTITUTE FOR COLORED YOUTH, 1900-01. Course, Class. First year. Second year. Third year. Fourth year. Total. Bricklaying . . Carpentry Printing Tailoring Shoemaking.. Millinery Dressmaking . Cooking 11 22 12 22 17 37 34 Total . 130 87 210 A large number of pupils leave the school without being graduated and take up the trades they have studied. Thus far only 180 pupils have received graduate certificates. The building occupied by the trade school is a three-story structure containing about 12,000 square feet of floor space, and, together with the equipment, cost about $20,000. The school is maintained by endowments and subsci'iptions from members of the Society of Friends. The cost of maintenance is $5,000 per annum. The present courses of training and study are considered satisfactory. Eegarding the general benefits to pupils and others, it is said: The school has made better citizens and better mechanics of all those who attended its classes. If it were not for the opportunities that thej^ afforded, a great majority of the pupils would be little better than poorly paid domestics or laborers. AH graduates are qualified TBADB AND TECHNICAL ECTJCATIOIT — UNITED STATES. 91 to engage in practical work without undergoing a period of apprentice- ship, and reports from recent graduates show that they are earning good wages at their trades. While most of the former pupils give the greater part of their time to the work which they began in the school, yet it is known that in many cases they devote a portion of each week to teaching others less fortunate than themselves. The social and educational benefits are manifested in many directions, and the lessons taught the men and boys in the night school are yielding- rich returns in the homes, which are made better and happier by the intelligent and well-directed energies of the fathers and sons who have been under our instruction. Generally speaking, feelings of race prejudice operate against the preference of the graduates, except among employers of their own color. Many of the former graduates are in business for themselves, and they invariably assist and give employment to the graduates of more recent date. It is stated that the school has in a general way iDroved satisfactory, and has attained the end for which it was estab- lished. The only drawback is the lack of interest manifested by those whom the school is intended to benefit. The instruction being free, they do not seem to appreciate its value, and therefore they are dis- posed to overlook the advantages which it affords. ' The management, however, has cause to feel gratified, for much good has been accom- plished in the past, and there is every reason to believe that the future will be productive of still greater benefits to the class of people whose advancement and elevation has always been the sole object of the institute. BEREAN MANUAIi TKAINING AND IWDXJSTKIAL SCHOOl, : PHILADEIiPHIA, PA. The Berean Manual Training and Industrial School in Philadelphia was established February 1, 1900. The following statement regarding the purpose and work of this school was furnished by the principal: The object of the school is to train the head, the hand, and the heart, and thus raise the standard of the pupil by improving the whole man morally, intellectually, and manually, and making him more valuable as a man and a citizen ; to teach such trades as carpentry, bricklaying, electric-bell hanging, shoemaking, etc. , for the boys, and dressmaking, millinery, cooking, and general housekeeping for the girls — trades at which the pupils can obtain ready and remunerative employment; to encourage, as far as possible, industries among the colored people, especially among those who have received instruction in the school, and in this way inculcate a spirit of productiveness among them. The school is open to anj^ colored person of good moral character, upon payment of a tuition fee of $1 per month. The school year coasists of three terras of three months each, the first term beginning Octo- ber 1 and the last term ending June 30. Sessions for instruction are held three nights in the week from 7.45 to 10 o'clock. The courses already installed are carpentry, upholstery, electric-bell work, mechan- ical drawing, caning, dressmaking, millinery, and cooking. The course in carpentry requires four years, upholsterj^ thi-ee years, caning one 3'ear, and the other courses two j'cars. The school is under the general management of a board of trustees, vrhich is composed of 92 EEPOKT OF THE COMMISSIONEK OF LABOR. ^ prominent business and professional men. The immediate control is exercised by the principal of the school. Thei-e are ten instructors, three of whom are graduates of the Drexel Institute, two are profes- sional teachers, and the others have had practical training in the trades. The number of pupils in each class during the first year was as follows: Carpentry 16, upholstery 15, mechanical drawing 10, can- ing 6, electric-bell work 10, dressmaking 30, millinery 20, cooking 20. ■The funds for the building and equipment were furnished by subscrip- tions. The value of the property devoted to the use of the school is |5,000. The school is maintained by contributions from prominent citizens and by tuition fees. The cost of maintenance is $3,000 per annum. The pi'esent courses of training and study are well suited to the pupils and are considered satisfactory. It is the intention of the management to enlarge the scope of the school by giving instruction in other trades also. The school has not been in existence long enough to warrant any definite conclusions regarding its influence, if any, upon local industries or conditions. The experience thus far shows that the pupils are thoroughly inter- ested in their work, and manifest a strong desire to improve their con- dition in life through the agency of the knowledge and training they will receive in the school. The first year's work has been satisfactory in every respect, and everj^thing points to a large increase of pupils. ST. JOSEPH'S INDUSTRIAIi SCHOOI, FOE COIiORED BOYS, CLAYTON, DEL. The St. Joseph's Industrial School for Colored Boj's was founded in Clayton, Del., in 1896. This institution is an offshoot of a school that was established in Wilmington, Del., by the Josephite Order of the Catholic Church for the purpose of educating and training colored boys, so that when they reached the age of 15 they might be qualified to obtain ordinary employment in the various establishments of the city. After several years' experience in this direction it became apparent that the plan would not be practicable, as preference in such positions as the boys might be able to fill was usually given to white boys. This condition of affairs gave rise to the question as to what could best be done toward providing the colored youth with an educa- tion and training that would fit them to go out into the world and become useful and self-supporting men. After some deliberation it was finally decided that the wisest plan would be to establish a school where mechanical trades could be taught; and in keeping Avith this idea the school was founded. The school is open and free to indigent colored hoja, preferably orphans, though there are a number of boys in the school who were admitted because their parents are too poor to care for and educate them. In all such cases the parents agree that the school authorities shall have full charge of and be responsible for the maintenance and education of the boy until he becomes of age. This does not mean, however, that they are kept in the school until they become of age, for when a young man becomes proficient and able to maintain him- self and can procure employment he is permitted to do so. The TEADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION — UNITED STATES. 93 object of the school is to educate and train the boy up to that point, and when that is accomplished he is assisted in procuring a position. Ordinary school discipline is required and strict attention to instruc- tion and work is demanded of all. Outside of this the pupils are at liberty to roam about the immense grounds at will, and visit about town when it does not conflict with their work or studies. The course of instruction includes theoretical and practical instruction in bread and pastry baking, cooking, shoemaking, tailoring, printing, cabinet- making, stationary engineering, and electric-bell and wire work. The preliminary part of the instruction necessarilj^ involves more or less manual-training work. At first the boys are allowed to select the trade they wish to take up, and if they show reasonable progress all energies ai'e bent in that direction; if not, then they are advised to take up some other branch for which some special aptitude may be shown. During the winter months all pupils must attend school four hours each day and put in five hours in the shop. During the summer months the school is closed and the entire day is devoted to trade work and more or less work about the farm. Trade work is the main feature, however, and the boys are'kept at this until they show profi- ciency. The school is under the general management of the Josephite Order of the Catholic Church. There are 10 instructors, all of whom obtained their training by practical work. While there are varying degrees of efficiency in each branch, there have as yet been no established grades. At the present time the number of pupils in each branch is as follows: Cooking 2, baking 2, cabinetmaking l-±, printing 6, tailoring 3, shoemaking 3, stationary engineering 2, electric-bell and wire work 2. Thus far there have been but 10 graduates, all young men who became profi- cient before they became of age and are now filling good paying posi- tions. Six buildings, not including the chapel and immense barn, with a floor area of more than 10,000 square feet, are devoted to the use of the school. The value of this property, together with the equipment, is f80,000. The funds for the land, buildings, and equip- ment were provided by donations from the Catholic Church generally, through the efforts of the Josephite Order. With respect to the courses of training and study, it is stated that, considering the class of pupils the school has to deal with, the cur- riculum is well suited for the purpose. The only thing needed in the way of improvement is additional machinery. Owing to the lack of funds the outlook in this particular is uncertain. The benefits aimed at by the school are chiefly individual, and with respect to these it is said: There can be no doubt about the good results accomplished by the school. Taking boys at their most receptive age and teaching them how to use their hands as well as their heads in producing something useful must and does bring good results to the pupils. It places them 9i EEPOET OF THE COMMISSIONEE OF LABOR. in a position to earn an honest living and makes them self-supporting, self-reliant, and independent. Furthermore, the high moral influ- ence which surrounds these young men not only tends to make them better citizens and more contented workers, but it is bound to bear fruit when they go out and mingle with the men in their trades, and the industrial, educational, and social status of all is sure to be bene- fited. Thus far the effect upon those who have been under instruc- tion has been extremely gratifying. Most of the boys seem to appreciate what is being done for them, and they take a lively interest in their work. The few who have left the school to engage in trade work have met with good success, and they receive as high wages and have as steady employment as the general run of mechanics. The school has proved satisfactory in every respect, and is gradually attain- ing the purpose for which it was established. By combining the industrial with the moral and educational features it is felt that it is sending forth a class of young men who will be well qualified to pro- vide for themselves and reflect credit upon the school and the race to M'hich they belong. BREWERS' SCPIOOLS. The few schools which have been established in this country for the training of brewers appear to have grown out of a need within the industry of a more exact scientific knowledge of the processes involved in brewing. Formerly there was a lack of brew masters thoroughly grounded in the fundamental scientific principles of brewing as well as expert in the work of the brewery. The business, it is said, was con- ducted largely by "rule of thumb." The brew masters knew little of the technology of the business as it is understood to-day, their knowledge of chemistry was somewhat vague, and the chemistry of fermentation was not understood as now. Consequently, there was a lack of certainty as regards the quality of the product and the work was attended by a large amount of waste. Thus to supply this need of technical education for those already employed in the business these . schools were established. The scheme of instruction presupposes a familiarity with the work of the brewery and, as a rule, only such as have had experience are received as students. The results from the work of the brewers' schools have been, in the opinions of the school officials, most marked both upon the industry and upon the students themselves. To the industry generally the work of the schools has been of great benefit. With the knowledge of the scientific methods as taught in the brewers' schools, many radical changes and improvements have been brought about in every branch of the industry. New methods have been introduced, guesswork has been eliminated, and the entire process of manufacturing, bottling, etc., has been reduced to a certainty. Materials which were formerly thrown aside are now converted into revenue-producing products and the mat- ter of waste has been reduced to a minimum. Not only has it become possible to turn out a product that is purer, more healthful, of better TEABE AND TEGaSNIOAL EDUCATION — UNITED STATES. 95 taste and stability, but in some instances the possibility of obtaining a third more product from a specified quantity of materials has been demonstrated. The influence of the schools has extended beyond their immediate localities to the United States generally. The training has had a tend- ency to develop kindred industries, especially those making machinery for breweries and bottling establishments. The continuous experi- menting carried on in the laboratories and model breweries of the schools has led to the development of new ideas, which have been taken up by machine shops and used in constructing new devices. The school officials believe that no class of students receives so much valuable and useful instruction in so short a time as the students of these brewers' schools. From the time the graduates leave the schools they are qualified to work as brew masters, and they are always pre- ferred by employers, because they possess a technical and scientific knowledge that is absolutely necessary to a brew master at the present day, and which can not be acquired outside of a brewers' school. Many cases are to be found where graduates have advanced from positions which paid $18 to |20 per week to brew masters at $2,000 to $4,000 per annum within a few years after leaving the school. The opinion is expressed by the officials of the schools generally that an extension of the school term and a raising of the standard of admission are desirable. This would enable them to cover more ground and to devote more time to the subjects already taught. Labor unions have not given the schools formal indorsement, but the good will of union men is evidenced by the fact that the secretaries of several local brewers' unions have been students in the schools. UNITED STATES BREWEKS' ACADEMY, NEW YOBK, N. Y. The United States Brewers' Academy in New York City was estab- lished in 1882 for the purpose of enabling those who were already engaged in the brewing business to obtain a thorough technical knowl- edge of the various operations in the different departments of the brewing industrj^. Applicants must be over 18 years of age and must have a good school education and previous experience in a brewery. The school year, which is divided into two terms of four months each, commences the first week in October and continues to the 1st of June. Daily sessions are held from 9 a. m. to 1 p. m. Each term constitutes a full course of instruction and the charge for tuition is $300 per term. Lectures are held in German and English in separate classes, and the work in the laboratory and brewery is supervised by competent experts. The course of instruction comprehends a sj'stematic studj^ and dem- onstration of the processes applicable to the brewing industr3^ Instruction is' given in chemistry, physics, mechanics, mathematics. 96 BEPOBT OF THE COMMISSIOTSTEE OF LABOB. microscopy, etc. The pupils are made familiar with modern methods of brewing and are taught how to examine and judge the quality of all brewing materials, how to recognize any fault in the product, and how to remedy or avoid the same. Special attention is devoted to ,the manufacture and treatment of all kinds of beers, ales, and porter, the apparatus used, and the conditions which must be observed in order to obtain a product of good taste and stability. In connection with the school is a model brewery of 10 barrels daily capacity, with all modern improvements, and also a pneumatic malting plant, where the pupils practice the preparation of all kinds of lager beer and ale, and the use of the different brewing materials is fully demonstrated. The school is under the management of a board of directors. There are 5 instructors, 3 of whom are college graduates, and all have had practical training in the part thej^ teach. There were 35 pupils in the school during the past year, and the number of graduates has reached 615. The building occupied by the school is rented. The equipment, which was largely contributed bj' manufacturers, is valued at $10,000. The school is maintained entirely by tuition fees. The cost of main- tenance is 17,000 per annum. NATIONAL BREWERS' ACADEMY, NEW YORK, N. Y. The National Brewers' Academj'^ was established in New York City in 1887. The object of this school is to afford thorough instruction in the theory and practice of lager beer and ale brewing. The equipment of the school includes a model brewing plant com- plete in all its details, and a thoroughly equipped scientific and bacte- riological laboratory, which is fitted up for and adapted to the special study of all micro-organisms connected with the industr3^ The course of instruction is conducted in English, and covers a period of four months. There are two terms each year, opening, respect- ively, the first Monday in the months of October and February. The charge for tuition is $500 per term. The school is open five days in the week from 9 a. m. to 4 p. m. The studies are divided into four departments, namely: Theoretical and applied chemistry and physics; mechanics and mechanism; practice of. brewing; and fermentation. In the first department the fundamental principles of chemical science generally are considered, the analysis of all materials used and of all brewery products, and the use of the polariscope and microscope. Mechanics and mechanism deals with steam generation and fuel economy, carbonic acid and the various gas collection, carbonating, bunging, racking, yeast-cultivation apparatus, ice and refrigerating machinery, cooling devices, etc. Practice of brewing treats of the properties of brewers' materials, the various brewing systems and their mashing, boiling, and cooling processes, and brewing calcula- tions. The study of fermentation includes treatment of beers in the TKADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION — UNITED STATES. 97 cellar, complete fermentation by all known systems, the manipulation and preservation of bottling beers and ales, yeast and pure j^east cul- ture, the lower organisms, saccharometrical calculations, etc. There are also systematic courses in bacteriology and pure yeast culture, by Hansen's methods, which are supplementary to the regular brewing courses. All experimental scientific and brewing work is performed by the students themselves, and frequent visits are made to well- known breweries and malt houses for tbe purpose of practical demon- stration on the industrial scale. The school is managed bj' a principal. There are i instructors, 3 of whom are college graduates, and all have had practical experience in the part they teach. There were 10 pupils in the school during the past year, and the number of graduates is 100. The building occupied by the school is rented. The equipment, which was furnished by the principal, is valued at $15,009. The cost of maintenance is $4,000 per annmn, which is derived from tuition fees. AMERICAN BSEWING ACADEffiTY, CHICAGO, ILL. This school was opened in 1891. The principal aim of the school is to afford the brewer a substantial scientific education which will enable him to judge independently and critically the brewing methods he may employ, and to modify them in accordance with the results desired. The course of instruction follows closely the progress of practical brewing operations, and opportunities are given the practical brewer to subject the brewing methods that are taught to practical tests in the experiment brewery connected with the school, and to see for himself that the results are in keeping with the teachings. The lectures are given both in English and in German. Students are at libertj'' to join either the English or the German class. All applicants for enrollment must give evidence of having had a common school education and of being familiar with practical brewing operations. All who attend the sessions of the academy and pass the examinations receive certificates of attendance, giving their standing in recitations, exercises, and final examinations. A brew master's diploma is given to only such students as are of mature years and who give proof of having had practical experience in brewing and malting, covering a number of years, and who also pass the final exam- inations. The year is divided into two terms of four months each. The course may be divided under two heads, viz: Demonstrations and exercises; lectures and recitations. Under the former head are embraced practical exercises in the chemical laboratory, such as the examination and use of thermometers, saccharometers, and other instruments; the saccharificrtion of starch by acids and diastase; prep- aration of iodine and Fehling solutions, and determining sugar in worts, beers, and materials; the examination of materials, such as 9257—02 — -7 98 REPOBT OF THE COMMISSIONEB OF LABOK. barle_y, malt, corn products, rice, hops, sugar, water, pitch, etc. ; the examination of beer for extract, alcohol, and sugar, and calculating original gravity and attenuation; and the comparison of theoretical and actual yield. Under this head is also embraced practical exercises in the microscopical laboratory and in the experiment brewerj'. The lectures and recitations cover brewing materials of all kinds, the prin- ciples and practice of brewing and malting, practical brewing opera- tions, mathematics, physics, chemistry, brewery engineering, and the legal relations of the brewer to the Government. The tuition fee for the above course of four months is $300. Special courses are also offered; one of four weeks in the culture of pure yeast, for which the charge is ^100, and one of six weeks in bottling, for which the charge is $150. The equipment of the school consists of a complete experiment brewery, Avith malting plant and mill house, engine room complete with engines, boilers, pumps, filters, lubricators, etc., brewhouse com- plete with all necessary apparatus, cooling plani, storage and chip cellars, racking room, and a bottling department. Besides these there are chemical and bacteriological laboratories, libi-aries of reference, and a reading room supplied with current literature upon subjects of interest and value to the students. This equipment cost $28,000. The faculty, consists of 11 instructors, all of whom are graduates of universities or institutes of technology, either in Europe or America. The cost of maintenance amounts to $16,000 per year, and is met by tuition fees. The average enrollment per term is 35, or 70 per year. The total enrollment since the opening of the institution has been 660, and of this number 600 have been graduated. HAKTKE'S BBEWEBS' SCHOOL AND LABOBATOSIES, MILWAXT- KEE, "WIS. This institution was formalh' opened as a school on February 1, 1898. The work of instruction really began in November, 1896, in connection with carrying on a laboratorj^ and scientific station, and out of this grew the school. The purpose of the school is to instruct practical brewers and maltsters so as to qualify them to operate and supervise breweries and malt houses as experts in the special machinery of the trade as well as in the art of brewing and malting. Students must be at least 18 years of age -and have a common- school education. The school is open to practical brewers and malt- sters, young men who know sufficient of the art of brewing to under- stand the technical terms and who intend to seek positions as technical brewers or superintendents after first having had theoretical instruc- tion and a certain time of practical work in brewery and malt house. TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION UNITED STATES. 99 business men who for their business interest want to gain some knowl- edge of malting and brewing, and chemists who wish to perfect them- selves as specialists in the industry. Of these only brewers and maltsters who have alreadA' gained practical experience by working in a brewery for a certain time are entitled to a diploma. The course of instruction embraces lectures upon brewing and malt- ing; the materials and ingredients; physics and chemistry; micro- scopy, bacteriology, pure yeast culture; machines and apparatus; mathematics and accounts; law as affecting the industry; also labora- tory exercises in use of instruments, examination, judging, and treat- ment of materials, etc., as barley, malt, rice, corn, sugar, sirups, colors, etc.; yeast study and culture, bacteriological examinations, etc. ; also exercises in the school brewery in all the steps of manu- facturing and treating beers. This instruction is supplemented by visits to many of the large malt houses and breweries where the operations may be observed on a lai'ge scale. The tuition charge is f260 per term of four months, including a special course in pure yeast culture. The equipment of the school, which includes a small and complete experiment^ brewcrj', cost §i,500. The annual cost of maintenance is $12,000, which is met by the income from tuition fees and the laboratory work. The faculty consists of 6 instructors, all experts in the line of their instruction. The average attendance is 12. Alto- gether there have been 69 graduated from the school. DAIRY SCHOOLS. Dairy schools for instruction, both scienti-fic and practical, in the care of milk and the manufacture of butter and cheese have long been in operation in several foreign countries. The first American school of this class was opened at Madison, Wis., in 1891, in connection with the agricultural college of the University of Wisconsin. It was estab- lished in the belief that a school in which butter and cheese making should be taught would be of great value to the dairy industry, and consequently greatly benefit the farmers. There was also felt to be a scarcity of trained men to take charge of creameries and cheese fac- tories. While it was possible for a young man to learn the business in a factory, it was realized that to reach the best results he must have both scientific and practical training. Iowa and Minnesota quickly followed Wisconsin in the establish- ment of these schools, both States making appropriations for the pur- pose in the same year. Other schools followed, and the rapid growth . of the movement is indicated by the fact that in 1899-1900, according to the Report of the Commissioner of Education, there were over 1,300 students in attendance in 30 schools, all connected with the colleges of agriculture and mechanic arts. 100 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIOKEK OF LABOR. The dairA'ing industry has been greatly enlarged and improved as a result of the establishment of these schools. The schools have enabled the numerous creameries and cheese factories to get men trained in all that makes a strictly first-class dairyman. Besides this, they have been the means of increasing the general intelligence of the class of farmers which is most concerned in the growth and perfection of the industry. The Wisconsin school has been instrumental in giving larger applica- tion to the Babcock test, and this test has revolutionized the dairy business. It is used everywhere in the United States and in many foreign countries. It has been estimated that it saves to the Wisconsin farmers alone more than three-quarters of a million dollars annually. The test was invented by Prof. S. M. Babcock, of the Wisconsin school, and given to the dairying world free from patents that it might be within the reach of everyone who might be benefited by its use. This and other dairy schools have not only attained the end for which they were established, but they have done far more than was at first contemplated or expected. There is room for still further advancement and greater usefulness. More time could be profitably given to practical and experimental work. There is little immediate prospect, however, of this being done. The graduates of the schools are alwaj^s preferred by employers because they are progressive, wide-awake, thinking, reading men. DAIEY SCHOOL, "UNIVEKSITY OF WISCONSIN, MADISON, WIS. This school is a department of the Wisconsin Agricultural College, which is a part of the State University. It was opened in 1891. It was the first school of its kind in this country, and has been taken as a model in other States. The school is under the management of the i3resident and 5 regents of the university. The corps of instructors consists of 8 professoi's and 11 instructors in practice. Three of the professors are from Cornell University, 1 from Yale Scientific School, 1 from the Ontario Agri- cultural College, 2 from the University of Wisconsin, and 1 has had no collegiate training. All of the instructors in practice are graduates of this school. There have attended the school at different times 1,022 pupils. The enrollment for the term 1900-01 was 120 in all grades. Certificates have been granted to 176 graduates. No entrance examination is required. Students must be at least 16 years of age and have a common-school education. Everyone who takes the full dairy course must have had at least four months' experi- ence in a creamery or cheese factory. There is a short course adapted to the needs of those who wish only to become dairy farmers, and an advanced course, the aim of which is to prepare the student for the duties of instructor in dairying or to assume responsible positions in advanced dairy lines. The university operates a creamery and cheese TKADE AND TECHIflCAL EDTJOATION UNITED STATES. 101 factory, and also a pasteurizing plant in connection with the dairy school. The advanced course of instruction is comprehensive and thorough and covers every detail in butter making and cheese making. To secure a dairy certificate the candidate must have spent a full term in the school and passed a satisfactory examination in all the subcourses. A standing below 60 per cent in any one examination makes the student ineligible to a dairy certificate. Further, he must have worked in a creamery or cheese factory for two seasons of not less than seven months each. One of these seasons must follow the period spent in school, and during this time the candidate must have practical charge of the factory in which he is working. He will report the operations of his factory monthly, or as often as directed, on proper blanks furnished by the university. The university holds the right to send an authorized person to inspect the factory of the candi- date, and no certificate will be issued if an unfavorable report is made by the ins]pector. If all of the conditions are satisfactorilj^ complied with the candidate will receive a dairy certificate. Owing to the expense of inspection, the university does not agree to grant certifi- cates to students operating factories in other States. The facilities for instruction are first-class in all respects. The main building, Hiram Smith Hall, was erected in 1891. It is con- structed of Dunville white sandstone and white brick, the exterior of the upper stories being finished in pebble and beam work. The main structure is 75 feet front by 54 feet in depth, and three full stories in height. The boiler room and refrigerator form an addition 20 by iS feet, one story in height. A machine shop 60 by 40 feet stands within 60 feet of the dairy building. This shpi? is two stories in height above ground, and has a full-sized basement room. In a one-story addition, i7 by 67 feet, are the cheese-curing rooms and the foreign cheese- making rooms. This addition extends partially into a side hill, and connects by a tunnel with the main building. Over this addition is a storeroom 26 by 36 feet. These buildings were erected with funds supplied by the State, and, including the equipment, cost §40,000. It costs $8,000 per j^ear to maintain the school. This expense is met from State appropriations and fees from students. Milk is delivered at a covered driveway in the rear, and from the weigh can flows by gravitj^ into a large receiving vat on a platform in the creamery room. All of the latest forms of the leading power sepa- rators are in use for instruction. Near the center of the room are placed the cream -ripening vats; these include the common open vats and other more modern devices for this purpose. Besides these ripen- ing vats and the separators, the creamerj' is equipped with two factory box churns, a t(:50-gallon combined churn and worker, a power Mason, or table butter worker, and butter-printing appliances. 102 EEPOET OF THE COMMISSIONEK OF LABOR. Two instructors direct the work of the students running the sepa- rators, while a third supervises the students in charge of the crean^ ripening, the churning and working of the butter, and the butter printing. The process of butter making is conducted daily on the creamery plan, from sampling and testing the milk at the intake to marking packages for shipping from the refrigerator. The daily milk supply of about 5,000 pounds is furnished by farm- ers located within 8 miles of the school. These patrons are a fair rep- resentation of those furnishing milk to creameries and cheese factories in the State. By handling milk in such quantities and catering to a select trade, those in charge of the school are compelled, by the very nature of the work, to keep well to the front in dairy knowledge and practice. At least six power separators, belt and turbine, are used by the stu- dents during the term. A test of the speed, capacity, and skimming efficiency of the separators is made each day. The effect of change of speed of the "separator bowl, variations in temperature of the milk, and other practical observations are made with the different separators. Cream is ripened at different temperatures and the effect of such changes on the butter noted. The temperature of churning and differ- ent ways of salting and working butter are studied in detail. Butter is put up in packages of different styles. Automatic skim-milk weighers for apportioning to each patron his share of the skim milk are used at the creamery. A detail of students, in charge of an instructor, receives the milk daily as it is delivered by the fifty patrons at the creamery intake. The students are taught to inspect the different lots of milk as they arrive. In addition to the usual inspection, taste, odor, etc., the stu- dents are instructed in the use of the Wisconsin curd test and the Farrington alkaline tablet test. These tests help to locate taints and acidity which would not be detected by the ordinary inspection. Composite samples for weekly tests of butter fat are also taken, and instructions given in the methods of preserving them. The cheese room adjoining the creamery is 27 by 33 feet in area. In this there are eight steam-heated cheese vats of 300 pounds capacity, each equipped with a complete set of cheese-making apparatus. Extensive additions to this department of instruction are being made. Several model and experimental curing rooms are so arranged that the temperature and moisture can be controlled. The subearth-duct method of controlling the temperature of curing rooms is also illus- trated. Three rooms are provided for instruction in foreign cheese making (Swiss, Limburger, etc.). These include a making room, a salting room, and a special curing room for this kind of cheese. In this department students are drilled in the use of the rennet test, which has done so much to advance cheese making, the use of the curd TEADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION UNITED STATES. 103 mills, lactometers, and acid tests ay applied to cheese making." They are given a thorough drill in judging cheese. Milk from the different patrons is examined by the Wisconsin curd test, which has proved so valuable in detecting those lots that are of doubtful quality in cheese making. The )iot-iron test, both for indicating the time for drawing the whey and when to put the curd to press, is used dail}^ The milk and whey are tested, so that the losses in the process of manufacturing may be located. Instruction is given in the bandaging, pressing, and dressing of cheese, as well as the proper temperature of the curing room and care of cheese on the shelves. Samples of cheese from dif- ferent sources are secured and the students given practice in scoring them, estimating their worth, and recognizing the demands of the market. Three instructors are required to direct the work of students in Cheddar cheese making. The head instructor gives general directions and receives the blanks filled out daily by each student. He also marks all students under his charge. Each of the other two instruct- ors has charge of the students on duty at four cheese vats. Some one of the students at each vat is given a foreman's blank each day, while others give special attention to the rennet test, tem- peratures, salting, bandaging, and pressing the cheese. The work is systematically arranged, so that every student gets a thorough diill in the various manipulations of cheese making. Experiments are also made to show the effect which changes in the temperature of cooking the curd as well as different amounts of rennet or salt have upon the quality of the cheese. The work of a creamery or of a cheese-factoiy operator requires a practical knowledge of engines and boilers. He should also under- stand the cutting and the fitting of iron pipe, soldering, belt lacing, etc. In order to give students such instruction, a machine shop has been erected for this purpose. In the basement of this building there are several large boilers, used for heating a number of buildings in the immediate vicinity. A smaller high-pressure boiler is available for instruction in firing and caring for a boiler. On the first floor of the building a room 35 by 48 feet is provided for giving instruction in running engines, putting up shafting, setting separators, and for studying the construction of pumps, water heaters, etc. , and the second floor is fitted up with benches and appliances for teaching pipe cut- ting and fitting, belt lacing, and soldering. This work aids the stu- dents not only to better understand the machines they use, but helps to fit them for making repairs and improvements in the factory, machinery, iron pipes, vats, etc. To be abreast of the times, the creamery operator and the cheese maker must be thoroug-^hly skilled in the use of the Babcock test, an apparatus invented by Dr. Babcock, one of the insti'uctors in the dairy school. Students are given thorough instruction in the use of 1U4 EEPOJRT OF THE COMMISSIONBK OF LABOE. the Babcock and other simple milk tests, and are taught to determine accurately the amount of fat in samples of full milk, skim milk, butter- milk, and whej'. Steam turbine, belt, and hand-power Babcock-test machines are provided. By the use of the test in connection with the Qucvenne lactometer students are taught to detect watering and skim- ming of milk. With this test and a balance he can determine closely the amount of fat in a given sample of cheese. The pasteurizing room is equipped with several modern power pas- teurizers, a power bottle washer, sterilizing oven, bottle filler, and other pieces of apparatus and devices used for handling pasteurized milk and cream on a commercial scale. A special course in the preservation of milk and cream for direct consumption is given during the latter part of the dairy school course. Several lectures on this subject are delivered. This course includes an exposition of the bacteriological principles underljdng the methods of pasteurizing and sterilizing of milk and cream. The student is taught the conditions essential in apparatus for this purpose, the methods of manipulating the same, methods of restoring the viscosity of pasteur- ized cream, and the way that milk and cream should be handled so as to be guaranteed free from all disease germs. At intervals during the term, and at the close, students in each of the subcourses are subjected to examinations, wiitten and practical. Students are marked on a scale of 100 as perfect, and less than 60 as failing to pass. At the close of the term a written statement, signed by the dean, is furnished, giving the work performed by the student and his standing as shown by the examinations. Statements of stand- ing are given only to students v/ho have attended the full term and who have taken all the examinations. Eesidents of the State of Wisconsin taking the dairy course pay fees amounting to ^10. Those living in other States pay ^45. For instruc- tion and practice in the shop, an additional fee of $5 is charged all students. An additional fee is charged for special and advanced lab- oratory work in bacteriolog3^ In addition to the sums named, each student must deposit $2 with the secretary of the university to cover possible breakage of test bot- tles and loss of key to locker. At the close of the term, if there has been no breakage of test bottles and key is returned, the latter sum is refunded to the student, or a portion only if the key is lost or appa- ratus broken. Breakage which can not be located is equally divided among the students. DEPARTMENT OF DAIRYING, IOWA STATE COLLEGE OF AGRI- CULTURE AND MECHANIC ARTS, AMES, IOWA. This school is a department of the State College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts. It is the result of an appropriation by the State m 1891, made for the establishment of a dairy school. TEADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION — -UNITED STATES. 105 The facilities are adequate for teactiing dairying in a thoroughly practical and scientific manner. The dairy building is well equipped for practical work as well as scientific instruction and investigation. It is more than a dairy building as the term is generally understood. It is a practical working creamery and cheese factory, in operation every week day in the year. During the summer season from 15,000 to 25,000 pounds of milk are taken in daily and manufactured into butter and cheese; during the winter somewhat less. The milk is pur- chased from farmers living in the vicinity of the college, and they are paid for it according to its merits based not only on butter fat deter- mined by the Babcock test, but upon inspection of its cleanliness, freedom from all taints, objectionable odors, and other general qual- ities. A bacteriological laboratory affords facilities for instruction and investigation in this important feature of the subject. The college creamery is in operation the year round. The work is conducted on a commercial scale as well as for the purposes of scien- tific investigation and instruction. The product made invariably brings the highest quotations and has attained an enviable reputation in the markets. The student becomes familiar with everything connected with the management of a commercial creamery, and meets every problem that is likely to confront him in his future work. Five different kinds of separators are used in the dairy building and the most approved machinery is used throughout. The courses in dairying were established for the benefit of those who are already engaged in the business, either on the farm or in the creamery or factory, and for this reason a very large portion of the time is devoted to practical work in the dairy building. Students in these courses are taught everything connected with prac- tical dairying, from weighing the milk brought in by the different patrons, and testing the same, to running the engine, scrubbing the floors, and shipping the butter. The aim is to teach not only how to do all the work incident to a business of this kind, but also why — the reason — the work should be done in the manner taught. The studies other than dairying proper which appear in the 'courses outlined are such as are necessary to a correct understanding of the principles involved, and all students entering these courses are required to attend them regularly'. The school is under the general management of a board of trustees. There are 7 instructors. One of the instructors was educated at the Ingersoll School, Ontario, Canada, 1 at Manhattan College, Kansas, and 5 are graduates of this school. The school building was erected and equipped by the State in 1891, and cost altogether ^25,000. The instructors render service in other departments of the college, and only a part of their salaries is properly chargeable to the dairy school. 106 EEPOET OF THE COMMISSIONEB OF LABOR. It is estimated that their services in this school are worth $3,000 per year. The school is nearly self-supporting from fees and from the profits arising from the creamery and cheese factory operated by the faculty and students. When these sources fail to afford suflacient funds, the State supplies the deficiency. The annual enrollment in all grades is 120. Many of the students take only one of the shorter courses. The number of graduates, those who have taken the full year course and passed the examinations, therefore, is onlj'' 85. No branch of industrial education has proved more popular or has been productive of better results than the instruction furnished in the economical production of a superior class of dairy products. Even the city milk-supply business is calling for scientifically trained men who thoroughlj' understand the essentials for proper sanitation and cleanli- ness, pasteurization, and sterilization. In order to meet the demands for such instruction, the dairy school provides a four weeks' course for butter makers and cheese makers, beginning the second week in January; two sixteen weeks' coui-ses, one beginning with the regular college year in September, the other with the second college term in February; and a one-year course. The first is only for experienced butter and cheese makers. The other courses are open to all. The one-year course in dairjdng is designed to meet the wants of those who wish to acquire an intimate knowledge of dairy methods and the underlying principles as well as the sciences related thereto. This course runs through one college year, beginning September 1 and ending in June, with an omission of about two months in mid- winter. Students completing this course will receive certificates, but the right is reserved to withhold such certificates until satisfactory evidence is furnished of ability to successfully manage commercial creameries or other large dairy establishments. Folk) wing is the course of study pursued: First term: Dairy practice, six days per week; milk and its product, 16 lectures; milk testing, 20 lectures; bookkeeping, 16 lectures; bacteriology of milk, 20 lectures; judging dairy stock, 16 lectures. Second term: Dairy practice, six days per week; cheese making, 16 lectures; pas- teurization, 16 lectures and laboratory work; dairy machinery, 10 lectures; feeding dairy stock, 20 lectures; dairy chemistry, 16 lectures. The course of study pursued in each of the sixteen weeks' courses is as follows: Dairy practice, six half days per week; bacteriology of milk, 20 lectures per- term; bookkeeping, 16 lectures per term; dairy machinery, 10 lectures per term; milk testing, 20 lectures; milk and its products, 16 lectures; judging dairy stock, 16 lec- tures, or feeding dairy stock, 20 lectures. A winter course in dairying is conducted for the benefit of those who wish to make a special study of dairying and the sciences closely related thereto, and who are not able to attend either of the summer TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION — UNITED STATES. 107 dairy courses. It begins the second week in January and continues four weeks. It is largely attended by men who have had experi- ence in dairy work, but feel the need of a more thorough knowledge of the principles which underlie the science of dairying and the most improved methods employed, and it is desired that the attendance be limited to this class. Being held during the winter, a great many men who have charge of creameries and cheese factories during the summer are able to attend, and those who have done so have expressed themselves as being greatly benefited thereb3^ On account of the limited time in this course it is not expected that students will take both butter and cheese making. Those who wish butter making are expected to take all the lectures except those on cheese making, and to do all their practical work in the butter room. Those who take cheese making are expected to attend all lectures except those on butter making, and to do their practical work in the cheese room. The coarse of study outlined is as follows: Work in dairy building, six half days per week; butter making, 10 lectures, or cheese making, 10 lectures; dairy chemistry, 10 lectures; bacteriology of milk, 15 lectures; bookkeeping, 10 lectures; milk testing, 10 lectures; dairy machinery, 10 lectures; scoring butter and cheese, 5 lectures; feeding dairy stock, 10 lectures. This course, as stated above, is designed to meet the wants of experienced butter and cheese makers, and students without previous experience are not admitted. Students in all of the dairy and creamery work are required to pro- vide themselves with white suits, keep them clean and in good order. One-half of the expense of laundering creamery suits is refunded at the end of each term to all students who have passed a satisfactory inspection in work and cleanliness during the term. The scope of the work given in the department of dairying is set forth clearly in the following statements: Dairy practice: This includes from five to seven hours of practical work in the creamery room during the first term of the year's course, the two summer courses, and the winter course. It includes butter making and laboratory work in milk testing. In the second term of the year's course it includes cheese making and pas- teurization. Milk and its products: This includes instruction on the composition of milk and dairy products, the theory of centrifugal separation, and the construction of the vari- ous kinds of separators. Special attention is given to the effect of varying conditions of the milk on separation. It includes a consideration of the principles of cream ripening, churning, and the preparation of the butter for market. Milk testing: This includes a thorough study of the Babcock test for dairy products, with special instructions for overcoming the difliculties from varying conditions. The l^ests for determining acidity of cream and milk and the use of the lactometer for detecting adulterations are included; also composite sampling and testing of indi- vidual cows. Dairy machinery: This embraces instruction for firing boilers by the most eco- nomical methods, the construction and operation of engines and pumps, and the placing of machinery and shafting. 108 BEPORT OF THE COMMISSIOWEE OF LABOE. Bookkeeping: This course is designed to inform the student as to the best system of bookkeeping for the business of the factory. Bacteriology of milk: This course consists of lectures on the nature of bacteria, distribution, and the conditions necessary for their growth. The effects produced by various bacteria commonly found in milk are shown by lectures and demonstra- tions. The methods of handling which cause contamination of milk are considered in detail. That the quality of dairy products depends mostly upon the fermenta- tions which have taken place in these preparations is shown with detailed atten- tion to the use and value of starters in butter and cheese making. The principles of cream ripening and pasteurization are also included. Judging dairy stock: In this course the judging of dairy stock with the score card and by comparison is made a leading feature, while the lectures relate mostly to the principles, methods, and practices of breeding dairy stock and their management. Cheese making: In the winter term, this consists of ten lectures on Cheddar cheese, including a study of the kind of cheese demanded by different markets, etc. In the second term of the one-year course the same work is taken up as during the winter term, but with the addition of six lectures on fancy brands of cheese, includ- ing Limburger, brick, Swiss, Koquefort, sage, Stilton, pineapple, and Gouda. Pasteurization: Second term, one-year course in dairying. The subjects treated in this course are the relation of the milk supply to public health, the principles of pasteurization, and apparatus adapted for various purposes, with the practical opera- tion of the more common machines. The production and sale of "sanatory" milk is taken up, together with a general consideration of the market milk business, the use of preservatives, and allied topics. Feeding dairy stock: Second term, one-year course in dairying, and winter course. Special attention is given in this course to the principles of feeding animals for the most economical production, with a study of the composition and use of various feed- ing materials and the feeding of dairy cows, including the influence of various feeding stuffs on the quantity, quality, and composition of milk, butter, and cheese. Dairy chemistry: The chemical composition of dairj' products is considered in a general manner. The alkali test, both in theory and practice, is given in order that it may be used by the student. The adulteration of butter, cheese, and milk as it relates to the dairy industry is also taken up in the lectures. As a whole, the work is intended to furnish a foundation for the student which he can use as a basis for future study. Scoring butter and cheese: These lectures are designed to give the student a correct idea of the standard market requirements for dairy products. Butter and cheese are examined and scored by the students and their judgments compared with that of the instructor. Fees: The fees, covering charges for breakage, laboratory material, janitor's service, ' and incidentals, amount to ?12 to $15 per term. While no change in the course of atudj^ is now contemplated, the management realizes that there is always room for improvement. These improvements are constantly suggested in the course of the work. The influence of the school for good has been notable. The number of creameries in the State has increased, and the products of creameries and cheese factories have been made more uniform in quality, and that quality has been greatly improved. As a conse- quence of this improved quality of products better prices are obtained. Neighboring States have received benefits along the same lines, though not to the same extent, because most of the graduates of the TEADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION — UNITED STATES. 109 school have found employment in Iowa. The work of the school has multiplied interest in the dairy industry, and the general community is much better informed on dairy subjects. The graduates of the school are much more capable than are those who have not had school advantages. Through them the dairy industry has been completely revolutionized. New methods of management have followed the school, and to-day the industry stands on a plane incomparably higher than it did before the school was established. Employers prefer the school-trained dairyman because he is better equipped in the science and practice of his trade than it is possible for the mere shop-trained man to be. He makes a superior product at no greater cost than the inferior workman makes a poor one. Not a year has passed since the establishment of the dairy school in which inquiries and demands on the part of employers were not largely in excess of the number of competent students. The average wages of a shop-trained butter maker is about flO per week, while the school- trained man commands about |16 per week. DAIRY SCHOOL, TJITIVERSITY OF MINIfESOTA, ST. ANTEOKY" PARK, MINN. This school is situated at St. Anthony Park, midway between the cities of Minneapolis and St. Paul. More than ten j^ears ago it began to appear that wheat raising in Minnesota was becoming less profitable than it had formerly been, and the repeated failures of this crop had a very discouraging effect upon the farmers. There was no doubt in the minds of observant men that with some effort the dairy indujstry could be developed into a prosperous business and perhaps relieve the farming community of its embarrassment. To promote this new industry it seemed necessarj^ to provide a school in which men could be trained for this work. Under these circumstances the legislature in 1891 appropriated |15,000 for building and equipping a dairy school, and it was made a part of the agricultural college at the State university. The building was completed and the school was opened in October of the same year. The growing demands upon the school made it necessary to increase its'capacity, and in the winter of 1895-96 the State made an additional appropriation of $15,000, thus making the total cost of building and equipping the school f 30, 000. The course is designed to furnish persons who are actualh^ engaged in the manufacture of butter and cheese, or who propose to take up this work, an opportunity to become more skilled in their work, and also to study the many problems which have a direct bearing upon the dairy industry. In recognition of the fact that such persons can not be away from their business for a long period, the term has been arranged to cover only four weeks, and every hour of every working day is fully occupied by lectures and actual work in the factorj^. 110 EEPOBT OF THE COMMISSIOWEK OF LABOK. Instruction is divided into six courses: Lectures covering the entire field of dairy husbandry; practical work daily in the butter room; practical work dailj' in the cheese room, where the manufacture of flats, Cheddar, Swiss, brick, Edam, and Gouda cheese is carried on; practice work in the laboratory examining milk, making daily com- posite tests, and the pasteurization of milk and cream; practical engineering, step.m fitting, and plumbing; and practical work in fac- tor}' bookkeeping. Ten instructors give a portion of their time to this school. One of them is from Cornell University, 1 from Johns Hopkins University, 1 from the State Agricultural College of Iowa, 1 from Carlton Col- lege, 1 from the University of Wisconsin, and 6 are from this school. Owing to the shortness of the term the amount charged to this school for instruction in 1900 was only |1,727.46. The fees from students and the profits from the sales of butter and cheese made in the school factory not only met this expense, but showed an actual profit over and above it of ^303. 8i. The enrollment in 1900 was 99 in butter making, 2 in cheese making, and 1 taking both courses, or a total of 102. Dairy certificates are granted to students who have taken the course and passed a satisfactory examination and in addition have demon- strated by one A'ear's work in a factory that they ai"e skilled in the art of butter or cheese making, and are thoroughly qualified to take charge of a creamery or cheese factorJ^ Eighty-four such certificates have been granted since the opening of the school. The school officials believe that the course of study should be extended and broadened. This is especially desirable in laboratory work, and no doubt it will soon be done. The practical benefits growing out of the school have been great. Ten years ago the annual value of the dairy products of the State was a little over $3,250,000. A careful estimate now places the annual value of these products at more than $32,000,000. And the prospective benefits from the school are greater still. With the proper feeding and care of dairy cattle it is claimed that the annual production of butter can be increased many millions of dollars. This knowledge of feeding and caving for cattle will be gradually disseminated through the men who leave the school. Every graduate is a .missionary of intelligence to the community in which he works. These graduates have developed the industry from almost nothing to its present grati- fying proportions. They all find employment at good wages. As a matter of fact, a man who has not attended a dairy school can not obtain a position if a school man can be had. This preference for the school man is on account of his superior knowledge. He is a scientific butter maker, and gets the most out of the business. TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION — UNITED STATES. Ill SCHOOLS OF DRESSMAKING, MILLINERY, DOMESTIC TRAINING, ETC. Education in the trades of dressmaking, milliner}', domestic train- ing, etc., is given in a large variety of schools. Many city public schools give some instruction in sewing and cooking to all girl pupils. But only those schools will be described here which give such instruc- tion for the purpose of providing a means for the self-support of the graduate. The Young Women's Christian Association classes in many of the cities have long been doing notable work of this character. The Boston association began its instruction for domestic sei'vants in 1888, and later added the trade courses in dressmaking and millinery. The Women's Educational and Industrial Union of Boston was also a pioneer in the same class of instruction. Instruction of a more ambitious character in the same subjects is found in Pratt Institute, Drexel Institute, and Armour Institute. The courses there are longer, and conseqi^ently can be made more thorough. The training given in these schools, especially in Pratt Institute, has had a great influence upon the work of other schools, many of their graduates having become instructors elsewhere. Of the schools mentioned, only Armour Institute is here described. Pratt Institute is placed with the building and mechanical trade schools and Drexel Institute with the technical and continuation schools, their more important work being of those classes. A description of their courses of instruction in dressmaking, millinery, etc. , will be found with the details for the schools as a whole. Another class of schools doing useful work in these lines is the industrial schools for the colored race in the South. Particulars will be found under the proper head. White schools in the South giving instruction of like character are fewer in number and their work is of less importance industrial!}''. Details are given under the proper group of schools. The schools for teaching dress cutting and dressmaking conducted under private auspices form another type. They furnish instruction to large numbers, particularly in various systems of dress cutting. The}"- are business enterprises conducted for gain. Their pupils are made up in large part of women who wish to learn cutting and fitting in order to do their own work. Representative schools of the class are described. YOTJUG WOMEN'S OHE.ISTIAN ASSOCIATION SCHOOL, EOSTOH, MASS. The special need leading to the establishment of the training school for domestics was the lack of properly trained house servants. For years the association had maintained an employment bureau, and the incompetence of the majority of those who asked for work resulted in 112 EEPOBT OJF THE COMMISSIONEB OF LABOR. the establishment of this school in 1888. This incompetence results from many causes, ignorance being one, and the fact that there is apparently a stigma cast upon the work of house service itself. The cause of this is not alone the fault of the employees, but belongs at least equally to the employing class, due to the way in which servants are treated by housekeepers, their looking upon servants as menials and inferiors and allowing them so little freedom or independence. This side of the difiiculty can not be cured by the school. The prob- lem must be approached from the side of the housekeeper. This the association attempts to do by training the housekeeper in its school of domestic science and Christian work, a school outside the scope of this investigation. These two ideas, the training of the servant and the training of the housekeeper, taken together and extended throughout the country should do much to solve the problem of good domestic service. The courses of dressmaking and millinery reallj'^ form part of the association's school of domestic science, whose object it is to give scientific and practical instruction in all that pertains to the home and its management, that young women may be fitted to teach domes- tic science and arts in schools, institutions, and homes, to be Chris- tian workers in associations, settlements and slums, and to be matrons, housekeepers, and houseworkers. The difficulty of obtain- ing a systematic and thorough training in dressmaking and millinery in the shops has, however, led to many taking these courses with only the end in view of fitting themselves to be competent and capable dressmakers and milliners. In the shops the first object in view is to use the girl so as to get the most possible out of her; that is, she is kept doing those things for which she seems to show the most aptitude, and no effort is made to teach her the whole trade. It is claimed by the management of the association that its school fur- nishes complete training in dressmaking and millinery and fits those taking these courses for the practice of the trades. For admission to the school of domestics good character is the first qualification, and testimonials must be presented. Pupils can be admit- ted only upon an agreement signed by themselves or their guardians that they will remain at least six months, and if they leave before the expiration of this period they are to be charged at the rate of $2 per week from the time of admission to that of leaving. If, however, they complete the course of six months the instruction, including board and tuition, is entirely free, the applicant being expected only to furnish a suitable outfit and to enter on a week's probation. No girl is admitted under the age of 16 years. Each graduate is awarded a diploma at the end of the course, stating only those lines of work for which she has shown special aptitude. The system of marking is a great incentive to good work. Each piece of work done is scrutm- ized with care, and for every piece of work presented as complete TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION UNITED STATES. llS which does not meet with the approval of the instructors the pupil loses a certain number of marks. The aim is perfection, and no excuse for neglect of duty is accepted. The course includes cooking- and sewing, general housework, chamber work, parlor work, laundry- work, home nursing, sewing and mending, reading and spelling, pen- manship and. letter Avriting, arithmetic and geography, and daily scripture lessons. The aim of the English lessons and studies, outside of the domestic training, is to quicken the perception of the pupils, and the result in almost every instance is a complete transformation in the girl. One of the promising guaranties of the permanent success and growth of this school is the fact that 95 per cent of the girls who have entered the school for some years past have come through the direct influence of former graduates. The courses in dressmaking and millinery, in detail, are as follows: DRESSMAKING. Educational sewing: Swedish sampler; basting, stitching, and overcasting; over- handing; folded edges; folded edges, matching stripes; overhanding selvedges; hemming; fell seam; French seam, with bias finish; gathering, stroking, and put- ting on bands; making buttonholes and eyelets; sewing on buttons; making loops; sewing on hooks and eyes; putting in gussets; herring-bone stitch on flannel; graft- ing for mending undergarments; overhand patch; hemmed-in patch; cashmere darning; stocking darning; hemstitching, fringing, and damask hem for linen; tuck- ing, and whipping ruffles; mitered corners, chain stitching, feather stitching, slip stitching; cross stitching. Machine sewing: Care and use of the sewing machine, including hemming, tuck- ing, ruffling, and sewing on lace. Study of textiles: History and processes of manufacture of fabrics such as cotton, wool, silk, and linen, and of sewing implements such as scissors, thimbles, needles, and pins; lectures, collateral reading, papers, and field work. Drafting and making of undergarments: Bibs, child's skirt, girl's skirt, lady's skirt; child's drawers, girl's drawers, lady's drawers; child's first waist, girl's waist; child's nightgown, lady's nightgown. DRESSMAKING PROPER. First course, twelve lessons: Use of Vienna tailor system; taking of measurements; drafting for stout forms; fitting and making in practice material; matching stripes and plaids; study of dress material as to color and texture. Second course, twelve lessons: Designing, cutting, and making wool dresses. Third course, twelve lessons: Study of general principles; drafting and making shirtwaist; drafting and making walking skirt. Fourth course, twelve lessons: Drafting and making jacket; drafting child's dress. Fifth course, twelve lessons: Drafting and making muslin gown. Special attention is given to study of color, form, line, and appropriateness of design throughout the course. MILLINERY. First course, twelve lessons: Renovating material, velvet, ribbon, feathers; wiring, making and placing folds; fitting facing; lining hat; bow and simple rosette mak- ing; making and trimming practice hat of canton flannel; making and trimming velvet hat. 9257—02 8 114 EEPOBT OF THE COMMISSIOTSTEB OF LABOB. Second course, twelve lessons: Draping; making and trimming toque or turban; binding edge of hat; making bandeau; drafting and rriaking frames of buckram j making and trimming bonnet; study of children's hats. Third course, six lessons: Shirred facing; fancy rosettes; use of lace, silk, and flowers; making straw hat and trimming same; trimming summer hats. DBA WING. This course is offered to assist the pupils in illustrating the lessons in educational sewing, also in making rapid sketches of gowns and hats. Lectures are given on color, form, and line to awaken the pupil's interest for the beautiful in dressmaking and millinery. In the school for doniestics there are 3 instructors, all graduates of the school of domestic science, and 1 a college graduate. There is 1 instructor in dressmaking and 1 in milliner}". During the school year 1899-1900 there were 20 pupils in the school for domestics, 12 in the dressmaking class, and 10 in the class in millinery. Up to the end of the school year.there had been 1,100 graduates from the school of domestics, 150 from the class in dress- making, and 120 from the millinez'y class. The approximate annual cost of maintaining the school for domes- tics is §2,000, of the dressmaking course $300, and of the millinery course $225. The funds are obtained from contributions, legacies, annual subscriptions, personal gifts, and fees paid by certain classes. These ti'ade courses could be improved by better accommodations, more room, and more practical work. With these more pupils could be trained, as many applicants are now turned away. The courses could also be further extended so as to teach more of the higher branches of the trades. It is all a question of expense, and improve- ments are contemplated when more money is at hand. The demand for trained house servants is greater than the supply, and as the trained servant receives wages about one-third larger than the untrained the school for domestics in its results ha acted as a stimulus to the untrained. The benefits of this school have been felt qufto generally throughout the whole countrj^, as the graduates are located in very many localities, and the school, being the first of the kind established in the United States, has by its example and success resulted in the establishment of other similar schools. The courses in dressmaking and millinery have benefited those trades in Boston and vicinity, not only because they have sent out a number of competent workwomen, but because many of the graduates have become teachers of these trades at night classes maintained by churches, etc. These courses have resulted in setting the standard of work in the shops higher than it formerly was, and the example of the graduates has stimulated those trained only in the shops to do better work. The general intelligence and efficiency of the employees in dress- making and millinery establishments has undoubtedly been increased as a result of the training in this and similar schools. TKADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION— UNITED STATES. 115 Higher wages, .steadier employment, and more rapid promotion have accrued to those who have been under instruction in these courses, and, generally speaking, their moral condition has been improved as a result of the Christian training which forms part of the courses. The school for the training of domestics has revolutionized the domestic problem in this locality and has stimulated a healthful rivalry in other organizations. Sliilled labor is always preferable to unskilled, and the knowledge of the graduates from these courses is more practical than that of the nongraduate. For these reasons graduates are much preferred by employers, but many do not employ the domestic servants trained here from inability to afford it, as they invariablj^ command higher wages than the ordinary servant. Those trained in the courses of dressmaking and millinery can always obtain employment without passing through a period of apprenticeship. In a general way these courses of instruction have proved satisfac- tory, though much remains to be done before perfection is reached. WOMEX'S EDUCATIONAL AND INDUSTRIAL UNION SCHOOL, BOSTON, MASS. This school comprises courses designed to teach the trades of dress- making and millinery and in addition a course for houseworkers. These courses are comprehensive and systematic and impress upon the pupil the value of order, accuracy, and economy. Instruction in dressmaking and millinery is given by means of lec- tures, practical work, and examinations. Pupils furnish their own materials and make articles for their own use. Three terms of 24 lessons each are necessary to complete a full course in dressmaking and in millinery. A work test is requii'ed to join the dressmaking class. Dressmaking and millinery classes meet twice a week; sessions two houi'S each. Millinery: Instruction is first given in the making and trimming of all varieties of hats, followed by methods of making bonnets, toques, and turbans. Special atten- tion is given to making tasteful and stylish ribbon bows, and feather curling is taught in this course. Advice is given upon the suitability of materials, combi- nations of colors, and character of lines and forms. Day classes meet at 10 a. m. and 2 p. m., and a fee of |10 is charged for a term of 24: lessons; evening classes meet at 7.30, and a fee of |5 is charged for a term of 24 lessons. Dressmaking: Preparatory course — This course includes buttonhole making, machine sewing, and the drafting, cutting, fitting, and making of undergarments and dresses of wash mateirial. A day class only is formed in this course, and a fee of |5 for 24 lessons is charged. Regular oonrse — In this course the pupil is taught the making, drafting, and fitting of different styles of skirts and waists. Pupils are shown a variety of mate- rials and are instructed in regard to the texture, color, and suitability of each for 116 REPOKT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. • various uses. In the third term the plain, thorough work of tailor-made suits receives special attention. Day classes meet at 10 a. m., and the fee for each term of 24 lessons is $10; evening classes meet at 7.30, and a fee of $5 is charged for each term of 24 lessons. A special normal class in dressmaking and millinery is formed for women wishing to fit themselves as professional workers or for teach- ers of dressmaking or millinery. There is a small but growing demand from clubs and schools for trained teachers in these branches. It is thought that a six months' course will prove an adequate preparation for this work. There are. 2 teachers for these classes, 1 for dressmaking and 1 for millinery, and both are graduates of the Pratt Institute. During the year 1899-1900 there were 23 pupils in the dressmaking classes and 18 in the classes in millinery. In the course for houseworkers — that is, for the training of domestic servants — the aim is a scientific study of the home, to discard what is useless, to save what is of permanent good, and to bring it into line with present industrial tendencies and scientific facts, social and phys- ical. This full course is not designed to train wage-earners, but house- keepers — the wife and the mother — not to the end that the homes of any one class may be bettered, but that the standard of living and life may be raised in all homes. The course for houseworkers is designed to fit j'oung women for the various branches of housework — to teach them the occupation of house servants. The first reason for the establishment of this course was the lack of trained servants and the belief that housework is a trade, and that the woman on whom the care of a household falls, whether she be employer or emplo3'ee, should have a special training for her work. The union learned, as one of the results of conducting an employment bureau, that while there was an oversupply of those who sought employment, yet the demand for trained servants was much greater than the supply. Another reason which led to the establishment of this course was to provide an occupation and employment for the many girls who were trjdng without success for places in factories and shops. In order to get a good class of girls into this course it has been found that much prejudice among them has to be overcome. In going into service they seem to lose caste among their associates. They look upon it as a varietjf of slavery and not as a trade, and they dread the unregu- lated hours. The trouble with domestic service to-day is not alone the poor training of the servants, but of the housekeepers also, who often have too little knowledge of housekeeping itself to realize fully the size and burden of the task they put upon their servants. They are also very often too regardless of the rights of the serving class. The ideal system is the {raining of both the housekeeper and the house servant, which, if de\'eloped and extended throughout the country, would go far to help in this matter. TRADE. AND TECHNICAL EDUCATIOIir UNITED STATES. 117 The full course for houseworkers is made up of courses in cooking, in parlor work, and in chamber work. Detailed courses are as follows: Cooking: Care of fire; care of sinks and traps; care of kitchen, pantry, cellar, and ice chest; preparation of cereals; making bread, biscuit, and muffins; making plain soups; roasting, boiling, braising, and broiling meats; cooking eggs, fish, and oysters; cooking vegetables, fresh and canned; making tea, coffee, chocolate, and cocoa; making plain desserts. Chamber work : Care of bedrooms, beds, and bedding; sweeping and dusting; care of toilet and bathrooms; plain washing and ironing; care of bed linen. Parlor woi'k: Care of dining room; care of silver, glass, and china; arrangement of table and service; care of parlor and halls; answering doorbell properly, etc.; plain washing and ironing; care of table linen. The course in cooking covers a period of thirty-six weeks and the courses in parlor or chamber work a period of eighteen weeks each. Upon the satisfactory completion of her course the pupil is given a certificate. She is then placed with an employer to serve a probation of three months before receiving her diploma. The certificate does not imply the fitness of the pupil to work outside the school under difi'er- ent conditions and does not alone entitle the pupil to expect higher wages than $3.25 per week. Diplomas are given to pupils who have satisfactorily served their term of probation and have passed an examination in practical house- work and also in the underlying principles of hygiene, in which instruc- tion is given during the course. A diploma insures a position that is obtained through the office of the Domestic Reform League. The grade of the diploma determines the wage'which the pupil may expect to receive on graduation, as follows: WAGES USUALLY RECEIVED BY GEADUATES IN COURSE FOR HOUSEWORKERS. Grade. Weekly rate of wages. Parlor or chamber maids. Coots. A $4.00 3.75 3.60 3.25 S5. 00 B 4.50 c 4.00 D S.50 To those taking this course no charge is made for room, board, and tuition, but in exchange for these the pupil gives her service to the school during the whole course. There are 2 instructors in the course for houseworkers, 1 of whom is a graduate of Chicago University and 1 a graduate of Pratt Insti- tute. During the year 1899-1900, 10 pupils were taking this course of instruction. The records of the students in these classes are imperfect, and in consequence the number of graduates in dressmaking, millinery, and houseworking can not be stated accurately. . 118 KEPOBT OF THE COMMISSIONEE OF LABOB. The annual cost of maintaining these courses is approximately $3,000 for the course for houseworkers and $1,600 for the courses of dress- making and millinery. This is exclusive of rent of buildings, which can not be stated. The funds used in maintaining the courses of dress- making and millinery come from fees paid by the pupils, but those used in maintaining the course for housekeepers come partly from a list of sustaining subscribers, partly from gifts by the public in response to appeals of the union, and partly from two scholarships. It is stated that the courses of dressmaking and millinery are thorough and effective and that it is not likely that they will or can be much improved in the future. The course for houseworkers might be improved, though the outlook for it is not good. A good training is given at present, but the attendance is small, as the course does not seem to be attractive. Some connection with the public schools seems necessary, so that the girls may be obtained before they are caught by the factory or shop. As a result of the establishment of these courses the standard of work in dressmaking and millinery has been raised in this locality and a nucleus of trained and competent domestic servants has been formed from which it is believed good results will come in time. The schools for teaching housework existing in this locality have aroused quite generally the interest of the housekeepers and caused many of them to make greater efforts not only to train servants, but to make the life passed in domestic service more agreeable. Even at the start, the girls trained in these courses get better wages than others. The girls are taught that they should not come into the school with the sole idea of being able to make more mone}'', biit with the purpose only of perfecting themselves in their trade. It is natural, however, that they should want all thej' can get, and their attainments are such that those who can afford it are willing to pay them more than others not so well trained. The result of this is that, instead of relieving the troubles arising from poor domestic serv- ice among those who feel them the most, the courses for domestics seem to be training servants for the wealthy- onljr. The graduates are greatly preferred by employers to those whose training was obtained in homes or shops only because of the higher character of their training. The dressmaking and millinery courses have proved eminently satisfactory and have already well attained the end for which established, but this is not as yet true of the course for houseworkers. PEOPLE'S INSTITUTE, BOSTON, MASS. This school was founded by the Robert Treat Paine Association and opened to the working people of Eoxbury October 2, 1890. Its objects, in the words of its constitution, are " to furnish working people the TBADE AND TECHNICAL EDlJCATION UNITED STATES. 119 means of mental and moral improvement, mutual helpfuloess, and rational recreation." With the above end in view the institute has established club rooms, shower baths, bowling alleys, rooms for the playing of games, evening classes and lectures for the teaching more or less thoroughly of certain occupations, etc. , and also has provided for entertainments of various kinds and maintains a trade-discount plan by which the members are enabled to obtain certain discounts from regular prices upon their purchases of groceries, etc., upon dealing with certain selected establishments. From the standpoint of the evening classes this may be considered an industrial school. Certain occupations are quite thoroughly taught and seem to be within the scope of this report. They are as follows: Dressmaking, millinery, embroidery, and drawing and design. Dur- ing the year ending April 1, 1900, the number of pupils in dressmak- ing was 40, in millinery 46, and in em^broidery 50. No class in draw- ing and design was then in existence. In these industrial classes there are 9 instructors. The manage- ment of the classes is in the hands of the officers of the Eobert Treat Paine Association and the superintendent of the institute. The annual cost of maintaining these classes approximates $1,000, and the funds are obtained from the association and from membership fees, which are only $1 per year per individual. This fee entitles the member to any or all the privileges of the institute. These courses of instruction could be improved if there was more money to spend on them, but they are fairly complete as it is. They turn out many girls and women competent to work at dressmaking, millinery, etc., and certainly increase the ability and intelligence of their members. They are not fully satisfactory, as they do not go far enough, but good work has been done by them. YOUUa WOMEN'S CHRISTIAlSr' ASSOCIATION SCHOOL, NEW YOKE, N. Y. The Young Women's Christian Association of New York City was founded February 10, 1870. The object of the association, as stated in its charter, is *' to promote the temporal, social, mental, moral, and reli- gious welfare of young women, particularly those dependent upon their own exertions for support." Among the various methods and ideas which have been introduced into the work of the association, all of which have served a good purpose, none have proved so fruitful or satisfactory as the courses in industrial and trade work. During the earlier part of its career the educational work of the association was largely confined to the commercial branches, and very little interest was manifested in industrial education until the fall of 1886. Since that time, however, the industrial branches have continued to grow in 120 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. importance until now they overshadow all the other branches com- bined. In addition to the regular class work, the association conducts an employment bureau, and needlework and order departments. Many of the graduates have procured positions through the agency of the bureau. The needlework department has fitted up a large sales- room, which is stocked with all kinds of embroidery, lace and drawn work, fancy articles, and accessories for infants' and children's use. All articles are the work of self-supporting women, and all sales are for the benefit of the consignors. In the order department ladies' wrappers, shirt waists, and underwear, and misses' and children's dresses and cloaks are made to order at reasonable prices. The value of the articles disposed of in this department in the past year amounted to $13,000. All pupils must be members of the association. The classes are open only to women studying for self-support. Pupils are admitted to the sewing and cooking classes at the age of 15. In the class for trained attendants no pupil is admitted under 20 or over 40 years of age, except by special agreement. In the other classes applicants must be between the ages of 18 and 36, and not connected witn other schools. Satisfactory references are invariably required. The charges for tuition are as follows: Hand and machine sewing, $2 to ?•!; dressmaking, §5 to $12; millinery, $5 to fY; feather curling, $2-50; embroidery, $7 to $9; cooking, ^3 to $5; free hand and mechan- ical drawing, $16 ; instrumental drawing, $16 ; drawing in water colors, designing, etc., $9 each; course for trained attendants, $10. The school year opens October 1 and continues until the 1st of June. Day and evening sessions are held. The curriculum includes thorough instruction in every detail of hand and machine sewing, dressmaking, millinery, art embroidery, feather curling, cooking, invalid cooking, and a course for trained attendants. The industrial- art course includes mechanical, free hand, cast, and life drawing, pen and ink work, craj^on and water color, clay modeling, wood carving, design, etc. The course for trained attendants is specially designed to qualify the pupils to serve as attendants in the care of convalescents, feeble or elderlj^ persons, and subacute and chronic cases. This occupation, which is somewhat akin to that of a trained nurse, should not be con- founded with the latter, as the course of study for a trained nurse covers a period of at least two years, while the course for a trained attendant lasts only eight weeks. The school is under the management of a committee on education, which is appointed by the association. There are 13 instructors, all of whom have had .practical training in their respective branches. There have been about 5,000 graduates. The number of pupils in the diiierent classes during the past year was as follows: TEADE AKD TECHKICAL EDUCATION — UNITED STATES. 121 ATTENDANCE IN CLASSES OF THE YOUNG WOMEN'S CHRISTIAN ASSOClATIOis SCHOOL NEW YORK CITY'. Classes. Hand and machine sewing. Dressmaking- Art embroidery Feather curling Cooking Invalid cooking Trained attendants Industrial art Millinery Total Pupils Day. 291 208 16 38 84 88 116 63 207 Evening. Total, 6 112 16 44 196 88 116 81 267 1,495 The space devoted to school work takes up the greater portion of the association building, which is a five-story brownstone structure and, together with the equipment, is valued at $600,000. The funds for erecting and equipping the building were provided by donations and contributions from members of the association and prominent citizens. Several classes are self-supporting, and a large percentage of the cost of maintenance is derived from tuition fees. The balance is provided by the association. The entii'e cost of maintaining the association is about $60,000 per annum, of which amount more than one-half is chargeable to the courses covered by this report. It is stated that many important modifications have been made in the original curriculum, with the result that the present courses of training and study are entirely adequate. It is impossible to specify the numerous benefits which have accrued from the introduction of the industrial courses. Speaking generally, the industrial features of the association's work are designed, before anything else, to improve and elevate the individual. Besides the thorough training given in each branch the pupils are taught to be diligent, ambitious, and self-reliant, and it is thought that with these attainments they are well qualified to engage in their chosen occupations, and that the resulting benefits to the industries in which they engage and to the community at large are sure to be of' the very highest order. Ample evidence of the benefits derived by those who have been under instruction was found on every hand. Many young women whso could not command more than $5 or $6 per week in occupations usually restricted to their sex are now earning from |12 to |26 per week as the result of their training in the school. It is said that in almost every instance the graduates are able to enter upon practical work without serving a period of apprenticeship, and that they are preferred by employers over ordinary shop-trained help. The reason assigned is that besides being competent to do good work they are of a high moral character and are more reliable. The industrial courses have been a decided success and have more than achieved,their 122 EEPOBT OF THE COMMISSIOWEB OF LABOB. original purpose. To enable the woman who must be a breadwinner to Avin mare than a place and a pittance, and so become a wise, womanly toiler, respected and capable, has been the aim of the educa- tional department from the beginning. Thatthis has been accomplished is perhaps best illustrated by the continued approbation which comes from the business men and employers and thousands of self-support- ing women who have been l:)enefited by the work of the school. YOTJBTG WOMEN'S CHRISTIAN ASSOCIATION SCHOOL, BEOOKIiYN, N. Y. The Young Women's Christian Association of Brooklyn, N. Y., was organized February 23, 1888. Excepting that the curriculum is not quite so extensive, the object of this association is precisely the same as that of the Young Women's Christian Association in New York City. The classes are nonsectarian, but all pupils must be members of the association. Any young woman over 15 years of age, of good moral character, may become a member of the association by paying an annual fee of fl. In addition to this a small tuition fee is charged. The school year opens about the middle of September and closes the middle of June. Day and evening sessions are held. The courses of instruction include plain sewing, dressmaking, millinery, art embroidery, cooking, and a course for attendant nurses. This latter course is similar to the course for trained attendants reported in con- nection with the Young Women's Christian Association School in New York City. There is also a normal course in cooking and a course for juniors. The charges for tuition range as follows: Plain sewing, $1.50 to $3; dressmaking, $2.50 to §7.50; millinery, $2.50 to So. 50; millinery trade course, $30; art embroidery, |3 to $5; cooking, fl.50 to $1; course for attendant nurses, $3. The school is managed bj^ the educational committee of the assftcia- tion. There are 24 instructors, all of whom have had practical training in their respective branches. The number of pupils in the different classes during the past year was as follows : ATTENDANCE IN CLASSES OF THE YOUNG WOMEN'S CHEISTIAN ASSOCIATION SCHOOL, BROOKLYN, N. Y. Plain sewing Dressmaking Millinery Art embroidery. . . Cooking Attendant nurses. Total Classes. Pupils. Day. Evening. Total 200 400 220 20 96 936 325 125 200 15 150 22 837 525 525 420 35 246 22 1,773 TKADE AND TECHNICAL EDTTCATION — UNITED STATES. 123 The record of graduates is incomplete, but it is estimated that at least 1,500 pupils have completed the different courses. The classes occupy 15 large rooms in the association building. It is estimated that the value of the property devoted to school purposes will amount to $100,000. The funds for erecting and equipping- the building were provided by donations and contributions from prominent citizens and business men in the locality. The school is maintained partly by tui- tion fees and the balance is provided by the association. The cost of maintenance is about fl8,000 per annum. The present courses of training and studj'^ are considered satisfactory in every detail. It is stated that while the benefits resulting from the establishment of this school have been largely individual, nevertheless the dressmaking and millinery industries have derived considerable benefit from the fact that the school is constantly turning out a trained class of workers who engage in those industries. In the opinion of the officials, the school has accomplished a great deal of good in othejxjj directions also. It has helped to increase the intelligence and efficiency of the working women generally, and has alwaj^s taken a prominent part in everything that tended to promote industrial, educational, social, and moral development in the community. The school is constantly receiving evidence of the benefits accniing to those who have been under insti'uction. While it can not be said that the graduates are preferred over shop-trained help, still in every case heard from thus far they encounter no difficulty in engaging in practical work after leaving the school, and they are reported to be proficient and reliable and are well liked by their employers, The school has attained the object for which it was established, its main purpose always being to dignif j^ labor and to give deserving young women a chance to learn to do something that they can always rely upon for a livelihood. YOUNG WOMEN'S CHRISTIAN ASSOCIATION SCHOOL, HAELEM, N. Y. The Harlem Young Women's Christian Association in New York City conducts a course in industrial training which is designed to meet the wants of .young women who wish to learn a wage-earning occupa- tion. From the time when the association was organized up to 1895 the interest in trade education did not amount to much. In the latter year, however, on account of the more frequent opportunities offered to those who had acquired a trade training, the value and importance of this kind of instruction became more manifest, and in consequence the interest in the several classes has been increasing every year since. The classes are nonsectarian, but all pupils must be members of the association. Any young woman of good moral character maj^ become a member by paying an annual fee of f 1. The school j-ear opens in September and closes in June. Day and evening sessions are held. 124 EEPOET OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOE. The courses of instruction include plain sewing, dressmaking, millinery, embroidery and lace making, and feather curling. The charges for tuition are as follows: Plain sewing, |2 per month; dressmaking and millinery, $2.60 to $3 per month; embroidery, |2.50 per mouth; feather curling, $4: for a full course. In all courses except feather curling a reduction of from $1 to ^2 is made when the full course is paid for in advance. The school is managed by the educational committee of the associa- tion. There are 4 instructors, all of whom have had practical train- ing in their respective branches. The number of pupils in each class during the past year was as follows: Plain sewing, 39; dressmaking, 97; millinery, 60; embroidery and lace making, 8; feather curling, 8. Six hundred pupils have completed the trade courses. The classes occupj- 4 large rooms in the association building, which cost $80,000, and their share of the annual expenses is about f8,000. The school is jnaintained partly by tuition fees and partly by the association. It is ..'tartecl that the courses of study are quite satisfactory, but at the pres- ent time the school is greatly in need of more space. If this could be had, a larger number of pupils could be accommodated and the scope of the v/ork would be extended so as to embrace other branches which would be congenial to women wage-earners. Owing to lack of funds the prospect for acquiring more adequate accommodations is uncer- tain. While the officials feel that the school has accomplished a great deal of good in many directions, still the work has not been extensive enough to permit of tracing such benefits as may have accrued to any particular industry or to the community at large. It is stated that the effect upon those who have been under instruction has been extremely gratifying both to the association and the pupils. They are preferred over shop-trained help because they are competent and reli- able, and, furthermore, are not required to undergo a period of appren- ticeship before engaging in practical work. The school has proved very satisfactory thus far, but it has not yet fully attained the end for which it was established. The association desires to extend the curriculum so as to include every branch of work that women can adopt for a livelihood. When this has been accom- plished, the ultimate object will have been achieved. V/OMEIST'S TRAININGr SCHOOL, ST. liOXIIS, MO. This school was established in 1883 as a branch of the Young Women's Christian Association. Its object is to aid deserving girls and women by instructing them in stenography, sewing, dressmaking, millinery, cooking, general housework, and such other subjects as may assist them to earn a living. While the prime object of the school is to instruct women that they may maintain themselves, still classes in cooking, dressmaking, plain TKADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION UNITED STATES. 125 sewing, millinery, household management, and laundry work are arranged to accommodate any persons who may wish instruction and charges are made to suit the financial condition of the pupil. The rules and regulations of the school are such as to make it pos- sible for every woman who really wishes instruction to receive it and no person is refused admittance because of lack of money. The school is under the direction of a board of managers. There are 6 teachers, each of whom is a graduate. During the year 1899 85 pupils received instruction in cooking, 19 in laundry work, 19 in household management, 86 in plain sewing, 47 in dressmaking, 48 in stenography, 48 in typewriting, 8 in millinery, and 10 in bookkeeping. In addition to this, teachers were sent to sister institutions where only one lesson per week was desired, and there instructed 67 in cooking, 75 in plain sewing, and 10 in dressmaking, thus giving a grand total of 522 for the one year. The rental of the building is llOO per month, cost of equipment ^1,500, and cost of maintaining and operating, approximately f5,pO0»' These funds are raised by excursions, sale of lunches, tuition fees, entertainments, board, contributions, etc. For the past thirteen years from 200 to 400 women have lunclied daily at noon at an average cost of 10^ cents per lunch, 100 to 250 women and girls have been boarded and lodged, hundreds cared for temporarilj', employment found for other hundreds, and in eighteen years 4,500 have received instruction in the various departments. > The graduates are not only preferred, but they are paid better wages. The school has greatly improved and advanced in usefulness from the beginning, and the management hopes, at no distant day, to see the school have a building of its own suited to its needs and com- mensurate with its influence and usefulness. AKMOUa INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGT, CHICAGO, ILL. The department of domestic arts and science was organized at the opening of the institute in 1893. The increasing interest in social questions indicated that the time was ripe for instruction in the sub- jects allied to domestic economy. The aim of this department is not merety to impart the technical skill and knowledge so desirable to those who guide the home, but to train women to a broad, scientific view of the whole range of subjects allied to the proper management of the home. There is a demand for teachers in this line, and special opportunities are now oflfered to those who desire to become teachers. There are special and technical courses in plain sewing which prepare students to enter the courses in dressmaking. The regular course in dressmaking is arranged to give the piipils a practical knowledge of cutting and fitting for home use. The course in tech- nical dressmaking is for those who wish to become dressmakers and 126 EEPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OP LABOR. can devote their whole time to this study. Applicants must be over 18 years of age and must pass a preliminary examination in hand and machine sewimg. No applicant is received for less than one year. The course of study embraces drafting; study of the human form as applied to dress; making skirt and waist of plain material; cutting, fitting, and stitching waist of plaid or striped material; making fancy waists; renovating materials, ribbons, and laces; making over dresses; tailor buttonholes; bow making; princess dress; children's dresses; evening waist; making tailor-finished dress; the art of designing new styles, and of combining colors; summer toilets. The full course covers three terms, and the charges are $30 per term. Besides special courses in cookery, designed for housekeepers and rnirses, a special class has been formed in cookerj' for those who desire to become cooks in private families. No others are admitted. The course includes twelve lessons and is completed in one term of three months. Each lesson is of two and one-half hours duration. No re- quirements for admission are necessary and no examinations are held. ■^^fee- work embraces plain and fancy cooking adapted to the needs of cooks. The work is repeated each term. The charge is $6 for the term. Thirteen instructors are employee^ in this department. Many of the students from this school hold good positions at good Avages. They are preferred by employers because thejr understand better the reasons for doing things. The work of the school has been very popular and highly satisfactorJ^ The management has good reason to be pleased with the work done. The effort is being made to meet the practical needs of society. The other courses of instruction in the school are not within the scope of this report. HEBREW TRADE SCHOOL, PHILADELPHIA, PA. The Hebrew Trade School in Philadelphia was established by the Hebrew Education Society in 1883. The following statement regard- ing the purpose and work of this school was furnished by the secre- tary of the organization: The need for a school of this kind arose from the fact that there was a large and constantly increasing number of young men and women of Hebrew descent in the city who were unfitted to obtain remunerative employment. The purpose of the school is to give the pupils such a knowledge and training in the trades taught as will enable them to take up and follow some occupa- tion for a livelihood. The school is open to both Jew and Grentile and the instruction is free to all. New pupils are admitted whenever there is any vacancy in the classes. Prizes to the amount of $400 are awarded annually to the pupils showing the highest degree of proficiency. The courses of instruction include dressmaking, miUlnery, garment TBADE AN"D TECHNICAL EDUCATION — UNITED STATES. 127 cutting, and cigar making. In- addition there are iunior classes in plain sewing, carpentry, and free-hand drawing, and elasees in elemen- ■tary arithmetic and English. The school is open for instruction four nights each week during the entire year from 7 to 9 p. m. The period of instruction is indefinite. All pupils are first iastructed in the use of tools and materials and advanced from one stage to another until thej' are proficient and able to obtain employ- ment in the trade they have learned. It usually requires about one year to reach this point. In dressmaking the pupils are taught to draft the patterns before taking up cutting and making; the millinery class first learn to make the hat frames before taking up bodj^ making and trimming; in garment cutting the preliminary work of measuring the cloth and laying out patterns for various garments is followed by the cutting, using heavy paper at first and in the latter stages cloth, and in cigar making the work of stripping, bunching, and rolling is taught in regular order. The school is under the general management of the Hebrew Educa- tion Society of Philadelphia. There are 4 instruetorb in the trade work, all of whom are experts in the parts they teach and are actively engaged in the trades. The pupils are coming and going all the time, and therefore there are no fixed grades. The number of pupils in the several classes in April, 1901, was as follows: Dressmaking, 20; mil- linery, 15"; garment cutting, 20; cigar making, 30. About 600 pupils have completed the different courses. The trade classes occupy five rooms, which have an aggregate floor space of 3,600 square feet. The school building was erected and equipped in 1883, at a cost of $52,000, the funds for the purpose being provided by subscriptions from members of the society. The value of the part devoted to the trade school is estimated to be |17,000. The revenue of the school is derived from an endowment fund, legacies, and subscription.? from members of the society. The cost of maintenance for the trade school is about $3,000 per annum. The present courses of training and study are satisfactory, though other trades will be added to the curriculum when the revenue of the society will permit. The school, being located in a densely populated section of the city, has been a great benefit to a large class of young people whose spare time might otherwise be wasted. It affords a place for young men and women to spend their evenings in learning to do something that will enable them to earn a respectable living. It keeps them from the streets, and they have less time to spend in harmful or useless recreation. There can be no question but that the school has increased the iatelligenee of its pupils, and that it has helped to pro- mote the industrial, educational, and social development of the com- munity. During the early history of the school it was opposed by local labor unions on the ground that it turned out a cheap class of 128 EEPOET OW THE COMMISSIONEK OF LABOR. workmen, who interfered with the opportunities of the Experience shows, however, that the opposition was not well founded, for in the particular trade which claimed to be affected there were not enough graduates or pupils to have any influence whatever upon the wages or work of the regular workmen. The effect upon those who have been under instruction has been beneficial in every respect. The training they have received has made it possible for them to enter the trades and earn good wages, and many of them are now holding good positions. In some trades it is possible for graduates to engage in practical work without serving an appren- ticeship. In others they start in as helpers. The school has proved satisfactory and has practically attained the end for which it was established. S. T. TAYIiOB DRESS-CUTTING AUD DRESSMAKING SCHOOL, NEW YORK, N. Y. This school was originally established in New York City in 1848. Like many of the dressmaking schools which are to be found in dif- igrent parts of the country, the primary purpose here was to give instruction in drafting and cutting women's apparel according to a special system originated by the founder of the school. Owing to constant demands for instruction in other branches, a course in dress- making was added to accommodate those who were desirous of taking up the trade for a livelihood. The school is open the year round, and pupils are admitted at any time. Three weeks is the average time required to learn the drafting and cutting system, though the pupils are at liberty to take as many lessons as they desire up to the period of six months, which is the limit of instruction in this course. The course in dressmaking con- tains 15 lessons of two hours each and must be completed within four weeks from the time of commencement. Both courses are said to be complete in every detail. All pupils receive individual instruction and everj- precaution is taken to assure practical results. There are 5 instructors, whose training was obtained in practical work. Six hundred pupils received instruction during the past year, and since the school was opened there have been about 8,000 graduates. The equipment is valued at ^1,000. The school is maintained by tuition fees, and the cost of maintenance is $7,500 per annum. It is stated that the dressmaking industry has derived considerable benefit from the establishment of this school, and that the instruction received by the pupils has been most valuable to them. It has increased their efficiency and enabled them to obtain steadier employment and higher wages. Those Avho take up the trade as wage-earners have no trouble in obtaining good positions. They are preferred over ordinary shop-trained dressmakers, because, having had the advantage of a sys- tematic course of training, they are better qualified for doing all kinds of work. TBADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION — UNITED STATES. 129 M'DOWELL DKESS-CXTTTING, DRESSMAKING, AITO MILLINERY SCHOOLS. The McDowell schools, which are to be found in a number of the larger cities, were originally established for the purpose of giring instruction in drafting, cutting, and fitting women's garments. The success met with in this direction finally led to the introduction of courses in dressmaking, and in a few of the schools a course in milli- nery was also added. The schools in !New York City, Chicago, and Philadelphia being under the same general management, the rules, methods, 'and courses of instruction are practicallj^ the same. The schools in ISTew York City and Chicago were established in 1891, and the school in Philadelphia in 1896. All the schools are open the entire year and pupils can enter at any time. The hours for instruction are from 9 a. m. to 5 p. m. Evening sessions are also held three evenings each week from 7 to 9.30 p. m. Individual instruction in all parts of the work is given either in Ger- man, French, or English. No limit is placed upon the time for com- pleting the courses. Once a person becomes a pupil she has the privilege at any time of returning for instruction upon new styles. The courses are arranged to meet the requirements of those who have already learned one or more branches of the trades, but who desire further instruction upon certain points, as well as those who have no knowledge of either trade. It is stated that the necessary time for acquiring a thorough knowledge of cutting and fitting by the system employed is about ten days. In the dressmaking department dressmakers stay from one to three weeks, according to the informa- tion they desire, while the young women who take up the work as beginners generally spend about two months in completing the course. The full course in cutting, fitting, and dressmaking for beginners usually requires about three months. The schools are under the general management of the founder. All the instructors have had years of practical experience in ladies' tailoring, dressmaking, and millinery. The number of instructors in the New York City school is 8, in the Chicago school 6, in the Philadelphia school 4. The average number of pupils in the different classes during the past year was as follows: ATTENDANCE IN MCDOWELL DRESS-CUTTING, DKESS-MAKING, AND MILLINERY SCHOOLS. School. Cutting and fit- ting. Cutting fitting, and dress- making. Milli- nery. New York City Chicago Philadelphia.. Total.... 300 200 150 150 100 75 325 200 150 100 650 450 325 1,425 9257—02- 130 EEPOET OF THE COMMISSIONEB OF LABOE. The New York school has had -1,500 graduates, the Chicago school 3,000, and the Philadelphia school 1,000. The value of the equipment in each school is as follows: New York Cit}^ $2,000, Chicago $1,000, Philadelphia $1,000. The schools are maintained by tuition fees. The cost of maintenance during the past year was as follows: New York City $8,500, Chicago $6,000, Philadelphia $1,000. It is stated that in addition to the benefits accruing to experienced dressmakers who have received special instruction in cutting and fit- ting these schools have turned out large numbers of practical and well-trained j'oung women, whose services and talents have been employed with great advantage to the dressmaking and milHnerj^ indus- tries of the country. The effect upon those who have been under instruction is said to have been beneficial in every respect. A majority of the young women who enter the school have no knowledge what- ever of practical work. After completing the course of instruction they are fitted to engage in the ordinary work of the trades and have little difiiculty in procuring good positions. In most cases their better general preparation for all-round work gives them preference over shop-trained help. It is claimed that little attention is given to sys- tematic training in the average dressmaking or millinery establish- ment, and that this fact is attested by the number of young women who have been employed in those establishments, but who come to the school for thorough instruction in all branches of the trades. MITCHELL SCHOOL OF GAR.MENT CUTTING, NEW YOEK, N. Y. The Mitchell School of Garment Cutting was established in New York City in 1S73. It is stated that when this school was opened the schools then in existence were not based upon such principles as were productive of the best results, either to the industry represented or to the graduates. The trade generally was in need of men who possessed the ability to cut and fit any and all kinds of garments. It was with the view of supplying this want that this school was established. The curriculum is arranged to meet the requirements of three classes of pupils: First, those already skilled in garment cutting, but who are desirous of learning a more modern and systematic method. Second, those who are not skilled in garment cutting, but who are merely sew- ing tailors. Third, those who are neither tailors nor cutters, but who wish to learn the trade of garment cutting. The school is open the year round and pupils are admitted at an}" time. The hours for instruction are from 10 a. m. to 1 p. m. The course of instruction includes two distinct systems for cutting men's garments, namelv, the short-measure or standard system, which requires 136 lessons, and the long-measure or Madison's system, which requires 181 lessons. In addition to these there is a complete modern TKADE AND TECHmCAL EDUCATIOK TJNITED STATES. 131 system for cutting women's tailor-made garments. Besides the indi- vidual instruction which is given, the technical points, measurements, etc., are fully explained by illustrated text-books which are specially designed and used for that purpose. The school is under the general management of the John J. Mitchell Company, publishers of fashion plates. There are 6 instructors, all of whom have been actively engaged in the various branches of tailor- ing and whose education and experience fits them for the work. One hundred pupils attended the school during the past year, and since it was first opened there have been upward of 3,000 graduates. The school occupies the entire floor space of a room that is 184 by 60 feet, and the equipment, which is valued at |5,000, is complete in every detail. It is maintained by tuition fees, and the cost of maintenance ia 115,000 per annum. The curriculum is revised from time to time to meet changed conditions in the trade. It is stated that by teaching the simplest, most modern, and improved methods in garment cutting the merchant tailors and the clothing industry generally have been greatly benefited. The school has turned out hundreds of well-trained and capable garment cutters and designers through whose artistic knowledge and application the manu- facture of clothing has been brought to a high degree of perfection. Strong evidence of this is attested by the graduates now in business for themselves, and also by the fact that a great number are filling high- salaried positions in leading establishments throughout the countr}-. It is said that the school has been recognized as valuable to the work- ingmen in the clothing industry, and has received the moral support of labor unions, many members of which have attended the school. The effect upon those who have been under instruction has been of the most beneficial character. Their sytematic training gives them an advantage and preference over the ordinary shop-trained workmen, and from the time of their graduation they engage in practical work without undergoing a period of apprenticeship. They have secured better and steadier employment, higher compensation, and their oppor- tunities for advancement are invariably assured. The school has proved satisfactory, and has far exceeded the anticipations of its founders. Besides the schools already described there are a number of others of more or less importance in which technical and trade instruction of this class is given. The majority of these schools are located in New York City, and in many instances the work of instruction is conducted by one person, usually the proprietor of the school, who has originated some special system by which instruction is given to beginners in certain trades and technical principles are made clear to those already engaged in the same. As the instruction in these 132 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIOH^EK OF LABOR. schools relates to occupations and trades which have already been fully covered in representative schools, it is hardly necessary for the purpose of this report to go further into the subject than to mention some of the different schools of this class. They are as follows: American School of Garment Cutting; Koone's Garment Cutting School; Englemann's Garment Cutting and Designing School; Italian Garment Cutting Academy ; Hecklinger's Institute of Practical Gar- ment Cutting; Tailors' Review Garment Cutting School; Taylor's Dresscutting and Dressmaking School; Pascal Institute Dressmaking School; Pinsuti Garment Cutting School; CuUen's Millinery and Dressi*iking School; Vienna Dressmaking and Millinery Institute; Educational Alliance School, with courses in millinery, plain sewing, dressmaking, art needlework, and cooking; Clara de Hirsch School, with courses in cooking and general domestic work. All the fore- going schools are in New York City. Buffalo has a training school for nursery maids, and the Women's Educational and Industrial Union of that city conducts courses in millinery, plain sewing, dressmaking, cooking, and general domestic work. Outside of New York State may be mentioned the Chas. J. Stone Company Cutting School at Chicago, Mrs. Leisler's Dresscutting and DressmaMng School ,,gitCi*'*^^'^^*i> ^'^^ Cleveland Cutting School at T!leveland, and Keister's Ladies' Tailoring College and the St. Louis Millinery College at St. Louis. TEXTILE SCHOOLS. Textile schools in this country owe their beginning to the Philadel- phia Textile Association. The manufacturers of textiles were aware of the work of the foreign textile schools and became convinced that with such schools in this country competent designers and textile experts could be trained and that the highest grades of goods could be made here as well as in any foreign mill. As a result a textile depart- ment was added to the Pennsylvania Museum and School of Industrial Art in 1884. The school was successful from the start. It has gained the approval and generous support of the manufacturers of textiles and of textile machinery. The State and city have given it generous financial aid, the appropriation for the latest year being $17,500 from the former and |10,000 from the latter. Free scholarships are granted in return. Nothing more was done for textile education until 1895 (if we except the important work in design of the Lowell School of Practical Design in Boston, which was founded in 1872). In that year the textile inter- ests of Massachusetts secured the passage of an act authorizing the establishment of textile schools in cities with 450,000 spindles or over, and granting State aid to the extent of |25,000 in case the municipality appropriated an equal amount. This act was applicable to Lowell, Lawrence, Fall River, and New Bedford. The management was to be TRADE AND TECHNICAli EDUCATION — UNITED STATES. 133 in the hands of from 7 to 20 trustees, 2 of whom should be the mayor and the superintendent of schools and 2 were to be appointed }>y the governor. The first school created under the act was the Lowell Textile School, opened in J anuary, 1897. New Bedford followed with a school devoted especially to cottons, in October, 1899, and action was taken for a school in Fall River in 1900. This is now called the Bradford Durfee Textile School of Fall River. All these schools have received aid from the State, the amounts voted in 1901 being: For Lowell, |36,000 for a building, the amount to be duplicated from the city or other sources, and $18,000 for the year's expenses on condition that $7,000 be raised by the city or from other sources; for New Bedford, $18,000, on condi- tion that $7,000 be raised by the city or from other sources; for Fall River, $36,000 for a building, the amount to be duplicated from the city or other sources. A condition that has been made in all these schools is that regular day students who are nonresidents of the State must pay a yearly tuition of not less than $160. In the South several schools have introduced textile courses with encouraging results. These are Clemson College, South Carolina, in 1898; the North Carolina College of Agriculture and Mechanical Arts, in 1899, and the Mississippi Agricultural and. Mechanical Col- lege, in 1900. A description more in detail of some of the schools is given in the following pages. PHILADELPHIA TEXTILE SCHOOL AUD SCHOOL OF INDXTSTKIAL AST, PHILADELPHIA, PA. The Pennsylvania Museum and School of Industrial Art owes its origin to the increased interest in art and art education awakened by the Centennial Exhibition in Philadelphia in 1876. It was incorpo- rated February 26, 1876^ for the purpose, as stated in the charter, of establishing "for the State of Pennsylvania, in the city of Philadelphia, a museum of art in all its branches and technical applications, and with a special view to the development of the art industries of the State, to provide instruction in drawing, painting, modeling, designing, etc., through practical schools, special libraries, lectures, and otherwise." The purpose of the institution as thus defined is distinctly indus- trial. It was determined by the founders to make the collections for the museum as largely as possible illustrative of the application of art to indiistry, and the instruction in the school has constant reference to a similar purpose. Pending the incorporation of the institution, a fund of $25,000 was subscribed with which to make purchases at the exhibition. Around the nucleus thus formed the museum has grown, by purchase, gift, and bequest, to its present proportions, numbering in its collections upward of 10,000 objects. The major part of the collection of the products and manufactures of British India shown at the Centennial 134 EEPOET OF THE COMMISSIOKEE OF LABOE. Exhibition was presented to the museum by the British Government at the close of the exhibition. The school was opened during the winter of 1877-78, and up to 1884 the work of the classes was confined to general courses in drawing, painting, and modeling, with constant regard to the needs of the indus- tries, but without attempting to provide instruction in any particular occupation. The necessity of affording facilities for technical instruction became apparent very early in the history of the school. It was seen that only by familiarizing the students with the processes and industrial applications of design_^ could the proper direction be given to such purely artistic training as the school had to offer. Accordingly, in 1884, a school of applied design, a school of wood carving, and a school of textile design and manufacture under the name of the Philadelphia Textile School, were organized. In the meantime the scope of the institution has been considerably enlarged, and under the present organization schools are in active operation in applied art (drawing, applied design, wood work and carv- ing, decorative painting, illustration, decorative sculpture, and archi- tectural design), in normal instruction, in modern languages, and in textile design and manufacture. In the latter school instruction is gi'v'eii ia fiTbric structure and design, weaving, color harmony and figured design, chemistry and dyeing, wool carding and spinning, worsted drawing and spinning, cotton carding and spinning, and finish- ing. In addition to these there is a department of worsted yarn manufacture in process of development. The textile school represents the most important effort which has yet been made in America to organize the insti'uction in an art school with direct reference to its application to the actual needs of the tex- tile industry. The development and realization of this purpose were accomplished through the cooperation and support of members of the Philadelphia Textile Association. This association, formed in 1882, had kept prominent among the objects for which it was created the fostering of technical education. Its members represented the manu- facturing community of Philadelphia and vicinity. They were fully aware of the progress of technical schools for the textile arts in Ger- many, France, and England, and believed that the United States could not hope to maintain the best market for its products unless these products combined the highest sldll in manufacture and best taste in design. At that time no school of like character existed in this country, and it was necessary to begin at the foundation of the work, without previous knowledge of the exact methods to be adopted or the means to be employed to reach the desired end. In consideration of an annual appropriation to the school by the leg- islature of Pennsylvania each county in the State is entitled to at least one free scholarship in any department of the school for the full course TEADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION UNITED STATES. 135 of three years. Counties sending more than one senator to the legis- lature are entitled to as many scholarships as there are senatorial dis- tricts. These appointments are made by the governor of the State, usually on the recommendation of members of the State legislature. In addition to the above there are seventeen free scholarships, which are offered to pupils in the public schools of Philadelphia. The school year opens the latter part of September and closes the first week in June. Day and evening sessions are held. The hours of study for day classes are from 9 a. m. to 4 p. m., with one hour for lunch, every week day except Saturday. On Saturday there is a forenoon session in the textile school and a session for special pupils in the school of applied art. The evening classes in the textile school are in session from 7.30 to 9.30 o'clock three evenings in the week. The evening sessions in the school of applied art are arranged so as to cover six nights in the week. Applicants for admission are expected to have an ordinary grammar- school education, in addition to which a good knowledge of free-hand drawing is desirable for admission to the textile school, though this is not insisted upon. The work of each school is arranged so as to admit of sj)ecial courses of one or two years' duration. The regular courses require three years for completion. The tuition fees in the day school are $150 per j^ear of thirty-six weeks for all courses except the ingrain^carpet course^ u^lch is $75."" There are also additional laboratory charges of from f 8 to $5 per year. In the evening school the fees are $25 per j-ear for the course in general analysis and technical chemistry, and $16 for either one of the other courses. The institution is managed by a board of trustees and an associate com- mittee of women. A part of the trustees are elected by the members of the corporation, and a part appointed by the State legislature and bj- the city government. There are 36 instructors, a considerable number of whom have been trained in the school. The instructors are always chosen for their experience in practical work in connection with the industries for which the school is intended to be a preparation. The number of pupils during 1900-01 was as follows: ATTENDANCE IN TEXTILE SCHOOL AND SCHOOL OF APPLIED ART OF THE PENNSYL- VANIA MUSEUM, ] 900-01. Department. First year class. Second year class. Third year class. Total. DAY SCHOOL. Applied art 274 65 206 122 74 30 31 36 34 13 25 21 382 Textile design and manufacture 108 EVENING SCHOOL. 262 179 Total 667 171 93 931 136 BEPOKT OF THE COMMISSIONEK OF LABOE. In addition to the above there were 70 pupils in the classes in mod- ern languages. The total number of graduates to date (1901) is 1,257. The funds for erecting the buildings, which, together with the equip- ment, are estimated to be worth $1,200,000, were provided hj sub- scriptions, gifts, and bequests from public-spirited citizens, manufac- turers, and business men of Philadelphia and vicinity. A considerable portion of the equipment was purchased and donated outright by tex- tile manufacturers. The revenue of the school is derived from an annual appropriation of 117,500 by the State legislature, an annual appropriation of ^10,000 by the city of Philadelphia, income from endowments, and tuition fees. The cost of maintenance, including interest on mortgaged property, is about ^65,000 per annum. It is the policy of the management to keep the equipment up to date. Whenever it is seen that new apparatus will assist in the dem- onstration of a subject that apparatus is obtained, and when an impor- tant improvement is made in machinery it is adopted by the school. In this manner the institution has kept apace with the developments of the times, and has been able to maintain a modern and thorough system of instruction in every department. The aim has been not only to found a school equipped with the best apparatus possible, but to place that equipment in the hands of instruct- ors who are able to handle it and produce the best results. It has been a princip^ of the management that the strength of the school rested not upon apparatus alone, but that the man is superior to the equipment, and that, first and foremost, it is necessary to have teach- ers rather than machinery. As the most perfect work of the teacher is obtained through the assistance of the best machinery, it has been the aim of the school to supplement one with the other. The appreciation of the work of the school on the part of the manu- facturers is evidenced by their generous gifts of the splendid equipment of machinery with which it is supplied and which is claimed to be "the most complete set of apparatus possessed by anj^ school in the world." The annual report of the trustees states: It is pleasant to note the influence of these trained workers upon the products of the looms of our country. Everywhere there are evidences of the most conclusive character that there are no stronger minds at work to-day in the textile world than those that have received more or less of their education at our hands. New concerns have grown up, equipped and conducted by our own pupils; old ones have had their methods modified by the influences that have been brought to bear until they may be said to have renewed their youth under the influences which have passed from our school to their workshops. No State has been so largely benefited by the work in which we have engaged as our own. Several noteworthy enterprises recently estab- lished and conducted entirely by our pupils are distinct advances upon the lines that already existed in the manufacture of certain TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATIOK — LWITED STATES. 187 specialties. There are noted instances of this in the various textile lines — cotton, woolen, and silk all being included. The regard in which the school is held by the manufacturer is fur- ther attested by the following quotations from resolutions adopted by the National Association of Manufacturers and the New England Cot- ton Manufacturers' Association: The National Association of Manufacturers, having visited in a body the School of Industrial Art of the Pennsylvania Museum and inspected its various departments, desires to place on the minutes of the proceed- ings of this convention an expression on the part of the convention of gratiiication in finding so extensive and well-equipped a technical school, of the high character of its results as shov/n in the finished work of the students, and its indorsement of its plan, purpose, and scope. We recognize in this school a most powerful factor for pro- ducing from the ranks of our 5'outh earnest, industrious, and intelli- gent citizens, whose influence will be to strengthen the State. Bewlved, That the New England Cotton Manufacturers' Associa- tion has studied with the greatest interest the work of the Pennsyl- vania Museum and School of Industrial Art, including the Philadelphia Textile School, and desires to record in this waj' its high appreciation of the important service which this institution is rendering to the cause of American industrial development. We feel that among the agencies which it is the worthiest aim of such associations as ours to promote and support industrial education is of the first importance, and we warmly commend the spirit in which this magnificent school is conducted and the methods which characterige its teachiHg". Eesolved, That no better use can be made of public funds, of private munificence, or of the power that results from association than in the most liberal support of such institutions as the Pennsylvania Museum and School of Industrial Art. . Regarding the effect upon those who have been under instruction, it is said "the school has reached the operative class of the city and has been a great benefit to them. The night classes, which constitute a large part of the attendance, are composed almost entirely of work- ing men and women. To these, as well as many others, the school has been the means of opening useful and honorable careers. The benefits, however, have not been confined to graduates alone, for a large pro- portion of those who did not complete the full courses have been enabled to obtain better and higher positions because of the knowl- edge and training they received in the school. " The report of the president states: It is now no uncommon thing for our earlier graduates to make inquiries at the school for assistants that may be needed in the depart- ments in which they are engaged — this is a matter of almost everj^day occurrence. This of itself snows that the successful ones who have passed beyond the theoretical part of the work into the actual business of life fully understand the influence which our school has had upon them, and believe in its force and vitality, when called upon to sup- plement their own endeavors, by securing the help of other people. 138 BEPOBT OF THE COMMISSIONEK OF LABOB. Almost invariably these applications have been sent to the school for the purpose of obtaining our pupils to assist them in the development of their enterprises. It is also a common thing for advertisements to appear in our tech- nical papers asking for skilled help and stating that " graduates of the Philadelphia Textile School are preferred." This indicates the char- acter with which the name of our school is associated. The courses of instruction are as follows: SCHOOL OF APPLIED ART. Drawing from models, casts, draperies, still life, and the living model; lettering, geometrical drawing, with special reference to the laying out of ornament; projec- tions, with their application to machine construction and to cabinetwork and car- pentry; shadows, perspective, architectural drawing and design, painting in water colors, modeling and casting, historic ornament, decorative painting, use of tools in wood, metal, glass and leather work; illustration, original design for all classes of printed and woven fabrics, pottery, glass, metal work, etc. The instrumental draw- ing is taught by means of class lessons or lectures, and lectures are also given on anatomy and historical ornament, upon which examinations for certificates are based. TEXTILE SCHOOL. Regular course. First year: Weave formation; analysis and structure of fabrics; color harmony; free-hand drawing and principles of figured design; mechanical drawing; Jacquard design; warp preparation and weaving; chemistry; carding and spinning; miscella- neous lectures. Second year: "Weave formation; analysis and structure of fabrics; Jacquard sketching, design, and coloring; wool and worsted spinning; machine drawing; warp preparation and weaving; chemistry; dyeing; wool and worsted cloth finishing; miscellaneous lectures. Third year: Weave formation; analysis and structure of fabrics; Jacquard sketch- ing, design, and coloring; spinning wool, worsted, or cotton; warp preparation and weaving; chemistry; dyeing; worsted and woolen cloth finishing; miscellaneous lectures. Cotton course. First year: Weave formation; analysis and structure of fabrics; color harmony; free-hand drawing and principles of figured design; mechanical drawing; Jacquard design; carding and spinning; machine drawing; warp preparation and weaving; chemistry. Second year: Weave formation; analysis and structure of fabrics; warp prepara- tion and weaving; Jacquard sketching, design, and coloring; carding and spinning; dyeing. Wool and vjorsted course. First year: Weave formation; analysis and structure of fabrics; chemistry; color hai-mony; mechanical drawing; principles of the Jacquard machine; wool and worsted spinning; warp preparation and weaving. Second year: Weave formation; analysis and structure of fabrics; wool and worsted spinning; machine drawing; warp preparation and weaving; dyeing; woolen and worsted cloth finishing. TBADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION — UNITED STATES. 139 Silk course. First year: Weave formation; analysis and structure of fabrics;, color harmony- free-hand drawing and principles of figured design; mechanical drawing; Jacquard design; warp preparation and weaving; chemistry; miscellaneous lectures. Second year: Weave formation; analysis and structure of fabrics; Jacquard sketch- mg, design, and coloring; warp preparation and weaving; chemistry; dveing; mis- cellaneous lectures. Chemistry and dyeing course. The course in chemistry and dyeing covers a period of two years, and is calculated to fit the student to know when a dyeing plant la properly administered. Instruc- tion is given in a practical way and the student learns to know the dyeing powers and the commercial values of the various dyestuffs and chemicals used in dyeing establishments. His eye is trained in color matching, and the chemistry of the sub- ject is entered into thoroughly, so that the student may test and know the real values of prospective purchases of chemicals and dyestuffs. Ingrain-carpet course. In this course one year is devoted to ingrain designing, together with the study of the machine and the effects produced by it, card cutting, and weaving. Instruction is provided in French, German, Italian, and Spanish at hours which interfere very slightly with the work of the other classes. To students who have paid the full fee for the year no extra charge is made for this instruction. In the courses taught in the evening schools "the aim is to cover in a general way what is given in the day classes. The shortness of the time, however, renders it impossible to treat exhaustively any par- ticular branch, and it is expected that the instruction given in the classes will be supplemented by a considerable amount of home study. LOWELL TEXTILE SCHOOL, LOWELL, MASS. This school was incorporated "for the purpose of establishing and maintaining a textile school for instruction in the theory and practical art of textile and kindred branches of industry." The incorporators were representatives of the great textile corporations of Lowell, Law- rence, and vicinity, whose aggregate capital is over $65,000,000. By the terms of the by-laws at least three-fourths of the trustees must be "persons actually engaged in or connected with textile or kindred manufactures." This was to insure the practical character of the management and the instruction. The school was formally opened January 30, 1897, and instruction was begun February 1, 1897. The real need for such a school was to better the output of the mills in the Northern States. On the one hand, in cotton manufacturing, the mills of the Southern States could produce cheap grades of cloth at less cost than the Northern mills, and on the otfier hand the English mills could produce and sell m the United States the higher grades cheaper than it could be done by the 140 KEPOET OF THE COMMISSIONEK OF LABOE. Northern mills. The English and other foreign mills could also make the finest grades of woolen and worsted goods cheaper than they could be produced here. Consideration of these facts led the manufacturers of the North to believe that eventually they would have to abandon the manufacture of the cheaper grades of cotton goods and confine them- selves to making the better grades, and they also thought that they ought to be able to compete in the production of the finest grades of woolens and worsteds. In the manufacture of these materials, fine cotton and woolen and worsted goods, the competition of the foreign mills had to be overcome in order to attain success, and in order to do this it was necessar}^ to learn how to produce the higher grades of cottons and woolens and to do it at least as cheaply as the foreign mills. A prime essential for the accomplishment of this end seemed to be to raise up and train in this country a corps of men with the highest technical knowledge. This is the real purpose of the textile schools in Massachusetts; and while this school furnishes opportunity for the weaver, the spinner, the mechanic, etc., to learn his trade, yet the great object is to make a technical school where young men may be drilled in the science of the great industries and whose graduates will be the manufacturers, the engineers, and the inventors of the future. As an example of the increase in value which skill and science will give in the textile industries, it may be stated, as being approximately true, that a pound of raw cotton worth 10 cents will, when made into ordinary cloth, be worth 19 or 20 cents, into better cloth |1, and when made into the finest grade of mull, ornamental in design and color, it will be worth from ?8 to $12.^ There are 18 instructors in the school, whose duties and training are as follows: The principal and professor of mechanical engineering, a graduate of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, for two years an instructor m that institution, and for three j'ears superintendent of a cotton mill; a professor of textile design and fabric structure, a graduate of an English trade school, and a practical mill operator in America and England; a professor of chemistry and dyeing, a graduate of Lehigh University and of Brown University; a head instructor in warp preparation and weaving, a practical training in mills; a professor of decorative art, a training as an artist in the Paris ficole des Beaux Arts; a professor of mathematics and head instructor in woolen and worsted spinning, a graduate of the Massachusetts Institute of Tech- nology, and with a practical training in mills; a head instructor in cot- ton spinning, a college preparatory course and with a practical mill training; an instructor in mechanical engineering, a graduate of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and for some ysarg a'ttiill drafts- man; an instructor in chemistry, a graduate of the Worcester Poly- technic Institute; an instructor in woolen and worsted spinning and TBADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION UNITED STATES. 141 finishing, a graduate of the Lowell Textile School and with a practical mill training; an instructor in the hand-loom department, a graduate of the Lowell Textile School and with practical mill training; an instructor in chemistry , a graduate of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology; an instructor in designing; an instructor in cotton spin- ning; an assistant instructor in free-hand drawing, a graduate of the Lowell Textile School; an assistant instructor in chemistry; an assist- ant instructor in power weaving, and an instructor in charge of modern languages. In addition there are several lecturers on mill engineering, one a former army officer, a civil and mechanical engi- neer, and an expert on water damages of the Metropolitan Water Sys- tem of Massachusetts. The equipment of the school consists of high-grade machiner}', with all latest improvements, specially built to afford facilities for all kinds of experimental work, and of such variety as is never found in any one textile mill. With the machinery already installed, the school claims to have a more extensive equipment than any other existing textile school, either in America or Europe. It is as follows: The equipment of the cotton-spinning department includes one automatic feeder, one single-beater breaker, and one single-beater finisher, made by the Kitson Machine Company, Lowell, Mass. ; one top flat card and one revolving flat card, made by the Lowell Machine Shop, Lowell, Mass. ; card-grinding rolls, stripping rolls, etc. ; one silver lap machine and one comb, made by the Mason Machine Works, Taunton, Mass.; one railway head, one drawing frame, one slubber, one intermediate, one fine frame, one ring-spinning frame, one spinning mule, and -one spooler, made by the Lowell Machine Shop, Lowell, Mass. ; wet and dry twister, made by the Draper Company, Hopedale, Mass. ; one reel, made by the Whitin Machine Works, Whitins- ville, Mass.; one 50-saw gin; one Prior roller gin. The woolen-spinning department includes one Parkhurst burr picker, made by the Atlas Manufacturing Company, Newark, N. J; one mixing picker, made by the Davis & Furber Machine Company, North Andover, Mass. ; one set of three woolen cards, including: Pirst breaker, with Bramwell feeder; second breaker, and finisher, made by the Davis & Furber Machine Company, North Andover, Mass. ; one improved breaker feed and one Bramwell first-breaker feed, made by G. S. Harwood & Sons, Boston, Mass. ; one Torrance balling head and creel, made by the Toi-rance Manu- facturing Company, Harrison, N. J. ; Apperly feed, made by G. S. Harwood & Sons, Boston, Mass. ; one spinning mule, 120 spindles, and one twister, made by the Davis & Furber Machine Company, North Andover, Mass. ; one Roy grinding frame and one Roy transverse grinder, made by B. S. Roy, Worcester, Mass. The worsted-spinning department includes one 50-inch double worsted card (4 lickerin), made by the Davis & Furber Machine Company, North Andover, Mass.; one each of the following, made by Prince, Smith & Son, Keighley, England — revolving creel for 12 balls,- double-head can gill box, 2-spindIe gill box, 2-spindle drawing box, 2-spindle weigh box, 4-spindle finisher, 12-spindle dandy rover, 12-spindle cap spinner, 12-spindle flyer spinner, 12-spindle ring spinner, 12-Bpindle 2-fold cap twister, 12-spindle 6-fold ring twister; from Hall & Stell, Keighley, Eng- land—one gill box before combing and one gill box after combing; from Crompton & knowles, Worcester, Mass. — one Noble worsted comb and one balling box; one 6-head universal winder, for cones and tubes. 142 REPOET OF THE COMMISSIONEK OF LABOR. The coiton-warp preparation department consists of one spooler, one warper, and one slasher, made by the Lowell Machine Shop, Lowell, Mass. ; one beamer, made by T. 0. Entwistle, Lowell, Mass. ; drawing-in frames, etc. The woolen and worsted warp-preparation department consists of one warp spooler, one dresser, one reel, one beamer, and one 48-spool creel, made by the Davis & Furber Machine Company, North Andover, Mass. ; also a number of hand warping and beaming frames. The weaving department, which is the most complete in the world with regard to the variety of looms, consists of one plain Northrop loom, made by the Draper Company, Hopedale, Mass.; one plain print-cloth loom, and one side-cam twill loom, made by the Whitin Machine Works, Whitinsville, Mass.; one 5-harness heavy loom, made by the Lowell Machine Shop, Lowell, Mass. ; one plain print-cloth loom, made by the Mason Machine Works, Taunton, Mass. ; and the following looms made by the Crompton-Knowles Loom Works, Worcester, Mass., and Providence, K. I. — one Knowles gingham loom, 4 boxes; one Knowles fancy-cotton loom, with 20-hamess dobby, 4 boxes; one Knowles fancy-cotton loom, with 25-harness dobby; one Knowles blanket loom, with 25-harnes9 dobby, 4 boxes; one Knowles gem loom, 20 harness, 4 by 4 boxes; one Knowles worsted loom, 32 harness; one Knowles fancy loom, with single-lift Jacquard; one Knowles fancy loom, with double-lift Jacquard; one Knowles fancy loom, with Jacquard tied up for leno; one 1,200-hook Halton Jacquard head motion, arranged to be transferred to different looms; one Knowles ingrain- carpet loom, 4 by 4 boxes; one Crompton gingham loom, 4 boxes; one Crompton fancy loom, 6 by 1, with double-cylinder 20-harness dobby; one Crompton fancy- cotton loom, with single-cylinder 20-harness dobby; one Crompton jean loom; one Crompton lappet loom, with 16-harness dobby; one Crompton towel loom; one Crompton ingrain-carpet loom, 4 by 4 boxes; one Crompton worsted loom, 27 harness; one Crompton worsted loom, 24 harness, 4 by 4 boxes; one Crompton & Knowles heavy loom, 20 harness, 4 by 4 boxes; also one Lewiston Machine Company loom, 4 harness, side cam, and one Lewiston Machine Company bag loom; also the follow- ing band looms, viz — twelve hand looms, 2 by 3 boxes, with 20-harness dobby; eight hand looms, 4 by 4 boxes, with 24-harness dobby; six hand looms, 3 by 3 boxes, with 32 harness dobby; six hand looms, 4 by 4 boxes, with 30-hamess dobby; two hand looms, with treadles; tv/o hand looms, 4 by 4 boxes, with 200-hook Jacquard; two hand looms, 3 by 3 boxes, 200-hook Jacquard; two hand looms, 3 by 3 boxes, with 600-hook Jacquard; one Jacquard piano card-cutting machine, from John Royle & Sons, Paterson, N. J. The silk machinery consists of one winder, one quiller, one warper, one beamer, and one doubling frame, made by the Atwood Machine Company, Stonington, Conn. The motive power, etc., consists of one 30-horsepower motor, by the General Electric Company, Schenectady, N. Y.; two 20-horsepower motors, made by the Westinghouse Electric and- Manufacturing Company, Pittsburg, Pa.; one 2J-horse- power motor, made by N. E. Motor Company, Lowell, Mass.; one 1-horsepower motor; one ^-horsepower motor; one complete system of fire protection, including sprinklers, air-pressure system, thermostats, and other appliances, by the General Fire Extinguisher Company, Providence, E. I.; one complete humidifying plant, by the American Drosophore Company, Boston, Mass. ; one complete humidifying plant, by the United States Aerophor Air Moistening and Ventilating Company, Providence, R. I. The dyeing department is fully equipped with complete chemical laboratory with individual benches, also small machines for dyeing and other processes; calico- printing machines, made by Mather & Piatt, Oldham, England; one hydro-extractor, from W. H. Tolhurst & Sons, Troy, N. Y.; one jig dyeing machine; one jacketed iron steaming chamber, from A. Edmeston & Son, Salford, England; one drying TBADE AND TECHIflCAL EDUCATION UNITED STATES. 143 Gbamber; one ageing chamber; one set steam jacketed copper kettles, evaporating benches^ etc. The school is well equipped with reels, balances, electrolytic and other scientific instruments for experimental purposes. The knitting department has one Mayo automatic seamless knitting machine, one spring-needle cut-hose machine, and one latched-needle ribbed-hose machine. The finishing department has one Eodney Hunt fulling mill; one string washer; hydro-extractor; tenter bars, driers, etc.; one wire napper; gig; one double shear, from Parks & Woolson Machine Company; press; steam brush. The value of this equipment is 1100,000, but fully !S80,000 worth of it has been donated to the school. The building occupied by the school is rented, but is of modern slow-burning mill construction, equipped with freight and passenger elevators, steam heat, gas, and electricity, the latter for both power and light. Each room is pro- tected against fire by sprinklers and thermostats, and self-closing fire doors are provided. The humidifiers, motors, shafting, belting, etc., are installed in the most modern manner throughout. A sum of $140,000 is now on hand to be invested in a permanent home for the school, and a lot containing Si acres has been secured. The day classes are especiallj^ intended for the instruction of those whose intentioii it is to enter the business of textile manufacturing in any branch. The courses are sufficiently complete to enable a person to start without any previous acquaintance with textiles, but at the same time those who have been engaged in such business and wish to improve their knowledge and opportunities can devote their entire time to study most profitably. The complete collection of maohinerj' enabl-es every process to be practically illustrated. The student has the option of selecting any one of five regular or several special courses. Each course is intended to cover three years. There is one term of preliminary instruction which is common to all courses. At the end of this term each student is required to select which of the courses he is to follow in his subsequent studies, and the instruction to be given after the first term of the first year is special- ized to suit each course. The five regular diploma courses are: Cot- ton manufacturing; wool manufacturing; designing, general course; chemistry and dyeing; weaving. The courses of instruction in the day classes follow: Eirst year, first tenn (common to all courses) : Design construction, cloth analysis, elements of mechanism, mechanical drawing, cloth construction, handlooms, gen- eral chemistry,, and free-hand drawing. COTTON MANUFACTURDSf&. First year, first term (common to all courses). See above. First year, second term: Cotton fiber, microscopic examination of fiber, design construction, cloth analysis, elements of mechanism, mechanical drawing, cotton manipulation, cloth construction, handlooms, general chemistry, and free-hand drawing. 144 BEPORT OF THE COMMISSIOTSTEB OF LABOB. Second year: Cotton manipulation, machine drawing, textile chemistry and dyeing, designing, handlooms, applied mechanics, warp preparation, weaving, and cloth analysis. Third year: Cotton manipulation, weaving, knitting machinery, designing, mill engineering, and thesis. WOOL MANUFACTUEING. First year, first term (common to all courses). See above. First year, second term: Wool fiber, microscopic examination of fibers, design construction, cloth analysis, elements of mechanism, mechanical drawing, woolen spinning, cloth construction, handlooms, general chemistry, and free-hand drawing. Second year: Woolen and worsted spinning, machine drawing, weaving, textile chemistry and dyeing, cloth analysis, applied mechanics, warp preparation, design- ing, and handlooms. Third year: Wool manipulation, weaving, knitting machinery, designing, mill engineering, and thesis. DESIGNING. First year, first term (common to all courses). See above. First year, second term: Design construction, cloth analysis, design sketching, mechanical drawing, elements of mechanism, cloth construction, hand looms, free- hand drawing, and general chemistry. Options: Woolen and worsted spinning and cotton spinning. Second year: Design construction, cloth analysis, design sketching and Jacquard v.'ork, decorative art, textile chemistry and dyeing, cloth construction, handlooms, weaving, and applied mechanics. Options: Woolen and worsted spinning and cotton spinning. Third year: Designing, advanced work, mill engineering, weaving, and thesis. Options: Decorative art, woolen and worsted spinning, and cotton spinning. CHEMISTET AND DYEING. First year, first term (common to all courses). See above. First year, second term : General chemistry, stoichiometry, elements of mechanism, cloth analysis, qualitative analysis, mechanical drawing, designing, and handlooms. Second year: Textile chemistry and dyeing, chemical philosoph}', applied mechan- ics, advanced inorganic chemistry, and organic chemistry. Options: Designing and weaving. Third year: Quantitative analysis, industrial chemistry, advanced textile chemistry and dyeing, dye testing, microscopy, and thesis. Options: Weaving and mill engineering. WEAVING. First year, first term (common to all courses). See above. First year, second term: Design construction, cloth analysis, free-hand drawing, elements of mechanism, cloth construction, handlooms, mechanical drawing, and general chemistry. Options: Woolen and worsted spinning and cotton spinning. Second year: Design construction, cloth analysis, decorative art, textile chemistry and dyeing, applied mechanics, cloth construction, handlooms, loom construction, and weaving. Options: Woolen and worsted spinning and cotton spinning. Third year: Fabric structure, cloth analysis, analysis of M'eaving mechanism, weav- ing, mill engineering, cloth construction, handlooms, and thesis. Candidates for admission to the day classes are required to pass an examination in arithmetic, English, geography, and algebra, or present evidence of proper qualification. TEADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION UNITED STATES. 145 The fee for the day course is tHOO per year for residents of Massa- chusetts; for non-residents it is $150 per year. Special students paj', in general, the full fee, but if a course be taken involving attendance at the school during a limited time application may be made to the principal for a reduction. All candidates for the diploma of the school must file with the prin- cipal not later than May 15 a report of original investigation or research, such thesis to have been previously approved by the head of the department in which it is made. Advantages are offered to persons for special research work. The diploma of the school is awarded upon the satisfactory comple- tion of either of the five regular courses, covering not less than three years, except where entrance is to advance standing. In such cases at least one year's residence will be required. For the satisfactory com- pletion of a three years' course in anj^ special department the certifi- cate of the school will be awarded; it is possible to complete such a course in less than three years, if the candidate be passed to advanced standing, but at least one year's attendance will be required. The regular school sessions will be, in general, from 9 a. m. till 1 p. m. , and from 2.16 to 5 p. m., except Saturdays, when the building will be closed in the afternoon. Facilities are given for visits by day students to New England mills and works during the session. The evening classes of the school are intended to give thorough instruction to those who are engaged during the day in mills and work- shops, to enable those who wish it to perfect their knowledge of the branches in which they work, to acquire knowledge of other processes than those in which they are regularly engaged, and in the course of several winters to complete a thorough technical education without interfering with their daily duties. Evening students have the option of entering for one or more of six different courses, and arrangements can be made for them to take such a section of each course as is suitable to the student's daily occupation in the mill. The courses are: Cotton spinning, a three-year course; woolen spin- ning, a one-year course; worsted spinning, a two-3'ear course; design, ing, a three-year course; chemistry and dyeing, a three-year coui-se; weaving, a three-year course; mechanical engineering, a two-year course; also a course in warp preparation of one term. For the satisfactory completion of either of these courses, the cer- tificate of the school will be awarded; the diploma of the school will be awarded in exchange for certificates of satisfactory completion of those subjects which go to make up any one of the several regular diploma courses. 9267—02 10 146 EEPOET OF THE COMMISSIONEE OF LABOR. In general, it is possible to take up the study of two of the above evening courses concurrently. The time devoted to practical work, both day and evening, is con- siderably longer than that devoted to lectures, and in order to make the instruction real and thorough, no student is allowed to pass to another machine or process until he becomes thoroughly acquainted with the one on which he is engaged. The courses of instruction offered in the evening are identical with ■ those of the day, with the exception that less time is devoted to the machine work, since in most cases this is of small moment. Ordina- rily the handling of the machinery is a part familiar to most of the students througb contact with it in the daytime, and in such cases the explanations and calculations are of the greater importance. The requirements for admission to the evening classes ai'e similar to those for the day. Graduates of other schools are received on presen- tation of proper credentials. For all others examinations are required. The candidates must be familiar with the English language and the principles of arithmetic. For the first part a short composition must be written on a given theme, and a certain amount must be written from dictation, while in the latter are included addition, decimals, fractions, percentage, ratio, and proportion. The evening courses are free to graduates of the evening high and drawing schools, operatives of the mills and machine shops, -and other residents of Lowell to such numbers as may be accommodated in the various classes. Applications .are considered in the order in which received. The fees in the evening classes are much lower than in the day classes. They are as follows: Cotton, woolen, or worsted spinning, fee for all except residents of Lowell, .$3.50 per term or |5 per year; designing, or chemistry and dyeing, fee for all except residents of Lowell, |5 per term or |10 per year; warp preparation, weaving, or mechanical engineering, fee for all except residents of Lowell, ^2.60 per term. Lectures are given during the school year upon the following sub- jects: Leather belting, general information on oils, electric driving in textile mills, fire protection in mills, cotton, cultivation of cotton, common uses of steam, water power, humidity in cotton mills, sizing compounds and their effect, method of cost finding in mills, patent law, and economj' in steam plants. During the school year of 1901-02 there were registered in the school students as follows: Day students: First-year students, 38; second-year students, 17; third-year students, 10; art students, 7, and special students, 10; a total of 82. These students were divided among the courses as follows: Cotton manufacturing, 22; wool manufacturing, 17; designing, 9; TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION UNITED STATES. 147 chemistry and d^-eing, 12; weaving, 5; art course, 7, and special courses, 10; a total of 82. Evening students: First-year students, 278; second-year students, 61; third-year students, 18; a total of 357. From these are to be deducted 8 students who were taking courses in two years, making a ^;rue total of 849. These students were divided among the courses as follows: Cotton spinning, 49; woolen and worsted spinning, 63; designing, 81; chemistry and dyeing, 67; weaving, 60, and mechanical engineering, 52; a total of 362. From these ai-e to be deducted 13 students who were taking two courses, making a true total of 349. The day students, 82, and the evening students, 349, make a total of 431, but 7 students are members both of the day and evening classes and should be deducted, which leaves a true total of 424 students in the school at the date this information was secured. The number of those who have received diplomas since the opening of the school is 28, and of those who have received certificates, 53. The present occupations of 26 former day students and 42 former evening students are known, and are as follows: PRESENT OCCUPATION OF POHMER DAY AND EVENING STUDENTS, LOWELL TEXTILE SCHOOL. Occupations. Day stu- dents. Evening students. Artist 1 Bookkeeper, textile mill 1 Carder, textile mill 1 Chemist (witli dealer in dyestuffs) 1 1 2 Designers, assistant, textile mill Designer and overseer of fancy weaving, textile mill Draftsmen, machine shop Draftsman, textile mill 1 Employee, mining company Employees, textile mill 3 Employee, textile publication 1 Examiner of machinery 1 Foreman, machine shop 1 Head of carding and spinning department, school of technology 1 1 Inspector of textile fabrics. Government Inspector, textile mills Instructors, textile schools 3 4 1 Instructors, assistant, textil-e schools Loom fixers, textile mill 1 2 Machinist, machine shop 1 Manager n,Tni supftTintPTiripnt, tp-xtilfi mill 1 Overseers, textile mill 7 Pin setter, textile mill Section hands, textile mill 2 1 1 1 2 1 1 Total . 26 42 The annual cost of maintaining the school is about §26,000, and the funds for building, equipping, maintaining, etc., are raised by State and city appropriations, tuition and other fees, and contributions 148 EEPOET OF THE COMMISSIONEB OF LABOE. Friends of this school maintain that its courses of instruction can not be improved except by raising the standard in the direction of the technical and scientific, giving more opportunity for the learning of higher mathematics and physics. The school is too young to draw many conclusions as to its benefits. It is said that the young men who have gone out from the school, although few in number, are assuming responsible positions and doing good work. Young men who expect to go into commission houses which sell the product of the mills are now taking courses in the school in order to become familiar with terms and mill possibilities. Many mill hands and ma- chinists who are students in the evening classes have already felt the benefit of this instruction in higher wages and more rapid promo- tions. The students are preferred by employers to merely mill- trained hands, and applications from manufacturers to send them young men from the school are constantly being received. In all the manufacturing industries it is possible for the graduates of this school to work at their trades or occupations without undergoing a period of apprenticeship. The labor unions have so far given the school moral aid onlj', but have not at any time actually opposed it. They were apathetic at first, but since the election of a labor-union man to the board of trus- tees many members of the union have visited the school and the knowledge of it and its methods which they have thus obtained has apparently greatly changed their feeling. Some individual labor- union men did oppose the school at first. They thought that it was intendedonl^[^_fpa:.^f> ricll TSan, the sons of wealthy men, to give L^.JTa cechnical education such as would fit them to be managers of the great manufacturing properties when they should come into their hands. They appear to realize now that such opposition was not well founded, for while a technical education is provided for, and the intention is to even raise the standard to the highest, j'et thorough and complete courses are provided for the workmen who can afl'ord less time, and will always be maintained. NEW BEDFOBD TEXTILE SCHOOL, NEW BEDFORB, MASS. The conditions and causes which led to the establishment of this school were substantially the same as those already explained in the case of the Lowell school. Advantage was taken of the act of 1895, providing for State aid for textile schools, and a corporation was organized, consisting of many of the leading manufacturers of New Bedford and other cities, secretaries of the labor unions of New Bed- ford, and several of its prominent citizens, the object being to insure the establishment of a school in which young men who are desirous of being trained for entering the cotton -manufacturing industry, and the mill workers who desire to advance and be promoted in their respec- tive departments, may have everv facilitv to learn the theorv as well TKADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION — UNITED STATES. 149 as have the practice of cotton manufacturing in all its details, from the raw cotton to the finished fabric, and also have instruction in the scientific principles which underlie the construction of the machineiy and its operation, and the artistic principles which are involved in the production of desirable and ornamental fabrics. New Bedford is an especially suitable locality for an institution of this character. With but one exception, it is the largest cotton-manu- facturing city in the country. High-grade yarns are produced to a greater extent than in any other city, while the mills are engaged in the manufacture of fine shirtings, muslins, lawns, sateens, lenos, checks, pique, jacquard, and other fancy fabrics to an extent unknown elsewhere in this country. The mills are nearlj^ all of recent con- struction, with the most improved equipments. The city is within short distances of Fall River and Taunton, in Massachusetts, and Providence, Pawtucket, and Woonsocket, in Rhode Island, and other large cotton-manufacturing centers. The school was incorporated in 1895, the erection of the building was commenced in 1898, and it opened for instruction October 14, 1899. The total value of the building and equipment is about $75,000. Money appropriated by the State and city built and equipped the school building. Much of the machinery was given or loaned to the school by the manufacturers. The annual cost of maintaining the school is about 118,000, which is mot by State and city appropriations, together with fees. The power for the school machinery is derived from a complete steam plant on the premises, consisting of a 60-horsepower safety water-tube boiler and a 40-horsepower engine. The steam plant gives the students an exceptionally good opportunity of putting into practice their instruc- tion on steam engineering, including as it does a feed water heater, oil separator, two feed pumps, and other accessories to a complete steam plant. The heating of the building illustrates both the direct and indirect systems, and arrangements are made by which the building can be heated by live or exhaust steam, and condensation water returned automatically to the boiler or otherwise. The building is equipped throughout with a system of Swedish mill telephones." The building is the first erected in the United States exclusively for the purposes of a textile technical school. It is of red brick, with trimmings of Indiana limestone. On the second and third floors, occupying the entire width and about half the length of the building, are rooms 65 by TO feet, well lighted and ventilated, set apart to the textile power machinery. A part of the third floor is devoted to the designing and hand-loom weaving departments. In designing the school, attention was paid to arranging it in the most suitable manner for the Durposes of imparting textile instruction, but the rear portion cotton-mill engineering. The 150 KEPOKT OF THE COMMISSIONEE OF LABOE. structure is of the slow-burning mill construction type, while the gen- eral equipment of the school is also illustrative of the best methods of heating, ventilating, humidifying, and fire-protecting mills. The school has a wide variety of cotton-mill machinery, and this feature of the school is considered as being almost perfect for the pur- pose of a technical school that is to be devoted exclusively to the teaching of cotton manufacturing. Almost every maker of cotton machinery in the United States is represented in the school, together with several English builders, giving the student an opportunity of becoming acquainted with machines varied in construction, although utilized for performing the same work. No arrangements have yet been made for installing machinerj^ for manipulating different fibers, such as wool, silk, etc. The machinery is sufficiently complete to enable the raw cotton to be manipulated in the school at the several processes until it becomes a woven fabric; in fact, there is a sufficient surplus of machinery of the more important kinds to enable independent experiments to be conducted by the student, under the direction of the instructors. The student thus has the opportunity of acquainting himself with the construction and operation of such machines as he may come in contact with later in assuming a position in a mill, together with the setting of the same and calculations connected therewith. The equipment of the different departments is as follows : The cotton carding and spinning department contains the following machines: Automatic feeder and single beater breaker lapper, made by the A. T. Atherton Machine Company; single beater finisher lapper, made by the Howard & Bullough American ilachine Company, Pawtacket^JJ. I.; revolving flat card, made by the ■nr„, .,p MachLis ^.''ai'S.a, TaiTicon, iuass.; revolving fiat card, made by the Hoivard & Bullough American Machine Company; revolving flat card, made by the Saco & Pettee Machine Shops, Newton Upper Falls, Mass., and Biddeford, Me.; silver lap machine, made by John Hetherington & Sons, Manchester, England; ribbon lap machine, made by the Mason Machine Works; comber, made by John Hetheringtan & Sons, Manchester, England; railway head, made by the Mason Machine Vv'orks; improved railway head, made by the Saco & Pettee Jlachine Shops; first drawing frame with electric stop motion and metallic rolls, made by the Howard & Bullough American Machine Company; second drawing frame with mechanical stop motion and metallic rolls, made by the Saco & Pettee Machine Shops; slubber, made by the Woonaocket Machine and Press Company, Woonsocket, R. I.; first intermediate, made by the Providence Machine Company, Providence, E. I.; second intermediate, made by the Howard c& Bullough American Machine Company; jack roving frame, made by Dobson & Barlow, Limited, Bolton, England; v/arp spinning frame, made by the Whitin Machine Works, Whitinsville, Mass. ; filling spinning frame, made by the Howard & Bullough American Machine Company; spinning mule, made by the Mason Machine Works; twister, arranged for both wet and dry twisting, made by the Draper Company, Plopedale, Mass. ; winding machine, made by the Univer- sal Winding Company, Boston, Mass. These are in addition to several machines for card grinding, stripping, yarn testing, sizing, etc. In the warp preparation and weaving department the equipment consists, in jiart, of: Spooler, from the Draper Company, Hopedale, Mass.; spooler, from the Easton& Bumham Machine Company, Pawtucket, R. I. ; warper, made by T. 0. Entwistle, TKADB AND TECHiaCAL EDUCATION UNITED STATES. 151 Lowell, Mass.; warper, made by the Draper Company; cone winder, from the How- ard & Bullough American Machine Company, Pawtucket, R. I. ; quiller, from the Atwood-Morrison Machine Company, Stonington, Conn. ; reel, made by the Whitin Machine "Works, Whitinaville, Mass. Also the following very complete assortment of looms: Crompton gingham loom, 4 by 1 box; fancy cotton Crompton loom, 6 by 1 box, with 20-harnesa dobby; Crompton leno loom, 4 by 1 box, 20-harness dobby; Knowles towel loom, 3 by 1 box, with 12-harness dobby; ICnowles gem dress-goods loom, 4 by 4 boxes, 20-harness; Stafford leno loom, with 20-harness dobby; Stafford fancy cotton loom, with 25-harness dobby, and Stafford Jacquard loom with 400 hooka, made by the Crompton & Knowles Loom Works, Providence, R. I. ; Mason gingham loom, 4 by 1 box; Mason print-cloth loom and fancy cotton loom, with 24- harness dobby, made by the Mason Machine Works; Northrop magazine loom, made by the Draper Company; 2 English plain looms, donated by Stoddard, Haserick, Richards & Co., Boston, Mass.; side-cam loom, made by the Lewiston Machine Com- pany, Levfiston, Me. ; heavy sateen loom, made by Whitin Machine Works; plain print loom, made by the Kilburn & Lincoln Company, Fall River, Mass. A room is also devoted to hand loom weaving and the necessaiy power machines that are used for the preparation of warp and fill- ing for these looms. The room is equipped with a number of hand looms adapted to the use of the students in experimental work, and in putting into practice the theory of designing that they learn in the school, and to enable them, at a small expense and with little trouble to themselves, to produce the fabrics that they have designed in the course of their studies. The courses of instruction are divided into day classes and evening classes, and the courses are shown below: Day classes: The principal course of instruction in the school is the general cotton manufacturing course (No. 1), which is intended to give a student a general knowledge of all the cotton manufacturing proc- esses and sufficiently specific and complete information to qualify h'lm to hold a position as superintendent of a cotton spinning and weaving mill, or other responsible position. The course covers two years. It has been found that there is a demand for optional courses, and the following five alternate courses have been arranged: No. 2, yarn mill superintendent's course, one year; No. 3, weave mill superin- tendent's course, one year; No. -i, designer's course, two years; No. 5, mill engineer's course, two years; No. 6, dry goods commission house course, one year. Students must be at least 14 years of age, and may be of either sex or any nationality. Those who have been students of other technical institutions, colleges, or universities, and graduates of high schools are admitted on certificates. Other applicants for admission to the school must either pass an entrance examination in arithmetic and English or present satisfactory evidence of necessary qualifications in elementarj^ education. The" fee for tuition in the day classes is $50 per term of approxi- mately four months, making |100 for the school year, for residents of 152 KEPOET OF THE - COMMISSIOITEE OF LABOK. Massachusetts. The fee for others is $75 per term or $160 per year, in accordance with an act of the legislature. The hours of instruction are from 8.30 a. m. to 12.30 p. m. each morning, except Saturdays, with afternoon sessions from 2 to 5 o'clock, except on Wednesdays and Saturdays. Diplomas will be given on the satisfactory completion of a course of study. The school is in session four evenings per week from 7.30 to 9.30 for the benefit of those students who are engaged in the mills and workshops during the day and who can devote only evenings to study. Practically, free education in any or all branches of cotton manu- facturing is offered to those who can not defray the whole cost of their textile education. No difference is made between the courses of instruction of the evening and those of the day. The same machinery and same instructors are retained for the evening classes, and, in order to accommodate the larger number of students generally found in the evening technical schools, additional instructors have also been engaged for the benefit of the evening students alone. A special feature of the evening instruction is in the minute subdi- vision of subjects, so that anyone employed in the mill will find in the plan of studies something that will assist him or her, and which will applj' to the department in which he or she is daily engaged, and yet will not necessitate an entry for a long course of study in order to get such instruction as is desired. Satisfactory evidence of abilitj' to read and write English and a knowledge of elementary arithmetic is required. The fees for the evening classes are uniformly f2.50 per term of tliree months in each subject. Students taking two subjects and attending four evenings per week pay $5 per term. In a few subjects ..idtiu,. '"'"is given free to residents of New Bedford. While the main object of TtFe evening classes is to give facilities for mill men to study special branches in which they are interested, arrangements are made by which a record of a student's work is kept, and by satisfactorily completing certain studies in each of two, three, or four winters he may complete a diploma course and have conferred upon him the diploma of the school. This school so far may be considered experimental. Time may show need of change, though it is believed that it can be improved, if at all, only by the addition of new departments. Possibly, for instance, it would be an improvement to teach dyeing. It has been thought best to confine the course of instruction entirely to the manufacture of cotton in order not to waste strength, and for that purpose the school, it is believed, is thoroughly equipped, both in its courses of study and its machinery. The school has not been in operation long enough to determine what benefits have resulted either to the industries of the localitv or to the TEADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION UNITED STATES. 153 general public or the business community. Its advantages are doubt- less being felt as is shown by the warm interest the manufacturers are taking in it. The staff of instriictors numbers 19, principally mill overseers and superintendents, or those formerly holding such positions. The man- aging director. Prof. C. P. Brooks, M. S. A., is a recognized authority on textiles, a man of long experience in the superintendence and equip- ment of mills, and is instructor, examiner, and director of other tex- tile schools, and is the author of several books on textile manufacturing. During the first year of its operation, 1899-1900, there were about 300 students registered, 9 or 10 of whom were girls. There have been no graduates as yet. The labor unions have, generallji' speaking, given the school moral aid, and one prominent labor union man is on the board of trustees. The loom fixers' union of New Bedford did oppose this school for a time for fear of its making too many workmen, and even now, though its active opposition has ceased, its members are talking of forming a trade school of their own. Several other labor unions were inclined to oppose the school at first on the ground that the workmen would be crowded out of it by the sons of rich men, manufacturers, etc., who would enter it in order to prepare themselves for positions of suiaer- intendents, agents, etc., and in order that they might be better fitted to manage intelligently property interests in manufacturing companies. The unions soon found this was a mistake on their part. The rich men's sons do enter the school but thej^ enter the day classes, which so far are snrall, while the evening classes, which are quite large, are composed entirely of workmen. While the school had had no graduates when this information was obtained yet several instances are known where those under its instruc- tion had obtained promotion and higher wages as a result of the school instruction. Many employers have expressed their approval of the school and its work. Following are the day and evening courses of study: The courses of study for day classes are as follows: The regular cotton manufactur- ing course is intended for the training of men aspiring to the position of agent, superintendent, overseer, or other responsible position in a cotton mill or a cotton machinery works, or to give an opportunity to a man holding a responsible position to perfect his knowledge of the cotton mill business. It includes: First year — plain weaving, fancy weaving, designing, handloom work, mechanism and machine draw- ing, warp preparation, and steam engineering; second year — cotton picking, carding, combing, and spinning, mill engineering, advanced designing, and mechanism and machine drawing. Facilities are given in the second year for the students to carry on experimental work, and each student graduating is expected to write a thesis, or perform some special work in connection with some matter of general interest to a cotton manufacturer. The yarn mill superintendent's course is intended to qualify a man to hold a position as superintendent of a cotton yarn mill, boss spumer or boss carder, or other resDonsible position in connection w ith a cotton yarn mill or cotton machinery 154 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. works. It includes cotton picking, carding, combing and spinning, machine drawing and mechanism, and steam engineering. Tlie weave mill superintendent's course is intended for men who desire to become superintendents of weaving mills, boss weavers or fixers, or other positions requiring expert knowledge of weaving. It includes warp preparation, weaving, designing, handloom work, machine drawing, mechanism, and steam engineering. The designer's course is intended to qualify a man to hold a position as a designer in any textile mill, whether cotton, woolen, worsted, or silk. This, in the first year, follows the lines of the general cotton manufacturing course. The second year of this course, however, is different, almost exclusive attention being given to design- ing and practice on hand and power looms. The mill engineer's course is intended for those men who desire to follow the occupation of a textile mill architect or engineer. This follows the lines of the gen- eral cotton manufacturing course, excepting that especial attention will be given to instruction with regard to power plants, mill designing and engineering, and trans- mission of power, the nature of which will depend to some extent on the number of students entering for the course. If a sufficient number of students enroll, a special course is arranged with regard to the manufacture and sale of dry goods. The manufacture of the goods is not treated of as technically as in the case of students who intend taking up the positions of mill superintendents, while other subjects, such as designs, materials, markets, costs, etc., are dealt with more fully than usual. The courses of study for evening classes are as follows; The course in carding covers picking and card-room machinery, including combing, to be completed jn a two-year course, two evenings a week. The course in mule spinning is a one-year course, two evenings per week, Monday and Thursday. The course in ring spinning is a one-term course, two evenings per week, Tuesday and Friday. The course in cotton sampling is a one-term course, one evening per v,-eek, Thurs- day. The course in spooling, warping, and slashing is a one-term course, Tuesday and Friday evenings. This class is in session in February, March, and April. The course in plain weaving covers plain weaving and loom fixing on all the differ- ent makes of American looms. It is a one-year course, two evenings per week, Tuesday and one other evening. The fancy weaving course includes fancy weaving, including dobby and drop-box looms, both weaving and fixing. It is a one-year course, two evenings per week, Friday and one other evening. The Jacquard weaving course covers one year, two evenings per week, jMonday and Thursday. In weaving instruction is also given in French. In the designing department a course in cloth dissection is intended to be a pri- mary designing study sufiicient to meet the requirements of those connected with the weaving departments of the New Bedford mills without qualifying them to hold positions as designers. It is a one-year course, two evenings per week, Tuesday and Friday. On hand-loom work is given a two-year course of one evening i>er week, Tuesday or Thursday. The full course in designing covers designing of all kinds of cotton fabrics, includ- ing cloth dissection, cloth construction, and handloom work. It is a two-year course. This class is taken in two sections, as follows: Elementary — three evenings per week, Monday, Tuesday, and Friday, or Tuesday, Thursday, and Friday; advanced — three evenings per week, Monday, Friday, and one other evening. TEADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION UNITED STATES. 155 A course in mill arithmetic is of one year, two evenings per week, Monday and Thursday. A course in yarn-mill arithmetic covers one year, two evenings jiei week, Monday and Thursday. A course in weave-mill arithmetic covers one year, two evenings per week, Tues- day and Friday. GEORGIA SCHOOL OF TECHNOLOGY, ATLANTA, GA. This institution is a department of the University of Geor^a and was organized in 1888. The courses are mechanical engineering, elec- trical engineering, civil engineering, and textile engineering, and the degree of bachelor of science is conferred upon the graduates of each of these courses. As this school is devoted to the higher education in industrial lines preparing men for professions rather than for trades or occupations, it is really outside the scope of this investigation and would not be mentioned here but for the fact that its course in textile engineering is similar to courses in the textile schools of Massachu- setts and Pennsylvania, which schools are described in this report at some length. Those schools, however, do not confer degrees. They differ, too, from this school in that they have numerous special day and evening courses of instruction designed to teach textile trades and occupations for the benefit of the workman, the mill operative, etc. As the report will show the existence of such schools in some of the States, and as their influence industrially appears to be considei'able, it seems fitting that this mention of the Georgia school should be made although the particulars of the courses, management, etc., are not gone into. Except six free scholarships allowed to each county in the State, the charges for tuition are as follows: Residents of the State, $25 per annual session; nonresidents, |50. In addition there is a fee, of f20 to cover contingent expenses. AMEKICAN COKEESFONDENCE SCHOOL OF TEXTILES, NEW BEBFORD, MASS. This school has been in existence for several years, having been first established in Lowell, Mass. Its purposes and methods are similar to those fully described in connection with the courses in the corre- spondence schools. The courses cover substantially the same details as the textile schools just described, so far as is possible by corre- spondence. The outline of the subjects of instruction need not, there- fore, be given here. In character of work the school is of course unlike the other textile schools in that the work is purely theoretical, being designed to supplement the work of those regularly engaged in textile mills. It is thus rather a technical than a trade school. 156 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIOKEB OF LABOR. Students of the school Avho complete the course and have graduated are entitled thereafter to the benefits of the school by the payment of a small fee to cover cost of printing, mailing, and answering their inquiries. This applies only to students who have completed a full course in any subject. The primary knowledge required for enrollment in the school is only that of reading and writing. This school is divided into the following departments: Department of cotton manufacture, department of fabric designing, and depart- ment of woolen manufacture. The courses in the department of cotton manufacture are intended for treasurers, agents, superintendents, overseers, second hands, third hands, mechanics, spinners, loom fixers, weavers, and other workers in cotton mills and machine shops, salesmen in commission houses, jobbers, converters, dry goods merchants, mill engineers and drafts- men, machinery salesmen, and others. The courses are the following: Complete cotton mill superintendent's course; cotton mill arithmetic course; cotton carding and spinning course; cotton spinning and warp preparation course; .cotton warp preparation and plain weaving course; fancy cotton weaving course; cotton carding, spinning, and plain weaving course. The courses in the department of textile designing are intended for designers and assistant designers, agents, superintendents, overseers, and second hands in weave rooms; section hands, loam' fixers, weavers in cotton, woolen, worsted, or silk mills; dry goods merchants, sales- m^ in commission houses, jobbers, and all persons interested in tex- tile designing. The following courses are laid out: Complete design- ing course; designer's calculations course; textile coloring course; theory of designing course; cotton designing course; woolen and worsted designing course; silk designing course. The courses in the department of woolen manufacture are intended for treasurers, agents, or superintendents of woolen mills; also boss carders, boss spinners, and other overseers, section hands, and those who desire to qualify for such positions. The courses are also recom- mended to mill engineers and draftsmen, woolen machinery builders, erectors or salesmen, dry goods merchants or salesmen in commission houses. The following courses have been arranged: Complete woolen course; woolen mill arithmetic course; woolen carding and spinning course; woolen warp preparation and weaving course; fancy woolen weaving course. There are 10 instructors engaged in teaching in these courses in addition to a director, in whose hands the management of the school lies. There has been no hostility shown toward the school by labor organizations, but as far as known it has been approved by them. TEADE AND TECHmCAL EDUCATION — UNITED STATES. 157 Higher wages, steadier employment, and more rapid promotion have in many cases followed a course in this school; its graduates are pre- ferred by employers to men trained only in the mills, and many employers have expressed their approval of the school. Generally speaking, the school has proven satisfactory and has fully attained the end for which established. SCHOOLS FOR WATCHMAKERS, ENGRAVERS, ETC. ' WALTHAM HOKOLOGICAL SCHOOL, WALTHAM, MASS. The need of better and more thoroughly equipped workmen in the trade of watchmaking, repairing, etc., led to the establishment of this school in 1870. Under modern conditions in the factories where watches are made the workmen are kept on special branches of the woi'k, and no one has the opportunity to practice or learn the whole of the trade. The same thing is true in the job shops, where most vratch repairers are trained, and as a result competent watchmakers who thoroughly understand the whole business and can make the complete watch, carrying it through all the different operations, are very few. When a student has finished his course in this school he is able to make a complete watch, and is also a first-class repairer. While he may, and probably will, after graduation, devote himself to some one or possibly two branches of the trade, yet because of his thorough ground work he will be the more competent. The hours of work in the school are on every week day from 8 a. m. to 12 m., and in addition from 1 to 5 p. m., except on Tuesdays, when the afternoon hours are from 1 to 6. Work is also required during such evenings as may be chosen by the manager. The charge for tuition is $65 for the first three months, $50 for the second three months, $45 for the third three months, and f40 for each three months thereafter, payable quarterly in advance. The course of instruction covers the following branches: Plates: Punching rough blank, depthing and recessing for train, drilling, and tap- ping. Barrel punching, turning, cutting teeth, and fitting arbor. Wheels: Punching rough blank, cutting teeth and finishing for the train wheels, lever, duplex and chronometer escape wheels, and all the wheels used in watches. Pinions: Cutting of rough blank, turning ready for cutting, cutting levers, pivot- ing, tempering, and polishing. Jewels: Slabbing and sawing rough ■ stones, drilling, turning, polishing, opening and finishing hole to fit pivot. All kinds of jewels are made, such as centers, plates, end stones, palates, balance, rollers, duplex rollers, chronometer detent, impulse, lifting, and jewels for all purposes for which stone is used. Balances: Punching rough steel and brass, turning, fitting, brazing, recessing, crossing, drilling, tapping, and finishing. Staffs: Pupils are required to make staffs for all classes and kinds of watches, from the rough stock to the perfect finish, from samples, or from measurement where the 158 BEPOET OF THE COMMI88IONEB OF LABOK. Jeweling: Pupils are required to locate train, prepare the plates for setting jewels, and prepare jewels and settings for same, set them, fit to pivots, true settings to fit places, end shake, surface settings, drill, tap, counterbore, strip, and finish their work equal to the best produced in any watch factory. Springing: Pupils are required to fit the balance to the staff, cut, true, and poise the balance, pick out the spring, fit it to collet, true it, vibrate it on the balance to time, pin it into the watch in beat and time by seconds. Screws: Made from rough stock, turning, cutting thread, slotting, hardening, pol- ishing, and bluing. Stem-winding parts: All stem- winding parts, such as crown wheels, winding pin- ions, winding and intermediate wheels, rockers, levers, collets, springs of all kinds for all classes of watches. Matching: Pupils are required to put the escapement together, setting the palate stones, adjusting for lock, drop, and let-off, also set jewel pins, adjust roller action, and see that the watch is in perfect beat. Finishing: Pupils are required to see that all parts are thoroughly fitted, that there is the proper amount of end and side shake to the train, that the escapement is in perfect order, that let-off, lock, and drop are correct, and that the banking is prop- erly set, that the roller action is perfect, and the watch in beat. Adjusting; Pupils are required to see that the balance is properly trued and poised and the hairspring properly set and trued. The first test is for heat and cold, and when the balance is properly adjusted the test is made for isochronism; after that is obtained, errors ai-e corrected for position. Kepairing: Pupils are required to replace old parts with new, also pivoting, bush- ing, and all other things pertaining to putting a watch which is out of order in good repair. Tools: Pupils are taught to make and keep in repair pinion, wheel, and jeweling cutters, drills, turning tools, taps, dies, and all necessary tools. Ophthalmology: Instruction in this branch is designed to give the pupil a thorough knowledge of the eye, how to fit glasses, and how to treat any ordinary disease o£ the organs of vision. Engraving: All pupils who wish can receive instruction in all branches of engrav- ing by a competent teacher without additional expense. The time required to attain proficiency depends much on the pupil himself. With industry and diligence, and even only an ordinary amount of ability, it can generally be accomplished in one year. Diplo- mas are given to all who successfully complete the prescribed course. Students are expected to purchase the smaller tools they use in ordinary bench work; the expense need not exceed $20. Lathes and lathe attachments and the more expensive tools are furnished by the school. The management of the school conducts, independently, a manu- factory of watch materials. This brings the school in touch with very many jewelers, etc., and affords a goo.d opportunity of finding posi- tions for graduates. The school has 4 instructors, including a teacher of engraving and a teacher of optics, who is a regular physician and oculist. During the school year of 1899-1900 there was an average of 50 pupils in attendance. From 1893 to 1900 about 400 pupils were graduated. The number of graduates from the establishment of the school to 1893 TRADE AND TECHWIOAL EDUCATION UNITED STATES. 159 can not be given, as the records for that period, during which the school was under a management different from the present, can not be found. The annual cost of maintaining the school is $4:,500; this amount is raised from the money received from pupils in fees. It is stated that the school has improved the standard of work in the job shops of this locality, and to some extent in other parts of the country, as its graduates have gone to all sections. It has also decidedly tended to raise the standard of intelligence among the watch- makers and employees in the factories. Higher wages, steadier em- ployment, and more rapid promotion have accrued to the graduates of the school, and they are greatly preferred by employers to the merely shop-trained men, owing to their greater capacity. They understand the watch better. They do not have to pass a period of apprentice- ship upon beginning work, but start at once as full workmen. So far as the making of good workmen is concerned, this school has proved satisfactory and has fully attained the end for which estab- lished, although not always up to the desired result in making profits for its proprietor. EOBOLOGICAIi SCHOOL, BKABXiEY POLYTECHNIC INSTITUTE, PEOBIA, ILL. The Horological School of the Bradley Polytechnic Institute is a continuation of the Parsons Horological Institute. This school was founded by J. R. Parsons, at Laporte, Ind., in the j^ear 1886, and was conducted there for eleven years. It was taken to Peoria by Mrs. Lydia Bradley in 1892, and received substantial aid and encour- agement from her. In 1897 it became a part of the Bradley Polj^- technic Institute, which was in that year founded and endowed by Mrs. Bradley, and a new building, large and thoroughlj- adapted to the work, was erected. Horology hall has two stories and a basement, and is 100 feet long by 40 feet wide, containing five workrooms besides lecture room, main office, material room, drafting and experimental room, etc. It is heated by steam and lighted by gas and electricity. Being planned and constructed for the special purpose of the school, the rooms are large, light, and well ventilated. There are 103 outside or window-lit benches and over 50 inside benches, and room for more should necessity require it. The necessary power for the heavier work, such as large lathes, grindstones, emery wheels, blower for smelting and alloying room, is furnished by a 6-horsepower Eagle electric motor and a 4-horsepower gas engine. Each bench is equipped with gas and electric lights, and each department contains a large sink supplied with running water for washing work. 160 KEPOET OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOE. The cost of the building and equipment was about $20,000. The cost of maintenance is $9,000 per year. The funds for this purpose are supplied from the proceeds of an endowment and from fees from students. The school is in session throughout the year and students can enter at any time. There are 5 instructors. The final aim and plan of the school is to be practical. Theory is not neglected, but- it is kept in its proper place. The instruction is as follows: Students are taught to make some of the small tools, such as drills, countersinks, jewel gravers, jewel burnishers, screw taps; they learn the use of grinding materials, making forks, tempering, coloring, and polishing. Lathe work of all kinds is taken up, such as turning staffs, setting jewels, turning down pinion leaves, square and cone pivots, fitting up cylinders, staking on and tru- ing wheels, making collets, drilling for pivots and pivoting, slide-rest work, wheel cutting, milling, damaskeening, and ell work pertaining to the lathe. The work is first done on a scale of two or three to one, and then worked down to the very smallest scale. Each student is required to do the following work: Turn- ing one center punch, two round burnishers, one hairspring coUeter, fotir jeM'el pushers, four tapers for lathe (male and female), four each large and small screws (harden and blue), one cement brass, one drilling rest, two 4-millimeter steel wire square shoulders and finish, six cone pivots, two large staffs of steel and finish, cen- tering one-half dozen wires, setting six large jewels, and finish settings. Escapement work is taken up on a scale twice the size of an ordinary 18-size, or gentleman's watch, as by this method a novice can more readily comprehend the action of the several parts. The student is taught bow to design, calculate, and make the several parts of the different escapements. Instruction is given in setting pallet stones, adjusting the banking, drop, let-oft, locking, fork and roller action, fitting jewel pins to fork, figm-ing for size of wheels and pinions, uprighting, springing, etc. After this the btudent is put to work on regular watch movements, being required to execute in a satisfactory manner the following work: Makhig barrel head and uprighting; making case spring to fit watch; making square shoulder pivots, 1 millimeter to j\ (4 sizes); making cone pivots to gauge, 10 to 6 (4 sizes); turning staffs to measurements; turning staffs for 3-arm balance and truing balance; turning staffs for expansion balance, truing and polishing; turning staffs to fit watches, poise and true; making hairspring collets; colleting hairsprings and overcoiling; vibrating hairspring, 16,000 to 18,000 vibrations; fitting hairsprings to watches and timing 18,000 vibrations; making stem- wind wheels, bevel wheel of brass, and crown wheel of steel; and polished; turning hollow center pinion to fit watch; making center square to fit same; finding size of cannon pinion and fitting; fitting dial wheel to same watch; fitting third wheel and pinion; fitting fourth wheel and pinion; fitting cylinders to watch; putting plug in cylinder; pivoting plain wires, square shoulder, 2 to yV pivots; pivoting plain wires, cone pivots, 2 to ^; pivoting staffs for watch; setting jewels in plate, two set in plate, two with screws and two burnished, one hole and cap jewel in balance cock; making Swiss bridge and jeweling; fitting mainspring and hook in barrel; making three dozen pivot drills; putting three teeth in large wheel; setting pallet stones. Students are admitted to the finishing department only after they have demon- strated their ability, either by completing the work of the elementary department or by passing an examination. The study of the lever, duplex, cylinder, and chronometer escapemeirt is accomf plished by the aid of large drawings and models, afterwards by actual work on ordi- nary sized movements, thus giving theoretical and nrartirnl v:nr•^r TBADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION — UNITED STATES. 161 Students are taught to make or replace any lost or broken parts in a workmanlike manner, to make'cutters for cutting wheels, pinions, etc., when necessary. Advanced students are taught to cut and fit escape wheels for chronometer, duplex, or lever movements. Chronographs, repeating watches, and all complicated work are given to students when they are competent to handle it. Adjusting to temperature, posi- tion, and isochronism is a feature of the department which many old workmen of years of experience have repeatedly availed themselves of. In connection with the finishing department is the class in drafting, where the theoretical escapement work is taught; also the designing of new work, watch and chronometer movements, etc. The number in this class is limited to ten, having six hours' work each week. In the engraving department the work of designing is first taken up, including the several styles of alphabets most in vogue — old English, script, block, etc. Next the student learns cyphers and monograms, scrollwork, etc., after which the students are led step by step to the more difficult problems of transferring their designs onto metal by the use of the graver. Students who are naturally good in designing will get through this department in from six weeks to three months. The instruction in the jewelry department includes all work required in a regular store service. The most important processes taught are the following: Hard solder- ing gold and silver articles, including the making of the solder; working gold up to different alloys, stone setting, making plain and band rings, hair mountings, raised, monograms, badges, medals, bangles, charms, lockets, collar and cuff buttons, gold and silver plating, Eoman coloring, etc. The student is taught to repair all forms of clocks, including calendar and French clocks. The institute gives a course in practice and theory of optics, conducted by a skilled practicing oculist. The length of the course is ten weeks, with three exer- cises per week. The course includes the study of reflection and refraction of light, lenses, prisms, physical structure of the eye; errors in refraction and the remedies; in brief, everything that an optician needs for actual business. The equipment includes all modern apparatus for the examination and testing of the eye. The evening studies consist of a series of theoretical lectures on the various escape- ments, drafting escapements, movements, etc., depthing, springing, timing, adjust- ing to position, temperature, and isochronism. Many of these lectures are illustrated with the stereopticon, by the aid of photo- graphs of the minute parts made with a microscope. Among the illustrated lectures are the following: Time: Scientific methods of its measurements and history of instruments used in its determination. Iron and steel: Illustrated by micrographs, showing the effect of overheating or "burning," case hardening, expansion in hardening, etc. Adjusting to temperature: Showing the effect of heat and cold on the compensat- ing balance and pendulum. Eefraction in the human eye: Showing how errors of refraction are corrected by the use of glasses. The causes of watches stopping: How to examine and find causes; best way to repair. How to buy and sell; how to wait on customers. How to take in and let out work: What to warrant and what not to warrant. The totalnumber of students gjraduated from the school is 436. Of this number, 305 were graduated in watch work, 72 in optics, 42 in watch work and optics, and 17 were graduated in optics and received certificates in watch work. Besides these graduates, there have been 38 students who have received certificates in watch work. 9257—02 11 162 EEPOKT OF THE C0MMI3SI0NEK OF LABOB. The studentw from the school are in constant demand and a thor- oughly competent one never fails to get a good position. It is the policy of the management to assist all competent students in secur- ing positions, whether they are graduates or not. Employers prefer them on account of their greater intelligence. No apprenticeship is required of the graduates. This school has been satisfactory^, but it is hoped to make it more and more efBcient. WOODCOCK'S WATCHMAKING, OPTICAL, AND ENGKAVING SCHOOL, WINONA, MINN. This school was opened in May, 1887. Its aim is to furnish training for those who desire to prepare themselves thoroughlj- for engaging in general watch repairing and the jewelry business. The full course of instruction embraces watchwork, clockwork, jewelry jobbing, and a course in optioe. Upon payment of the full fee, students are entitled to the full course without limit of time. They are required to fur- nish their own tools and materials. The school is equipped with work- benches, but each student is required to have a bench at his room as well, that he maj' pursue his work after hours, if it is thought nec- essary. The proprietor is the only instructor. His preparation for the work he has undertaken consists of a long apprenticeship, much practical experience, and special instruction under masters. The equipment of the school cost |2,000, and the annual running expenses are about $600. The cost of maintenance and the compensation of the proprietor are met by fees and a small amount taken for repair work. . The students find ready employment at good wages. They hold their positions well and rise rapidly in the trade. They serve no apprenticeships after leaving school with certificates. HUTCHINSON'S SCHOOL FOS WATCHMAKERS, ENGRAVEKS, AND OPTICIANS, LA PORTE, IND. This school was opened in 1888. Its establishment was in response to a demand for a place where a practical and scientific knowledge of the trade could be gained outside of the slow and imperfect methods of shop training. It was claimed that there seemed to be a disposition on the part of watchmakers to impart as little instruction as possible, and the result was that the learner had either to spend too much time to get his trade or eLsc he became discouraged and quit before he mastered it. Further, many things, especially about the scientific side of the trade, can never be learned in the shop, no matter how well disposed the instructor may be. The curriculum covers watchmaking, engraving, and optics. There are 3 instructors. The principal served a regular apprenticeship, then worked in the factorj^ of the Waltham Watch Company and took TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION — UNITED STATES. 163 a special course of training under the superintendent of the factoiy of that company. The teacher of engraving was trained in the Hutch- inson school, while the instructor in optics is a graduate of the Chicago College of Physicians and Surgeons. There are at present about 25 pupils; in all there have been 665 students and about 75 per cent of them ha^-e been given certificates of proficiency. As many of the young men who attend these schools lack a suflicient knowledge of mathematics to enable them to properly prosecute the work, it is the opinion of the management that the course of study could be decidedly improved by adding the requisite mathematical training. And it would be well also to extend the curriculum so as to include mechanical drawing, details in fine turning (which would develop the sense of touch), electrical work used in plating and gal- vanizing, and a more thorough drill in horological science. This would require a three 5'ears' course and would not be too long, but the management can see no immediate possibility of these advances. Such extension can not be made unless money to assist in supporting the schools is provided from outside sources. Nevertheless, the watch- making or watch-repairing business has in general been greatly im- proved by these schools. Those who have taken the course here have developed and cultivated habits of industry and thrift, and they reach positions that pay good wages much earlier than those who have merely had shop training. As a rule, however, it is claimed that there is a prejudice against school-trained men because their training means that the employer must pay better wages, and therefore the gradu- ates of such schools are not usually preferred by employers or super- intendents over shop-trained apprentices. But if a workman and not a helper is desired, the school-trained man is preferred, and it has been the experience of this institution that if an employer has had one of its students he always desires its men afterwards. Schools of this class are as yet in their infancy and have of course not attained the end for which they were established, but the outlook warrants the belief that they will slowly attain it. The period of experiment is now passing, aild hope is entertained that the progress of the next few years will be more rapid than that of all the past. In a general way this school has so far proved satisfactory. ST. LOUIS -WATCHMAKING SCHOOL, ST. LOtTIS, MO. At the time of the founding of this school, in 1888, the facilities for instruction in this kind of work in the United States were very meager. The aim of the school is to offer practical training in watch and clock repairing, jewehy repairing, engraving, and optics. There are 3 instructors. The average number of pupils in each department is 164 EEPOBT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOB. 26, aDcl the total number of graduates between 300 and 400. The session lasts throughout the year and the hours of study are from 8.30 a. m. to 6 p. m. Pupils of both sexes are admitted. The terms are |15 per month. Each student is supposed to provide himself with necessary tools and materials. Two courses are offered in optics, a regular course for those taking the course in watchmaking and a special course for those who take optics only. Students who take the special course may enter at any time; the tuition is $25. The rental of the building is |360 per annum; the cost of tools and machinery, $2,000; and cost of maintaining, $5,000. These funds are raised through tuition and fees for repair work. Students capable of performing creditable repairs receive 50 per cent of the receipts derived from same. It is the opinion of the management that the courses of study and training prescribed could be improved if more abundant means were at the command of the institution. As a result of the establishnaent of this school, the public now receives more skillful service and the workman who has taken the course finds his employment more steady and his salary increased. Its success has led to the improvement of ordinary shop training in the immediate vicinity and watchmakers who have previously worked at the trade for a period of years have found it to their interest to avail themselves of the superior training here afi'orded. Graduates readily obtain positions as journeymen without having to undergo a period of apprenticeship. OMAHA WATCH KEPAIRING, ENGRAVING, AND OPTICAL INSTITUTE, OMAHA, NBBE.. This school was established in 1895 and incorporated under the laws of Nebraska in 1898. The purpose of its establishment was to furnish opportunity to learn in a few months what under the old way required years of painstaking experiment and study to acquire. Each student is given practical work from the start, and leaves the school with a full knowledge of what is required in either holding a position or conducting a business. The average time required to complete the course is one year. The average attendance is 35, and of this number 25 take the full course, and 10 take the optical course. Very few students remain long enough to obtain diplomas in the full course. The school sets a high standard, and examinations are very rigid. Only 10 diplomas have been granted to students in the full course. The optical depart- ment has graduated 66. The equipment of the school cost $2,000. The annual cost for maintenance, outside the compensation of instructors, is $1,200. There are 2 instructors, and they are paid from the net TEADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION UNITED STATES. 165 profits of the business, whatever that may be. One of the instructors has served a long apprenticeship and has a diploma from the Ophthal- mic College of Chicago, and the other is a graduate of the Watch- making School of Winona, Minn. The school has no income except from students' fees and receipts from outside work done. There is a division of sentiment among employers as to the merits of school training. Some prefer school men while others will not have them at all. The observation of the management is that when an employer once employs a school graduate he is thereafter a friend of the school. He finds the school-trained man to be a scientific, thinking workman, and a workman who thinks is more profitable than one who has not been trained to use his mind as well as his hands. He makes fewer mistakes than the shop-trained man, and he has better capacity for correcting his errors. This school and others of its kind have proven satisfactory. They have not made money for themselves, but they have satisfied their patrons by doing what they promise. JEWELERS' SCHOOL OF ENGBAVING, CHICAGO, ILL. This school was established in 1889. The constantly increasing demand for engraved goods and the consequentlj^ greater demand for skilled engravers suggested that such an enterprise would pay, and at the same time open up a shorter road to success to young men and young women who might desire to follow the vocation of engraving. The course of instruction embraces letter and monogram engraving on jewelry, watch cases, and silverware; etching, chasing, medal work, card -plate, and steel-die work are also included in the course if students desire them and have time to take them up. In addition to this regu- ular course students have opportunity to observe the general features of jewelry manufacturing. The usual time necessary to complete the course is six months. The hours of work are from 8 to 12 a. m. and from 1.30 to 6.30 p. m., except on Saturda3rs, when there is no work in the afternoon. The institution is under the management of the proprietor, and he is the sole regular instructor. Occasionally it is necessary for him to have assistance, and at such times an expert engraver is called in. The proprietor took courses in designing and engraving in schools at Dres- den, Germany, and had special training under a celebrated engraver from Munich. Besides this he has had experience in German fac- tories. The average attendance of the school at present is 12. Since its establishment certificates of proficiency have been granted to about 450 students. The equipment of the school cost about $100, and the annual cost of maintenance is about |1,000. Expenses are met entirely by tuition fees. 166 KEPOBT OF THE COMMISSIONEB OF LABOK. The proprietor says that the course of instruction has been con- stantly improved and that there still is room for great improvement. He suggests that more attention should be given to designing, and that facilities should be provided for practical work in jewelry manufacture. This latter feature will require a considerable outlay of caioital and it will consequently be slow in coming. Practical^ all of the graduates of the school find employment in retail stores, and thej^ have not, therefore, exerted any influence in general manufacturing lines. It is not claimed that the graduates of the school receive higher wages than men trained in the shops, but it is claimed that one year of shop work after leaving the school enables the workman to command as good wages as would five years of shop training alone. During the first few years of the existence of the school there seemed to be a prej- udice on the part of employers against its graduates, but this prejudice has gradually grown less pronounced, and now there is some demand for them. The graduates of the school do not have to serve an apprenticeship. The men serving apprenticeships see the rapidity with which schoolmen are advanced, and they are beginning to demand more attention and more definite instruction from their foremen. The foremen are therefore gradually improving the condition of apprentices. This school has proved highly satisfactorj". It has not fully attained the end for which it was designed. It takes time to develop systems of instruction in trades. Each j'ear shows some advance, and the suc- cess of the past warrants the prediction that in time the ideals of the friends of this class of education will be realized. BARBERS' SCHOOLS. The success of manual-training schools and schools for the building trades, the mechanical trades, industrial design, and agriculture, sug- gested that there was an inviting field for the establishment of schools in which training for the barber's trade should be given. The advo- cates of the schools claimed that the three years' apprenticeship required in the shops gave little or nothing that could not be learned in a school in a two or three months' course. The apprentices had often complained that after a few months in the shop their services were almost, if not quite, as valuable as those of the journeyman, although they received only about one-third the pay of a regular journej^man. The school courses established to offer this training vary somewhat in length and thoroughness of instruction, but all are of substantially the same character. Several of the schools add to the instruction in bar- bering and hairdressing training in manicuring and facial massage as a part of the required course. TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION UNITED STATES. 167 As fairly representive of the kind and methods of instruction offered in barber schools of the better grade, the courses in the American Barber College, Omaha, Nebr., may be described. The course of instruction embraces: The selection, preparation, and care of tools; the technical work of shaving, hair cutting, shampooing, coloring, singeing, curling, etc. This technical instruction includes honing of razors, lathering and combing, stropping, shaving light beard, gen- eral shaving, hair cutting (lay down), hair cutting (pompadour), shampooing, dye- ing and coloring, and a general review, consisting of any work that may come into the shop; instruction on the artistic basis of the toilet. This embraces a considera- tion of the different styles or fashions of wearing the hair andjaeard in their relations to the age, features, head formation, and general build of the person; instruction in facial dermatology, embracing such knowledge of the common diseases of the face and scalp as the barber must now understand in order to prevent contagion; instruction in facial massage, embracing the art of rubbing and kneading the face of the patron with the hands to stimulate thereby the circulation of the blood, the nervous system, and muscular action. Practice for the students is obtained hy giving their services to the public free of charge. Any clean white person can have any barber service he may desire performed by the students of the college without cost. A standing advertisement to this effect provides subjects for practice at all times. The work of the school is designed to advance each student as rap- idly as his proficiency will allow. Therefore, the instruction is not given under class regulations, but individually, the teacher imparting to each student such personal instruction, and advancing him according to his skill and capacity. There is no definite or set period of instruction in the school. , The time required depends entirely upon aptitude, industry, and perse- verance. It is not the purpose of this school to see in how short a time it can rush students through the first principles of the trade, give them a diploma, and call them barbers. The aim is to qualify young men as barbers of the highest degree of proficiency. Students are graduated just as soon as competent, regardless of the time served in the school. The practice of the trade in the State is permitted only after examination by the barbers' State board of examiners of Nebraska. The shortness of time which a graduate may have attended the school is no ground for refusing a license, provided he is found to be a competent workman; but if he is not competent he can expect to be refused. In most localities these schools have met with vigorous opposition from the labor unions. The most common ground of opposition has been that the schools tend to overcrowd the trade. It was claimed, too, that the schools did not afford sufficient time for the student to learn the trade thoroughly. It was claimed, on the other hand, by some schoolmen that the opposition really grew out of the fact that 168 EEPOET OF THE COMMISSIONEB OP LABOK. the schools were taking from the shops the opportunity to hold apprentices for a long time at low wages. In spite of this opposition the schools appear to prosper. Under the rules of the unions a school graduate can not obtain union employ- ment until he has served an apprenticeship. In those States where barbers are required by law to pass an examination before a State board of examiners the restrictions of the unions are not felt so heavily. In other States the school-trained barber either opens a shop of his own or seeks employment in a nonunion shop. There has been in recent years some ^improvement in the conditions of apprenticeship, and it is by some attributed to the schools. It has been generally admitted that in the schools as a class some improvement was desirable. More technical instruction and a greater emphasis on the artistic side of the trade have been urged by the school advocates. With regard to the opposition of the unions and the improvement of the schools, the founder of the Omaha school has said: It occurred to me that if I could convince the unions that I was attempting to do thorough work, and in fact was doing it, their support might be gained. So in 1899 I publicly advocated the idea of the craft controlling the schools. After earnest and patient endeavor in that direction I was at last rewarded with success, and the following agreement was entered into between the officers of the schools and the various barbers' unions of Omaha: AGREEMENT. This agreement made this 12th day of November, A. D. 1900, between The Ameri- can Barber College (a corporation) of the City of Omaha, county of Douglas and State of Nebraska, party of the first part, and the barbers of Douglas County, Nebraska, in mass assembled, of the city of Omaha and South Omaha, county of Douglas and State of Nebraska, party of the second part, witnesseth: That the party of the first part, for and in consideration of the covenants hereinafter contained on the part of the party of the second paft, does hereby covenant and agree to and with the said party of the second part: That there shall be created a board of three practical barbers, to be constituted as follows: The president of the J. B. I. U. of A. Local No. 212, of the city of Omaha,, the J. B. I. U. of A. Local No. 64, of South Omaha, Nebraska, and the B. P. A. Local No. 1, of Omaha, Nebraska (or such other executive officer of the said unions as such unions shall elect). The said board shall choose at each sitting two members of the barber craft to aid them in the discharge of their duties, and the said board shall sign all diplomas together with faculty of the said The American Barber College, party of the' first part, whom shall be by such board declared competent to practice the barber's trade. It shall be the duty of this board to sit as a board of examiners at least once in each month for the purpose of determining the competency of all students of the said The American Barber College, party of the first part, as shall be recommended by the craft's advisory board as hereinafter created. There shall be created a board of three practical barbers to be known as the craft's advisory board, said board to be composed of such persons as have been selected TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION — UNITED STATES. 169 by the barbers of Douglas County in mass assembled, party of the second part, to wit, Louis V. Guye, James E. Eyan, and John Dingman. The said board shall be asso- ciate members of the faculty of the said The American Barber College, party of the first part, and it shall be their duties to inspect the sanitary conditions of the said The American Barber College, party of the first part, at least once in each month; to prescribe such sanitary rules and regulations as are reasonable, and which shall not conflict with the laws of the State or the barbers' examining board or their secretaries; each member of such board shall give lectures to the students of the said The American Barber College, party of the first part, upon such subjects as the president of such college shall deem advantageous and projier. The said The American Barber College, party of the first part, further agrees that it will adopt such additional branches of learning as are required by the barbers' examining board in their examinations for a State license. The said The American Barber College, party of the first part, further agree that it will submit its advertisements to a joint board of five (5) practical barbers and one (1) practicing physician, such board to be constituted as follows: The craft's advisory board, as created and known under this agreement, and the barber's exam- ining board, as created under the laws of the State of Nebraska, for their approval or rejection, and the said The American Barber College, party of the first part, shall not publish, post, or display any advertisements for students without the approval (or sanction) of a majority of the members of such joint boards. That the said The American Barber College, party of the first part, further agrees that it will appoint one member of the craft which shall be a practical barber, and who possesses the ability of an instructor, as a member of its faculty, from such per- sons as shall be recommended by the advisory board as herein created, such person so appointed to be subject to removal by such board for (a) incompetency or (b) negligence of duty to the craft or the college. This said member of the faculty of the said The American Barber College to be the head instructor in the technical art of barbering in such college, and at no time to perform any of the duties of a barber to the public (or patrons of such college) other than are necessary in order to make clinic demonstrations when giving instructions to the students of such college. Such member shall also be a councilor with the craft and the executive ofiicers of such col- lege for the furtherance and upbuilding of the said The American Barber College. That the said The American Barber College, party of the first part, further agrees that it will at no time employ any practical barber in such college other than the faculty of such college. That the said The American Barber College, party of the first part, further agrees that it will, as soon as practicable, close at the hour of twelve (12) m. on Saturdays and remain so closed until seven (7) a. m. on the Monday following, the said boards as herein created and designated, together with the executive officers of the said The American Barber College, to be the judges as to when it is practicable to do so. And the said the barbers of Douglas County in mass assembled, party of the sec- ond part, in consideration of said covenants on the part of the party of the first part, does covenant and agree with the said party of the first part that they, the parties of the second part, will allow the president or executive ofiicers of the said The A.merican Barber College (a corporation), party of the first part, to have the power to reject the person or persons as recommended by the board of advisement, as herein created as members of the faculty (or technical instructor) for (a) incom- petency, or (b) neglect of duty, or (c) failure to comply with the rules and regula- tions of the said The American Barber College; but all such rejections shall be reported to the J. B. I. U. of A. Local No. 212, the J. B. I. U. of A. Local No. 64, and B. B. A. Local No. 1, together with the reasons for such rejection, whereupon the a^d unions shall proceed to investigate the said charges (or reasons) for such 170 EEPORT OF THE COMMISSIONEK OF LABOR. rejections, and if found just and proper, then the said advisory board shall then pro- ceed to recommend to the said The American Barber College, party of the first part, a person or persons to fill such vacancy. In witness whereof we have hereunto set our hands and seal the day^and date first above written. J. B. Randolph, President American Barber College. W. F. Williams, Secretary American Barber College. Fraxk Fitzsimmons, Chairman Mass Meeting of Barbers of Don gits County. Neal F. Ryan, Secretary of Barbers' Mass Meeting of Douglas Coiiutg. [Seal of the American Barber College (a corporation).] AVitnessed by — James E. Ryan. Louis V. Guye. J. P. Sullivan. John Dingman. H. Elsasser. Stanley Headly. J. L. ToEPP. It is believed that the experiment now being made (for it is only an experiment) by this school will set a higher standard for similar schools everywhere, and enable them to take the high stand the trade deserves they should. This is the end sought, and it is believed that it wUl be attained. It was a question of craft control and better schools, or a continuation of that warfare which onlj- aggravated the case. It is true that there are now many individual barbers who are not in full sym- pathy with the unions in indorsing the school, but the number is grow- ing less, and it is believed that in time all the barbers will become its friends. The statistical details with regard to schools of this class from which reports were secured follow: STATISTICS OP BARBERS' SCHOOLS. Name and location. Date of es- tab- lish- ment. Cost of equip- ment. Annual cost of main- te- nance. Length of full course (months). Num- ber of in- struct- ors. Aver- age num- ber of stu- dents. Num- ber of gradu- ates. Iowa Barber College, Des Moines, Iowa Moler Colleges of Barbering, etc., Chicago, Minneapolis, New York, St. Louis, and San 1899 1893 (<■) 1898 $800 15,000 1,000 260 $1,200 25, 000 2,500 250 2 2 16 6 1 10 800 25 8 80 2,000 60 100 American Barber College, Omaha, Nebr Blackman's Barber College, Cincinnati, Ohio. oNot reported. TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION UNITED STATES. 171 MISCELLANEOUS TRADE SCHOOLS. NOETH BENNET STREET INDITSTEIAL SCHOOL, BOSTON, MASS. This school was established for the purpose of giving a general education and instruction in manual training to the children of the. poor. The school as a whole does not come within the purview of this investigation. A special course, however, started in 1897, which teaches clay modeling as applicable to wood and stone carving, does teach a recognized trade and consequentl}^ has a right to consideration here. This course was established for the reason that representations as to its need were made by architects. There was no school in the country teaching this trade and only unskilled workmen, or foreigners imported in evasion of the alien contract-labor law, could be obtained by the employers. The instructor, trained in stoneworks in England as a modeler and wood and stone carver, follows such course of instruction as seems best to him. During the last school year (1899-1900) 17 boys and 8 men, a total of 25 pupils, took the course. It is open to workmen in the shops as well as boys oyer 14 years of age. There is no fixed period of study and no formal graduation, and a pupil is not considered as having finished his course until the instructor says that he is fitted for employ- ment at the trade. Four so far have taken the full course and they are all employed in one shop, the proprietor of which prefers them to such shop-trained men as are available. The annual expense of maintaining this course is only fl60, and the funds for this and all other purposes of the school come principally from donations of Mrs. Quincy A. Shaw, of Boston. A few others give sniall amounts. This course can be improved, if at all, only by giving more theo- retical instruction than is now done. The outlook for this is not favorable, as the course is entirely a practical one and is not designed to make artists or originators, but artisans only. Benefits of any kind accruing in this locality from the establishment of this instruction are exceedingly small as yet, as the course has been in existence so short a time. Those who have taken the full course in this trade have not been obliged to serve an apprenticeship when commencing work. The course has proven satisfactory so far as it has gone, but will not fully attain the end for which established until it has graduated enough workmen at this trade to supply the demand. WASHINGTON LINOTYPE SCHOOIi, WASHINGTON, D. C. This school was established in 1899 to provide linotype instruction for union printers wbo have had no shop training in this particular kind of machine work. When machines are introduced into a printing 172 EEPOET OF THE COMMISSIONEE OF LABOR. office it is often the case that the number of printers is reduced. Those who are selected by the management for retention are trained to operate the machines, while those who are dropped have no opportunity for such training and are often unable to secure emploj'^ment on account • of this cleficiency. This school was opened specially for this class of printers, and it has enabled many of them to obtain situations. Only union printers, or applicants to a union, working under permit, are admitted. There are three courses of instruction, as follows: The mechanical course: This course is designed to give the student a sufficient knowledge of the mechanism of the machine to keep it in running order under ordinary conditions, to make ordinary adjustments and minor repairs and substitution of parts. The school is supplied with a second-hand or "dummy" machine which is torn down and built up by the students under the instruction of a skilled man, who explains the use of each part and teaches the student to make every adjustment of the linotype. In addition to this the student is required to clean a running machine once a week. The time prescribed for this course is six weeks, but those who do not feel competent within this limit can have their time extended without extra charge. The price of the course is 160. The operating course: This course is for those who may have learned the mechanism of the machine in a linotype factory or elsewhere, and need only skill to operate. The course extends over six weeks. The fee is $60. The combined course: This course is Avhat its designation implies — a combination of the two courses just described, and is designed for those who have absolutely no sort of machine instruction. The price of the combined course is $85. The school is the property of a stock company composed of twelve union printers, and is managed by the president and the secretary of the company. There are two instructors, one in the mechanical course and one in the operating course. Both of them are qualified from long experience to render good service. The school issues no diplomas or certificates, but allows its students to remain until they feel satisfied to undertake to fill positions in an office. The average number of students attending at one time is 10. The most expensive part of the equipment consists of linotype machines, but they are leased. The annual cost of maintenance is about $4,000, and this expense is met by tuition fees. The school has not been formally recognized by unions, but individ- ual members recommend it to printers. Since none but union printers are admitted, there has been no cause for union opposition. Foi'mer students do not receive more pay than any other printers. The fact that they are union men gives them union rates and no more. There Is no preference shown by employers for school-trained men. The TEADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION — UNITED STATES. 173 school does not claim that its men are more efficient than shop-trained men — only that they are just as good, and employers seem to take the same view. They want capable men, and do not care where they were trained. Shop training is good, but shops which do not use machines can not, as a matter of course, give such instruction to their appren- tices. An apprenticeship covers four years, and in those shops where there are machines sufficient time is given them on machine work to enable them to operate them. The school has passed beyond the experimental stage and has fully met the expectations of its founders. The success of its students encourages it to believe that its work is recognized as valuable to all concerned ILIilNOIS COLLEGE OF PHOTOGRAPHY, EFFINGHAM, ILL. This institution is devoted exclusively to teaching high-class photog- raphy. It is difficult to induce first-class photographers to take apprentices, as good photographers have all the work to which they can attend, and have no time to devote to students. As a rule, therefore, pupils are compelled to accept places in second or third rate establish- ments, where they are expected to do the studio drudgery and per- form all odd jobs, a course possible for male students, but altogether impracticable for females. The founders of this institution, therefore, determined to establish a school where both sexes could be thoroughly taught the technique of high-grade photography. The school was opened in 1893, with one student. Its annual enroll- ment is at present more than 250. There are 7 instructors. The complete course of instruction embraces every branch of high-grade photography, including artistic retouching, modeling, and etching; artistic posing, lighting, and com- position; printing, toning, and finishing; carbon and platinotype, and a course in negative making. Pupils receive both individual and class instruction. Instructors endeavor to inculcate the principles and manipulations of the standard makes of dry plates under everj- condition, and in their varied effects and defects; under and over exposure, under and over development, density, intensity, softness, brilliancy, transpar- ency, contrast, flat lightings, light effects, dark effects, groups, soften- ing of films, weakness of images, slowness of development, fog, spots, lines and granularity, etc. Everything is done to equip each student for scientific work. Besides the full course, there are two special courses— a course of from two to six weeks for both amateurs and persons who have had some experience. The tuition for these shorter courses is $50 for four weeks and |5 per week for additional time. But tuition for the full colirse may be taken in the form of a life scholarship for '• 174 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. Besides the regular fee for tuition, students are subject to a laboi-atory fee of $10 and a fee of from |3 to $5 per month for material, etc., making the probable total cost of the full course, including tuition, material, room, and board, from |125 to $185. The hours are from 8 a. m. to 12 m. and 1.30 to 4 p. m. each week da}' except Saturday, and it reqiiires from three to five months to complete the full course. There are two school buildings. The main college building is a substantial edifice of Virginia brownstone, pressed brick, and New York red slate. It contains 44 rooms and is heated by steam and lighted by gas and electricit}^, and is fitted with well-equipped sanitary appointments. The other building contains the laboratories, printing departments, assembty rooms, studios, finishing rooms, etc. The management believes the course of study and training here could be improved only by lengthening. As a result of the establish- ment of the school the previous work of students, who are from all parts of the world, has been improved to the extent that they com- mand higher wages. Graduates of this school are preferred over merely shop-trained apprentices, and it is felt that the institution has been successful. SOUTHWESTERN RAILWAY TELEGRAPH SCHOOL,, ST. LOTHS, MO. This institution was established about sixteen years ago by the offi- cials of the telegraphic departments of the Missouri Pacific and Wabash Railway companies. The necessity leading to its establishment was that the usual prac- tice of training operators in offices was not satisfactory, there being a lack of thoroughness and uniformity of method and an entire absence of teT;hnical skill in electrical matters. The aim of the officials was to found, supervise, and operate a school that would eliminate these difficulties. The school is under the management of the superintendents of tele- graph of the Missouri Pacific and Wabash Railway companies. There are usually 4 instructors, each of whom is a practical man, having been selected from the telegraphic and auditing departments of the com- panies operating the institution. About 970 graduates have gone out from the school, and most of them have found employment either with the above or other companies. The school is maintained by tuition fees. The telegraphic labor unions have opposed it upon the ground that it has produced more operators than is necessary to supply the demand. Notwithstanding this, the school has upon the whole proven very satis- factory, and has fully attained the end for which it was established. TBADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION UNITED STATES. 175 WEBB'S ACADEMY AND HOME FOR SHIPBUIIiDEBS, NEW YOKE N. Y. ' Webb's Academy and Home for Shipbuilders owes its origin to the late William H. Webb, naval architect and shipbuilder. Mr. Webb was the son of a prosperous shipbuilder, and at an early ag-e mani- fested a liking for ships and ship construction. From the time of his apprenticeship until the day of his retirement from active business life Mr. Webb was a diligent student and an energetic worker in the cause of the science and art of shipbuilding. Concurrently with his professional work, Mr. Webb gave much attention to the educational problem. Kecollecting the difficulties he had encountered in acquir- ing a knowledge of the technique and science of his profession, he determined to found an institution where naval architecture and marine engineering would be taught to deserving students without any cost to them. On April 2, 1889, Mr. Webb's ideas were given practical expression in the incorporation of Webb's Academy and Home for Shipbuilders. The site selected is located at Fordham Heights, New York City, on the easterly banks of the Harlem River, just north of the University of New York, and contains about l-i acres, upon which are numerous large shade trees and extensive lawns. The building was completed in February, 1894, and the entire property was formally presented to its trustees on May 5, 1894. The building is of yellow pressed brick, with brownstone trimmings. The greater part of the structure is five stories in height, with two additional stories in that portion occupied by the school. The ground floor of the building contains a spacious hall and broad stairway, reception room, parlor, a suite of rooms each for the matron and housekeeper, an office for the resident manager, and an extensive dining room. The floor above is devoted wholly to sleeping rooms, with the exception of a reading room and library, which has about 1,500 volumes, including both scientific works and fiction. On the third floor are more sleeping rooms and a well-filled museum. It is here the visitor finds much of interest in the models of different craft built by Mr. Webb, varying from the little harbor tug to the power- ful ram Dunderberg. Here the student of naval architecture notes the changes that have gradually taken place in the general construc- tion of vessels during the last sixty years. Attention is also drawn to the large number of paintings and engravings illustrative of ves- sels, varying in type from the ancient galley to the modern war ship. Sleeping rooms occupy the whole of the fourth floor. Then come two of the drawing rooms, the instructor's oflEice, the mold loft, and the workshop. The sixth floor has another large drawing room and a lecture room, while on the floors above the latter are the physical 176 KEPOKT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOK. laboratory and gymnasium. There is a dark room for the develop- ment of photographs, and upon the roof a special arrangement for taking blue prints of the largest size. As its name would indicate, the institution provides a home for aged, indigent, or infirm men who have been engaged in building hulls of vessels or marine engines, together with the wives or widows of such persons; and an academy to "furnish to any young man, a native or citizen of the United States, who may upon examination prove him- self competent, of good character and worthy, free and gratuitous education in the art, science, and profession of shipbuilding and marine-engine building, both theoretical and practical, together with board, lodging, and necessary implements and materials while obtain- ing such education." The system of instruction employed in the school is somewhat unique. It is intended more especially to give the pupils such a thor- ough training in the art and science of ship and marine-engine con- struction that when they graduate they will be fitted to enter the drafting room, where their special knowledge will enable them to per- form the most difficult parts of the work. In other words, the school does not pretend to turn out naval architects nor marine engineers. Development along these lines is left to subsequent acquirement through practical experience in the industry. It does, however, qual- ify the graduates to do the highest order of practical work in the di'afting rooms, where they are usually employed. The first examination of applicants for admission was held in Janu- ary, 1894, at which time eight students were admitted, and in May following two more. Since then examinations for entrance have been held but once a year. Candidates for admission must be between 15 and 20 years of age, and their application must be made to the president of the academy not later than the 1st day of September of the year in which the appli- cant expects to enter. Owing to the limited accommodations for stu- dents and the ever-increasing number of those applying, it has been found necessary to subject all candidates to a very rigid competitive examination in the subjects required for admission, which at present embrace the common English branches, together with algebra up to and including quadratic equations, geometry, both plane and solid, and plane and anal5'tical trigonometry. Of the students thus far received into the academy, a large majority have come either from the vicinity of New York or from those States bordering upon the Great Lakes. During the history of the school the following States have been represented by students: Maine, Massa- chusetts, Khode Island, Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, Penn- sylvania, Georgia, Ohio, Indiana, Iowa, Michigan, and Minnesota. The school year begins in the second week in September and extends TEADE AND TECHNICAIi EDUCATION UNITED STATES. 177 until the second week in June, with a short vacation at the Cliristmas holidays and at Easter. During the school year all students must live in the academy, but the privilege of spending Sundays at home is generally granted to those whose homes are in the city or nearby towns, providing their work has been satisfactory. In sickness they receive the care of one or more of eight physicians who render gratuitous service to the institution. In case of severe illness they may be removed to the hospital with which the academy is provided. But one death has occurred among the students, and that was due to quick consumption. The work for the day is divided, according to the old-fashioned way, into two sessions — from 9 to 12 o'clock in the morning and from 1 to 4 o'clock in the afternoon. No sessions are held on Saturdays, but most of the students daring the morning avail themselves of the oppor- tunity of doing original or advanced work. The course of studies extends over a period of three years, and is as follows: In mathematics a course in advanced algebra is given, in wliich are especially con- sidered variables and limits series, continued fractions, the binominal theorem, deter- minants, theory of equations, and the general solution of equations; a supplemental course in trigonometry covering the solution of trigonometrical equations; descriptive geometry with reference to the intersection of planes, curved and warped surfaces; analytic geometry covering (1) plane geometry as applied to loci and their equations, the straight line, the circle, different systems of coordinates, the parabola, the ellipse, the hyperbola, loci of the second order and higher plane curves, (2) solid geometry, involving the point, the plane, the straight line, and surfaces of revolution; the calculus as a means for finding the quadrature of surfaces, the cubature of volumes, the cen- ter of gravity, and the moment of inertia of different areas and volumes; in hydro- statics pressures on surfaces are found, centers of pressure, resultant horizontal and vertical pressures, equilibrium of a floating body, stability and metacenter, with special problems upon the same; mechanics, with special reference to rectilinear and periodic motion, curvilinear and rotary motion and projectiles; strength of materials, with an exhaustive treatment of cantilever and simple beams, compression of columns, torsion of shafts, apparent stresses and true stresses, and stresses in guns. The course in marine engineering begins with a general investigation of modern marine engines, boilers, and auxiliary machinery; of the conditions under which they work in practice; and of the subjects of fuels, combustion, and evaporative efficiency. The indicator and its diagrams are studied, and, when opportunity is afforded, students make short passages on coastwise steamers for indicator practice and the observation of marine machinery under weigh. A considerable amount of time is given during the first year to mechanical drawing and tracing, the models for the latter being selected from the large collection of prints of marine engines which forms a part of the equipment of this department. The instruction in drawing is continued through the reproduction in finished drawings of sketches, with dimensions to the preparations of original designs of engine details. The valve gears used in marine practice are Investigated and laid down. The subject of heat is studied, and that of the theory of the steam engine follows. The design, construction, and operation of marine steam boilers and the design and drawing of various types of the screw propeller are sub- jects on which stress is laid. The design of, and working drawings for, propelling 9267—02 12 178 EEPOBT OF THE COMMISSIONER OP LABOE. machinery for vessels is begun in the second year and is pursued until the end of the course, including all important parts from the cylinder to the propeller. Students who make a specialty of marine engineering pass the vacation period in the machine shops of shipyards or in the engine rooms of seagoing vessels. In naval architecture the course embraces both the theoretical and practical. The student is first required to make the calculations of areas and volumes to different water lines for a given vessel, then to get out a displacement sheet and the tons per inch curve, the area of midship section, together with its coefficients, is found; the center of buoyancy, its position vertically for change of draft, and the longitudi- nal position of center of buoyancy are discussed and their loci found; trim, centers of effort and pressures, tonnage, freeboard, and surplus buoyancy are treated; a ves- sel's stability is considered, while calculations for and construction of curves of the same are made; curves of buoyancy, loads, sheering force, and bending movements of different classes of vessels floating in still water are gotten out; the formula — =^ as applied to the ship as a girder is investigated; the stability of different typsa of vessels under peculiar conditions; resistance at surface and deeply submerged are inquired into; stress on upper edge of sheer strake when vessel is inclined, and stresses on the structure of the hull for different conditions of lading are investigated, followed by calculations especially required for launching diagrams. The work in practical naval architecture is laid out along lines parallel to the theoretical, and consists of work in the drawing room, mold loft, and shipyards. In the drawing room the students familiarize themselves with the proper use of drawing instruments, planimeter, etc., make tracings of detail drawings, derive and plot the several curves mentioned under theoretical naval architecture; compare the scantlings of a given steel steamer with the different insurance societies' rules, pre- pare a sheer draft, and make a half model of the same. The different metkods of preparation and assembly of the various parts of a ship in proper order, preparing slip, laying blocks, different ways of bending and setting frames, floors, and beams, the laying and fitting of various kinds of keels, stern and rudder frames, construction of bulkheads, pillaring, hatches, bridges, etc., are in turn considered and drawings of the same are made. In the mold loft a wooden ship is first laid down and faired up, and molds of the several parts actually made. This work is followed by the laying down of a cargo steamer, the working drawings of which have already been made in the draw- ing room, and the preparation of the scrive board and molds. A half model of this steamer is then made and lined off completely. Owing to the ample floor space of the mold loft, much of the work can be laid out in full size. In order that students m&j acquire a more extended knowledge of practical naval architecture and marine engineering than it is possible for them to secure at the academy, all undergraduates must pass about eight weeks of the summer vacation at work in various shipyards throughout the country. While thus engaged they receive wages commensurate with the services rendered, and in many instances are offered permanent employment, but they alwaj's return to complete their course at the academy. Those students of the graduating class who wish to enter the employment of the Government are allowed to take the civil-service examinations, which are held usually a month or two prior to the final examinations at the academj-. Every student who has taken these examinations has passed them successfully and received his appointment shortly after, and in some cases even before TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION — UNITED STATES. 179 graduation. With, the exception of one, whose eyes failed him, every graduate from this institution is either in the employ of the Govern- ment or engaged at some pi'ivate shipyard. One is located on the Pacific, and all the others on the Atlantic coast. The school is under the general management of a board of trustees. The faculty consists of 3 instructors, all of whom, in addition to being college graduates, have had many years of practical experience in their respective branches. The number of pupils in the different classes during the past year was as follows: Junior class, 17; middle class, 10; semior class, 11. The number of graduates is 38. The cost of the building and its 'furnishings, together with the grounds, reached nearly $600,000. More than two- thirds of this amount might be prop- erly apportioned to the purposes of the school. The maintenance of the institution has been amply provided for by the founder by the deeding to the corporation of very valuable property, both in New York City and elsewhere. The cost of maintaining the school alone is about 120,000 per annum. It is the opinion of the officials that the courses of training and study are the best that could "be arranged for the purpose. Improvements are made when justified by experience or necessity. It is, perhaps, too early to speculate upon the benefits that may have accrued to the shipbuilding industrj- as a result of the establishment of this school. It is thought, however, that the graduates have already demonstrated the usefulness of the school by the services they have rendered to the industry at large. The best evidence of this is the unstinted praise that is bestowed upon the school by the leading shipbuilding establishments of the country. There can be no question or doubt regarding the benefits derived by the young men who have been under instruction in the school. In the first place, all the graduates were boys whose parents were too poor to give them a technical education. They were admit- ted to the school, given free board and lodging, and provided with the best instruction obtainable along the lines laid down, and when they had com.pleted the course they were qualified to fill positions which pay them from $18 to $35 per week. No graduate is required to accept a position for less than |18 per week, and cases were found where in less than six months after leaving the school their wages had been advanced to $25 per week. All graduates are qualified to take up practical work without undergoing a period of apprenticeship, and the fact that the demand for graduates is far in excess of the supply is a strong indication that they are preferred over ordinary shop-trained workmen. This was verified by the employers who were visited in this connection, all of whom attributed the superiority of the gradu- ates to the thorough training they had received in the school. It is hardly necessary to add that this school has proved satisfactory. The 180 REPOET OF THE COMMISSIONEE OF LABOE. splendid reputation which it has already acquired among the naval architects and shipbuilders of the country affords conclusive proof of its usefulness and easily vindicates the wisdom and judgment of the founder. TECHNICAL AND CONTINUATION SCHOOLS. The schools that are here classed as technical and continuation schools differ in one important respect from those classed as- trade schools — their purpose is not to teach entire trades, but to give scien- tific and technical instruction for the betterment of those who are for the most part already at work. The manual practice, therefore, in these schools is entirely lacking, or is only for the purpose of making clear the teaching. Many institutions which teach the practice of trades give also the same kind of instruction as the technical and continuation schools, Pratt Institute being a notable example. DREXEIi INSTITUTE, PHIIiADELPHIA, PA. The Drexel Institute was founded in Philadelphia in 1891, by Mr. Anthony J. Drexel, for the promotion of education in art, science, and industry. The chief object of the institute is the extension and improvement of industrial education as a means of opening better and wider avenues of employment to young men and women. In accordance with the founder's desire, however, the plan of organiza- tion has been made comprehensive, providing liberal means of culture for the public by means of evening classes, free lectures and concerts, the library, and the museum. The institute building was dedicated December 16, 1891. It is a magnificent structure, built in the style of the classic Renaissance, or what would be better described as a modern interpretation of Greek forms. It is centrally located on one of the main thoroughfares .of the city and within easy reach of the principal street railways. A beginning was made in some of the departments in February, 1892, and in September of the same j^ear work was regularly begun in most of the departments included in the general scheme of instruction. The founder's gifts to the institution, as a whole, amount to $3,000,000. Of this sum, 11,000,000 has been expended upon the buildings, with their equipments and appliances. The endowment fund of $2,000,000 is applied in maintaining the instruction. This enables the institute to offer the instruction at extremely moderate and in some cases nearly nominal rates. There is also a number of free scholarships for deserving students. Besides the instruction provided in the several educational depart- ments, the institute carries on a large and important work through the means of the free public lectures and concerts, which are given during the winter months in the auditorium, which is capable of seating 1,500 TEADE AND TECH'NICAL EDUCATION UNITED STATES. 181 people. These lectures aim to furnish opportunities for general cul- ture to the public at large, a work in which the library of 26,000 vol- umes and the museum are also made to cooperate. The collections of the museum embrace specimens in every department of industrial art. During the past year the attendance at the lectures and concerts has been more than 36,000. In the administration of the institute every effort is made to bring the opportunities for improvement, which are so liberally provided, within the reach of the largest possible number. The institute is open to both sexes on equal terms. While students are recommended to enter regularly one of the departments or courses, the same liberal opportunities are provided for those taking special or elective courses. The evening classes, which are open for six months of the year, from October to March, inclusive, offer instruction and training of the same kind and character, and with all the advantages of the exten- sive appliances and apparatus, as the instruction and training given in the day classes, and at much lower rates. Systematic courses in all the departments of the institute are organized for the benefit of the evening students, and certificates are granted to those who finish these courses and pass the required examinations. The work of the institute comprehends eighteen departments, each of which is organized with reference to its special objects and courses of instruction. They are as follows: Fine and applied art; mechanic arts; electrical engineering; science; technical courses in mechanical drawing and machine construction; commerce and finance; domes- tic science and arts; including separate courses for juniors; normal courses; library school; courses in English; physical training; free public lectures and evening classes in choral music; library; museum, and a department of evening courses. The institute affords a wide range of instruction in many useful branches of studj^ For the pur- pose of this report, however, only such courses as are specially designed to qualify the graduates to engage either in elementary or advanced work in industrial occupations will be considered in detail. In the department of fine and applied art are the usual courses pre- liminary to a thorough knowledge of the application of art to indus- trial subjects. The following courses have special reference to industrial work: Clay modeling which is adapted to the needs of those desirous of devoting themselves to decorative sculpture in terra cotta and stone as applied to buildings, and also to the needs of artisans and designers in silver, bronze, iron, etc. ; a practical course in wood carving and its application to the various forms of industrial produc- tion; a three-year course in design and decoration as applied to wall papers, textiles, furniture, book covers, etc., and a two-year course 182 BEPOET OF THE COMMI&SIONEE OP LABOR. in architecture, which is designed to qualify the graduates as archi- tectural draftsmen. The instruction in the department of mechanic arts is of the advanced manual-training order, and aims to give a general rather than a special training. The course in electrical engineering is in- tended to be both practical and scientific, the particular object in view being to fit the students for positions in which the knowledge gained in the school can be put to immediate and practical use. The course in mechanical drawing is CLuite comprehensive and is intended for the training of mechanical draftsmen. The course in machine construc- tion provides instruction in the theory of machinery and practical training in the designing and construction of machines. The courses in domestic science include general and invalid cookery, housekeeping, laundry work, normal and junior courses, etc. These courses are intended for girls and young women who desire to prepare themselves for household duties, nurses, and those who wish to become teachers or directors in this branch of work. The domestic arts de- partment gives instruction in hand and machine sewing, dressmaking, and millinery. The library school is organized to furnish opportunities for the sj^stematic training of librarians and assistants. The normal courses for the training of special teachers provides instruction for both men and women with a view to qualifying them as teachers in manual training, domestic science and art, and commercial branches. The charges for tuition range as follows: Day classes, per term — Drawing, painting, and modeling, $12 to $15 ; clay modeling and wood carving, $16 each; illustration, $20 to $25; design and decoration, $15 to $20; architecture, $30 to $35; special art classes, $15; mechanical drawing and machine construction, $25 each; electrical engineering, $37 and $38; chemistry, $12; physics, $10 to $12; mathematics, $10, Evening classes, per term — Free hand drawing, drawing fi-om the antique, clay modeling (elementary and life classes), and wood carving, $3 each; life class for men, $6; architectural courses, $4 to $6; applied electricity, $5 and $6; mathematics and shopwork courses, $3 to $5 each; mechanical drawing, $3; chemistry and physics, $5 each; sew- ing, $3; millinery, $3 to $5; dressmaking, $3 to $S. The courses of instruction are as follows: DEPARTMENT OF FINE AND APPLIED ARTS. The general course of instraction in. this department comprises free-hand and linear perspective; cast and antique drawing; sketching from objects and the costumed figure; clay modeling; life and still-life work; composition; painting in oil and water color; illustration, etc. The special courses include clay modeling and wood carving, as adapted to the various forms of industrial production; ornamental design and decoration; the graduates course, which includes applied work in architectural TEADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION — UNITED STATES. 183 and interior decoration, designing furniture, mantels, stained glass, ornamental iron- work, etc. The course in architecture is as follows: Architecture. First year: Study of the orders of architecture from Vignole, and actual examples. Perspective — theoretical principles and practical exercises. Shades and shadows. Sketching from photographs, casts, and buildings, in pencil. Historic ornament- Greek, Eoman, Byzantine, Romanesque, Moresque, Gothic, and Renaissance, in line and color. Building materials — kinds and qualities of materials used for building purposes. Building construction — working drawings and principles of heating, ven- tilation, and plumbing. Graphic statics — essential elements for practical work. Mathematics — review of arithmetic, giving special attention to decimals, ratio and proportion, percentage, square joot, metric system, practical measurements; elemen- tary algebra through simple fractions; algebra through quadratics; practical geom- etry. English — principles of composition and exercises in writing. General history — ancient, medieval, and modern. Building laws — the more important statutes on the subject. Second year: Architectural design. Planning of domestic and business buildings. Architectural ornament and decoration. Measured drawings from actual measure- ments of buildings. Constructive design, applied statics, strength of materials, with laboratory work. Sketching in pencil and wash. Pen and ink rendering — repro- ductive work and original design. Water-color rendering — actual buildings and original designs. Stereotomy. Mathematics — essentials of plane trigonometry, including drill in use of logarithmic tables and solution of right and oblique trian- gles; practical geometry and mensuration; elementary mechanics; elements of plane surveying and leveling, recitation and 'field work. Wood turning — designing and shopwork. Specifications; contracts; estimates. Lectures on history of architecture, electric lighting, heating, ventilation, and plumbing. Business forms and customs. As occasion requires, visits are made to important buildings, to illustrate the prac- tical application of principles presented in class. Students attend five days a week, from 9 a. m. to 3 p. m., with an hour's recess in the middle of the day. Evening classes: The evening classes extend through six months of the year, from October to March, inclusive. Instruction is given in the following subjects: Free- hand drawing from the cast, drawing from the antique, from life, modeling in clay, architectural drawing, building construction, design, pen and ink rendering, water- color rendering, wood carving. DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING. The course of instruction and training occupies two years and includes the follow- ing subjects: First year: Mathematics — analytical geometry and calculus. Physics — gases, heat, light, and sound; lectures and laboratory work. Chemistrj'- — qualitative analysis. Theoretical electricity. Electrical lighting and photometry. Electrical laboratory work. Electrical drawing. Mechanics of machinery. Valve gears. Boilers. Ma- chine shop practice. Mechanical laboratory work. English language. Second year: Mathematics — calculus. Alternating currents. Electromagnets — ■ dynamos and motors. Electrical engineering. Electrical laboratory work. Chem- istry — technical chemistry. Thermodynamics — steam, gas, air. Telegraph and signal systems. Designing work. Telephones. Hydraulics and turbines. The steam engine — its structure and design. Mechanics of materials. Mechanical laboratory work. Papers on electrical subjects. Lectures on electrical measuring instruments and their use, building construction, and business forms and customs. 184 REPOKT OF THE COMMISSIONER OP LABOR. Evening classes: From the beginning of October until the end of March, there are two courses in applied electricity: (1) A course of one year, embracing the simple theory of the electric circuit and its commercial application in lighting and power distribution, etc., with laboratory work in testing; (2) a systematic course, of two years, embracing lectures on the theory and practical application of continuous and alternating currents. COURSE IN MECHANICAL DRAWING. The course extends through two years and includes the following subjects: First year: Mechanical drawing — the use of instruments; lines and measurements; orthographic projection as far as the intersection and development of prisms; inter- sections completed; the cycloid, epicycloid, hypocycloid, and involute curves; their application to spur and bevel-gear drawing. Free-hand drawing. Descriptive geometry — lines and planes. Mathematics — review of arithmetic, giving special attention to decimals, ratio and proportion, percentage, square root, metric sys- tem, practical measurements; elementary algebra through simple fractions; algebra through quadratics, including only the simplest forms in simultaneous quadratics and radicals; practical geometry. Shopwork — bench work in iron. Students complete the elementary exercises during this term. Elementary exercises in woodwork. Student completes some project which has been designed in the drawing room, including key fitting and scraping a cylindrical surface to a bearing. Second year: Mechanical drawing — worm and worm gears; solids inclined to both planes of projection and the application of the principles involved to iron-roof con- struction and quarter- twist belts; work from sketches; complete drawings; the design- ing of a machine to be constructed in the machine shop. Mathematics— essentials of plane trigonometry, including drill in use of logarithmic tables and solution of right and oblique triangles; practical geometry and mensuration; elementary mechanics; elements of plane surveying and leveling, recitation and field work. Physics — laboratory work, consisting of manipulation and measurements. Shopwork — wood- vrork (pattern making) ; forging, machine work (parts of a machine designed in the drawing room); machine work — worm, worm wheel, and gear cutting. Evening classes: Course I — use of mathematical instruments, orthographic projec- tions, intersections, development of surfaces. Course II — the application of the development of surfaces to machine construction, detailed working drawings of machinery. Course III — practical designing of machinery. COURSE IN MACHINE CONSTRUCTION. The course of instruction occupies two years and includes the following subjects: First year: Shopwork — bench work in iron; students complete the elementary exercises during this term, and some project which has been designed in the draw- ing room, and unless the realization of the project includes key fitting, special instruction is given in the same; elementary exercises in woodwork. Mechanical drawing — the use of instruments; orthographic projection as far as the intersection and development of prisms; intersections completed; the cycloid, epicycloid, hypo- cycloid, and involute curves; their application to spurs and bevel gears; logarithmic and Archimedean spirals and their application to cams. Mathematics — review of arithmetic, giving special attention to decimals, ratio and proportion, percentage, square root, metric system, practical measurements; elementary algebra through simple fractions; algebra through quadratics, including only the simplest forms in simultaneous quadratics and radicals; practical geometry. Physical training in the gymnasium twice a week during the year. Second year: Shopwork — woodwork (pattern making) ; forging; machine work, both in operating and constructing, assembling, worm and gear work. Mechanical drawing — sketching from machines; making assembled drawings of machines Iroui TEAOE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION — UNITED STATES. 185 sketches; worm and worm gears; problems in the construction of machines; graph- ical representation of forces acting in machines. Mathematics — essentials of plane trigonometry, including drill in use of logarithmic tables and solution of right and oblique triangles; practical geometry and mensuration; elementary mechanics; ele- ments of plane surveying and leveling, recitation and field work. Physics — ^labo- ratory work, consisting of manipulation and measurements. Physical training in the gymnasium twice a week during the year. Evening shop- work courses: (1) Woodworking — exercises in joinery, turning, pat- tern making. (2) Bench work in iron — chipping and filing. (3) Machine con- struction — use of machine tools and practical work in the building of machinery. (4) Forging — exercises in forging and welding, forging and tempering of machine tools, ornamental work from designs. The science coxirses embrace thorough instruction in mathematics, physics, and chemistry. A part of the latter course consists of special lectures on textiles, dyeing, bleaching, and cleansing materials and operations. COURSE IN HAND AND MACHINE SEWING. The corrse in sewing includes the simple stitches used in hand and machine sewing and their application in the making of garments. Work cut and planned in the class room must be completed at home. All materials are supplied by the student. Students who have not had the necessary preliminary training or experi- ence in hand and machine sewing are expected to take this course, in whole or in part, before beginning the dressmaking work. The course occupies two terms. Two lessons, of two hours each, are given weekly. Applicants must have a good elementary education. The subjects are as follows: First grade: History of implements used in hand sewing; kinds and qualities of materials for undergarments; proper position of the body in sewing; methods of using thread and needles, thimble, and tape measure; woven textiles; different kinds of stitches; combination of stitches; seams, hems, tucks; buttonholes; making simple garments. Second grade: Sewing machines; measurements; drafting drawers, underskirts, and nightgowns; making of garments; cutting and making corset covers from patterns; cutting and making shirt waists. COURSES IN DRESSMAKING. General course. The general course of instruction consists of four grades, each occupying one term, or half the academic year. Each grade is complete in itself, but the four consecutive grades are essential to thorough training in the practice of the art. First grade: This grade is devoted to the fundamental principles of dressmaking. One plain dress is completed. Two lessons, of two hours each, are given weekly. The subjects studied are as follows: Implements and appliances used in dressmaking; cotton staple, its various uses; choice of materials; textiles as to color and application to dress; taking measure- ments; drafting foundation skirt; drafting draperies and principles of same; finishing skirt for trimming or draping; making lined skirt; form, proportion, and line relat- ing to ornament in dress; plans for completing skirts; cutting waists with seams from patterns drafted by students of the advanced grades, from measurements taken from different members of the class; basting, fitting; planning trimming; general finish. Second grade: In this grade attention is paid to taking measurements of different figures and to drafting patterns from the same. The first dress made is of plain ma- terial; the second is a waist or entire garment of striped or plaid material; the third, a garment on the gown form. The outline of the course is as follows: Color and textiles; their various uses and relations to personal adornment; growth of wool and silk; manufacture of fabrics; taking measurements; drafting plain waist 186 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. from different measurementa; drafting -waist V("itli extra seams for large figure; cut- ting and matching striped, plaid, or figured material for waist; making and trimming the same; drafting and making dresses on the gown form; artistic dress in its relation to the body; design in drapery; making dress on gown form from the student's own. design. Third grade: The work of this grade is chiefly an extension of that of the two pre- ceding grades, with the additional subjects of instruction named below. For further practice, students may receive and execute orders. The course of study is as follows: Advanced drafting; choice of materials for gowns of special character; making dinner dress; evening dress; choice of materials for same; handling of velvet; mak- ing models of inexpensive materials to test the design; the form and poise of the body in their relation to dress; child's dress, materials, drafting, cutting, and making the same. Fourth grade: This grade completes the general course. It includes instruction in tailor finish-, as applied to dresses, jackets, and coats. Orders may be received and executed by students. The outline is as follows: Material used in making coats, as staple and manufactured; drafting jackets and coats of various styles; cutting, basting, fitting, pressing; practice in making-pockets, applying same to garment; making buttonholes; sewing on buttons; lining and fin- ish of coat; making collars; principles applied to tailor-made dresses. Technical course. This course extends through one year and comprises all the work of the general course. It provides additional practice in executing orders, which students may take on their own account during the second half of the year. Attendance is required every day, except Saturday, from 9 a. m. to 1 p. m. Students have the use of the dressmaking rooms until 4 p. m. Students receive the full course of instruction in drawing and water color, and in the keeping of accounts, business forms, and corre- spondence, given in the general course. Students taking this course are expected to attend the courses of lectures in the chemistry of textiles, dyeing, and cleansing, and in physiology and hygiene with reference to dress. Ko additional fee is required. MILLINERY. General course. The general course in millinery consists of three consecutive grades, each occupy- ing one term. In each grade two lessons in millinery, of two hours each, are given weekly. This course also includes instruction in drawing and water color, for the purpose of giving the students a knowledge of line and form, and the ability to execute designs for the various kinds of hats in monochrome and color. One lesson of one and one-half hours is given each week throughout the three grades. Instruc- tion is also provided in accounts, business forms, and correspondence, two lessons a week being given throughout the grade in which the work may be taken. A course of lectures in the chemistry of textiles, dyeing, and cleansing is given in the second term of each year. All materials used are selected and furnished by the students. Constant use is made of the extensive collection of books in the library and of the important collection of textiles in the museum. The leading American and foreign fashion periodicals are supplied in the millinery rooms. First grade: In this grade the work begins with the study of the hat in detail. The methods of preparing the various fittings for the brim are taught upon a straw and a felt hat, canton flannel and cheese cloth being used which represent, respect- ively, velvet and crepe. After each exercise of fitting the brim, the hats are trimmed with suitable bows of sateen, which serves as ribbon. The knowledge so gained is then applied in the making of one hat of choice materials. The outline is as follows: Color and materials as related to the headdress; wiring; folds; fitted facing; shirred TEADB AlTD TECHNICAL EDUCATION — TTNITED STATES. 187 facing; puffed edge; bows and rosettes; study of line and form as applied to frame making; buckram hat frames; fitted hat made, lined, and trimmed; manufactures of straw and felt hats, velvet, and ribbon explained. Second grade: In this grade the bonnet and toque are studied, using for practice materials that are appropriate for the purpose. The latter part of the grade is devoted to the making of bonnets and toques of choice materials. The outline is as follows: Bonnet with plain crown and with puflfing, made, lined, and trimmed; bonnet of more complex design; toque made, lined, and trimmed; practical work, regulated by the season in which the grade is studied, and leading to a knowledge of the design- ing of bonnets and hats. At least four pieces of millinery must be made by each student. Third grade: Throughout this grade students work in choice materials, to gain confidence and experience; they are allowed to receive and execute orders. The outline is as follows: Crepe bonnet; silk bonnet or hat; growth and manufacture of silk explained; wire frame making; large velvet hat; evening bonnet from student's own design; shirred hat. Graduate work: Students who have finished the three grades of the general course may remain another term for the purpose of doing more original work and gaining additional practice in dealing with the designs and materials appropriate to the two millinery seasons. The work may consist largely of orders taken by the student. Technical course. The technical course occupies one year. Attendance is required every day in the week, Saturday excepted. Evening classes: In the evening classes, instruction is given in the first, second, and third grades of the general course in dressmaking, and in the first and second grades of the general course in millinery. Each grade occupies one session. There ■ is also a class in sewing. In each grade two lessons of two hours each are given weekly. The institute is under the general management of a president and board of trustees. There are about 70 instructors, 60 of whom are engaged in the courses covered herein. A large number of the instruct- ors are professional teachers, college and technical school graduates, whose training has been supplemented with long experience in practical work in the parts they teach. The following table shows the number of pupils m various courses during the past j^ear: PUPILS IN SELECTED CLASSES IN DEEXEL INSTITUIE. Courses. Drawing, painting, and modeling . Illustration Clay modeling Wood carving Design and decoration Architectural courses Electrical courses Mechanical drawing Machine construction Wood working Mathematics Chemistry Sewing and dressmaking Millinery Total. Lay classes. 100 34 119 60 Evening classes. 138 62 118 40 11 122 51 762 Total. 189 34 17 7 30 155 84 152 54 11 122 51 195 81 1, 182 188 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. Including the evening classes, the number of pupils that have com- pleted the foregoing courses is about 500. The total cost of mainte- nance is 1140,000 per annum. Of this amount it is estimated that about 70 per cent is required for the art, industrial, and technical branches. The institute derives its income from an endowment fund provided by the founder, and from tuition fees. Regarding the courses of training and study, it is stated that they are quite satisfactory. The management has always aimed to maintain a high standard of efficiency in everything pertaining to the institute. The only thing needed at present is additional class room, and this will soon be provided, as plans have already been made for a new building which will occupy a convenient site adjoining the institute building. Generally speaking, the institute has done a great deal toward furnish- ing some of the local manufacturing establishments with a class of workmen who are well equipped in the theory and technique of the trades. The influence of the institute upon the working classes gen- erally is a hard matter to estimate. It is safe to say, however, that through its schools, library, and public lectures it has aided in pro- moting the general intelligence and social development of all classes in the community. The effect upon those who have been under instruc- tion is said to have been beneficial in every respect. The thorough technical training given to the students make them more valuable to their employers, and they are preferred over ordinary apprentices and workmen. A forcible illustration of the value of this training to the students is furnished by one of the largest industrial establishments in the city. In this establishment a reduction of two years from the usual period of apprenticeship is allowed to young men who complete the technical courses in the institute. The success of the institute has had no effect in the way of causing improvement in shop training in the vicinity. On this point it is said, "the ideal of the average shop is purely commercial, and thorough training is subordinated to quick results. The workmen are given special parts to perform and there- fore do not acquire a full knowledge of the trade. Everything is done with a rush and the thorough training of the all-round mechanic is lost sight of." In dressmaking, millinery, and in some trades which require tech- nical skill and a knowledge of architectural and mechanical drawing, it is possible for the graduates to engage in practical work without under- going the usual period of apprenticeship. The institute schools have met with a high degree of success and have practically attained the end for which they were established. SPRING GARDEN INSTITUTE, PHILADELPHIA, PA. The Spring Garden Institute was incorporated in Philadelphia, April 12, 1861. When the school was first started it was intended merely to teach industrial drawing and design. Subsequently a mechanical TKADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION UNITED STATES. 189 handiwork school was organized, and finally a school of applied elec- tricity was added, which is strictly speaking a technical school. Each school or department is complete in itself. The special need that led to the establishment of the school was that mechanics were unable to read the drawings of mechanical draftsmen, and it was the opinion of the founders that they could be made more useful to their employers and more valuable to themselves by being trained in the principles of linear representation of objects. Both day and evening classes are conducted in each department. The night classes generally are intended to be helpful to apprentices and mechanics who are employed in industrial establishments during the day. The classes are not intended to produce architects, mechan- ical draftsmen, or artists. The chief purpose always kept in view is to give the pupils such technical instruction as will make them more useful as mechanics. Nevertheless, out of these night schools have come architects, engineers, draftsmen, and artists. The day schools are for those who desire a thorough art or mechanical training before entering a trade or profession. The outcome is the same as in the night classes, but because of the longer time devoted to study the pupils receive fuller instruction and a larger proportion advance to the professions. The institute library contains a large collection of reference and text- books on art, mechanical, and engineering subjects which are always accessible to the pupils. The mechanical and electrical equipment comprises a full complement of working tools for each pupil, a com- plete assortment of wood-working and metal-working machinery, dyna- mos, motors, transformers, and an air-brake outfit; and for the study of electric traction a complete street car truck, equipped with two 30-horsepower motors, has been installed. In addition, the institute lighting and power plant, with both alternating and direct current sys- tems of lighting, steam and gas engines, boilers, pumps, etc., is espe- cially arranged and adapted to give the pupils a thorough insight into this line of work. The regular school year, which is divided into three terms of twelve weeks each, begins the middle of September and ends about the middle of June. There is also a special summer term lasting twelve weeks, which is intended for the benefit of those who desire to study during the vacation period. The regular course of instruction covers a period of three years. The studies in the day art school provide for a fixed course of free- hand, mechanical, and architectural drawing, pen and ink work, paint- ing in oil and water colors, industrial designs as applied to wall papers, textiles, stained glass, book covers, etc. This course is arranged as nearly as possible in progressive order. Sessions are held five days each week from 9 a. m. to 2 p. m. The studies in the night art school 190 BEPOBT OF THE COMMISSIONBB OF LABOR. cover practically the same ground as those of the day school, except that they are on the elective basis. Sessions are held two nights-, each week from 7.30 to 9.30 o'clock. Lectures on geometry and per- spective are given one evening each. week throughout the season, which the pupils of all classes are expected to attend. The instruction in the mechanical department comprehends courses in wood and metal working. During the first year pupils are assigned to either wood or metal work for the fij'st term,, at the end of which they arc shifted, so that by the end of the second term all pupils will have had elementarj- training in both wood and metal working. Beginning with the second year the pupils are required to make a choice of the class they desire to enter, and thereafter the instruction and shop practice is confined to wood or metal working, as they may elect. This method gives the pupils the benefit of continuous work with one kind of tools and enables them to attain greater proficiency in the particular branch they ma}- desire to follow. In the metal- working division the second and third year courses include general machine work, tool making", and machine construction, and in the wood- working division general pattern making is taught. All pupils in the mechanical and electrical departments receive instruction in mechanical drawing and mathematics. Sessions are held six days in the week, from 8 a. m. to 5 p. m., except Saturdays, when the school closes at noon. The instruction in the night classes is the same as in the day classes, except that the sessions are not divided into terms, and less time is devoted to shop work. There are but two sessions of two hours each per week. The regular course in the elec- trical department extends over a period of thi-ee years for both day and night classes. Pupils in the da^'' class are required to attend the mechanical course also. The instruction is designed to give the pupils a thorough knowledge of the elementary principles of electricity and a practical working knowledge of electrical machines, instruments, and appliances. During the first year of the day class the mechanical shop work is supplemented by a course of lectures on practical elec- tricity. In addition to the mechanical shop work in the second and third year courses two days per week are devoted to experimental and practical work in the laboratory and electrical shop. Except that the pupils are not required to enter the mechanical department, the instruction in the night class is conducted on the same general lines as in the day class. The sessions and hours for instruction are the same as in the mechanical department. In addition to the regular course there is a special evening course in dynamo and motor construction and testing. The charges for tuition are as follows: Day classes, per term, draw- ing, designing, etc., |20; mechanical and electrical departments, first year f25, seeond and third years f30, summer term f20. Evening TEADE AND TECHKICAL EDUCATION UNITED STATES. 191 classes, free-hand, mechanical, and architectural drawing, and design- ing $5 per term; mechanical department f6; electrical department, first year $10, second year |15, third year |20; special course in dynamo and motor construction |25. The institute is under the control of a board of managers. There are 14 instructors, all of whom have had many years' experience in practical work, and a majority are also graduates of technical and scientific schools. The number of pupils in the different classes during the past year was as follows : PUPILS IN EACH CLASS IN SPRING GARDEN INSTITUTE. First year. Second year. Third year. Total. DAY SCHOOL. Drawing, designing, etc. . Mechanical department . Electrical department . . . Total, day school. 23 48 30 61 25 101 NIGHT SCHOOL. Free-hand drawing Mechanical drawing Architectural drawing Designing (tor those who have studied free-hand) . Mechanical department Electrical department MO 45 20 40 105 280 138 44 15 Total, night school Total, day and night schools . It is Estimated that there have been about 3,000 graduates since the school was established. The building and equipment cost $200,000. The original building was dedicated in 1852. The average cost of maintenance is $16,000 per annum. The institute derives its income from tuition fees and an endowment fund which at present amounts to $168,600. Thirty rooms, with an aggregate floor space of 29,000 square feet, are devoted to the use of the schools. Regarding the courses of training and study and the benefits resulting from the establishment of the schools, it is said; The only improvement aimed at is to apply more thoroughly the principles of the school — the teaching of "things rather than words" — and the progress in this direction is entirely satisfactory. In a great city filled with manufacturing establishments it is impossible to trace the influence of a single school upon industries. AH that can be learned on the subject is that the institute has contributed its full share toward furnishing, the industries with a better class of workmen than they would have without its educational influence. While probably two-thirds of the pupils are sons of mechanics who have learned by bitter experience that want of knowledge of mechanical drawing and the principles of mechanics is a severe hardship, tbe labor unions have never taken any action regarding the schools. 192 EEPOET OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. There is no record of former pupils, though some of the reports show that many of them have advanced to high positions. It would be wrong, however, to ascribe their success to the institute, for a great deal depends upon the man himself. The institute has helped these successful men by giving them sound elementary training, and they were prepared to take advantage of the opportunities offered and worked out their own advancement. Better wages and more rapid promotions have unquestionably resulted from the training received by the pupils, and they are preferred over ordinary apprentices. The institute has more applications for employees than it can fill from its graduates, and really suffers from the demands made upon it, because some pupils are taken by manu- facturers before thej' have obtained as much training as the institute could and ought to give them. No graduate is fitted to work as a master mechanic. They have not the "commercial speed" which comes of long practice. But the dullest graduate has a far better knowledge of tne technique and principles of the trades than the average mechanic and will excel him in the long run. The institute schools have proved highly satisfactory, and have fully attained the end for which they were established. The original purpose was to afford instruction and training that would qualify the graduates to enter the trades and become good mechanics. This, and more, has been accomplished, for the most successful graduates invariably seek more agreeable and better-paying positions as draftsmen, engineers, and designers. GENERAL SOCIETY OF MECHANICS AND TRADESMEN, NEW YORK, N. Y. The General Society of Mechanics and Tradesmen of New York City first took up the work of education about the year 1820. Pri- marily the school was intended for the gratuitous education of the children of indigent and deceased members of the society only, but it grew in such favor that other children were admitted upon payment of a moderate sum for tuition. This plan was successfully continued until the increasing merits of the public free schools rendered it no longer necessary, and in December, 1858, it was discontinued. In January, 1859, the society established the present evening school for the purpose of enabling those engaged in daily occupations to acquire gratuitous instruction in free-hand, mechanical, and architectural draw- ing, modeling in clay, elementary mathematics, and physics. In addi- tion to the regular class work, the pupils have the benefit of technical lectures on subjects pursued in the class room. Tuition is free to any young man 16 years of age and over and of good moral character. For a number of years past the society has maintained 19 free schol- arships in the New York Trade School. These scholarships are awarded annually to such deserving applicants as, by their position in life, would be materially benefited by acquiring a knowledge of a skilled trade. TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION UNITED STATES. 19S The school term begins the latter part of September and ends the middle of April. Sessions are held four evenings each week. The hours for instruction are from 7.30 to 9.30 o'fclock. The courses of instruction are as follows: MATHEMATICS. Instruction is given three evenings a week in the following subjects: Arithmetic, algebra through quadratics, plane geometry, and plane trigonometry. The aim in the mathematical classes is to offer work of a practical nature bearing upon the problems confronting the student in his everyday work. A knowledge of mathematics is essential to an intelligent pursuit of study in physics and mechanical or architectural drafting; therefore students in these classes are encouraged to take preliminary work in mathematics. MECHANICAL DRAWING. First year (two evenings a week): Elementary principles of mechanical drawing; principles applied in simple working drawings; developments and intersections; isometric drawing; working drawings; tracings; talks on shop methods and blue printing. Second and third years (three evenings a week): During the second and third years an opportunity is afforded to follow any one of the following special lines of mechanical drawing: Machine-shop drafting; yacht drafting; Patent Office drafting; mechanism — drafting of gears, cams, engine details, valve diagrams, etc. ; drafting in connection with electrical industries; lettering (one year); drafting for cornice mak- ers and sheet-metal workers. AECHITECTUEAL DRAWING. First year (two evenings a week) : Preliminary course in projections; detail draw- ings of windows and doors; cornice details; various details in frame construction; masonry details — chimneys, arches in brick and stone; isometric perspective. Second year (three evenings a week) : Plans and elevations of houses, preference being given to city conditions; exterior and interior details in various materials; the orders of architecture. Third year (three evenings a week): Course continued along the lines of the sec- ond year's work, but of a more advanced character; elements of architectural design; perspective; study of a school, library, or church; shades and shadows; historic ornament; original work in ink and wash. During the course frequent talks are given, with blackboard illustrations, on mod- ern steel construction as applied to high structures, foundations, the laws relating to buildings, and the formulas for ascertaining the strength of various materials used in building construction. The last two months are devoted to a graduation drawing. FREE-HAND DRAWING. Two evenings a week during the first two years and three evenings a week during the third year. First year: General free-hand drawing in pencil and charcoal, designed to meet the needs of the individual student in the particular branch of his daily occupation. Drawing from ornament and details of human figure. Second year: Drawing from the antique. Third year: Drawing from life. CLAT MODELING. Two evenings a week. Students in this course are required to take two evenings a week in free-hand drawing. 9257—02 13 194 REPOBT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. First year: The rudiments of clay modeling; first principles governing the con- struction of ornamental design; use of geometrical figures and their combination in design; introduction of study of natural foliage and its combination with geometrical figures in decorative design. The conventionalizing of natural foliage into ornament; the meaning and origin of the various styles used in ornamental design and their development; the orders and their development. Second and third years: Instruction in modeling for professional purposes graded according to pupil's trade or occupation. The attaining of a thorough understanding of the treatment of plastic ornament in the various styles, studied exclusively from casts. Figures, masks, and animal forms combined in ornament; modeling from design or photographs; free composition in design. PHYSICS. A one-year subject preparatory for special work in electricity, mechanism, heating and ventilation, and building construction. Three evenings a week. First year: Principles of mechanics, light, heat, and electricity, including the properties of matter; laws of work, motion, energy; determination of specific gravity; pressure and density of fiuids; the steam engine; magnetism; laws of electric currents and electrical measurements. One hour each evening is devoted to this subject and students are required to attend the class in mathematics during the other hour, or offer an equivalent. The school is under the general management of the General Society of Mechanics and Tradesmen. There are 10 instructors, 7 of whom are college graduates and 3 whose training was obtained in practical work. The number of pupils in each class during the past year was as follows: PUPILS IN EACH CLASS IN THE EVENING SCHOOL OF THE GENERAL SOCIETY OF MECHANICS AND TRADESMEN. Architectural drawing. Mechanical drawing. . . Free-hand drawing — clay modeling Mathematics Physics Total. Elemen- tary class. Advanced 32 20 26 34 70 63 The record of graduates is incomplete, but it is estimated that at least 6,000 pupils have completed the different courses. The building in which the school is held is owned by the society and was dedicated January 3, 1900. More than two-thirds of the entire floor space of the building is devoted to school purposes, and the value of this part, together with the equipment, is estimated at $300,000. The cost of maintenance is about 17,500 per annum, and is provided by the society. In the opinion of the officials, the present courses of training and study can not be improved upon. It is felt that the school has per- formed invaluable service for mechanics and workingmen generally. The classes have always been made up very largelj^ of mechanics and their sons, and though obliged to work at their trades during the day, TEADE AND TEOHJSriOAL EDUCATION— tlNITED STATES. 195 they have been glad to take advantage of the opportunity afforded by the school to devote their spare time in obtaining technical instruction which Gould not be had in the workshop. The effect upon those who have been under instruction has been most satisfactory. Higher wages, steadier employment, and more rapid promotion have invari- ably come to those who have completed the courses. It is stated that the graduates are preferred over shop-trained apprentices and work- men because their technical training, which is taken in conjunction with practical work in the shop during the day, makes them superior work- men,, and they show greater aptitude to do more difficult work than those mechanics who neglect to acquire a knowledge of the technical principles which apply to their respective trades. A large proportion of the pupils are mechanics and apprentices who are already engaged in trades which, require a knowledge of drawing, and they attend the school for the purpose of becoming proficient in that part. Those who study drawing with the intention of following it up as a means to a livelihood must also devote some time to obtaining practical experience before they are competent to take up regular work. As a rule this class of graduates start in under instruction in a drawing-room and work their way up. This school has proved satisfactory in every respect and has fully attained the end for which it was established. ROCHESTER ATHENiEUM AND MECHANICS INSTITUTE, ROCHESTEB, N. Y. The Rochester Athenseum and Mechanics Institute, of Rochester, N. Y., is the result of a consolidation of the Rochester Athenseum, which was organized in 1830, with the Mechanics Institute of the city of Rochester, which was organized in 1885. The consolidation was effected June 4, 1891. The corporation has since been most popularly known by the latter portion of its title. It is said that the inception and largely the extension and upbuilding of this modern institution of learning is due to one of the leading manufacturers of Rochester, Mr. Henry Lomb. Employing from 700 to 800 workmen, in a busi- ness that required the highest kind of mechanical skill, Mr. Lomb had experienced the obstacles attendant upon the prevailing meager system of technical education. He found that there was not only a lack of good mechanics, but that when he needed men of high technical skill it was necessary to send abroad for them. In common with other manufacturers, Mr. Lomb felt that there should be some place near by where apprentices and mechanics, and young women also, could receive such technical instruction as would not only be useful in ordi- nary blanches of industry, but would also result in creating a class of artisans who would compare favorably with the technical experts who are trained in foreign schools. The importance that was attached 196 REPORT OF THE OOMMISSIOISTEK OP LABOR. to the matter is best illustrated by the paper which was circulated for signatures among the manufacturers. It was as follows: .We, the undersigned, manufacturers and employers, consider the establishment of free evening schools in this city for instruction in drawing, and such other branches of studies as are most important for industrial pursuits, of great advantage to our people. We believe that, besides the immediate benefit these schools would bring to many, they would greatly assist in gradually securing to our city the tech- nical instruction and training which brings so valuable and beneficial results wherever it exists, and which is admitted to be of vital impor- tance to our country. We consider it proper that our manufacturers and employers should take the first step in this matter, and cordially invite them and all those who take an interest in this undertaking to meet in the common council room to consult about the best ways and means for the establishment of such school, as well as other matters which may assist practical education. Shortly after this the following was put forth from the University of Rochester, signed by the president and others: We learn with great interest of the movement now in progress among the manufacturers of this city toward the establishment of a school of technical drawing and other studies bearing upon industrial pur- suits. We are thoroughly convinced that the general influence of such a school can not fail to be salutary, while its special and direct bearing upon many branches of industry must be beneficial in an eminent degree. The distinction which is beginning to be accorded to this city on account of its great variety of industries and the supe- riority of many of its manufactured products renders it fitting as well as necessary for the maintenance of this distinction that such a course of instruction should be immediately established and generously sus- tained. It would not only develop the talent of our young artisans, but also attract to this city the best talent of the country. We there- fore desire to express our most cordial sympathy with this movement, and give it our most earnest commendation. The circulation of this paper resulted in several meetings, and finally, on the 21st of October, 1885, the Mechanics' Institute was founded. The object of the institute, as stated in its charter, is " to promote such practical education as may enable those persons receiving instruction to become better fitted for their occupation in life. The means by which it is proposed to carry out this object shall be the establishment of a school for drawing and designing, the giving of lectures and hold- ing of discussions on practical subjects, and such other instruction as may be found useful in furthering the aims of the association." The school was formally opened on November 23, 1885, when more than 400 applicants enrolled their names, and classes were formed at once. During the time that the institute has been in existence it has given instruction to more than 24,000 pupils. Although its growth has been somewhat phenomenal, the institute has carried on its work in detached buildings which were poorly adapted for the purpose, and a hope of TEADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION UNITED STATES. 197 the future had always been that some time, by the combined efforts of its friends, it might be established in a commodious and thoroughly equipped structure. Through the generosity of one man this hope is realized, and the institute now occupies one of the most modern school buildings in the country. The magnificent new building, erected at a cost exceeding $200,000 and presented to the institute by Mr. George Eastman, was formally opened for inspection by the public April 15, 1901. The building is three stories in heig-ht and has a floor space of 2^ acres. It is constructed of red brick, with steel beams and trusses for floors and roof, and in point of adaptation for its purposes it may be pro- nounced perfect. The heating and ventilating systems are of the most modern type. The heat is distributed by a giant fanning system, which carries it to the most remote corners of the building, yet by a system of automatic regulators it is possible to raise the tem- perature of any room to a desired point, regardless of conditions in all other apartments. The system of ventilation is so perfect that the entire quantity of air throughout the building can be changed every ten minutes. The requirements for admission are as simple as possible. The classes are open to all, without distinction of color, creed, nationality, or sex. The regular school year opens in September and closes in June. The courses of study are divided into two departments, namely, a department of industrial and fine arts and a department of domestic science and art. In the latter department there are three terms of three months each in day and evening classes. The courses compre- hend every branch of domestic work and, except the dressmakers' training class, are intended chiefly for those who desire instruction for home use, and for teachers. The work in the department of industrial and fine arts is arranged to meet the requirements of three classes of pupils, namely: (1) Those who are employed otherwise dur- ing the day and attend only in the evening; (2) those who can devote only one or more days a week, taking special branches; (3) those Avho attend five days a week and wish to pursue a full course of instruction. The work in the separate evening classes "in this department is arranged to cover three years, with sessions two evenings each week, for one term of seven months, extending from the latter part of Sep- tember to the latter part of April each j^ear. Pupils from the public schools are not admitted to the evening classes in this department. The advanced classes are open only to those who have completed the previous year's work, or its equivalent. The day courses are divided into three terms of three months each. The work in each class covers a full course of instruction in the branch taken, and may be completed in from one to three years, according to the number of hours per 198 EEPOET OF THE COMMISSIONEK OF LABOR. week devoted to it and the aptitude of the pupil. In addition to the regular terms, there is a short summer term lasting from July 8 to August 3. Besides the industrial and art courses in the day school there is a mechanic arts course of high-school grade, a part of which is devoted to manual training, a separate manual-training course, normal courses, and Saturday classes for teachers and pupils of the public schools. -As such courses do not come within the scope of this report, they will not be considered in detail. The courses of study include free-hand, mechanical, and architec- tural drawing, ornamental design, composition and pen and ink draw- ing, drawing from life, painting in oil and water color, china decora- tion, lettering, clay modeling, history of art, mathemathics, physics, chemistry, electricity, statics, steam engineering, industrial training in. wood and in iron. A f ourth-j'ear class in machine design has been added to the course in mechanical drawing, which will include a study of mechanism, valve motion, machine construction, etc. In the archi- tectural course the aim. is not so much the study of architecture as that of building construction. The course in ornamental design includes a study of historic and modern ornament, conventionalization, composi- tion, geometrical arrangements, etc. The advanced classes take up applied design. The work in free-hand drawing, composition, and pen and ink drawing is intended to develop the creative ability of the pupils and to equip them for practical work in illustration. In steam engineering the work consists of lectures, discussions and problems on steam, boilers, engines, indicators, pumps, and condensers. It is not the aim of the institute to turn out steam engineers, but rather to give those engaged in the work or interested in the studj' the chance to improve in that line. The course in industrial training in woodwork is designed for those who desire a thorough knowledge of the best methods of performing the various operations in timber framing, bench work, pattern making, and cabinetmaking. The course in industrial training in iron is intended to cover as thoroughly as possible the working of iron and steel and the making of some finished mechanism or machine tools. The charges for tuition are as follows: Day classes, per term, free- hand, mechanical, architectural, and design drawing, mathematics, and physics, $7.50; life class, pen and ink and composition, $9; history of art, $4; painting in oil and water colors, $9 to $12; dressmakers' train- ing class, $25. Evening classes, per term, free-hand, mechanical, architectural, and design drawing, first-year course, $-1; second and third year courses, $6; pen and ink drawing, lettering, clay modeling, mathematics, electricity, and machine design, $6; physics, $10; life class, f 12; practical electricity and industrial training in wood or iron, fl5; statics and steam engineering, $4; chemistry, |12 for first-year course and $15 for second and third year courses. TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION — UNITED STATES. 199 The school is under the general management of a board of directors. There are 26 instructors in the courses covered by this report, all of whom have had practical training in their respective branches, and a number are also graduates of the school. The number of pupils in the different classes during the past year was as follows: PUPILS IN SELECTED CLASSES OP THE MECHANICS' INSTITUTE. Courses. Free-hand drawing Mechanical drawing Architectural draining Ornamental design Composition and pen and ink drawing . Life class Painting, oil and water color Clay modeling Art history China decoration '. Lettering Mathematics Chemistry Electricity Steam engineering Industrial training in wood Industrial training in iron Dressmakers' training Total . Day classes. Evening classes. 115 225 24 30 20 21 Total. 160 244 24 51 52 50 52 17 33 7 10 30 16 59 16 27 44 14 The number of graduates is 3,600. The value of the pi'operty owned by the institute is about $iOO,000, 75 per cent of which is devoted to school purposes. The funds for the buildings and equip- ment were furnished by donations and contributions from the citizens of Rochester. The institute is maintained by tuition fees and contri- butions from the citizens of Kochester. The cost of maintaining the entire institute is about $40,000 per annum. At least 65 per cent of this amount is chargeable to the courses covered by this report. The officials feel that the present courses of training and study are entirely satisfactory. It is said that there can be no question regard- ing the benefits accruing to local industries as a result of the estab- lishment of this school. It has been influential in raising the standard of intelligence and efficiency of the working classes generallj-, and has been a strong factor in promoting industrial, educational, and social development in the community. This, in fact, is also the testimony of many of the leading citizens and manufacturers. The effect upon those who have been under instruction is said to have been beneficial in every respect. Those who complete the courses have no difficulty in procuring good positions and steadj^ employment. Many of the graduates now hold leading positions in the largest establishments in the city. The graduates are preferred to shop-trained apprentices and workmen, for the reason that, after having a reasonable amount of shop practice, they are better fitted to perform their work. Furthermore, they are able to make better and quicker progress and are more reliable than those who' have no technical training. The 200 EEPOET OF THE COMMISSIOKEB OF LABOR. position taken by many of the local manufacturers on this point is best illustrated by the fact that they will not employ a young man as an apprentice unless he will attend the evening classes at the institute. It is thought that the success of the institute and its graduates has led to the improvement of ordinary shop training in the locality. Regarding the ability of graduates who have had no previous shop experience to take up practical work without serving a period of apprenticeship, the opinion of the principal is worthy of attention. He states that the institute does not claim to teach trades to the ex- tent that the graduates can go out and do as good work as those who have spent years in working at the same part or occupation. Very few, if any, of the graduates of the trade or technical schools are qualified to do practical work until they have spent a year or more in execution or shop work. The school can give the theoretical and technical instruction far better than it can be given in the shop, but an opportunity to apply and harmonize the theoretical and technical knowledge with everyday shop conditions and practical work is re- quired before the graduate can be considered competent. Many of the young men and women obtain good positions just as soon as they grad- uate, but after having one or two years' outside experience they develop more rapidly and receive higher compensation. The results thus far accomplished have exceeded the most sanguine expectations of the founders of the institute. While the original object has long since been attained, still the constantly changing conditions in the industrial world give rise to other educational necessities which the institute hopes to share in providing for. The commodious new building affords ample facilities for increasing and extending the scope of the work, and the officials look forward to a still greater career of usefulness for the institute. WELLS MEMORIAL INSTITUTE, BOSTON, MASS. This institute has been in operation twenty-one years. Its objects, as stated by its constitution, are "to provide working people the means of social intercourse, mutual helpfulness, mental and moral improvement, and rational recreation." Starting in two rooms, it now has a membership of between 1,800 and 1,900 men and women, and uses to the extent of its capacity a five-story brick building. It maintains club rooms, rooms for billiards and other games, a coffee and lunch room, bowling alleys, a trade-discount system, a medical aid association, a benefit society, two cooperative banks, a building asso- ciation, bicycle and baseball clubs, etc., and carries on mechanical and industrial evening classes and a system of free lectures. The evening classes include courses in architectural and machine drawing, practical electricity, steam engines and steam engineering, dressmaking, millinery, cooking, and stenography and typewriting. TRADE AND TECHNICAL BDTJOATION — DNITED STATES, 201 For these courses there are 8 well-trained instructors. The number of pupils in these courses and the number of those who have com- pleted full courses can jiot be given, as very few take full courses of instruction. The only fees charged are an entrance fee of 50 cents for each course and the fee of $1 per year for membership in the institute. The funds for maintaining these classes come from the fees and con- tributions, and they are managed by the officers of the institute and its superintendent. The courses are capable of great improvement, both by enlarging the number of subjects taught and furnishing better equipments, but the outlook for this is not especially promising. The benefits derived from these courses have been in fitting working men and women for better positions, and consequently for better sala- ries, and in furnishing more intelligent labor to employers. The courses, especially those in steam engineering, electricity, and drawing, have been attended by a large percentage of labor-union men, and the rest of the educational work has alwaj^s had the hearty support of organized labor. Higher wages, steadier employment, and more rapid promotion have most decidedlj'' accrued to those who have taken these courses, as a result of their better preparation for work, and such workmen have been preferred by employers to merely shop- trained men, especially in engineering and electricity. These evening classes have, generally speaking, proven quite satis- factory, and while perhaps they have not fully attained the desired end, owing to lack of means to perfect the courses of instruction, they have been a great help to working people. NEWARK TECHNICAL SCHOOL, NEWARK, N. J. The establishment of this institution is due to the Board of Trade of Newark, N. J., taking advantage of a State law enacted in 1881, which provides — That whenever any board of education, school committee, or other like body of any city, town, or township in this State shall certify to the governor that a sum of money, not less than |3,000, has been contrib- uted by voluntary subscriptions of citizens, or otherwise, as hereinafter authorized, for the establishment in any such city, town, or township of a school or schools for industrial education, it shall be the dutj^ of said governor to cause to be drawn, by warrant of the comptroller, approved by himself, out of any moneys in the State treasury not otherwise appropriated, an amount equal to that contributed by the particular locality as aforesaid for the said object; and when any such school or schools shall have been established in any locality as aforesaid there shall be annually contributed by the State in manner aforesaid,' for the maintenance and support thereof, a sum of money equal to that contributed each year in said locality for such purpose: Provided^ however. That the moneys contributed by the State as aforesaid to any locality shall not exceed in any one j^ear the sum of $5,000 202 KEPOET OF THE COMMISSIONER OP LABOR. All moneys raised and contributed as aforesaid shall be applied, under the direction of a board of trustees, organized as hereinafter provided, to the establishment and support of schools for the training and education of pupils in industrial pursuits (including agriculture), so as to enable them to perfect themselves in the several branches of industry which require technical instruction. The school was opened February 9, 1885, in a small building, which was occupied until January, 1897, when it was transferred to a hand- some modern structure well suited and arranged for industrial and technical education. The particular object of the school is the advance- ment of the manufacturing interests of the city and State through the agency of industrial and technical education. Both day and evening sessions are held. The school j'ear for the evening classes begins the first Monday in October and ends the second Friday in May. In the day classes the year commences on the third Monday in October and continues to the first Saturday in June. An applicant for admission to the first-year class must be at least 16 years of age, of good moral character, and must pass a satisfactory exam- ination in arithmetic, algebra as far as factoring, and physics, or pre- sent a certificate of graduation from one of the local grammar schools. Applicants who are not prepared to enter the first-year class may enter the preparatory class, provided they are at least 15 years of age and proficient in arithmetic as far as percentage. In addition to the above there are two-year courses in theoretical and applied electricity, electroplating, and plumbing. The sessions of the evening classes are held on five evenings in the week from 7.20 to 9.30, except the classes in the chemical laboratory, in which the sessions begin at 6.30. The sessions of the day classes are held on Monday and Wednesday from 2 p. m. to 5 p. m. , and on Satm-day from 9.30 a. m. to 12 noon. All text-books and drawing materials must be provided by the students. The courses of instruc- tion are divided into a general and a special course. The latter consists of special studies, or short courses made up of subjects which form a part of the general course. The general course for the evening classes is as follows: Preparatory: Arithmetic, algebra to factoring; writing and business forms; Eng- lish composition and physics (properties of matter). First year: Algebra, to equations of the second degree; theoretical and descriptive chemistry; free-hand drawing, three hours per week. Second year: Algebra, completed; geometry; free-hand drawing, four hours per week; lectures on agricultural, technical, and physiological chemistry, and labora- tory work. Third year: Geometry, completed; mechanical or architectural drawing, four hours per week; descriptive geometry; physics; dynamics, heat, static and dynamic electricity and magnetism, and laboratory work in chemistry. . Fourth year: Trigonometry; theoretical and applied mechanics; technical chem- istry; physics; sound and light; mechanical or architectural drawing, two hours per ,week. TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION-— UNITED STATES. 203 An applicant for the course in theoretical and applied electricity must be proficient in arithmetic, algebra as far as quadratic equations, elementary physics, and have some knowledge of mechanical drawing, or present a certificate of graduation from a high school. In the plumbing course the applicant must pass an examination in arithmetic and must have worked at the plumbing trade at least one year and bring a letter from his employer to that efi'ect. The object in this course is not to teach the practical work, but to educate the pupils in the theory and principles of the trade. The instruction in the day classes is devoted entirely to art and, excepting the Saturday class, is intended for women only. The course includes antique and pen and ink drawing, studies of drapery and objects of industrial art, painting groups of still life, flowers and foliage from nature, drawing from the costumed model, etc. For the general course of study there is no charge for tuition to residents of the city, but in the special courses and in all cases where the student is a nonresident a tuition fee is charged. The school is under the general management of a board of trustees. There are 13 instructors; a majoritjr of them are college graduates, and all have had practical training in their respective branches. The number of students in the school during the past year was as follows: Preparatory class, 36; first-year class, 74; second-year class, 41; third- year class, 20; fourth-year class, 18; tlreoretical and applied electricity, 10; electroplating, 5; plumbing, 3; post graduates, 4; special students, 23; day students, 21; total, 255. Of this number 236 students were residents of the city and 19 were nonresidents. The number of gi-ad- uates is 136. The cost of the building and equipment to date is about $73,000. The funds for erecting the building were supplied by voluntary con- tributions from local citizens, and the equipment was purchased out of the State and city appropriations. The maintenance of the school requires 112,000 per annum and is derived from the State and city appropriations. The courses of training and study are satisfactory, though it is stated that the scope of the work might be improved by adding a course in mechanic arts, and a course in designing as applied to small metal goods, such as jewelry and novelties, but owing to lack of funds there is no immediate prospect of this improvement being made. AVith respect to the effect upon those who have been under instruction, it is said: "The school has certainly increased the intelligence and effi- ciency of those who have attended it. The habits of precision which are inculcated by the theoretical and systematic training gives the graduates preference over ordinary apprentices and workmen, and as a rule they command higher wages and are in demand not only locally, but wherever one has been employed others are wanted. Most of the 204 BEPOET OF THE OOMMISSIONEE OF LABOR. work is of a technical nature and is pursued in conjunction with the trades in which the students are engaged during the day. Those who pursue the studies prior to entering upon practical trade work must also undergo a period of apprenticeship before they are considered proficient. The school has proved very satisfactory and has practi- cally attained the object for which it was established." VIRGINIA MECHANICS' INSTITUTE NIGHT SCHOOL OF TECHNOL- OGY, RICHMOND, VA. The object of this school is said to be the promotion and encourage- ment of manufactures, the mechanic and useful arts, and the mental and social improvement of the industrial classes. The fact that mechanics are so generally deficient in a knowledge of the elements of their trades led to the establishment of the school. Instruction is given in the following studies: Arithmetic, algebra, geometry, trigo- nometry, applied mechanics, bookkeeping, free-hand drawing, archi- tectural drawing, mechanical drawing, naval architecture, chemistry, natural philosophy, electricity, and modeling. During the session of 1900-1901, for which the facts presented herein were gathered, the number taking each study was as follows: Arithmetic, 115; algebra, 24; architectural drawing, 23; bookkeeping, 44; chemistry, 9; electricity, 19; free-hand drawing, 31; geometry, 22; mechanical drawing, 38; modeling, 8; natural philosophy, 2; naval architecture, 2; total, 332. Pupils are required to pay a membership fee of $3 on entering the school, and to pay for their own books, instruments, etc. Certificates of promotion are issued and diplomas are given upon graduation. Very few of the pupils graduate and obtain diplomas, most of them being working people who do not complete the full course. There are 16 instructors, many of whom have been trained in educational insti- tutions, while others have received a practical training only. The building used is not owned by the institute, but is rented for $500 per year. The equipment cost about $800. The cost of main- taining the school is $6,000 per year. The funds are obtained in large part from the city and are added to b}' the membership fee of $3 per individual. It is believed by the oiEcers of the institute that the school could be improved by perfecting the courses, which are curtailed owing to want of room and money. The prospect of a new building is excel- lent. A great deal of benefit has accrued to the industries of this sec- tion by reason of the dissemination of technical knowledge among the many mechanics who have attended the institute, and this applies to other sections of the country as well, as over 4,600 students, coming from all parts of the United States, have attended the school. The institute has a reference library that is very valuable to mechanics and architects, and also to those of other trades. TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION — UNITED STATES. 205 The graduates, and those who have attended the classes without being graduated, are better prepared for work than those who have not received such educational advantages, and in consequence their status is raised, and higher wages, steadier employment, and more rapid promotion have been the usual result. This school does not teach trades or occupations except in the case of mechanical drawing, etc. It takes the man at his trade and gives aim the theoretical and technical side of it. Most of the students are actively employed during the day in the shops. The school has proved eminently satisfactory and has more applicants than it can accommodate in its present quarters. As far as its present facilities will allow, the end for which it was established has been attained. TECHNICAL SCHOOL FOB CABBIAGE DRAFTSMEN AND MECHANICS, NEW YORK, N. Y. The Technical School for Carriage Draftsmen and Mechanics was established in New York City in 1880 by the Carriage Builders' National Association. The express purpose of this school is to afford technical instruction to mechanics who are already employed in the carriage industry. It is said that at the time when this school was started all the best carriage designers came from abroad. The pro- moters had great faith in the idea that a school of this kind would not only be the means of creating a competent class of American design- ers, but it would also be a benefit to the manufacturers generally by affording facilities for superintendents, foremen, and skilled mechan- ics to obtain a thorough technical knowledge of the industry. The requirements for admission provide that the applicants must be engaged in the manufacture of pleasure or business vehicles; they must be 16 -years of age or more, and able to speak, read, and write English, and to write a fairly good business letter; they must have a knowledge of arithmetic sufficient to solve problems in proportion and in square and cube root. Some knowledge of geometry is also desired, but it is not required on entering. Examinations for admis- sion usually take place two weeks preceding the opening of the term. Drawing instruments must be furnished by the pupils. The school year is divided into two terms. The autumn term opens on the first Monday in October and closes at Christmas. The winter term opens on the first Monday after New Year's Day and closes the last Friday in April. Day and evening sessions are held. The day class meets five days each week from 9 a. m. to 4 p. m., and the even- ing class meets three nights each week from 7.30 to 9.30 o'clock. The day class is limited to 10 pupils and the evening class to 30 pupils. The tuition fee in the day classes is $30 for the autumn term and |10 for the winter term. The fee in the evening classes is |5. No pupil will be entitled to a certificate of graduation unless he can pass, in the judgment of the trustees, a satisfactory examination in all 206 EEPOET OJ' THE COMMISSIONEK OF LABOE. the branches taught. He must, upon examination, evince a thorough knowledge of geometry as applied to carriage building, known as the "French rule of drafting;" show facility in making free-hand draw- ings; be able to make scale and full-size working drawings of car- riages; be able to give the proper sizes of the different parts of light, medium, and heavy carriages; and be able to write, clearly and cor- rectly, orders for such parts as are made by special manufacturers, such as wheels, axles, and springs. A knowledge of perspective and colored drawings is also desirable. The courses of instruction are divided into three classes, namely, an introductory or free-hand clas^, a class for the study of carriage geometry, and a class for scale and full-size working drawings. The studies comprise linear designing, including free-hand, scale, perspec- tive, colored, and full-size drawing; geometry applied to carriage construction, including the principles of the so-called "French rule;" carriage-body making; construction of carriage gearings; and princi- ples involved in the suspension of carriages. In addition to the regular class work instruction is also given by correspondence to employees of carriage builders and the trade acces- sory thereto. This class is kept open during the entire year, and pupils may join at any time. Three terms are required to complete the full course of corresponding lessons, which are 83 in number and are conducted by means of the so-called "Chautauqua system." The cost of the full course is |3 to apprentices and $6 to journeymen and others. The school is under the general management of the Carriage Build- ers' National Association. There is but one instructor, and he is a graduate of the school and a practical carriage builder also. During the past year there were 2 pupils in the day class, 28 in the evening class, and 400 in the corresponding class. The number of graduates is 225. The school occupies three rented rooms, with about 1,400 square feet of iioor space. The equipment is valued at $1,000 and was furnished by the Carriage Builders' National Association. The cost of maintenance is $2,500 per annum. The school is maintained partly by tuition fees and partly by contributions from members of the Carriage Builders' National Association. The courses of training and study were specially designed for the carriage industry, and, in the opinion of the officials, need no improve- ment. It is said that the school has rendered material aid to carriage builders throughout the country, and has done a great deal toward increasing the intelligence and efficiency of the higher class of mechan- ics who are engaged in the carriage industry. The effect upon those who have been under instruction has been highly satisfactory. Of the graduates since 1892, 16 per cent are in business for themselves, TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION— UNITED STATES. 207 16 pel' cent are holding positions as superintendents, 23 per cent are foremen of departments, 31 per cent are carriage draftsmen, and the remaining 14 per cent are working at their trades under greatly improved conditions. The technical knowledge obtained by the graduates alwa3^s results in their receiving preference over ordinary shop-tr-ained workmen. It is said that the success of the school has led to the improvement of ordinary shop training. Most of the graduates are men who have already learned the body-making branch of the trade. When they com- plete the course some take positions as carriage draftsmen without hav- ing to serve a period of apprenticeship, and others are soon pi'omoted to responsible positions. The school has proved satisfactory in every respect and has fully attained the end for which it was established. SCHOOL OF MESSBS. B. HOE & CO., NEW YORK, N. Y. This school was established more than thirty years ago in New York City by Messrs. E,. Hoe & Co., manufacturers of printing presses, etc. The need for a school of this particular kind grew out of the fact that the constantly increasing demand for improved machinery made it necessary to have a more intelligent class of workmen in the construc- tion departments. In order to bring about the desired results the company decided to establish a school where the boys and young men employed in the shops during the day might spend a portion of their time in the evening in acquiring a knowledge of such things as would enable them to better understand the work in which they were engaged and which would insure a higher degree of efficiency and ultimately result in training up a superior class of workmen. Admission to the school is restricted to the apprentices who are serving their time with the company. Tuition is free. The course of instruction covers a period of four years and is carried on in con- junction with practical work in the shop during the day. The school opens the first week in September and closes the last week in May. Sessions are held three nights each week. The course of instruction includes English, mathematics, geometrj', and free-hand and mechanical drawing. The school is under the general management of the company. There are 5 instructors, 3 of whom are college g^'aduates and 2 are practical machinists who are graduates of this school. There were 60 pupils in the school during the past year, and since the school was started there have been about 1,400 graduates. The school is equipped and main- tained by the company and occupies about 3,300 square feet of floor space in the main building. The equipment cost fl,000 and the cost of maintenance is |4,000 per j-ear. 208 EEPOET OP THE OOMMISSIONEK OF IxABOK. The officials state that the course of training and study is specially adapted to the purpose in view and needs no improvement. The school has been a great benefit to the establishment, and has effected a very decided impi-ovement in the intelligence and efficiency of the workmen. The graduates always receive preference in the establish- ment and they have steady employment and receive the highest wages. Many of them are now filling important positions in various parts of the country. As workmen they are preferred over any other class because they are better fitted to do the work intrusted to them. It is not known whether the success of this school has led to the improve- ment of shop training in other establishments, but in this establish- ment many improvements have been effected through the agency of the school. As the course of instruction is arranged to continue and ter- minate with the regular period of apprenticeship in the workshops, all' the graduates are competent to do practical work as full-fledged jour- neymen. The school has proved satisfactory in every respect, and has fully attained the end for which it was established. FKEE EVENING DRAWING AND TRADE CLASSES OF THE PUBIilC SCHOOLS, SPRINGFIELD, MASS. These classes were established to provide for young men desirous of adopting industrial pursuits an opportunity to gain a good knowledge of machinery in order that they might be able to rise in the industrial world. The classes in free-hand drawing and drafting were established over twenty years ago, and classes in tool making, machine-shop prac- tice, and plumbing were started three years ago. These classes are under the management of the school committee of the city and the superintendent of schools. The object of the free evening drafting classes is to teach mechanics and others, either men or women, the principles of instrumental draw- ing used by designers, decorators, architects, machinists, and engi- neers. Those wishing to attend free of charge must reside in Spring- field, must not be less than 15 years of age, and must not be mem- bers of the public day schools. Nonresidents are charged flO for the term of twenty-one weeks. The school hours are from 7.15 to 9.15. The outline of the work is as follows: Beginners' class (two evenings per week): Use of tools and the drawing of plane figures. Orthographic projection of solids, and the principles of same applied to the making of working drawings. Middle class (one evening per week)': The development of surfaces of solids, iso- metric projection, theory of the screw, and the laying out of practical working draw- ing, line shading. Advanced class (two evenings per week) : Machine and architectural drawing, class and individual instruction in the principles of cams and gears, the laying out of practical working drawings from models and figured sketches, practice in tracing, and instruction in blue printing. Class and individual instruction in house planning and details of same. Architectural perspective and the coloring of drawings. These TEADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION^ UNITED STATES. 209" different branches are arranged in a series of courses, coifering each subject in such a practical manner as to make it possible for any student to fit himself for a position as draftsman in any of the different trades. Persons to be admitted free to the evening free-hand drawing classes- must be residents of Springfield, not less than 15 years of age, and must not be members of a public day school. Nonresidents are charged $15 for the session. One lesson a week is required. Elementary class: Still life, simple casts, etc., in charcoal. Intermediate class: Still life, historic ornament, and casts from details of humart figure in charcoal. Advanced class: Drawing from life in charcoal, pencil, pen and ink, and brush. Pictorial composition. Applicants for admission to the evening tirade classes in tool making; and machine-shop practice are required to furnish satisfactory evidence, of fitness to do the required work. They must have a practical knowl- edge of such machines as the lathe, shaper, and drill press, and the tools which accompany them. They must also give satisfactory refer- ences. From time to time test pieces of each student's work are subjected to measurements by standard measuring machines. The. degree of accuracy in the student's work, as shown by these author- ized tests, determines his standing, and forms the basis on which cer- tificates of proficiency are granted. Three of these certificates entitle a student to a diploma. At least three years are required to complete this course. The tuition fee for the term, November to April, is lift for residents of Springfield, and $20 for nonresidents. The course of instruction begins with the u»e of the simpler testing- tools, such as calipers, gauges, and micrometers in machine-shop problems. After these preliminary exercises, the construction of simple tools, such as mandrels, twist drills, reamers, butt mills, mill- ing cutters, taps, and dies, is begun. These tools are first finished in the rough, and afterwards tempered and ground to accurate dimen- sions. They are not accepted unless the}^ are as accurate as tools of their class produced by the best makers. The next step in the course is the making of standard gauges, such as fixed or snap gauges, standard plugs, and collar gauges. Practice is also given in designing and making special gauges for testing cer- tain parts of the work involved in high-grade manufactured products. The final steps in the course include the more complex and original processes for which the preceding practice has been a preparation. This work involves the making of machine tools which are to be used in the production of the interchangeable parts of machines. In this class of tools are included jigs, templets, punches, dies, etc. A course of mechanical drawing accompanies the shopwork on the lines nec- essary to a proper understanding of the details of the mechanical processes. 9267—02 11 210 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. For the evening trade classes in pluuabing the tuition fee for the term is |10 for residents of the city and |20 for nonresidents. . The outline of the work in the plumbing classes is as follows: First year: The theory of plumbing practice — (1) Metals and alloys; solder and its manipulation. (2) Hydraulic rams, how to set and put in operation; practical demonstration.. (3) Pumps, single and double acting, how 'to connect and repair. (4) Water and its distribution; service pipes; friction, -adjustage, pressure, and velocity; vena contracta. (5) Water supply; water hammer, cause and remedy; noises in water pipes; air locks in water pipes, cause and remedy. (6) Water regu- lators; reducing the pressure; practical tests with gauge. (7) Water meters, how to read; sample for practical demonstration. (8) Filters and filtration; samples. (9) Kitchen range boilers, single and double, with various connections, showing faulty and correct method for hot- water circulation; upright and horizontal setting; circulation of water; illustrated with charts. (10) Storage and house tanks; safety and vacuum valves; faucets, how to repair, showing various patterns; freezing of pipes; thawing of pipes. (11) Cottage house plan and specification; city, tenement, and apartment house plans for supply pipes. Manual instruction — Methods of joining metals; tools, names and uses; straighten- ing pipe; preparing pipe ends; cup joint; overcast joint; making and putting on tacks; cleaning and testing solder; wiping joints, supply pipes only; horizontal and upright, round and branch, 3-way joints; packing bibbs and ball cocks; wiping in and adjusting bibbs for sinks and laundry tubs; setting up and connecting boilers with range and house tank; tank lining and pipe connections. Second year: Theory of plumbing practice — (1) Heat, ventilation, local and drain; practical demonstration. (2) Drainage S5'stem; subsoil drains, cellar drainers; cess- pool construction; sewer, drain, soil, and vent pipes. (3) Ventilation of house drains; fresh-air inlets; frozen vent pipes; plenum and ^•acuum in a drainage sys- tem; foul air, where discharged. (4) The siphon and its action upon house plumb- ing. (5) Traps and siphonage; grease traps; where should a trap be ventilated? (6) Traps tested, showing merits and demerits of the various traps; samples of twelve makes. (7) Fixtures; baths, sinks, urinals. (8) Lavatories; laundry tubs, tank valves. (9) Water-closets; care of plumbing fixtures. (10) Proper arrangement of plumbing fixtures. Manual instruction — Wiped joints, round and branches, on IJ- to 4 inch lead pipe, also of angle; wiping on 2 and 4 inch ferrules; wiping side and floor flanges; wiping flanges on traps; wiping joints used in electric conduits; sand bends, springs, etc.; sand bend offsets and angles; soil-pipe joints, upright and horizontal; setting up soil- pipe drainage systems; setting up plumbing fixtures; lead burning. In the above classes 6 instructors are engaged in teaching. Three of these are teachers of mechanical and free-hand drawing, with a thor- ough art education gained in the Massachusetts Normal Art School. One has had experience of over twent}' j^ears in machine-shop work, 1 is a graduate of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and has had long experience in machine shops and in drafting rooms, and 1 has had training as a plumber, having been a master plumber for many years and for several years the citj^ inspector of plumbing. During the school year 1899-1900 the attendance in the various classes averaged as follows: Drafting class, 117; drawing class, 73; tool-making and machine-shop practice class, 32; and plumbing class, 19. The cost of the equipment for the classes in tool making, machine- shop practice, and plumbing was |760, but that for the drafting and TEADE AKD TECHNICAL EDUCATIOH — ITJTITED STATES. 211 drawing classes can not be separated from the cost of the daj' drawing classes of the public schools. The annual cost of maintaining the.se classes is about 11,400, paid by the city. The school authorities consider that the courses in drafting, drawing, tool making, and machine-shop practice are entirely satis- factory, while the course in plumbing might and will be extended. The drafting and drawing classes have turned out many intelligent young men who are now employed in the industries of the locality. The general intelligence and efficiency of those who have attended these classes have been much increased, and higher wages, steadier employment, and more rapid promotion have accrued to them; they are preferred by employers to merely shop-trained men, and in most trades they can obtain work withou-t undergoing a period of appren- ticeship in the shop. Shop training itself in Springfield has been improved as a result of the success of these classes. Labor unions do not seem to have recognized these classes as valuable to workingmen and have given theOi no aid, nor have they opposed them, as unions, though many union men talk against the classes. YOUNG MEN'S CHRISTIAN ASSOCIATION SCHOOLS. It is a well-known fact that the sole object of the Young Men's Christian Associations of North America is the general improvement of young men. Among the various features that are emplo3'ecl toward this end probably none are more productive of practical bene- fit to the rank and file of the members than the splendid educational system that has been established. During the earlier period of their history the educational work of the associations was largely confined to the study of commercial branches. In the course . of time the importance and value of industrial training became more apparent, and one association after another became interested in the subject and added one or more industrial branches to the regular curriculum. For a long time each association had full charge of its own class work, examinations, etc., and there was no particular uniformity in the methods or standards. Having in view the establishment of more definite, unified, and standard courses of study, the international com- mittee'of the associations in 1895 made an effort to interest the differ- ent associations in a scheme of experimental examinations which would apply to ail schools alike and, in a measure, would demonstrate the possibility of establishing a system of standard courses and exam- inations. It is sufficient to say that the effort was successful from the start. In 1896 the international committee issued its first prospectus containing an outline of the courses of study, and assumed charge of the annual examinations. The system thus introduced has been con- tinued to the present time, and it is said to be a vast improvement 212 KEPORT OF THE COMMISSIONEB OF LABOE. over the methods previously employed. While most of the associa- tion schools take advantage of the courses prescribed by the interna- tional committee, only about one-third participate in the annual examinations. The following statement regarding the work of these schools was furnished by the secretary of the educational department of the Young Men's Christian Associations of North America: A very important part of the all-round work of the associations throughout the continent is that of the educational department. As the associations exist for the welfare of young men in all directions, it is natural that industrial and technical education should occupy an important place in the curriculum of the 350 or more evening schools in the association buildings scattered over the country. The work of these schools embraces the instruction of 26,000 young men by about 1,200 teachers. The subjects pursued are commercial, industrial, scientific, language, political, and miscellaneous, depending largely upon the needs and opportunities of the particular locality. The following comments concern the work in industrial subjects, in which there are about 6,000 young men engaged as students and 300 as teachers. The industrial work is in operation in about 250 of the 300 cities in which the evening school work of the associations is conducted. This includes all cities of the first and second classes, as there are few associations in cities of 25,000 population or upward that do not have some work classed as industrial. The best work of this character may be found in the following cities: Brooklyn, N. Y. ; New York City; Boston and Springfield, Mass. ; Chicago, 111. ; Philadelphia, Pa. ; Balti- more, Md. ; Washington, D. C; Hartford and Bridgeport, Conn.; Cleveland, Dayton, and Cincinnati, Ohio; St. Louis, Mo.; St. Paul and Minneapolis, Minn.; Portland, Oreg. ; Denver, Colo.; Atlanta, Ga.; San Francisco and Los Angeles, Cal. While the work is industrial to a large degree, part of it may be called trade work, although much of it might be classified as technical, especially so far as it concerns the advanced work in mechanical draw- ing, machine design, building construction, structural drafting, etc. The need which led to the establishment of this work of a varied character throughout the country was simply the fact of the readiness of the associations to help young men to help themselves. Thousands of young men already engaged in machine shops and other industrial and manufacturing concerns need help in drawing, whether mechanical, architectural, or design, to enable them to better prosecute their daily work. 1 urthermore, there are many men in the crowded commercial ranks who are desirous of fitting themselves for industrial positions. Those needs and demands the associations are helping to supply as far as their limited means will permit. As the schools are under the auspices of the local associations in each city the rules and regulations for entrance, conduct, work, etc., vary slightly, but are not far different from those found in the ordi- nary evening schools. The courses of instruction are arranged for each subject separately-that IS, mechanical drawing, for ins^nce,is a subject by itself, and students pursue that oftentimts without study- ing anything else. ■' The regular courses include architectural, free-hand, and mechanical drawing, carpentry, applied mechanics, and machine design. In some TBADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION — UNITED STATES. 213 localities the course of instruction includes other branches also. Thus, in Philadelphia there is a course in air-brake construction and manipu- lation which is specially designed for railway employees. The Boston school has lettermg, sign writing, industrial design as applied to fur- niture, wallpapers, printed fabrics, etc., and a two-year course in naval architecture. The Hartford school has forging, plumbing, and jewelry engraving. The general management of each association is in the hands of a board of directors. They employ a general secretary, who is at the head of all forms of association work in a single building. Under the direction of the general secretary are department secretaries, and in a number of the larger cities there is an educational director who gives his entire time to the development of the educational work as a whole. There are 300 instructors. In selecting instructors the training sought is more largely from experience than otherwise, as the studente appear to have more respect for the practical, successful manufacturer or artisan than they have for the merely scholastic and theoretical col- lege graduate. There are but two grades, elementary and advanced, for each subject. Sometimes students spend two years in the elemen- tary grade before going to the advanced grade. During the past year there were about 4,500 students in the elementary grades and 1,600 in the advanced grades. As only about one-third of the schools partici- pate in the international examinations, it is difficult to state the exact number of graduates for all the associations. It is estimated, however, that since the introduction of industrial work as a part of the educational sj'stem there have been in the neighborhood of 10,000 graduates in the industrial branches. The association property throughout the country is valued at 120,000,000, and a fair estimate of the valuation of the portion devoted to educational work would be one-tenth of that amount, or $2,000,000. Of this latter amount only about one-fifth, or $400,000, could be assumed as devoted to the industrial phases of the work. The cost of maintenance per man per season for all evening class work is from $13 to $15. This is assuming the educational work to share the same proportion of the current expenses as it does in the valuation, or one -tenth, so that including heating and lighting the cost of maintenance would be about 1100,000 per annum. The schools are maintained partly by tuition fees and the balance is provided by the local associations. The courses of training and study, might be improved. The fact that they have been improved by at least 100 per cent during the past six years leads us to feel that there is constant opportunity for further development and improvement. This improvement, however, will probably come from the increased importance of the subjects classified as scientific, such as advanced mathematics, the elements of physics, chemistry, electricitj^, and mechanics as applied daily to the problems in the various kinds of drawings and shop work. Another form of improvement will come in the increased length of time given to study. Five -years ago such time averaged one evening per week per subject. To-day it averages a little more than two evenings per week. Speaking from the experience of the manufacturing concerns and employers who have employed the young men studying in our schools, the following statement can be made: The educational class work of the associations helps young men to help themselves; it improves the industries by increasing the intelligence and skill of the emploj^ees, and it enables the young men to increase their efficiencv and receive. 214 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. as well as merit, increased remuneration for their services. Each year from 200 to 500 different men are enabled to either secure posi- tions or receive increased salaries because of the knowledge gained in the industrial classes of the associations. For example, one young man three years ago was receiving $iO a month as a bookkeeper. He studied mechanical drawing in our school at Dayton, Ohio, for three years and is now receiving $1,500 a year in the drafting room of the car shops in that city. Ten young men in Brooklyn within the last three years have entered architects' offices where they receive from 12.50 to $5 per day, as a result of their study of architectural drawing in the Brooklyn school. In two or three places the labor organizations, or sections of the same, have officiallj' indorsed the industrial work of the association schools and also the trade work where it included plumbing and car- pentry. In other instances, however, similar work has been opposed by the labor unions on the ground that the schools would fit ]ust so many more men for the trades and thereby "take the bread and butter from the mouths of the members of the union." It can not be said that the graduates of our schools are preferred by employers and superintendents over shop-trained men, but we do know, however, that they are employed on the same basis witli the graduates of other technical schools and colleges. One reason for this is that the' char- acter of our work is intensely practical. Our teachers are in very many cases the head draftsmen or the superintendents of manufactur- ing establishments, and we always endeavor to secure the most experi- enced and successful practical men to handle the work in the industrial subjects. We have no evidence that our work has led to the improvement of ordinary shop training. However, good work in any line, no ^matter how small, has a conscious or unconscious influence toward improve- ment. These schools, in a general way, have proved satisfactory. They have not as yet attained the end for which they were established, but the results have been increasingly encouraging, especially during the past Hve years. Our system of rigid examinations throughout the continent has been of great value in raising the standard of work dur- ing this time, so much so that many colleges and technical institutions are in sympathetic and cordial cooperation with us in this movement, and officially recognize our international certificates at their face value as based upon our prospectus. The work of the Boston and Hartford schools being representative of the most complete courses in the industrial branches, these schools are treated in detail. YOUNG MEN'S CHBISTIAN ASSOCIATION, BOSTON, MASS. This school was established in 1896 to provide for the educational needs of those who have been deprived of a good foundational educa- tion. The school aims to educate the student in just as broad a sense as his ability will permit, and every course is framed and conducted on an educational basis, with strictly practical ends in view. The object of the school is to furnish the best equivalent for a regular day- school course in whatever department the student ma}' elect. Perfect TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION— UNITED STATES. 215 freedom is allowed in the matter of studies selected, provided those are taken which are adapted to the abilities of the student. There are ten departments, or courses, of instruction, as follows: 1. Elementary: Arithmetic, grammar, spelling, geography, writing, reading. 2. Civil service: Arithmetic, grammar, geography, railroad junctions, reading, writing, spelling, copying rough draft, copying from dictation, reading addresses, special lines in drawing — mechanical and architectural. 3. Commerce: Arithmetic, bookkeeping, penmanship, shorthand, typewriting, commercial law> commercial English, German, French, Spanish, and commercial geography. 4. High school: Arithmetic, algebra, geometry, Latin, French, German, and Greek. 5. Drafting: Mechanical, architectural, mechanical design, ship drafting, sign writ- ing, French, German, algebra, geometry, and lettering. 6. Languages: English, French, German, Latin, Spanish, Greek, and Italian. 7. Music: Piamo, voice, organ, violin, harmony, composition, cornet, flute, man- dolin, guitar, and banjo. 8. Law: Contracts, torts, criminal law, agency, property, equity, bills and notes, practice and pleading, partnership, evidence, corporations, wills, constitutional law, recitations, quizzes, and moot courts. 9. Art: Free-hand drawing and industrial design. 10. General: Elocution, literary society, young men's congress, government, clubs, class organizations, concerts, lectures, musicales, etc. Separate courses may be taken by those who desire it, but the school authorities recommend that the student enter one of the ten depart- ments requiring from two to four years of study and take all the work prescribed therein. In 1899 the whole number of students in the various departments of the institute was 812, all males. The number of classes was 46, the membership of all classes was 1,790, and the total number who had attended the school since its opening was 31,623. Only the drafting and art departments come within the scope of this report as clearly industrial in character, and their courses are a,s follows: The departments of drafting and art afford instruction in elementaiy drawing, mechanical and architectural drawing, mechanical design, naval architecture, letter- ing, free-hand drawing, industrial design, and sign writing. The aim of the entire work is to turn out finished draftsmen in all lines, and -ivith that end in view the best teachers are employed from the leading schools, and every feature is conducted on a professional basis. The elementary drawing class offers a course in the principles underlying all mechanical and architectural drawing. This class is a feeder for the advanced classes into which students will be promoted at any time they are prepared. Geometrical problems, shadows, intersections, projections, and all the elementary principles will be fully presented in a clear and practical manner. In mechanical drawing the course comprises instruction in machine drawing, sketching from the machine, the construction of scale drav,'ings and tracings, and the preparation and use of blue-print paper. The object of this course is the production of finished detail and assembly drawings for shop use. A practical knowledge of projections and shading, as well as some proficiency in the use of drawing instru- ments, is most essential, these Bubjects being given in the elementary class. 216 KEPOET OP THE COMMISSIONED OE LABOE. The object of the course in mechanical design is to provide practical instruction upon a number of subjects relating to engineering work. Hitherto draftsmen, machinists, and others desiring to study special mechanical problems have applied for admission to the class in advanced mechanical drawing. A special class is now provided for such students. To enter this class the student must be somewhat familiar with mechanical drawings. He must also be possessed of a good knowledge of arithmetic. The course consists of twenty-four lectures upon the subjects scheduled, many of the problems being demonstrated by apparatus, dummy engine gears, etc.: (1) Strength of materials; (2) standard bolts; (3) levers; (4) screws and toggle joints; (5) cams; (6) belts; (7) ropes; (8) pulleys and shafting; (9) and (10) gears; (11) and (12) riveted joints; (13) to (16) boilers; (17) and (18) steam engines; (19) and (20) steam-engine indicators; (21) and (22) iron and steel manu- facture; (23) and (24) mill structure. Each student is required to keep a thorough notebook, and work out numerous problems in connection with the above topics. The class meets on Wednesday evenings at 7.45. The three-years' course in architectural drawing aims to acquaint the student with the scientific principles underlying the study of construction, and with the elements of mathematics and mechanics necessary to the solution of architectural problema. Owing to the limited amount of time possible in evening work, some subjects are omitted which serve only to broaden the education. The purely architectural sub- jects, however, are retained and the student given the essentials. The first year's work consists of the proper use of instruments, geometrical prob- lems, intersections, shadows, and lettering. Free-hand drawing from the cast and model should be taken during the entire three years. One foreign language is also offered during the same time. The strictly professipnal work begins in the second year with instruction in the classic moldings, five orders, timber, brick, and stone construction, pen and ink rendering, architectural history, and elements of design. The third year the student is thoroughly drilled in original design; instruction is also given in shade and shadow rendering in India ink, perspective, business law, heating and ventilation, and steel, stone, and brick construction. Applicants for admission to the second or third year classes, omitting the previous grades, must show that they possess the requisite knowledge. Students are received as members of any class for which they are qualified, but the necessity of taking the complete course is urged. Students entering with a view of making architecture a profession have programmes arranged by the educational director. The revival in the shipbuilding interest of the United States is calling into activity a class of draftsmen who for years have been in slight demand. Ship draftsmen have been so little called for during the past fifteen years that few have fitted them- selves for this particular field, and now that they are in demand the supply is inade- quate. With the wish to place this much desired instruction in the reach of drafts- men, students, and yachtsmen, the following courses have been framed. Yachtsmen will find the work helpful and suggestive and an effort will be made to frame courses adapted to their special needs. First year. — Drafting: Lines — sheer plan, half-breadth plan, body plan, midship section; projections — water lines, cross sections, diagonals, section lines. Construc- tion (steel or wood): Keel, keelson, frames, floors, deck beams, planking or plating, decks, ceiling, riveting or fastening. Second year. — Calculations: Displacement, center of buoyancy areas of cross sec- tions, areas of water lines, areas of lateral plane, areas of midship section displacement per inch, center of lateral plane. Yacht construction: Keel, keelson frames floors -beams, clamps, decks, planking, fastening. Lead keels: Calculation'of weight- cal- culation of center of gravity. Sail plans: Calculation of area, calculation of center of lateral resistance, calculation of balance. TBADB- ATSTD TEOHKICAL EDUCATION — ^^UNITED STATES. 217 The instruction in mechanical lettering, which is of the utmost importance to all engaged in any line of drawing, covers two hours per week. No matter how well made a drawing may be, poor lettering will ruin its appearance, so that the student who expects to become a really valuable man, and one commanding a good salary, must become expert, not only in drafting, but in lettering also. Many able draftsmen are unable to secure desirable positions because of their inability to letter well. The course in free-hand drawing includes drawing from the object, forms, plaster casts, and life; instruction in the use of pencil, charcoal, and brush; perspective; ele- ments of design, and technical application. To young men engaged in such pursuits as architecture, lithography, designing, and engraving, where judgment of the eye and training of the hand are needed, this class is especially helpful. A new and well-lighted room has been provided, furnishing excellent facilities. A course in practical design as employed in the arts and crafts, including such sub- jects as stained glass, furniture and drapery, wall papers, printed fabrics, book covers and inlaid work, the study of form as applied to pottery and its decoration, wrought and bent ironwork, wood and stone carving, and interior decoration. The term is divided into two sections. The first, from October to December, is devoted to the study of the various styles of historical ornament, animal and plant forms, and the principles of construction in design. The second term, from January to April, is devoted to the practical application of design, the technicalities of the various arts and crafts, the final rendering of design in charcoal, pencil, pen and ink, and water colors. The instructor is a certificated art master and one of the leaders of the pro- fession. Every effort is made to have this course of practical value to men from the various trades. The course in sign writing offers complete instruction, including the preparation of new and cleaning of old boards; the mixing of paints and sizings for all purposes; bronze, gold, and silver lettering; gold and silver lettering on glass, worked up in numerous ways, being placed on the back of the glass, thereby producing beautiful effects; lettering on card and cloth (one of the great commercial branches); gold and black lettering on office doors; treating with gold, silver, and aluminum on any surface; lettering on banners (silk or cotton); sign advertising on walls audiences in all its branches; engraving on brass and princess metal'; .fancy lettering of every description — monograms, scrolls, and striping. The total number of instructors in the institute in 1899 was 39, of whom 7 devoted all, or part of, their time to instruction in the depart- ment of drafting and art, and 1 of these is a certificated art master; 3 are instructors in the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 2 are expert sign writers, and 1 is a practicing architect. Five of the above were professionally trained in colleges. During this year there were 193 students in this department, and about 80 have taken full courses therein since the department was opened. Members of the evening institute are required to hold a $5 associa- tion membership ticket or a $10 gymnasium ticket, and in addition, to pay, in either case, the small class fee for each subject. The educational ticket also entitles a member to the privileges of the evening institute, library, reading room, reception room, socials, bath- ing facilities, free storage for bicycles during the riding season, summer camp, and free admission for self and lady to the Association Star Course of Entertainments. As an aid to worthy men who desire an education, and are unable to pay in full even the slight charges, a limited number of scholarships 218 REPOKT OP THE COMMISSIONER 01' LABOB. has been provided. Early application is necessarj', as the funds avail- able for this purpose are limited. It is necessary for each applicant for a scholarship to furnish satisfactory references. The following annual class fees are exacted: Architecture— elemen- tary, 12, advanced, %i; free-hand drawing, $1; industrial design, $2; lettering (mechanical), $2; mechanical drawing — elementary, $1, advanced, $2; mechanical design, fi; ship drafting, $5. The management of the institute is in the hands of the educational director under the control of the education committee of the Boston Young Men's Christian Association. The cost of the equipment for this department was about |2,000, and the annual cost of maintaining it is about the same amount. The funds for maintaining, etc., are procured, one-third from tuition fees, one-third from the endowment fund, and one-third from subscriptions of the members of the associatiour It is thought by its friends that the department might be improved by adding mechanical engineering and bridge construction to the courses provided, but the existing courses are about as good as it is possible to have them. The establishment of the department has, it is said, increased the intelligence of the workmen of the locality, bettered their character, extended their horizon, given them a greater appreciation of the advantages of extended education, and raised their efficiency. As a result of this higher wages, steadier employment, and more rapid promotion have followed in many cases, and those who have taken the course are preferred by employers, etc., to merely shop-trained men because, knowing, as such men do, why they per- form certain operations as well as how to do them, they are. better equipped for their work. The shop training in the locality has been improved, as the shops are trying to follow the pace set by the institute in industrial training. A large number of men engaged at their trades during the day have attended the classes, doing very creditable work, and expressing great appreciation. Moral aid alone has been given the school by the labor unions, but thov have manifested no opposition to it. The institute has been suc- cessful so far in all its departments, and has fully attained the end for which it was ostuMishcd. HILLYER INSTITUTE (Y. M, C. A.), HAKTFOKD, CONN. Six-sevcnths of the boys who become mechanics in this locality leave school at U years of age, with only a rudimentary education. While they may acquire much practical knowledge by their work, yet under modern conditions they can have little opportunity to become thoroughly equipped mechanics by work in the machine shops and mills, and therefore few rise beyond a certain point of attainment in thdr trades. They may, under the shop system of education, become TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION — UNITED STATES. 219 the master of some one machine or some one operation, but can never- learn in the shops all the details of their trades so as to become fitted for the positions of foremen, overseers, or superintendents. Their only chance to fit themselves for such positions is bj^ study outside of working hours, and the night school offers them the best opportunity for this. Recognizing the need of special tenhnical education, and also the need of an education in general lines beyond that which the average workman is able to obtain in the day schools, the Hartford Young Men's Christian Association has conducted educational classes for many years. It was, however, unable for a long time to develop to any great extent this very important part of its work. Its present good condition and its opportunity for growth were made possible by the erection of a new building and the special provision made for the educational department now known as the Hillyer Institute. On December 22, 1892, Mr. Appleton R. Hillyer and Miss Clara E. Hill- yer presented the association with an endowment fund of $50,000, the income from which is used for this work. The gift was made in memory of their deceased father, Gen. Charles T. Hill3'er, and its object, to quote from the terms of the gift, was "to promote manual, industrial, commercial, and art education — in art, more especially the useful arts — and to inculcate habits of industry and thrift." Because of this fund the association has been able to teach a variety of subjects and to add to its curriculum the industrial classes so greatly needed in a city like Hartford, where many young men are engaged in mechanical pursuits. The school is under the management of an educational secretary, who acts under the direction and with the cooperation of the educa- tional department committee of the association. Courses of instruc- tion are provided in architectural, free-hand, and mechanical draw- ing, carpentry and cabinetwork, engraving, forging, plumbing, and electricity. The outlined courses of the various industrial branches are as follows: Architectural drawing. — Elementary principles of projections: Directions for use of instruments and material, application to simple geometrical forms, explanation of geometrical terms and method of finding plans and elevation of simple figures. Method of laying out roofs with steel square (showing application to all forms of roofs), plans and elevation of a small dwelling house. Isometrical drawing: Princi- ples and theory with application to simple geometrical figures. Elementary details: "Window frames, door frames, cornice details for frame dwellings, instruction in tracing and blue printing. Principles of projections: Development of covering of cylinder and cones and application to sheet-metal work, development of covering of domes and spheres, lines of intersection of cylinders, cones, spheres, etc. Details: Window frames for brick and stone buildings, fioor and roof framing, details for chimneys, fireplaces, and stair cases, complete set of working drawings for frame dwelling to cost about $5,000. Details of stone and brick work, ironwork, roof trusses, complete set of working drawings for stone and brick schoolhouse. Perspec- tive: DefLaitions and principles, method of finding perspective of simple geometrical 220 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. ■ figures, -perspective of frame dwelling from working drawings made in previous lessons, introducing also some practice in free-hand drawing. Free-hand drawing. — The use of various materials, how to look at a model, use of antique casts, application to other lines of drawing, measurement by the perpendic- ular, the horizontal, and the diagonal, size of drawing, character of outline, relative strength of lines, variations of same, artistic feeling in a line, forms, modeling with stump, use of the charcoal, of crayon, adaptability of the latter, light, shadow, half tones, relations of one to the other, importance of accuracy, how to look for values, taken as a whole, separately, atmosphere effect of drawing, sketching in pencil, use of same, relation of pencil to charcoal or crayon the same to painting, brushes, brush treatment, comparison with pen-work results, ail forms of vehicles in their proper place, application of pictures to the mind of observer, relation of the arts, the broad- ness of the painter's field as compared with music, literature, sculpture. Mechanical drawing, elementary. — Geometric problems, illustration of the planes of projection: Horizontal, vertical, plan, elevation, point, line, solids. Sections, crosshatching, shade lines, direction in which light is supposed to fall. Projection of objects on the inclined plane: Solid cube, flight of steps, projection of circle making an angle with the plane of projection, ellipse, mode of describing, cone pulley, • hexagonal nut, conic sections. Mechanical drawing, advanced. — Intersections: Solids, cylinders, cones, spheres. Connecting-rod end, screws, gearing: Cycloid curve, epicycloid, hypocycloid, involute, laying out gear teeth, worm, spur, and bevel gears eccentric. Development of cams: Continuous-motion cams, irregular cam and roll, cylindrical cam. Tracings, blue- print solution, and preparation of paper. Belts (showing relation to pulleys): Straight belt, quarter- turn cross belt, machine details. After finishing this course students may take up machine design and practical trigonometry. Carpentry and cabinetwork. — Framing: Sills, floor timbers, studs, roofs, etc. In cabinetwork the students mg,y make such articles as bookshelf, table, panel and panel bos, book case, mantel shelf, mantel and overmantel, music rack, easel, silver chest, portable writing desk, panel desk, china cabinet, writing desk with pigeon- holes and drawers, tool chest, etc., finishing and varnishing. Forging. — Drawing to a taper, drawing out flat, drawing and bending, bending, drawing, bending and twisting, upsetting and forming, drawn bolt, upsetting and bolt making, punching and making square and hexagonal nuts, corner iron, bending ' and shouldering, upsetting, splitting and drawing, fish spear, punching, slotting, and forming, lathe dog, bending, scarfing and welding, welded collar, chain ring, chain weld, guy-rod joint, punching, drawing and forming, butt weld, scarf welding, pair of tongs, carriage wrench, drawing and tempering, prick punch, small cape chisel, reamer, drawknife, right-hand side tool, diamond point and other tools, scratch awl, hot cutting chisel, hammer, butcher's cleaver, welding steel on iron, ice tongs, springs. Plumbing. — ^Manual instruction, lead seams, overcast joints, cup joints, calking. Wiping the following: Horizontal round joint, horizontal branch joint, upright round joint, upright branch joint, stop cock, 2-inch ferrule, bath plug, vertical branch, side flange, floor flange, 4-inch ferrule, traps, tank seams, setting basins, sand bends, etc. Scientific instruction: Drain, soil, and waste pipes, trapping and ventilation of drain, supply pipes, boilers, tanks, fixtures, trapping and ventilation of fixtures, pumps, etc. Electricity. — Frictional electricity: Attraction and repulsion, conduction and dis- tribution, electrophorus, frictional and influence machines, electroscope, leyden jar. Magnetism: Properties of magnets, methods of making magnets, distribution of magnetism, terrestrial magnetism. Current electricity, simple voltaic cell, chemical action in the cell, Le Clanche cell, physical and physiological effects of the current, currents produced by induction, induction coil, atmospheric electricity, electro- magnets, electric bells, electro-dynamics. Ohms law and its consequences. Elec- trical measurements: Galvanometers, electrometers, electrostatic volt meter, electro- TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION — UNITED STATES. 221 dynamo meter, condenser, Wheatstone's bridge, watt meter, ampere meter, volt meter. Thermo-electric currents, heating effects of currents, electric lighting, arc light, incandescent light, magneto-electric generators, dynamo electric generators, direct-current motors, alternating-current motors, alternating-current generators, self- induction, transformers, electrolysis, accumulators, electro-deposition, cable telegraph, telephone. Engraving (jewelry). — Analysis of letters, nature of the different metals to be engraved, mode of sharpening tools to get different effects from one tool, rules to be observed in laying out inscriptions, designing monograms, cutting copper plates, cut- ting steel dies, lectures on the processes employed in half-tone and steel engravings. The course in architectural drawing requires about two winters to complete. This is an excellent class for carpenters, plumbers, masons, and others having to do with the construction of buildings where the reading of drawings is required. The course in mechanical drawing is of great value to the young machinist who aspires to enter the drafting room when his time- is served. It is an excellent course for any machinist, as it will teach him not only to read the drawings of others, but also to make them for himself. To become a skilled mechanic it is necessary, to be able to read drawings. Young men in other occupations have taken this course, and as a result have secured more congenial employment. The course in carpentry embraces a variety of bench work, and brings into use the tools commonly used in the trade. As the instruc- tion is individual, great freedom is allowed in the choice of work. Young men who wish to make useful and ornamental pieces of house- hold furniture, but have no convenient place or good tools at home, find the class room of the school pleasant, attractive, and well equipped, with a good instructor present. The student pays for the material used if he takes the finished work home. This class, which is in charge of an experienced builder, is of very practical value to apprentices in the trade. The course in forging is very practical, embracing exercises in draw- ing, bending, welding, upsetting, tempering, etc. After the student has finished a comprehensive course of iron, he begins to work in steel, making tools such as diamond point, side tool, chisel, hammer, etc. All work is done from blue prints, thus teaching the student to read drawings. From time to time the instructor gives talks and demon- strations of principles not included in the course. One season a plumber, after completing the preliminary work, made for himself a set of plumbing tools. Anything made in this class may be taken by the students by paying for the material. Young men who desire to become blacksmiths are well paid for the time spent in this class. Machinists, who have to forge and temper the tools they use, find this course adapted to their needs. Young men in drafting rooms who are making drawings for articles to be made in iron or steel become famil- iar with the nature of these metals by handling and working them here. 222 EEPOBT OF THE COMMISSIOWEE OF LABOR. In the course in plumbing the instruction is both manual and scien- tific. The manual instruction consists of making solder, wiping joints, sand bends, making traps, etc. The scientific instruction is given upon the proper arrangement of service and waste pipes and upon drainage and ventilation. In this kind of work he is greatly aided by a large number of colored diagrams. This is a class that is of special benefit to apprentices who have to pass examinations before entering the trade, and to all others interested in the trade. There are J'oung men who are undecided as to what trade they will learn, fearing that they will not select the right one. These, if they ever thought of becoming plumbers, may enter this class for a season and perhaps be helped to choose a congenial vocation. Linemen, who are frequently called upon to wipe a joint where wires are connected, may also take this course with profit. The object of the course in electricity is to give the student a work- ing knowledge of the subject. Both the student seeking general information and the young man who expects to earn a living in some electrical business will be benefited by a systematic study of the subjects The expenses of a course of instruction in any of the industrial courses is, first, an annual fee of $2 for membership in the association and an additional entrance fee of fl for new members; second, a class fee of f 3 per term of 20 lessons. If more than one study is taken, there will be a reduction in this class fee of fl on each additional study. In the class of jewelry engraving, instead of having two terms of 20 lessons each, enrollment must be made for the entire 40 lessons^ and the fee will be $6 for the course. Any young man 16 years of age or over, of good character, without regard to color, nationality, or religious belief, may enter these classes by becoming a member of the association. Boys from 11 to 17 years of age may enter certain classes by becoming junior members of the association at a cost of but f 1 for a year. When a young man has completed any of the graded courses, he is entitled to a departmental award upon passing the required examination. This examination may be written, oral, or shop work, as the subject may require. Certificates of attendance will be given to all students who have been present at 75 per cent of the class sessions. The member of each class -having the highest per cent of attendance and showing the greatest improve- ment in his work will be given an advanced course in the same study, or may take any other subject, free of charge for one season, including his regular membership in the association. There are 11 instructors in the industrial branches of this school, all of practical experience in the trades taught. During the school year 1S99-1900 there were 13 students in the course iti architectural drawing, 76 in the course in mechanical draw- ing, 11 in the course in free-hand drawing, 12 in the course in carpen- TEADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION UNITED STATES. 223 try and cabinetmaking, 10 in the course in forging, 10 in the course in plumbing, 19 in the course in electricity, and none in the course in jewelry engraving, which is a course just established. The majority of those who take instruction in these classes do not complete the full course of instruction as laid out. Only those who complete the courses are considered graduates, and up to and includ- ing the school year 1899-1900 they were as follows: Architectural drawing, 1; mechanical drawing, 18; forging, 12. These classes are held in the regular building of the Young Men's Christian Association. The cost of equipment, etc., has been about ^2,500, and the cost of maintenance for the j'ear 1899-1900 was about $2,372. The funds to pay these expenses come from interest on the endowment fund, from fees, and from tuitions. The officials of the school believe that the courses in the industrial branches could be improved by making more effort to adapt the work to the needs of mechanics, by holding the classes at least three nights a week instead of two, as at present, and by increasing the length of the courses. The outlook for such improvement is said to be good. Every possible improvement is being made as fast as funds available will allow. This school by its courses of instruction is increasing the efficiency and general intelligence of the workmen. Those who have been instructed here have attained greater skill and a higher earning capacitjr, which has led to higher wages, steadier employment, and more rapid promotion. Their generally higher intelligence and skill has made them preferred by employers to merely shop-trained men. While no formal system of apprenticeship prevails at present, yet as a general rule a boy must spend a period of some years as a learner in all industries before being considered a full mechanic or being paid as such. The graduates of this school start work as full mechanics on full pay. In a general way this and other schools of the same character have proved satisfactory, and if we consider the end for which they were established to have been the improvement of the working classes in intelligence and skill, they have fully attained it. Thej- are all sus- ceptible of improvement and alwaj^s will be. INSTRUCTION BY CORRESPONDENCE. While instruction by the correspondence method is of comparative!}" recent origin, it has, nevertheless, grown to such considerable pro- portions, more especially within the last few years, that its importance and value as an educational factor have now come to be recognized eren by many who heretofore have been wont to look upon it as an 224 KSPOKT OF THE COMMISSIONEE OE LABOE. absurd innovation in the field of education. Notwithstanding the practical results that have already been accomplished by these schools, and which are freely admitted by both employers and workmen, some doubt still exists in certain quarters regarding the possibility of giv- ing adequate technical instruction by the correspondence method. When the environment of the class of students to which these schools appeal and the system of teaching that is employed are considered, however, the claim that instruction hy this method is not susceptible of practical results is very largely disproved. Correspondence schools appeal particularly and with considerable force to mechanics and apprentices who are already engaged in occupations and trades which require more or less of a theoretical and technical knowledge that can not be acquired in the ordinary routine of daily work. It is generally conceded that the theory and technique of most trades are beyond the reach of the ordinary workmen unless they devote a portion of their time to study. In the vast majority of cases they leave school for the worjishop with hardly more than the bare rudiments of a common school education, and the need of theoretical and technical instruction in the trades rarely occurs to them until they are brought face to face with the fact that future advancement depends almost entirely upon the acquisition of this knowledge. This being the case, if they are to acquire this knowledge at all they must obtain it by attending some evening school where the trades are taught according to approved methods, or they must resort to the aid of special text-books and master them as best they can. While the night schools afford a rem- edy for those who reside in their immediate vicinity, still there are thousands of workers in the smaller cities and towns and the rural districts generally who are debarred from this privilege. Conse- quently, if the circumstance of locality or time be such that they can not attend a night school, their only alternative is to adopt the text- book method. It is this class particularly that the correspondence schools aim to reach. This, however, is not the onl}^ class that seeks the aid of these schools. There are hundreds of men engaged in the higher branches of tech- nical and scientific work to whom the system of instruction papers and text- books designed and controlled by these schools have strongly, appealed. Of tliis class may be mentioned the architectural draftsman who has acquired a practical knoivledge of plan and detail drawing and desires to obtain a modern knowledge of building design and con- struction. So, too, the mechanical draftsman who desires to supple- ment his drafting-room experience with a complete mechanical course and thereby qualify as a machine designer or mechanical engineer. Then there is the engineer who desires a working acquaintance with other branches of engineering closely related to his own and also the student fresh from college, well equipped with a general education. TOADE \WD TECHWIOAL EDUCATION UNITED STATES, 225 who wishes to take a special course in some particular branch. For these classes, as' well as many others, the correspondence schools are particularly well adapted. The increasing number of trained mechan- ics and students of liberal education who are taking special courses in these schools is a fair indication that the system of instruction by mail is of more than ordinary importance. Indeed, there is such abundant evidence of the appreciation of the work of these schools that there is. every reason for including them in this report. There are a number of these schools in different parts of the coun- try, among which maybe mentioned the International Correspondence Schools, Scranton, Pa., Americab School of Correspondence, Boston^ Mass., and Electrical Engineer Institute of Correspondence Instruc- tion, New York. The character of the courses and the methods of instruction em- ployed in the schools are substantially the same. The object, methods, and work of these schools are well represented in a statement which was furnished by the officials of the Scranton- school, and is in part as follows: The distinctive function of these . schools is to teach the theory of engineering and the trades to men and women already at work. The success of the method of teaching by mail depends very largely on the subdivision of the student's work into many short, easily mas- tered lessons, or parts. These are sent to him in a fixed, invariable order in the shape of instruction and question papers, drawing plates,- and whatever else his course may contain. The instruction papers are printed in pamphlet form of from 10 to 100 pages. Each paper- is complete in itself and contains all the instruction required for the mastery of the next paper, but includes nothing that is not necessary for a complete understanding of it. The writers assume that the- student knows nothing more about the subject in hand than has been treated in a jprevious paper. Only fhe plainest language is employed, and many facts, principles, and processes that would otherwise be- hard to understand are made clear by the use of zinc etchings and half-tone illustrations. As soon as the student is enrolled, his first and second instruction and question papers are sent to him, accompanied by directions for proceed- ing with the work, inquiry blanks, and a supply of envelopes. After carefully reading the directions, he studies the first instruc- tion paper and works out the examples for practice. If he meets with- any difficulty, he fills out an inquiry blank, giving full particulars, sends it to the school, and proceeds with his studies. A full written- explanation of the matter is promptly forwarded from the school, and he is encouraged to write for special information at any time. After- mastering the contents of the first instruction paper, he takes up the- 9257—02 15 226 KEPOKT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. accompanying question paper and writes his answers to the test ques- tions. He then forwards these answers to the school and proceeds to study the second instruction paper. When the sets of answers are received at the school, they are reviewed by examiners specially trained for this work. The papers are carefully gone over, such errors as exist in arithmetic, spelling, punctuation, etc., being checked in red ink. When an error is dis- covered, it is not only indicated in red ink, but a careful explanation of that particular problem is written on the back of the sheet. When- ever necessary, special exercises and letters of explanation are sent to the student. ■ • After being corrected, the papers are entered upon the books as passed if a satisfactory mark has been attained. If his mark is not satis- factory, the student is required to review the incorrect portions until mastered. The answers are then returned, accompanied by a per- centage slip and the third set of papers. By this system the student always has one paper to study while his work on a pi'evious paper is being corrected. The instruction paper on drawing and a mailing tube for returning the finished plate are sent with the first arithmetic paper. Detailed directions are given for the use of instruments, making the first plate, and sending in the work. Beginning with the drawing of simple lines, the student is gradually advanced to actual working plans of mechan- ical and architectural constructions. The model plates are smaller than the required plate. He thus makes an original drawing, according to scale. If the student meets with continued difficulty in the study of any subject, a special instructor is, on request, assigned to him (without extra charge), who gives personal attention to his case until the subject is completed. Nearly all of the students are cctopelled to study under the greatest disadvantages. Although in the Scranton school their average age is about 26 years, more than 80 per cent know nothing of fractions when they begin their studies. For such students as these the ordinary text-book is intricate and difficult. It presupposes the help of a living present teacher, and without such help its difficulties are insurmount- able, and the attempt to use it in this method of self-help results in speedily convincing the student that education is unattainable without the aid of a teacher. It was olivious at the outset that text-books for teaching the manual industries by mail must combine simplicity with thoroughness, otherwise failure was inevitable. But no such text- books were in the market. It was necessary to have them vrritten. For this work men strong both in the theory and practice of each trade to be taught were found. In engaging men to prepare the text- books for any industrial or engineering specialty, the management of the school states that two conditions of fitness have been rigidly insisted TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION' UNITED STATES. 227 on: First, that they must have thorough theoretical education in that and allied specialties; and, second, that their education in theory shall have been supplemented by satisfactory practical training. Both the technical school and the workshop must be represented in their equipment. The courses of study are arranged with a view to meeting the requirements of all classes of workers in mechanical industries, from the humblest apprentice to the skilled mechanic and the trained engi- neer. The courses for the former class provide for a thorough train- ing in the theory and principles of the particular subject or occupation, while those for skilled mechanics and engineers include also special and advanced instruction in the higher branches. In addition to the courses in the mechanical industries, the railway department affords both theoretical and practical instruction in the construction and operation of locomotive engines, air-brakes, etc. , to locomotive engineers and firemen and to brakemen and train hands. The list of the courses of instruction is as follows: Complete mechani- cal, refrigeration, gas engines, farm machinery, shop practice, station- ary engineers', marine engineers', locomotive running, mechanical- locomotive, trainmen's, air-brake, electrical engineering, electrical, elec- tric power and lighting, electric lighting, electric railways, electric-car I'unning, wiring and bell work, telephony, telegraphy, mechanical draw- ing, architectural drawing, complete architectural, architectural draw- ing and design, building contractors', ornamental design, sheet-metal pattern drafting, sanitary plumbing, heating, and ventilation, heating and ventilation, sanitary plumbing and gas fitting, gas fitting, sani- tary plumbing, lettering and sign painting, complete coal-mining, full mining, metal mining, metal prospectors', civil engineering, bridge engineering, railroad engineering, hydraulic engineering, and munic- ipal engineering. Owing to the extended list of separate and distinct courses which are taught, no attempt is made toward a detailed description of the same. In order, however, that a better idea may be had regarding the scooe of the work, a synopsis of a number of the courses is given : Complete mechanical course: This is intended for machinists, draftsmen, pattern makers, tool makers, designers, mechanical engineers, and all others who are engaged in mechanical work. The subjects taught are arithmetic, formulas, geometrical drawing, mechanical drawing, geometry and trigonometry, elementary mechanics, hydromechanics, algebra, logarithms, pneumatics, heat, steam and steam engines, strength of materials, applied mechanics, steam boilers, machine design, and dyna- mos and motors. Shop-practice course: This course is divided into five parts, as follows: The machine-shop division isintended for all those who wish to get a thorough knowledge of modern machine-shop practice. The tool-making division is intended for those who desire information in r^rard to the latest and most approved methods used in the making of tools. The pattern-making division covers thoroughly the subject of pattern making in all its branches. The foundry -work division gives thorough in- struction in all phases of foundry work. The blacksmithing and forging division 228 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. is intended to give blacksmiths, helpers, and all employed in smith shops and forges a thorough knowledge of the best methods employed in their trade. The subjects taught are reading working drawings; arithmetic; measuring instruments; lathe work; working chilled iron; planer, shaper, and Blotter work; drilling and boring; milling- machine work; gear cutting; grinding; bench, vice, and floor work; general hints on shop practice; tool making; pattern making; foundry work; blacksmithing and forging. Mechanical-locomotive course: This course provides instruction in theoretical' and applied mechanics, steam engines and boilers, mechanical drawing, machine design, and the principles of construction and operation of locomotives and dynamos and motors. It is intended for master mechanics, roundhouse and machine shop fore- men, machinists and draftsmen in railway machine shops, and enginemen who desire to qualify for positions in the mechanical departments of railways. The subjects taught are arithmetic; formulas; geometrical drawing; mechanical drawing; geom- etry and trigonometry; elementary mechanics; hydromechanics; algebra; loga- rithms; pneumatics; heat; steam and steam engines; strength of materials; applied mechanics; steam boilers; machine design; dynamos and motors; locomotive boilers; steam, cylinders, and valve gears; locomotive management, including breakdowns; compound locomotives; the Westinghouse air-brake; the New York air-brake; train rules; car heating; car lighting; the electric headlight. Complete architectural course: This is intended for architects, draftsmen, con- tractors and builders, carpenters, masons, bricklayers, building tradesmen, and all others desirous of qualifying themselves to design and construct buildings. The sub- jects taught are arithmetic, formulas, geometry and mensuration, geometrical drawing, architectural drawing, ornamental drawing, advanced architectural drawing, masonry, carpentry, joinery, stair building, ornamental ironwork, roofing, sheet-metal work, electric-light wiring and bell work, plumbing and gas fitting, heating and ventilation, painting and decorating, estimating and calculating quantities, history of architecture, architectural design, specifications, building superintendence, contracts and permits, architectural engineering. Sanitary plumbing, heating, and ventilation course: This course affords an educa- tion in plumbing, heating, and ventilation that will qualify any plumber, steam fitter, or gas fitter to fill the highest positions in his line of work. The subjects taught are arithmetic, geometrical drawing, mechanical dra,wing, mensuration, mechanics, plumbing and drainage, gas and gas fitting, electric-light wiring and bell work, prin- ciples of heating and ventilation, steam heating, hot- water heating, furnace heating, ventilation of buildings. Complete coal-mining course: This is intended for mining engineers, miners, and mine oflicials who wish a complete education in the methods and machinery used in coal mining. It embraces a study of every detail necessary to fit a student for any position in anthracite or bituminous mines, or to pass the examinations for mine foreman or State mine inspector. The subjects taught are arithmetic; formulas; geometrical drawing; geometry and trigonometry; gases met with in mines; mine ventilation; mine surveying and mapping; economic geology of coal ; prospecting for coal and location of openings; shafts, slopes, and drifts; methods of working coal mines; mechanics; steam and steam boilers; steam engines; air and air compression; hydromechanics and pumping; mine haulage; hoisting and hoisting appliances; sur- face arrangements of bituminous mines, surface arrangements of anthracite mines; compressed-air coal-cutting machinery; percussive and rotary boring; dynamos and motors; electric hoisting and haulage; electric pumping, signaling, and lighting; elec- tric coal-cutting machinery. Full mining course: This is intended for mine superintendents, foremen, mining engineers, and others who wish a thorough education in all branches of mining. The subjects taught, are arithmetic; formulas; geometrical drawing; geometry and trigo- nometry; gases met with in mines; mine ventilation; mine surveying and mapping, TKADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION — UNITED STATES. 229 economic geology of coal; prospecting for coal and location of openings; shafts, slopes, and drifts; methods of working coal mines; mechanics; steam and steam hoilers; steam engines; air and air compression;' hydromechanics and pumping; mine haulage; hoisting and hoisting appliances; surface arrangements of bituminous mines; surface arrangements of anthracite mines; compressed-air coal-cutting machinery; percussive and rotary boring; dynamos and motors; electric hoisting and haulage; electric pump- ing, signaling, and lighting; electric coal-cutting machinery; blowpiping; mineralogy; assaying; geology; prospecting; placer and hydraulic mining; preliminary opera- tions at metal mines; metal mining; surface arrangements at metal mines; ore dressing and milling. Railroad engineering course: This is intended for railroad employees, track inspectors, section men, assistant engineers, railroad surveyors, and all others engaged in the survey, construction, or maintenance of railroads. The subjects taught are arithmetic, formulas, geometrical drav^ing, mechanical drawing, geometry and trigo- nometry, elementary mechanics, hydromechanics, algebra, logarithms, pneumatics, strength of materials, surveying, land surveying, mapping, railroad location, railroad construction, track work, railroad structures. In the departments that deal with engineering and industrial tech- nics there are, including principals, 42 male instructors and 191 female assistant instructors. These numbers represent about 80 per cent of the entire instruction force of the school. In addition to having experience in practical work, more than two-thirds of the faculty are also graduates of colleges and technical schools. With respect to the training of subordinate instructors, it should be stated that they are graduates of high and normal schools, and a considerable number of them are graduates of colleges. Before obtaining full recog- nition as members of the corps of instructors they are required to pass an examination both oral and written, and, in mostcases, to serve during a specified period of probation. Unlike the ordinary resident schools, there are no established grades or classes. The number of students graduated in a given time from an ordmary technical school or college furnishes a pretty reliable measure of its success. With this institution the case is otherwise, as may be gathered from the following facts: First. A large number of persons enroll and pay tuition for the sole purpose of obtaining text-books for use in their business. This class has no intention of studying systematically and no wish to obtain diplomas. Second. While there is an enrollment of more than 300,000, only 5 per cent have been connected with the institution more than four and a half years, and experience has shown that students do not complete the more important courses in less than five or six years. Haste it is claimed is neither necessary nor desirable, for students are earning and learning at the same time, and the longer time gives all the greater opportunitj^ to exemplify theory in practice. Graduation, therefore, which, in the case of students in ordinary institutions, is an event of crowning importance, marking as it does the end of school life and the beginning of the student's period of pro- 230 EEPOKT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. ductive activity, is here a mere minor incident. The students are already at work and are getting the technical knowledge that gives them a constantly increasing efficiency in an occupation chosen before their study began — a training all the more valuable from the fact that the}' are learning to apply this technical knowledge in their daily work. The schools are maintained by tuition fees. The main building, used for instruction purposes only, is five stories high with a floor area of 34,500 square feet, and was erected in 1898 at a cost of $225,000. The building used for printing-purposes was completed the same year and cost $80,000. A new building is now in process of construction. The companjr rents, besides, 15 other buildings, in whole or in part, in the city of Sci-anton. In addition, there are 1? disti"Ict offices and 150 local offices at various points in the United States and Canada. These offices are engaged in enrolling students and looking after the interests of the school generally in their respective localities. The field equipment includes six railroad cars, each with a complete air-brake outfit, and costing $10,000 each. These cars constitute a very important part of the system of instruction followed in the rail- way department. When arrangements have been perfected with the officials- of a road, an enrollment car makes a tour of the entire line, stopping at points long enough to afford the employees an opportunity to visit it, examine the instruction papers, and obtain such other information as they may desire regarding the method of instruction. When the students enroll they are furnished with all necessary instruction and question papers, and at stated intervals the instruction cars follow over the road and supplement the regular instruction with lectures. These lectures are made of great practical value by the use of stereopticon illustrations and sectional models of modern train asd engine apparatus, and working models of locomotives driven bj^ com- pressed air. Up to the present time, these cars have operated on about 40 different roads and enrolled some 8,000 railway men. Regarding the importance of maintaining the efficiency of the courses and methods of instruction it is said that a necessit}' of peculiar urgency with these schools is that of keeping their text-books and the matter and scope of their courses constantly up to date. The students are in actual contact with the latest and best methods in engineering and the arts, in the trades and industries, and they are quick to detect and prompt in reporting to the management anything at ^-ariance with the latest and best. Hence, constant revision, after careful and thorough investigation of everything new that is of recognized merit, is unavoidable, and is imperatively demanded of the management of the school. The principals are compelled to devote a large part of their time to study and to visiting industrial and commercial plants. The object of the American School of Correspondence, located at Boston, Mass., is declared to be "to educate and advance the Amer- ican mechanic." "The school makes no attempt to take the place of TKADE AND TEOHKIOAL EDUCATION UNITED STATES. 231 a school for resident students,' but aims to bring a teciinical education within the reach of every ambitious wag-e-earner. To the man on the farm, in the office, in the store — to every man who feels that he is like a cog on a wheel, always moving but never progressing — it offers an opportunity to fit himself for a change of occupation." The full courses of instruction offered by this school are as follows: Electrical engineering, mechanical engineering, mechanical-electrical engineering, stationary engineering, marine engineering, locomotive engineering, textile engineering, and heating, ventilating, and plumb- ing. Complete instruction in mechanical drawing is included in every full engineering course. For those who are unable or who do not desire to take one of the full engineering courses the following special shorter courses are offered: Arithmetic; arithmetic, elementary algebra, and mensuration; advanced algebra; geometry; complete mathematical — arithmetic, mensuration, algebra, geometry, logarithms, and trigonometry; arithmetic, ele- mentary "algebra, mensuration, and mechanics; general studies — arith- metic, elementary algebra, mensuration, mechanics, heat, chemistry, and metallurgy; elementary chemistry and metallurg}^; mechanical drawing; mechanical drawing, including arithmetic, elementary alge- bra, mensuration, and geometry; plumbing, gas fitting, and lighting; heating and ventilation; elementary electrical; electric power and lighting; short locomotive; warp preparation and weaving; textile design and fabric structure; cotton spinning; woolen and worsted spinning.; chemistry and dyeing. As a preliminary to all the full engineering courses students take certain general studies to insure the proper foundation for the techni- cal instruction. The outline of these general studies is as follows: Arithmetic: Fundamental definitions; notation; numeration; fundamental proc- , esses; fractions; decimals; percentage; denominate numbers; involution; evolution; ratio; proportion. Elementary algebra: Use of letters; substitution; cancellation; simple equations; known and unknown quantities; finding unknown quantities; equations containing roots of numbers; equations containing powers of numbers. Men^ration: Definitions; straight, curved, and broken lines; plane and curved surfaces; parallel lines; angles; circular measure; measurement of lines, surfaces, angles, etc., including triangles, quadlilaterals and other polygons, circles, sectors, and segments; measurement of surfaces and volumes; volumes of solids, including prisms, cubes, cylinders, pyramids, cones, and frustums" of pyramids and cones; measurement of surface and volume of spheres. Mechanics: Preliminary definitions; universal properties of matter; characteristic properties; motion and velocity; force; gravitation; energy; principles of machin- ery; friction; transmission of motion; cohesion and adhesion; strength of materials; strength of pipes and cylinders; strength of beams; strength of columns; hydrostat- ics; pneumatics. Heat: Expansion; liquefaction; vaporization; conduction; convection; radiation; latent heat; specific heat; thermodynamics. Chemistry:. Fundamental principles; atomic weights; chemical affinity; equations, factors, and products; solutions; physical and chemical properties, compounds, uses, RTln nrpriQrQ+inn r\f fViQ dlomon+a* illnmiTin+iTin' gaS' COmbuStlon. 232 EEPOET OF THE COMMISSIONEK OF LABOR. Metallurgy: Magnetite, hematite, limonite,' siderite; iron pyrites, franklinite; preparation of ores; blast furnace; ores, fluxes, and fuels; operation of furnacej chemistry of blast furnace; slag and flux; cast iron; wrought iron; welding; cemen- tation process; crucible process; open-hearth process; gas producers; special steels;, case hardening; effects of the elements in steel; tempering. A s3mopsis of several of the engineering courses will serve to show the scope of the work in this school: MARINE ENGINEERING COURSE. This course is prepared especially for marine engineers, firemen, stokers, oilers, coal passers, owners of launches, engine builders, boiler makers, shipbuilders, dealers in marine machinery and supplies, steamboat officers, inventors, designers, drafts- men, salesmen, instructors, and' students. Its purpose is to secure advancement to the positions of chief engineers and assistants, inspectors of boilers and machinery, superintendents of shipyards, consulting engineers, etc. The outline of the subjects of instruction is as follows: Construction of boilers: Materials of construction, plates, joints, and rivets, design of boilers. Types of boilers: Early types, modern boilers, marine boilers. Boiler accessories : Furnaces, valves, blow-out apparatus, water, steam, and vacuum gauges, fusible plugs, steam separators, steafn traps, feed apparatus, horse power of boilers, corrosion and incrustation, fuels, care of boilers. Marine boilers: Classification, materials of construction, boiler construction, boiler dimensions, efficiency of furnace, detail parts, feeding marine boilers, lagging, draft, mechanical stokers, fuels, care of boilers, cleaning fire, water-tube boilers, launch boilers. Machine design: Operations and functions of machines, materials of construction, shop processes, strains in machines, machine drawings and d-esigns. The steam engine: Physical theory, detail parts, lubrication, condensers, types of engines. Steam engine indicators: Indicator diagrams, modern indicators, steam engine constants, measuring area of card, indicator cards, faults, calculations. Valve gears: Slide valve, valve diagrams, designing and setting slide valves, reversing gear, modifications of slide valve. Details of the steam engine: Expansion of gases, work done in cylinder, loss of efiiciency, compound engines, jacketing and superheating, lubrication, condensers, details of design, care and testing. Marine engines: Methods of propulsion, nautical terms, details, condensers, auxil- iary machinery, propulsion, propellers, engine-room fittings, management of engines, emergencies. Elements of electricity: Magnetism, static electricity, dynamic electricit?)', mag- netic effect of electric current, induced currents, heating effects, thermo-electric effects, chemical effects, telephones, telegraph. The electric current: T-erms and definitions, standard cells, electric energy, power^ supply of electric energy. Theory of dynamo-electric machinery: Symbols, physical theory, the generator. Direct-current generators: Characteristics, generatoj- construction, installation, and operation. Direct-current motors: Fundamental principles, motor equations, torque and speed, discussion of shunt and series motors, compound motors, motors on constant current, circuits, rotary transformers, calculations of electric motors. Types of dynamo-electric machinery: Constant potential generators and motors, constant current generators. Optional courses in electric lighting, algebra, geometry, and mechanical drawing are also offered in connection with this course. TBADE AND TECHNICAL EDTJCATION — UNITED STATES. 233 TEXTILE ENGINEERING COURSE. This course is prepared especially for foremen and overseers in weave mills, cotton mills, and woolen-yarn mills, for boss weavers and weave-room hands, agents, man- ufacturers, merchants, and salesmen, boss carders and spinners, mill engineers, machinists and master mechanics, instructors, and students in textile design. Its purpose is to secure advancement to positions of superintendents, foremen, and over- seers in textile mills and manufactories. The outline of the subjects of instruction is as follows: Warp preparation and weaving: Gray yarns, spooler, warper, colored yarns, long chain, short chain, slasher, woolen and worsted spinning, hand rail, hand beaming, steam dresser, drawing in and twisting in warps, looms, shedding motion, picking motion, beating up, gear let-off, friction, take-up motions, filling stop motion, assem- bly of parts and correct timing, shuttle boxes, box motion, pin-gear motion, vibrator- gear motion, protector for boxes, box chains, multipliers. Textile design and fabric structure: Design paper, weaves, color effects on plain and other weaves, sateen weaves, rib weaves, basket weaves, diaper weaves, exten- sion of fancy weaves, origination of new weaves and designs, reduced chain to fewest number of harnesses and drawing-in drafts, textile calculations, analysis and calcu- lations, specifications and lay out, combinations of several weaves for one design, cloths backed with filling, cloths backed with warp, double-make cloths, principles of double-cloth cut designs, double-plain hair lines. Cotton spinning: Methods of cultivation, ginning, baling, structure of fiber, com- mercial varieties, grading, mixing, bale breaker, automatic feeder, trunk systems, breaker picker, finisher picker, theory of carding, early forms of cards, revolving flat. card, card clothing, stripping, grinding and burnishing, gauge eettings, calculations, combing process, lap preparation, comber, timing and setting, calculations, impor- tance of drawing operation, railway head, evener motion, railway details, drawing- frames, rolls, cleaners, stop motions, hanks and numbers, roving machinery, fly-frame- construction, draft, twist, tension, lay, taper, spinning processes, ring frame, traveler principle, builders, rail motion, draft and twist, frame details, mule spinning, mule construction, operation, details, drawing, twisting, backing off, winding, reengaging. Woolen and worsted spinning: Wool, fibers allied to wool, substitutes for wool, cleansing wool, carbonizing, drying, carding, grinding, card clothing, setting up- .cards, preparation for carding, mixing, oiling, mixing and other pickers, cards, auto- matic feeds, feeds between cards, condensers, doffers, spinning, drawing, draft, self- acting mules, quadrant, builder rail, double spinning, doffing, calculations for woolen yarns, woolen and worsted threads, worsted yarns, carding, gilling, back washing, combing, gilling and top making, principles of drawing, calculations for draft, prin- ciples of spinning, types of spinning frames, doubling and twisting, yarn testing. Textile chemistry and dyeing: Cotton fiber, flax linen, wool, silk, preliminary operations for dyeing, cotton bleaching, wool scouring, wool bleaching, carbonizing, silk boiling or degumming, theory of dyeing, mordants, indigo, logwood, natural dyestuffs, coal tar, artificial colors, basic colors, direct cotton colors, acid dyestuffs^ phthalic anhydride colors, ingrain colors or developed azo colors, mordant dyestuffs,, miscellaneous colors, machinery used in dyeing, water. In addition to the above the student may take the course in mechanical drawing- and has the choice of an electrical course, including the elements of electricity, elec- tric current, theory of dynamo-electric machinery, electric lighting, central stations and power transmission,, or a mechanical course, including pattern making, foundry work, forging and machine-shop work. These schools have never been opposed by labor unions in any com- munity. On the contrary, where their methods and work are best known, they have received warm indorsements from oflElcials of the. representative bodies of organized labor. 234 TBKPOET OF TRE C0MMIS8I0NEB OB" LABOR. With respect to the preference of students and graduates of these schools by employers, and the improvement in ordinarj^ shop training, it is said: The workman with mere shop training has only what might be called the practical side of his occupation, while the student workman, if he has properly mastered his course, is doubly equipped. He has trained his muscles into coordination with a brain informed by science. He has risen above a mere routine into a domain of resourcefulness, in- ventiveness, and expediency. Men so trained are always preferred by intelligent and discriminating employers, for it is an industrial axiom that "mere skill without science is only one remove above unskilled labor." Improvement of ordinary shop training, or any other matter affecting large numbers of men, is necessarily and fortunately a slow process — a gradual evolution. It begins with isolated individuals and gains general approval, adoption, and headway in proportion to its intrinsic merit and on condition that it is really required by existing conditions. That shop training, not only in this locality but through- out the country and in some measure alaroad, has been improved by < these schools is an easy, a necessary induction from their unexampled prosperity. There are so many cases where the system of instruction pursued by these schools has enabled the students to advance from the lower branches of a trade or occupation to a complete mastery of the same that it would be impossible to estimate the benefits that have accrued to those who have been under instruction. In the higher positions are to be found foremen, superintendents, master plumbers and builders, architects, and electrical and mechanical engineers, who bear witness to the worth of this instruction. Men already engaged in trades as machinists and pattern makers have been enabled to rise to mechanical draftsmen and designers; carpenters, cabinetmakers, and bricklayers have become architects; miners have been promoted to foremen and superintendents; and in electrical occupations linemen, repairmen, and motormen have been advanced to inspectors, foremen, and electricians. On the other hand, many students have been able to change from one occupation to an entirely different one. Clerks, salesmen, telegraph operators, farm laborers, and others have been qualified for positions as mechanical and architectural draftsmen, etc. There are thousands of students, also, whose earnings and prospects have been increased from 60 to 200 per cent by the instruction they have received. The increased efficiency of the students and graduates is recognized on every hand, and when it is considered that in such occupations as mechanical drawing, in some phases of engineering, in electrical occu- pations, and in occupations in which drawing, designing, and lettering are the most important elements, it is possible for the graduates to engage in practical work without undergoing a period of apprentice- ship, there is ample ground for saying that the methods of insti'uction employed in these schools are productive of practical and substantial benefits to those who are under instruction. TBADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION UNITED STATES. 235 SCHOOLS OF INDUSTEIAL DRAWING AND DESIGN. Schools of industrial drawing and design vary a good deal in scope. The simplest type is represented by the evening classes of industrial drawing in the public schools of Massachusetts, and Franklin Institute, of Philadelphia, has long done work of the same character, perhaps less elementary in grade. The public evening drawing schools repre- sent the class of instruction now given in a number of Massachusetts cities. It is, moreover, quite distinct from the work in drawing done in the regular public day schools or in connection with the manual training courses in the public schools. The Massachusetts law now provides (chapter 496, Acts of 1898) that any town or city may, and every town and city of 10,000 or more inhabitants shall, maintain evening schools for the instruction of persons over fourteen years of age in industrial drawing, both free-hand and mechanical (among other studies). Another type is represented by the schools of art and design, of which Cooper Union, of New York City, and Maryland Institute, of Baltimore, are excellent examples. In these we find the regular art school in combination with elaborate courses in design. These latter have, in most cases, been more recent developments. A third type is the school of design exclusively. Lowell School of Design, of Boston, and the Philadelphia School of Design are good examples. Several schools having courses in industrial drawing and design are elsewhere shown in connection with some other class of industrial school which represents, for the purposes of the present report, their more important work. Thus, Pratt Institute is under "Building and mechanical trade schools" and the Pennsylvania School of Industrial Art under "Textile schools." COOPER UNIOK", NEW YORK, N. Y. The Cooper Union was founded in 1854. The charter in its present form was adopted by the legislature of the State of New York April 13, 1859. The events which led up to and which appear to have been the impelling force in establishing this institution are perhaps best stated in a recent biography of the founder: Starting in when a boy, Peter Cooper worked at various trades. He mastered them all and eventually became a business man, an inventor, and a successful manufacturer. At every stage of his progress, however, he found himself hindered bj'^ a lack of knowledge and education. As an apprentice he regarded with intense sympathy the needs and limitations of the class to which he belonged, and he resolved to do something for apprentices. He was possessed with the desire to-found an institution which would supplement the deficiencies of early education, furnish to virtuous, industrious, and ambitious youths the means of progress, and attract the thoughtless or indolent into the same ascending road. * * * 236 BEPOBT OF THE' COMMISSIONER OF LA BOB. The classes which he wished especially to reach were those who, being already engaged in earning a living by labor, could scarcely be expected to take regular courses in instruction. He had a strong impression that young mechanics and apprentices, instead of wasting their time in dissipation, should improve their minds during the inter- vals of labor; and not unnaturally his first thought as to the means of such improvement turned to those things which had aroused and stim- ulated his own mind. The anxiety of Mr. Cooper to provide ample means for the educa- tion and training of young women is shown by the following abstract from one of his letters: To manifest the deep interest and sympathy I feel in all that can advance the happiness and better the condition of the female portion of the community, and especially of those who are dependent on hon- est labor for support, I desire the trustees to appropriate two hundred and fifty dollars yearly to assist such pupils of the female school of design as shall, in their careful judgment, by their efforts and saci"ifices in the performance of duty to parents or to those that Providence has made dependent on them for support, merit and require such aid. My reason for this requirement is not so much to reward as to encour- age the exercise of heroic virtues that often shine in the midst of the greatest suffering and obscurity without so much as being noticed by the passing throng. In order to better the condition of women and to widen the sphere of female emplo3mient, I have provided seven rooms to be forever devoted to a female school of design, and I desire the trustees to appro- priate out of the rents of the building fifteen hundred dollars annually toward meeting the expenses of said school. It is the ardent wish of my heart that this school of design may be the means of raising to competence and comfort thousands of those that otherwise might struggle through a life of poverty and suffering. By the terms of Mr. Cooper's trust deed, the following objects were specified to be established in the order of enumeration: First, to provide courses of instruction at night free to all who shall attend the same, in such branches of knowledge as in the opinion of the board of trustees will tend to improve and elevate the working classes of the city of New York. This provision has been carried into effect b^- the night classes for working men and women, which during the last forty-one years have been attended by nearly 100,000 different persons. Second, to the support and maintenance of the free reading room, galleries of art, and scientific collections, designed to improve and instruct those whose occupations are, in the opinion of the board of trustees, such as to deprive them of proper recreation and instruction. Under this provision the free reading room and library, resorted to by about 3,000 visitors daily, has been established and maintained, and within the last five years the museum of decorative art has also been open to the public and is now in practical use by many artisans and others who are employed in artistic occupations.- TRADE .AND. TECHNICAL EDUCATION UNITED STATES. 237 Third, to provide and maintain a school for the instruction of women in the arts of design. Under this provision the Women's Art Sc.hool has been established and now affords instruction to about 260 young women as a preparation for employment and in work requiring a knowledge of drawing and of colors. A school in telegraphy and in stenography and typewriting for women is also maintained and affords instruction to about 100 graduates annually. The fourth provision looks to the establishment and maintenance of a polytechnic school by day, so that the space used at night might also be employed in the daytime for the purpose of technological educa- tion. It is distinctly provided that this portion of the work shall not be undertaken until the income of the institution will warrant the expense without curtailing the operation of the departments hereto- fore enumerated. The evening schools are divided into two sections, namely, the scien- tific department and the art department. The instruction given in the scientific department is of the advanced order and entitles those who complete the full course to receive the degree of Bachelor of Science. As it is not the purpose of this report to include the higher scientific branches of study, the data relating to this department will not be considered in detail. Tuition is free to all. Eesidence in New York City is not a necessary condition of admission. A letter of recommendation from an employer is required from applicants in the evening classes, and a written refer- ence as to character and a guarantee that the applicant is not able to pay for instruction and is obliged to earn her own living is required from applicants in the day school. All materials, except easels and models, must be furnished by the pupils. The school term commences on the ist of October and ends the last week in May. Sessions are held every day except Saturday. The hours are from 9 a. m. to 1 p. m. for the day classes and from 7.30 to 9.30 o'clock for the even- ing classes. Pupils in the day classes are allowed to remain for prac- tice until 4 p. m. Applicants for admission in the evening art school must be at least 15 years of age, and in the day school at least 16 and not over 35 years of age. The day school is exclusively for females. The evening school is exclusively for males, except the classes in perspective and elementarj^ architectural drawing, to which women are also admitted. In the evening school instruction in the drawing classes covers the following subjects: Rudimental drawing, for beginners in free-hand drawing from simple models; form drawing, or free-hand drawing from bas-reliefs, representing architectural and plastic ornaments of different historic periods; cast drawing, or drawing from the antique; decorative designing, for designers of ornamental patterns for fresco 238 EEPOBT OF THE COMMISSIONEE OF LABOB. work, paper hanging, or figures for textile fabrics; ornamental draw- ing, or drawing from copies of pictures of ornamental forms; modeling in clay, for workers in relief decoration, whether in terra ootta, free- stone, or marble; architectural drawing; mechanical drawing; ele- mentary architectural drawing; elementary mechanical drawing; perspective drawing. In the day school there are the following art classes : Elementary cast drawing; drawing from the antique; life drawing; oil painting (still-life class, portrait class), two years' course; modeling in clay. Industrial classes in the day school are as follows : Class in design (two or three years' course) comprehends a course in historic ornament and, incidentally, the use of instruments, drawing to scale, and the use and application of water color; also designs for book covers, silks, carpets, wall paper, etc. Class in decorative composition, architecture, interior decoration, furniture, stained glass, and metal work (two years' course). Illustrating class; retouching of positives; water colors, crayons, and India ink, from the photograph; porcelain painting, from life; pastel and miniature painting, from life. Lectures on perspective are given to the whole school, and such other lectures on art as may be provided by the trustees. The schools are under the general management of a president and a board of trustees. There are 23 instructors in the art schools, all of whom are professional artists, architects, and teachers whose training was obtained in the leading art schools in this country and abroad and in practical work. The number of pupils in each class during the past year was as follows: PUPILS IN EVENING CLASSES. Cast drawing 136 Form drawing 120 Decorative designing 252 Ornamental drawing _ - 200 Kudimental drawing - 200 Modeling in clay 90 Mechanical drawing 240 Elementary mechanical drawing , 70 Architectural drawing 300 Elemetary architectural drawing ' 200 Perspective drawing 65 Total 1, 873 PUPILS IN DAY CLASSES. Elementary cast drawing 77 Drawing from the antique , 29 Life drawing - 27 Still-life class , 20 Portrait dass -. 15 Modeling in clay 17 Design, historic ornament, etc 39 TKADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION UNITED STATES. 239 Decorative composition, etc 17 Illustration ^ 27 Retouching, water color, porcelain, etc 24 Total 292 The record of graduates is incomplete, but it is estimated tliat at least 8,000 pupils have completed the art school courses. The erection of the building' was commenced in 1854 and was completed in 1858. The build- ing and equipment represent an outlay of 11,075,428, which amount was provided by the founder. The art schools occupy 22 large rooms, which have an aggregate floor space of 30,000 square feet. The cost of maintaining the art schools is about $25,000 per annum, which amount is derived from rents and the income from endowments. The sustaining endowments to date amount to $2,022,450. Two-thirds of this amount has been contributed by the Cooper family. The next largest benefactor is Mr. Andrew Carnegie, who has contributed 1300,000 for the purpose of enabling the trustees to establish a day polytechnic school, and thereby fulfill the final provision of Mr. Cooper's trust deed. Regarding the courses of training and study, the trustees feel that twice as much space is needed so that the work of instruction carried on at night may be extended into the day. The curriculum which has been established, although very satisfactory, has never been quite as extensive as it ought to be in oi'der to meet the demands of such of the students as might possess a high order of ability. Certain changes in the length of the school term, large extensions in the chemical and phj^s- ical laboratories and the establishment of an art laboratory are deemed necessary. Heretofore the art department has been carried on with reference mainly to such instruction as will enable the pupils to gain a livelihood in artistic pursuits. Hence, the application of the funda- mental principles of the graphic arts has been made, both in the daj^ and night school, a leading and practical feature of the instruction here- tofore given. During the last few years the subject of interior dec- oration has come into great prominence by reason of the large number of public and private edifices erected in this country' without regard to cost. Skilled workmen are required for this purpose. ' They have been very largely supplied from abroad, where schools of applied art have existed in all the leading countries of Europe for many j'cars. No such school has been successfully maintained in this. country on a scale commensurate with the demand which now exists for this kind of skilled labor. When this requirement was perceived about five 3' ears ago, the granddaughters of Peter Cooper undertook to form a museum of decorative art, without which it is quite impossible to carrj- on any systematic instruction with any prospect of success. This museum has now reached su.ch a development as makes it possible to establish in 240 EEPOKT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOK. connection with it what might be termed an art laboratory, correspond- ing to the chemical and physical laboratories. The work in this labo- ratory will be directed to the application of art to the purposes of decoration, a,nd will necessarily cover a very wide field. When these changes and extensions have been made, a very much larger number of pupils will be accommodated at night, and the whole of the space occupied by them will be available bj^ day for those who may be able to give the time necessary for the work. The outlook is very flattering, indeed. The income of the institution has been materially increased bj' recent benefactions, and the trustees have good assurance that cer- tain friends and admirers of the founder will provide ample funds for making all needed improvements. It would be impossible to attempt to enumerate the man}- and far- reaching benefits which have accrued to local industries or to the community or the working classes generally from the establishment of the school. The graduates of Cooper Union occupy high and important positions in every line of industr3' and art, and they can be found in every section of the country. Some of the most successful manufacturers in the city obtained their education and first start in life in the class rooms of Cooper Union, and they are to-day among its foremost advocates and admirers. Probably nowhere in the world, certainly not in this countrj^, have so many persons been provided with free access to literary, political, social, industrial, and scientific instruction as has been given in the Cooper Union during the years that it has been in existence. The free-lecture courses alone have been an invaluable factor in the dissemination of useful knowledge. These lectures, which treat upon every known important subject, are given by leading thinkers, debaters, orators, and writers, and have been attended by hundreds of thousands of auditors from all walks of life. In addition to the free lectures, the library and reading room con- stitute a very important part in the diffusion of knowledge and infor- mation upon every known subject. During the past year more than 500,000 visitors took advantage of the many facilities afforded by this department.. The ultimate effect of the efforts put forth by the trus- tees of Cooper Union in thus affording such a wise and comprehensive system of gratuitous instruction upon topics and things which are of acknowledged necessity and worth must certainly tend toward the promotion of the industrial, educational, and social development of all classes in the community. The Cooper Union has always been recognized by labor unions as a valuable aid in promoting the welfare of the working classes and has always received their hearty support. Among the improvements con- templated when the day school is enlarged is a proposition to establish 100 scholarships for the support of young men who desire to take TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION UNITED STATES. 241 advantage of the free instruction offered, but who might need assistance for their support. These scholarships will be awarded to deserving young men, and particularly upon the nomination of the various trade unions in the city and elsewhere. The effect upon those who have been under instruction has been beneficial in every respect. The testimony of the graduates upon this point is unanimous. Many were found who had achieved remarkable success in their particular line, and they were profuse in expressing their appreciation and admiration of the instruction they had received in the school. The evening classes are made up almost entirely of pupils who take up the instruction in conjunction with their trade work during the day. Some are apprentices and others are mechanics who desire technical instruction which can not be acquired in the workshops. There is ample evidence that the instruction received by these apprentices and mechanics gives them preference by employers over those who have had the benefit of a shop training only. With the gi'aduates of the day classes the conditions are somewhat different. The work that the young women take up requires more or less of an art education, which must be obtained either in a school or under private instruction, and therefore there are comparatively few shop-trained apprentices or workmen to be encountered. The gradu- ates do not enter the trades in the same manner or to the same extent as the young men. They usually take up work on their own account, and as they become proficient in practical application many of them accept regular positions. It is possible for the graduates in many cases to take up regular work without undergoing a period of appren- ticeship, and in almost every instance the instruction received by the young men has resulted in shortening their term of apprenticeship from one to two years. The Cooper Union has proved eminently satisfactory, but it has not yet attained the end for which it was established. Thus far the first three provisions of Mr. Cooper's deed of trust have been realized, but the fourth provision, which looks to the establishment and maintenance of a day polytechnic school, is still in abeyance. Fortunately, how- ever, through the benefactions of friends, the time has arrived when the prospect of fulfilling and carrying out the wishes of the founder is most assuring. The improvements now under advisement contem- plate such changes as will make it possible for a still greater number of workmen to acquire a good, sound, theoretical and technical educa- tion in many departments of industry and to perfect themselves in special branches of knowledge. The intention is to maintain a free school, primarily for the education of workmen, and not a professional institution for the education of engineers, although it is to be expected 9257—02 16 , 242 JKEPOKT OF THE COMMISSIONEB OF LABOB. that in the future, as in the past, its graduates will, by their training and ability, be fitted for the most responsible positians in practical industrial work. MAHYLAND INSTITT7TE FOB, THE PROMOTION OP THE MECHANIC ARTS, BALTIMORE, MD. The Marjdand Institute for the Promotion of the Mechanic Arts was founded in Baltimore in 1826. The plan of organization provided for a school of design; an annual course of public lectures; a library and reading room, with cabinets of models and philosophical apparatus; and arrangements for the holding of an annual exhibition, with pre- miums for excellence in manufactures and mechanic arts. The night school of industrial drawing was organized in 184:7, and subsequently, in 1854, a day school of art and design was established. The express purpose of the schools is to afford thorough instruction to reputable white students in the various branches of artistic and industrial draw- ing, painting, modeling in clay, and sculpture, with a view to quali- fying them as teachers, draftsmen, designers, decorators, or skilled artisans generallj-. Since their organization both schools have continued uninterrupt- edly with great success. They have afforded instruction to nearly 29,000 students, many of whom have risen to eminence as artists, engineers, manufacturers, and builders throughout the country. The outfit devoted to the interests cf the schools represents an outlay of $175,000. The equipment includes a library containing nearly- 21,000 volumes, and a museum of art and design with a fine collection of all the most important casts of antique figures and heads, specimens of designs in wrought iron, stained glass, ceramics, terra cotta, textiles, wall papers, complete models of machinery, structural details of build- ings, etc. The school year commences the first week in October and ends the last week in May. The day classes meet five daj^s in the week from 10 a. m. to 3 p. m. The term of the evening classes begins October 15, and continues three evenings each week until the middle of March. Applicants for the evening classes in free-hand drawing must be not less than 14 years of age, and for the mechanical and architectural divisions not less than 16 years of age. All materials, instx-uments, etc., must be provided by the students. Premiums in the form of gold medals are awarded to students in the day classes, and in the night school premiums are awarded to graduates in accordance with the provisions of the gift of the late George Peabody, through whose liberality the managers are enabled to distribute |500 annually in money premiums, in sums of not more than flOO nor less than $50, to the most meritorious graduates. TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION UNITED STATES. 243 The regular courses of instruction cover a period of four years. The day classes are arranged for four classes of students, namely: Regular students who contemplate continuing during the full course of four years; special students who do not wish to attend regularly and prefer to study a special subject; Saturday students, consisting mostly of juniors ; and a class in sculpture. Special students have the privilege of attending the art lectures given in connection with the studies in the regular classes. Excepting the free scholarships allowed to the city of Baltimore and to each county in the State, the charges for tuition are as follows: Day school, regular students, $28 per session of eight months. The fees to special students range from f 6 per term in elementary draw- ing to $50 for the course of eight months in sculpture. In the night school the fee is $6 per term of five months. In addition to the above there is a graduation fee of |5. The courses of instruction are as follows: DAY SCHOOL — ART DEPARTMENT. Elementary drawing: Drawing in outline from geometric solids; drawing in out- line of ornament from cast; drawing in outline, still-life group, from objects; draw- ing in outline, details of human figure, from cast; drawing in outline of natural foliage, from a plant; drawing from objects, shaded in charcoal; drawing from objects, shaded with brush; drawing of ornament from cast, shaded in charcoal; an elementary design, within a geometric form; analysis of a plant and applied designs; geometry, plane and solid; perspective, theory and applied. A representative or certificate drawing of each of the above subjects, made in the best manner possible, on half imperial sheets mounted on bristol board, 14 by 22, must be submitted by every regular student and accepted by the principal before the student can take the examinations and advance to the higher class. The drawings having been submitted and approved, examinations are held at the end of the school year in the following subjects: Model drawing in outline, from solids; model drawing, shaded, from solids; perspective problems; elementary design. Test examinations are also held at stated periods during the term, and an average of 85 per cent must be obtained in order to admit the student to the final examination. Figure drawing and painting in water color: Charcoal — head from cast; human figure from the antique. Water color: Still-life group from objects; landscapes from an approved example or from nature; fruit, flowers, and foliage from nature; per- spective, shadows and reflections, landscape sketch from nature. Applied designs — design for textile fabric, wall paper, or carpet, etc.; surface decorations of some object or ornament. There are two time-sketch exercises per week, one in charcoal drawing from the cast, the other in, water color, painting from still life, fruit, and natural flowers. An average of 85 per cent must be obtained to entitle the student to the final examination. A finished example of each of the above subjects, mounted on imperial board, 22 by 28, must be submitted by every regular student and accepted by the principal before the student can take the examinations and advance to the higher class. Painting in oil and drawing from antique in charcoal: Head from cast, shaded; figure from antique, shaded; two still-life groups from objects, in oil; fruit and flowers from nature, in oil; two landscapes from approved example, or nature, in oil. 244 EEPOBT OF THE OOMMISSIOWEK OF LABOR. There are two time-sketch exercises per week, one in oil painting, and the other in drawing from antique in charcoal. An average of 85 per cent must be obtained to entitle the student to the final examinations. Modeling in clay, drawing from life, and designing in the round: Study of orna- ment from flat design or cast; head from the cast, antique, in bas-relief; figure from the cast, antique, in bas-relief; portrait head or bust from life in bas-relief or round; original design in clay of a tile, rosette, or ornamental panel; portrait head from life, shaded in charcoal; figure from life, shaded in charcoal. There are three time-sketch exercises per week, one in modeling, one in heads from life, and one in figure drawing from life in charcoal. An average of 86 per cent must be obtained to entitle the student to the final examinations. Such works of each certificate set as the principal shall select are retained for the use of the institute for two years; after two years, such as the committee on schools of art and design may elect to retain permanently are paid for at rates fixed by said committee, and the others are returned. NIGHT SCHOOL, — INDUSTRIAL DRAWING DEPARTMENT. Free-hand drawing: First year — elementary drawing in outline, of ornaments and objects from blackboard and models; elementary designing and perspective. Second year — drawing of groups of geometric solids, ornaments, and objects from models; shading in charcoal and perspective. Third year — study of light and shade fronj ornament, still-life composition, and drawing from antique. Fourth year (certifi- cate works in charcoal) — drawing a piece of ornament, shaded, from cast; drawing a still-life group, shaded, from objects; drawing a head from antique; drawing a figure from antique. Mechanical drawing: First year — geometrical problems and orthographic projec- tions; sketches and drawings of machine details. Second year — projection and inter- section of solids and development of surfaces; projection of screws, belts and pulleys, gears and gearing. Third year — sketching, measuring, and di-awing of details of machines from models; elements of mechanical motions and construction. Fourth year — certificate works on imperial sheets, comprising a complete set of detail drawings and general plans of a machine, made from a model by measurement. Architectural drawing: First year — geometrical problems, plain and solid; mold- ings and timber joints; details of construction, sections, etc. Second year — structural details, with sections in wood and stone; construction of stairs, trusses, arches, etc.; plans and elevations. Third year — plans, elevations, and sections of houses; orders of architecture and ornament; manner of treatment in drawing elevations. Fourth 3'ear — certificate works on imperial sheets, comprising a complete set of plans, eleva- tions, and sections of a building developed from a perspective view or other given data. One drawing of each certificate set may be selected by the principal to be retained as the property of the school. The institute is under the general management of a board of man- agers, consisting of 24 members, two-thirds of whom must be either manufacturers or mechanics. The faculty consists of a principal and 31 instructors, 26 of whom are engaged in the courses covered herein. All the instructors are graduates of the institute and several are gradu- ates of foreign schools also. The instructors in the evening classes are engaged in practical work either on their own account or in indus- trial establishments during the day. The number of students in each grade during the past year was as follows: TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION UNITED STATES. 245 ATTENDANCE IN DAY AND EVENING SCHOOLS OF MARYLAND INSTITUTE FOE THE PROMOTION OF THE MECHANIC ARTS. Grade. Day school. Evening school. Art and design. Eree-hand drawing. Mechan- ical drawing. Architec- tural drawing. Total. 29 12 11 9 90 37 24 17 218 67 41 18 73 38 12 11 410 154 88 65 61 168 344 134 707 FiBstyear... Second year Third year . Fourth year Total . In addition to the above there were 12 students taking special instruc- tions in illustration and 309 students in the special day classes. The number of graduates is about 1,200. The cost of maintenance for the courses covered by this report is about $18,000 per annum. The income of the institute is derived from the following sources: The city of Baltimore appropriates |9,000 per annum, in return for which 33 free scholarships are allowed each year. These scholarships are apportioned among the members of the city council to be distributed among their constituents. The State of Maryland appropriates |8,000 per annum, in return for which each county in the State and the three legislative districts in the city of Baltimore are allowed one free scholarship each year. These scholar- ships are distributed by the board of county school commissioners and the Baltimore city school board. The balance is derived from tuition fees and contributions from leading citizens of Baltimore. In the opinion of the officials, the courses of training and study are satisfactory in every I'espect. The only thing needed is additional equipment in the shape of mechanical and electrical models and appli- ances, and these the management hopes to obtain in the near future. Regarding the benefits accruing to local industries as a result of the establishment of the institute schools, it is said that besides furnishing them with a ready supply of skillful draftsmen, they have also afforded a convenient opportanity to thousands of apprentices and mechanics who were employed in, the manufacturing establishments of the city during the day to acquire a good working knowledge of mechanical and architectural drawing, which has made them more proficient in their trades and more valuable to their employers. While no effort has been made to trace the influence of the- institute in other directions, it is the prevailing opinion that daily contact with the students has tended to raise the general standard of efficiency among their fellow-workmen. A number of the leading manufacturers of the city were visited in this connection, and thej' were unanimou.s in the opinion that the institute schools have been a great benefit to the local industries. 246 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. Though many members of local labor unions have attended the evening classes, and some of them speak in the highest terms regard- ing the instruction they received, the labor unions as such have never taken any official action regarding the schools. The effect upon those who have been under instruction is said to be beneficial in every particular. Their knowledge of drawing gives them preference over ordinarj- apprentices and workmen, and they receive good wages and have steady employment. It is difficult for a young man to obtain a position in a drafting room unless he has acquired a good knowledge of drawing beforehand, and the fact that he is a graduate of the institute is a sufficient recommendation with employers. As is the case in many schools that have evening courses in industrial drawing, a large number of the students are apprentices and mechanics who are emploj-ed at their trades during the day. While there is always a fair number of this class that pursue the studies with the intention of mastering all the details of a particular course and fitting themselves for positions as draftsmen, designers, etc., many others have no further object than to acquire such a knowledge of drawing as will enable them to read and understand the details of the plans which they are obliged to follow when Avorking at their trade. This, in a measure, accounts for the gradual falling off in the number of students as between the first and fourth-year classes. In most cases it has been possible for graduates to engage in practical work withoat undergoing a period of apprenticeship. Sixteen members of the last graduating class obtained positions as draftsmen before the completion of their studies at the institute. The institute schools have proved eminently satisfactory, and have fully attained the end for which they were established. The success of the schools is well attested by the constantly' increasing interest manifested by the public generally, and the steady growth of the dif- ferent classes. During the past year, which marked the fifty-third anniversary of the night schools, the attendance was the largest in the history of the institute, and the indications point to still greater attendance for the coming year. EHODE ISLAND SCHOOIi OF DESIGN, PKOVIDENCE, K. I. It was believed by the people interested at the time this school was started that to enable the manufacturers of textiles in this country to compete with the foreign-made goods it was necessary to improve both the quality and the design of the goods made by them. In order to do this it was necessary to obtain a larger supply of technically and artistically trained workmen than this country afforded, and in order to help to that end this school was established. A so-called cen- tennial committee of ladies from this State, which had been formed to look after the interests of the State at the Centennial Exposition of TEA.de and TECHJSTCAL education — UNITED STATES. 247 1876, discovered that it had a balance of ^2,100 in the treasuiy after the close of the exposition. To this sum an organization of women in Bristol, E. I., added about |300, and with the money thus obtained the art department of a business college in Providence was purchased and this school established. That was in 1877. The school is now practi- cally self-supporting; but for a number of years it was largely sup- ported by gifts from Mr. Jesse Metcalf , of Providence, and his family. The family also gave the present buildings to the school. In 1892 the school was regularly incorporated. When the school was founded its purposes were declared to be, "first, the instruction of artisans in drawing, painting, modeling, and designing, that they may successfuUj^ apply the principles of art to the requirements of trade and manufactures; second, the systematic training of students in the practice of art, that they may understand its principles, give instruction to others, or become artists; third, the general advancement of art education by the exhibition of works of art and art studies, and by lectures on art." In the subsequent history of the school these purposes have been strictly adhered to. The school has two buildings, the school building proper and the museum, located in the rear of the school building. The museum contains a large collection of paintings, drawings, etchings, statuary, embroidex'ies, etc., which are owned bj' the school and many others which are loaned to it. The school is partially supported by the Association of the Rhode Island School of Design, which during the year 1899-1900 had a membership of 308. The membership dues paid bj^ these members — $3 annually or $100 for a life membership — go to the support of the school. Other subscriptions are also received, amounting for the j^ear 1899-1900 to $520, $100 of this being given as prizes for work. The State of Rhode Island appropriates $500 yearh' for the school, and further appropriations are made both by the State and by the cit}' of Providence for scholarships. The State scholarships are for all classes, day and evening, except the Saturday classes for children, but the city scholarships are offered only to those who join the evening classes. The further funds necessary to maintain the school, the cost of which for the school year ending October 1, 1899, was $11,423.81, are pi'ovided by the fees. In this school there are day and evening classes and classes for chil- dren, which meet on Saturdays only. The day classes are in session from 9 a. m. to 1 p. m. and the evening classes from 7.15 to 9.16 on every week day except Saturday. The Saturday classes for children meet in the morning from 9.30 to 11.30. The school year is divided into two terms of four months each. The fee for the day class is §25 a term; for the children's Saturday class, $5 a term; for the pen-and-ink class, $5 a term; for the evening class in mathematics, §5 a term; and 248 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONEB OF LABOR. for the other regular evening classes, $9 a term. Each evening class meets three evenings a week. Students passing through an entire course to the satisfaction of the teachers and the board of management receive a diploma. Certificates of the amount and quality of work accomplished are also awarded. The school is under the management of a head master and of a com- mittee of management of the board of directors. There are 13 instructors in the school, as follows: A head master and instructor in architecture, perspective, and drawing, a graduate of the Worcester Polj'technic Institute, and also trained by shop practice, designing, and l)y thirteen years of teaching; an instructor in anatomy and draw- ing and painting from life, educated in the art school of the Boston Museum of Fine Arts and by two years' work in Julien's studio in Paris; an instructor in modeling, trained in German schools; an instructor in decorative design and wood carving, a graduate of the Pratt Institute, and of some years' experience in practical work as a designer; an instructor in engineering, mathematics, and design, a graduate of the Worcester Polytechnic Institute, and experienced in work on making steam engines and cotton-manufacturing machinerj'; an instructor in illustration and cast drawing, a graduate of this school; an instructor in painting in water colors, an artist; an instructor in descriptive geometry and drawing, a graduate of the Worcester Polytechnic Institute and of experience in an engineer's office; an instructor in mechanical drawing, a graduate of the Miller Manual Labor School at Albemarle, Va., and of this school; three instructors in the children's class, one a graduate of the Massachusetts Normal Art School, one a graduate of this school, and one a student in the same; an instructor in cast drawing, a graduate of this school. There are two departments of instruction in the school, the free- hand department and the mechanical department. .The following describes the courses in these departments: FREE-HAND DEPARTMENT. The work of the department of free-hand drawing begins with the drawing of simple objects and advances through various stages to tlie study of the human figure. Special attention is paid to the drawing of ornament for those who wish to make a specialty of design. The school has a fine equipment of ornamental casts in all styles for this work. In both the day and evening schools there are separate classes for the study of the nude for both men and women. There are also day and evening classes in the study of the head and draped figure. Students are admitted to these classes after passing a satisfactory examination in drawing the human figure from casts. Lectures are given on anatomy, illustrated by drawings on the blackboard. Stu- dents are expected to take notes and to pass satisfactory examinations. There are classes in painting, both in oil and water color, from life and still life. There are also classes in outdoor sketching in the spring, when the weather permits. In order to enter the painting classes students must pass satisfactory examinations in drawing. TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION UNITED STATES. 249 Students wishing to enter the course in decorative design will be required to show the necessary proficiency in free-hand drawing from ornament, and the study of draw- ing from ornament, cast, and life may be extended throughout the course. Instruction is given in water color, fresco, and oil painting and in the principles of harmony and contrast in color. A course of lectures on the evolution of decorative design from the earliest known evidences is given. Students are expected to attend the lec- tures, take notes, use the text-books, and pass examinations. Lectures are also given illustrating the principles of design and composition and their practical application. Especial attention is paid to the application of natural forms and of the human fig- ure to decoration. Throughout the course practical finished work, aiming to meet the requirements of material and manufacture, is made. Students design surface pat- terns of all kinds, such as wall papers, prints, carpets, mosaics, and tiles. They also design furniture, interior and exterior decoration for buildings, stained glass, wrought ironwork, silverware, and jewelry, book cover and page illustration. A firm grounding in elementary drawing and knowledge of decorative design are essential to the training of a wood carver. The course in wood carving, therefore, is carried on in connection with the work in drawing and design. The course of study is arranged so as to give students as broad a knowledge as possible of all varieties of carving, beginning with simple exercises in chip carving, and advancing through incised work, low relief, high relief, and carving in the round, to furniture and cabi- net work. There are two classes in pen and ink for illustration, one in the afternoon and one in the evening. The students entering these classes must pass an examination in drawing from still life in black and white. The course in modeling begins with the modeling in relief from casts of ornament, and proceeds to the study of the human figure from the antique. Designs in clay and plastilina for wood and stone carving, for silverware, and terra cotta, are made. The Saturday class for children is in four divisions and the course is a progressive one. Begimiing in the lower division with the simplest models and objects, the- pupils are advanced as fast as they are able to the study of more difficult tasks and applied designs. This class serves either as a preparatory class for the regular day class or as an elementary art school for those unable to come during the week. The outline of the course in this department is as follows: First year: Model drawing, ornament from cast, head from cast, figure from cast. Second year: History of ornament, drawing figure from cast and head from life, anatomy, modehng (optional), elementary design (for designers and sculptors), drawing and painting from still life, perspective. Third year (painters and illustrators): Drawing and painting from life and still hfe, composition, modeling (optional), pen and ink (optional). Fourth year -(painters and illustrators): Drawing and painting from life, compo- sition, pen and ink (optional). Third year (designers and sculptors): Composition of design, modeling (optional), wood carving (optional), pen and ink (optional), drawing from life. Fourth year (designers and sculptors): Advanced work in practical designing in all branches, modeling (optional), wood carving (optional), pen and ink (optional). MECHANICAL DEPARTMENT. The general course begins with free-hand drawing from simple, correct models, and gives a training of eye and hand that is immediately and permanently useful to mechanic or artisan. The geometrical problems are stated and a solution described. The student must originate a figure and demonstration. , Orthographic projections, intersections of solids, and development of surfaces are taught by models, patterns, and illustrations until the student learns how to think and to originate work. Ele- mentary designing begms as soon as the student has gained sufficient facility in the 250 BEPORT OF THE COMMISSIONEB OK LABOR. art of drawing. Good lettering receives constant attention, together with careful attention in making correct working drawings from the student's own measurements of machinery or other appropriate objects. In the second year every student is expected to take a regular course, even when he has in view a pursuit not properly classed in either of the three offered. By so doing a good foundation is laid for spe- cial work. The work is varied after the accomplishment of the prescribed course by more special work, which may be more directly in line with the student's aim or predilections. The course for mechanics begins with making drawings from machines. Free-hand sketches of the parts are first made and dimensions taken, from which working drawings are made. Methods of duplications of drawings, the study of assembled and detailed drawings, and designing of cams and gearing are also taught. Design- ing of special machinery is taught during the third year, the work closing with a thesis. The engineering course takes up graphic statics and its application to the stresses in roof and bridge trusses, the arch, and continuous girder. Algebra, geometry, and trigonometry are required, and the office work of the civil engineer is the class of work covered. In the third year, the study of earthworks, retaining walls, and foundations, the design of some structure, and a thesis. The study of algebra, geom- etry, and trigonometry continues through the second and third years. These subjects are also taught independently. The course in architecture begins with the same fundamentals as given to mechanics, branching off when the subject of working drawings is reached into definite connec- tion with architecture. Here additional free-hand work is required, study of orna- ment from cast, lectures upon historic ornament, also pen and ink work. A course in perspective, drill in the orders, designing in the classic, algebra and geometry, truss work in the graphic method, with calculations and strain diagrams, lantern lec- tures on the historic styles, competitions on set subjects, and design and thesis com- plete the course. The outline of the course in this department is as follows: First j'ear: Free-hand drawing from geometric solids; graphical geometrical prob- lems; orthographic projections from models, patterns, and machine parts; intersec- tion and development; problems in solid geometry; isometric projection; working drawings. Second year (architects): Free-hand drawing, use of color and brush, the orders, perspective, algebra. Third year: Designing in the classic, designing trusses, building construction, graphic statics, geometry, design and thesis. Second year (designers and engineers) : Working drawings, cam design, gear design, elements of machine design, algebra. Third year: Graphic statics and application to root and bridge trusses, the arch and girder, retaining walls and foundations, geometry and trigonometrj-, design and thesis. The number of students registered during the school j^ear 1899- 1900 was: Da}- classes, 79; evening classes, 336; Saturday classes for children, 94; a total of 608. The number of graduates since the estab- lishment of the school is, approximately, 220, though about 1,600 have been in attendance. The great majority of those attending the school either drop out of it entirely before completing a course in any study, or else complete but a few of the studies making up a course and so are not regularly graduated. TEADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION UNITED STATES. 251 The officials of the school believe that the courses of instruction can not be much, if any, improved, except that modeling should be a requirement. At the present time it is an optional study, because it has been found that most of the students would stay away from the school rather than take it as a study. The school has furnished many skilled designers for the manufactories of jewelry and they have undoubtedly had an influence in improving the standard of work. They are now working in all parts of the country and have spread the influence of the school. The school has had an effect on the intel- ligence of the working classes, though, perhaps, not a large one, as its pupils have been few in proportion to the whole number of working people in the country. Higher wages, steadier employment, and more rapid promotion have in many instances accrued to the graduates of the school as a result of their better preparation for work. Its pupils are much preferred by employers, owing to their greater intel- ligence and knowledge of drawing, and in at least one case, in the Brown & Sharpe Manufacturing Company, of Providence, it has led to the improvement of ordinary shop training in its locality. Its graduates do not, in the lines in which they have been trained, have to pass through a period of apprenticeship or of learning when beginning actual work at a trade or occupation. It has, generally speaking, proved satisfactory and has fully attained the end for which established. SCHOOL OF DRAWING AND PAINTING, MUSEUM OE" FINE ABTS, BOSTON, MASS. The act incorporating the Museum of Fine Arts was passed in 1870, and in recognition of the great need of a school where those desiring it could secure an art education, provision was made for its location in the museum. The school was established in 1876, and rooms were provided for it by the trustees of the museum. Further than occupy- ing these rooms the school has no connection with the museum. It is managed by a committee in charge and a manager, The first object in establishing the school was to cultivate the taste of the community in all matters of art, and as a means to that end not only is instruction given in the various forms of high art, so called, but also in industrial art in certain of its phases. On entering the school, each pupil is placed immediately in the class for which fitted, and advancement thereafter is regulated by the judg- ment of the instructors. Pupils in ail departments are allowed the free use of the galleries, collections, and library of the museum, and during the morning hours are given the preference over the pupils of any othei* school in the choice of places for drawing in the galleries. Diplomas are given, upon application, to those students who have fulfilled the requirements of the committee. In the department of 252 REPORT OF THE C0MMIS8I0NEB OF LABOR. decorative design these requirements include satisfactory work during the prescribed course and satisfactory examinations in perspective. Strictly speaking, there are no graduates; those who have successfully completed a full course might properly be considered as such, but the records of the school do not disclose the total number. Upon joining the school for a period of one or more terms, pupils are required to pay an entrance fee of flO. In addition, the fees for tuition, which are the same in all departments, are as follows: First term, twelve weeks, $45; second term, twelve weeks, 145; third term, nine weeks, |35. Pupils who have paid the fees for the first two terms of any one year are entitled to free instruction for the third term of that year. Advanced students who desire practice and criticism in drawing from the cast or model for a shorter period than a term are admitted by the month, upon the approval of the instructors, paying $25 for their first month and $20 per month thereafter. The school awards ten scholarships at the end of every year, each entitling the holder to free tuition for the year following. Four of these are limited to advanced students, and the rest may be applied for by any regular student of the school to whom such aid is necessary. The late James "William Paige bequeathed $30,000 to the trustees of the museum upon the condition that $10,000 more be raised within a limited time, which has been done, for the foundation of a scholarship to enable the pupil "who shall have been most proficient in pamting" to study art in Europe for two years. This is open to both men and women, and is given to the pupil who is recommended by the managing committee of the school as most worthy to receive it. The Helen Hamblen scholarship, founded in 1898, is for young women only, and gives to the holder free tuition for a year, with $100 in addition. It may be awarded to the same person in successive years at the discretion of the committee. The school has three departments, one in drawing and painting, one in modeling, and one in decorative design, . with supplementary instruction in anatomy and perspective. Informal lectures are also given to pupils of the school upon the arts represented in the col- lections of the museum. In this school there is a manager and 8 instructors. Five of the instructors are graduates of the school and studied in Paris. Two graduated from the Art Students' League in New York, one also graduated from this school, and the last is a gradu- ate of the Massachusetts Normal Art School. During the year 1899- 1900 the average attendance in all departments was'l.s9. Thirty-four were in attendance upon the department of decorative design. As previously stated, the school uses rooms in the Museum of Fine Arts, rent free, and its equipment is largely loaned by the museum. A few hundred dollars covers all expenditure for equipment. The cost of TKADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION — UNITED STATES. 253 maintaining the school for the year ending June 30, 1900, was $17,334.12, which sum was raised from fees of students and contribu- tions of friends. According to the statements of the school officials, the courses of instruction can not be improved except in small details, though the school could profit by having more space. In so far as the working classes have been reached by the influence of the school, their intelli- gence and efficiency have been increased. Many of those who studied in the department of decorative design have obtained employment in industrial lines, and the intelligence and skill resulting from their training has tended to raise the general standard of work. The train- ing of the school has tended to promote the educational and social development of the community and in a lesser degree the industrial. It has greatly improved the taste of all, and in case of those who have gone into the industries it has resulted in obtaining for them better wages and more rapid promotion, and in all probabilitj^ steadier employment. Those who have taken the courses of the school and go into industrial work are greatly preferred by employers; man}'' of them have become house decorators, many more are designers of wall- paper, stained glass, magazine covers, etc., andean always be depended on both for technical skill and for good taste and artistic sense in their work. In all artistic lines of industry shop training in the community has been much improved as a result of the establishment of this and similar schools. The school has proven eminently satisfactory and has iuily attained the principal end for which it was established, that of cultivating the taste of the masses. ERIC PAPE SCHOOL OF ART, BOSTON, MASS. This is primarily an art school, but also has courses in industrial design. It was established by its proprietor in 1898. Its start was due to the belief on the part of its founder that in all the art schools of the city too many old-fashioned ideas were prevailing. It is the intention of the proprietor of the school to carry out the principles of the art academies of Paris. The student is led as much as possible in the direction of his indi- vidual taste, with a foundation of good drawing and anatomy gained from the study of the living model. There are no examinations for admittance to any of the classes. Students begin at once to draw from the nude and draped model. Advanced students are instructed in grouping and composing on canvas. Students can obtain free entrance cards to the Museum of Fine Arts, and can work in the art rooms of the Boston Public Library. The collections of Indian and other relics in the Peabody and Agassiz museums in (Cambridge and the fine collection of Kevolutionary relics in the old State House in Boston are easily accessible and are of special interest to those studying illustrating. 254 KEPOBT OP THE COMMISSI OJSTEE OE LABOR. The management of the school is in the hands of its proprietor, who is also the director and head instructor. There are 3 principal instructors and 2 assistants. The head instructor studied four years in Paris under the French masters Boulanger, Lefebvre, Benjamin Constant, Doucet, Blanc, Delance, Gerdme, Delaunay, and Jean Paul Laurens. One of the regular instructors has spent seven j'ears in Paris studying under Bouguereau, Robert-Fleary, and Lazar. The other regular- instructor has made artistic anatomy the study of her life and is well known as a sculptor of exquisite vases. The following is an outline of the courses of instruction, terms, etc. : MOENING CLASSES. Students work in the classes every day excepting Saturdays, instruction being givea twice a week. Models pose every day, 9 a. m. to 1 p. m. Drawing and painting. — Drawing and painting from the nude model, in charcoal, oil, pastel, and water color, 515 per month. Separate classes for men and women in drawing and painting from the nude. A bronze medal and scholarship will be awarded in this class for best average during the year in drawing, or a silver medal for the best average in oil painting, if a sufficiently high standard is rea<;hed. Portrait and half figure, in charcoal, oil, pastel, and water color, §15 per month. Artistic anat- omy with the nude model, in charcoal and colored chalk, $8 per month; one week every month in connection with the life classes; artistic anatomy free to all students of the life classes; ?8 per month for students attending only for artistic anatomy. Composition (sketches), once each week, |5 per njontb; free to students who are members of any two classes; f 1 per month for students who attend one class. Still- life and flower painting in charcoal, oil, water color, pastel, pen, and wash, S15 per month. Antique (if desired), |12 per month. Decorative design (everyday, morning and afternoon, with use of studios all day) . — Decorative design, including the following list of studies: Designing for stained glass and decorative painting; metal work, carved wood, and mosaic; tapestiy, embroideries, carpets, wall paper, and leather work; posters, book covers, initial letters, and deco- rative illumination of books, 515 per month. Students of stained glass and decora- tive painting, using models, $20, four lessons each week. Pyrogravure and wood carving, burning on wood and leather, |15 per month. AFTERNOON CLASSES. Students work in the classes every day excepting Saturdays, instruction being given twice a week. Costume models pose every day, l.SO p. m. Drawing, painting, and illustrating. — Drawing and painting from the costume model in charcoal, oil, pastel, and water color, $15 per month; portrait in charcoal, oil, pastel, and water color, |15 per month. The class in illustrating includes the following branches of study: Pen drawing (for book, magazine, and newspaper work); wash and gouache drawing; charcoal drawing; water color; pencil drawing; red chalk (sanguine); etching; chalk and crayon drawing; papier gillot (process paper); black and white oil color. Models pose every day, 1.30 p. m.; charge for tuition |15 per month. Composition (advanced class), $8 per month; free to students who attend any two classes; $2 per month for students who attend one class. The study of costumes of all ages will be included in this class. A bronze medal and a scholar- ship will be awarded for the finest set of compositions at the end of the year, or a silver medal for best work done in advanced composition class with the assistance of models and accessories, if a sufficiently high standard is reached. TBADE Am> TECHNICAL EDTTCATIOK UNITED STATES. 255 SATURDAY MORNING CLASS. A class in oil and water color, still life, designing, and antique (if desired), meets on Saturdays at 9 a. m. The tuition charge is $6 per month. A Saturday morning sketch class is free to all students of the school. EVENING CLASS FOR MEN. Life class and illustrating class combined, |8 per month. Nude and costume mod- els, pen drawing, wash, gouache, water color, pencil drawing, red chalk (sanguine), black and white oil, charcoal drawing, etc., five evenings each week, 7 to 10 p. m. Instruction by Mr. Pape, Tuesday and Friday evenings. Artistic anatomy with the nude model, Tuesdays and -Fridays, 7 p. m., f6 per month; one week every two months in connection with the life class. Artistic anatomy is free to all student.s of the evening life and illustrating class; ?6 per month for students attending only for artistic anatomy. Further information as to terms is contained in the following: Terms for all day in any two classes — for example, morning life and afternoon illustrating classes combined, or afternoon and evening classes — $20 per month, giving the student four lessons each week, with models (nude and costume), all day, and free instruction in com- position. This amount may be reduced to |15.62i per month by mak- ing two payments for the school year, in October and February, and is allowed only on a full j^ear's attendance. Terms for morning classes, $15 per mftnth, giving student two lessons each week, and terms for afternoon classes the same. This amount is reduced to $11.25 per month if two payments of $45 each are made in October and February', and is allowed only on a full year's attendance. An entrance fee of $5 is charged each student on entering the school, but half this amount is returned to the student if he remains a member of the school for more than four months. This fee is not required of students in the evening course. Scholarships are given for drawing and painting from life, por- traiture, water color, decorative design, illustrating,, composition, eto. , and are awarded on general yearly average and entitle the student to free instruction during the ensuing j-ear. Money prizes and medals are also distributed. During the first year of the school the total attendance was 62 and during the second year 105. There are no regular graduates, but pupils study in the school as long as they care to do so. The rooms for the use of the school are rented, and the equipment consists prin- cipally of costumes, draperies, bric-a-brac, etc., collected by its 'pvo- prietor. Its cost can not be stated. The annual cost of maintaining the school is over $5,000, which is paid from fees of the students. An attempt is being made to build up this school upon as high a line as possible. The courses of instruction are as good as the director is able to make them, though in course of time with greater experience they may be improved somewhat. The school is educating good 256 BEPOKT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. artists and a most competent class of illustrators for magazines and newspapers. Many of the students are architects and decorators and all gain much by the courses of the school. The school is undoubtedly increasing the intelligence and eflBciency of its pupils, and so far as its infliience reaches it is promoting industrial development. Those pupils who enter the industrial arena are undoubtedly more efficient than those whose education has not been obtained from the training of a school, and higher remuneration, steadier employment, and more rapid advancement will inevitably result from their training. Its pupils are much preferred by employers in industrial lines to those who have had no school training, and employers are almost constantly asking the director to recommend pupils to them for employment. The influence of the school training is already tending to raise the character of art work done in the shops, and in this sense, especially in the advertising line, shop training may be said to have been improved as a result of the establishment of the school. NEW YORK SCHOOL OF AKT, NEW YORK, N. Y. The New York School of Art, formerlj^ known as the Chase School, was organized under the present management in 1896. The original purpose of the school was to afford instruction in the fine arts, but owing to the growing interest in illustration, ornamental and deco- rative work, courses in industrial and applied art were added to the curriculum. The school year is divided into two terms. The winter term opens September 10 and closes June 10, and the summer term opens on June 10 and closes on September 10. The school is open to both sexes. No examination for admission is required. All classes are limited, but pupils can join at any time, providing there are vacancies. Day and evening sessions are held. The hours for instruction are from 9 a. m. to 4. 30 p. m. and from 7 to 10 p. m. The school awards 10 scholar- ships, 5 to men and 5 to women, at the end of every year, each entitling the holder to free tuition for the following year. The scholarships are given to those who show the best work during the year. Cash prizes are also awarded for the best studies in the different classes. The industrial art courses include: Composition and water color, with a special view to their practical application in painting, illustrating, and designing; day and evening courses in illustration, in which prac- tical instruction is given for newspaper and magazine work; decora- tive and applied design. This course is modeled on a French system, the purpose of which is to bring out, first, the pupil's artistic ability by a careful study of the principles that underlie all styles of orna- mentation, historic or modern; secondly, to develop the inventive power by a study of geometrical and floral motives and composition ; and thirdly, to teach the technical requirements of designing as ap- plied to book covers, metal work, ceramics, stained glass, wall paper, TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION UNITED STATES. 257 textiles, etc. In addition to the foregoing, a complete course in archi- tecture has been added to the curriculum. The tuition fees are as follows: Half-day classes, one month, $8; three months, 122.50; nine months, $55. Full-day classes, one month, fl5; three months, $43.50; nine months, $110. The school is managed by a director. There are 9 instructors, 3 of whom are graduates of French art schools, the training of the others being acquired in American art schools and in professional work. The number of pupils in the industrial art classes during the past year was as follows: Composition, 40; design, 35; illustration, day class 125, evening class 30. There have been about 1,000 graduates. The school building is rented. The equipment, which was provided by the director, is valued at |4,000. The school is maintained by tuition fees. The cost of maintenance is $10,000 per annum. In the opinion of the director, the present courses of training and study are complete in every detail and require no improvement. It is thought that the graduates have been of great assistance to the various industries where their services are required. The effect upon those who have been under instruction has been beneficial. The systematic training they received in the school gives them prefer- ence with employers, and they have steady employment and are well paid. The graduates are not required to undergo a period of appren- ticeship before taking up practical work. Although the school has proved quite satisfactory, it has not yet attained its ultimate object. Heretofore the instruction has been confined very largely to the fine arts. While continuing to maintain its distinction in that respect, strong efforts are being made to cultivate a taste for practical and applied art. When the new course in architecture has become well established and the pupils fitted to take up anj?^ branch of industrial art, then it may be said that the school has accomplished its purpose. PHILADELPHIA SCHOOL OF DESIGN FOR WOMEN, PHILADEL- PHIA, PA. The Philadelphia School of Design for Women was originally founded as a private institution in the year 1844, and was thus con- ducted until 1850, when the Franklin Institute assumed the manage- ment and opened the school to the public. In 1853 the school was incorporated and has since continued as a separate institution. First on the list of schools of design in the country, the primary intention of the founders was to give women an opportunity to gain thorough and systematic instruction in practical designing as applied to manu- factures. This object has been broadened, and now includes all branches of art study which have a business value. The school com- bines all the advantages of a normal art and technical school of prac- tical design. It gives historical and theoretical instruction in addition 9257—02 17 258 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. to tecliiiical design, together with the more artistic Ijranches which broaden the knowledge and cultivate the taste of the workers in indus- trial art. The school year is diraded into two terms of four months each, beginning on the 1st of October and the 1st of Februarj"-. The hours for instruction are from 9 a. m. to 2 p. m. every week day except Saturday. The class rooms are open for practice until 6 p. m. Pupils can enter the classes at any time during the school year. Appli- cants are not admitted under the age of 13. The courses of instruction include portrait painting, pen and ink sketching, etching, modeling, flower painting, illustrating, practical designing, and a normal course for teachers. The first year of the normal art course serves as a preparatory class for all branches taught in the school. It is so arranged that the pupils, through steady pro- gression from simple to complex, may develop the power to represent objects faithfully, and learn their forms and aspects, while at the same time, b}- constant interchangeable use, they can acquire equal facility in the handling of pencil, charcoal, crayon, and brush. To enter the class in design a good drawing must be submitted. Other- wise the pupil must begin with the regular course work of the fiist year and tee promoted to the special class in design as soon as her work shows sufficient proficiency in drawing and modelmg. The courses of stud}' include historic styles and principles of ornament, di'awing from casts and flowers, conventional analysis of plants, and original designs applied to all the industrial arts. Technical methods employed in weaving textile fabrics are fully exemplified. After the pupils successfully pass the examinations in the second-j-ear studies they are promoted to exclusively practical work in whatever branches they may desire to follow. The tuition fee in the first-year class is |20 per term, and for suc- ceeding years $25 per term; special classes, |25 to $35 .per term. The school is under the general management of a board of directors and a principal who selects the instructors and decides upon the courses and all educational features. There are 8 instructors, several of whom are professional artists, and the remainder are graduates of the school who have had practical experience in making designs for manufacturers. The number of pupils in the course in design during the past year was a>. follows: Elementary class, 39; second-year class, 30; advanced class, 6. The number of graduates in this course is about 600. The building occupied by the school is a three story structure con- taining 16 large class rooms and studios besides the art gallery and library. The library contains manj^ valuable works on art, studies iq architecture, ornamental designs, etc. Regarding the courses of training and study, it is said "they are satisfactory, but might be amplified in detail." A larger museum of TKADE AND TECHBIGAI. EDUCATION UNITED STATES. 259 stuffs and material for the pupils' use would be of advantage, and these thinjjs are to be provided when circumstances will warrant. Refer- ring to the benefits resulting from the establishment of the school, it is stated that "apart from supplying trained designers, it affords oppor- tunity to manufacturers to purchase a wider range of designs from the graduates who prefer not to engage themselves to any particular establishment." The importance and value of the work performed by the pupils is evidenced by the attitude of many prominent manufac- turers who have a standing invitation to the classes to visit their mills, and have afforded every facility for the observation and study of the application of designs to industrial products. Furthermore, the school has helped to raise the level of industrial, educational, and social con- ditions in the community, and has been an invaluable factor in promot- ing the welfare of its pupils. For women, such positions as designers would be impossible to obtain without the training supplied by these schools. Where they have been employed in designing rooms or where their designs have been purchased by manufacturers, their work has been highly complimented. No graduate is required to undergo a period of apprenticeship, for they are thoroughly prepared to do practical work before leaving the school. The success of the school has a decided influence in the way of inducing better work among the regular designers. The school has proved eminently satis- factory and has fully attained the end for which it was established. LOWELL SCHOOL OF PKACTICAL DESIGN, BOSTON, MASS. This school was established in 1872 for the purpose of promoting industrial art in the United States. At the date of its establishment there were practically no designers of patterns for textile fabrics in the United States, and all designs were made and purchased abroad. There was no opportunity in this couutrj^ of acquiring taste and skill in composition and design with reference to the industrial arts, and it was believed that a school of this kind would result not only in provid- ing a good trade or profession for those whose tastes lay in the direc- tion of art, but would prove to be of great advantage ultimately to the manufacturers by enabling them to get a greater variety of designs and to get them at a lower cost. Under the mfiuence of Mr. John A. Lowell this school was estab- lished by the Lowell Institute, for which he furnished the funds and of which he was the trustee. Mr. James Lawrence, largely interested in manufacturmg in Lowell and other New England cities, had brought Mr. Charles Kastner over from France as a desig-ner. Mr. Kastner was put in charge of the school, and has so remained to the present day. The corporation of the Massachusetts Institute of Tech- nology, assumed the responsibility of conducting it, and has retained its management according to the purpose and general plan of the school as proposed by the trustee of the Lowell Institute. 260 EEPOKT OF THK COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. The expenses are borne by the Lowell Institute, and tuition is free to all pupils. The school occupies a drawing room in the building of the Institute of Technology, on Garrison street. To teach drawing is not among the objects of the school. Appli- cants must therefore possess a knowledge of drawing adequate to enable them advantageously to begin the work of composition and design. This implies a considerable degree of skill in free-hand draw- ing from nature, especially in sketching leaves, flowers, and other objects which frequently supply the motives of designs, and also in the use of the brush for drawing outlines and laying flat color. Accu- racy and readiness in drawing and an eye for color are required. COUKSE OF STUDY. students are taught the art of making patterns for prints, ginghams, delaines, silks, laces, wall papers, book covers, carpets, oilcloths, etc. The course is of three years' duration and embraces: Technical manipulations; copying and variations of designs; original designs or composition of patterns; the making of working drawings and finishing of designs. Lessons are also given in china painting and cast drawing. Instruction is given personally to each student over his work. Stu- dents supjjly their own instruments and materials, the cost of which is about |5 per year. The school is constantly provided with samples of all the novelties in textile fabrics from Paris, such as brocaded silks, ribbons, alpacas, armures, and fancy woolen goods. There are 2 instructors, the principal — a designer who learned his profession in the workshops of France — and a woman, a graduate of this school. The number of students in the school at any one time is limited to 42. There are no grades, but the course of instruction is planned to be of three years' duration. During the progress of this investigation those engaged on the first year's study numbered 15, those on the sec- ond year's study 13, and on the third year's 12. The first graduation was in the year 1876, and the total number of graduates up to and including the year 1900 was 252. This school has no building or equipment of its own. The cost of maintaining it during the year 1899-1900 was |4,800, made up of the following items: Salary of principal, $2,500; rent of room, equipment, etc., $1,800; other expenses (including pay of assistant instructor), 1500. The funds are all supplied by the trustee of the Lowell Institute. Considered strictly as a school of design, the management does not consider its course of instruction capable of much improvement. It might be desirable to enlarge the scope of the school by teaching the pupils to place upon fabrics the designs made and to add courses of instruction in weaving, dyeing, and the study of materials, but there is no outlook for any attempt in these lines being made. This school has been the means of raising up a force of native designers in this country where formerly there were none. It has TBADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION UNITED STATES. 261 caused most of the designing of patterns for the textile fabrics manufac- tured in this country to be done here, while formerly the designs were all made abroad, and this has cheapened the cost of this branch of the industry and improved the character and artistic quality of the work done. These benefits have reached beyond the locality of the school, as the products of our mills are sold, not onlj' in all portions of the United States, but practically throughout the world, and all the textile schools now existing in this country were patterned more or less after this school. Schools of this character have resulted in a general raising of the tastes of the people, not only in regard to textile fabrics, but in a general way, and they have also tended to cheapen the cost of produc- tion of the textiles. The business community has found in the graduates of such schools employees who could help in the development of new lines of business, such as interior decoration, art needlewoi-k, wall-paper designing, etc. This and other similar schools have certainly been instrumental in developing one industrjrj or more properlj^ one occupation, new to this country, viz, designing. They have graduated more designers than were needed to suppl}' the demand in the designing forces of the textile factories, and the surplus have gone into other branches of industry, designing patterns for wall- paper, magazine covers, etc. Many have applied their knowledge and talent to making patterns for fancy goods, embroideries, art needlework, etc., and quite a number are now proprietors of so-called art stores, dealing in and manufacturing this class of goods. Employers are now accustomed to come to these schools for new designers when needed. The only shop-trained men in the business were imported years ago from Europe. Most of these have died or wei'e retired years ago, and they have been in nearly every case replaced by graduates of the schools. The only shop training at present is that received in the course of the current work in the designing rooms of the mills, etc. What effect the success of these schools has had upon this would be hard to say, and as most of the designers have been trained in the schools it is safe to say that as far as possible the same methods must be used. In the ordinary sense there is no apprenticeship system in the design- ing rooms, but graduates of the schools when first taken in do not immediately work upon original designs of their own, but are kept for a period devoloping and extending the designs of the older designers. SCHOOL or INDtrSTKIAL ART AND TECHNICAIj DESIGN FOB WOMEN, NEWYOBK, N. Y. The School of Industrial Art and Technical Design for Women was established in New York City in 1881. The prospectus states that ' ' the organization of this particular school grew out of a forceful necessity 262 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. for its existence. That the schools then existing taught the principles of design only, without regard to the practical application, and conse- quently the young women who graduated from such schools found great difficulty in obtaining employment or in disposing of their designs. " The chief object of this school is to give instruction in the practical application of art designs, so that when a pupil has completed the course she will be competent to do practical work which will have both an artistic and a commercial value. In addition to the regular classes, there is a department of home study and a correspondence class for those who can not conveniently attend the school. The school is open to any young woman of good moral character upon payment of the required tuition fee. Pupils can enter the school at any time. Pupils who have not become practically familiar with drawing will be obliged to enter the elementary class. Pupils desir- ing to enter the advanced classes will be required to present specimens of their work — free-hand drawing — flowers from nature or conven- tionalized ornamental figures, scrolls, etc. The lessons in drawing and in color have reference to their applica- tion to industrial purposes from the beginning, thus materially facili- tating the ultimate object of the students. All drawings made in the school ai'e the property of the pupil who made them, with the excep- tion of one sheet from each set made, which is retained as the property of the school. Pupils have the privilege of disposing of all salable designs to manufacturers while still under instruction. Many pupils have been thus enabled to wholly or partly pay their expenses at the school. A commission of 10 per cent is demanded on all sales made by pupils while still under instruction in the school. It takes two years to complete the entire course. The elementary class, together with the flower painting and simple designs (such as for calico, muslin, stained glass, etc.), occupy one year's time. The advanced classes, with advanced designs for oilcloth, linoleum, silk carpets, etc., require another year's study. The third year (if the student chooses to return) is passed in the practice and design room, where no regular instruction is given, but where orders are received and work done under the supervision of the principal. The school year is divided into four terms of three months each. Sessions are held every day from 10 a. m. to 4 p. m. The courses of instruction include elementary and advanced work in ornamental and practical designing as applied to carpets, rugs, wall paper, oilcloth, stained glass, lace, silk, calico, book covers, etc. The charges for tui- tion are as follows: Elementary classes, $25 per term, or |75 for four consecutive terms; advanced classes, $30 per term, or |85 for four consecutive terms. In addition to the above, there are a number of special courses costing from $10 to |25 per term. Arrangements are also made to receive special students at a rate of $iO per month in elementary work and $15 per month in advanced work. TRADE AND TECHNICAL^ EDUCATIOK XJjSTITED STATES. 263 The school is managed by a president and a board of directors. There are 8 instructors, all of whom are graduates of the school. The number of pupils in the elementary class during the past year was 35, and in the advanced class, 40. The number of graduates is 600. The rooms occupied by the school are rented. The equipment cost about $1,000, and was provided by the president. The school is maintained by tuition fees. The cost of maintenance is $3,000 per annum. In the opinion of the principal, the present courses of training and study need no improvement. It is said that there is hardly any branch of industry in which artistic skill and taste is a component part which has not been benefited by this class of schools. They have trained up a distinctively American class of designers, illustrators, and decorators whose talents have contributed to the development and success of many establishments, especially those engaged in the printing and textile industries. The efi;ect upon those who have been under instruction is , said to be beneficial in every respect. Many of the graduates are earning much higher wages than they could possibly command in other occupations where women are employed. It is stated that some manufacturers do not want female designers, on account of a prejudice against women taking up the work of men. But where they are once employed they are preferred, because they are naturally of a more artistic temperament. They display more taste, are always reliable, and can do fully as good work as men. It is the opinion that the competition and employment of woinen in the field of design and illustration has tended to improve the work of the men. It is said that the graduates are fitted to do practical work before leaving the school, and are not required to undergo a period of apprenticeship. The school has proved satisfactory, and has attained the end for which it was established. NEW YORK SCHOOL OF APPLIED DESIGN FOR WOMEN, NEW YORK, N. Y. The New York School of Applied Design for Women was incor- porated in 1892 under the laws of the State of New York. The pur- pose of the school, as stated in its catalogue, is to afford instruction to women which will enable them to earn a livelihood by the employ- ment of their taste and manual dexterity in the application of orna- mental design to manufactures and the arts. The founders of the school were very much interested in the welfare of young women, especially those who had to earn their own living, and were anxious to do something of a practical nature which would contribute toward their advancement and be of some permanent benefit to them. Prior to the establishment of this school there were very few women engaged in occupations which required a knowledge of ornamental design, and it was thought that the growing importance of this branch of industry 264 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. afforded unusual opportunity for the development and application of those refined artistic tastes and qualities peculiar to the sex. While tuition fees are charged, the school is not conducted as a money-making institution. The main purpose is to provide adequate instruction along the lines laid down, and the charges are only such as will insure the services of first-class instructors and meet other neces- sary expenses of the school. Even the small expense required for a course of study is beyond the reach of many girls, and many are the devices resorted to by the more ambitious ones who, through a free scholarship, are able to secure their tuition but need money for their support while attending the school, or hy those who, for lack of a scholarship, must themselves make up all or a part of the yearly fees for their study. It has always been the policy of the school that no worthy applicant should be turned away, and through the benefaction of friends and patrons it has been able to overcome this hardship, in a measure, by awarding a number of free scholarships each year. Thirty of these scholarships were awarded during the past year, a few of them being distributed as prizes to the pupils in the advanced classes. In addition to the regular class work, a series of lectures by recognized authorities on art is conducted during the year. The art library contains many valuable books of reference and over 5^500 plates of designs and photographs, which are kept for the use of the pupils. In order 'that the instruction may be as practical as pos- sible, arrangements are made whereby the pupils in the advanced classes in applied design can visit manufacturing establishments for the purpose of observation and explanation of the actual processes of manufacture, and thereby become acquainted with the mechanical requirements and difficulties which must be kept in mind when designs are being made. No fixed period for the course of instruction is established. Each pupil is allowed to proceed as rapidly as she masters the successive steps in the course of instruction, and to pass from the elementary department to that of applied design whenever her attainments justify the promotion. The ability and industry of each pupil thus largely determine her rate of progress and the length of time during which she will be obliged to remain in the school, but the elementary depart- ment is intended to cover a year for those students who have had no previous instruction in drawing. No examinations are required for entrance in the elementary course. Students are at liberty to choose which of the advanced departments to enter after passing the required examinations. Instruction is not given in more than one department at the same time, but the special courses can be studied with any department. Certificates are awarded after two years' instruction in any of the advanced departments (except in architecture) upon the completion of a certain amount of work, and if, in the judgment of the committee, the TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION — UNITED STATES. 265 certificate has been- merited. Certificates are awarded in the archi- tectural department upon completion of the three years' course of instruction, under the same conditions. The school has four terms during the year. The hours for instruc- tion are from 9.30 a. m. to 4.30 p. m. The tuition fee for the regular courses is |60 for the year, or at the rate of |20 per term. The fees for the special courses range from $10 to $35. The regular courses of instruction are divided into two departments, elementary and advanced, in addition to which there is a special course for those who desire to pursue particular lines of work. The elementary department includes courses in object, perspective, flower, and cast drawing, convention- alization, casting shadows (for architectural students), elementary antique (for students in illustration), and historic ornament. Exam- ination in these subjects is required, from all pupils before entering the advanced classes. The advanced department includes courses in the application of design to the manufacture of wall paper, carpets, and silks, and the application of elementary instruction to the work of an architect's draftsman and to illustrating. The special courses include book-cover designing, animal drawing for illustration, stained- glass designing, elementary water-color painting, water-color painting (de Longpre method), interior decoration, life class, and costume sketching. The school is under the general management of a board of directors. There are 15 instructors, all of whom are men and women actually employed in manufactories or ofiices. Two are grad- uates of foreign art schools, and the others obtained their training in American art schools and in practical work. There were 165 pupils in the elementary classes during the past year and 176 pupils in the advanced and special classes. The number of graduates is 2,288. The buildmg occupied by the school is rented, and contains about 5,000 square feet of floor space. The equipment was provided by the school and is valued at 111,000. The school is maintained by tuition fees. The cost of maintenance is about $15,000 per annum. In the opinion of the officials, the standard required in design work is so high that pupils ought to have longer preparation. The elemen- tarj' course, which at present averages one year and a half, ought to be extended at least one year. This would give the pupils a better knowl- edge of essentials and would insure more rapid and satisfactory prog- ress in the advanced work. It is probable that this change will soon be made. It is stated that the present building is far too small to accommodate the different classes, and that the constantly recurring needs of the school make it important and necessary that more com- modious quarters and additional equipment should be procured. In order to overcome these drawbacks and place the school upon a more independent basis, an endowment fund of $50,000 has been started. This fund already amounts to nearly $10,000. 266 EEPOBT OF THE OOMMISSIONEE OF LABOE. The. benefits which have accrued to the industries that require the services of ornamental designers are said to be unlimited. The school is constantly receiving evidence of this fact from manufacturing estab- lishments in all parts of the country. The general public and business communitj^, and the working classes generally, have participated to some extent in the many benefits which have resulted from the estab- lishment of these schools. Hundreds of things which enter into and are used in everyday life or in the ornamentation of public buildings, halls, etc., have been made possible, cheaper, and more beautiful through the efforts of the graduates of this and similar schools. From a sociological as well as artistic point of view the opportunity afforded to 3' oung women is most valuable, and the systematic training they receive is reflected in many directions. In thousands of homes the refining influence of art applied to everyday surroundings is raising the standards of taste and making life more cheerful for all. The school is unique in its facilities for ti-aining and the help it gives the pupils, and the effect upon those who liave been under instruction has been most beneficial. The school aims to be practical in everj' sense and endeavors to procure positions for its graduates. In the last year alone 60 young women were placed in good pa3'ing jjositions by the school. In addition to the regular class work the school arranges to take orders for all kinds of art designing. This work is performed hj the advanced classes and the receipts are paid over to those who do the work. Pupils are also pei'mitted to execute orders on their own account. Everything possible is done to encourage the pupils in this direction so that when they leave the school they will have a better knowledge as regards the commercial value of their work and be in a position to demand standard prices and wages. During the past year the pupils received over $4,500 for design work executed for manu- facturers, and in the few years since the school was opened more than $18,000 has been earned by the pupils during their training by the sale of their designs. In common with graduates of other art schools many of the graduates start in business on their own account after leaving the school. Quite a number of former pupils were seen and in every instance thej^ professed the greatest appreciation of the instruction thej^ had received in the school. Their designs were bringing good returns and those who had accepted regular positions were receiving Avages ranging from $12 to §25 per week. The school has, in common with other similar schools, had an indirect influence in promoting better work, and by affording manu- facturers a larger and better variety of designs has helped to improve the character of the product. While it can not be said that the grad- uates are preferred over shop-trained apprentices or workmen, yet their services are eagerly sought. The reason for this is that there is TEADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION UNITED STATES. 267 always a great demand for new and original designs, and the work of the graduates has proved so meritcwions that manufacturers are glad to patronize them and give them employment. It is thought that the success of this school has led to the improvement of ordinary shop training, and that the advent of young women into the field of design has had more or less influence in promoting better work among the older class of designers. The school has proved highly satisfactory^. It has opened up many new avenues of lucrative and pleasing employ- ment to young women and has placed them in a position to earn their own; living. This has been the aim of the school from the beginning, and it has fully attained the end for which it was established. NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF PRACTICAL DESIGNING FOE, WOMEN, NEW YOKE, N. Y. This school was established in New York City, April 1, 1901. It is conducted for the special benefit of women who have had previous theoretical training in ornamental design, and who wish to become proficient in practical work without being obliged to enter a factory^ It is stated that the need for a school of this particular kind arose from the fact that many of the schools where design is taught were deficient in producing practical designers, especially in wall papers and textiles. , As its name indicates, the school was originally intended for women, but it has recently been decided to open a special class for* young men also. The school year is divided into four terms of three months each. Pupils can enter at any time, and are charged from, date of entrance. The tuition fee is |100 per year. The courses of instruction include the designing of carpets, wall papers, chenille curtains, textiles, and printed silks. The work in the elementary class consists of historic ornament, conventionalization, flower painting from copy and from nature, drawing and painting of ornament from cast. In the advanced class drawing and painting of practical designs in the difl'erent branches is taken up. Coui'ses of lectures having special reference to each branch of study are given throughout the year. There is also a home- study department for those who can not find it convenient to attend the school. The school is under the general management of a company. There are 6 instructors, all of whom have had many years' experience in making designs for the trade. The school having but recently started, reports only 15 pupils. The rooms occupied by the school are rented. The equipment, which is owned by the company, cost about $J:,000. The school is maintained by tuition fees. Thus far the cost of main- tenance has averaged about |S00 per month. It is stated that the courses of training and study were specially prepared with a view to giving practical instruction in the several 268 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. branches and require no improvement. The school has not been in operation long enough to have any effect upon the industries or upon social or economic conditions in the community. The opinion is offered, however, that the industries in which designs are required have been aided to a considerable degree by the efforts of some of the older schools; and that while the success of many of the graduates of such schools has been slow, still, after acquiring a thorough knowledge of the practical application of their art, they have produced some highly creditable designs, and are now holding good paying positions in the leading establishments of the country. It is said, also, that in some cases the graduates of these schools are preferred over shop-trained designers. The reason assigned for this is that the former have had a broader course of training and show more originality in their work. It is thought that the success of our schools of design has not brought about any improvement in ordinary shop training. In some cases, especially in printed silk and textile designing, it is possible for grad- uates to work at their trade without undergoing a period of appren- ticeship. During the short time that this school has been in existence it has proved ver}" satisfactory. The special purpose of the school is to overcome what is said to be the chief defect in the prevailing system of instruction, namely, lack of immediate practical results by the grad- ' uates, and to give the pupils a course of training that will enable them to make original and practical working designs before leaving the school. While some progress is being made in this direction, it is too early yet to claim that the ultimate object has been attained. FBAWKLIN INSTITUTE, PHILADELPHIA, PA. The Franklin Institute was established in Philadelphia, March 30, 1824. The objects of the institute, as defined in the act of incorpora- tion, are "the promotion and encouragement of manufactures and the mechanic arts." The important features of the institute are described in a brief sketch of its organization and history, a few extracts from which will give a more definite idea regarding the inception and estab- lishment of its evening schools: The institute was the first institution of its class to be established in the country, and though embodying in the scheme of its organiza- tion many of the features of the so-called mechanics' institutes, its scope was more broadly gauged and its working methods constructed on a higher plane. Neither the mechanics' institutes, which were devoted almost wholly to the instruction of artisans bj'^ means of lec- tures and classes, nor the exclusive societies of those learned in the sciences and arts, answered to the ideas and needs of the founders. In brief an institution was wanted which should have inscribed on its corner stone, "Science with practice; practice with science." To give material form to these ideas, the institute was founded and the senti- ment above quoted has been its animating spirit to the present day. TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION — UNITED STATES. 269 As the working features of the institute were gradually evolved the means by which its objects .were to be attained eventually crystallized into the following form: First, by the delivery of lectures on the arts and the application of science to them ; second, by the formation of a library of books relat- ing to science and the useful arts and the opening of a reading room; third, by the examination of all new inventions and discoveries by a committee of learned and honorable men; fourth, by the publication of a journal to contain essays on science and art, specifications of Eng- lish and American patents, etc. ; fifth, by holding exhibitions of Ameri- can manufactures and awarding medals to worthy workmen; sixth, by building a hall for the meetings of the institute and the ase of the members; seventh, by collecting machines, minerals, materials, etc., used in the mechanic arts; eighth, by the establishment of schools in which should be taught architecture and mechanical drawing, chemis- try as applied to the arts, mechanics, and, if possible, of a high school for giving young men a liberal and practical course of education. The lectures and library have occupied a prominent place in the scheme of the institute's work from the beginning. The object at present in the selection of lectures is to present the latest advances in the useful arts and sciences bearing thereon. The library contains 50,369 volumes, some 35,500 pamphlets, 2,800 maps and charts, and 1,222 photographs classified and catalogued. It is exclusively scien- tific and technical in character and is steadily increasing in number and importance. The institute in numerous ways has shown its sym- pathy with the efforts of those who have sought to elevate the stand- ard of taste by the cultivation of the fine arts as applied to the industries. Thus the present Philadelphia School of Design for Women was taken in hand by the institute June 20, 1850, and conducted by its committee until it had become self-supporting. To another admirable institution, the Pennsylvania Museum and School of Indus- trial Art, the institute extended a helping hand and a sheltering roof during the period of its infancy. The formation of a school for the teaching of mechanical and archi- tectural drawing was effected in the year 1824. Encouraged by the ^success of this effort, the managers proceeded to establish another school in 1826, in which was to be taught all of the useful branches of English literature and the ancient and modern languages. This school was the model upon which the Central High School, shortly afterwards established by the city as a part of the public school system, was pat- terned. With the organization of the latter school, that of the insti- tute was abandoned as unnecessary. The drawing school, however, has maintained an uninterrupted existence to the present time, and more recently the scope of the work has been enlarged by the forma- tion of a school of naval architecture and a school of machine design- ing. For a number of years past the institute has also conducted a branch school in another part of the city in which the instruction is devoted exclusively to mechanical drawing. 270 EEPOKT OF THE COMMISSIONEE OF LABOR. The schools are open to both sexes, and the ordinary mles relating to attendance and studies are enforced. The school year begins the middle of September and ends the first week in May. Evening ses- sions only are held, and the hours for instruction are from 7.15 to 9.15 o'clock. The curriculum includes two-year coui'ses in free-hand, mechanical, and architectural drawing, and naval architecture, and a three-year course in machine designing. The latter course embraces mathemat- ics, mechanical drawing, theoretical mechanics, strength of materials, kinematics of machinery, and machine designing. The charges for tuition are as follows: Free-hand, mechanical, and architectural drawing, $5 per term; naval architecture, 17.50 per term; mathematics, theoretical mechanics, and strength of materials, $5 each per term. The schools are under the general direction of the institute com- mittee on instruction. There are 12 instructors, of whom one is the professor of mechanical engineering in the University of Pennsylvania, one is a well-known professor of naval architecture, one is the chief draftsman in a large industrial plant, and the others are actively engaged in various manufacturing establishments throughout the city. The number of pupils in the different classes during the past j^ear was as follows: First-year drawing class, 207 ; second-year mechanical di-awing, 8-±; second-vear architectural drawing, 50; machine design, 68; naval architecture, 56; free-hand drawing, 25; total, 490. The instruction in the first-year class in drawing is of a general prelim- inary character and is intended to prepare the pupils for the second- year work in mechanical or architectural drawing. The record of the number of graduates during the earlier years is incomplete, but it is estimated that the number of pupils that have completed the courses will reach nearly 1,500. The property devoted to school purposes is valued at $43,000. The cost of maintaining the institute and branch schools during the past j-ear was f3,106. The schools are maintained by tuition fees, and appropriations by the institute when necessary. In the opinion of the officials, the present courses of training and study need no improvement. It is the intention, however, to extend the scope of the school to include instruction in marine engineering, when circumstances will warrant. It is stated that the benefits result- ing fx'om the establishment of the schools are immeasurable. The institute was the pioneer in the work of establishing regular and sys- tematic evening courses in industrial drawing, and during the many years of its existence it has, both directly and indirectly-, aided in the formation and advancement of other schools of a similar character. It has turned out a class of draftsmen whose services have in many instances been invaluable to their employers. In conjunction with TRADE Ai!n> TECHIflCAL EDUCATION — UNITED STATES. 271 the other featitres^ of the institute work, and especially during its earlier history, the schools hare exerted a powerful influence towax'd the general improvement of all classes of citizens. Regarding the effect upon those who have been under instruction, it is said : ' ' The young men who have been trained in the institute schools have always had steadier employment and received higher wages and more rapid promotion than those who did not have the benefit of a similar train- ing.^' Some of the most noted architects, engineers, and machine builders in the country attribute a great deal of their success to the preliminary training they received in the institute drawing schools. The graduates are usually preferred over ordinary apprentices and workmen, because, having had a more systematic training, they can more readily adapt themselves to the conditions of practical work. Many of the graduates obtain good subordinate positions in drawing rooms without being required to undergo a period of apprenticeship. Referring to the success of the schools, it is said: "The leading feature — that of training pupils for actual work in shop and office — has always been rigorously preserved, and there is every reason for saying that the results have been highly satisfactory. While the institute has long since attained its ultimate purpose in this direction, nevertheless it is the desire of the managers that its present high standard shall not only be maintained, but that advanced courees shall be established when the revenue of the institute will permit." MASSACHUSETTS NOKMAL ART SCHOOL, BOSTOKT, MASS. The legislature of Massachusetts, by an act passed May 16, 1870, made instruction in industrial and mechanical drawing obligatory in the public day schools, and required cities and towns containing more than 10,000 inhabitants to make provision for free instruction to pei-sons over 15 years of age. It was soon found impossible to realize satisfactorily the benefits intended by this act, for want of com- petent teachers. To furnish a supply of teachers the legislature in 1873 provided for the establishment of a State normal art school, and this school was started in the fall of that year. Its purpose is to train teachers and supervisors of industrial art; but while the majority of its graduates do become teachers, yet so many of them make use of the special qualifications which the training of the school has given them to go into various industrial lines that some note of the school seems proper in this place. The following list shows a few of the occupations at which graduates of this school are working at the present time: Architects, , artificial-flower makers, cabinet- makers, carpenters, carriage painters, carriage trimmers, chair makers, colorists (photographs), decoratoi-s (glass), decorators (house), deco- rators (papier-mache), designers (cloth patterns), designers (monu- mental), designers (wall paper), designers (wood), draftsmen, dress- makers, engineers (civil), engineers (mechanical), engravers (metal). 272 REPOET OF THE COMMISSIONEK OF LABOB. engravers (wood), florists, illustrators (books), illustrators (news- papers), lithographers, manufacturers (furniture), manufacturers (stained glass), marble carvers, mechanics, milliners, photographers, printers, retouchers (photographs), painter's (fresco), painters (orna- mental), painters (scenic), painters (sign), stonecutters, and upholsterers. Candidates for admission must be over 16 years of age, must bring a certificate of moral character, and must present a high-school diploma or its equivalent. Entrance examinations must be passed upon the following subjects: Outline from group of models; outline ornaments from cast; light and shade from objects. Tuition is free to students residing within the State and intending to teach drawing in the public schools. Students from other States who declare their intention to remain in the school until they graduate and after graduation to teach in the public schools of Massachusetts are admitted free; otherwise they must pay a fee of foO per term. A fee of f 5 per term for incidentals is charged. Graduates may con- tinue their studies for one jeav upon invitation of the principal. There are two terms in the j'ear, one beginning in September and one in February. Diplomas are awarded to graduates of the several courses, and are of three kinds — a mechanical diploma, a free-hand diploma, and a teacher's diploma. The school is under the management of the State board of education and a principal. It has 15 instructors, all of professional training. There are six classes, outlined as follows: CLASS A. — ELEMENTARY DRAAVING. AVorks required. — Geometric problems and perspective problems, instrumental; model drawing in outline; outline of group of common objects; light and shade drawing from a group of colored objects; details of human figure from cast; details of animal form from cast; details from the historic schools of ornament; botanical drawing in pencil, pen and ink, and with brush; water-color studies from the liv- ing plant and flowers; decorative rendering of the same; exercises in design. Examinations for advancement. — Plane geometrical problems; perspective prob- lems; drawing from objects (time sketch) ; historic ornament and design; theory of model drawing. CLASS B. — DRAWING, PAINTING, COMPOSITION, ARTISTIC ANATOMY, AND ADVANCED PERSPECTIVE. Works required. — Drawing from the antique figure and living model; anatomical details; perspective of shadows, reflection, and aerial effects; study from still life in oil or water color; composition; decorative design. Examinations for advancement. — Time sketch from the antique; time sketch in color from still life; original decorative composition; paper on the historic schools of painting; paper on advanced perspective. TBADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION — UNITED STATES. 273 CLASS C- — CONSTBTJCTIVK ARTS AND DESIGN. Elementary courEe (first term). — Orthbgraphic projection; projection of shadows; elements of machine drawing; elements of building construction; examination in each subject. Advanced course (second term) — Works required. — Descriptive geometry: Illus- trations from lectures; intersections of solids; projection of shadows. Ship draft- ing and model. Architecture: Design for dwelling or public building; structural details of same; monograph of architecture and ornament; drawing of buildings from measurements; two designs in accordance with a proposition. Machine drawing: Screws and their application; wheels, spur and bevel gears, cams, etc.; machine drawn from copy; machine drawn from measurements; details of same prepared for shop; shopwork, in wood and iron; forging, making, and tempering tools, etc. Examinations for advancement. — Papers on solid geometry and shadows; exam- ination of shopwork; examination on lectures, notes, and problems; examination in architecture; examinations in building construction; design sketches based upon a proposition; paper on subject selected for monograph. CLASS D. MODELING, CASTING, AND DESIGN IN THE ROUND. Works required. — Elementary course: Ornament from the cast; study from the drawing or photograph; study from the living plant; details from the antique figure; details from animal form. Advanced course: Head from life; original design; study from the living model; figure composition. Casting: Cast from nature of. fruit, or foliage; cast from a piece mold, sulphur mold, and gelatine mold. Examinations for graduation. — Time sketch in clay from ornament; tim.e sketch in clay from the antique; time sketch in clay from life (head); design in the round; paper on sculptured ornament. '' PUBLIC SCHOOL CLASS. Pedagogy; teaching exercises; observations in the public schools; consideration of courses of study; graded illustrative work; blackboard drawing; details of supervision. ^ Examinations for graduation. — Pedagogy; essay on supervision; essay on illustrative work; essay on literature of art. SPECIAL CLASS. Special class in applied design. — Only students who have performed the work required in classes A, B, and D, or A and 0, will be eligible to enter this class. LECTURES. Lectures. — Class lectures are given each year on the history of art, on design, anatomy, and perspective. A special course of lectures will be given during the first term by members of the faculty. All students are required to attend them. There are three regular courses of instruction, made up of the work in two or more of the classes above described, as follows: The first course requires four years. It embraces the work of classes A and B and the elementary course of C and D, followed by a year in the public school class. The second course requires four years. It embraces the work of classes A, B, and D, with normal instruction from the teachers of those classes. The third course requires three years. It embraces the work of class A and the elementary and 9257—02 18 274 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OP LABOR. ■ advanced work of class C, with normal instruction from the teachers of those classes. Students completing the work of class A may choose one or more of the courses offered by the school. During the school year of 1899-1900 there were in the different classes students in number as follows: Class A, 96-; class B, 80; class C, 15-; class D, 16; public school class, 24. There were also special students as follows: In the elementary classes C and D, 29, and in the special advanced class in design, 3. This makes a total in attendance of 263. At the end of the above-mentioned year the number of grad- uates from the regular courses was 534 The annual cost of main- taining the school is f24,000, paid by the S-tate. From sources connected with the school the following statement was obtained: The courses of training in this school can hardly be improved. They are now on a systematic basis and could be improveni only in unimportant details. The school has resulted in general art teaching in the public schools and its graduates are serving as teachers of industrial and other drawing in public schools all over the country. Many of the graduates have become industrial workers and the effect of their education and training must have been beneficial to the indus- tries in which they are engaged. This latter class, as a result of their training, have attained higher wages, more rapid promotion, and steadier employment than they could have done without it. They are much preferred by employers of this class of workmen because of their more systematic education in art matters, and their superior knowledge has had a marked effect in raising the methods of art train- 'ing in such shops or industrial establishments as employ this class of labor. The school has proved eminently satisfactory and has fully attained the end for which it was established — the training of teachers of art — and has indeed gone far bej'ond it. PXTBLIC EVEHIKG DRAWHiTG SCSOOLS, BOSTOBT, MASS. These schools were established under the provisions of a law passed in 1870, providing for the teaching of industrial and mechanical draw- ing in the public schools of cities and towns of 10,000 inhabitants or more, and are 5 in nmnber. Class instruction begins on the third Monday of October, and con- tinues on Mondays, Wednesdays, and Fridays for 66 Avorking nights. No person under 15 years of age ia admitted. Students are admitted to the first year's* course without examination. The last week of the year's course or term is devoted to examina- tions in all the classes. Each first 3'ear student who has finished the work in bis class and passed the required examinations is entitled to a first year certificate. Each second year student who has finished the work of his class and passed the required examinations is entitled to a second year diploma, and each third year student who has finished TKADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION UNITED STATES. 275 the work of his class and passed the required examinations is entitled to a third year diploma. There are four courses of instruction, as follows: Free-hand drawing and decorative design; instrumental drawing, including machine and architectural drawing; ship drafting; clay modeling. The total number of instructors is 27. The work done in the different classes in these schools is entirely industrial in character, and the students, all of whom attend volun- taril,y, are nearly all workmen in some branch of industry. All of the material used by them is furnished by the city without charge. The average attendance in all the schools varies from 600 to 700 per year, sometimes slightly exceeding the larger number. The j)ropor- tion of male to female students is about three to one. The courses of instruction follow: COURSE IN FREE-HAND DRAWING AND DESIGN. First year. — The first year course in this department is required. The subjects for instruction are pictorial drawing from geometric solids and from still-life objects, from examples of historic ornament as an introduction to decorative design .and the principles and practice Jhereof in its elementary stages, and geometric drawing as an important factor in decoration. Second year. — The second year course is elective. The subjects lor instruction are the same as those in the first year, but they are presented in a more advanced form and with the additional ones of drawing from casts of the human figure, in detail and in full, and the application of decoration to various purposes. Third year. — The third year course is elective. The subjects chosen for instruc- tion are similar to those presented in the second year, with this addition, that stu- dents may elect for one or more of their diploma sheets drawing from life, costume models, in place of drawing from casts of the human figure. The details of the course in free-hand drawing follow: The first work required in this course is called " practice work in time sketching," and is to be done entirely by free-hand methods: First, from single solids; second, from simple groups of models and objects, and third, from more elaborate groups of the same. In selecting models and objects for the above-named exercises and for all following work of this kind, the teacher chooses such as will be most useful in train- ing the power of observation, in teaching the principles of practical perspective and facility in sketching from natural and manufactured objects such as can be presented in the class room. Throughout the above-named "practice work" as much atten- tion is given to the expression of solidity and color values through the use of shading as seems desirable to the instructor, but some expression of this kind is required of the students before they begin their certificate sheets. AH time sketches are pre- served by the instructors until the close of the term, and are returned to the students at the same time as their certificate sheets. Students who have completed the work and passed the examinations of one term are entitled to enter the next year class without further examination; but all those who have not are required so to do before receiving such advancement. Each one is, however, credited with what he has accomplished, and is allowed to finish- the rest at the beginning of the following term, and if this be done satisfactorily and within a reasonable time he is then advanced to the next class. Third year students who have not earned their diplo- mas are also allowed to complete the course at the beginning of the following term. 276 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. First year free-hand certificate sheets, required. — (Students will be allowed to use charcoal, pencil, brush, or pen for their light and shade drawings in the free-hand course. ) 1. A sheet of problems in plane geometry. 2. A sheet of historic ornament (not less than three styles) to be drawn from the cast or from a flat copy to illustrate (1) radiation with repetition about a central point; (2) radiation without repetition; (3) vertical movement or growth; (4) hori- zontal movement or growth; (5) geometric or purely inventional construction. 3. A sheet to contain a free-hand pictorial drawing from some plant or portion thereof, together with illustrations by the student of one or more methods of repre- senting the details of the plant conventionally for use in decorative design. 4. A sheet of drawing from models and objects to be finished in light and shade. 5. A sheet of design illustrating radiation with repetition about a central point, its construction and development to be based upon the top view of the plant previously drawn. 6. A sheet of design for a horizontal border to be based upon the side view of the same plant as above. 7. A sheet of drawing in light and shade from a group of solids. This group and all following groups of its kind can be made up of geometric solids, manufactured objects, and natural objects as the needs of the class may require, and should be used by the teacher not only for instruction in drawing, but also for teaching arrangement, composition, and the disposition of masses. 8. A sheet of drawing in light and shade from a group of solids. Time allowed for its completion, two hours (one session). 9. A sheet of design for the decoration of a given surface. This may be either geometric, inventional, or based upon some selected plant. 10. A sheet of drawing in light and shade from a group of solids. All the designs in this course must be finished in half tint. Second year free-hand diploma sheets, elective. — The three electives in this course are as follows: First elective. A: Six sheets of drawing in outline and in light and shade, to consist of one drawing from a group of solids, one from a cast of historic ornament, and four drawings from casts of the human figure or some detail thereof. One of the above may be in outline only; the rest must be finished in light and shade. Second elective, B: Six sheets of drawing. These may be all made from groups of solids (still life), from casts of the human figure or details thereof, from casts of historic ornament, or from selections from the above, as the student, with the advice and consent of the instructor, may elect. Third elective, C: Six sheets of applied design. These may all be for surface deco- ration, such as walls, ceilings, fabrics, wall papers, or any painted or printed decora- tions, such as can be used for any desirable purpose; or they may all be for decorations in relief or intaglio, such as wood or stone carving, or for ornament in stucco or papier-mach^, etc. ; or, again, they may all be for objects of various kinds, such as vases, jars, urns, cups and saucers, plates, etc. ; again, they may all be for wrought or hammered iron work, for jewelry, for engraved work, or work in relief done in any metal. In brief, they may be for decorative work of any kind that can be prop- erly applied. All the designs made are to be finished in monochrome, and students will be allowed to elect such as will be of the greatest practical value to them individually. Third year free-hand diploma sheets, elective. — The electives for this term (three in number) will be the same as those for the second year with the exception that the subjects chosen will be more advanced, and that drawing from life, costume models, may be substituted for drawing from casts of the human figure. The num- ber of finished sheets required will be four instead of six as in the previous year. All designs must be finished in monochrome. TRADE AND - TECHNICAL EDPOATION — UNITED STATES. 277 COURSE IN INSTRUMENTAL DRAWING. First year. — All students are required to follow the course of instruction given in the first half of the term. The subjects are plane geometry, orthographic projec- tions, intersections of solids, development of surfaces and isometric projections. The second half of the term is elective. The students having the choice between machine and architectural drawing are required to follow the course of instruction they may elect. Second year. — The first half of the term is required. The subjects are advanced problems in plane geometry, intersections of solids, development of surfaces, and conic sections. The second half of the term is elective. The subjects of the two electives are machine drawing and architectural drawing. Third year. — In this year the entire work is elective, and the subjects chosen are to be treated in a thoroughly practical waj', i. e., as they would be in the office of a machine draftsman or in that of an architect. The details of the course in instrumental drawing are: First year. — First half of term (required): Two sheets of geometrical problems; tvvfo sheets of orthographic projections; one sheet of intersections and developments; one sheet of isometric drawing. Second half of term (elective) : Elective A, machine drawing — a sheet of screws (conventional) ; five sheets of machinery details in eleva- tion and section. Elective B, architectural drawing — three sheets of structural details; two sheets of plans of a building; one sheet of elevation of a building. Second year. — First half of term (required) : A sheet of advanced geometric prob- lems; a sheet of advanced orthographic projections; a sheet of advanced intersec- tions and developments; a sheet of conic sections. Second half of term (elective): Elective A, machine drawing — a sheet of screws; a sheet of gears; a sheet of wheels and belts; a sheet of machine drawing. Elective B, architectural drawing — a sheet of structural details; a sheet of plan of two-story building; a sheet of elevation of two- story building; a sheet of framing plan of two-story building. Third year. — Instrumental drawing (elective): Four finished sheets are required from each student in this year's course. Elective A, machine drawing. Elective B, architectural drawing. In both the above-named electives the problems to be worked out by the students should, so far as it is possible, be elected by them, and in arranging their final examinations the instructors must be governed by the students' class work. COURSE IN SHIP DRAFTING. The course of instruction in this department is largely elective. In the first year the general methods used in the design and construction of various small craft are taught and illustrated. In the second year the plan, elevation, and section of a vessel is usually the problem to be worked out, each student having a different problem, according to his desire or need. In the third year more diiBcult problems of construction are given, to be also worked out in plan, elevation, and section, the distribution of these problems being governed partly by the choice of the students and partly by the instructor's knowledge of their ability. The whole subject is treated in a thoroughly practical manner. MODELING IN CLAY. First year. — Eequired: The number of works required from each student in this year is six, and are — ornament in low relief modeled from a flat copy; ornament in relief modeled from a cast (two works) ; group of objects in low relief modeled from the round; detail from cast of human figure; original design in relief or intaglio. Second year. — Elective: Students in this year will be required to complete not less than four works. They may, with the advice of the instructor, elect the subjects of 2/8 REPOBT OF THE COMMISSIONEB OF LABOR. these works, and their examinations (held on the last three nights of the term) will, as in the free-hand course, be based upon their class work. Third year. — Elective: Students in this year will be required to complete not less than three works. Their examinations will be arranged in the same way and con- ducted in the same manner as those for the second-year students. A head and bust from life may be chosen as one of the electives. PTJBLIC EVENIlSrG T>nAV/TNG SCHOOL, LOWELL, MASS. This school was first opened in 1873 and has been carried on con- tinuousl}' since. The need which led to the establishment of . this and other similar schools in the State was the great lack of trained work- men, men with technical as well as practical knowledge, and the neces- sity of educating such men if the manufacturers of this countrj- were not to depend upon foreigners. It has an 8-room building set apart for its exclusive use, and its equipment, which cost about |i,0()0, is thorough and complete. The cost of the building is not known, but about ^4:0,000 would ]ye required to replace it. The history of the school shows that it has in the past furnished the instmction and the impetus to further studj^ which was necessary to enable its pupils to fill with credit important positions as teachers, draftsmen, architects, and designers, and it is now working more successfully than ever to the same end. This school is managed by a special committee of three members of the city school board. The courses of instruction are as follows: Architectural drawing, machine drawing, free-hand drawing, model- ing, and practical design. The average attendance in the above courses for the last school year was as follows: Architectural drawing, 50; machine dravdng, 72; free-hand drawing, 6-i; modeling, 47; practical design, 13. There are 20 instructors in the school; 1 artist, 3 architects, 3 graduates of the Massachusetts Normal Art School, and the training of the others is that which thej' have gained from the public schools as pupils and teachers therein. The cost of maintaining the school for the last school year was $4,07i.50, which was paid by the city, as was also the cost of building and equipment. The courses of instruction are believed to be practically as good as possible. The school has furnished a good supply of technically trained workmen, men who can both make and read plans. There is a constant demand for such men. The benefits resulting from the establishment of this school have been manifold. Many who have attended it are now professional men, teachers, manufacturers, etc., and many others are employees of the manufacturing companies located in Lowell. The graduates are greatly preferred by employers to merely shop-trained men, because they understand the theory of pnachinery, etc., and the success of the school has most decidedly led to the improvement of shop training in its locality, as its graduates TRADE. AND TEOHKICAL EDTJOATIOH" UNITED STATES. 279 are now largely the shopowners, foremen, etc., and realize the great value of a thorough training. Higher wages, steadier employment, and more rapid promotion haye undoubtedly accrued to the graduates of this school, as a result of their better preparation for work. In all the industries of this locality in which a training such as this school gives can be utilized, the school graduates can get work at their trades without going through a period of apprenticeship. This school has been largely instrumental in developing a new industry, namely, that of manufacturing woolen and worsted machin- er}''. Some years ago the Lowell machine shop started this industrj-, previously unknown in ttte United States, and it is universally admitted that this departure and venture would have been a failure but for the fact that it found among its employees men who had been trained in this school, and who were, on that account, able to take hold and direct the building of the new class of machinery. The labor unions, as such, have never aided this school nor have they opposed it, but many members of the unions have attended the school. EVESriNG DRAWING SCHOOL, AMEEICAW STEEL AND "WIKE COMPANY, WOBCESTEK, MASS. This school was established in 1892 by the American Steel and Wire Company at its works in Worcester, Mass. (formerly the wire mills of Washburn & Moen), because of the fact that it had become difficult to find competent mechanics, and it was realized that something must be doue to educate mechanics so that they would be better able to do their work. The school has 1 instructor, a graduate of the Massa- chusetts Institute of Technology, and the chief draftsman of the South Works of the above-named companj' in Worcester, Mass, Courses of instruction are given in free-hand drawing, mechanical drawing, architectural drawing, and mathematics. At the time this information was obtained, in 1900, there were 35 students in attendance, all workmen in the mills of the company, and about 70 had attended the school regularly through the regular course of four years' work. The school is held in one of the buildings of the company, and its equipment, consisting principally of drawing tables, materials, etc., cost biit little. The annual cost of maintaining the school is about $500, the funds being furnished by the companj'. Considered as a drawing school, its courses covild hardly be improved. It has raised the general intelligence of those who attended, and in a number of instances has been the cause of the elevation of ordinary workmen to foremen. Labor unions have not opposed it, and most of those who attend its courses are labor-union men. Higher wages, steadier employment, and more rapid promotion have accrued to practically all who have taken the full courses in the school, and they are greatly 280 BEPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. preferred to the general run of the workmen as being much more, capable. To some extent this school has led to the improvement of ordi- nary shop training in this locality. No man, no matter what school training he may have had, can in this community commence work at Ms trade without undergoing a period of apprenticeship or a proba- tionary period. This school has proved very satisfactory, and has fully attained the end of providing a sufficient supply of skilled mechanics for the demand and need of these works, for which purpose it was established. "WILMINGTON INSTITTJTE DRAFTING SCHOOL, WILMINGTON, DEL. This school was established in Wilmington, Del., in 1884. The pri- mary object in organizing the school was to afford a suitable place where the apprentices who were emploj^ed in the manufactliring estab- lishments during the day might devote their evenings to learning mechanical drawing, a knowledge of which was deemed essential in the local industries. The enthusiasm from the start, however, was such that it was found necessary to open the school to journeymen mechanics also. The need for a school of this kind was long apparent to those engaged in the industries of the city, since proper instruction could not well be given in the shops. The leading manufacturers, therefore, gladly contributed the funds necessary to establish and equip ttie school, and have always contributed liberally toward its sup- port. The charge for tuition is $2 per year to apprentices and |3 to journej^men emploj'^ed in local industries. The school year opens the latter part of October, and evening ses- sions are held twice each week thereafter until 24 lessons have been completed. This comprises the yearly period of instruction. The full course requires three years. The first and second year courses include elementary and advanced work in mechanical drawing, and in the third j^ear special attention is given to the requirements of the particular industry in which the students are employed, such as ship and car building, engine construction, etc. The management is exercised by a board of directors. There are 3 instructors, all of whom have had both professional and practical training. During the past year there were 49 pupils in the first-year class, 22 in the second-year class, and 9 in the third-year class. The number of graduates, or those completing the full course, is 249. The rooms occupied by the school are provided free of cost by the Wil- mington Institute Free Library Association, and the equipment, which is valued at f 1,000, was donated by some of the leading manufacturers of the city. The school is maintained partly by tuition fees and the balance is contributed by local manufacturers. Regarding the present courses of training and study, it is said that they are the result of several experiments to find something adapted to TBADE AND TECHKIOAL EDTJCATION UNITED STATES. 281 the particular class of pupils that the school aims to reach, and are con- sidered adequate for the purpose. So far as the benefits accruing from the establishment of this school are concerned, it is stated that the local manufacturers feel that the school has rendered valuable aid to the industries. It has helped to provide them with a better and more intelligent class of mechanics, and has exerted a strong influence toward the betterment of shop training and the general improvement of the workmen. Students other than shop apprentices and mechanics who study for the purpose of taking up mechanical drawing as a trade must also acquire a practical knowledge of shop work before they are considered proficient. Shop apprentices and mechanics who complete the full course are said to be better qualified than the ordinary work- men without similar training, and therefore are preferred by employ- ers. The school has proved eminently satisfactory and has fully attained the end for which it was established. INDUSTRIAL SCHOOLS IN THE SOUTH FOR THE COLORED RACE. The industrial schools which have been established throughout the South for the education of the colored race have been of a special character because of the peculiar needs of the race and of the region. It has been generally recognized by the leaders in the educational work that the only possible avenue of development for the colored race in the South lies through agriculture and the handicrafts. This has been repeatedly insisted upon in addresses before his students and in public by Mr. Booker Washington, a disciple of the Hampton School and the president of Tuskegee Institute, one of the foremost schools in the work, and this idea has been adopted and put in practice as the foundation principle of nearly all schools for the colored race in the South. Many schools ofier training in a variety of the common handi- crafts and in agriculture, for boys, and in dressmaking and millineiy, in all kinds of housework, and in the lighter tasks of horticulture and agriculture, for girls. The variety of courses depends to a large extent on the number of students and the resources of the institution. The instruction in most of these schools is not confined to the ordi- nary subjects in such institutions, but comprehends as well careful training for character and conduct in all the relations of life, little as well as big. The dignity of labor, the nobility of service is a cardinal principle in the teaching. The expenses of attendance are small and frequently tuition can be obtained free of charge. The cost of board IS very low — from $6 to $9 per month, and even this charge can in many instances be met by work in the school. For nearly all the schools do a good deal of work in the trades for themselves and for the surrounding country, and the school farm is usually made to supply the school table. This carrying on productive work at the trade while 282 BEPOET OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. learning the trade to pay the expenses of the schooling is a character- istic feature of these schools. Even though not necessary to pay the expenses of the pupils, a certain amount of labor is required in most of the schools. CALHOUN COLOBED SCHOOL, CALHOUN, ALA. This institution is an academic and industrial school and was incor- porated in January, 1892. The special need leading to its establish- ment was the lack of opportunities for education in industrial and other lines of the colored children in this part of the State (Lowndes County). The school appears to have been started largely through the efforts of two ladies. Miss Charlotte R. Thorn, now one of its principals, and Mabel W. Dillingham. An appeal sent out by them under date of August 1, 1891, setting forth their plans and needs, met with sufficient response to pay for the building of a schoolhouse, a teachers' home, the furnishing of both buildings, 10 acres of land, and the expenses of transacting the business of the school for the first year, and upon this as a foundation the school was started. In all the school work the effort is to prepare the pupils for living in Lowndes Count}", and the industrial work is therefore now in the nature of manual training, a part of a general education, rather than an attempt to teach trades; nevertheless its result has really been to teach quite thoroughly certain simple occupations. The following courses of industrial training are given: Carpentry, sewing, cooking, and laundrj^ work. The general management is in the hands of the faculty. In the opinion of the officers of the school, the courses of training, etc., are capable of being improved and are constantly improving. The aim has been to start at the foundation and advance with the people of the localit}^ and to trj^ to make the industrial courses fit their needs. The effect of the school has already been to improve the only industry of the locality, farming, to raise the home life and moral tone of the people, and to cause them to build better homes than they formerly did. Labor unionism being unknown- in this section, the school is not affected by it in any wa^^. All but four of the graduates are continuing their education in other institu- tions. None are following their trades at pi'esent, but are trying to further perfect themselves. This school has proved satisfactory and is attaining the end for which it was established. The number of its instructors is 18, of whom 5 are instructors in industrial lines. Their training is academic, trade school, and practi- cal in shops. The number of students during the last year was 176 and the total number of graduates 23. Many students are not gradu- ated. The cost of the buildings and equipment was about |27,000, and the cost of maintaining the school during the last academic year was 119,000. The funds for maintaining the school are received from donations, tuitions, and fees. TRADE ANB TECHNICAL EDUCATION UNITED STATES. 283 £!TATE BraKMAIi SCHOOL FOB. COLORED STUDENTS, MONTGOMEBY, ALA. This institxition was originally established at Marion, Perry County, Ala., as the Lincoln Normal University, by an act of the legislature passed in 1873, and was organized, with two teachers, in the following year. It was the first, and for some yearii the only, school in the South supported by a State for the higher education of the colored race, and the need of this education was the cause of its establishment. In 1889 it was removed to Montgomery, and was reopened there under its present name. It is both a normal school for the education of practi- cal teachers and an industrial school. Its primary purpose is, how- ever, the education of teachei'S, and most of its graduates are engaged in this profession. It does, however, teach certain trades, and for this reason has been included in this report. Rules and regulations are few, and the discipline aims at developing the moral principles, improving the manners, and forming the habits of the pupils; The principles of honor and truth are appealed to as the great regulators of conduct, and everyone is trusted as long as he is found worthj^ The important habits of punctuality, regularity, and precision are cul- tivated by the arrangements and requisitions of the school. The industrial courses are as follows: Carpentry and cabinetmaking, black- smithing, wagon and carriage building, printing, sewing, dressmaking, fancy needlework, cooking. The general management of the school is by the president and fac- ulty. There are 20 instructors in all, 9 of them being for the indus- trial courses, whose training was obtained in some cases by courses of instruction in recognized educational institutions and in others from practical work. The total attendance of pupils for the year 1898-99 was, males, 326; females, 539; total, 865, and the number of graduates ia 175. It is impossible to separate the students and the graduates in the industrial courses from these figures. The school is maintained by money appropriated by the State legislature and from fees of the students. No tuition is paid by the pupils, but an admission fee of $2 is charged upon enrollment. Statements as follows were made by ofEcers of the institution: "The courses of training and study could be improved bj' making them more thorough and increasing their number. But few of our graduates engage in business in the locality of the school, so that it can not be said that the industries of the locality have been benefited ):)y the estab- lishment of the school, though some who are carpenters have settled near the school, and they do good work according to modern methods. Most of the graduates go to distant homes or seek new fiekls in other States. The school has greatly benefited the people of the locality by raising their intelligence and promoting their educational and social development. Labor unions do not obtain here nor afiect us in any 284 EEPOKT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. way. No effect has been produced in this locality by the school in developing new industries, reviving extinct or revolutionizing old ones. Our graduates are preferred by employers of labor because they can intelligently direct labor as well as do better work than those who have shop training only. A graduate of our school can work at his trade without having to undergo a period of apprenticeship. This is especially true of the girls. The school has proved very satisfac- tory, and has attained the principal end for which it was established." SNOWHILIi INDUSTEIAIi INSTITUTE, SNOWHILL, ALA. This school was established by William J. Edwards, who graduated from Tuskegee in 1893. It has already over 300 pupils and employs 12 teachers, all of them graduates of Tuskegee. Nine industries are taught, special attention being given to farming. TUSKEGEE NORMAL AND INDUSTRIAL INSTITUTE, TUSKEGEE, ALA. This institution, for the training of colored young men and women, was established bj^ an act of the Alabama legislature, appropriating $2,000, in 1880. It was opened July 4, 1881, in a rented shanty church, with 30 pupils and with but 1 teacher. The special need that led to the establishment of the school was the necessity of training the colored youth, especially in industrial lines. At the time of the. estab- lishment of the school there were some institutions where young col- ored men and women could receive literary training, while those in which they could learn trades in addition were, and still are, but few. It is the aim of this school to supply, as far as it can, trained workers for the many communities throughout the South where men and women educated in industrial trades are needed. While the teaching is not confined to the trades and the constant aim of the management is to correlate the literary and industrial training, so that it will not be possible to secure the one without the other, yet the industrial training amounts to far more than manual training, as a number of trades are thoroughly taught. In 1883 the legislature of Alabama increased the annual appropria- tion for the school to |3,000, and in 1893 the institution was incor- porated under its present name. During the first session of the school the present location, consisting at that time of 100 acres, with three small buildings thereon, was paid for by Northern friends. Additional buildings have constantly been added as friends have been found willing to provide them, and there are now forty-eight buildings belonging to the school, all except three erected by the labor of the students. It has acquired in all 2,500 acres of land, exclusive of 25,000 acres of mineral land granted by the Federal Congress, in January, 1899, for endowment purposes. Six hundred head of live TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION UNITED STATES. 285 stock — horses, mules, cows, hogs, and sheep — are on its various farms; and fifty vehicles — wagons, carriages, and buggies — constitute the rolling stock of the institution. One hundred and sixty -three thousand dollars received from bequests and gifts, and |125,000, the probable proceeds from the sale of the Federal land grant, will constitute a permanent endowment fund. Among the buildings are the Slater- Armstrong Memorial Trades Building, which is occupied by the trades division for young men, the Slater-Armstrong Memorial Agricultural Building, where practical agriculture is taught, and the Girls' Indus- trial Building, the home of the industries for girls. The total number of students enrolled during the year 1899-1900 was 1,231, of whom 872 were males and 359 were females. Of these, 148 withdrew, leaving an average attendance of 1,083, divided between the United States and foreign countries as follows: Africa, 1; United States, 1,072; West Indies, 10. Of these students, 619 took the trade education provided by the insti- tution during the last year. The total number of instructors is 75, all colored. Thirty-six of this number confine their teaching to the trades. Their education was obtained in collegiate institutions, tech- nological and trade schools, and at active practical work at different trades. A large proportion of the students who have attended the institution have failed of graduation, and the actual number who have graduated is 321. Of these, 174 have received certificates of proficiency from the industrial departments of the school. The cost of the buildings and equipment of this school can not be exactly stated, but the present valuation of the same may be placed at over $300,000. The annual cost of maintaining the institution is about 176,000. The income of the school comes from the endowment fund, appropriations bj' the State, donations from churches and individuals, and from fees paid by the students. In addition to its annual appro- priation of $3,000, the State now allows the school $1,500 a year for the support of an agricultural experiment station, the work of which is cari'ied on by the school's agricultural department. Everyone applying to be I'eceived as a student is first examined and, if accepted, is registered and assigned to room, academic class, and industrial trade. Industrial trades are assigned, as nearly as possible, in accordance with the desires of the students. In so assigning a trade the student's natural ability, intelligence to grasp it, and physical ability to perform the duties required are all considered. Students are expected to enter promptly at the beginning of the session and to lemain until the close. In order to enter the school the student must read and write, and understand addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division. There are two schools maintained covering the same course — the day school and the night school. The day school is intended for those students 286 REPORT GF THE COMMISSIONER OE LABOR. who pay for their board, study in the day, and have six workdays daring the month — one day in each week and every other Saturday, Students are required to work on these days. No student under 14 years of age is admitted on any terms, and good moral character and a good physique are essential. The night school is designed for young men and young women who desire to educate themselves, but are too poor to pay even the small chai'ge made in the day school. Require- ments for admission to the night school are the same as the day school, except that no student is admitted who is under 16 j^ears of age or who is physically unable to perform an adult's labor. Fully one-half of the students are obliged to attend the night school for the first one or two years, and work during the day, in order to obtain money with which to complete the course. Students who are able to attend the day school are not admitted to the night school. There is no charge for tuition. Expenses are an entrance fee of $1.50, and board, including furnished room, laundry, lights, fuel, etc., $8 per month. Students are given an opportunity to work out f2 or $3 per month, thus leaving only $5 or f 6 to be paid in cash. The rate of wages depends upon the amount of work a student can perform and the cash value of the same. Students having no previous knowledge of the trade at which they work are allowed to work out their board bill during the first six months, and as their work becomes valuable to the department their wages are increased proportionately. No stu- dent is- paid more than $12 per month in excess of his board. No stu- dent (except those who work at Marshall Farm) is paid in cash for his labor; what he earns goes to his credit in the treasury, to be used for his expenses after entering the day school. Those students who work at Marshall Farm are allowed to draw $2 per month in cash. Students in other departments are, in special cases, allowed to draw on their accounts by orders for clothing, books, etc. All students are lequired to supply themselves with books at the beginning of the yeat- The institute has adopted a uniform dress and hat, with which each girl is expected to provide herself within a reasonable length of tm^e after entering school. The institute has also adopted a neat, dark-blue uniform suit for the young men, which is furnished by the tailoring department at the bare cost of material and manufacture. The cost is about $8. All male students must provide themselves with this uniform and also the regu- lation cap, which costs §1. The rules are as follows: Each student is required to have a Bible and must come provided with table napkins. Regular habits of rest and recreation are required. No student is allowed to leave the grounds without permission, and no young woman can leave the grounds at all unless accompanied by one of the female teachers. Male students w ben permitted to leave the grounds must wear the regulation cap. All TRADE Ainr TECHIflCrAL EDUCATION USITED STATES. 287 htndents must bathe twice a week. The use of intoxicating drinks and tobaeco is forbidden^ a& are als0 dice playing and card playing. Stu- daentsare not periHitted, while in school, to take part in any political mass meeting or convention. Students ai'e liable to be dropped for inability to master the studies, irregularity of attendance, or for any failure to comply with the regulations of the school after due notice. The demerit system:, has been adopted hj. the school as the principal method of discipline for misconduct, 33'i- demerit marks constituting a "warning," and upon receiving thi'ee warnings a student is liable to suspension or expulsion, according as the executive couneil may determine. All nonresident students are expected to board at the school, unless there is some good reason for a contrary arrangem,ent. Students will not be registered for a shorter period than one month; those who teave- before the end of the month are charged for a full month's board. When students desire to leave the school they are required to have their parents or guardians write directh' to the principal for permis- sion to do so. Students who' sign a contract to woi'k a .specified time at some trade or other work must be released from their contract before an application for an excuse from school will be considered. Any student leaving without a written excuse will not be allowed to return, and students under contract will not only be dismissed but will forfeit whatever cash there may be to their credit in the treasury. Students must settle their accounts before leaving school. All students must supply themselves with books at the beginning of the year. They must be paid for in cash. Students are not allowed to retain firearms intheh' possession. The Gommandsxnt of cadets will retain- and give receipts for an}' brought. Low or profane language will subject a student to severe discipline. Students are liable to fine, reprimand, confinement, or other punishment. Letter writing is sub- ject to regulation, and all mail and express packages are inspected and contents noted. Wardrobes and rooms of students are subject to inspection an-d regulation, at all times, by proper oificers. Students are required to be present at the daily devotional exercises and to attend Sabbath school and church services on Sunday. The course of study is arranged for four 3' ears. — preparatory, junior, middle,- and senior; but as manj^ of the students come with little or no preparation, the preparatory grade has been divided into three classes, A, B, and C, and the middle grade into two classes, A and B. In the lowest class, the C preparatory, the instruction covers arith- metic as far as common fractions, grammar,. geography as far as the stud \' of the United States, reading, spelling, music, and drawing. The B and A classes continue the work in the same branches. In the junior year the pupils continue arithmetic to interest, and United States history is begun. 288 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. In the B middle class the pupils finish arithmetic and begin algebra, finish history and take up civics, and add also physiology. Those in the A grade finish algebra and begin geometry, and take up also book- keeping, geology, physics, and chemistry. The studies of the senior year are, in the normal course, psychology, rhetoric, English and American classics, ethics, pedagogy, and a review of the English studies 'of the previous year. In the trade courses the seniors take advanced chemistry, mechanical drawing, geometry, physics, and the trade work. The agricultural and trade work is carried on in connection with the four-years' course in the academic department. Instruction and train- ing are given in 30 trades, the special purpose being to teach those most likely to be of use throughout the South. The outline followed in the training in the agricultural and trade work is reproduced herewith: AGRICULTURAL COURSES FOR YOUNG MEN. FiHST Year. — Fall term: English language. Live stock — includes history, devel- opment, characteristics, standard points, utility, features of resemblance and differ- ence, adaptability to climatic conditions, lessons on judging, care, selection, and management of each of the leading breeds of horses and sheep; same with reference to cattle and hogs, instead of horses and sheep. Market gardening. Horticulture. Winter tei-m: Economic entomology. Practical agriculture — includes climate, man- agement of manures, cultivation, economic division of farm work, planting, etc. Botany. Dairying. Market gardening. Live stock. Spring term: Bacteriology and vegetable physiology. Laboratory practice. Prac- tical agriculture — includes growth of crops, rotations, minerals in plant economy, harvesting, ensilage, irrigation, sewage, pastures, fields, observations, etc. English. Live stock. Horticulture. Dairying. Market gardening. Second Year. — Fall term: Botany, cryptogamic. Laboratory practice. Practical agriculture. Agricultural chemistry. Horticulture. Stock breeding — includes breeding as an art, heredity, atavism and reversion, laws of correlation, variation and fecundity, influence of parents and previous breeding, sex, pedigree, form, selection, period of gestation. Dairying. Seeds and grasses — include a comprehensive study in the laboratory of a large number of native, as well as introduced, forage plants, with reference to their identification, and to familiarize the student with the more common weed, seed of which form the basis of adulteration in our forage crops. Market gardening. Winter term: Applied botany. Laboratory practice. Live stock. Botany and bacteriology. Practical agriculture. Dairying. Horticulture. Practical agriculture. Farm drainage — includes practical effect of drainage, lands needing drainage, pre- liminary and topographical survey, involving the different problems of drainage engineering, map drawing, calculating depths of drains and capacity of pipes, laying and preserving drains intact. Spring term: Bacteriology of milk. Practical agriculture. Agricultural chemistry. Laboratory practice. Horticulture. Vegetable pathology. Dairying. Animal nutrition. Market gardening. Live stock. AGRICULTURAL COURSES FOR TOUNG WOMEN. First Year.— jPoZZ term: Dairying: The home dairy is first taken up and a clear knowledge of the following points obtained; Kind, use, and care of utensils, gravity TKADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION UNITED STATES. 28& creaming. A study of stone, wooden, and tin churns, ripening of cream, churning, working and salting butter, preparation and marketing of same. Feeding and care of dairy cows. Poultry raising: A working knowledge of the following points is here required: The economic value of poultry on the farm, pure and mixed breeds, plain poultry- house construction, making of yards, nests, and runs. Horticulture: Instruction is given as to the importance of an orchard and small fruits, varieties best suited, particular locality, selection and preparation of ground, setting, trimming, extermination of borers, lice, scull, etc., especial stress being laid upon the quality and quantity of peaches, pears, apples, plums,, figs, grapes, and strawberries that should be planted in a home orchard. Floriculture and landscape gardening: A study of our common dooryards, the lay- ing out and beautifying of same, etc., is required. The kindg, care, and use of tools used in floriculture and landscape gai'dening. Trimming and shaping of beds and borders, and the general care of shrubbery and flowers. The gathering and saving of seed. Special treatment of rose bushes and shrubbery. Market gardening: Much stress is here laid upon the management of the home garden, its value to the home, selection and preparation of ground; kinds, care, and use of tools; planting, gardening, and marketing of fall vegetables; gathering of seeds; drying pumpkins, cushaw, okra, and fruits. Live stock: Study is limited wholly to ordinary farm animals; the number and kind needed; how, when, and what to feed; characteristics and utility of the various, animals. Winter term: Dairying: The commercial dairy is the subject of study, and the fol- lowing points emphasized: Use of separators, of which the school has two leading styles; churns; feeding and care of the dairy herd; breeds of dairy cattle and their selection; butter making, packing, salting, and preparing for market. Poultry raising: Special study of breeding and feeding; when, how, and what kind of eggs and the breed of fowls to set; the period of incubation; poultry book- keeping; saving of eggs for market; an introductory study of young chickens. Floriculture and landscape gardening: Trimming of beds and borders; mulching,, tying, wrapping, and preparation of plants for the winter; winter decoration of grounds; the decorative value of native shrubbery; a study of window plants; their value in the home, halls, and public buildings; their economic value, etc. Market gardening: The selection of grounds and making of hotbeds, cold frames,, etc., planting and managing of same; the raising of winter vegetables, marketing. Spring term: Dairying: Milking; a study of pastures, how to destroy lice and other parasites, the care of calves, the utilization of waste in the dairy; laboratory work.. Poultry raising: A more advanced study of young poultry; brooders; sanitation of the house, runs, and of all the apparatus; egg testing, moulting and its effect upon different breeds. Horticulture: Spring planting, trimming, budding, grafting, spraying; care of grape vines; the wire and post system of supports; spring layering and cuttings. Floriculture and landscape gardening: Renewing of beds and borders, seed sow- ing, special study of propagation by layers, cuttings, division of roots, bulbs, etc. ;, kinds and uses of fertilizers for this special season. Market gardening: Preparation of ground, what and how to plant, special stress being laid upon the production of early vegetables for the home and market. Repro- duction of plants by seeds and by division of numbers; water, and its office in plant 'economy. Live stock: Includes the history, development, characteristics, standard points, utility, adaptability to climatic conditions; lessons on judging, care, selection and, management of the leading breeds of horses, sheep and hogs. 9257—02 19 290 KEPOBT OF THE COMMISSIONEB OF LABOR. Second Year. — Fall term: Dairying: A more comprehensive study of milk and its constituents, weeds and their harmful effects upon dairy products, general sani- tation of dairy barns, the drawing of plans, etc. Poultry raising: Insecticides, how to make, when and how much to use; diseases of fowls and their treatment. A study of foods and their adaptability to different breeds, special study of turkeys and guineas. Horticulture: Root and stem grafting with active and dormant buds; formation of trunk and top starch and its relation to the hardiness of fruits and shrubs; botany of the orchard; 'entomology; bookkeeping. Floriculture and landscape gardening: Systematic botany, bouquet making, har- mony of color, form and size of flowers, laying out of private and public grounds, roads, parks, walks, and streets; entomology of the flower garden. Market gardening: Botany of the field and garden, physical analysis of soils, and the improvement of clay and sandy soils; the depletion of plant food and its replace- ment by direct and indirect fertilizers; the source of carbon, nitrogen and oxygen; draining. Live stock: How to hitch and unhitch horses, the care of vehicles and harness, how to drive, the names of common diseases and treatment of sick animals; swine for profit. Winter term: Dairying: The weighing and recording of milk in a commercial dairy; the Babcock and other methods of testing milk; composition of cheese and its value as a food. Poultry raising: Composition of the animal body; a special study of ducks and geese; brooders, ponds, runs, etc.; by-products and their value. Horticulture: Forestry, botany (cryptogamic), and systematic nut culture; preser- vation of timber; the economic value of different woods; the relation of forests to climate, water supply, floods, and erosion. Floriculture and landscape gardening: A more advanced study in the harmony of arrangement, planting, etc. ; plain designing, with native material only, special stress being laid upon decorations m.ost suitable for funerals, carnivals, the making of bouquets for same, and all kinds of public and private gatherings; bee culture; prepa- ration of hives for the winter, feeding, etc. Market gardening: A study of the life history of insects; injuries to stored grain, pease, beans, meal, flour, dried fruits; botany of the greenhouse, cold frame, and hot- beds; the use of thermometers; a study of markets; library work. Spring term: Dairying: Cottage and Cheddar cheese making; scoring of butter; bacteriology of milk, butter, and cheese; judging of dairy animals by the score-card method; diseases of cows and their treatment; analj-sis of food stuffs. Poultry raising: Physical and chemical study of foods, library work, fancy breeds, what and how to exhibit, the history and development of the industry, heredity and the effects of inbreeding. Horticulture: Origin of new varieties by cross fertilization; hybrids, sports, atavisms, and reversion; correlation between plants and animals; rejuvenating by pruning, grafting, and scraping the bark; special diseases of both trees and fruit and their treatment; knot growth, blight, gum excrescences, and frost injuries; drymg, preserving, making fruit sirups, etc. Floriculture and landscape gardening: Special designing in cultivated flowers, origin of new species; bees and their relation to the forest and garden; the hiving of bees and after management; a study of honey-producing plants; the economic value ox the honey. Market gardening: Relation of crops, geology of the garden, agricultural chemistry, good roads and their relation to the success and -value of the farm, mineralogy, and useful birds and insects. TKADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION — UNITED STATES. 291 DAIRTING. FiBST YEAE. — Aside from the scientific work in the dairy, each student is required to master the following points: The cleaning and ventilating of dairy barns, six weeks; grooming and bedding of cows, milking and recording the same, six weeks; feeding and care of both cows and calves, eight weeks; destruction of ticks, lice, etc., eight weeks; pasturing, six weeks. Second year.— Individual study of different breeds in the dairy herd, eight weeks; breeding and feeding, eight weeks; treatment when sick, four weeks; special study of cooked and uncooked foods, eight weeks; dairy possibilities of the State, six weeks; dairy barns and cooperative dairies. MARKET GARDENING. Special stress is laid upon this important line of work. FiEST YEAR. — Kinds and care of tools, plowing, spading, and preparation of seed beds, six weeks; construction and care of hotbeds, six weeks; planting and trans- planting, twenty weeks; intensive cultivation, eight weeks. Second year. — Growing vegetables in winter, twenty weeks; care and preparation of vegetables for market, twelve "weeks; preservation of root crops and cold storage, eight weeks. PRACTICAL AGRICULTURE. In connection with the sciences relative to agriculture, the student must master the following points, under a competent instructor: Kinds, care, and uses of tools and instruments, ten weeks; preparation of sandy, loamy, clayey, and peaty soils, five weeks; testing seeds, time and depth of planting, six weeks; transplanting by hand and other methods, cultivation, six weeks; destruc- tion of insects and fungus, diseases, use of improved machinery; fence building, har- vesting, housing and rotation of crops, five weeks. STOCK RAISING. First year. — Practical instruction wdll be given along the following lines: (See Live stock, fall term, first year of agricultural courses for young men) twelve weeks; feeding, breeding, grooming, and treatment while sick, sixteen weeks; harness, kinds, care, and use, eight weeks. Second y'eae. — Instruction in stock breeding, sixteen weeks; vehicles, kinds, care, and use, eight weeks; butchering, twelve weeks, which includes a study of beef, mtltton, and pork breeds especially adapted to the South; cutting and preparing for market. BEE CULTURE. Bee culture has been begun with marked success, and it is hoped it will soon prove profitable as well as instructive. The climate of Alabama is very favorable for this industry. An apiary of nearly one hundjed colonies has already been collected. HORTICULTURE. " All students of the agricultural department are reqnired to acquaint themselves thoroughly upon the following points: First y'jear. — Kinds, care, and uses of tools, six weeks. The importance of fruit culture, six weeks. Special attention is given to the following fruits: Apples, pears, quinces, figs, grapes, plums, peaches, cherries, strawberries, gooseberries, b)lackber- ries, etc., fourteen weeks. Deciduous, evergreen, and ornamental trees, and their importance. Special attention is given to the decorative value of native shrubbery, fourteen weeks. 292 REPOET OF THE COMMISSIOKER OP LABOR. Second year. — Laying off parks and private grounds, walks, and streets, and pruning, twelve weeks. Landscape gardening and forestry, twelve weeks. Budding, grafting, layering, inarching, cross fertilization, hybrids, sports, and special direction for growing decorative plants, etc., sixteen weeks. Library work includes the classifi- cation of a library, the making of digests and abstracts from important books, bul- letins, and papers. FEEE-HAND DRAWING. Free-hand drawing is conducted under the direction of the academic department, and ia designed to prepare students for work in architectural and mechanical draw- ing. The course in free-hand drawing is as follows: FiTiST YEAH. — Color in detail. Type forms in detail. Wholes; molding. Parts and relations. Expression by drawing. Dictation exercises. Geometric figures rep- resenting surfaces. Drill in molding, dissections, and practical drawing. Arrange- ment. Copies of historical frets. Original work. Repetition and alteration illustrated. Second ye.^e. — Color work continued. Type forms in detail, with definitions. Teach construction, by drawing, by oral or written speech. Wholes with similar objects. Drill work in sketching; free use of pencil. Parts and relations of surfaces, edges, etc. Drill and practical work. Arrangement. Third YEAR. — Advanced work. Subjects taken: Measurement; judging distances; geometry; type solids in detail; projection; foreshortening; development; shapes of faces; combinations of faces; model and object drawing; illustrated sketching; effect of distance; pictorial drawing; foreshortening and convergence; color; historic ornament; frets and borders; modified bilateral units; conventionalization of plant forms; structural botany; sketching; drawing of plant forms, leaves a specialty'; application of all with practical v.'ork. CARPENTRY. The carpenter shop at present adjoins the sawmill, but is soon to be moved into the Trades Building. It is a one-story frame building, 90 by 43 feet. The motor power for the machinery is furnished by one 40-horsepower engine. This depart- ment ia divided into two divisions — one for carpentry, the other for woodworking machinery. The equipment of the carpenter shop consists of 14 workbenches, 32 inches high, 10 feet long, and 3 feet wide. Each bench has on either side three locked drawers and one closet for tools and unfinished work. The apprentice is supplied with tools as follows: One jack plane, 1 fore plane, 1 smoothing plane, 1 hammer, 1 hatchet, 1 screw-driver, 1 nail set, 1 brace, 1 hand- saw, 1 framing square, 1 try-square, 1 gauge, 1 level, 1 pocket rule, 1 draw knife, 1 pair of dividers. A tool room, located in one corner of the building, is supplied with a good variety of tools, adapted to every possible need of a woodworking establish- ment. The tools are bits, block planes, jointers, bevels, adzes, chisels, rasps, files, clamps, oilstones, oil cans, ripsaws, gauges, plumb bobs, hand screws, spoke- shaves, etc. In the department of woodworking machinery there are 1 handsaw, complete with wrenches and brazing apparatus; 1 automatic setting machine, with five-vise and wheel; 1 friezing or shaping machine, with friction foot reverse; 1 improved saw bench, with adjustable fence; 1 double-end wood lathe, with sockets; single and^ double trees; centers, face plate, screw check, floor stand and adjustable stand, etc., 1 8-inch, double lathe complete with stones, and a small combination woodworker, complete. The following course is laid out to suit those who have six practice days m each week: First year. — Names and uses of tools, sharpening and setting for use; working out pieces of timber to various gauges and lengths, straightening, squaring, beveling; TBABE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION UNITED STATES. 293 forinirig angles by halving pieces together, as applied in framing; plain dovetailing, as applied in framing; sketching and making plain brackets; lectures on general topics; study aiid construction of the 16 problems in carpentry, from 1 to 5, inclusive; observation lessons. Second yeah. — ^Framing; inspection of brickwork; straightening, squaring, and plumbing; bracing, tying, and bridging; sizing studs, joists, etc.; formation of cor- nices; setting window frames; shingling and flooring; rafter cutting; weather- boarding and boxing; lectures and supplementary studies; study of the 16 problems in carpentry, from 6 to 11; selection of building sites and examination of building soils, etc. The course of study for woodworking machinery begins during the sec- ond year, as follows: First quarter — names of machines, their uses, and how to use attachments; how to set up and regulate speed of machines and the care of same; brazing apparatus, the use and care of it; names of edged tools used with the machine, how to sharpen and use same; review. Second quarter — practical work on each machine, from blackboard designs or sketches made by instructor; wood turning to fifth exercise in Golden's Laboratory Couree in Wood Turning. At the end of the second quarter all apprentices must submit to the director for inspection at least three samples of work done on each machine. Third quarter — complete to exercise 13 in Golden's Laboratory Course in Wood Turning; practical work on all machines. All work executed this quarter must be from blue prints. At the end of third quarter all apprentices must submit to the director samples of work executed on each machine with blue print attached. Third year. — Stair building — rises, treads, making patterns for stairs, hand rail- ings; hints in wood carving and application in cabinet making; drawing brackets from original and selected designs; furniture making; care and use of machinery; how to set a machine and regulate the speed thereof; how to sharpen bits, etc. ; bill of lumber, estimates; lectures and supplementary studies; the 16 problems in car- pentry completed; lessons in making out bills of material of various kinds used by carpenters. CARPENTET — REPAIR SHOP. The division of carpentrj'. has been so crowded during the last few years that it has not been able to meet the needs of the school in the matter of keeping up repairs, etc. For this reason an auxiliary department has been organized. This division follows a course of study similar to that of the division of carpentry, and besides does all the repair work on the grounds. Course, three years, as follows: FiEST Y'EAH. — Names and uses of tools; working out pieces of timber to various gauges and lengths; straightening, squaring, and boring; forming angles by halv- ing pieces together, as applied to fr?.ming; chamfering, using chisel; mortising and tenoning; planing a 2 by 4 out of wind to gauge and squares. Second year. — Trimming; inspection of brickwork; straightening and squaring a building; bracing, tying, and bridging; sizing studs, joists, etc.; cornices; set- ting door frames and window frames; hanging doors; shingling, flashing; weath- erboarding and boxing; ' hanging windows with weights; putting in windows without weights; putting on locks, mortise and rim knob; making a frame of a given size; miter joints; making a box or frame of a given size, using miter joints; a dovetail joint with several tongues; a half dovetail joint; a dovetail joint with miter; a blind dovetail joint; care and use of machinery; how to set a machine and regulate its speed; how to adjust the different parts; how to sharpen bits; filing both rip and crosscut saws; bills of lumber, estimates, specifications, and contracts. Third year. — Stair building — rises and treads, hand railing, making patterns for stairs; a blind mortise and tenon joint; a blind mortise and tenon joint at the 294 EEPOBT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOK. end of a brace; a miter joint with an open mortise and tenon; a miter joint fas- tened by glue tongues; a half-blind dowel joint; a dowel joint; a blind dowel joint; a blind dowel joint with a miter; a double joint with a, post; a half dovetail joint; a dovetail joint with a single tongue. BLACKSMITHING. The blacksmith shop is located in a room 37 by 60 feet on the fii'st floor of the Trades Building. It is well lighted, and large enough to meet the growing needs of this division. It is furnished with nine stationary forges, with Champion blowers, and an exhaust fan to give proper ventilation. Near each forge is an anvil weighing 120 pounds, and a tool bench 2 feet high, 2J feet wide, and 6 feet long, furnished with drawers and a blacksmith's vise. Each bench is supplied with the following tools: One sledge hammer; 2 hand hammers; 8 round, iron bottom swages, varying from one-fourth to 1 inch; 1 set collar swages; 12 pairs tongs, suitable for handling iron, varying in diameter from one-half to 1 inch; 4 hand punches, varying from one- fourth to 1 inch. In this room is the instructor's office and a tool rooni, where a variety of extra tools are kept and supplied to each pupil when needed to complete a job. In the shop, ironing of carriages, buggies, wagons, carts, drays, and wheelbarrows is done, besides the making of all kinds of tools and the shoeing of horses. The course of study follows: FiEST YEAR. — First term: Gleaning the shop; making fires; names of tools and their uses; care of tools and their places; the importance of keeping water and coal in the troughs, also economy; striking; the different sizes of drills and how to run a drill press; the different sizes of stocks and dies, also how to cut threads; how to keep shop in order. Compositions are written on these subjects monthly. Second term: The use of the hand hammer and tongs. The figures on the rule and measurements. The different sizes of iron; the formation of iron and steel; the different kinds and grades of iron and steel; welding iron, also the different kinds of welds, viz, plain, jump, dovetail, and also long and short laps and their effect, and scarifying; the use of sand; practice in making lap links, lap rings, staples, hasps, S-hooks, gate hooks, hame hooks, and round rings; resetting tires and the use of the traveler. Compositions are written on these subjects monthly; also monthly examinations are given in all work. Tliird term: The use of welding compound; welding steel, viz, spring, tire, axle, and tool; how to get the measurements on jobs without the bed; welding and setting axles; measurement of the track of axles; weld'uig and setting tires, also dish of new wheels; making clips, nuts, brace ends, also vrelding braces the proper length; putting work together; bench work, viz, filing, clipping, jointing, and fancy work; the effect of sand and emery paper on finished work. Compositions are written on these subjects monthly. Second ysAR.— First term: Horseshoeing; the condition of a shoeing floor; how to make a shoer's Are; the names and uses of shoeing tools; what and how to make a mold, also how to strike on a shoe; the names and sizes of shoes and nails, also the different kinds of shoes; how to file a shoe, also how to pull off a shoe, trim a foot, and clinch a shoe; the different parts of a foot and how to drive a nail; the different kinds of shoes that are used for horses with different ways of travehng. There are special lessons given in fitting, viz, different ways of traveling and differ- ent shaped feet. Compositions are written on these subjects monthly. Second term: Wagon -work, such as farm wagons, express wagons, and platform wagons; dash and -rail work, and the different kinds and names; fender work; making different kinds of tools, also tempering; work from drawing; repairing dif- ferent parts of buggies; estimating and cost of different things and jobs; hanging and trimming up of jobs. Compositions are written monthly on each subject. TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDTJCATION UNITED STATES. 295 Third term: Buggy-gear work; body and hoop work; practice in truck and car- riage forging; different kinds of traps and their names. Talks on general work are _given each day. Eepair work of an advanced order is done by the students while this course is being taught. PRINTING. This is one of the most important divisions on the grounds. The printing office is located in one of the front rooms of the Trades Building, in a room 37 by 56 feet, on the first floor. It is well equipped to meet the demands made upon it, and contains one large two-revolution Campbell steam press and four job presses run by steam, one large 30- inch paper cutter, 150 fonts of job type, 600 x>ounds of newspaper and book type, and all necessary apparatus for a large printing office. A weekly news- paper and a monthly newspaper for the institution, besides two others for outside institutions, minutes, books, and all the pamphlets and other matter of the school are printed by the students of this division. The course is three years, as follows: . FiKST YEAR. — Care of office, presses, and treatment of rollers; learning type names, point system, and the tools of the trade; learning the technical terms employed in the trade; signs and proof marks, and the lay of the case; manuscript reading, punctuation, capitalization, and construction of sentences. Second year. — Care of presses, learning to make ready and to run a platen press; learning to regulate impression, distribution of color, care of ink, and mixing colors; learning names and sizes of paper, and use of the paper cutter. Third y'eak. — Composition, care being taken in teaching the importance of even spacing, careful justification, accurate punctuation, and uniform capitalization; meas- uring type, casting off copy, and imposition; making up and locking forms; making ready on cylinder press — overlays and underlays; making out orders; rendering esti- mates and writing essays on subjects relative to the trade; lectures on color printing, JQurnaUsm, the progress of the printer's art, and allied subjects. The instruction in this course embraces all kinds of general mercantile, newspaper, and book printing, such as billheads, note heads, statements, letter heads, business and visiting cards, dodgers, circulars, blank forms, tabular work, and book printing. The appearance of each job is given careful and critical attention, and the principles that apply to good display are fully explained in each piece of work. To enter this division students mustbe able to read mamuacript, spell, and have a fair knov/ledge of punctuation. At the end of the course students are competent to fake charge of an office and do work in type, job setting, presswork, and other kin- dred branches of the art. Forty-five minutes are given each afternoon, from 4.45 to 5.30, during which time the students are given theoretical training. WHEELWEIGHTING. The division of wheelwrighting is situated on the first floor of the Trades Building. It is fitted for work in general wheelwrighting and trimming. In this shop are located eight woodworkers' benches, 32 inches high, 42 inches wide, and 8 feet long. Each bench is divided into two divisions with a vertical board, making it possible for two- peTSons to- work at the sam-e bench without interference. These benches have three drawers and one closet on each side, in which the tools used by the stu- dents are kept. Each pupil is provided with the following tools: One coachmaker's vise, 4} inches in jaw, one 26-inch No. & saw, one 12-inch back saw, one fore plane, one jack plane, one smoothing plane, one set chisels, varying from one-fourth to three-fourths of an inch, one ratchet brace, one set auger bits, one set gimlet bits, one coachmaker's drawing knife, one spokeshave, one marking gauge, one try-square, one bevel square, etc. Other tools are kept in reserve by the instructor and used only when needed. This division is turning out first-class work in the line of wagons, drays, horse and hand carts, wheelbarrows, buggies, road carts, and the trimming of old vehicles. 296 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. First yeak. — Care of tools. Elementary with saw, plane, drawing knife, chisel, and apokeshave. Kinds of joints, splices, mortises, tenons, miters. Kinds of wood used; how to select. Second yeab. — Pattern making; working by patterns. Making wheelbarrows, carts, trucks, and wheels. Construction of wagons, carts, and drays. Sketching work. During the second year instruction in wood turning is given, as follows: Names of machines, their uses, and how to use attachments; how to set up and regulate speed of machine and the care of same; brazing apparatus, the use and care of it; names of edged tools used with the machine; how to sharpen and use same; practical work on each machine from blackboard design or sketches made by instructor; wood turning to exercise 13 in Golden's Laboratory Course in Wood Turning; practical work on all machines. All work executed the third quarter must be from blue prints. Third year. — Practice in building wheels continued. Copying with dimensions into notebooks, and working from copy continued. Building buggies, bodies, and gears. Construction of buggies and phaetons. HARNESS MAKING AND CARRIAGE TRIMMING. All of the harness used by the school and a large quantity sold to the public are made in this shop. All of the carriages and buggies turned out by the blacksmith- ing and wheelwrighting divisions are trimmed by students taking the course in carriage trimming. The course of study for both these divisions follows: Harness making. First year. — Care of shop; names and care of tools; thread making and practice stitching; quality and preparation of leather; names and dimensions of straps; repairing all grades of harness; cleaning and oiling harness, making odd parts of harness, such as hame straps, shaft tugs, bridle fronts, side straps, crupper docks, girths, etc. ;■ fitting and finishing up harness. Second y'ear. — Review of work of first year; names and grades of trimmings; names and grades of leather; economical cutting of leather; care of patent leather; stitching of patent leather; cutting patterns; making fancy harness, such as coach, buggy, and truck, and all grades of express harness; review of work done in first and second years; finishing work; making all grades of cart and gig saddles; inspecting work done in shop and criticising all work not done properly; theory class in the shop every day except Saturday from 4.45 to 5.30 p. m. Carriage trimming. First year. — Use of scissors and needle, basting, the use of tack hammer, material, stitching on machine. Second year. — Drafting, pattern cutting, making cushions, repairing. Third year. — Making cushions, continued; drafting and cutting material for buggy tops; setting and trimming. All exercises are supplemented by actual work from time to time. Inspection and correction by the instructor all of the time the students are at work. In order to keep work fresh on minds of students, lectures in the way of asking and answering questions are given daily. Students have abundant opportu- nities for practical work by reason of the outside work and the general work of the institution. Theory class in the shop every day, except Saturday, from 4.45 to 5.30 p. m. The regular work students in this shop take drawing lessons on Tuesdays and Thursdays. PAINTING. The division of painting is located on the second floor of the Trades Building, in a large, well-lighted, and well-ventilated room. A large elevator is used to take TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION UNITED STATES. 297 vehicles from the wheelwright shop on the first floor to the painting division on the second floor. A number of closets are furnished in connection with this room for the use of students in which to keep material and tools. Adjoining the paint shop is a large, well-fitted varnish room. By this department a great deal of house painting, hard oil finishing, and graining is done. Each student is furnished with a bucket and a kit of tools; overalls and aprons are furnished by the students them- selves. All of the buildings on the grounds, carriages, buggies, carts, etc., as well as the furniture made in the carpentry divisions are painted by the students of this division. The course of study follows: FiEST YEAR. — Cleaning shop and keeping tools in order; learning names and uses of brushes; learning names of colors; sandpapering and priming; model work, i. e., practice on old spokes, wheels, etc.; priming houses; finishing; interior work, hard oiling and staining; exterior work; estimates, wagon painting, mixing and coloring putty. Second year. — ^Advanced work in interior and exterior decorating; carriage paint- ing, furniture painting, and Sign painting; mixing paints, gilding, glazing, varnishr ing, and striping, finishing, graining, tinware painting; advanced work in staining and hard-oil finishing; estimates. In all the branches harmony or the correct combination of colorg i« the prime factor. Theory class in the shop everj day except Saturdays. The regular students in the shop have drawing lessons on Tuesdays. Students entering this department begin with practice and theory in steam and water piping; instruction is given daily on the proper manner of piping sinks, ranges, steam boilers, engines, and residences. Blue prints are used in the plans and specifiations of pipe work. Each student will have several hours each week during work time for practice in foundry work— preparing molds for castings of all kinds, making cores, drawing patterns, and cupola management. The course in machine work will then begin with work on the bench with vise tools, chipping, filing, brazing, and scraping. The laying off of work for power machines is prac- ticed on the bench. The students are then given work on an improved back-geared and self-fed drill, and instruction is given on the grinding of the various tools used on the machine. Work in centering, reaming, facing, countersinking, and drilling to line is taken up. The use of the boring bar, also the measurements and sizes of standard United States taps, dies, and drills for same are taught on this machine. Instruction is next given on the shaper, consisting of grinding, shearmg tools, and of plain, square, round, and fancy shaping with the use of the surface gauge, straight- edge, bevel square, micrometer, etc. Instruction on planer work, the management of belts, the use of various planing tools, planing straight, taper, and angle cuts, the use of the boring bar and center in planer work. Instruction in lathe work begins with the feeds, speeds, and the various tools in turning straight, taper, bevel, and round work, drilling, reaming, centering, milling, grinding, and screw cutting. The use of the lathe tools, such as rests, back gears, cross feeds, boring bars, mandrels, arbors, center indicators, and micrometers will be given. Students will have an opportunity to design and construct some tool or piece of mechanism, and experiments will be made in steam engineering, the management of steam boilers, heaters, steam pumps, etc. Each class in the machine and engineering departments will be expected to design and construct, ready for use, some machine, pump, or engine, such as may be used in the trade during each term of their study, the drawings and specifications of the same to be submitted to the instructor in charge for approval. Theory class in the foundry every day except Saturday from 4.45 to 5.30 p. m. The regular work students in this department take drawing lessons at this time on Mondays and Fridays. 298 KEPOKT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOE. SHOEMAKING. This diviaioii is on the second floor of the Trades Building, in a large, well-appointed room. All the repairing of shoes for teachers and students is done in the shop, and many new pairs are made, not only for them, but for outsiders as well. During the past year there has been added to this division a full set of Goodyear machinery at a cost of .?700, exclusive of cost of engine for running same. This machinery con- sists of one Goodyear welt or turn machine, one Goodyear lock stitcher, one welt channeler, one outsole channeler, one welt beater, one bob winder, one welt groover, and one splitter. Besides this machinery, two Wheeler & Wilson machines have been added for sewing uppers. The course of study is two years, and is as follows: First year. — Thread making, waxing thread, and putting on bristles; names, uses, and care of tools; putting last in shoe; use of awl and bristle; stitching and sewing rips; kinds and uses of leather; patching and half soling; finishing repair work; selection of sole and patching leather; mending shoes of different styles. Second ybae. — Higher grade repair work; pegging, jointing, trimmingj smoothing, setting, etc.; pmnp shoes; preparation of sole leather, insoles, lasting shoes, round- ing up out soles, pegging or nailing on the soles; heels; cleaning and polishing taps of shoes. How to measure the foot so as to make a shoe fit; pattern cutting. Theory class m the shop on Wednesdays, Thursdays, and Fridays from 4.45 to 5.30 p. m. BRICKMASGNEY AND PLASTERING. This is one of the most useful and helpful divisions on the grounds. All the brick- work on buildings of the school is done by the students of this division under the supervision of the instructor. Plastering and repair work, both on the inside and outside of the buildings, are looked after by this division. The theory is given in the class room and practical work in the actual construction of buildings. During the past year the Slater-Armstrong Memorial Trades Building has been completed, Huntington Hall, a dormitory for girls, nearly finished, and the girls' industrial building begun. Buildings are frequently going up at Tuskegee, and there is every opportunity for the learning of a trade. The course of study is as follows: First year. — How to mix mortar and prepare material. Spreading mortar on walls. Piers, chimneys, and sticking joints. How to calculate the draft of chimneys, pre- vent smoking, and make smoking ones draw. Eight-inch wall with plumb and line; chimneys, fireplaces, and fiues; turn corners and build pilasters. Twelve-inch wall, same as above. Sixteen-inch wall; bats for filling and backing. Putting flues in walls without projecting. Difference in foundations. Second year. — Turning arches; semicircle arches 8 by 12; dovetail arches 8 by 12; segmental arches 8 by 12 and 12 by 16. Turn cornices, set doors, window sills, and frames. Test of foundation and how to square and level buildings. Specifications and estimates. Before a student can graduate from this department he must be able to lay brick at the rate of 3,000 in ten hours and to plumb, square, and level. The following instruction in plastering is given : Lathing, making mortar, when and how to begin plastering, thickness of coats, names of tools. Scratch coats,' how to put on and why. Brown coat, how to put on and why. Screeds and spots, and their object. Putting brown coat on laths; putting browning on stone or brickwork. Finish brown coat for paint or fresco. White coat, lime or sand, and lime skin. Sand finish, trowel work; white coat, sand finish, trowel work; white coat, hard finish; preparing material, applying to walls finishing angles and cornices. Turning circles on walls and white coats around them. Pre- paring mortar for different kinds of work. Preparing lime for white coat; Calci- mine, how to make, prepare walls, and put on. TEADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATIOK UNITED STATES. 299 Theory class every day, except Saturday, from 4.45 to 5.30 p. m. The regular students in this department take drawing lessons at the time named above on Mon- days and Fridays. BRICKMAKING. On one of the school farms are found beds of clay suitable for making brick. From these beds the school has been able to make enough brick to build nine substantial buildings, with others in course of erection. The bricks are made, laid, and burned by the students, thus reducing the outlay for building to the minimum of cost. The instruction in every way is practical. The latest machinery has been installed in this division, the output per day during good weather being 20,000 bricks. Last year more than 3,000,000 bricks were made. The course is as follows: Clay; preparation, bulked or heaped, rotted, cut in pones, shaped, dressed, turned. Tools: Shovels, picks, boes, molds, strikers, grinding wheel, and pit. Setting brick in kiln. Time of burning. Theory class at the brickyard every day -except Saturday from 4.45 to 5.30 p. m. SAWMILLING. The sawmill for the present adjoins the carpenter shop and is located in a build- ing 48 by 84 feet with a boiler room attached. The power to run the machinery of the sawmill is supplied by a 40-horsepower engine. It is furnished with the fol- lowing machinery; One 52-inch .circular saw, one No. 5 endless bed surfacer, having a dressing capacity of 10 by 12 inches, one 6 by 26 inch flooring and surfacing machine, one cut-oH saw, two lathe saws, one emery stand and grindstone, one mill to grind corn, etc., for stock. The course of study is as follows: Selection of standing trees; defects of timber trees, such as brusliwood, twisted wood, splits, checks, and cracks; measuring the heiglit of a stajiding tree; felling of timber and loading on log wagon; measuring logs to 'find their contents in board measure; power required to drive different sized circular saws; care of belts and lacing them; .capacity of sawmills; filing teeth of .saws and guarding their care; calculating the speed of pulleys; how to run planers; peed of different pulleys; how to sharpen planer knives; measurement of lumber; bow ,to make out a bill of lumber. In this department the students have an opportunity to handle such machinery as sawmill surfacer, tongue and groove planers, lathe saws, cut-off saws, mill to crush corn for feed, and other machinery. The boys are taught how to care for and run engines; also how to fire steam boilers. They are taught the names of the different parts of the machines. Theory class at the sawmill on Blondays, Wednesdays, and Fridays from 4.45 to 5.30 p. m. TINSMITHING. The tin shop is located on the first floor of the Trades Building. The benches run the entire length of one side and one end of the room. Closets are provided in which to keep tools and unfinished work. Nearly every kind of tin work is done in this division, from the covering of a house to the making of pepper boxes. Appren- tices have every opportunity to become first-class tinsmiths. , More than 2,000 fruit cans were made in the shop last year, as well as many other useful aTticles. The shop is well supplied with tools, such as folding machines, grooving machines, wiring machines, setting-down machines, large and small turning machines, large and small burring machines, double seaming machines, large and small forming machines, gutter machines, circular shears, stovepipe machines, vises, hack saws, wood folders 22 by 30 inches, soldering coppers, bench shears, snip shears, large mantels, horn stakes, hatchet stakes, candle-mold stakes, hollow punches, square 300 EEPOBT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. stakes, small solid punches, rivet' sets, cutting nippers, roofing tongues, double seaming tongs, hand aeamers, wing dividers, pliers, squares, mallets, breast-drills, fire pots, etc. The course of study extends over two years, as follows: First ykar. — How to keep the shop. Names of machines and tools. How to stop ■ holes in old tin, and how to hold soldering coppers to solder. How to turn burrs and put on spring bottom. How to turn locks on folding machines. To cut and make small cups and other small vessels such as can be cut from scraps. How to do the soldering on neat and small vessels. To do heavy repairing, such as putting in bot- toms with double seams. How to make larger cups. How to make small pans. How to do important repairing. Second year. — The difference in soldering heavy and light seams. How to make small buckets. How to make large buckets. How to make flared buckets. How to cut simple patterns. How to make large pans, such as milk pans, round cake pans, and wash pans. How to make dish pans. How to make slop cans. How to make foot tubs. How to make coffeepots. How to make pans, buckets, and cans in dif- ferent shapes. The fluids used in soldering different metals. The use of square and compass. How to get the different angles. How to cut patterns of the different kinds of vessels made. How to put on tin roofs. How to make and put on con- ■ ductor pipes. How to get the cost of work. How to work zinc, as in lining bath- tubs and boxes. After a student has gone through this course of study, if he is apt in learning, he can do good work. Theory class in the shop on Mondays and Tuesdays, from 4.45 to 5.30 p. m. These students take drawing lessons on Wednesdays rnd Thursdays. TAILORING. This division is located on the second floor of the Trades Building in a well- appointed room 37 by 56 feet. Two men and a woman teacher are in charge of the work. All of the uniforms for the young men students as well as suits for students and teachers are made in this division. The object is to teach the trade thoroughly, and in this much success has been achieved. Girls are permitted to enter this department and are taught tailoring under the direction of the instructor in charge and a woman teacher. Satisfactory results have been achieved and the object is to make the instruction even more helpful and valuable. The girls in this division make all of the overalls, common pantaloons, vests, coats, etc., used by the students and industrial instructors. The course of study is as follows: First year. — Care of shop and irons. Position on the tailor's board. Practice in the use of needle and thimble in backstitching and felling. Cleaning and repairing. Working common buttonholes. Finishing various styles of pants pockets. Common pants making. Uniform pants making. Second year. — Review of work of first year. Stitching cord seams and finishing vest pockets. Fine pants making. Making common vests. Third yeah. — Review of work done in first and second years. Making coat sleeves and finishing the different kinds of coat pockets. Fine vest making. Uniform coat making. Common citizen coat making. Fourth year.— Review of work done in second and third years. Fine coat mak- ing. Drafting. Drafting and cutting. Harmony of colors and how to select suitable trimmings. Taking nieasures. Economy in cutting. Theory class in shop every Monday and Thursday, from 4.45 to 5.30 p. m. Draw- ing every Wednesday, from 4.45 to 5.30 p. m. PLAIN SEWING. This division is at present conducted in a well-appointed room 18 by 26 feet, but is to be removed to the ne\f girls' industrial building when it is completed. Girls who know practically nothing about needlework are admitted to this division,' and TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION UNITED STATES. 301 upon the completion of the course are promoted to the dressmaking division. No student, however, is allowed to enter the dressmaking division until complete satis- faction has been rendered in the plain-sewing division. The course of study is as follows: FiEST YEAR. — Threading needle and use of thimble. Practice on scraps of cloth. Basting and overhanding. Turning hem by measure, hemming and running. Stitch- ing and overcasting. 'Gathering, stoke gathering, and putting on bands. Sewing on buttons. Putting in gussets. Herringbone stitching on flannels. Patching, hem- stitching, tucking, and whipping ruffles. Chain stitching, feather stitching, and mitering corners. French hem on damask. Darning on scrim cashmere. Slip stitching and blind stitching. Mending and darning. Making buttonholes and eyelets. Second yeak. — To enter this grade the pupil must be familiar with the first year's work. The names of sewing machines and parts. How to clean, oil, and operate the machines. How and when to use attachments. Machine stitches; choice of material. Instruction in the use of national garment cutter. Cutting and making men's drawers, undershirts, and colored and white shirts. Taking measures; cutting- white skirts by measure. Making skirts with or without ruffles. Cutting under- waists from pattern; basting, stitching, and trimming. Cutting and making a com- mon dress by pattern. This course is intended for hand sewing, giving practice in all kinds of stitches on suitable material. The national garment cutting system is taught in taking measures. Theory classes in the sewing room every day, except Mondays and Saturdays, from 4.15 to 5 p. m. DRESSMAKING. The dressmaking course has grown to be one of the most important of the divisions for girls. The great need at this time is for more commodious quarters, which will be supplied when the new girls' industrial building is completed. At present the division is located in a well lighted, well ventilated room 16 by 40 feet. The room is fitted with large tables for drafting, tracing, and cutting, and with sewing machines, drees forms, ipirrors, books of mode, and show cases for finished work. A full line of samples of dress material is always kept on hand. The instructor in charge of the work has taken the advance courses at the Pratt Institute. The course is prop- erly graded. Applicants must have completed the course in plain sewing or pass an examination to prove their knowledge of hand and machine sewing and their ability to make simple garments before they can be admitted to this division. In this divi- sion, as in all others, students are paid according to the value of their work. The course of study is as follows; FiKST YEAR. — Choice of materials. Drafting and cutting foundation and outline skirts from measurement. Making, hanging, draping, and trimming the skirt. Talks on forms, line, and proportion in relation to draping and trimming. Drafting, cutting, and fitting plain basques, and general finish of these garments. Second year. — Drafting basques, sleeves, and the different accessories to the basques from measurement. Drafting basques with extra seams for stout figures. Cutting , and fitting close and double-breasted garments. Cutting and matching striped, plaid, and figured basques and skirts. Talks on forms, including artistic and hygienic prin- ciples of dress. Talks on color and textiles applied to dress. Advanced work in making complete dresses from different materials. Third year. — Cutting, fitting, and pressing. Practice in the use of colors; ta,lks on the maufacture of cloth. Drafting jackets of various styles; making various styles of collars and pockets. Lining and finishing pockets. Draping garments of every kind. Making and finishing garments of every kind from different materials. Theory classes in the sewing room every day, except Mondays and Saturdays, from 4.15 to 5 p. m. 302 BEPOET OF THE COMMISSIONEB OF LABOE. MILLINERY. This division is conducted in connection with the plain-sewing division. It is the intention to have all the appointments of this room, as well as those of the other divisions, first class in every particular. A regular fall and winter and spring opening is held each year in one of the rooms of the institution, and \dsitors from the town of Tuskegee, as well as others, are invited to inspect the work done by the students. A large number of hats, bonnets, etc., have been made in this division for sale. There are two graded courses, each course covering a term of four months, as follows: FiEST COURSE. — Talks on color and textiles. Instruction in choice of materials. Wiring. Folds. Binding. Fitted facing; full facing; puffed edges. Varieties of bows. Talks on the manufacture of straw and felt hats, and of ribbon. Talks on form and line. Principles applied to a hat of choice materials. Examination. Drawing: Pencil practice. Study of the appearance of cylindrical objects. Draw- ing untrimmed hats. Drawing drapery, bows, etc. Second codese. — Talks on color, form, and line. Plain-covered bonnets made, trimmed, and lined. Full-crowned, fancy-edged bonnets. Talks on the manufac- ture of crape and on the growth and manufacture of silk. Crape bonnet. Silk hat or bonnet. Shirred bonnet. Fancy toque or turban. Principles applied to a bon- net and to a toque or turban of choice materials. Drawing: Drawing trimmed hats and bonnets. Notes on form and color. Practice in the use of color. Applicants must be over 14 years of age and must be able to do neat hand sew- ing. Pupils are required to complete satisfactorily the first course, or to pass an equivalent examination before entering the ?idvanced classes. COOKING. The room devoted to this course is 24 by 36 feet, well lighted and ventilated. The institution insists that every girl attending the day school shall receive instruction in this department, special stress being laid upon the matter of cooking plain, ordinary food. There is need for additional facilities in this division, but the institution has been able to give those who come to it the benefit of the best instruction. The instructor in charge is a graduate of Mrs. Borer's Philadelphia Cooking School. During the past year the principal of the Milwaukee Cooking School, Milwaukee, Wis., spent five weeks at the school conducting special classes for girte, teachers, and others. The course of study is as follows: FiKST YEAR. — Fire making and fuels. Cooking utensils and their care. Measure- ments and their equivalents. Various modes of cooking, viz, boiling, broiling, "bak- ing, frying, etc., including the making of breads, soups, salads, simple and healthful desserts, and simple meat dishes. The preparation of gelatine, the cereals, vege- tables, and fruits. Secoxd year. — Food, its use, classification, adulterations; manufactured foods. The composition of the human body. Noncombustible food ; water and earth. Con- diments and beverages. Carbonaceous foods; starch, sugar, and fats. Nitrogenous foods; milk, eggs, meat, fish, cereals, and vegetables. How to market. Digestion, ab- • sorption, assimilation, and nutrition. Preparation of food and adaptation to climate, age, occupation, and state of health. Relative nutritive and commercial value of food and its comparative digestibiUty. The preparation of poultry, game, fish, pastry, fancy dishes, creams, and cakes. The preparation, composition, etc., of fermented and unfermented breads. Invalid cookery. Dietaries and menus. Arrangements of, table for various meals; etiquette of serving and table manners in general. Each course comprises about thirty-five lessons. The girls pf all day-school classes are given the advantage of this course, and each of these girls is expected to provide TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION — UNITED STATES. 303 heTself -wifli a white cap, apron, and sleeves. Besides the work laid out, each girl of these classes is required to prepare at least three papers bearing upon the course of Study during the year. LAUNDERING. The laundry is for the present housed in a large 3-story building. The girls are taught the art of washing and ironing after improved methods. During the last school year a washer, extractor, mangle, and collar and cuff ironer were added. It is not the intention to provide the laundry with too much machinery, but rather to lighten the drudgery. Two instructors are in charge of this division. AVhen the girls' industrial building is completed the laundry is to have its home therein. Dry- ing rooms, ironing rooms, and every facility possible will be afforded for the best teaching. All of the laundry of unmarried teachers and students is done by this division. The course is one year, as follows: First teriii: Water — kinds, hard, soft; how known, uses. Soap — definition, kinds, why used. Alkalies— kinds, vegetable, volatile, mineral, uses. Second term: Irons— kinds, uses. Preparation for washing; collecting and assort- ing soiled clothes; disinfectants, why used. Washing of flannels, linens, prints, etc.; drying; ironing and folding. Miscellaneous work; laces, embroideries, silts, etc. Eecipes for laundry articles, such as soap, bleaching compounds, etc. Review and examination. Third term: Bluing — kinds, indigo, Russian, ultramarine; why used. Starch — kinds, rice, maize, pulse; how made, how to determine. Acids— kinds, uses. Pre- servers of color — ox gall, sugar of lead, etc. Machinery — uses and care. Care of laundry articles. NUKSE TRAINING. The increasing demand for trained nnrses in the South has necessitated the estab- lishment of a regular training school for nurses in connection with the school hospital. A complete course of three years has been arranged for practical and theoretical work in the wards of the hospital. Two of these years are given to daily work and instruction in the hospital, the third year consists of lectures and bedside instruction, while one or two days of each week are devoted to hospital work. The hospital accommodations at present allow of only sixteen pupils receiving instruction at a time. The applications for places in this course far exceed the number which can be received. During -the last year there were sixty applicant,?. This makes it pofsible for the physician in charge of the hospital and the head nurse to select for pupils only those who are of the strongest physique and who have shown some special fitness for the Avork. The senior students are frequently employed by the physicians of the town of Tuskegee to take charge of cases for them, and in this way they obtain experience and excellent supplementary training. The graduates of this division are already widely scattered and are doing good work. In addition to those who are employed in families, a graduate of the school is in charge of the surgical ward in the Hale Infirmary at Montgomery; another is assistant matron and head nurse in a hospital at Greenville, Miss. ; another is employed at the hospital con- nected with the Alabama Medical University at Mobile, while still another is employed by the year in the Alabama Female College at Tuskegee. •The physician in charge, besides giving bedside instruction, delivers a regular course of lectures to the B middle, A middle, and senior classes of the day school, on elementary physiology, hygiene and anatomy, practice of medicine, including eye, throat, and nose; surgery, diseases of women, midwifery, diseases of children, diseases of the skin, practical use of the battery, etc. The following course of instruction is given by the Head nurse and resident physician: 304 REPORT OF THE COMMrSSIONER OF LABOR. First year. — Qualifications of a nurse. Relations of a nurse to the doctor, to the patient, to the family. Deportment in hospital and private practice. Hospital etiquette. Self-protection. Model sick room. Practical suggestions. Beds and bed- making. Methods of handling bed patients. Contagion and disinfection. Pre- vention of contagious diseases. Bones: Practical lessons, including names, uses, composition, fractures, dislocations, sprains, repair, diseases, and treatment. Diet lists: Practical work in diet kitchen for three months. Second year. — Medicines; methods of administration, physiological actions. Tests and illustrations of drugs in everyday use. Apothecary weights and symbols, with practical work in the drug room. Hypodermic injection of medicine. Care of the sick. Practical lessons on heart and circulation, from manikin and patients. Pro- cess of digestion and assimilation. Intestinal tract in fevers, etc. Enemas, supposi- tories, and laxatives. Diet lists: Lessons and work in the diet kitchen in preparing food for the sick, at least three months. Local applications and how used. Excre- tory organs, examinations of urine, use of catheters, etc. Medical an^ surgical emergencies, including sunstroke, fainting, drowning, convulsions, heat, exhaustion, artiiicial respiration, and hemorrhages. Surgery and surgical nursing; preparation of patients for operation; kinds and uses of bandages; sterilization. Massage meth- ods, including electricity. Third year. — Operating room, obstetrical room; care. Preparation of a patient for an operation; the nurse; the doctor. Kinds of operations; instruments used and preparation of. Solutions; antiseptic and aseptic; uses and preparation. Wounds: Varieties, surgical treatment, infection, and modes of healing; burns, etc. Bandages: Making, uses, kind, application, sterilization, etc. Midwifery: Practical and theo- retical instruction relating to care of patient before and after childbirth; care of both mother and child. Common diseases of women; causes and how prevented; treat- ment.. Diseases of children; cause, prevention, and treatment. HOUSEKEEPING. The aim of this department is to have all the girls get some training in housekeep- ing. To do this the girls of the school are divided into three classes, each class taking the course in three months. By this means they get some idea of how to make a comfortable home. Following is the course of instruction: The home: How to beautify, how to make happy; advantages of so doing. House; location, furniture; what to buy, how to buy it; proper arrangement; how to care for it. Miscellaneous articles — pictures, how to hang them; carpets, how to sweep, clean, and preserve them; shades, how to use them; brooms, how to rest them. Spring house cleaning; when to do it. How to do general weekly cleaning; care of lamps. Bedroom; where it should be; how to ventilate; how to light and heat; when and how to clean; decorations used. Beds; when and how to clean; when and how to air them; why aired; how and when to change bedding; how to keep it during the summer season. Sweeping and dusting; how-to sweep and dust properly; how to build a coal fire; when and how to burn out chimneys; use of dustpan and trash box. Scrubbing; how to use the brush; advantages of use of brush; how to remove paint; how to polish window panes. Dining room: How and why we should make it the most pleasant room in the house. The table, how to set it, what decorations to use; how to serve different courses; how to care for linen and silver; care of pantry, dishes, and towels; duties of host and hostess; how to sit at table; conversation; how to wait with ease. ' Kitchen: How to furnish, care of cooking utensils; how to market, how to econo- mize; 'punctuality and regularity in the preparation and serving of meals; advantage of same. Sickroom: Where it should be; how to make it attractive; ventilation, heating, and Kghting; when and how to change patient's clothes; how to deal with bedding; how to feed the sick; how to visit the sick; what to talk about. TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION — UNITED STATES. 305 Yards and outhouses: How to keep clean; how to make yards beautiful; need of keeping the outhouses clean and pure. Visiting: When to visit, how, whom; how to receive. Housekeeper: Personal appearance, what to wear, how to wear it; colors suitable to different complexions. With the exception of the first two, all of the lessons have a practical application. The theory is given one day in lectures and applied in practice the next day. MATTRESS MAKING AND UPHOLSTERING. For several years instruction has been given to a limited number of students in the making of ordinary 'mattresses and pillows, and in general upholstering, but until this year the work has not justified a separate and distinct division. Heretofore it has been conducted only for the purpose of supplying the boarding department with mattresses and pillows. During the past year an instructor has been placed in charge of it and ten girls have had instruction. The principal idea has been to provide additional indoor work for girls, so as to leave the out-of-door work as nearly as pos- sible for young men. No young men are connected with this department as form- erly. Any girl student wishing to learn mattress making and upholstering vi^ill, upon application, be given an opportunity to do so. CANNING. During the summer vacation the institution operates a steam canning plant for the double purpose of preserving its own stock of fruit and for teaching the industry of canning to a class of students who remain at the school during the vacation. In an average fruit year about 5,000 gallons of fruit are put up by the plant. One-gallon tin cans are used. These cans are made in the school's tin shop by the class of young men who are learning the tinsmith's trade. Most of the fruit comes from the orchards of the school. Students wishing to receive instruction in canning are required to make early appli- cation to the director of industries to be allowed to remain at the school during the vacation. ARCHITECTURAL AND MECHANICAL DRAWING. The drawing room is at present situated on the second floor of the Trades Building and is a large, well-lighted room, 37 by 80 feet. It contains 39 tables, 30 by 48 inches on top and 3(i inches high. Each table is provided with a drawer to hold the draw- ing materials used by the students. A large case, in which students' drawings are kept, is placed in the room. Near at hand is complete apparatus for making blue prints. Each student is furnished with a set of drawing instruments, board and T-square. All students in the day and night school who are in the mechanical department, and in and above the A preparatory class, are required to take instruc- tion in this division. The course of study is as follows: A preparatory class: Names and uses of instruments; construct plain geometrical figures; projections; explanation of scale; various scales, J, }, J; objects drawn to scale; free-hand drawing. Junior class: Projections; isometric drawing; working drawings; detail drawings; materials; free-hand drawing; design. B middle class: Working drawings; detail drawing; material; construction; free- hand drawing (see course in free-hand drawing); shades and shadows; design. A middle class: Problems in construction; strength of materials; history of archi- tecture; estimates; specifications and contracts; design. 9257—02 20 306 REPORT OF THE OOMMISSIONEB OF LABOR. Senior class: Advanced problems in construction; graphical statics; perspective; historical architecture; advanced problems in design; rendering; superintending construction. The work of the first year i» largely preparatory. It begins with simple geomet- rical drawing, to familiarize the students with the drawing instruments and to teach them accuracy and neatness; also to give some preliminary processes which will be useful in the future work of the course. This is followed by some work in projec- tions, which find application in scale drawings of simple objects. Strictly speaking, the work in architectural drawing begins the second year with the study of materials and of construction in wood and brick. Considerable time is devoted to the study of the more common materials used in building, and to detail and work drawings. Special stress is laid on designing. In the last thre« years a great amount of time has been given to the study of strength of materials, estimates, specifications, etc. A brief review is taken of the history of architecture, to give the student a better knowledge of building as carried on to-day. Throughout the course students are required to spend a good deal of time in free- hand drawing, to give them skill and facility with the pencil, which are essential to good drafting. In addition to the time spent in the drawing room, students must spend some time in the workshops, to give them a more intimate knowledge of the materials with which they deal, and to supervise work intelligently. The amount of time required depends on the knowledge the student already has of materials and construction. The amount of building constantly in operation on the school grounds and in the vicinity gives students an excellent opportunity to study work in process of erection under the careful supervision of the heads of the different divisions and to enter com- petitions for buildings which are to be erected. This also allows a chance to get at just ideas of cost. For students taking the regular course in carpentry, tinning, wheelwrighting, machinery, etc., special courses have been arranged, suited to the needs of each. The general management is by an executive council of the faculty, acting under the general direction of the board of trustees. The funds for building, maintaining, and equipping come from contributions obtained by the personal solicitation of the president. No tuition is charged. It is stated by the officials of this institution that the courses of training and studjr can be improved only by extending their scope, and this is being done each year. In the section where the school is located there are but few industries, the school itself doing nearly all the industrial work for the country around it, and doing it much better than it was done in the days before the starting of the school. While many of the graduates have become teachers, yet all through the Southern States are scattered graduates of the school, who are engaged in the trades and in business, and their work is, generally speaking, of such a high order as to set the standard for work of a similar kind. As the school gives instruction not only in the academic and industrial sense, but also in ways of living, care of the home, and personal appearance, etc., the influence of its graduates upon their race in promoting social as well as industrial and educa- tional development has been very marked all through the South. As labor unionism hardly exists in this section of the country, it has had no influence of any kind upon the school. TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION UNITED STATES. 307 By the better preparation for work which those who have attended. this school have obtained they have in practically all cases made more rapid progress toward success in life, and secured higher wages and steadier employment than others who have not benefited by this instruc- tion. The graduates are preferred by employers not only to others of their race, but also in many instances to white employees, many of whom are not so well trained. So great is the demand for the gradu- ates of the school that a regular employment bureau might well be run. Any graduate can work at his trade without serving a period of apprenticeship, as he is taught his trade in full before being allowed to gradxiate. While improvement is always possible, yet it can be truthfully said that the Tuskegee Institute has already attained the end for which it was established, namely, the improvement of the race, intellectually, socially, and morally. MOUNT ICEIGS COLORED INDXTSTBIAL INSTITTJTE, WATTGE, ALA. This institution for the education of the colored youth was estab- lished in 1885 by Miss Cornelia Bowen, a graduate of Tuskegee Nor- mal and Industrial Institute. This school has four buildings, including one devoted to industrial training. There are 5 teachers and an average attendance of 200 pupils. BOYliAN INEtfSTBIAIi HOKE AND SCHOOL, JACKSONVILLE, FLA. The need of missionary work among the colored girls and of a training which would fit them to be self-supporting led to the estab- lishment of this school. It was opened at Jacksonville, Fla., in April, 1886, in a small cottage of 6 rooms with a cJass of 5 girls. The work now (school year of 1900-1901), in its different departments, occupies 3 buildings and the growth of the school has been continuous. Sound health, good character, and the desire for improvement are required for admission. Christian instruction is the basis of all plans of work in the school. Present accommodations provide for a family of 36 boarding students. Terms are as folio svs: Board, |6 per month; incidental fee, $1; tuition, day pupils, 75 cents per month; tuition, primary department, 50 cents per month; industrial fee for day pupils, 25 cents; music, three months, 12 lessons, |3; use of instrument for practice, fl.50; dressmaking, one term of three months, |3; millinery, one term of three months, $2. Opportunity for a few of the students to earn a part of their expenses is provided each year. The general management is in the hands of the superintendent and teachers under the direction of the Woman's Home Missionary Society of the Methodist E.piscopal Church. There are 9 teachers in the institution, graduates of various colleges and normal schools, and 5 of these are engaged in industrial work. 308 KEPOET OF THE C0MMI8SI0NES OF LABOE. The course of study includes all branches taught in grammar-school grades, together with a practical knowledge of housekeeping and sew- ing. Music, instrumental and vocal, is taught, and there is a course of instruction in Bible study. In addition to the industrial instruction in sewing and housework given to all the students there is a trade class in dressmaking and millinery. During the school year of 1900-1901 there were 50 in the dressmaking course, 3 in the millinery course, and 24 in cooking. From the industrial or trade class there have been 8 graduates. The buildings and equipment cost about |18,000, and the annual outlay for maintaining the school is $3,000. Tuition and other fees pay about two-thirds of the annual expenses and the balance of the necessary funds are donated by the Woman's Home Missionary Society of the Methodist Episcopal Church. With better facilities it is believed by the superintendent that the courses could be improved, and it is hoped that soon the school will have a trades building in which the industrial work can be extended and close attention be paid to details. FLOKIDA BAPTIST ACADEMY, JACKSOlTVILIiE, FLA. This academy began its work in the spring of 1892. It is controlled by the colored Baptists of Florida and is largely supported by the American Baptist Home Mission Society. It is normal and industrial in character and was founded for the purpose of assisting in the educa- tion of the colored race, opportunities for obtaining such an education being greatly needed. Candidates for admission should be at least 14 years of age. Ex- penses per month are as follows: Tuition, $1; board, $6j washing, 50 cents. Also an incidental fee of $1 per year for boarding students and 25 cents per year for day students. Instruction in instrumental music costs $2 per month. The management is in the hands of the faculty under the board of trustees. There are a president and 9 teachers in the faculty, 2 of whom are engaged in industrial work. There is a normal or academic course, a model-school course, including primary and kindergarten instruction, an elementary English course, and an industrial course, which includes the teaching of household duties and sewing and dressmaking. The course in household duties includes cooking and taking care of a house and its contents. The course in sewing includes thorough instruction and practice in the various kinds of stitching, hemming, tucking, pleating, mending, darning, etc., making sheets, pillowslips, towels, aprons, underwear, simple gowns, children's wear, together with full instruction in use of sewing machine. The course in dress- making includes cutting (with and without the use of a chart), mak- ing, fitting, and trimming dresses, except the more elaborate and costly; TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION — UNITED STATES. 309 the study of materials, prices, and buying; the selection of appropriate colors, etc. During the school year 1900-01 the class in housework and cooking had 12 pupils, that in sewing and dressmaking, 40. There have been no graduates from the industrial classes as yet. The 'cost of the build- ings and equipment of this school was about f 10, 000, and the annual expense of maintaining it is $5,000. Funds are raised by contributions from local Baptists and from the American Baptist Home Mission Society, and from fees, tuition, etc. The courses could be improved by making them more practical, and the outlook for so doing is said to be good. CLAKK UNIVERSITY, ATLANTA, GA. Clark University was founded in 1870 by the Freedmen's Aid and Southern Education Society of the Methodist Episcopal Church. The motives which led to its establishment are said to have been ' ' purely missionary." It is open to students of all classes, regardless of sex or color. All students from a distance are required to board and room on the campus, unless specially excused by the faculty. Expenses are as fol- lows: Board per month, |6.50; room, fuel, and light, fl.50; washing, per month, $1; incidental fee, per month, grade school, ^1, all other courses, $1.50; laboratory fees, per term, biology, 50 cents, physics, 50 cents, all other courses, $1; late registration fee, $1; special exami- nation fee, 50 cents; instrumental or vocal music, twenty lessons, $7.50, ten lessons, $4; industrial training fee, $1; fee for college and post-graduate diplomas, $5; fee for higher normal diploma, $3; fee for normal, musical, or industrial certiiicate, $2. Five departments are included by the university — the college, the preparatory school, the normal school, the grade school, and the school of manual training. This latter includes a department of mechanics and a department of domestic economy. In the department of mechanics woodworking, blacksmithing, printing, and shoemaking are taught, and in the department of domestic economy dressmaking, sewing, and cooking are taught. While this department is called a "school of manual training," the officials state that occupations or trades are thoroughly taught. No student can be graduated from the school of manual training who has not been a member in regular attendance for at least one year, and no student who can not make a satisfactory set of required drawings and apply the principles taught in works with skill and dispatch can be granted a certificate of gradu- ation. There are 4 instructors in the department of mechanics, 1 each for woodworking, blacksmithing, printing, and shoemaking, and there are 6 in the department of domestic economy, 2 in both dress-making 810 BEPOBT OF THE COMMISSIONEE OF LABOB. and cooking, 1 in dressmaking only, 1 in sewing, 1 in ai't needlework, and a matron. In the year 1899-1900, for which this report is made^ the number of students in the different industrial courses was as fol- lows: Carpentry, 15; printing, 7; blacksmithing, 6; shoemaking, 6; cooking, 48; sewing, 175; dressmaking, 24; house-keeping, 29. The buildings of the university cost about $75,000, and the annual cost of maintaining the schools is |16,000. The proportion of these figures applicable only to the school of manual training is not separable. The funds are raised by voluntary contributions, incidental fees, and amounts given by the Methodist Episcopal Church. The president speaks of the school of manual training in effect as follows: "The courses are good enough; the difficulty lies in the fact that many students lack the means to complete them. Those trained in the school are occupying positions of usefulness, and from the fact that many of them come from distant homes the influence of the school is far-reaching. The students have been etevated by their education and have received better wages on account of it. The graduates- of such schools are preferred by employers over merely shop-trained men, because they have theoretical as well as practical knowledge, and the shop ti'aining in the locality has been improred as a consequence of the success of such schools. Where a course of instruction in such a school as this has been taken, a graduate can work without going through a period of apprenticeship^ These schools have,, upon the whole, proved satisfactory and have attained the end for which they were established." SPEIiliMAN SEMINARY, ATIiANTA, GA. Spellman Seminary is, according to the statement of its president, a literary, industrial, and trade school for colored girls. From the data at hand it appears that, as in some other schools of this class,^ the industrial instruction is hardly more than manual training — anadjxmct to the general system of education — although an effort is undoubtedly made to teach thoroughly a few occupations. The seminary began its existence April 11, 1881. It has a college department, a missionary department, a normal and training department, a college prejoaratory and academic department, an English preparatory department, a nurse- training department, a musical department, and an industrial depart- ment. Its graduates in many instances become teachers. The institution has about 20 acres of land, upon which there are 4 large brick buildings heated by steam, 4 frame dormitories, and a frame hospital for the sick. The cottage system is used, the boarding stu- dents being divided into 6 families. Applicants for admission must present testimoniarls of good moral character and pass entrance exam- inations. Board is $8 per month, in advance, and if one advance pay- ment is made for the entire year a discount of 6 per cent is allowed. TEADE ANIf TECHNICAL EDUCATIOK — UNITED STATES. &11 Health and religious cnlture are carefully looked after. A fine reading room, library, and museum is furnished. Diplomas are awarded to those who have completed full courses, and certificates are given to those who complete the courses in the nurse-training department and the industrial department. Each student must give one hour a day to housework, and must also do her own lau;ndry work. This is a part of the plan to educate girls for home life. No girl is paid for this work. The courses in the industrial department are as follows: Domestie arts; housekeeping, an extension of the domestic arts course; cooking; washing- and ironing; sewing and dressmaking; and printing. Of these, all except the last two courses seem to be given more to prepare the girls to act as teachers and mistresses of homes than to teach them occupations as such. This is also true to a certain extent of the last two coui-ses. Under the industrial department there is 1 instructor in printing, 1 in dressmaking, and 2 in sewing. With these also may be reckoned 1 in charge of the laundrj', i matrons of buildings, and 2 assistant matrons, all of whom give instruction in domestic arts and housekeeping. Some of these teachers are gradtiates of colleges and some of normal schools. The pupils in the industrial classes num- bered as follows: Dressmaking, 63; printing, 32; housekeeping and domestic arts, 13; sewing, 402; nurse training, 47. No further sepa- ration into grades, etc., can be made, except to say that 23 of those taking the course of dressmaking and 17 of those taking- the nurse- training' course have no other studies and no connection with the gen- eral educational system of the seminary. The number of graduates of the industrial department can not be given, as it has proved impos- sible to separate them from the general list of graduates as shown in the records. The value of the property is at present $200,000, and more than flOO,0OO is now being added in buildings, improvement of grounds, ete. The cost of maintaining the whole institution is $35,000 per annum. No separation can be made in the above figui-es of the pro- portion applicable to the industrial departm:ent alone. The funds for buildiag,. equipping, and maintainiBg this institution have been raised largel}'' from pi'ivate contributions, bequests, etc. The Woman's American Baptist Home Mission Society supports 1.5 of the teachers, and help received from the Slater fund has enabled the seminary to carry on the industrial department and tO' support the normal work. The officers of the seminary have expressed the opinion that the industi-ial courses could be improved, particularly in the teaching of cooking, but no definite plans for such improvement have been made. This and other similar schools have resulted in increasing the intelli- gence and efficiency of the working classes in their sections and in promoting their general development. Students in such schools have 312 KEPORT OF THE COMMISSIOWER OF LABOK. been elevated in every way and have been fitted for positions of responsibility, as a result of which they earn higher wages. GEOEaiA STATE INDUSTBIAL COLLEGE, COLLEGE, GA. This institution, located at College, near Savannah, Ga., is a branch of the University of Georgia and was established under provisions of an act of the legislature, approved November 26, 1890. The need of opportunities for an education, both academic and industrial, for colored youths led to its establishment. For admission into the college the applicant must not be less than 14 years of age and of good moral char- acter. Students may be admitted to special or elective courses of study. Tuition is free. Bedding and toilet articles must be furnished by the students. A matriculation fee of $5 for each annual session must be paid on entering. So far as possible all manual labor in the college, such as farm work, care of grounds, buildings, dormitories, and recitation rooms, making fires, and ordinary repairs are performed by the students, and for such labor they receive compensation at the rate of 40 cents per day of 8 hours. Board is fui'nished in the steward's hall to pupils at cost. There are four general courses in the college: Industrial, preparatory, normal, and collegiate. The industrial course includes a department of trades, which was started in 1899. Each student is required to devote eiglit hours a day to his trade, and will receive no pay from any department until he has reached the stage where he is of real assistance in the work of his ti'ade. Students completing a course in any one of the trades will be given a cei'tificate of proficiency. The following tradesare taught: Carpentry, blacksmithing, wheelwrighting, masonry, printing, shoemaking, tailoring, painting, and dressmaking. The dressmaking course is required of all girls. The courses of study are as follows: Cakpentky. — First year: Names of tools and parts of tools; use and care of tools; instruction and practice in sharpening and preparing tools, planing and sawing to dimension, bringing into use planes, saws, drawknives, gauges, squares, and levels; simple joints, including half -laps, etc., made by use of saws; mortises and tenons embracing draw-boring, pinning, nailing, screwing, gluing work, panel work, etc., and bringing into use brace and bits, chisels and mallet, rabbet, beading, and plow planes. Secmd year: Building construction. Exterior work: Laying off for foundation, inspection of foundation; framing; simple roof construction; making and setting doors and window frames; sheathing, weatherboarding, boxing, shingling. Interior work: Flooring, ceiling, wainscoting; casing before and after plastering; fitting doors and windows. Elementary lessons in architectural drawing. Third year: Building construction. Interior work: Making doors, sashes, mantels, stairways, including straight, broken, and circular stairways, with rails, balusters, newels, and panel work. Exterior work: Piazza and porch decoration; truss roofs. Architecural drawing and designing; estimating and contracting; talks on subjects pertaining to house construction. All work throughout the course will be made from drawings. TRADE AND TECHWICAL EDUCATION UNITED STATES. 313 Blacksmithing. — First year: Use and care of forge; the study of iron; the forging of simple articles; the making of simple welds. Sec07id year: The kinds of welds; welding steel; the use of long and short laps; shrinking old tires; forging simple pieces to wagons and carriages; repairing wooden parts of wagons; talks on the anatomy of the horse's foot. Third year:. Tire welding, axle welding, ironing wagons and buggies; tool mak- ing, tempering, and annealing; practical horseshoeing. Such instruction in wheel- wrighting will be given during the course as is necessary for a practical blacksmith; all work will be done from drawings made by the students. Masonry. — First year: How bricks are made; study of the soil used in brickmak- ing; classification of bricks; materials used in mixing mortar; use of gravel in mix- ing mortar, cement, and lime. Second year: Spreading mortar on board and on wall; laying out wall dry and laying out wall with mortar; 8-inch wall with corners; 8-inch wall with chimneys and fireplaces; 16-inch wall with flues; 12-inch square piers and chimneys. Third year: Sixteen-inch wall; use of headers; semicircular and segmental arches; laying off building; setting doors, windows, sills, and frames; semicircular arches over doors and windows; gothic arches and dovetail arches. All work is done from drawings; talks on building and construction throughout the course. , Painting. — First year: Names, uses, and care of brushes and tools; arrangement and care of shop; roof painting and use of wall brushes on weatherboarding; applying priming and second coats to weatherboarding; practice in trimming; sandpapering and applying lead coats; puttying and applying rough stuff; rubbing rough stuff; lessons in the mixing of the principal virgin tints; interior work with inside colors. Second year: Further practice in applying second and third coats to exterior walls; complete course in farm-wagon painting; applying colors to buggies and first coat of varnish; interior work imitating wainscoting, graining, and staining; hard oiling and first lessons in frescoing; how to make different putties; striping carriages; cut- ting glass and glazing; frosting and staining glass; rubbing varnish with felt and pumice stone; further work in exterior decoration; advanced lessons in sign writing, gilding, and glass embossing; use of ladders and swinging stage. Third year: Applying finishing varnish to carriages; fresco painting continued; practice in striping and ornamenting; stencil making; bronzing on wood, iron, and plaster cast, imitating marble; painting in distemper; talks on cleanliness in working and manufacture of pigments. Diseases common to painters, and cures. Tailoking. — First year: Care of tools and workshop; correct position on board; how to thread needles properly and kinds of needles for different grades of work; stitches — backstitching, herringbone, sidestitching, serging, felling, flat and welt seaming, tacking, featherline loops and bars; sewing on various kinds of buttons; care of machine and parts; how to handle machine properly; practice on parts of pants- hip, side, top, fob pocket, flies, back strap, and the shrinking of surplus cloth ; seam- ing, fitting tops, and the proper method of finishing trousers. Second year: Eepair work of all kinds; square, triangular, and circular patches; patch, flap, welt, and bound pockets; fitting of vest collars; amount of surplus cloth to be drawn in to make a firm and regular edge; sleeve making, coat facing under collar, quilting of canvas, and other minor parts in coat making. Third year: Kinds of edges — bound, pipe, single, double, and raw ; fitting col- lars and sleeves; French narrow and English broad buttonholes; neat and artistic finish on all kinds of coats; classification of goods; how to take measure — special care given to drafting and garment cutting; talks on economy throughout the course. Shobmaking. — First year: Thread making; waxing threads and putting on bristles; names, uses, and care of tools; stitching and sewing; patching; half soling; finishing; repair work. Second year: Eepair work continued; quality and different classes of work; making 314 KEPOET OF THE OOMMISSIOErEE OF LABOR. of new woTk; topping; lasting;, insoling; mseaming; sewing and nailing soles;, mak- ing toppings. Tldrd year: Measuring feet and making shoes to fit;' special course in fltting^ shoes to crippled and deformed feet. Sewing. — First year: One half day a week to each class. First lessons consist of talks on cloths — cotton, linen, silk,, and wool; threads, warp, and woof are developed; manner of weaving and average widths of cloth; workbox — artides necessary and care of each. The stitches used in plain sewing are carefully taught in the following order, viz, basting, running,, overcasting, overhanding, backstitching, hemmimg^ gathering, regulating gathers, blindstitching, darning, and. partching. Seams — felled, French, hemmed, Dorothy, and backstitched. Hems — faced, extension, rolled, hem- stitched, French, blind, slipstitch. Patches — overhanded and hemmed — are to aid pupils in mending torn garments neatly and accurately. Buttonholes, loops, eyelets, and hooks and eyes are taught by practice work on oblong squares; the length of thread to sew with is taught with this part of the work; sewing, on buttons properly; matching plaids,, stripes, and figures; fancy stitches— brier, herringbone, feather, button-hole, and outline stitches are taught to help pupils in beautifying simple material; dressinaking begun. Second year: The first year's work eontimied. Taking measures and draftiaog' pat- terns; underwear, shirt waists, children's dresses, and thin dresses are made^ from drafted patterns. Color talks are given. I>rafting continued. TJiird year: Second year's work continued, and dressmaking by parts commenced. The skirt, lining, canvas, and goods cut, basted, fitted, stitched, pressed; potting on braid, finishing placket, sewing on belt and "hangers," hooks and eyes complete that part of the work. The basque lining cut — aright and wrong way to cut taught; goods cut next,, matching plaids, stripes, figures, and up and down of pile ul velvet; basting basques, fitting, paring seams, pressing, sewing on hooks and eyes, right and wrong way. Boning basque and making aleevea,, collar, and ' ' hangers ' ' eom.plete the waist. Each pupil is required to make a complete set of bed linen, imderwear, and at least one dress before finishing the course. The object is to give each pupil a thorough knowledge of plain and fine sewing. Hints on embroidery, n^illinery, and interior decoration are given outside of school hours. Each pupil keeps a record of verbal instructions and work done by herself. To become a finished dressmaker requires three years. The course in printing has not yet been laid out. There are 9 instructors in the department of trades. As this department has just been started there have been no graduates. The buildings consist of a dormitory, two school building's, chapel, farm house, blacksmith shop, wheelwright and carpenter shops, and four cottages for the teachers. The cost of these buildings was about 150,000, and the annual cost of maintaining the college is $16,000. Funds come from State appropriations and from the grants by the United States of the proceeds of public lands. From an official of the institution the following statement was obtained: "The courses of instruction can undoubtedly be improved as the school grows older; they can be made more practical; trade teach- ing,, having just been begun in this, school, has had little if any effect so far upon the industries of the State or upon the working classes, but the influence of the general educational system of this and similar schools has been to increase intelligence and to promote industrial, educational, and social development among the working people. Those TRADE AHT> TECHNICAL EDUCATION UNITED STATES. 315 wIiO' have been under the instruction and influence of such schools have gresMy improyed in efficiency; they do bett(^r work and get higher wages and more rapid promotion by reason of the preparation for work secured by their school education; the graduates of such schools are preferred by employers, because they are more intelligent and regular in- the discharge of their duties; the influence of such schools has led to the improvement of ordinary shop training; their gradu- ates are able to get work at all the trades without passing through a term of apprenticeship." CENTBAIi CITY COLIjEGB, MACOST, GA. This is a school but recently started by the Missionarj' Baptist Con- vention of Georgia (colored). The courses of instruction are academic, collegiate, theological, and industrial. The industrial course has four branches — carpentry, sew- ing, cooking and domestic science, and farming and dairying. Print- ing is also taught, but only in an elementary form. The general mauage- ment is in the hands of the board of trustees and the principal of the school. The instructors have been trained in the Spellman Seminary of Atlanta, the Lynchburg Seminary, the Atlanta Baptist College, the University of Chicago, and similar institutions. In the industrial branches the number of pupils is as follows: Car- peatry, 25-; sewing, 16; cooking and domestic science, 48; and farm- ing and dairying, 13. In these branches the attempt is made to teach the occupations thoroughly — the instruction goes beyond mere manual training. There have been no graduates as yet. The building now in use cost f 10, 000, and the annual cost of maintaining the school is ^3,000. The proportion of these.figures ajsplieable to the coui-se in industrial training is small at present. The funds are contributed bj" the Mis- sionary Baptist Convention of Georgia. In the opinion of the oliiciala of this school its industrial courses could be improved by the addition of more modern tools and appli- ances, and the outlook is encouraging. The school has already created an educational sentiment and is increasing the intelligence and efliciency of the v/orking classes. Graduates of similai- schools in Georgia are preferred to shop-ti'ained boys because they have theoretical knowl- edge in addition to practical. They get work at their trades without undergoing a period of apprenticeship. The school is too young to have it said that it has proved satisfactory, but the management is encouraged to believe that it will be, and that it will attain the end for which it was established. HAVEM HOME AISID INDTiaTEIAL SOHLOOL, SAVANNAH, GA. This school was started in 1885 by Mrs. S. M. Lewis and Miss Yiola Baldwin, under the auspices and support of the Woman's Home Mis- sionary Society of the Methodist Episcopal Church. Its aim is the 316 REPOET OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. training and culture of poor colored girls, who are taken into the home and taught domestic industries. The special need leading to the estab- lishment of the school was the desirability that the colored children should be taught such useful occupations as would enable them to support themselves and make their homes happier and brighter. The general management is under the principal of the school as directed by the supervising committee. From 8.45 a. m. to 2 p. m. each day is devoted to regular school work, besides an evening hour for study. The remainder of the time is divided between housework and sewing. Fifty cents per year is charged for the use of school books; day students furnish their own books and pay 50 cents per month tuition. Board in the home is $5 per month. The industrial courses taught are sewing, cooking, and laundry work, and are designed to fit the girls for taking care of their homes, or to earn their living as teachers, domestic servants, and seamstresses. The total number of instructors ^s 6, educated in Clark University, Fredonia Normal School, and Clarion State Normal School. There are 40 pupils in the school at present. But 60 have regularly grad- uated, though YOO girls and 15 boys have received more or less training in the school since it was started. The buildings used cost about $10,000, and the annual cost of main- taining the school in all its branches is $3,000. The funds for sup- porting the institution are raised from fees, contributions of individ- uals, etc. , and one-third is provided by the Woman's Home Missionary Society of the Methodist Episcopal Church. The officials of this school believe that with more room and money their industrial courses could be improved. The effect of this and similar schools has been to improve the home life and to increase morality. Those educated in such schools receive better wages and have steadier employment. The graduates are more desired by employers than others because they are better trained, and schools of this kind have proved satisfactory; but more trades or occupations should be taught. GILBERT ACADEMY AND INDUSTRIAL COLLEGE, "WINSTED, LA. The need of a school of a thoroughly practical character for the education and training of the colored race led to the establishment of this school. It is supported by the Freedman's Aid and Southern Education Society, and the board of managers of that society are its trustees. It is now a branch of the New Orleans University. The school "is open to young men and women of all races and religions," but only colored pupils have availed themselves of its privileges. Applicants must furnish satisfactory evidence of a good moral character. Students whose parents or guardians do not live in TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION — UNITED STATES. 317 the village must board in the school building. Tuition is free. An incidental fee of 50 cents per month is charged each pupil. Board is 16 per month, payable in advance. Boarding students must furnish their own bedding. Young women do their own washing, and young men are charged 50 cents per month for having washing done. An extra charge of f 2 per month each is made for music, stenography, typewriting, and drawing. The institution may be considered as having two departments of instruction, academic and industrial. The industrial department is independent of the academic and its courses are not compulsory j but, owing to the large number who desire to take them, only those who expect to become workmen are encouraged to enter upon them. For the year 1899-1900 the number of pupils pursuing the industrial courses of study was as follows: Agriculture, 40; floriculture, 6; dairy- ing, 3; printing, 10; carpentry and cabinetmaking, 11; needlework, 32; blacksmithing and wheel wrighting, 11; baking and cooking, 6 males and 47 females; painting, 8; and laundry work, 44. There have been but 15 graduates so far. There are 14 members of the faculty, of whom 6, all graduates of this academy, are engaged in teaching trades. The industrial building and its equipment cost $5,800. To maintain the industrial work costs about $1,000 per annum. As the industrial department is carried on in connection with the academic, the cost is low; in the opinion of the faculty, were it carried on by itself it would cost at least $3,000 per annum. The funds are supplied from the interest on a small endow- ment and by the Freedman's Aid and Southern Education Society. Facts and opinions gathered from the oiEcials of this institution are to the following effect: The courses could be improved by having them made longer, and the outlook is good for such improvement, as people are now inclined to aid industrial schools. The graduates exert an influence for good in their communities and labor to raise the intelligence of those around them. They get higher wages than work- men educated in the shops only, and as they are better prepared for work they are preferred by employers and do not have to pass through a period of apprenticeship when beginning work. Schools of this character have tended to improve the training given in shops, are generally successful, and are fast attaining the ends for which established. TOUGALOO "CTKIVERSITY, TOTJGALOO, MISS. This is a school for the education of the colored youth of both sexes. It was started in 1869 by the American Missionary Association, which, with funds specially given for that purpose, purchased 500 acres of land and a large mansion that had been erected just before the civil war. In the next two years two other buildings were erected, so that 318 REPORT OF THE C0MMISSI0:NER OF LABOR. in 1871, when the school was chartered by the State, there were boai'ding- accommodations for about 60 students. In 18Y2 the school was adapted by the State as one of its normal schools, but in 1877 State support was withdrawn. In 1879 a board of visitors was appointed on the part of the State, and from that time until 18&2 the State appropriated from ^1,500 to ^3,000 a j-ear for the support of the normal department. Since then this appropriation has not been made, as the school, not being conducted as a free school, can not receive State aid under the constitution. The general management is in the hands of the president and faculty. In the university there are the following schools and courses of study: The Daniel Hand kindergarten and primary school, for day pupils only, used as a school of practice and observation for those training to be teachers; the gi-ammar school, which receives pupils from the fifth to the eighth grade, and prepares for the academy and the teachers' training courses or normal school; the aeademj^, with classical and scientific courses, fitting for college and also designed for those who may not desire toattend school longer; and the teachers' train- ing course or normal school intended to meet the needs of thas© who wish to fit themselves for teaching in the schools of the State. Indus- trial work in some form is combined with all the above courses. A college course was begun in the fall of 1897; there is also a musical department and a biblical and theological department. Tlie industrial work, as above stated, is given to all students of the primary, the grammar, and the normal schools, and of the academy. This is principally in the form of manual training and training in the branches of domestic science, and the regular courses in these, includ- ing wood and iron working, mechanical drawing, cooking, etc., last four years. After completing the regular course, advanced work is given for those who have shown special aptitude and wish to learn a trade, and special arrangements are made for those who wish to attend this school for the express purpose of learning a trade or occupation. Certificates of proficiency are given to those completing a trade course. Trades and occupations are taught, as follows: Carpentry, cabinetmaking, blacksmithing, mechanical drawing, farming, garden- ing, cooking, housekeeping, needlework (including hand and machine sewing, dressmaking, and art embix>idery), and millinery. During the school year 1899-1900 the number of students in each course was as follows: College, 7; academy and normal school, 46; grammar school, 165; kindergarten and primary school, 186; night school, 24; music department, 47; and industrial works, 288 (carpen- try, cabinetmaking, and blacksmithing, 75; needlework, 98; millinery, 12; cooking, 70; housekeeping, 11; farming and gardening, 22). The TBADE ANB TECHNICAL EDTJOATIOK — UKITED STATES. 319 total numbe-r of studen4s, not iiaeluding duplications contained in the above list, was 43:6. The aumber of those who were actually learning- trades and the number of trade graduates have not been obtained, but the total num- ber of gradutites up to the year 1899-1900 was 93. There are 27 memb&rs of the faculty, 6. of whom teach in the indus- trial courses and are graduates of the Hillyer Institute (Y. M. C. A.), of Hartford, Conn., Pratt Institute, of Brooklyn, N. Y., New York School of Domestic Science, of New York City, and the Atlanta Uni- versity, of Atlanta, Ga. The existing buildings and equipment are valued at about $100,000, and the cost of maintaining the school is $18,000 annually, the funds being obtained from the American Missionary Association and from contributions. Applicants for admission to this institution, except fOr the kinder- garten school, must be 14 years of age and must pass the required examinations. The expenses are 35 cents per week for tuition, fl.TS per week for board (including furnished room, lights, and plain washing), 50 cents per term as an incidental fee, which helps to provide books and period- icals for the library and reading room, and $& per month for instru- mental or vocal music for those taking lessons therein. Each student must furnish his own lamp chimnej'^, towels, and soap. The total expense of board, tuition, and incidental fees for the year of eight school months is $65.50. From those who wish to pay in advance for a whole year $60 cash will be taken for full amount. Those remaining at the school during the winter and spring vacations will be charged 25 cents per day for board. All needed text-books can be purchased or rented from the treasurer. The rent of the needed books is $1 per year. About a dozen boys can, by working on the farm and in the garden, pay their way in full, receiving instruction in the night school. The same number of girls can worl?: their way in the boarding hall. Work aid to a limited amount may be given to others. On behalf of the management it is stated that there is a constant development and improvement in the courses taught, it being the endeavor to work toward industrial training for the masses and special instruction for the ti-ades; that years ago an apprentice system at the trades was tried, but failed, as it gave industrial training toa limited number only, and that the present system is far more successful. It is also stated that there are no industries in the locality of the school, except a few blacksmiths and carpenters; many of the graduates come from a distance and upon graduation either return to their homes, where they exert a strong influence for good and often become leaders of their people, or become useful citizens in other places where they locate; '620 KEPOKT OF THE OOMMISSIOlirEK OF LABOB. those who have been under instruction in the school have improved in every respect, and higher wages, steadier employment, and more rapid promotion certainly accrue to them as a result of their good prepara- tion for work, and they are preferred by employers over shop-trained boj's by reason of their increased intelligence and fine training. It is said that the school-trained workmen can get work at their trades without undergoing a period of apprenticeship. The school is considered to be very satisfactory, and its students are developed in character and add much to the economic wealth of the communities wherein they locate. ASHEVILIiE ACADEMY AND INDUSTBIAL SCHOOIi, ASHEVILLE, N. C. This institution for colored girls, now in its fifth year, is a general educational institution, having primarj;^, grammar, and normal depart- ments, and teaching, in the Allen Industrial Home, connected with the academy, all branches of domestic science. The training of the home is intended to prepare young colored women and girls to conduct properly their own homes, or to render acceptable service to those who may employ them. It consists of a three-year course, which includes sewing, dressmaking, cooking, and laundry work. Pupils completing this course will receive a certificate of attainment. No pupil will be received in the home for less than three months. The management is in the hands of the superintendent and faculty, and is conducted under the auspices of the Woman's Home Missionary Society of the Methodist Episcopal Church. There are 5 teachers, 1 of whom is a graduate of this school and 1 a graduate of Fredonia (N. Y.) Academy. In the different industrial courses in the year ending in May, 1901^ there were 90 pupils in sewing' and dressmaking, 27 in cooking, 27 in laundry work, and 35 in general housekeeping. There have been but 6 graduates up to and including the year 1900, but many who have not completed their courses have left the school and are at work. Tuition and board are payable in advance. The terms are as follows: Board in the Industrial Home, $6 per month, or $50 per year; tuition in normal or grammar departments, 50 cents per month, or |4: per year; tuition in primary department, 25 cents per month, or $2 per year; instrumental music, 25 cents per lesson; elocution, four lessons for |1. The cost of the buildings was: For the school building, $5,000, and for the Allen Home, $11,000. An adjoining lot, worth |2,500, has been donated. To maintain the school in all its departments costs $3,300 per year. The funds are obtained by donations and contributions of friends and church societies. TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION UNITED STATES. 321 Information obtained from the school faculty is to the effect that an extension of the courses is desirable, but on account of laclc of means the prospect of improvement is poor. The pupils of the school have learned to take care of their owa homes and those of others, and many applications for help have been filled from among the students at high wages. This school has been a great stimulus to other schools and very helpful among the j'oung. As a result of their preparation for work, the girls of this school are- said to secure better employment and higher wages than they could otherwise have done. When taken into the school they are crude and ignorant, but when they leave tbey can fill good positions as cooks, dressmakers, etc., and give satisfaction, and are greatly preferred by employers to those without the school training. The school has proved very satisfactory, but more means is needed to extend it on other lines of industrial training. HIGH POINT NORMAL AND INDUSTRIAI, SCHOOL, HIGH POINT, N. C. This school was established in 1891 by the Board of Home and Foreign Missions of the New York j^early meeting of Friends. The management is by the principal and faculty under supervision of the local advisory board of the Society of Friends. It conducts an academic department, a music department, and an industrial depart- ment. The graded-school course of the city of High Point is also conducted by this institution under an arrangement with the school board of the city, and a night school also forms one branch of the school. The industrial department has courses in domestic science, sewing (including dressmaking), and cooking, fol' girls; in mechanics, brick- lajang, plastering, blacksmithing, carpentry, free-hand drawing, mechanical drawing, and farming, for boys. The courses of instruc- tion are as follows: Sewing. — It is the aim to give the girls all those things which are essential to thorough development. Each girl who enters the boarding department is required to sew a certain number of hours each week. The sewing room is furnished with all articles necessary to make instruction thorough and satisfactory. First year: Instruction in use of needle, thread, thimble, and cloth; drills on. basting, overcasting, running, stitching and backstitching; turning, basting, and hemming ot hems of different widths; buttonholes; making of bags, towels, and aprons. Second year: Review of first year's work; buttonholes; putting on hooks and eyes, felling straight and bias fells; hemstitching, gathering, and overhanding; putting on bands, putting in gussets; cutting and making of drawers, skirts, and dolls' clothes. Third year: Beview of second year's work; darning and patching; instruction on the manufacture of needles, pins, thimbles, hooks and eyes, etc. ; cutting from pat- tern and making of plain under-garments of all kinds. 9257—02 21 322 EEPOJBT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. Dressmaking. —First year: Instruction on different kinds of and manufacture of cloths; on quality, color, their harmonious blending and contrasting; on matching of plaids, figures, and stripes; use of machine; its parts and their uses; cutting, basting, fitting, and finishing of plain waists; cutting, basting, hanging, and finishing of plain skirts; making of collars, putting in whalebones, etc. tiecond year: Drafting by system, cutting and fitting of garments by measure, making of trimmed waists and skirts by measure. It would be well for those who take dressmaking to provide themselves with cloth and necessary articles for such a course. CooKiiTG. — All girls are given thorough instruction in plain cooking. Each girl of the boarding department is required to cook a certain number of hours each week. She must provide herself with two sets of white caps, sleeves, and aprons, also note- book and pencil. . First year: Plain cooking, including breads, meats, gravies, vegetables, soups, and pies. Second year: Review of the first year's v/ork, and preparing such as meat sauces, paddings, pies, cookies, and cakes. Third year: Eeview of all previous cooking, and the making of such as salads, potting meats, jellies, ices, and fancy cakes. Bricklaying. — Proper use of ordinary bricklayer's tools; making mortar beds and boards; building scaffolds; screening and slacking lime, mixing mortar, selecting brick, choice of lime and sand, hod carrying, spreading mortar, use of cement, cleaning brick, laying brick pavement, running courses to line, use of wood brick, laying foundations with footings, running up corners- and walls to height, use of stretchers, headers, half-headers, rowlocks and ties, laying tiers, settling sills, setting windows and door frames, striking joints, flat, hollow, and round; making plasters, panel work and brick cornice; laying off and building arches, square, bonded, and circular; building chimneys and stacks. Work is done frsm drawing. Pi.ASTEEixG. — Making mortar and putty; use of hair, lathing, plastering walls and ceilings, plastering to grounds and to finish, scratch coating, second and third coat- ing, floating, hard finish, and stucco work. Theory as well as practice will be given in both courses. Stress is placed upon neatness and precision of work. Mechanics. — A thorough knowledge of practical mathematics will be given to fit the student for the work of this dgpartment. The following course will be pursued until students are able to take more diflicult work: How to manipulate tools and machinery, and the use of the same; making of joints and curves; wood turning; wood carving; cabinetmaking; carpentry; free-hand drawing; instrumental drawing. Blacksmithing. — A three years' course, embracing the following work: "Welding, enlarging, swaging, scroll work, horseshoeing, thread cutting, and drill work. Farming. — The school owns a fertile farm of 90 acres where agriculture is studied. Five acres have been set apart for a model farm, where a practical and experimental farming course is carried on. The course of instruction is as follows: Nature of soil and drainage; fertilizers and manures; use of farm tools; tests of seeds and seeding crops; care of stock and a practical knowledge of dairying and dairy products. The school owns horses, hogs, cows, one mowing machine, one wheat drill, one reaper, plows, wagons, and other farm implements. In the school year of 1900-01 there were 155 students taking these courses. There are 12 members of the faculty, of whom 6 are engaged in teaching trades. Two of the instructors were educated in St. Augus- tine's School, 1 in the North Carolina Agricultural and Mechanical College, 1 in the University of Pennsylvania, 4 in the Hampton Institute of Virginia, 1 in Fisk University, 1 in Shaw University, TRADE AKD TBCHBTICAL EDUCATION — UNITED STATES. 323 1 in Leonard Medical College, and 1 in Earlhani College. There have been no graduates as j'et in the industrial courses. The expenses are as follows: Board, fuel, and laundry, per month, $7; tuition, day students, |1; incidental fee, $1. A limited number of students work in the daytime, at the rate of 5 to 7 cents per hour, and attend school at night the first year, after which they are placed in the day school. No cash is paid for this labor, but it is counted against the charges for board, tuition, etc. All boarding students are allowed at least two hours per da}" to work at the above rates. Work students must not be under 16 years of age, must be in good health and able-bodied, and must provide themselves with clothes, shoes, and medicine and be responsible for doctor's bills for at least six months. Students must bring, or purchase on arrival, a Bible and a diction- ary, must be supplied with hairbrush, comb, toothbrush, clothes brush, shoe brush and blacking, and must provide their own sheets, pillowcases, towels, napkins, and toilet soap. This school has been in active operation only about six years, and the cost of buildings, land, and equipment was approximately $20,000. It costs about $12,000 annually to maintain it. The money is raised from tuition and other fees, from donations from friends, and from appropriations by the State and city. Officials of the school state that in the trades taught the courses are satisfactory, but that it would be advantageous could more trades be taught in the school; that the industries of the locality have been benefited by the establishment of the school, though no specific data can be given; that the course of training increases the intelligence of the students, and on account of that fact they work better and more intelligently than those who have not received such training. It is also said that although the school has no graduates as yet, still many who have nearly completed their courses leave and obtain work, and they always get better wages and give better satisfaction than those who have not had a school training. Those who have near!}' com- pleted their courses go right to work as full workmen and have no apprenticeship to serve. The school is, generally speaking, satis- factory, but from lack of means, etc. , has not yet fully attained the end for which it was established. ST. AUGUSTINE'S SCHOOL, HALEIGH, N. C. This school was incorporated in 1867 and began its work in 1868. Its purpose was to train young colored men and women in the ele- ments of an English education, to prepare them for teaching, and to add collegiate studies for those able to take them. The need of so educating the j'^oung that they might be able to earn a better living led to the establishment of industrial courses at a comparatively recent 324 EEPORT OF THE COMMISSIOITBR OF LABOB. date. There are the following departments at present: Collegiate, normal, preparatory, and industrial, and a training school for nurses. There ai'e two terms of four months each in the school session. A fee of $6 per month is charged, and students must render thirty-five hours of work each month. The charge may be reduced from f-iS to $45 a year, provided the students enter on the first day of the session and remain through the entire school year. Payment must be made in installments of |20 at the beginning of the session and f25 on the 1st of January. Day students are charged only $1 per month. Each student must provide three sheets, two pillowcases, blankets, and towels, and in addition the girls are required to have an umbrella, waterproof, and overshoes, and the boys overalls or suitable clothing for outdoor work. The general management is in the hands of the president and faculty — in number 23. Of these, 6 are employed in teaching the industrial courses. In the industrial department the yoang women have the care of the household and the j^oung men the care of the grounds, the farm, and garden. Instruction is given to the girls in sewing, dressmaking, and cooking, and to the j'oung men in farming, gardening, carpentry, bricklaying, masonry, and printing, and in these courses it is possible for them to obtain a thorough knowledge of the trade taught. The number of students in the industrial courses during the school year 1900-01 was 38. The only graduates as yet from the industrial courses were 9 from the course of cooking last year. The cost of maintaining the school in all its branches for the j-ear of 1899-1900 was 111,814:. 90, and the funds were obtained from interest on endowment, tuition and other fees, and contributions from friends. The industi'ial department of this school is new, but the courses are said to be the best that can be given under present conditions. They could be improved if more money were available. SHAW UNIVEKSITY, RALEIGH, N. C. Shaw University was founded in 1866 for the purpose of educating the freedmen. All the students, except thos^in the schools of law, medicine, and pharmacj^, spend considerable time in industrial training. Blacksmithing, iron and steel working and turning, cabinetmaking, carpentry, mechanical and free-hand drawing, sewing, and dressmaking are taught. The aim is to give the young men and women a practical training rather than to teach them trades, yet the occupations are so thoroughly taught that nrany of the graduates are capable of earning a livelihood and do earn one by work at the occupation learned in the university. The bulk of the students, however, become teachers and preachers. TKADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION UNITED STATES. 325 SLATEK, INDUSTKIAL AND STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, WINSTON- SALEM, N. C. Four ideas were prominent in starting this school: (1) The vital importance of training for good citizenship; (2) a belief that the negro should be taught to work intelligently with his hands as well as to become acquainted with the branches usually taught in the schools; (3) the great need of a normal school for colored people, a place where teachers should he taught how to teach; (4) a negro colony where colored people should live, owning their own homes, starting their own industries, and to a certain extent governing themselves. Through the labors of the present president of this school and with the cooperation of the leading citizens of Winston-Salem, N. C, a board of trustees was organized in 1892 to establish a school embody- ing the ideas above set forth. A valuable tract of land near the city was donated by a number of interested citizens. Others erected a recitation hall and assembly room in which to begin the school, which was called the "Slater Industrial Academy," in honor of the late John F. Slater, who gave a million dollars for the industrial training of negroes in the South. Soon after the founding of the school the county board of education of Forsyth County adopted the school and made provision for the carrying on of a public school in connection with the academy. In 1895 the legislature of North Carolina appro- priated 11,000 per annum for the school, and in 1897 it more than doubled this amount. Forsyth County appropriates a small sum for the school each year, and an annual appropriation from the Peabody fund is also received by the school. In addition, voluntaiy contri- butions are made by local friends of both races and by friends in the North. The school is normal, academic, and industrial in its character, and is managed by the State board of education, a local board of manage- ment, and by the president and faculty, which numbers 16, of whom 4 give instruction in the industrial classes. The cost of the buildings and equipment now in use by the school was about $15,000, and the cost of maintaining it is about |6,400 annually. The expenses are: Board, payable in advance, f5 per month; wash- ing, 50 cents per month; fuel, 50 cents per month; tuition to day students, payable in advance, $1 per month. .AH students must fur- nish their own lights and must bring their own bedding, including quilts, sheets, and pillowcases. The privileges of the institution are not limited by sex or creed. All students registering must furnish satisfactory evidence of good moral character. The school has an academic department, a normal department, a department of the English Bible, a department of music, a commer- cial department giving instruction in bookkeeping, business law, type- 326 REPOET or THE COMMISSIONEK OF LABOB. writing, and etenograpliy, and an industrial department. In this last department instruction is given in sewing, cooking, laundry work, and domestic economy for girls; and shoemaking, carpentering, ironwork- ing, brickmaking, and agriculture for boys. During the school year of 1900-01, 116 students were taking the industrial courses, and there have been 20 graduates therefrom, many more having had the benefit of the training but not graduating. The feeling exists among the managers of the school that the indus- trial training could be improved by extending the courses, and the hope is expressed that a textile school will be established in the near future. It is said that those who attend the school become better citizens, more intelligent, more efficient in every respect, and improve in con- duct. The3^ are also more steadily employed, have better wages, and take and do a higher grade of work than those who have not attended the school. It is also said that the graduates of this and similar schools are everjj^where preferred to merely shop-trained workmen, and they are more intelligent and can be trusted to do things by themselves. On this account a spirit of emulation has been aroused and there has recently been a change for the better in shop training. The work of the school has been exceedingly satisfactory^ — more so than was expected — ^and the entire neighborhood seems in accord with its efforts. SCHOFIEliD SrORMAL AND INDTJSTRIAIi SCHOOX., AIKEN, S. C. This school was started in 1868 by Martha Schofield, its present principal, in a little frame schoolhouse. To-da}^ the property, entirely free from debt, is worth 130,000, and includes two substantial brick buildings and two frame buildings in Aiken, S. C, with a fai-m of 281 acres 3 miles distant from the town. The school is the result of a need "for an institution to train colored pupils to meet the problems and conditions of life they have to confront, and to make them better fitted to meet the duties that will come to them as brothers, sisters, parents, or citizens. In the country places, in the towns and vil- lages of the South, are hundreds of young colored men and women growing up in the densest ignorance. In our schoolrooms they receive thorough training and industrial instruction which fit them to take up the duties of everyday life." Applicants for admission must give evidence of a good moral char- acter. Students from a distance must board at the school. In the boarding department only girls of 12 years of age or over and boys of 16 years of age or over are taken. The terms are as follows: $6 per month for board, room, fuel, and light, or $6 a month each where more than one pupil comes from the TBADE AKD TBOHWICAL EDUCATION UNITED STATES. 827 same family or for those who have been teachers in the public schools; 50 cents a month for boys' washing — girls do their own washing in the laundrj- ; 60 cents a month for tuition and the use of text-books. There are 17 instructors, of whom 10 give instruction in the indus- tries taught. All the boarding students have the privilege of learning trades dur- ing the afternoons and on Saturdays. The course in each trade is four years, but may be extended if students are irregular in attendance or are backward in their work. Certificates are not given in any trade until it is thoroughly mastered. A limited number of day students are also allowed to. take up special industries, and their work is accepted in lieu of tuition fees. The trades taught are as follows: Printing: This has been taught for over twenty years, and graduates are to be found all over the South. The monthly newspaper and school stationery are printed by the students, the leading hotels patronize the school press extensively, and the check and pass books of the bank of Aiken are printed and bound here. Harness making: No machines of any kind are used in this department, but every- thing is handmade and the work turned out competes successfully with the best. Carpentry: The first year in the carpenter shop is devoted exclusively to repair work. Later new work is taken up. The instructor in this department is both a carpenter and a cabinetmaker and is fully qualified to carry his pupils from the simplest operations with the plane and square to the most intricate ones in furniture making. Blacksmithing: There is a conveniently arranged shop, supplied with a few tools, where repairs are made for the farm. There is no regular instructor at present, and additional tools are also needed. It can not be said that the trade is really taught. Farming: Industrious boys of good character are given work on the farm at S7.50 per month, which is paid over to the boarding department for school purposes when the engagement terminates. Eive and one-half months' work pays board and tuition for the whole term. While this is being done, useful information about farming is being imparted. Shoemaking: This department was opened for girls in 1897, and many have learned to half sole, heel, and patch as well as the average country shoemaker. They expect to devote four years to the trade and to complete it. Sewing: Mending is necessariky the first and most important part of this work, though a g:feat many sheets and pillowcases are made, a quantity of underwear, and a number of dresses. An advanced class is taught, in which a number of girls learn to cut, fit, and make dresses. Cooking: A systematic course, in which the girls receive instruction three times a week. Housekeeping: This includes sweeping and scouring, dusting and arrangement of rooms, washing of dishes, setting of tables, etc. Laundering: Facilities are provided for 12 girls in the washroom and 8 in the ironing room, who are instructed in the beat methods of washing and ironing. Storekeeping, for the sale of old clothing donated to the school and for the instruc- tion of students, haa been a leading feature of the work since 1882. During the busy season there have been over 100 customers a week, who were waited on by the students under the supervision of a teacher. The one-price system is adhered to, exactness in small things is observed, and business conducted on a strictly cash basis. During the year ending May 31, 1900, the receipts from the sales of old clothing at the store was $1,665.45. 328 EEPOET OF THE COMMISSIONEE OF LABOR. • The number of students receiving instruction in the foregoing industries is as follows: Printing, 7 boys and 3 girls; harness making, 8 boys; carpentry, 10 boys; shoemaking, 4 boys and 2 girls; chair caning, -i girls. The cost of maintaining the school for the year ending May 31, 1900, was $5,991.18, and the funds came from interest on the endowment fund, voluntary contributions of friends in the North, ijublic school fund and tax from pupils, sales of stationery, balance left from income of previous year, etc. From statements of the school authorities it appears that while the courses of trade instruction are excellent they could be improved by the use of money in purchasing tools and material and bj' increas- ing the number of trades taught; that the school has done much to raise the intelligence of those who have attended it and has a good effect upon the laborers of the locality generally, and that it has caused those who have received its training to obtain higher wages and steadier employment than they would otherwise have received. It is also believed by the school officials that the graduates are pre ferred by emplojers to those whose only training was received in the shop, as the school graduates are better prepared for the work. They do not have to pass through a period of apprenticeship at any of the trades taught in the school. It is also said that the school has proven satisfactory and is constantl^^ increasing in efficiency. CLAFLISr TJNIVEESITT, 0B,A17GEBUK,G, S. C. The existence of this institution is due largely to the generositj' of the Hon. Lee Claflin and family, of Massachusetts, which made possi- ble the purchase, in 1869, of the original site of the Orangeburg (S. C.) Female Seminary, consisting of 6 acres of land and several buildings. Later two tracts of land adjoining the original purchase wei'e secured, containing, respectively, 37 and 31 acres. The university' was estab- lished for the purpose of educating the youth of the colored race. By an act of the legislature, approved March 12, 1872, the College of Agriculture and Mechanics' Institute for colored students was located at Orangeburg. An experimental farm, containing about 116 acres, adjoining the property of the university, was purchased. For the sake of greater economj' and efficiency the two institutions, while distinct in every other particular, were placed under one management. In 1898 Claflin University, in obedience to the action of the general conference, which declared against the union of church and state, separated from the State institution, and is now under the control of the Freedmen's Aid and Southern Education Society of the Methodist Episcopal Church. It was recognized that there was great need of an institution where trades could be taught, and the John F. Slater fund making it possi- TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION UNITED STATES. 329 ■ ble to commence in that line, the department of manual training- was established in 1883. The object of this department is to give instruc- tion in manual training and to teach trades in connection with literary studies. Certificates are given to those completing the industrial courses and diplomas to those completing the classical and other courses. The boarding department is conducted on the club plan. This arrangement gives the students a voice in the selection of the daily bill of fare. After an experience of several years it has proven to be the most satisfactory plan for all concerned. The best quality of food is used, and in sufficient quantity and variety. Two kitchens are set apart for self boarders. By this arrangement students who live near and those who wish to practice economy can provide for themselves. Many students claim to boai'd on from 30 to 50 cents per week. The university provides rooms for students, each furnished with, bedstead, mattress, table, chairs, and washstand. All other articles, such as quilts, sheets, pillowcases, spreads, mirrors, towels, soap, lamps, bowl and pitcher, books, Bible, napkins, teaspoons, and tum- blers, must be furnished by the students The university store pro- vides at very low rates all kinds of groceries, stationerj-, books, etc. The expenses per month are as follows: Matriculation fee, 50 cents; piimar}'^ department, 60 cents; English department, |1; preparatory and normal department, $1.50; college department, $2; room rent, $1; extra fuel — self -boarders, 50 cents; board at university tables, 15.60. The department of industrial training contains the following courses: Mechanical drawing; architectural drawing; woodworking, carpentry, etc.; masonry, lathing, and plastering; ironworking; painting, house and coach; printing. The Simpson Industrial Home, established by the ladies of Phila- delphia in memory of the late Bishop Mathew Simpson, is a two-and- a-half story building. It is under the care of a matron, who gives daily instruction in the art of domestic economy. Several girls reside permanently in the home; others are sent by classes from the univer- sity for instruction therein. It is a part ■ of the university, and is under the auspices of the Woman's Home Missionary Society of the Methodist Episcopal Church. Plain sewing, dressmaking, and cook- ing are here taught. An outline of the industrial work is as follows: Mechanical Drawing. — All working drawings come under this head. There is, however, a special course in mechanical drawing, to which the senior normal and preparatory students are admitted. This course comprises the drawing of the ellipse, spiral, cycloid, epycycloid, and hypocycloid, helix, screw threads; projections; pyr- amids; oblique views; truncated pyramids, oblique views of the circle; development of surfaces; truncated cones; intersecting solids, cylinders, and cones. Ahchitectueal Drawing. — Names, uses, and care of instruments; practice drawing of simple geometrical forms; copying plans and elevations of small frame cottage; 330 EEPOET OF THE COMMISSIONEE OF LABOR. copying exterior and interior details of cottage; malting plans, elevations, and details of small brick building; working out details of the classic orders; drawing of ornar ments; study of materials; principles of designing; lectures on superintendence. WooDWOKKiNG. — :The classes in woodworking are made up of the normal and col- lege preparatory departments. Girls report.to light woodworking and drav/ing, tak- ing the course with the boys. This is done because it is educative; that they may be made familiar with tools and the use of the same; for physical exercise, and, lastly, that those who are to teach may be better able to do kindergarten work. The course of study in woodworking covers three years. The first and second years of the v/ood working course are compulsory, a third year is elective, allowing woodworking, masonry, or painting. The woodworking departr ment is equipped with a 16-liorsepower gasoline engine, planer, and matcher, ripsaw, bandsaw, lathes, mortising machine, emery wheels, and a single-head patent freizer. Students are taught how to operate the machines and to keep them in order. Special attention is given to lathe work, where students turn chisel and hammer handles, rolling pins, table legs, balusters, and face-plate work. First year: Names, uses, and care of tools; simple lessons in sawing, crosscut and ripping; nailing; exercises in planing rough surfaces to a finished' face within one plane; exercises in joining edges at right angles to face, tested by the try-square; planing inclined and circular edges; making one-piece articles — sloid; turning-lathe practice. Second year: Sharpening tools and setting saws; making halved joints, mortise and tenon; Kussian sloid, doweling, dovetailing, and constructing joints from above principles at angles of 90°, 45°, 22J°, and 30° Masoney, Lathing, and Plastering. — The course in bricklaying with the other branches of the masonry department is designed to fit young men for practical life. Not only those who exjiect to be masons take instructions in this department, but also young men who are fitting themselves for master woodworkers and architectural draftsmen. The course of study is as follows: Names, uses, and care of tools; study of clay, sand, rock, and concrete; mortars and their constituent parts; foundations; practice work on straight wall; bonding, building plain window and door caps; lectures and practice work on arches; use of anchors; laying of pressed bricks; cal- culations on materials; estimating work; lessons in lathing; lessons in plastering, including all kinds of finish; lessons in estimating lathing and plastering. Lectures - are given on strength of walls, fireproof construction, cement, etc. Instruction is given in drawing and reading plans. Students who are anxious to stand at the head of their work are encouraged to enter a class in architectural drawing. Ieonwokking. — This department is fitted with eight portable iron forges of the most approved pattern, and with all necessary tools, vises, benches, etc. The course of instruction embraces the care and management of fires, and lessons in heating, holding, and striking, advancing gradually to bending, upsetting, welding, punching, drawing, and shaping iron, and hardening and tempering steel. Repairs are done by instructors and students, thereby giving practical training and application of theory. Shop tools are made by students in regular class work. Aside from forge work, finishing with files and emery cloth is taught. All work is executed from drawings made by students. It is the plan of the management to have machine work in this course another year. Arrangements are made for the placing of power lathes, drill press, and planer. Painting. — This department is twofold in its instruction, comprising house and coach painting. Instruction is given in the following subjects: Use and care of tools; exercises in selecting colors and mixing paints; exercises in priming, second and third coat work in house painting; talks on pigments; exercises in sign writing; exercises in oil, wood filler, and varnish work; exercise in finish work; free- hand drawing of stencil patterns and cutting the same; graining and staining; fresco TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATIOlir UNITED STATES. 331 painting in water colors and oil; ext-rcises in gear and body painting, priming, puttying, pumicing, rubbing, striping, and finishing; glazing. Printing. — The Claflin Bulletin is printed and the job work of the institution is done in the oiEce. Students are first taught the boxes of the cases; to handle stick and rule, and to set and distribute type. They next learn the different fonts of type, to make up forms, and to do presswork. Plain sewing. — All girls not members of the dressmaking classes are required to take plain sewing. So far as possible they are provided with material for the making of useful articles, but many are kept upon sample or practice \\ork. There is no difficulty in keeping up an interest and even enthusiasm in this department. Dressmaking. — By the system of dress cutting by measure in use any girl of ordinary intelligence can learn in one year to cut and make a dress in good style. Persons who are not members of the university are at liberty to learn the pj'stem by the payment of a small fee. Cooking. — Classes in cooking are taught at the Simpson Home. The departments are furnished with the necessary implements and material to do plain cooking. The school has adopted in part the methods used in the public schools of Washington and in part the methods taught at Chautauqua. The outline is as follows: Cooking: Definition, purposes, processes, and incidental and general information respecting materials, sources, processes of preparing, and combination, care and selection of materials, care of ranges, fires, and cooking utensils. Processes: Boiling, stewing, broiling, baking, frying, and preserving. Boiling: Meats, vegetables, cereals, doughs, and liquids. Stewing: Meats, vegetables, and fruits. Broiling: Steaks, chops, fish, and oysters. Baking: Bread, meats, cake, pies, puddings, and vegetables. Frying: Fish, oysters, batters, and cakes. Preserving: By sugar, vinegar, and salt. Cook- ing for the sick: Meat soups and broths, cereal soups and broths, dainty dishes and relishes, cooling beverages. The faculty numbers 33, of whom 8 are engaged in teaching indus- trial occupations. They are graduates of colleges, schools of tech- nology, normal schools, etc. The number of students in the trades courses is as follows: Mechanical drawing, 190; architectural drawing, 14; woodworking, 108; masonry, lathing, and plastering, 175; iron- working, 50; painting, 10; printing, 8; sewing, 195; dressmaking, 30; domestic economy, cooking, etc., 26. During the earlier years of the school it did not graduate, and since it has done so but 50 have been regularly graduated. Since the original purchase of land and buildings but $10,000 has been expended on new buildings and $20,000 on equipment. A new industrial-training building is now under way, which will cost, when completed, about 130,000. Much more is being done in industrial lines now than formerly, on account of recently increased facilities. The cost of maintaining the universitjMS about $8,000 annually, and the funds are raised by contributions from Northern people, as the result of personal solicitation, and an annual sum of $4,000 from the John F. Slater fund. In the opinion of those conducting this institution, the trade courses taught are good, and no substantial improvement could be made except by making the industrial depai-tment more of a school of technology. 332 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. They state that the benefits accruing to industries as a result of the school training affect more than those existing in the locality, which are but few. Many of the students are from distant homes, and upon leaving the institution they carry their training and the habits acquired into their own localities, and do much good by example and teaching. There has been a decided improvement in the moral tone of students, and since the introduction of the industrial training in 1883 the dis- cipline has greatlj' improved. The training of the school is said to have greatly increased the intelligence of those who have been under instruction. The graduates have no difficulty in finding steady em- ployment and promotions come because of their good preparation. Emploj-ers prefer them to shop-trained workmen because they have knowledge of mechanical drawing, can carry out the instructions of architects, and make out estimates and bills for lumber, etc. They can also read drawings and plans. They can get work at any trade taught in the school without undergoing a period of apprenticeship. STATE COIiOEED COLLEGE, OKANGEBURG, S. 0. This institution was established under the authority of an act of the legislature of SoTith Carolina passed in 1896. There are in operation a college, a normal and preparatory school, a model school, a musical department, an art department, an industrial department, a mechanical department, an agricultural department, an engineering department, and a militarj- department. Those completing the courses in any of these departments will obtain a diploma, which is equivalent to a life certificate as a teacher in the public schools of the State. Those applying for admission must be of sound phj'sical health, bring testimonials of good moral character, have a knowledge of the ordinary branches of an English education, and must pass the required examinations. Board in the college dormitories, including furnished rooms and washing, costs ^35 per school terpi — $5 per month in advance. There is no charge for tuition, unless parents or guardians have an income of |1,000 per year. Cost of text-books will average $8 a year throughout the course. Each student is charged an entrance fee of fl, paj^able in advance, to provide for breakage, wear and te^r, and incidentals. Each male student is required to provide himself with a military uniform, which costs from |8 to fl5, and the female students uniform dresses of blue serge trimmed with black braid, which can be purchased at college at a cost of from $3 to $5. It is the design of the industrial department to give training in such industrial arts as may be suitable to men and women and conducive to self-reliance and usefulness. This department teaches the following subjects: Sewing, dressmaking and millinery, cooking and domestic TEADE AWD TECHNICAL EDUCATION UNITED STATES. 333 economj'^, carpentry and woodwork, bricklaying and plastering, mechanical drawing, painting, ironworking and machinery, uphol- stering and cabinetmaking, saddlery, harness making, shoemaking, sawmilling and manufactui'e of hard and soft lumber, and tailoring. In addition to the above the agricultural department has a course in dairying and butter making. Every student over 12 years of age must do two hours' manual labor per week under the direction of the president, who, in assigning work to any student, ha? due regard to the course of study pursued by that student. For the school year 1899-1900 the number of students in the differ- ent trade courses was as follows: Sewing, dressmaking, and millinery, 251; cooking and domestic economy, 200; carpentry and woodwork- ing, 78; bricklajang and plastering, 96; mechanical drawing and painting, 37; ironworking and machinery, 60; dairying, etc., females, 16, males, 25. The total number of graduates since the establishment of the school to the year 1900-01 has been about 226. The faculty numbers 26, of whom 9 are engaged in teaching the above industries. The college buildings and their equipment have cost about $100,000 and the annual cost of maintaining the institution is about $28,000. The necessary funds are given by the State of South (Carolina and by the United States Government in the form of income from the State's proportion of land grant for the purposes of maintaining agricultural college!^. The officers of this institution state that they believe the system pursued here could be improved by the addition of more trades to their courses, and that the outlook for their being able to do so is encouragmg. Pupils attending the school have, in the opinion of its instructors, been benefited in every waj' — physically, mentally, and morally — and have received higher wages and steadier employment by reason of their school training. It is the belief of the school authorities that graduates of such insti- tutions are preferred by employers to merely shop-trained workmen on account of the thorough training they receive, and they state that the graduates in carpentry, bricklaying, tailoring, painting, and black- smithing do not have to pass through any period of apprenticeship, but get work immediately upon graduation. KBTOXVILLE COLIiEGE, KNOXVILLE, TEKTIT. Knoxville College is said to be the leading educational institution of the United Presbyterian Church for the colored race. It is under the control of the board of missions to the freedmen of the church, located at Pittsburg, Pa., and is sustained chiefly by contributions from the various congregations. It was opened in September, 1875, in East 334 REPOBT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. Knoxville, Tenn., but was removed to Knoxville in 1876, when it was established as a college. It was maintained for a number of 3'ears as a literary institution onljr, but the long-felt need of education in industrial lines led to the opening of an industrial department, and by an arrangement with the University of Tennessee the college has become the industrial depart- ment of the university for colored students. For this purpose the uni\'ersity has added largel}' to the equipment of the agricultural and mechanical departments, provides for the salaries t>f the professors of these departments, and sets aside $600 annually to pay for the labor of the students in the same. Free tuition is given State students, and they are assigned work in one of the industrial departments, if they desire it, and receive compensation in proportion to the work accom- plished. They are thus enabled to earn a part of their expenses. The courses of study offered are classical, scientific, literary, nor- mal, theological, and industrial. The industrial departments include agriculture, mechanics (including carpentrj^, iron working, electricity', and mechanical drawing), print- ing, sewing and dressmaking; and cooking. The college has 115 acres of land and on this crops are raised, thus giving the students in agriculture a training in making the largest yield off a small acreage. Stock of various kinds is raised. With the aid of a foreman all the work on the farm is done by the students under the direction of the professor in charge. This enables them to receive practical experience in farming, and also to earn a part,of their expenses. Twice a week lectures on agiiculture are given by the pro- fessor in charge. ■ The industrial building contains a laboratory fitted up for the special accommodation of students in agriculture. The design of this course is to make better farmers and create such love for farm life that young men will not be too ready to leave the coun- try and go into the overcrowded cities. The industiial building is equipped with a 25-horsepower engine, a dynamo capable of lighting 250 lamps each of 16-candle power, a cir- cular saw, lathes, and work benches, with outfits of tools for work in wood. Students in this department pursue a regular course in wood- work, iron, and mechanical drawing. They are under the direction of a competent instructor and produce articles to be sold at the market price. They are made familiar with the use of tools, and taught how to care for them and how to keep them in order. The electric-light plant is run entirely by the students and by it all the buildings are lighted. A steam-heating plant, also run by the students, heats the various buildings. The facilities for becoming acquainted with the business of pi'inting are good. A large cylinder press, run by steam, does the heavier work, such as catalogues and newspapers, while a job press turns out TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION UNITED STATES, 335 programmes, letterheads, billheads, circulars, posters, etc., to meet the demands of trade. The work is under the direction of a practical printer, who teaches J'oung men and j'oung women not only how to handle type, but also to make up forms and operate the presses. One large room is devoted exclusively to dressmaking. A teacher of practical experience superintends the work. Opportunity is given to students to acquire skill in cutting and fitting, provided they have had sufficient practice in the use of the needle. Persons who are not students in the college may take lessons by paying the same tuition as in the literary department. Lessons in plain sewing are given daily to all the girls in classes from the second year primary to the eighth year training, inclusive. Lessons in dressmaking are given daily to all the girls in the noi'mal and collegiate departments. The smaller boys, also, of the training school, sew. Pupils in classes below the fourth year training are given models which include all the stitches used in i^lain sewing. These models follow one another in regular order. Pupils who have not yet passed from the models make articles which include only such stitches as they have already taken iip in the models. The sewing machine is used b}' a few who are most familiar with the use of the needle. All the work is done under strict inspection, and no garment is allowed to leave the room without examination by the teacher. In addition to the regular cooking for the boarding department, all of which is done by the students under the direction of a superin- tendent, special instruction is given in a course of scientific cooking. The chemistry of foods, the principles of healthful preparation of food, courses in plain cooking, invalid cooking, and fancy cooking are taught in this department. In the college year of 1900-01, for which the facts presented in this report were gathered, the number of pupils in each of the trade courses was as follows: Agriculture, 17; mechanical, 16; printing, 16; sewing and dressmaking, 68; cooking, 50. The total number of stu- dents in the college was 301. There have been about 200 graduates, but none in the industrial courses, as they have not been established long enough. The general management is in the hands of the president and fac- ulty, of which there are 26 members, 9 of whom are instructors in the industrial courses. There are 9 buildings, including, besides the dormitories and recitation hall, the president's cottage, a barn, a heat- ing plant, and an industrial building. The college property, includ- ing buildings, grounds, etc. , is valued at 1110,000. The annual cost of maintaining the college is $13,000, which is obtained to the extent of $10,000 per annum from the church and $3,000 per year from the Universitjr of Tennessee. Students are admitted at any time on certificate or examination. The State is divided into 33 senatorial districts, and each senator has 336 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. the pi'ivilege of appointing two colored students, male or female, to the State normal scholarships, so that 66 in all may be appointed, each for two j^ears. The applicant must be at least 16 years old, and will receive $50 credit on board and tuition if in school eight months. Necessary expenses are, for day students, $1 incidental fee per term and 50 cents tuition per term; for boarding students, board, fuel, light, room, and tuition (if paid a term in advance), 119.50 for each of the first and second terms and $19 for the third term, a total of $58; if not paid in advance, expenses are, incidental fee $1, and board, etc., $6.85 for each school month of four weeks. Students remaining through the holiday week pay $1.50 for the week. Five or six dollars more may be required for books, postage, stationer}", and mending. Extra charges are made for instruction in music. With economy an}' student is able to remain during a school year for $70. Some by doing extra work manage to earn $10 to $30 during the 3'ear. It is believed that an improvement can be made by enlarging the agricultural department. More land has been purchased, and a dairy is to be opened. More funds to be applied to industrial training are needed. Agriculture is the only industrj^ in the locality of the school that has been benefited by its establishment so far. Graduates have built homes and own farms and cultivate them intelligently as a result of the school training. The example of the school has dis- seminated a healthful feeling, and manual labor is no longer looked on as disgraceful by the colored people in the locality of the school. In some instances those who have received the industrial training have, to the knowledge of officials of the school, been preferred by emploj-ers to shop-trained workmen. WILEY TJNIVEKSITY, MAESHALL, TEX. This, institution was chartered in 1873 bj- the Freedmen's Aid and Southern Education Society of the Methodist Episcopal Church. This school has a college department, a college preparatory depart- ment, a normal course, an English course, a theological course, special Bible courses, a department of music, and an industrial department. The industrial department gives instruction in printing, shoemaking, farming and gardening, carpentry, sewing, and dressmaking. Of the foregoing the trades of printing and dressmaking are claimed to be fully taught. During the year 1900-01 there were 18 pupils in print- ing and 50 in dressmaking. There have been 30 graduates in these two trades. The facult}' numbers 21, and of these 3 are employed in teaching the trades mentioned. This school is open to the youth of the colored race of both sexes. Applicants for admission must bring evidence of good moral character, and no student under 14 j^ears of age will be admitted except by special arrangement with the president. TKADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION — UNITED STATES. 337 Students upon entering the school must deposit with the president sufficient money to cover one month's expense. Expenses for boarding students: Boys — board, room rent, light, fuel, washing, and incidentals, per month, |10.50; girls, who may do their own washing in the laun- dry — board, etc., <|9.50 per month. Expenses for day students: First and second grades, 50 cents per month; third grade, 75 cents per month; all other grades, fl.25 per month. Industrial department: Stenography, fl per month; typewiiting, $1 per month; stenography and typewriting when taken together, $1.50 per month; printing, 50 cents per month; shoetaaking, entrance fee, $2. Graduating fee: Col- lege courses, $5; normal courses, |2.60. The building used by the industrial department, with its equipment, cost $1,200, and the cost of maintenance is $900 per annum. The funds are raised by fees, subscriptions, and contributions from the Methodist Episcopal Church. It is said that the industrial department could be improved by per- fecting the courses and increasing the number of trades fully taught, and that the outlook is hopeful. There are but few industries in the vicinity of the school. Several of the graduates have gone out as dress- makers, cooks, printers, cobblers, etc., and are doing well. Most of them have located at a distance from the school and exert an influence for good. The work of printing and dressmaking has been greatly improved in the locality of the school, owing to the example of the methods taught therein. The systematic way in which the school grad- uates do their work causes them to be preferred by employers to other employees, and they are not obliged to pass through a period of apprenticeship. AKMSTBOUG AND SLATEK MEMORIAL TRADE SCHOOL, HAMPTON NORMAL AND AGRICULTURAL INSTITUTE, HAMPTON, VA. This institution was established by Gen. S. C. Armstrong, at Hamp- ton, Va. , in 1868. Its primary purpose was to give to j'^oung colored men and women who had emerged from slavery the right kind of instruction in good conduct, in the rudiments of book knowledge, and in the plain tasks that go with farming, the ordinarjr handicrafts, and the duties of home and f amil}''. There was also an imperative need of negro teachers in the county public schools who could show the people by example, as well as by precept, how to live and how to get land and build decent houses. With the advancement of the colored race more thoi'oughly equipped teachers were wanted, not only for public schools but for workshops, and for the industrial and agricultural schools that have started up throughout the South. In 1870 this mstitution was chartered by the general assembly of Virginia. It is not owned or controlled by State or Government, but bj^ a board of 17 9267—02 22 338 BEPORT OP THE COMMISSIONER OP LABOR. trustees, representing- different sections of the country, and & religious denomin-ations, no one of which haa a majority. The more iaipor- tant matters of finance are referred to the executive committee of the board, and all endowment funds are cared for by the investment com- mittee in New York City. All moneys from legacies are placed in the endowment funds, or, in rare cases, when unrestricted, used for permanent improvements. A board of curators is appointed by the governor of Virginia to report to the State on the use of $10,000, interest on one-third of the land-scrip fund of Virginia, appropriated to the school toward the agricultural and mrlitaTy training of its students. In 18TS the institution was opened to Indians, and experience soon showed that their association with the young negroes was not only fea- sible but in many ways mutually beneficial. The United States Gov- ernment has now for many years contributed annually toward the support of a considerable number of Indian boys and girls, averaging somewhere between 16 and 20 years of age. It maintains 120 Indians at the school, paying $167 per annum for each one, which smm meets the cost of board and clothing. From 10 to 20 more are educated here without expense to the Government. Instruction in the school was at first academic and normal, and other courses have been added from time to time. Manual training formed a part of the regulai- instruction, but this kind of education was aot sufiicientlj'' industrial. The fact was recognized that there was danger that the blacks would lose the trades, which were their best inheritance from slaver}', unless industrial education was pushed; and. it was also felt that a training in the trades must prove an inestimable advantage to the Indian in his eiiort to raise his standard of living and adjust himself to the changed conditions of his race. The regular teaching of trades was therefore taken up and a trade school opened in March, 1897, for which a special building was erected, called the Armstrong and Slater Memorial Trade School. All trade-school students are required to devote nine hours each day to their trades and two hours to recitations in the night school. A cer- tificate IS given to each student who satisfactorily completes the required amount of work in anj^ of the courses. The length of each trade course is three j'ears. Tuition free of charge is provided for all deserving students, but payment for board, clothes, and schoolbooks is required in cash. Expenses are as follows: Board, including wash- ing, fuel, light, and medical attendance and a limited amount of drugs, $10 per month; books, $5 in advance at the beginning of each school year. There is an opportunity, in the various industries carried on, for able-bodied students to earn from $2 to |3 per month toward their board, but the school does not promise this in any case. The rate of wages varies according to the real value of the work done, and students' labor for pay is accepted only when satisfactory. Students TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION — UNITED STATES. 339 are required to purchase a school uniform, the cost of which is $13.50. Students are lialble to fine, reprimand, confinement, or other neces- sary punishment. Labor is required of all for the sake of discipline and instruction. Every student who enters the school agrees to sub- mit to its discipline. The first year is especially probationar}'. Stu- dents may be sent home at any time for inability to keep up with their classes, for unsatisfactory conduct, or for bad influence over othei'S. Courtesy and mutual forbearance are expected of all. Aj)plicants for admission must be at least 16 years of age and must pass the required examinations. Sound health, testimonials of good character, and the expressed intention to remain through the entire course are required of all. Applications for instruction in special trades will be given due attention, but the desired trade can not always be granted at once. The trade school offers courses in the following departments: Car- pentry, painting, wheelwrighting, blacksmithing, machine work, tailor- ing, bricklaying, plastering, shoemaking, harness making, steam engineering. The advantage of entering the trade school is that one can take up a trade by logical and systematic steps from beginning to end. Each department is free to teach fundamental principles; by the careful application of which to commercial work and by constant drill in the use of tools it is claimed the student has a far better chance of a well- rounded training than under the apprenticeship sj'stem. In addition to the above there is great opportunity for experience in the various productive industries on the school grounds. These industries are directly under the control of the institute and are open to the trade-school students, who are expected, as a part of their respective courses, to spend in them a portion of their time. The trade school, through the munificence of its friends, has one of the best equipments of tools and appliance's to be found in the countrj^, and ti-ies to carry out Hampton's underlying thought of providing such an education as will be a help not only to the individual, but through him to his race. The following lines are followed in the trade courses: Actual work at the bench; instruction in the kinds, grades, and prices of mate- rials used; mechanical drawing, which, as far as possible, bears on each trade; drill in competitive labor. The academic or night-school work required in connection with the training at the trades consists of drill in arithmetic, language, science, geography, histor}', pen- manship, etc. The detailed courses in the different trades taught are shown in the following statements: Carpentry. — Each carpentry student has a bench containing a kit of tools, the use and care of which lie is carefully taught by exercises in planing, nailing, boring, sawing, gluing, making joints, etc. ^Vhen a certain proficiency is reached, a house 340 RErOET Olf THE COMMISSIONEB OE LABOR. or barn is erected, either inside or outside the- trade school, and each boy has an opportunity to apply what he has learned to actual house construction in such exer- cises as laying off foundations, including running lines, setting batters, leveling and squaring; laying off, framing, and putting into place the framework of a house — as sills, studding, floor joints, plates, and rafters, including hip, valley, and jack rafters; closing in and exterior work — as sheathing, shingling, weatherboarding, putting on cornices, making and setting door and window frames, scroll and ornamental work, porch and piazza work, and step building; interior work — as laying floor, casing openings, making and hanging sashes, blinds, and doors, wainscoting, mantel work, stair work, including newels, rails, and balusters, laying out and constructing stair- way; miscellaneous work — as fence building, truss construction, etc. All work is done from drawings. Lectures with incidental study are given on topics connected with the trade, as foundations, chimneys, trusses, moldings, hardware, painting and glazing, wood and other materials. An excellent opportunity is afforded to study the manufacture of lumber from the log to finish, as the institute owns and operates a large saw and planing mill with dry kilns and the various machines for the manufacture of building lumber. P.MXTiNG. — The room in which painting is taught is fitted up with twelve booths, each one of -nhich represents a good-sized room. One side of each room is made up like the outside finish of a house, so that in every booth there is a chance to learn something of outside painting and calcimiuing. On the walls of the main room is ample space for brick penciling, stenciling, and other forms of decoration. The members of the paint class are allowed to supplement their training by work in the institute paint shop. From this shop they are sent out aa regular painters to the various buildings, some sixty in all, that belong to the institute, a plan which pro- vides as good an opportunity of applying the trade as could well be found. Enough is given in this course to enable the student to become an intelligent painter of houses, and instruction is given besides, to a limited extent, in graining, hard-wood finishing, calcimining, and frescoing. The theory of paints, their manufacture and adulteration, and lessons on the mixture and harmony of colors are given as time permits. Carriage painting may be taken, if desired. Bkicklaying axd Plastering. — In this, as in the carpentry and painting courses, the greatest stress will be laid on plain house work, including foundations, walls, arches, and chimneys. The course of instruction in bricklaying includes the proper use of the ordinary bricklayer's tools; making mortar beds and boards, building scaffolds, screening sand, slacking lime, use of coloring material, selecting brick, choice of lime and sand, spreading mortar, use of cement, cleaning brick; brick pave- ment, laying foundations with footings, using bond rod, English and Flemish; use of stretcher, headers, halfheaders, rowlocks, and ties; laying piers, setting window and door frames; laying pressed brick front, trimming joints with pointing trowel and straightedge; laying off and building arches, square, banded, gothic, circular, and inverted; building chimneys and stacks, square, round, and octagon; ornamental work, terra cotta and tile work; laying drain pipes, culverts, wells, and cisterns; cleaning walls with acid; setting bake oven and boiler; fireplace work, and arched roof work, barrel and dome. In plastering the instruction covers making mortar and putty, use of hair, lathing, plastering walls and ceilings, plastering to grounds and to finish, scratch coating, second and third coating, floating, hard finish, sand finish, stucco work, and running cornice. Lectures include the general subjects relating to building, as in the carpentry course, and other topics especially connected with bricklaying and plastering. HousB Building. — This course is arranged to combine a knowledge of carpentry, brick-laying, plastering, painting, metal roofing, and gutter work, and the courses of instruction are abridged from the respective departments in which the student is employed. This department is designed for young men who may wish to settle m TRADE ASTD TECHNICAL EDUCATION UNITED STATES. 341 small communities where a knowledge of. several different trades will be of benefit, or for those who wish to become contractors and who desire a general knowledge of the building trades. Wheelwrighting. — This course is intended to fit one to be able to handle the work that is found in the ordinary country or city shop. The student is expected to be able to build a farm wagon or a plain carriage from beginning to end. An opportu- nity is given for a partial course in blacksmithing to go with this course, so that the student will know what is needed to properly iron up his work. It is well, too, for the wheelwright to know something of plain carriage painting, and an extra year in the paint shop is advised if it can be afforded. Instruction begins with the care and use of the general wheelwright's tools, in working out the common processes and principles of woodwork, following the course given in carpentry. There then fol- lows the application of these principles in constructing the parts of a wheelbarrow, as handles, bars, legs, spokes, and rims, and putting the same together; laying out and making the parts of cart frames, as sills, standards, and rails; riveting and bolt- ing together, laying out and making ribbed wagon body, framework, and panels; laying out and constructing wagon gear, including perch, head block, and axle bed, the platform gear, with futchels, bedpiece, splinter bar, spring blocks, and circle blocks for fifth wheel; carving scrolls on spring bars, side bars, and head blocks; making shafts, including bending; making cart wheel, including shaving spokes; working out rims; laying out and mortising hub, and putting the parts together. Exercises are worked out from drawings. Lectures and study on vehicles, wood, and other materials used, ironwork as applied to wheelwrighting, carriage painting and trimming, and other topics connected with the trade. Blacksmithing'. — Instruction is given in the care of fire, the best fuels, proper heat; care and use of the general blacksmith's tools, including the working out of the following processes: Drawing out, upsetting, bending, twisting, punching, cut- ting off, squaring up, scarfing, welding, brazing, casehardening, tempering, anneal- ing, heading and threading bolts, making and tapping nuts, riveting, hack sawing, tire setting. These processes receive further application in forging staples, gate hcoks, hasps, anchors, cleats, hammers, eyebolts, collars, chains, punches, wheel tires, springs, general carriage work, lathe tools, and horseshoeing. Work is done from drawings as far as possible. Lectures on such topics as combustion of fuels, construction of metals, strength of materials, tempering and annealing, arrangement and equipment of shops, power forging, tracking of wheels, artistic forging, specifica- tions, and estimates. In addition to the above a departinent of scientific horseshoeing has been added and each student before he can finish his trade takes his turn at this work. The course in horseshoeing covers the following ground: Stripping and preparing foot to receive new shoe and nailing in place to give correct lines to agree with pastern and leg; making shoes from horseshoe iron, and special shoes to overcome difficulties with the feet, such as corns, quarter cracks, contractions, etc. ; study of diseases of the feet and remedies which can be suggested through good shoeing; shoeing to over- come difficulties in the gait, such as interfering, kneeknocking, stumbling, etc. Machinist's Trade. — The course of instruction in the machine shop is as follows: Vise work: Instruction will be given in laying out work to drawings and in the proper use and care of tools, as the chisel, square, file, scraper, and hack saw. The exercises include cape chiseling, broad chiseling, roughing out with file, filing to a line, draw filing, finishing, squaring up, polishing with file and emory cloth, hack sawing, bolt threading,' nut tapping, scraping, plane-surface fitting, slide fitting, riveting, key-way cutting, tool making, as dividers and calipers. In addition to the above, each student is given some instruction in forging chisels, lathes, and plane tools, annealing, and tempering. Special lathe work: This includes small drilling, tapping, knurling, filing, and polishing. A course is given in hand tool work, such 342 EEPOBT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOE. as small screws, thumb nuts, binder posts, and handles. Drill press work: This includes drilling to given depths, blocking out with drill, center drilling, counter- sinking, counterboring, etc. Shaper and planer work: Cutting off work, planing to dimensions, squaring, inside work, bevel planing, inside keyway, planing T slots, and work requiring the use of surface gauge. Lathe work: Proper use of the lathe, straight cutting, shoulder cutting, tapers, eccentrics, chuck and face plate work, cutting thread (inside and outside), use of boring bar, polishing, use of center rest. Care of tool room: The check system is used in issumg tools and the students take turns in the care of this room, which includes keepmg the tools in order. Repair work; The greater part of the repair work from the saw and planing mills and from other departments on the grounds is done by the students, vv'hich gives an excellent opportunity for practice. JSfev.' work: A speed lathe and emery grinder have already been built by students. Also many new tools, jigs, and special machines. This year it is expected that a small marine engine will be built, besides some other special tools. Steam Exgineemng. — This course embraces (1) care and management of boilers, including building, stoking, drawing, and banking fires, regulating draft, water supply, and steam pressure, using injector, inserting water gauges under pressure, blowing flues, scraping or cleaning tubes, safety-valve adjustment, patching and calking boilers, inserting and expanding boiler tubes, packing valves; (2) practice in running and caring for engines, making steam connections, setting slide valve, giving proper lap and lead, setting eccentric, arranging for the proper cutting off, filling oil cups, speeding governors, fitting belts, lining up, taking indicator cards, and calculating indicated horsepower. This course is intended to fit men to run boilers or engines in connection with mills, electric-light plants, farms, etc. Harness Making and Caehiage Trimming. — In this course situdents are taken through the processes or steps leading to the making of A'arious kinds of harness and to carriage trimming, following which application of the processes is given on harness and carriage work. Instruction and practice are given in making threads, cutting, skiving, and rounding edges of strap, punching, putting on loop and buckle and stitch- ing same, making simple parts of harness, as hame strap, breeching strap, and girth; making folded bodies, iuclnding making and using patterns in cutting lays, stitching, straight and figured creasing, skiving and sewing up waved and straight raised lays, applying these in breeching, girth, breast collar, lacing in soft cheek loops, etc.; practice in saddle work — as in express, buggy, or couple harness, using tree, cutting skirts from patent or harness leather or cloth, covering reed and binding saddle, stufiing with hair, tufting, stitching, putting in billets and terrets; practice on round work such as gag, face, and winker rounds, round hip strap, trace, rein, and bridle; practice in cushion work, trimming shafts, leathering dashers and fenders, making falls, lazy back cushions, etc., work on buggy and extension tops, carts, saddles, and other harness and carriage work; lectures and study on leather, kinds and styles of harness, drafting harness, estimating cost, etc. Shoemaking. — In this course practice and instruction are given in the steps lead- ing to the production of a shoe, as follows; (1) Making waxed ends, using bristles, proper position for stitching, use of the awl, practice in sewing, cutting, skiving, and putting on patches with cement, nailing and pegging soles, sewing welt to upper, sewing sole to welt, using sewing machine in stitching upper leather, putting in lining, punching and putting eyelets and hooks, taking old shoes apart, learning the names of parts and the methods of putting them together, practice in cutting lifts and soles, making rands, welts, and counters, finishing edge, sandpapering, buffing and coloring soles, lasting (using slips for upper); (2) cutting uppers by pattern, stitch- ing, lasting, bottoming, and finishing a pegged shoe of ordinary grade; (3) measuring foot, fitting last, developing patterns, selecting stock — as u]iper, soles, counters, felt, thread, etc. — cutting out stock, and making sewed shoe to measurements. TBADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION UNITED STATES. 343 Tailoring. — Applicants for this trade will take up the work as follows: First year: Technical work in sewing; free-hand drawing; the study of woolens, with occa- sional talks on business methods and etiquette. Second year: Sewing, free-hand drawing, the study of fabrics, study of the cost of garments, practical examples in estimating materials and cost of suits, study of the form, drafting by regular measurements, alterations. Third year: Test of the student's executive ability, and special practice and instruction in the details of running a successful business. Practical talks are given from time to time in regard to the purchase of goods. During this year as much productive work as possible is given the student. The following is a list of some of the details of the course: Correct position of the workman, proper method of threading needle, position of needle and thimble while sewing, practice in machine running, care of machine, stitching used in making a suit of clothes — as plain basting, close basting, seaming or fuU back stitch to one sixteenth, side stitch, felling stitch, serging, herringbone, feather edge, making buttonholes, cord, flat, round, and feather edge, sewing on buttons of different kinds, as the neck, eyelet, and flat face. Application of these processes is given in parts of garments. First, practice on parts of pantaloons, such as hip pocket, side pocket, top pocket, watch pocket, button fly, buttonhole fly,i waistband, straps, turning up bottom, filling in parts of the trinmiing, seat lining, protection in the bottom, front buckle, pressing, shrinking, and taking out suppressions. These principles are applied in making a pair of pantaloons. Application is then given of the simple processes in the parts of a vest, as in making welt, patch, and faced pocket, putting in stiffening, stay tape to hold front, making and putting on collar, back strap, and buckle, joining back and front, after which a vest is made. Application of processes follows in parts of a sack coat, as flaps, cash and ticket pockets, breast pockets, inside and outside, putting in can- vas, stay tape, sleeve vent, and cuffs, fitting trimming, fitting sleeve and adjusting fullness, regulating looseness of lining, padding, springing of shoulders, and pressing of seams, top and bottom collar, stitching around edge, and necessary pressing. These principles are then applied in a sack coat. In repair work practice is given in patching, darning, splicing, inserting round, square, and triangular patches to match stripes, putting on braid, half and half, flat and cord, scrubbing, cleaning, pressing, and sponging. Taking measurements and drafting garments are associated with the training. This includes the use of straight and curved Unes and the fitting of ends and notches to secure the correct results. Mechanical Dkawing. — The course in mechanical drawing is given as a part of the training of all trade students. Tailors, shoeniakers, harnessmakers, and painters have free-hand drawing in addition. The drawing is arranged with a view of giving the student a general knowledge of working drawings, preparing him to interpret intelligently drawings placed before him, and to cultivate his ability to make working drafts, plans, elevations, and sections of tools, buildings, machines, wagons, and other work in the line of his trade, and to build according to the same. The course comprises the study of projection, plans, elevation, and sections; practice in free-hand sketching (projectives); spacing and drawing straight and curved lines; making joints between straight lines, between straight lines and curves, and between curved lines; making block letters; geometrical problems; drawing plans, elevations, and sections from the object itself, from other drawings, and from memory or original design; getting out bill of materials and estimating cost of some pieces of work actually done; designing and estimating. Oabinetmaking. — The course in cabinetmaking is open to a limited number of applicants who can show special need and aptitude for this particular trade. The first year is spent in going through the principles of carpentry and joinery. Then follows a course in wood turning, wood carving, study and design of furniture, repair- 344 REPOKT OF THE COMMISSIONEK OF LABOB. ing of furniture, and the actual construction of cabinets, tables, bookcases, etc. French polishing, staining, and finishing of woods are also introduced. It is in general understood that a student entering one of the above trade-school courses will confine himself to his particular line of work throughout the course. Legitimate combinations of the various courses are permissible when approved by the officers of the school. For instance, wheelwrighting and blacksmithing are combined; also, harness and shoe making, and carpentry, bricklaying, plastering, and painting. In addition to the trade-school courses, other courses teaching trades or occupations are given in the institution as follows: Course in electricity, aimed to prepare handy "workers at the art; courses in tin- smithing and printing in connection with the school industries; courses in sewing, cooking, and laundry work for girls who wish to learn these trades; courses in agriculture, horticulture, and dairying. The detailed description of many of these courses follows: Electkical Course. — A technical and practical course in the useful applications of electricity comprises wiring for electric bells, lights, etc. ; construction and management of telephones, dynamos, and motors; management of small electric plants; electrotyp- ing and electroplating; telegraphy; construction and repair of electrical devices in gen- eral use. The apparatus of this course includes the electrical instruments, devices, etc., which are found in daily use. The physical laboratory is furnished ■\vith a complete electrical plant. TiNSMiTHiNG. — Instruction is given in the care and use of tinner's tools, working out the processes entering into general tin work, as roof covering, conveying of water, manufacture of tinware, setting up. stoves, and pump work. It includes pattern cut- ting, folding on break, soldering, riveting, brazing, burring, double seaming, forming on rollers, hand seaming, beading, bending, and mitering. Enough practical work is found on the school grounds to give good drill in the manj' applications of the tinner's trade. Feinting. — Ajsplicants for this trade must pass the examination for entrance to the middle class. Instruction and practice are given in presswork, including making ready and running jobs on small job press; at the case in plain composition — as learning cases, sizes, and faces of type, proper position for holding composing stick, setting type, justifying, emptying stick, and putting on galley; leading, arranging in chase, locking up, proving and correcting proof., cleaning and care of type, distrib- uting dead matter, etc., reading proof, making ready and running cylinder press; check and order book binding, book composition, and imposition. Application of these principles is given in the varied work of the printing ofiSce, as setting and printing note heads, billheads, circulars, envelopes, posters, bills of fare, tabular work, blanks, color work, tablet binding, etc. Lectures, reading, and study include topics connected with general printing, as stereotyping, electrotyping, various proc- esses of cut making, estimates, stock, etc. Instruction in the several agricultural courses is given by means of text-books, lectures, and practice work; class-room work is illustrated by means of specimens, models, charts, photographs, etc. As far as possible each student is required to put in practice the principles taught in the class room. Students taking the courses in agriculture are required to put a certain number of hours each week into recita- tion, study, drawing, and practice work. Practice is an important and prominent feature of the course, and for pure practice the student receives no wages. After meeting the TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION — UNITED STATES. 345 requirements as to recitation, drawing, practice, etc., the student is given an opportunity to do necessary woric- in the department, and is paid according to his ability and the actual time spent in doing the worlc, being thus enabled to earn something toward paying for board and incidental expenses. Tuition is free. Twenty acres of ,land have been devoted especially to practice work. Four acres of this have been laid out as a small model farm. Ten acres have been planted with small and orchard fruits and the remainder is used for experiment and illustration in the growing of farm, truck, and garden crops. In the new domestic science building the department of agriculture has six large rooms, a museum and lecture room, a lab- oratorj'- for chemistry and physics, a laboratory for botany, horticul- ture, and entomologj'^, a farm laboratory, a dairy, and a farm engineer- ing room. The department has also two greenhouses. Aside from these the institute has two large farms, which together cover about 700 acres, equipped with buildings, dairy stock, horses, hogs, and poultrJ^ AGRICULTURAL COURSE NO. 1. This course covers a period of tliree years and is intended for students who wish to fit themselves to be agricultural teachers and superintendents. The course is as follows: Theoretical chemistry of the nonmetallic and metallic elements. Chemistry of soils, plants, animals, manures, and fertilizers. Labora- tory work on the preparation and properties of the nonmetals, qualitative separation of the metals, and quantitative tests of simple minerals, salts, dairy products, and fertilizers. Structure and habits of growth of the crops and weeds of the farm. In- sects injurious and beneficial to agriculture. Farm management, farm buildings, fences, roads, repairs, etc. Farm accounts, business forms, etc. Origin and physical properties of soils, tillage, manures, rotation of crops. Farm drainage. History, uses, and culture of various farm crops; modification of plants by soils, climate, and culture; propagation of plants. Gardening and trucking — soil, variety of crops, cul- ture, market, etc. ; forcing vegetables under glass. Propagation, planting, pruning, care, and marketing of orchard and small fruits. Floriculture, ornamental garden- ing. Care, management, and breeds of dairy stock, horses, swine, poultry, and sheep; composition of feeding stuffs; principles of stock feeding; prhiciples of stock breeding; diseases of live stock. Dairy stock — breeding, care, management. Dairy bacteriology. Milk — composition, sterilization, pasteurization, care, testing, cream- ing; ripening the cream, churning, working, packing, and marketing the butter. Cheese making. Dairy utensils — separator, churn, butter workers, cream vats, etc. Elementary agricuUural course. This course is required of all students who take the academic course. Junior year: An aggregate of five months during fall and spring are devoted to introducing the pupils of this class .to plant life, soils, and insect life. The object of the work is to arouse an interest in nature and to teach some facts which are useful on the farm. The following is a brief detail of the topics studied: Plant life — principal parts of plants and the use of these parts to man; how these parts grow and what they do for the plant; conditions necessary for each part to make its best growth and to do its best work for the plant and for man; how to bring about these conditions on the farm. Soils — relation of soils to plants; sand, clay, humus; how 346 BEPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. eoils are made; work of sun, water, ice, air, plants, and earthworms in making soils; soil conditions which affect plant growth; relation of soil to water, heat and air; plant food in the soil; how to bring about and maintain soil conditions which favor plant growth. Insect life — general structure, metamorphosis, and habits are studied in grasshoppers, squash bugs, beetles, flies, bees, moths, and butterflies; the habits of other insects common on the farm are studied as they are found during field ex- cursions. These three divisions of the subject are not taught as separate and distinct topics, an attempt being made to impress the student with thfe close relations exist- ing between them and the interdependence of each on the others. The work is conducted by observation and experiment in field and classroom, by written exer- cises, and by discussions. Middle year: Farm manures — barnyard manures, composts, green crop manures. Commercial fertilizers — sources of nitrogen, sources of phosphoric acid, sources of potash, sources of lime. Plows and plowing, harrows and harrowing, rollers and rolling. Seed planting, seed testing, transplanting. The after cultivation of crops, tools and methods. Soil moisture, relation to plant growth, conservation. Rotation of crops, its desirability, benefits derived, systems of rotation. Senior year: The course of this year is partially elective. Students, acting under the guidance and advice of the faculty', are permitted to choose three, or not more than four, of the following subjects: Plant diseases, their nature, causes, and preven- tion; injurious insects, their nature, methods of destroying plants, insect remedies; dairy; breeds, care, and management of poultry, sheep, and swine; principles of stock feeding; principles of stock breeding. For the benefit of those who are unable to spare the time for the three years' course in agriculture, shorter courses in agriculture, hor- ticulture, and dairying have been arranged as follows: AGEICtTLTUKAL COUESE NO. 2. Length of course one year, as follows: English branches as taught in the academic course. Mechanical drawing. Manual training. Chemistry of soils, plants, ani- mals. Soils, origin, physical properties, tillage. Drainage. Manures and fertilizers. Farm crops, history, uses, culture. Breeding, selection, management, diseases, prin- ciples of feeding of farm stock) feeding stuffs, soiling of stock. Farm accounts, busi- ness forms, etc. Barns, stables, silos. Farm management. HORTICULTURAL COURSE. Length of course one year, as follows: English branches as taught in the academic course. Mechanical drawing. jManual training. Structure and habits of growth of plants. Jlodification of plants by soil. Propagation of plants by seeds, cuttmgg, grafting. Gardening and trucking, soils, v.irieties, crops, culture, marketing, grow- ing .vegetables under glass. Orchard and small fruits, propagation, planting, prun- ing, spraying, care, marketing. Floriculture. Ornamental gardening. DAIRYING COUESE. Length of course one year, as follows: English. Mechanical drawing. Manual training. Breeding, care, management of dairy stock. Dairy bacteriology. Milk- composition, sterilization, pasteurization, care, testing, creaming. Ripening the cream, churning, working, packing, marketing the butter. Cheese making. Sep- arator, churn, butter workers, cream vats, etc. The trade school offers to boys from 10 to 17 years old, who live in the immediate vicinity, instruction in the following trades during the TBADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION UNITED STATES. 347 months of July and August: Manual training, carpentry, blacksmith- ing, wheelwrightlng, and shoemaking. The students in these classes work from 9 until 12 every morning in the week except Saturday. It is not expected in this summer course to turn out finished work- men, but it is hoped that the instruction will lead up to the taking of a full trade as a regular student, and that incidentally much useful knowledge will be acquired. In addition to the regular teaching of trades and occupations as cited, an opportunity for work and practice at certain trades is pro- vided in the department of productive industry. This department is conducted as a business enterprise and includes industries, open to students who have passed a year in the trade school or training depart- ment, as follows: A wheelwright and blacksmith shop; a tin shop; a tailoring department; a shoe shop; a harness shop; a paint shop; a machine shop; a bricklaying and plastering department; the Hunting- ton Industrial Works, including a sawmill and lumber yard, a planing mill, and a carpentry and cabinet shop; a carpentry and repair shop; the normal school press; the engineering department; farming; the sewing and furnishing department; housework, etc. These industries afford the opportunity of learning how productive industries are managed, of making practical application of the princi- ples learned in the trade school, and incidentally of earning wages. Details of these industries are as follows: The wlieelwright and blacksmith shop, with its two departments, is engaged in manufacturing carriages, wagons, and carts for the school and for local trade, in gen- eral repair work, and in horseshoeing. The wheelwright department has an outfit of general wheelwright tools and benches, and employs about 8 workmen. The tin shop has charge of the general tin and stove work connected with the institution — as the making and repairing of utensils, laying and repairing tin roofing, making and hanging conductors, making stovepipe, setting up stoves, and other shop and general outside repair work. The tailoring depar,tment employs about 20 students. It furnishes the uniforms of the cadets, manufactures citizens' suits for school and outside trade, and does custom work in general, making yearly upward of 1,500 garments. It also does scouring, pressing, repairing, and similar work for the school and for the outside trade, also the designing of patterns. The shoe shop is engaged in the manufacture of handmade shoes, both work shoes and fine grade, pegged and sewed, for the school and for the outside custom trade, and in general repair work. It employs about 9 students and has the ordinary outfit of tools and appliances. All the harness work of the school is done in the harness shop, including repairing and making new harnesses for farm work, driving, etc. Harnesses are also made to order for outside customers, and repair work is done for the public generally. Carriage trimming, as it is included in carriage repair work, is also done. The shop has the usual supply of tools and appliances and employs an average of 5 men. The paint shop does all the painting connected with the 50 buildings on the premises, both exterior and interior work, calcimining and paper hanging; also the painting and finishing of the product of other shops, as carts, barrows, agricultural implements, furniture, sign painting and lettering; npholstery work on chairs and other furniture, mattresses, and the like. Employment is given to about 10 men. 348 EEPORT OF THE COMMISSIONEE OF LABOR. Tlie machine shop employs about 8 or 10 students and carries on a general repair and jobbing business for the other departments of the school, and the surrounding community. All repairs to brickwork, setting boilers, repairing flues, and bake ovens, making and laying of granolithic walks, plastering old or new buildings, comes under the bricklaying and plastering department. About 10 or 15 students are employed. This year (1900) they are to lay nearly a million bricks in the addition to Virginia Hall, one oi the largest buildings on the school grounds. The above industries, except tinsmithing, are carried on in connec- tion witli the regular trade-school department, and are managed by the teachers of the same. The Huntington Industrial Works comprise three departments — the sawmill and lumber yard, the planing mill, and the carpenter and cabinet shop. The sawmill is equipped with a band saw, steam feed and conveying rolls, and automatic trimmer and sasher; it employs about 25 men, and saws annually 6,000,000 feet of lumber. This is brought to the mill in rafts, and after sawing is kiln-dried and shipped to various markets. The planing mill, with its equipment of saws, planers, matching and molding machines, is engaged in the manufacture of moldings, flooring, ceil- ing, siding, and other house finishings, for the general market, and employs about 15 men. The carpenter and cabinet shop employs about 20 workmen, and is engaged in the manufacture of window and door frames, sashes, doors, mantels, scroll work, and other interior and exterior finish, stair work, and cabinetwork, chests, bookcases, tables, etc. It has an equipment of latlies, circular, jig, and band saws, buzz and pony planers, boring, mortising, and tenoning machines, cabinet benches and tools. Yellow and white pine, poplar, and hard woods are used. The carpenter and repair shop is supplied with general carpenters' tools, circular and small saws, upright molder, and mortising machine, and employs about 20 workmen. It has charge of the general repair work of the buildings, of which there are upward of fifty, and of the furniture connected therewith; manufactures new work, as easy chairs, desks, tables, and other cabinetwork, and does a portion of the , new building. The normal school press has charge of all the school printing, as letter heads, envelopes, circulars, catalogues, outside job work, two monthly publications, and one weekly paper. The equipment consists of two cylinder presses, two job presses, a lever and steam cutter, perforator, stabber, card cutter, and wire-stitching machine. It employs about 20 men. The engineering department has the care of the steam plant for furnishing the steam for power and heat, also of the water supply. It includes the management of nine ))oilers, the running of three large and four small engines, the heating of three dry kilns and nearly all thp buildings on the premises, the running of the steam pumps connected with the water supply and sewerage, and the laying of water and steam pipes in both new and repair work. It employs an average of 17 men. The land under cultivation comprises about 700 acres — 100 at the school farm and 600 at the Hemenway farm, 5 miles distant. Corn and oats are the principal crops, with some hay and potatoes and other vegetables. The farms are stocked with 130 cows, 40 to 50 young cattle, 40 horses, and several hundred hogs and poultry. The product of butter, milk, and cream from the dairies is used in the school and supplies the local trade. Products from the greenhouse are largely shipped away, as are also other surplus products. Modern buildings, machinery, and appliances are in use at both farms. The sewing and furnishing department supplies all the bed and table linen, towels, etc., needed by the school, and fills orders for shirts and underwear for the young men and for gymnastic suits, cooking aprons, etc., needed by the young women. It employs about 15 seamstresses on full time. TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION UNITED STATES. 349 Besides the work furnished incidentally in the previously-named industries to students working for a credit balance, employment is offered both to young men and young women in the various household departments and offices. Young men are employed as waiters, cooks, and helpers in the dining rooms and kitchens, janitors, laborers about the grounds, orderlies, etc. Young women can find work in the care of rooms and corridors, and in the large steam laundry, where the weekly wash of the whole institution is done and whei-e the clothes of the young men are mended. The general management of this institution is in the hands of the principal and a faculty of 10 members, under the control of the board of trustees. The number of instructors teaching trades or occupations is as follows: The Armstrong and Slater Memorial Trade Scliool 12 The electrical department 1 Tinsmithing 1 Printing 1 Agriculture, etc 2' Department of domestic work 9 Total 26 All told, there are over 80 instructors in the institution, many of whom are graduates of normal schools, graduates of agricultural col- leges, polytechnic schools, and trade schools. In the department of productive industries the number of managers of shops, etc., is as follows: Huntington Indiistrial Works 4 Carpentry and repair shop 1 Paint shop 1 Printing office ' 1 Tin shop 1 Home farm .' 1 Hemenway farn"'. 3 Total 12 For the year 1899-1900, for which the facts shown in this report were obtained, the number of students in the diiferent courses in the trade classes was as follows: ATTEXDAXCE IX TRADE COURSES, HAMPTON NORMAL AND AGRICULTURAL INSTITUTE, 1899-1900. Trade. First year. Second year. Third year. fo^u^tl, Total. Blacksmithing 12 1 9 5 2 9 2 2 4 13 6 5 9 5 3 5 10 3 14 33 12 Carpentering 37 6 Harness making. 2' 3 3 2 2 4 5 2 3 3' 7 Macliinists 16 Painting 9 6 7 Tailoring 7 1 1 5 21 1 Wlieelwrighting 6 6 19 Total 65 34 28 46 173 350 EEPOET OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOK. The number of graduates since the establishment of the school in all its departments is 1,061. From these it is impossible to separate the number of graduates in the trades. The cost of buildings, equip- ment, etc., has been 1757,000, which includes the land, having a valua- tion of about 130,000. All of the buildings of recent construction are especially adapted for the pm-poses for which used, and were chie-fly erected by the labor of the students under the direction of the instruct- ors. One of the buildings now in process of construction, which will cost upward of ^10,000, is being built under the superintendence of one of the teachers, and the work of bricklaying, masonry, carpentry, painting, steam piping, etc., is being done mainly by the students. The total annual cost of maintaining the institution is about $150,000. The necessary funds are raised from contributions and donations of individuals, churches, etc., from one-third ijf the income of the land- scrip fund of Virginia, amounting to $10,000 annually, from money received from the United States Government for the education of 120 Indians, at $167 each per year, etc. According to the officials of the school, while some benefits have accrued to the industries of this locality as a result of the establishment of the institute, graduates engaging in trades, commercial enterprises, and obtaining remunerative employment at the shipyards in New- port News, yet the primary object of the institution is broader and aims to benefit the races represented. The students not only fill responsible positions at the trades learned, in their distant homes, but are able to instruct others of their race in the industrial and technical subjects in which thej^ have received instruction. Schools of this class have resulted in increasing the intelligence of many in the com- munity, have enabled their graduates to obtain homes, and have also promoted the social, industrial, and educational development of their localities. Hampton Institute has been a great power for good in the community. The efltect upon those Avho have attended these schools has been excellent in ever^^ respect — mentally', morally, and socially. They have received better wages in their trades than would have been possible for them to obtain without such study and training. Under equal circumstances the graduates of these schools are preferred by employers over merely shop-trained workmen. The influence of the school has been to raise the standard of work- manship and skill in the shops of this locality. Its graduates are employed at nearlj- all the trades taught, without having to undergo a previous period of apprenticeship. Schools of this character in the South have generally proved satisfactory, and every eifort is being made in everj^ line to make them more thorough and complete, and they are fast attaining the end for which they were established. TBADE AWD TECHH'ICAL EDIT CATION UNITED STATES. 351 ST. PAXri, NOSMAIi AND INDUSTRIAL SCHOOL, LAWBENCE- VILLE, VA. This school is located at Lawrenceville, a small town midway between Norfolk and Danville, Va. It was established in 1888 by the present principal, Rev. James S. Russell. Its object is said to be to educate the head, hand, and heart by giving the students a thorough, practical training in the various industrial arts in connection with a thorough English education. This school has normal, academic, and industrial departments. Those admitted to the school must be in sound health, must express an intention to remain through the course, and must present testimonials of good moral character. Tuition is free. Students are divided into two general classes, day-school and night- school students. The night-school students are again divided into two classes, work students, who expect to do work for paj^ in order to help meet their expenses, and ti-ade students. All boarding day students must pay $50 per session of nine school months, and for that amount they are furnished with board, washing, bed, room rent, fuel, lights, three sheets to each bed, two pillow slips to each pillow, one chair for each student, two pails, one broom, one and two tables, one lamp com- plete, and oil twice a week for each room. Work students pay an admission fee of $5 to cover medical and other fees for the session. Some students are allowed to work one day in each week for pay and to pay only |i ia money per month to meet their expenses. This number has to be limited, and is usually filled several months before the session opens. Day students living in the community must pay $5 per session. An average of at least one hour's -work per day is required of all students, except that day students may purchase ex- emption by paying the sum of $o per session. All work done hj stu- dents, except the average of an hour per day, is credited on their monthljr accounts. Graduates are charged $2 each for diplomas. Trade students paj^ an admission fee of $5 to cover medical and other fees for the session, and are in addition required to deposit a fee of $5 as evidence of their intention to complete their trades. This latter sum is returned to the student at the end of the first year, less any charges which maj^ be made for waste of material and fines which may be imposed for neglect of duty. Wages in the trade department are allowed according to the ability of the student and the kind of work done. The utmost economy is expected from the trade stu- dents in order that they may accumulate money for their expenses for at least one year in the day school. A portion of the earnings of stu- dents is held as a bond for the fulfillment of their purpose of getting an education at the school, and if they are expelled or leave without permission they relinquish all claim thereto. 352 KT3P0RT OF THE COMMISSIONEE OF LABOR. Students who take the trade coui-ses and attend the night school during the term of their trades are required to attend the day school the following year, working at their trades at least one hour each school day and Saturdays. This is done with the hope of graduating trade students from the normal as well as trade department. The trades taught are: Dressmaking, tailoring, sewing, domestic service, cooking, laundering, farming and gardening, machinist's trade, architectural and mechanical drawing, paintiiig, tinning, shoe- making, plumbing, printing, bricklaying and plastering, harness making, carpentr}' and joinery, wheelwrighting, cabinetmaking, black- smithing, sawmill and gristmill trade, and dairying. Details of some of these courses are as follows: Domestic Science. — All young women connected with the school take two lessons a week in plain sewing and cooking, whether making a specialty of this branch of work or not. Members of the cooking classes during class hour wear a cooking uni- form, which consists of caps, aprons, oversleeves, and print dresses. Talks are given on promptness, neatness, cleanliness, and order. CooKiKG. — First year: Elementary work, measuring, care of kitchen and fire, com- position of food, combination of food, theory and practice work in plain cooking, which consist in cooking eggs, meat, fish, soup stock, soup, macaroni with cheese, rice, potatoes, soft custard, cornstarch mold, soft doughs, baking-powder biscuits, shortcake, apple dumplings, yeast bread, baked apples, broiled steak, broiled lamb chops, beef stew, gravy, vegetables, cream sauce, griddlecakes, gingerbread, cookies, plain cake, tapioca pudding, tea, coffee, cocoa; examination. Second year: Grouping of food materials, nutritive value and cost of food, practice work in mere cooking, theory, adaptation of food to age, climate, and occupation; corn, lima beans, succotash, canning and preserving, creamed salmon, scalloped sal- mon, apple sauce, apple jelly, apple snow, baked heart, smothered beef, roast meat, hash, tomato sauce, plain suet pudding, fruit suet pudding, lemon sauce, foamy sauce, pastry, doughnuts, ■candies, orange baskets, frosting, Spanish cream, vanilla cream, ice cream, chocolate ice cream, strawberry ice cream; examination. Hakd Sewixg. — Method of threading needle, making knot, using thimble, and the length of cotton to be used in the different varieties of sewing; talk on the needle, scissors, thimble, cotton, wool, silks, and flax; different materials; muslins, linens, cambrics, lawns, nainsooks, and other fabrics; basting, overhanding, backstitching, felling, stitching, overcasting, gathering, stroking gathers, and putting on bands, and which way bands must be cut, making buttonholes, eyelet hooks, and sewing on buttons, putting in gussets, herringbone and different fancy stitches, turning down hem by measure, and when to use a mitered corner, hemming and running French fell, hemstitching, and darning. After a student has completed the models she is expected to measure, cut, and make a suit of underwear; examination. Pupils must provide for themselves a workbox or basket for their sewing articles, which must contain a pair of scissors, buttonhole scissors, tapeline, needles, thread, and darning cotton. Laundering. — The course is intended to give each young woman in the school a knowledge of laundry work for use either in her own home or elsewhere. The work is as follows: Chemistry of making cold and boiled starches; assorting and putting clothes in soak; how to wash body, bed, and table linen, flannels, silks, laces, mus- lins, ginghams, prints, sprinkling, folding and ironing; examination. Dkessmaking. — This class is designed to instruct those who have a knowledge of hand and machine sewing. Lessons in taking measure; lessons in drafting a tight- TEADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION UNITED STATES. 353 fitting basque; basque with two underarms; lessons in tracing and cutting out mate- rials; lessons in basting seams and joining the different parts; matching plaids, striped and figured materials; stitching and pressing a waist; boning and binding seams; putting on collars; putting sleeves in waist; trimmings, etc.; examination; instruction on combination of colors, on choice of material, making and hanging skirts, lining and interlining skirts, making various kinds of trimmings for skirts, etc. ; talks on form. Agbicultuee. — Practical farming and gardening have been carried on by a number of young men with fairly satisfactory results. Facilities for instruction and practice, embracing implements, stock, and material, are being added from time to time, until this department becomes well equipped. The school owns 1,700 acres of land, about one-eighth of which is in cultivation, the rest being in pasturage and wood. Horticulture. — The course includes the consideration of seed, its germination, the nutrition of plants and their development from the seed to maturity; how plants are affected by heat, cold, moisture, dryness, parksites, soil, climates, etc. Atten- tion is given to transplanting, pruning, use of spraying pumps, the compounding of insecticides, and fungicides; the making of hotbeds, cold frames, tree protectors, and berry boxes; also the cultivation, preservation, and making of the various fruits and vegetables of our climate; the principal injurious insects and the methods of pre- venting their ravages. In the trade courses the instruction follows the same outline as at Hampton Institute, which has been previously given. Special attention is given to the training of domestic servants, and this is not confined to students only, but young and elderly women from the community are allowed to take the course of instruction. The management of the school is by the principal and vice-principal,^ and the total number of instructors is 27. Of these, 15 are giving instruction in the trades and occupations taught. The number of trade students for the session of 1899-1900, the period for which the facts given in this report were gathered, were as follows: Dressmaking, 19; laundering, 12; baking, 4; cooking, 8; waiting on table, 8; shoe- making, 9; blacksmithing, 8; wheel wrighting, 1; printing, 8; cabinet- making, 2; carpentry and joinery, 16; bricklaying and plastering, 6; farming and gardening, 14; sawmilling, 8; machinist's trade, 3; archi- tectural and mechanical drawing, 16. The number of graduates is 116. The cost of the buildings, most of which have been erected during the last seven years, was $45,000, that of their equipment 17,000, and the value of the property of the school is 175,000. The cost of main- taining the school in all its departments is |36,000 annually. The funds of the school are raised by appropriations by the Board of Mis- sions of the Episcopal Church, voluntary contributions from friends in the North, and fees, etc., of the students. The following information was gathered from ofiicials of the insti- tution: The courses could be improved if more means were at hand, and the outlook for improvement in the near future is good. While this institution is practically the only industrial establishment in its locality, and its influence therein is great, yet the practical benefits. 9267—02 23 354 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. resulting from the school are by no means confined to the communitj wherein it is located, but are far-reaching, as many of its graduates are from distant homes. Twenty States are represented by the students now in attendance, and there is also one stude^jt from Canada and one from Porto Rico. The school has greatly benefited the working people around it and has promoted their industrial, educational, and social development. Those who have been in the school have been benefited in that they have been lifted from a slipshod method of work as a result of their instruction. Employers generally prefer the graduates of the school asemployees, because they have a technical as well as a practical knowledge of their trades and are thus better prepared to do good work than those whose only training was gained in the shop. Its gi-aduates readily get work at their trades without undergoing a period of apprenticeship. As far as it has gone, the school has proved satisfactory and with more ample means will soon attain the end for which established. INDUSTRIAL SCHOOLS IN THE SOUTH FOR WHITES. SOTTTHEKBT IHBTJSTRIAL COLLEGE, CAMFHILL, ALA. Mindful of the need of an education which ti-ains both the mind and the hand and cognizant of the fact that such a sj^stem had done and was doing much for the colored race in the South, the Rev. Lyman Ward, of New York, started a school of this kind for the white youth of slender means at Camphill, Ala. On September 21, 1898, he opened the school in an old house of but two rooms, with 23 pupils. The beginning of the third j^ear (September, 1900) found a new building erected and occupied, 400 acres of land owned bj' the school, a faculty of 5 teachers, and nearlj' 100 pupils. The college as such was estab- lished on March 29, 1899. In the first annual report it is said: "In the founding of this school it has been our purpose to do just two things: First, to provide a thorough course of study, and, second, to provide the means for pur- suing it." • The teaching of three industries is provided for — farming, carpentry, and printing. Students taking the course in farming are required to work five hours on each school day and ten hours on Saturday. This pays in full for board and tuition. In carpentry the student will begin with the coarser kind, learn all the various grades in the trade, and be graduated a finished carpenter. Learners in this department will be required to work five hours on school days and ten hours on Saturdays. The school has a small printing plant and will give instruction to a few in the art of printing. TKADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATIOK UNITED STATES. 355 Tuition is $20 per year, and board from $5 to ^8 per month, in which cost of I'oom, lights, and fuel is included. There have been no graduates as yet from this school, and a recent interview with one of its officials elicited the information that at pres- ent there were no instructors in carpentry or printing, but it was expected that those trades would soon be taken up and taught. The school has a sawmill which it expects to work soon and to instruct pupils in the occupation of sawmill hands. ALABAMA GIRLS' INDTJSTRIAL SCHOOL, MONTEVALLO, ALA. This school, for white girls onlj-, was established in 1896. The need which led to its establishment was that of furnishing poor white girls of the State industrial training at a cost within their means so as to make them self-supporting. Pupils between 14 and 21 years of age are admitted. Each count}' in the State is entitled to its quota of pupils according to the number of educable white girls in that count3\ The cost of the session for the entire course, which includes literary and industrial education (except music and art), is f94.55, payable as follows: On entmnce, September 19 $30. 00 On NovembeT 15 ,-. 25. 00 On January 1 , 25. 00 On February 15 ..- , 14. 55 Total 94.55 This amount includes the following charges: Eight months ' board, at $9.50 per month 1 $76. 00 Thirty-three weeks' laundry, at 35 cents per week 11. 55 Matriculation fee _ 5. 00 Medical fee .' 2. 00 Total 94. 55 The course of industrial art is an extra, payable in advance at the rate of $2 per month. No pupil is admitted to classes until the paj^ment required has been made, or is satisfactorily provided for. The following industrial courses are taught: Cooking, dressmaking, millinery, and drawing and painting. In this last there are five courses, as follows: First, charcoal drawing from the cast and other objects; second, painting in oil, water color, or pastel from nature and still life; third, painting from life (the human figure) in oil, water color, or pastel; fourth, simple designing, which is divided into four elements — (1) lines and geometrical forms, (2) flower forms, (3) objects of use, (4) the animal and human form. These different heads are woven into patterns and working designs for use. Fifth, china paint- ing. To secure a certificate in this department a pupil must have a good knowledge of drawing, learn the painting of chiua in all its branches and how to manage and fire the kiln. 85 6 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. The general manag-ement of the school is by the president and faculty. The number of instructors in this school is 34, and 8 of these are employed in the teaching of industries or trades. Their training was had in college, trade and industrial school, and in work in the shop. The number of students during the last year was 421, and the total number of graduates from the institution is 178, of these, 92 having graduated from the industrial courses. The cost of the buildings and equipment, omitting the cost of one building donated by the people of Montevallo, which is not obtainable, was $125,000, and the cost of maintaining the school during the last year was $22,000. The income is derived from tuition and fees of the students and from appropria- tions made by the State legislature. In the opinion of the officials the course could be improved by the use of more money in securing the best talent and equipment. As gii'ls come to the school from all over the State its benefits have been far-reaching. In the locality of the school itself there are no industries which can be affected by the school except dressmaking, and in this the standard of efficiency has been raised. Those who have graduated have succeeded in getting good positions at good wages and are preferred by employers to those who have had no school training, for the reason that they have had not only thorough training at their trades, but have had academic instruction as well, which makes them more intelligent. No apprenticeship for graduates is necessary in this locality. The school has proved eminently satis- factory, but has not yet fully attained the end for which it was designed, as many industrial departments planned for have not yet been put in operation. GEOSGIA NOBMAL AND lETDTTSTKIAL COLI(EGE, MILLEDGE- VILIiE, GA. This school was provided for by an act of the legislature of Georgia, approved November 8, 1889, and was opened on Monday, September 30, 1891. The need leading to the establishment of this institution, which is devoted to the education of young women, was the lack of opportunity for the obtaining of a professional and industrial training. To be eligible to admission a girl must be at least 14 years of age, of good moral character, and of sound physical health. Students from a distance must board in the dormitory unless permitted by the president to do otherwise. The fixed charges are as follows: Matriculation fee, $10; board, including fuel, lights, and laundry, $90; music lessons, instrumental, $27; music lessons, vocal, $27; music theory lessons, $9; painting and portraiture lessons, $31.50; drawing lessons, fine art, $22.50; cooking- school fee, general course, $2; domestic science, special course, fee TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION — UNITED STATES. 357 |5; sewing school, iucidental fee, 50 cents; dressmaking school, inci- dental fee, |2; use of piano for practice, 14.50; model school, inci- dental fee, $2; diploma fee, $2; certificate fee, 50 cents; tuition fee, charged only to students from other States than Georgia, 140. In addition, an infirmary fee of 50 cents per week is charged students while actually occupying the infirmary. The general management is in the hands of the president of the college. The purpose of the college is to prepare Georgia girls : (1) To do intelligent work as teachers; (2) to earn their own livelihood by the practice of some one or other of those industrial arts suitable for women to follow; (3) to earn their own livelihood as instructors in music or in fine art; (4) to exert an uplifting and refining influence on family and society by means of a cultured intellect, which can be obtained only by a systematic education in the higher branches of learning; (5) to be skillful and expert in those domestic arts that lie at the foundation of all successful housekeeping and homemaking. To accomplish these several educational purposes, the courses of study pursued in the school are divided, in a general way, into five principal departments, namely, normal department, collegiate depart- ment, industrial department, domestic science department, and music and fine art department. Several of these departments contain courses which teach occupa- tions or trades, as follows: Normal Department. — Course in normal and industrial art which includes the following branches: Free-hand drawing, color study, instrumental drawing, design, modeling in clay, historic ornament, study of artists and their works. These branches are closely correlated arts, and as taught in this college constitute a full two years' course of study. Industrial art, as understood and taught in the college, is that branch whose ultimate aim is to make practical designers and expert draftsmen, capable of making a working drawing of any article to be manufactured — from a broomstick to a palace — so that it may be placed in a workman's hand as a pattern. It includes free-hand and instrumental drawing of geometric Yiev/s and patterns, and industrial designing, or the making of original patterns for wall paper, carpets, oil- cloths, laces, dress goods, etc. In addition to the above course of normal and indus- trial art, the normal department includes a special normal art course based upon the course pursued in the Pratt Institute, of Brooklyn, N. Y. It not only qualifies pupils for positions as teachers of drawing, but also affords a splendid preparation for those intending to enter the field of industrial art. Industrial Department. — This includes the business course, the course m sewing and dressmaking, and the course in industrial art. This last is the same course described above under the head of the normal department and is to be taken by stu- dents of both departments — the normal and the industrial. The business course teaches stenography, typewriting, and bookkeeping (each of which is outside the scope of this report). The sewing and dressmaking course teaches (1) domestic sewing, consisting of three grades of work, (a) simple sewing, including hand and machine sewing, darning and mending, and study of color, material, and cost, (b) advanced sewing, including cutting, fitting, and making undergarments, shirtwaists, and unUned dresses, and (c) art needlework; (2) dressmaking, consisting of two grades of work, (a) first grade, including drafting of skirts and waists, exercises in fitting 358 KEPOET OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. and trimming, making of school uniforms, study of color materials, free-hand draw- ing and elementary design, and the use of patterns, (b) second grade, including drafting, cutting, fitting, and making of street suits, evening gowns, etc. , free-hand drawing, water color and design, practice in designing dresses and dresa trimmings. Department of Domestic SciENCs.-^But two courses in this department can be considered as coming within the scope of this report. They are (1) the housekeepers' course, which is designed primarily to help young matrons and housekeepers who wish to make their household administration more systematic and efficient, but a secondary aim is the fitting of women to earn their livelihood as matrons or house- keepers in boarding schools and other institutions. It takes one year to complete, and includes teaching in cooking, household economics, marketing, home sanitation, sewing, and gardening and floriciilture, the last two being optional. (2) The special domestic course, which is planned for those who desire to increase their earning capacity, but by reason of limitation in time or money can not take a more extended course. It covera three mouths and teaches cooking, household economics, market- ing, home sanitation, and sewing and dressmaking, the latter two being optional. It gives a good working knowledge of cooking and sewing to those who have had pre- vious experience. The total number of teachers is 25, of whom 9 are teachers of the industrial arts. The different courses are so mixed and the industrial, collegiate, and normal training so overlap each other in the different courses taught that it is impossible to accurately show the number of pupils in each industrial course. Approximately, 200 are taking such courses. The total number of graduates who have had industrial train- ing is 292, but no separation can be made so as to show the number attributable to each occupation taught. The total cost of the buildings of the college was about $14:5,000, but the cost of the equipment of the same can not be given. The Mansion was formerly the mansion of the governor when Milledgeville was the capital of the State, and was built in 1838 at a cost of $60,000. The main building was erected in 1891, at a cost of |50,000; the annex was built in 1893, at a cost of 110,000, and Atkinson Hall was built in 1896, at a cost of |25,000. The cost of maintaining — paying running expenses — is about 116,000 annually. The funds for building, equipping, maintaining, etc., are raised by State appropriations, contributions from the Peabody fund, fees, charges for board, tuition from pupils coming from beyond the State limits, etc. The income for the last year was: State ap- propriation, $22,900; Peabody fund, $2,000; fees, $4,600; tuitions, $3,000; total, $32,500. This does not include board paid in college dormitories, which was $22,500, and board paid in private families, which was $23,500. While the industrial courses are excellent, in the opinion of the offi- cials of the college thej^ could be improved if more room and more teachers could be obtained. The cooking school is considered especially satisfactory. It is stated that hundreds of the graduates have earned their own living in Georgia and other States by the practice of the trades and TBADB AND TECIOflGAL EDUCATIOK" UNITED STATES. 359 industrial arts they liave acquired in the institution, and that fully 90 per cent of the.grsiduates have followed for a livelihood the occupations learned in the school. As a result of the school the general intelli- gence has been raised in the State, and industrial and social develop- ment ias been promoted. This and other similar schools have been decidedly beneficial to those who have been under their instruction, and steadier. employment and higher wagea have undoubtedly resulted from the preparation for work received therein. Their graduates are preferred in industrial lines to shop-trained people, because they are more efficient, though ordinarj' shop training has not been improved by the example of the school. Graduates can obtain work at the occu- pations taught without undergoing a period of apprenticeship. On the whole, this and other schools of a simUar kind have proved satisfactory and are fast attaining the end for which they were established. LOUISIANA INDtFSTSIAL INSTITUTE, RUSTON, XA. The recognized need that young people should have a knowledge of such pursuits as will be useful to them and contribute toward their ■support led to the establishment of this institution. It was created by an act of the legislature of Louisiana in 189i, which located it at Sus- ton, Lincoln Parish, La. , and placed it under the control of the gov- ernor of the State, two trustees appointed from the State at large, and one trustee appointed from each Congressional district of the State. By a subsequent act the State superintendent of public education was ■ made an ex officio member of the board of trustees. The original act provided that the school should be " for the educa- tion of the white children of Louisiana in the arts and sciences, at which such children may acquire a thorough academic and literarj" education, together with a knowledge of kindergarten instruction, telegraphy, stenography, and photography; of drawing, painting, designing, and engraving in their industrial applications; also, a knowledge of fancy, practical, and general needlework; also, a knowledge of bookkeep- ing and of agricultural and mechanical art, together with such other practical industries as from time to time may be suggested by experi- ence, or such as will tend to promote the general object of said insti- tute and college, to wit: Fitting_and preparing such children, male and female, for the practical industries of the age," The first session began in September, 1895. Its management is in the hands of the president and faculty and it is organized into the fol- lowing departments: Language and Kterature; mathematics; histoiy; civics; biology; physics and chemistry; mechanics (including draw- ing); business (including shorthand, bookkeeping, typewriting, etc.); domestic science; horticulture; dairying; elementary agriculture; music; printing, and telegraphy. 360 REPOBT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. The work outlined provides for (1) a union of academic and indus- trial subjects, whereby educational and vocational training are com- bined, making acquisition and application inseparable; (2) the inten- sive study of the essential academic subjects, supplemented by the mastery of a vocational subject; the curriculum is designed to equip boys and girls for useful and noble living; (3) the daily use of shops, laboratories, and necessary facilities for good work. To complete a course of study students must take all the announced academic subjects and one industrial. They will receive the degree of bachelor of industr}' upon the completion of a required course. A certificate of proficiency is awarded each student upon the mas- tery of any industrial subject, provided that the student is found pro- ficient in the accompanying academic studies. No student will be awarded a certificate of proficiency who is not versed in the use of good English. Applicants for admission must be 14 j^ears old and able to read, write, and spell with tolerable correctness. They must pass a satis- factory exarnination in arithmetic as far as denominate numbers. The expenses per term of four and one-half months, there being two terms per school j'ear, is about as follows: Tuition, to residents of State, free; tuition, students from other States, $25 per year; inci- dental fee, |5; boarding in the dormitory, $45; washing, $4.60; text- books, f5.95; industrial text for shorthand, |1; music (per month), $3 to $5. Boarding students must furnish 4 sheets, 2 pillowcases, 4 blankets, 1 quilt, and 6 towels. Instruction is given in the following industrial trades: Printing, mechanics (including carpentry and joinery, wood turning, pattern making, mechanical drawing, forging, making iron and steel tools, firing boiler and tending engine and steam pump), domestic science (including plain sewing, dressmaking, embroidery, and cooking). The number of students taking the various courses during the year for which this report was made (1900-01) was: Bookkeeping, 58; telegraphy, 25; stenography, 40; printing, 25; mechanics, 50; domes- tic science, 60. There are 13 members of the faculty, of whom 8 are teachers of the industrial occupations, several of whom have the degree of bachelor of industry from the Louisiana Industrial Institute, one is a master of science, one a graduate of the manual training school of the Washing- ton University, and others have practical education. The cost of the buildings was $43,500 and of the equipment, $50,000. The annual cost of maintaining the school is $30,000, which is raised by State appropriations. With better equipment the courses at this school could be improved, although as it is they are excellent. The few industries in the locality of the school have been generally benefited, as has the general public ■ TEADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION UNITED STATES. 361 by the establishment of the institution. The general intelligence of the community has been raised and the industrial, educational, and social development promoted. The intelligence of those attending the school has been increased, and they have obtained better positions and higher wages because of their better preparation for work, which makes them preferred by employers over merely shop-trained workmen. Work can be obtained by the graduates at all the trades taught without having to pass through a period of apprenticeship. MISSISSIPPI INDUSTRIAL INSTITUTE AND COLLEGE, COLUMBUS, MISS. The need of industrial education for white girls being recognized, the legislature of Mississippi, March 12, 1884, passed a bill establish- ing this institution, the first State college ever founded for women. Its purpose, as stated in section 2296 of the Annotated Code of Mis- sissippi of 1892, is "The moral and intellectual advancement of the white girls of the State by the maintenance of a first-class institu- tion for their education in the arts and sciences, and their training in normal-school methods and kindergarten, and their instruction in bookkeeping, photography, stenography, telegraphy, and typewriting, and in designing, drawing, engraving, and painting and their industrial application; and also in fancy, general, and practical needlework, and in such other industrial branches as experience from time to time shall suggest as necessary or proper to fit them for the practical affairs of life." The general management and government is specially lodged in the hands of the president. This school was opened for students in October, 1885. On the first day there were present more than 250 applicants. During the fifteen years since the opening (up to 1900) 2,600 young women have come under the instruction of the school, and of these 409 are still in school. The State offers free tuition for 400 young women under the follow- ing provision of section 2303 of the Code of Mississippi of 1892: "Tuition shall be free for five years, and no longer, to girls of this State, in all branches excepting music." These girls are apportioned to the counties in proportion to the relation the number of white edu- cable girls in each county bears to the whole number in the State. Girls from outside the State may be admitted if there is room for them, and the trustees are empowered to fix the amount of the tuition fee which they must pay. Applicants for admission must be at least 15 years of age, in good health, and must furnish certificates, of good moral character. Satis- factory entrance examinations must be passed, either at the college or before count}^ superintendents of education. Those holding certifi- cates from county superintendents are entitled to enter the business 362 REPOKT OF THE COMMISSIONKR OF LABOR. course without farther examination, but those desiring to enter other courses must take an examination at the college. Students from other States can not be taken into the dormitories, but by pajang a tuition fee of $30 per session they may be admitted into the college with the same advantages offered Mississippi students boarding outside the dormitories. Board to students in dormitories is furnished at actual cost, which averages, including furnished room, fuel, light, washing, etc., |9 per month. Tuition in all literary and industrial studies for Mississippi students is free for the first five yen.rs they are in the institution ; for students from other States, and for Mississippi students after five years, in literary and industrial studies, $16 per half session, to be paid in advance. A matriculation fee of f 5, payable in advance, is charged all students. Charges for music lessons, payable in advance, are: Piano, per half session, $20; voice culture, per half session, $20; use of instrument for practice one hour a day, per half session, $4. Each student must deposit for board at the beginning of the session at least $30, aud must alwaj's keep the amount of one month's board to her credit. Students in analytical chemistry must jmy for materials consumed and apparatus broken. An infirmary fee of $5 per annum is charged to dormitorj- pupils. This covers medical attention by a skilled lady physician, trained nurse, medicines, except special prescriptions, which must be prepared at a drug store; physical culture, gj'mnasium exercise, and lectures on anatomy. Each student must furnish 1 pair of sheets, 1 pair of pil- lowcases, 1 pair of blankets, 1 bedspread, 6 towels, and 2 clothes bags. Work in the college is of two kinds, required and voluntary. The occupants of rooms in the dormitories are required to do all the work necessary to keep them in good order. Work in the dining room, such as spreading the cloths, putting on the meals, placing the chairs, waiting on the table, etc., is required of the pupils, and for this regu- lar details are made. Students have the privilege of doing a part of the work in keeping some of the recitation rooms and furniture in order. They may sweep the halls, recitation rooms, chapel, music rooms, and do much of the light work in the laundry, and may also find employment in the dress- making department. For this voluntary work they are paid, and for the amount they are allowed to do — not over two hours daily — they may earn $4 or $5 per month. In dressmaking they may earn more, being paid according to work done. Pa^' for voluntarj^ work is: Sweeping or latmdry, per hour $0. 06 Postmistress, per month 3. 00 Librarian, per month 5. 00 Clerical work in oflSces, per month ?5. 00 to 15.00 Additional work in offices, per hour .10 TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION UNITED STATES. 363 • Dress uniforms, the details being prescribed, must be worn. Tlie grounds cover about 25 acres, all in lawn and pai-k, except 3 or 4 acres given up to the gardens. There are four large buildings — the chapel, containing also class rooms, laboratories, offices, etc., the main dormitory, Columbus Hall, and the White House, which accommodates the departments of music and industrial arts. These buildings have modern conveniences, are heated bj- steam and lighted by electricity. They are supplied with hot and cold water, also with fire escapes. The cost of the buildings and their equipment was about $176,000. The cost of maintaining this school is about $60,000 per j'ear, and the funds come principally from State appropriation, although a small amount is received from fees, tuition, etc. The city of Columbus gave the school $40,000 in land and buildings and ^50,000 in cash for the sake of having it established within its limits. The school offers three courses of studj% viz: A business course for those who wish to prepare for industrial pursuits; a normal course for those desiring to teach in the public schools of the State; and a college course for those who aim at broad and thorough culture as the basis of future usefulness. Whichever course is chosen, the pupil is required to pui'sue, in con- nection therewith, the study of some industrial art. A certificate of proficiency is given to a pupil finishing an industrial art together with two years' work of the business course, and pupils in the industrial departments may withdraw at any time when evidence is furnished of having finished, to the satisfaction of the jnstructor, the course upon which they entered. A diploma is given to a pupil who has completed -the entire business course. A diploma, with the title of Mistress of Pedagogics, is given to a pupil who has completed the normal course. A diploma, with the title of B. A., is given to a pupil who has completed the college course. The department of industrial arts embraces bookkeeping, penman- ship, stenography and tj^pewriting, industrial and fine arts (design, modeling, drawing, wood carving, oil painting, etc.), dressmaking, and telegraphy. The course of study in industrial and decorative art and in dressmaking is as follows: Free-hand drawing — with pencil and charcoal. Practice is given in drawing from solids, plants, casts, both with pencil and charcoal in outline, and also in light and shade. Much practice in free-hand perspective is given; also in enlargement from ornament; in conventionalization, and in composition inline, light and shade, and color. Mechanical drawing — including the construction of simple geometric forms; linear perspective (parallel, angular, and oblique). Historic ornament — analysis of historic style to borders, etc. Principles of design — illustrated by simple designs and also by more elaborate applied designs, such as surface patterns, borders, wall papers, oilcloths, prints, book covers, ornamented hinges, stained glass, etc. By earnest study this course may be completed in three years. 364 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. In the course in dressmaking the students spend the first few days in learning to work buttonholes, hemstitch, blind stitch, etc. From 15 to 20 pupils are engaged each hour during the school day learning first to draft patterns by measurement, and then to cut, fit, and make dresses. Most of the pupils learn in a short time to make their own dresses. To learn all that is required in this course takes from one to two years. The course in telegraphy may be completed in one j^ear. Pupils are required to take a course in typewriting along with stenography and telegraph}', and all learn to do neat and rapid work in one session. There are 28 instructors and officers, of whom 5 are engaged in teaching the industrial occupations. They are all graduates of recog- nized institutions, and have practical experience as well. The number of pupils in each of the courses of industrial art is as follows : Bookkeeping and penmanship, 46 ; drawing, leading to design, 132; drawing and design, 67; dressmaking, 190; stenogi-aphy, teleg- raph}', and typewriting, 33. The number of certificates of proficiency in the industrial arts issued up to and including the year 1899 was: Bookkeeping, 50; design, 4; drawing, 69; painting, 7; wood carving, 13; dressmaking, 124; ste- nography, 88; printing, 3; telegraphy, 19; and typewriting, 19; a total of 396. These certificates were given to 362 girls, several of whom received certificates of proficiency in more than one industry. One hundred and twenty-one girla have received diplomas from the business,- normal, and collegiate courses. Of the 362 girls above mentioned to whom certificates of proficiency were given, the present occupations of 290 are known, and are as fol- lows: Teachers, 139; stenographers, 19; postmistress, 1 ; bookkeepers, 7; dressmakers, 4; cashier, 1; clerks, 2; telegrapher, 1; journalist, 1; students, 35; and residing at home, 80. The industrial courses given here are considered excellent by the management, but they think there is need of others, such as millinery, photography, cooking, etc. The prospect of adding these courses in the immediate future is encouraging. It is stated that the industries in which women engage are few in the locality of the school, and its establishment has not benefited them much. The public schools have benefited greatly, because of the better teachers furnished, and oppor- tunities are opening in industrial pursuits, and the schoolgirls are getting good positions as stenographers, bookkeepers, dressmakers, and teachers. This and other similar schools make the students breadwinners and increase their literary knowledge. Higher wages, more rapid promo- tion, and steadier employment are found by reason of attendance at such schools, as they are better prepared for work. The graduates are eagerly sought for by employers and receive the preference over shop-trained people, because they are not only more TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION UNITED STATES. 365 accurate in their work, but also move intelligent. At all trades taught the graduates can work without passing an apprenticeship. It is also stated that this school has proven satisfactory, and the State is giving it a more liberal support year by year. Its plans are copied by other States that are founding similar schools. NORMAIi AND COLLEGIATE INSTITUTE, ASHEVILLE, N. C. This institution was opened in the fall of 1892 to meet the need for the training of teachers and Christian workers among the mountaineers of the South. The school is open to young white women only, and is under the control of the Woman's Board of Home Missions of the Presbyterian Church. In its academic course it has a preparatory department and a normal department, and its other courses consist of a musical department, a commercial department, where stenography, typewriting, and book- keeping are taught, and a department of domestic science, where sew- ing, including dressmaking and millinery, and scientific cooking are taught. Every applicant for admission must bring a testimonial from her pastor or last instructor, and a certificate of health from a physician. Only plain clothing is allowed to be worn and articles are specified. The. charge for board and tuition is |50 per term or $100 per year, and for tuition without board, 112.50 per term and |25 per year. Bills must be paid in advance. Aid to a limited extent has been provided for the needj^ and deserv- ing student, which will be granted for the term. The general management is in the president and faculty, 15 in num- ber, wht) are graduates of colleges, normal schools, etc. The occupations taught are: Sewing, dressmaking, millinery, and cooking. Instruction in these lines is given by 2 teachers. All students on entering the normal department are required to take sewing, using the course taught at the Pratt Institute, l3rooklyn, N. Y . , and a great many have taken a partial course in dressmaking and mil- linery. Thirty-four have taken the full course of sewing, dress- making, and millinery, and have received certificates. The total num- ber of graduates from the school is 115. No further figures as to those taking the industrial courses, etc., have been obtained. The cost of buildings, etc., is $86,000, and the annual expenses of maintaining the school is $15,000. The funds are raised by contribu- tions from friends of higher education. The following is a condensation of statements made by the manage- ment of the school: The courses of instruction are good and could hardly be improved. As many of the Southern States have pupils in this school its influence 366 EEPOET OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOE. is widespi'ead. Those who have attended the industrial department get better wages than they would without such education, have no trouble getting work, and receive rapid promotion. They are pre- ferred by employers because of their better training. The school, on the whole, is satisfactory, and has fully attained the end for which established. CHAPTER II. ATTITUDE OF EMPLOYEES, GRADUATES OF TRADE AND TECHMCAL SCHOOLS, AND LABOR UNIONS IN THE UNITED STATES TOWARD TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION. 367 CHAPTER II. ATTITUDE OF EMPLOYERS, GRADUATES OF TRADE AND TECH- NICAL SCHOOLS, AND LABOR UNIONS IN THE UNITED STATES TOWARD TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION. This chapter presents in a condensed and summarized form the opinions of employing proprietors of establishments in a number of leading industries, graduates of trade and technical schools, and officers and members of labor unions in regard to trade and technical edu- cation. The information was obtained from representative persons in various parts of the country through personal visits by agents of this Department. The statements made set forth the opinions of the persons responding to the inquiries of the Department, just as the statements of the preceding chapter in regard to the schools are very largely the opinions of the school officials. All the persons personally interested in the subject thus speak for themselves. In no case should these criticisms or opinions be considered as emanating from this Department. ATTITUDE OF EMPLOYERS. BARBEBING. The general sentiment among employing barbers is that the schools for this trade, as now conducted, are of no value. This adverse senti- ment, however, does not go so far as to declare that trade education is altogether unprofitable, as many employers believe that scientific preparation is a very important preliminary to practical training. One employer says that there is no doubt that the trade could be greatly elevated and improved by schools which would provide first- class scientific and practical training, and that a school properly organized would turn out better all-round barbers than can be done under the ordinary apprentice system, and with a considerable saving of time over apprenticeship. BBEWIBTG. The statements of manufacturing brewers are all favorable to the modern system of technical education as applied to the art of brewing. The knowledge and skill acquired by those who have attended brewers' 369 9267—02 24 370 EEPOET OF THE COMMISSIONEK OF LABOR. schools are said to have resulted both in increasing the amount and in improving the quality of the product. The command of the market is regarded as due to the superior quality of the product, which in its turn is attributed largely to the superior knowledge and skill of those brewmasters and assistants who have had school training. Such men receive from 25 to 50 per cent higher remuneration than those holding corresponding positions who have not had similar instruction. Indeed, most manufacturers visited insist upon the brewmasters supplement- ing their practical experience with a course in school. Applicants for admission to the schools must liave had actual experience in a brewery. There is no regular system of apprenticeship in force, though several years of practical experience in the different departments is necessary before a workman is considered capable of taking up the work of a brewmaster. The employees in breweries are generally' well organized, the greatest numbers being found in the unions for brewers, maltsters, and coopers. BUILDING TRADES. The necessity of having a ready supplj' of first-class workmen is perhaps nowhere more important than in certain p^irts of this industry, and any system of instruction that has promise of increasing the gen- eral efficiency of the workmen usuallj' meets with cordial support from the employers. The rate of wages is usually regulated by the labor unions, yet in some places the mechanics who have had the advantage of trade-school instruction receive higher remuneration and are also given steadier employment than those who lack such training. There is considerable harmonj' of opinion regarding the need of more adequate facilities for training the workmen engaged in the vari- ous branches of the industry, but it is thought that little advance will be made unless the workmen themselves will take more interest in the subject. In the plumbing trade especially the employers experience great difficulty in inducing the workmen to attend the evening trade schools. In referring to this point, the head of one of the leading plumbing establishments in New York City says: The trades suffer most from the indifference of the workmen. When the average mechanic serves his time and becornes a full-fledged jour- neyman be_ thinks that his task is accomplished and he is satisfied to plod along in the beaten path trusting to luck to bring him something better. There always will be room for intelligent and well-trained mechanics, but we shall never have such a class until the men them- selves realize that they must devote part of their time outside of working hours to studying the technical and scientific principles which enter into and must necessarily govern their operations in the trades more in the future than in the past. Regarding the comparative merits of shop training and of trade- school or technical training, it is generally agreed that the trade school TKADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION — UNITED STATES. 371 alone can not make a first-class mechanic, as the usual period of instruction in such schools does not admit of sufficient practical work to enable the student to acquire that dexterity and tact which are essential. The best results are obtained when shop training is sup- plemented by such technical training as is given in the evening trade schools. This system it is said enables the student to apply the prin- ciples he is studying to the conditions and difficulties encountered in his daily work and he has a better appreciation of their value, and consequently takes more interest in his studies. The following state- ment by an employer of many years' experience is of interest on this point: 1 have employed several hundred mechanics since I have been in business, and my experience shows that the men who have attended trade schools were in the end better mechanics^than those who did not. The man who learns his trade in the ordinary way is a good mechanic up to a certain point. He can do good work and can follow instruc- tions and map out a simple job. But when it comes to the more difficult tasks and to the work of supervision, he is not the equal of the man who has supplemented his trade work with a course in a trade school. The young man who learns his trade in the ordinary way merely follows the journeyman with whom he is working, and learns just what the journeyman sees fit to let him learn, and no more. In some trades he is advanced or held back at the will of the journeyman, and unless the latter is personally interested in his success or has a special liking for him it is seldom that he is told why the work is done thus and so; the technical points are not explained to him, and consequently he is left to pick up the trade as best he can. On the other hand, the young man who goes to the trade school is afforded every opportunity to learn all parts of his trade. The instructors are men who have had years of experience in practical work, and they are paid to give him the benefit of that experience. He is instructed how to do his work according to the most modern methods, and is told why it is best or necessary to perform his task in a particular manner. He obtains a knowledge of architectural drawings which is helpful in his trade, and he must attend lectures on the subject he is engaged upon, and the scientific principles, building regulations, and sanitary laws which govern his trade are fully explained. These are advantages which the average mechanic does not enjoy when learning his trade in the oi'dinary way, and it is the possession of them that makes the student workman more valuable to his employer and enables him to mount higher in the industrial scale. A formal stage of apprenticeship is usually required, and in most places the number of apprentices in each trade is limited to conform to the requirements of labor unions. In some cases it is thought that the period of apprenticeship is unduly prolonged by the labor unions. In almost every instance the employers agree that the prevailing system of apprenticeship does not provide the apprentice with full and adequate instruction. In some branches the tendency to specialize has brought about a subdivision of labor, which makes it impossible 372 REPOET OF THE COMMISSIONEE OF LABOE. for the apprentice of the present day to learn every part of his trade as he could years ago. The sentiments of the master builders and plumbers on this point may be summarized as follows: No man can learn all the requirements of the trades as practiced at the present day unless he devotes more or less of his time to studying the scien- tific principles and sanitary laws pertaining to the same.. The build- ing trades have been greatly benefited and elevated through the efforts of architects and sanitary engineers, but the employers in the industry have met with much difficulty in their efforts to make a corresponding advance in the methods of execution. All trades in this industry are represented by labor unions. BtTTTEE, AND CHEESE MAKING. Perhaps no other class of schools has ever been more popular than the dairy schools in the agricultural sections of the country. It is said that they have practically made the creamery industry what it now is. The industry would naturally have grown to great proportions in time, but the schools have done in a decade what would otherwise have been accomplished only in many years. The number of creameries has increased at a rapid rate, but the quality of butter produced has been improved and made more uniform, and in most cases the cost of pro- duction has also been lessened. All this has tended to drive "cottage" creameries out of existence, and they are now quite rare. The more prosperous ones have grown into factories, while others have been abandoned because the owners found it more profitable to sell their milk to the larger establishments. That this results largely from the influence of the schools is indicated by the following remark made by the secretary of a dairy company in Minnesota: "We would not operate a creamery if we could not get a man who had been trained in a dairy school. " The preference for school-trained men is very marked, and they receive from 20 to 50 per cent more wages than those who have not attended a school. The best butter makers are, of course, those who have had both school and factory training. While the industry is now quite a large one, it has not nearly reached its possibilities. More schools, longer courses, and still better prac- tical training would both enlarge and improve the industry. It is the opinion of some that without this extension and enlargement of facili- ties for training further progress will be slow. School men must serve an apprenticeship of one year, and this is regarded as desirable before attendance upon the school. For those who do not attend school an additional year or two of apprenticeship is required. There are no labor unions in the dairy trade. TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION — UNITED STATES, 373 CAE BUILDINCJ. In this industry design and workmanship are of about equal impor- tance. The shop-trained man is said to be the more skillful mechanic, while the man with technical training naturally makes the better designer. Consequently, to get the best results both kinds of training are essential. The business could be enlarged and improved by a more ample provision for trade instruction, as even the ordinary mechanic could profitably take a course in technical training. Labor unions, which are found in all branches of this industry, place some difficulties in the way of car builders' apprentices by pro- longing the term of apprenticeship which is required in all the prin- cipal occupations. Shop instruction in this industry is not systematized, but is given in the ordinary course of the work. CAKBIAGE BUILDING. Among manufacturers in this industry there is found to be quite a diversity of opinion as to the value of trade schools. The head of a large establishment in Illinois states that trade or technical schools have thus far been of no particular benefit, for the reason that the graduates of such schools lack both originality in design and a practical knowledge of the details of construction. But in New York and other places in the East it is held that the school for carriage draftsmen in New York City has rendered valuable service to the industry at large by affording special training for superintendents, foremen, mechanics, and others who are engaged in various branches of the trade. The National Association of Carriage Builders con- tributes liberally toward the support of the school. It is said that the command of the carriage market depends, first, upon the quality of work, and, secondly, upon design; consequently it is of the highest importance to have first-class mechanics. In most establishments the policy is to employ finished workmen in all depart- ments and to have as few apprentices as possible. The reason for this is that most apprentices are averse to serving the full term. They are satisfied to stay in a first-class shop until they have partially learned the trade and then go away to cheap shops where they work by the piece and earn higher wages for the time being, but they never become finished workmen. Those who serve a full period of apprenticeship in a first-class establishment receive thorough instruction in all parts of the trade. The president of one establishment favors the old apprenticeship system of New England by which seven years' service was required. He says the abandonment of that system has led to a scarcity of good American workmen, and the consequence is that our finished workmen come largely from abroad. 374 EEPOET OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. CHEMICAIi INDtrSTBY. The following statement is furnished by the proprietor of a chemical manufacturing establishment in one of the Middle States: We have four men in our employ who have completed a course of instruction in a technical school, and they fill important positions in different departments of our works. The special training that these men received in school has made them more valuable and better fitted for the business. The industr}- would undoubtedly derive some benefit if further provision were made for trade or technical schools which would afford the foremen and workmen more adequate and modern facilities for studying the theory and science of the trades. Industrial art museums showing the progress made in the different branches would also be an advantage. Generally speaking, shop_ training is mechanical, similar to a machine applying or doing a certain thing and requiring little use of the thinking or reasoning faculties. The aver- age shop-trained workman learns to do a thing in a certain way and has little concern whether it is the best way or not, so long as it answers his purpose. On the other hand, the moment technical training is taken up the interest is aroused, the thinking powers are called into action, and the student or workman asks himself why he is doing or applying this or that thing and what the effect will be. The mechanic gets interested in the metals he works. Becoming familiar with their composition, the coppersmith gets to know what the scales are that peel off the copper when heated, and he learns why tin cracks when he laends it; the plumber makes traps and air vents in his work, and the technical school teaches him why they are used; the mason learns the properties of lime and cement and the effect produced by mixing them with water, etc. In other words, trade-school and technical training induces the mechanic to think. It teaches him why it is necessary to perform his work in a particular manner and unfolds the scientific principles applicable to his trade, the knowledge of which enables him to become a master artisan. CLOTHING INDUSTRY. The instruction in the art of garment cutting given in a prominent school in New York City is highly commended by clothing manufac- turers and merchant tailors in all sections of the country. Both branches of the industry have been greatly benefited by the work of this school, the technical training afforded the graduates resulting in many noticeable improvements in the general character of the prod- uct. In this industry the command of the market is largely a matter of superior workmanship, and in the merchant-tailoring branch espe- cially the skill of the cutter, who, in most cases, does the fitting also, is of paramount importance. Many of the best cutters learned the trade under shop instruction only, but those who have supplemented their trade work with a technical course in a recognized school receive higher wages and are considered more desirable by employers. An apprenticeship of three years is usually required in cutting, which TEADE AND TECHNICAL EI)ITOATION— UNITED STATES. 875 period is reduced to one year in favor of journeymen tailors. But in the tailoring branch there is no fixed period. It is said that good instruction can be had in some first-class establishments, but thorough instruction in all parts can be obtained only in exceptional cases. In some of the Southern and Western States tailors' schools are regarded very favorably on the ground that they not only relieve the employers from the annoyance and loss incident to teaching "green hands," but they give general instruction in all parts of the trade and thus make it possible for the student to obtain a more thorough preparation than can be acquired in the average shop. The garment cutters and tailors are largelj^ represented by labor unions. DOMESTIC SERVICE. Persons reporting under this head are of the opinion that girls who have graduated at training schools for domestics do better work and more of it in a given time than those who have not had such training, and they do not require constant oversight. They get no higher wages, as a rule, because all domestics, whether competent or not, demand about the same pay. Were more women (housewives) proficient in housekeeping them- selves, and had they the time, inclination, strength, and patience to do so, they might produce as good servants as the training school. But under present conditions this is seldom the case, and the opinion is expressed that there must be an extension of the system of school training if there is to be an adequate supplj'^ of properh' trained servants. DRESSMAKING. The proprietors of dressmaking establishments in which graduates of dressmaking schools are employed state that the work of this class of help has been uniformly satisfactory and in several instances has tended to improve the character of the product. For ordinary work the average shop-trained sewer or maker is equal to the school-trained help, and is in many cases even better; but in the art of cutting and fitting the graduates of the schools are said to be far superior. In ^fact, there are very few shop- trained employees engaged as cutters or fitters, this work being usually performed either -by the head of the establishment or by a graduate of some school. It is the unanimous opinion that shop training alone does not pro- vide the apprentice with full and adequate instruction in the trade, the reason assigned for this being that while sewing and making are in many cases taught much better in a dressmaking establishment, yet, because of certain business considerations — chief among whjch is the unwillingness to instruct one who might become a competitor in the same line — the proprietor is seldom willing to teach the art of 376 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. cutting and jStting. There is no regular period of apprenticeship. Some girls become proficient in six months, and some require two years. The business constantlj^ suffers for lack of competent help, and it is thought that more good schools would be a benefit to the trade generally. EliECTKICAL APPARATUS AND SUPPLIES. The returns for this industry show that most of the leading estab- lishments employ a large number of graduates from the higher tech- nical and scientific schools. A number also report having graduates of trade- and secondary technical schools, and several state that many of their employees are taking courses in correspondence schools, and in the mechanical classes conducted by the Young Men's Chris- tian Associations and other night schools. It is stated, without exception, that the work performed by school-trained workmen has proved satisfactory in every respect. All agree that further provision of trade and technical schools would be a benefit to the industry and those engaged in it. In referring to this point, the treas- urer of a large establishment in Chicago, 111., says: "A comparatively small number of thoroughly trained mechanics seek work in our shops, and as the wages are high enough to be attractive it can only mean that there are not enough trade schools to supply the demand. All lines of manufacturing would surely be benefited by a larger number of employees from trade or technical schools." It is the gen- eral opinion that practical experience or shop training is necessary, but that the best results are reached only when this is supplemented by trade-school or technical instruction. One employer, who is a strong advocate of school training, says: " In all departments where high-class work is done we pay good wages and are always anxious to get technical men. They are broader minded and have a wider mental grasp than the man who left school at the age of 16 to learn his trade in a shop. In technical or any other kind of work the young man who has been trained in a technical school very soon OA'ertakes and outstri]3s the man who has practical experience only. Their remuner- ation at first is no greater than that of the others who do similar work, but in almost all cases it increases more rapidly and there is practically no limit to their promotion, while the man without tech- nical education, unless in exceptional cases, finds his field of operations greatly restricted." FURNITURE AND CABINETMAKING. In this industry design and workmanship are of about equal impor- tance. The manufacturers furnishing information state that the only school-trained men they have are employed either as foremen or design- ers, and that in both positions technical training is indispensable. The TRADE' AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION — UNITED STATES. 377 opinion generally expressed is that a further provision of trade and technical schools would be beneficial. New and popular styles of fur- niture would be multiplied, and this would no doubt increase the sales of high-class goods. While it would not necessarily enlarge the busi- ness, it would tend to elevate it and make it more profitable. One manufacturer states that failure to provide more and better facilities for trade education might have a bad effect upon the industry, were it not for the fact that our manufacturers can draw upon the schools of Europe for skilled workmen, and that there is no difficulty in procur- ing this class of help from abroad because of the higher wages paid in this country. The man who wants to be a master of his trade must have both school and shop training. School training enables him to rise higher in the scale of proficiency and to do it more rapidly, but he must have experience. A designer can not know too much about shop meth- ods, and the mere mechanic is better equipped by having technical knowledge. Some establishments require a formal stage of apprentieeship, and others do not, the latter preferring full-fledged workmen only. Such instruction as is given in the shop is not systematic. The term of apprenticeship is elastic, so as to meet the necessities of each individual case. Under this plan the bright apprentice forges ahead and becomes a journeyman sooner than the boy who is ill adapted and careless. HAKNESS MAKING AND EEP AIRING. In this business good workmanship and good material are the main factors in commanding trade. The proprietor in an establishment in one of the Southern States says that he has one young man in his employ who has graduated from a trade school, and his services have been very satisfactory. The work of this graduate has helped to improve the character and quality as well as to increase largely the amount of his product. So far as this industry is concerned, he believes that trade-school training is superior to shop training, for the reason that the latter is neither systematic nor comprehensive. On the other hand, the instruction given in the trade school is designed to give a thorough knowledge and training in each part. A formal stage of apprenticeship is required of beginners, but in the case of trade-school graduates no apprenticeship is necessary,, as they must be competent to engage in practical work before graduation. JEWELRY. Generally speaking, the work of engravers, chasers, and designers who have had the benefit of instruction in trade or technical schools or schools of design has given much satisfaction to employers. A manufacturer located in one of the Western States says: "Since 378 EEPOBT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. employing graduates of a school of engraving our production has increased, and we have been able to turn out' 25 per cent more work than we did with a similar number of shop-trained workmen. The character and quality of the work is better and we pay them from 10 to 25 per cent more wages than the others." In one of the Eastern establishments the school-trained workmen receive from 25 to 60 per cent higher wages than those who have had shop training only. It is said that whatever tends to higher education along trade lines must improve the taste and skill of the workmen, and therefore a further provision of trade or technical schools, or schools of design, Avould be a benefit to the industry. With one exception it is the opinion that school-trained workmen are more capable and produce the best results. There are some things which can be learned only by experience in the shop, but the school-trained man is a thinking work- man and will absorb more from experience and learn more quickly than one who has not had such training. The exception noted above is in the case of a prominent Eastern concern, the superintendent of which is of the opinion that shop training is best. This establishment has a systematic course of instruction for apprentices, and in addition to the regular shop work there is a library of reference and design, with nearly 3,000 volumes, and hundreds of models, casts, and electro- types, to which all have free access. This affords unusual opportunity to the apprentices to acquire a knowledge of the theoretical and artistic requirements of the trade, and under the careful guidance of the heads of the different departments, whose duty it is to give every possible aid, they are able to obtain thorough instruction. Only one other establishment reports taking apprentices. METAL TRADES. Of the 80 establishments in this industry from which schedules were obtained, 8 report that the special training of their workmen in trade or technical schools has resulted in increasing the amount of the product from 10 to 20 per cent, and in one case 50 per cent; 25 report improvement in the character and quality of the product, and 20 report that workmen who have had the benefit of instruction in these schools receive from 10 to 50 per cent higher wages than those who have had shop training only. One of the most notable illustra- tions of the practical benefits which result from the education afforded by trade and technical schools is found in the case of a large manu- facturing establishment in Massachusetts. The superintendent of this establishment has furnished the following statement: Recognizing the advantage of trade and technical education, a few years ago we adopted the policy of allowing our employees, without loss of wages, the privilege of attending an afternoon class which we had succeeded in having established for them in a local trade school. TEADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION UNITED STATES. 379 The knowledge acquired by these men, together with the training received by many others in our employ who attended the night classes in the school, has been of inestimable benefit to our business. The workmen are more intelligent and better qualified to advance in the trade, and they require far less oversight in the performance of their work. The presence of these trained workmen distributed through our shops has had a beneficial effect upon those with whom they come in daily contact. They have stimulated the desire for technical instruc- tion among those who otherwise would have neglected it, and they have been a powerful factor in elevating the general character of our product. The technical education of these men, added to their previous train- ing ia the shop, has made it possible for the company, by their aid, to promote all departments of its manufacture, and, among other things, to enter quickly and successfully upon and establish the manufacture of an entirely new line of machinery. This has resulted in increasing our business fully 50 per cent; the positions and wages of our work- men have been correspondingly improved and advanced; work has been provided for many additional workmen, and the investment in our plant has been increased. At the time when this special work was undertaken the other trained men in our employ were busy with other things. To have organized and utilized with equal rapidity and suc- cess a sufficiently large force of skillful strangers would have been an undertaking attended with grave difficulties, if not an impracticable one. Prior to the invention of this line of machinery, except to a trivial extent, the American market was controlled and supplied by foreign manufacturers. Therefore, it is not too much to say that the special educaticta of our workmen has materially contributed to the establish- ment of a new industry, of no small proportions, which did not before exist in the United States. In the majorit}' of cases superior design coupled with good workman- ship is deemed essential to command the market, though a number rely upon sjiperior workmanship only. Of those who express an opinion regarding the need or advisability of making further provision for trade or technical schools, a few seem to feel that the present schools afford ample opportunity for those who have any desire to attend them. This feeling is quite common in places where the workmen are disposed to overlook the importance or necessitj^ of attending the evening classes in local trade or technical schools. Other manufac- turers are of the opinion that every industrial community ought to have evening trade and technical schools, and that all apprentices should be compelled to attend them. In places where schools are not conven- ient many of the apprentices and workmen have taken up the corre- spondence courses of instruction, and several large concerns report very satisfactory results from this method. The president of an establish- ment in Pennsylvania which gives employment to more than 7,000 workmen states that instruction by the international correspondence system has in many cases fitted the workmen for higher positions than they would otherwise be qualified for in the natural course of their 380 EEPOET OP THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOE. work. An establishment in Ohio has some forty workmen who are studjdng mechanical drawing by the correspondence method, and to encourage them in their studies the company provides a room, with drawing boards and instruments to do their work. It is the policy of this company to limit promotion in the drafting room to this class of workmen. As to the comparative merits of shop training and of trade-school or technical training in the different branches of the work, some are of the opinion that for ordinary work in the- construction departments shop training alone is sufficient. It is said that school training offers no particular advantages in such work as it is mostly done by machinery, and the tendency is to construct machines which will act automatically and require but little skill on the part of the operator. In the pattern- making department and in the important operations in the machine shop, especially in the construction of fine and complex machinery, an exact knowledge of mechanical drawing is deemed essential, and in some cases it is said that those who are engaged upon such work ought also to have a knowledge of mathematics, physics, and machine design. In the drafting and designing department it is generally conceded that the workmen who have had the benefit of a course in a technical school are in the end superior to those who have learned the trade in a draft- ing room alone. It is said that the average draftsman aims to become a designer, but before he can attain that end he must be able to under- stand the principles involved in his work and to think with scientific precision. The cost of construction and the commercial value of a machine' must be taken into consideration when it is being designed, and the man whose technical training has been supplemented by prac- tical experience in the shop is better fitted to handle those things than one who has had only a shop training. A few manufacturers state that they prefer shop-trained workmen in all departments, as they con- sider them more practical. Generally speaking, however, the manu- facturers, superintendents, and foremen engaged in the various branches of the industry agree that the best results are obtained when the work- men have had school training and shop training also. A number of manufacturers comment upon the limited time usually devoted to shop work in the schools, and state that to be effective the time should be extended and the practical work made more comprehensive. By hav- ing longer and more varied practical work in the school, the graduate would meet with less difficulty in adapting himself to the details of actual work, and he would consequently make better progress. The workmen who have acquired a trade' or technical education might properly be divided into four classes, as follows: First, those who have attended a trade or technical school before entering upon practical work in the industry; second, those who pursued their school training in the evening at the same time that they were serving their TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION — UNITED STATES. 381 apprenticeship in the trade; third, full-fledged mechanics, who, having learned the practical part of their trade, attended the evening schools to obtain a technical and scientific knowledge which would enable them to make better progress and advance to positions of responsi- bility; and fourth, those who secured the technical portion of their training by a correspondence course of instruction. The opinions of the manufacturers regarding the qualifications of these men, and the methods of instruction, may be summarized as follows: The young men who enter the workshop fresh from a trade or technical school are not practical. As a rule they have had just enough shopwork to make them think that they are practical, when in fact they are not. Some of them have exalted ideas of their ability and, if left to them- selves, will waste material and, therefore, are expensive to their employers. But, after they have been in the shop a few years and are drilled in shop methods, they make the best class of mechanics and can be trusted with the most difficult and important kinds of work. Workmen who have had a good technical education make the best men to fill positions as foremen or superintendents. The best results are achieved in the least possible time by the men who have worked three or four years in the trade before going to evening technical schools, and by the apprentice who attends school while serving his appren- ticeship. Of these two plans the latter is considered preferable. It permits the theoretical and practical training to be carried on simul- taneously and is more interesting to the student workman. Moreover, it enables him better to appreciate what he is learning, and he devel- ops much faster and is more valuable both to himself and his employer. A formal stage of apprenticeship is required in all important occu- pations, and in several places the number of apprentices is limited to conform to the requirements of labor unions. The majority of those who express any opinion upon the subject think that the shop training of apprentices is not unduly prolonged or made needlessly difficult by the labor unions. The consensus of opinion regarding the efficiency of the so-called apprentice system seems to be that it does not afford full and adequate instruction in some of the trades which are found in this industry. This is particularly the case in large establishments. The facilities for learning the practical side of drafting, pattern making, and molding are said to be as good as ever, but in the machine shop the tendency toward specialization has become so pronounced that very few appren- tices learn the entire trade. The custom seems to be to shift the apprentice about until he shows special aptitude at some particular part, at which he is held, as his proficiency in that part makes his serv- ices more valuable to the employer. In this way the apprentice learns an occupation, but his energies and talents being devoted to the production of one or two parts he becomes a specialist only. While 382 EEPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOE. some manufacturers seem to be well satisfied with the sj'stem of specialization which has' come into general use, there are many who feel that it is not entirel}^ satisfactory. Among the latter class are represented two of the oldest and largest industrial establishments in the country which have organized systems of apprenticeship that are said to be productive of great benefit both to the workmen and their employers. One of these establishments, the Baldwin Locomotive Works, emplojnng nearly 11,000 workmen, has recently made a com- plete change in its apprentice system, departing entirely from the specialist idea and reviving the old indenture system, with such new features as experience has shown to be advisable. The following state- ment by Mr. Samuel M. Vauclain, superintendent of this establishment, made before the Engineers' Club of Philadelphia, and published in the proceedings of the Engineers' Club for January, 1902, sets forth so clearly and forcibly the reasons for the adoption of this system on the part of this great company and the methods pursued with the appren- tices that it is worth quoting here at length: In handling several thousand apprentice boys it became apparent to me that no matter how well the apprentice was taught in the work- shops, or how much he was encouraged to go to the various night schools in our city, such as the Franklin or Spring Garden Institute, the Young Men's Christian Association, Drexel, or others for the technical lart of his education, we found that he desired something to show that e had learned the art or that he had served a specific time at this art. In other words, he was just as anxious to get his diploma as the young man who graduates from the university, or from Sibley or Stevens, or some such institution, and in my opinion was just as much entitled to it. It became apparent to me also that if we were to remain successful in competition with the world we would have to get to work at once and systematically educate our apprentices, not only in so far as the handicraft is concerned, but that they should have a certain amount of technical knowledge to go with it, and that that technical knowledge should go hand in hand with the manual training that they were receiving in the shops. Very naturally the thought occurred to me, "What are we going to do with the great unwashed— the boys who can not go to school — the boys who are turned out of the grammar schools, perhaps, before they have barelj' entered them ?" The parents must put those boys to work, and, fortunately for us, the laws of Pennsylvania relieve us of this mass of humanity — poorly trained, poorly educated, and with the greed of gain, the only thought their parents have in placing them at work. The law forbids the employment of any boy under 16 years of age, and over 13, only when his parents go before a magistrate and get a permit; consequently we are able to keep out of our workshops all boys under 16, except those who are the sons of widows and who must have employment somewhere. Those boj's we emploj- as messengers, and keep them and train them and bring them along until such time as we can put them to a trade. Our idea in establishing three grades of apprentices was to take care of the three grades of boys that come to us. First^ the boys of the masses — the boys of ordinary education — very ordinary E: TRADE AKD TECHWICAL EDXJGATION UNITED STATES. 383 education indeed; these boys we compel to remain with us four years. "We require that they shall go outside at night to some of the many night schools and take a one-year's course in elementary geometry and algebra in order to get a slight knowledge of them. The second and third years they must attend drawing school. They must take a two- year's course in drawing outside of the workshops. At the expiration of the four years we give these boys a bonus and we discharge them from our employ. They get a diploma — their, indenture is their diploma; their bonus is their reward and the wherewith to go else- where and seek employment. Now the high school boy is a well educated boy. I defy any young man of eighteen to go before an employer with a better education than those boys who come to us from our Philadelphia high school. He has a good knowledge of geometry and many of the higher branches of mathematics; he knows something of mechanical drawing — enough to go on with the work; therefore, we omit with this boy the preliminary course in elementary algebra and geometry, and we prescribe that for two years he must attend night school in mechanical drawing in order to perfect himself, in order to learn to express his thoughts upon paper as he absorbs ideas in the workshop. We also give this young man a bonus, and we only require three years of service from him on account of the superior education he has when he comes to us. The superior educa- tion enables us to grasp more quickly the needs — the place to put him — and he more or less readily absorbs the instructions given him from his immediate superiors through the superintendent of the shop. The bonus this young man gets is |100 in place of the $125 of his more unskilled companion. This flOO we think is sufficient to enable him to go elsewhere and secure employnlent, and we are never ashamed to let one of those apprentices go for that. He always shows up well. The third man to take care of is the graduate of our universities — the ordinary mechanical engineer who comes to us not quite so green as grass so far as mechanical handicraft is concerned. He is wUling to get down to the hardest work we have in our shop, and he works at it like a steam engine. He has all the technical knowledge that is necessary. He has it, but he does not know how to use it. We encourage him in this manner: We can not indenture him, being a man, but we make a specific contract with him for two years and pay him enough to keep body and soul together. We give him 13 cents an hour for the first year, and 16 cents an hour for Mie second j'ear, and a clean certificate at the end of that time. We have not had a man of that description for that length of time who has not been lifted out of the position he had contracted for and is enjoying a miieh more remunerative position and in the line of pro- motion. Now, it is from these men that we must fill the superior offices in our workshop, and these boj^s we promote. The man or boy who has determined to get to the top, and will burn his candle at night to gain the knowledge that his more favored companion has received in a better institution of learning than he has attended, also gains his reward. The third boy we must have to fill the ordinary ranks in the workshops, and the better educated we can have the ordinary rank and file in our workshops, the better chance we will have of competing with our foreign manufacturers, the better chance we will have of extending the markets of American manufactures throughout the world, and it is only bjr this that we can do so. You have asked me 384 EEPOET OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. why we can afford to do this — why we can afford to turn away from the doors every year several hundred young men. We do not expect to keep them all. We will keep the better ones that we come across from time to time. We promote them, so that their ambition will permit them to stay with us. Have jj^ou not already seen the point? Every one of these men that go forth from an establishment of this kind will sing its praises forever. They will shout just as lustily for the Baldwin Locomotive Works as they have done for Yale, Har- vard, or the university, or any other institution they have left. You will have an advertising medium that can not be surpassed by anything, and, further than that, you will have established in your own workshop a set of men that will be invaluable — that you can never hire in the open market. When I hear a manager say he has had so many men call in his efforts to secure a foreman, he has tried and tried to get certain men to do certain work and failed, I pity that man. That man has not the courage to go down in his pocket and labor for a few years to train men to fill these positions, and if you can put out your coin — if j^ou have the small courage to hand it over to these young meia — you will get it back tenfold before you know where you are. The Baldwin Locomotive Works do not intend to give night instruc- tion. They do intend to impart the technical knowledge. We depend upon the various night schools established throughout the city, and we pray for the establishment of more and better night schools to give instruction for that portion of the training of the apprentices. The manufacturer has the commercial side of the question to deal with. He can impart the commercial side of the business in connection with the technical training. He must be a manual student commercially. He must be able to make that work pay. He must be able to get it out for a certain sum of money, and he must be able to get it out well for that money, because the better his product is the more work will come into that work- shop; and, therefore, if the foremen, or the superintendent, or the owners, or the managers of these manufacturing institutions will give their time and attention to the handicraft — the manual training — they certainly should expect to get the technical portion for the work of their students outside. Now, in order to make a scheme of this sort successful, one must make a business of it. You can not hand these boys over to the tender mercies of a foreman, because it is not one out of fifty who can take a boy and who can say to himself, "That boy is perfect on that work; here, give him another planer; there is no use keeping that boy on that work any longer." No, be will keep him there until the supei'intendent says, "You must not keep that boy there any longer; you are doing him an injustice." In order to avoid such a condition of affairs, I felt that we should have a superintendent of apprentices, a man whose business was to look after the appren- tices, not only in the shop but out of the shop — a man who would see that he is taken care of, and see that the foreman does not take advan- tage; but as fast as the boy learns he must be pushed along. We hire him for what he learns from us for the future, and we must have that boy pushed along so that he can learn, so that he can absorb every- thing that is capable of being absorbed in that shop. If he is not cap- able of being pushed along so fast, he is pushed along slowly and more care is taken of him. We do not want to allow that boy to sink down TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION — UNITED STATES. 385 into disappointed youth. We just want him when he is 21 to be able to work and to go on and Iceep on working with irresistible energy. Now, this superintendent of apprentices must do that work, and he must further see that the boy carries out his side of the con- tract — that he attends these night schools. He must see where he goes; he must examine into the matter; he must see the boy's teacher or professor, and he must report upon that boy's progress, so that we can form a determination of the value of this apprentice from a tech- nical standpoint. We find it very difficult to provide for a certain branch of this work, but great effort is being made to carry it on for any number of boys. The public schools are taking an interest; everybody will take an interest in it after a while, when it becomes known. It is the right policy, if we can only interest manufacturers to establish a system of this kind. All those interested will find all they can do to keep up with the other end of the business if the manu- facturer will take care of the handicraft; and until that time does come, if we can not obtain the technical education for these young men outside at night, as we should, the only thing to do is to establish an educational institution of our own and take these boys so many hours from work and say you must go there and receive it. Insist upon it. It does not cost much. You can get a good educator for $3,000 a year, and what is $3,000 when you divide it up among a thou- sand boys ? Three dollars for each boy. And if those boys are worth anything they will not only earn their wages, but they will earn a great deal more. _ They will earn the money you might spend upon their education, and in the years to come they will be grateful for the trouble you have taken to make better men of them. The other establishment referred to is the well-known Brown & Sharpe Manufacturing Company of Providence, E. I. Though this company has always maintained an excellent system of apprenticeship, the system now in force has existed only since 1897. In speaking of the system, the superintendent says: In an establishment of this kind, engaged as it is in the manufac- ture of machine tools of the utmost accuracy and fineness, men of the highest degree of skill and proficiency are needed in all departments. The superintendents, foremen, and higher class of mechanics must not only have a thorough practical training in the shop, but in order to understand and overcome the many intricate problems which con- stantly arise in connection with their work, they must also possess a certain amount of theoretical and technical knowledge which can not be acquired in the shop. The tendency of the times in manufacturing is such that all machin- ists and mechanics who are trained in the shops only, in the ordinary course of business, become specialists and never attain a thorough, all- round knowledge of their trade. If a man or boy in a machine shop does particularly good work with any one machine or at any one operation the employer can not afford, under the severe competition now existing in the industries, to shift him from said machine or oper- ation and give him work of another kind simply for the purpose of teaching him the whole trade and having him become skilled in all of its processes. The consequence is that as a rule the workman passes his working life performing one operation only and never acquires a 9257—02 25 386 EEPOET OF THE COJIMISSIONEK OF LABOK. complete knowledge of his trade. Even if this condition did not exist, and it were possible so to shift a workman about that he could learn all the operations carrie'd on in the industry, it would be a wasteful method, and when all had been learned that could be in this manner it would be mostly knowledge of a practical kind only, and the technical and scientific knowledge necessary to make the thorough craftsman would still be wanting. This knowledge can be supplied only by some forni of school training. The all-round, thoroughly trained mechanic is needed in moderate numbers, and the best waj'' to supply this need is to begin with the apprentice and put him through a systematic, theoretical, and prac- tical course of instruction, and this is the plan upon which our system of apprenticeship is conducted. The apprentices are under the immediate charge of a superintendent of apprentices, whose sole duty it is to look after them and arrange and superintend their instruction. The shop instruction covers a period of four years and em!)races six months' work on the lathe, six months' work on the milling machine, four months' work on the planer, six weeks' work on the drill press, three weeks' work in scraping, six "months' work in assembling parts, six months' work in erecting machines, and the balance of the term is spent in the drafting rooms and in general shop practice at operations not specified above. This brings the apprentices under the instruction, at one time or another, of every foreman in the establishment and enables them to acquire a thorough knowledge of every detail. During the entire period of apprenticeship one hour every two weeks is devoted to a lecture or a discussion upon some subject bearing upon the trade, and to assist the apprentices in their studies the company maintains a circulating library of technical works. In addition to the regular shop work, the apprentices are also obliged to take a cqurse in the evening classes of the Rhode Island School of Design in Providence or the course in mechanical engineer- ing and drawing of the International Correspondence Schools, of Scran- ton, Pa. Our apprentices come from all parts of the country, and many have come from Europe to get the benefit of the training afforded by our system. Thus far our experience shows that the young men who have com- pleted the full term of apprenticeship under this system are vastly superior to the' ordinary shop-trained mechanics, and wherever they go their technical training, combined with the knowledge of our sys- tem of manufacturing, enables them to secure better positions and higher wages than the average mechanic. The majority rise to responsible positions as foremen and superintendents, and many of them have become members of firms and manufacturing corporations. The terms and agreement of apprenticeship are as follows: Terms of apprenticeship to the Brown & Sharps Manufacturing Company, manu- facturers of fine machinery, machine tools, etc., Providence, E. I. Applicants for admission to apprenticeship must be not less than sixteen nor more than eighteen years of age. They must be physically sound, of good moral char- acter, and have received an education equivalent at least to that required for gradua- tion from the public grammar schools of the city of Providence. Application must be made in person, and, if accepted, the applicant's name will be registered and due notice given when he will be required to commence work, TBADE AWD TECHNICAL EDUCATION — UNITED STATES. 387 The first four hundred and eighty hours of service shall constitute a term of trial. If the apprentice shall during this term prove satisfactory, and shall before the expiration thereof execute, together with his father or guaxdian — or if he have no father or guardian, then with some other responsible party— an agreement in the form hereto annexed, then his apprenticeship shall continue for the full term, unless sooner terminated as hereinafter stated. Apprentices will be required to serve for the term of four years, each year to con- sist of two thousand nine hundred and fifty working hours, which, with the usual working day of ten hours each, is equal to two hundred and ninety-five working days. The remaining working days in each year will be allowed apprentices for recreation, at such time or times as the company shall direct. Graduates of the Providence Manual Training High School, well recommended by the principal, may have their term of apprenticeship shortened, at the discretion of the company. Apprentices will be required to perform their duties with punctuality, diligence, and fidelity, and to conform to the rules and regulations which are or may be adopted for the government of the shops. Apprentices are not allowed to use tobacco in the shops during working hours. Apprentices shall make up lost time at the expiration of each year, at the rate of wages paid during said year; and no year of service shall commence until the appren- tice shall have fully made up all time lost in the preceding year. The company reserves the right, whenever the state of business demands it, to shorten the hours of labor, or whenever for any reason it shall stop the works, to suspend apprentices wholly or in part, and the making up of time so lost shall be at the discretion of the company. The company also reserves the right, in its sole discretion, to terminate its agree- ment with any apprentice, also to discharge him from its employment for non- conformity with its rules and regulations, want of industry or capacity, indifference to his duties, or improper conduct within or without the shops. Apprentices will be paid for each hour of actual service (not including time allowed for recreation or time when work is suspended) the following wages: For the first year, 6 cents; for the second year, 8 cents; for the third year, 10 cents, and for the fourth year, 14 cents. If the company shall terminate the apprenticeship during the time of trial, it will pay at the rate of 6 cents per hour for the time worked. Wages will be paid on the regular pay days of the company as they may be estab- lished from time to time. The company will faithfully instruct the apprentice in the machinist's art and trade in their shops during the term of apprenticeship. Agreement made this day of , A. D. 1 — , between the Brown & Sharpe Manufacturing Company, a corporation established in the city of Providence, in the State of Rhode Island, party of the first part; — — , of , party of the second part; and , of , party of the third part. Whereas the party of the second part is desirous of becoming an apprentice to the party of the first part for the purpose of acquiring the art or trade of machinist, now this agreement witnesseth: That the party of the first part, in consideration of the covenants herein contained on the part of the party of the third part, hereby accepts the party of the second part as an apprentice in the art or trade of machinist, subject to and in accordance with the "Terms of apprenticeship," which are hereto annexed and made part hereof. The party of the second part, in consideration of such acceptance, hereby agrees to become the apprentice of the party of the first part in the machinist's art or trade in accordance with the said "Terms of apprenticeship" and to faithfully conform to the provisions thereof. The party of the third part, in consideration of the covenants on the part of the 388 KEPOET OF THE C0MMI8SI0NEK OF LABOR. party of the first part herein contained, for himself, his heirs, executors, and admin- istrators, covenants with the party of the first part that he will pay the party of the first part, as compensation for receiving the party of the second part as an appren- tice, the sum of fifty dollars (f50), said sum to be paid at the expiration of the term of trial referred to in said "Terms of apprenticeship." The party of the third part, for himself, his heirs, executors, and administrators, covenants and agrees, to and with the party of the first part, that the party of the second part shall well and truly conform to and abide by all the provisions of said "Terms of apprenticeship" and of this agreement. The party of the first part covenants and agrees, in case the party of the second part shall serve the full term of said apprenticeship (including the making up of lost time) as provided in said "Terms of apprenticeship" and shall in all respects com- ply with the provisions of said "Terms of apprenticeship," to pay to the party of the second part at the termination of said term of apprenticeship, in consideration of such faithful service, the sum of one hundred and fifty dollars ($150). In witness whereof the parties hereto have hereunto set their hands and seals (the party of the first part by , its , duly authorized for that purpose) the day and year first above written. Executed in the presence of — • MILLINEKY. The manager of a prominent millinery establishment in New York City furnishes the following statement regarding experience with young women who have attended millinery schools: We have employed a large number of the graduates of local milli- nery schools and their work has always proved satisfactory. At cer- tain seasons of the year there is a large demand for makers, improvers, and trimmers in the trade, and until the schools were established we had great difficulty in obtaining an adequate supply of experienced hands. The element ot design is the most important factor, but workman- ship can not be neglected. More schools would be a benefit to the industry. As American milliners advance in the creation of styles they will to that extent lessen the necessity of looking to Paris and other fashion centers for models and special features, and this advance may be brought about by good schools. School training develops the native artistic taste to much better advantage than can be done in the shop, and it also reveals the defects in the student and thus often turns the girl to some other pursuit for which she is better fitted, and saves the business from some, at least, who never would become com- petent milliners. We prefer graduates of schools when we can get them. They do just as good work as the shop-trained milliners, and as a rule they are more reliable and make a better class of help. The proprietors of the schools vouch for the young women, and a recommendation from the school is a sufficient guarantee to us that they are of good moral character and can do good work. We are especially interested in get- ting good milliners, as we have a constant demand from our trade throughout the country for experienced help. We employ the gradu- ates for one or two seasons, until we know ]ust what they can do, and then send them to fill positions with our customers — milliners who buy our trimmings, shapes, etc. Hardly a year passes but that we TRADE AKD TECHNICAL EDUCATION — UNITED STATES. 389 find good paying positions for from 50 to 100 milliners in this way. Our trade looks to us for experienced help, and we look to the schools. Thus far the plan has proved highly satisfactory. We have a systematic course for beginners in our workrooms, and every branch of the trade is taught thoroughly. We prefer, however, to employ the school-trained help, as they have already learned the preliminary parts of the trade and make rapid progress in the art of trimming. A statement substantially of the same character as the foregoing was furnished by the manager of the millinery department of a large department store in St. Louis, Mo. PRINTING AND PUBLISHING. In that branch of the printing business which employs the greatest number of workmen — that is, typesetting — the apprentice who has a good graded school education can learn the art much better by start- ing in at the case in a regular printing establishment. School-trained compositors are said to do good work, but they possess no special qualifications which give them preference over those who have obtained their training by actual work in the trade. In the lithographing and engraving branch of the industry a number of concerns employ graduates of industrial art schools in the drawing and designing department. The proprietor of one of these establish- ments speaks as follows: Ten of the workmen in our designing room have studied in a local institute which has a four-year course in industrial art drawing. Some of them pursued their studies in the evening classes while working in the shop during the day, thereby combining the theoretical and artistic instruction with practical work under shop conditions. The special training of these men has been a great benefit to our business, the work of some of them resulting in increasing the amount of our prod- uct at least 10 per cent. Our workmen start in at the bottom and are promoted according to their ability. Those who attend the evening classes at the institute advance faster and are more proficient, and they receive higher wages than the mere shop-trained workmen. Further provision for industrial art schools would be a benefit to the industry generally. The best results are attained when school training is combined or supplemented by shop training. The latter is absolutely necessary in order that the workman may obtain that prac- tical knowledge which is essential to success in the business. We require a formal stage of apprenticeship in important occupa- tions, but shop training alone does not give the apprentice all the instruction he requires and should receive. We therefore stipulate that our apprentices must be graduates of the local institute. The results so far have been very gratifying and, in our opinion, demon- strate the superiority of the system that we have adopted. On the need of such schools a circular issued by the North End Union, of Boston, about the time its school of printing was started, and 390 EEPOBT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOE. signed by a number of prominent printers and publishers of the city of Boston, says: Printing, in common with other trades, has suffered from the deca- dence of the apprenticeship system, in which master and apprentice worked side by side. The work has largely become specialized, the choice or selection of method and style and the responsibility for artistic qualities in printing now resting principally with the designer or foreman, and hardly concerning the compositor at all. This has weakened that self-reliance which comes from experience and retarded the individual development of the artistic sense in printing, and it is to-day difficult to find, in numbers equal to the demand, efficient, all- around, artistic printers. In general, it may be said that the trend of modern trade conditions is to emphasize that which is merely mechanical and to restrict more and more the opportunities for acquiring that which is artistic. In view of these facts, we believe that adequate instruction in thoroughly good printing can better be given in schools properly equipped and under competent direction than in our modern printing offices. A stage of formal apprenticeship is required in all occupations in each branch of the industry. The trades most largely represented by labor unions are compositors, pressmen, press feeders, bookbinders, lithographers, and engravers. SCIENTIFIC INSTRUMENTS. The following statement was furnished bj'' a prominent manufacturer engaged in this branch of industry: We have several graduates of a local technical school in our employ, besides a niunber of workmen who are attending evening classes in the same institution. The special training and scientific knowledge that these men obtained in the school has undoubtedly helped to improve the character of our product. They have steadier employment and receive 10 per cent higher wages than the other workmen. Our school facilities are first class in every respect, and afford every mod- ern means for instruction in the arts and sciences applicable to our industries. We have considerable difficulty, however, in making our workmen understand the importance of attending the school. We need technical men in our business, and have room for twenty to-day, but can not find them. They are slow and awkward at first, but after working a while in the shop they learn our methods and make good progress. The average mechanic is usually guided by the customs of his trade. He can execute the work when it is mapped out for him, biit knows nothing about the technical and scientific principles which govern it. We need mechanics who have been trained to think as well as to work. The ordinary mechanic is too indifferent. He is satisfied with learning one or two parts and does not care to bother about any- thing else. W hen the technical man comes into the shop he works hard to get a practical knowledge of minor details, and when that is acquired he pushes on to the higher and more difficult parts. The importance of obtaining a complete knowledge and mastery of his trade is instilled into his mind in the school, and he is ambitious to TKADB AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION — UNITED STATES. 391 get ahead, and with proper encouragement is bound to be more valu- able both to himself and his employer. Our system of apprenticeship does not extend to the entire trade. The apprentice is simply taught how to run a certain machine, such as a lathe or planer. In this way he learns to be a good machine tender, but not an expert machinist. The class of men we need in this business ought to have a thorough knowledge of mechanical drawing, physics, and chemistry. These things can not be taught in the shop. They must be learned in some technical school. There ought to be a rule making it compulsory for every apprentice to attend our evening trade and technical schools. It is a serious mat- ter with us, and we are thinking of adopting some means whereby we can compel all our apprentices to take a full course of instruction in the local technical school. If we could have such an arrangement, we would be glad to change our apprenticeship system so as to give every bo}'^ a good training in every branch of the business. SHIPBTTrLDING. It is considered that the services of graduates of technical schools have in many cases been of great benefit in this industry. In the con- struction departments it is said that there has been a marked improve- ment in the character of the work performed by such workmen as have acquired a knowledge of mechanical drawing, while in the draft- ing department there are several cases where the ability of technical school graduates is referred to in the highest terms. The mechanics, draftsmen, and foremen who have attended these schools receive from 10 to 30 per cent higher wages than employees in similar positions who have had shop training only. It is the opinion of employers generally that further provision for trade and technical schools would be a benefit to the industry. A for- mal period of apprenticeship is usually required. Regarding the comparative merits of shop training and of trade- school or technical training, it is said that for ordinary mechanical work shop training is best, provided the system of apprenticeship is arranged so that the apprentice can serve part of his time in the draft- ing room. This system gives the. apprentice a training in mechanical drawing that enables him to read and understand working plans, while the time spent in the construction department gives him a thorough knowledge of practical shop methods and qualifies him to do good work. Unfortunately, however, very few establishments have such a system in force. . While they all recognize the importance of having their workmen trained in the art of mechanical drawing, yet, with few exceptions, the matter is left to the option of the workmen, who, when favorabl}' inclined, pursue their studies either in some evening school or by means of the correspondence system. In the more important branches of the work and in positions requiring a high degree of intelligence and skill, the employers prefer those who have had both practical experience and technical training. 392 KEPOKT OF THE COMMISSIONEB OF LABOR. The molders, pattern makers, machinists, ship joiners, carpenters, and calkers are largely represented by labor unions. SILVERWARE MANUFACTURE. The following statement has been furnished by the superintendent of a large manufacturing silverware establishment in one of the Eastern States: Altogether we employ five designers and ornamenters who have been educated in schools of design. Three have graduated from Ger- man schools, one from an English school, and one from the Drexel Institute in Philadelphia. The special education of these workmen has undoubtedly helped to improve the character and quality of our product, and we pay them about 25 per cent higher wages than those who have had shop training only. Good design and good workmanship are both essential in this industry. While originality and excellence of design are always desir- able, yet without good workmanship the product would find little demand in the market. More schools would be of no particular benefit to our establishment. If we could not get school-trained men, we would train our own workmen. The education which is made up of a combination of shop and school training is best. If a boy brought up in a shop also learns to draw in a school of design, he is preferable to the school- trained boy who has no shop experience. Practical shop training is always essential. The school-trained boy lacks this and takes it hard when he tries to get it. He is disposed to think at the start that he knows more than they do in the shop, and consequently is not of much use until he unlearns some of the things taught in school. We require a formal stage of apprenticeship in silversmithing, engraving, spoon making, chasing, die cutting, burnishing, molding, turning, and designing. All our apprentices receive full and adequate instruction. This is given in the ordinary course of shop work, but we are careful that they shall have a thorough all-round education in the trade. Those who are learning design also attend evening classes in a local school of design. TEXTILE INDUSTRIES. While manufacturers in the industries differ in their opinions as to graduates of schools of design, they are practically agreed that the special training afforded by textile schools has been a benefit both to the industries and to the graduates who are employed in the mechan- ical departments in the mills. Generally speaking, except in the pro- duction of plain cloths, flannels, etc., design and workmanship are equally important in commanding a market for the product. But excellence in workmanship is much more easily attainable than origi- nality and attractiveness of design. In the manufacture of plain goods superior workmanship is deemed most essential. Inasmuch as the supply of school-trained designers is at present much larger than the demand, it is thought that the industry is in no danger of suffering from a lack of schools of design. In the manufac- turing branches, however, there is a decided sentiment in favor of TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUOAtlON — UNITED STATES. 393 further provision for textile schools. Many think that the textile industries are already suffering from the lack of institutions of this kind, and the manager of one mill in Massachusetts states that they are greatly needed if American manufacturers are to compete success- fully with foreign-made goods. Regarding the comparative merits of shop training and of trade- school or technical training, it is said that practical experience in the mill is always necessary, as school training alone does not make a finished workman. The manufacturers generally prefer shop-trained designers, and those employed in the mills are men who have spent many years in the designing room before they became proficient. The theoretical and artistic side of designing can be learned only in some good art school or school of design, as no mill has adequate facilities for giving thorough instruction of this kind. But the technical and practical side of the work must be acquired in the designing room. When a graduate is first put to work in the mill he starts in as a finisher; that is, he must be able to take a section of a design made by a designer and extend and complete it. It may therefore be said that for a finisher of designs school training is of paramount importance, but before he can become a full-fledged designer, capable of produc- ing original and practical working designs, years of experience in the designing room are necessary. Two of the largest silk manufacturers in the country state that they have purchased many good designs from young women who have studied designing in some of the New York schools, and particular mention is made of their superior work in making designs for deco- rative silks. One of these manufacturers states that the young women graduates, who are known in the industry as " outside designers," seem to be specially adapted for work of this character and some of them have met with very flattering success. In the mechanical opera- tions, and particularly in weaving, the workmen who supplement their shop training with a technical course in a textile school become most valuable and useful to their employers, and ultimately attain higher positions and receive better wages than those who have shop training only. One mill requires an apprenticeship of seven years for engravers and sketch makers. All others report that there is no fixed period of apprenticeship in mill occupations. It is said to be almost impossible for a boy to obtain thorough instruction in a mill. The exigencies of the business are such that he merely learns to tend a machine and nothing more. Consequently when -anything goes wrong he is at a loss for a remedy. In the case of a weaver it usually requires four years for him to become a full-fledged workman, and even then he has not the ability to overcome difficulties and to get around emergencies without calling upon others to assist him. It is in such things as these 394 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. that the school-trained workman shows his superiority, as the training^ gi\'en in the school covers every part of the work and also includes technical instruction in the construction, operation, and care of the loom. The textile trades most largely repi-esented by labor unions are the carders, loom fixers, spinners, and weavers. WALL PAPER. The graduates who usually find emplojinent in this industrj^ are those who pursue their studies in art schools and schools of design. While - none of the manufacturers report giving permanent employment to the school-trained designers, yet there are several who state that they have purchased designs from " outside designers," a term applied to a large class of designei'S, mostl}' young women, who have studied in some school of design, and who make up designs for wall papers, textiles, etc. , on their own account and sell them to the manufacturers in these industries. It seems to be the general opinion in the wall paper industry that the most of the designs made bj^ this class of designers are not prac- tical. The superintendent of one large concern who has handled wall paper designs for more than thirty j'ears, says: In this industry the command of the market is due entirely to the element of design. The industry would undoubtedly be benefited if the instruction given in the schools were made more thorough and practical. We have done everything possible to encourage the schools and the graduates, and our interest in their work has at times led us to purchase designs which we knew could not be used without altera- tion. This was done in the hope that the schools would improve and become more practical in their methods of instruction. We have pur- chased designs from more than fifty school-trained designers, not more than 5 per cent of whom can be classed as successful designers. The school-trained designers make very pretty designs, and some of them are quite original. But they all show that lack of factory experi- ence which gives the designer a knowledge of the mechanical part of the work, and also an idea of trade conditions, both of which are necessary and must be anticipated when a design is being made. We employ no female designers in our factory because the work is extremely difficult and requires unlimited and constant application, and they are not phj^sically strong enough to stand the strain. We prefer to purchase their designs and have our own men change them and make them practical when necessary. A formal stage of apprenticeship is usually required in all occupa- tions in this industry, and it is said that the apprentices receive full and adequate instruction in each part which is given in the ordinary course of shopwork. "WATCHMAKING AND REPAIRING. Generally speaking, the trade or technical school training of work- men who are employed in watch factories has had no particular effect upon either the character or the quality of the product. While men TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION UNITED STATES. 395 with such training are able to do a given amount of work in a shorter time than the shop-trained workmen, their work is no better and they receive no higher wages than the others. They are better all-round workmen, but owing to the subdivision of labor which prevails in the factory, watchmakers are no longer needed. Watch workers, men who are skilled in a particular part, are necessary, and it is said that such men can get better training in the factory. In the repairing branch of the business, however, school trained men are recognized as doing more and better work, and receive from 10 to 50 per cent more wages than those who have had no trade-school training. Additional tiude or technical schools would benefit the manufactur- ing branch of the industry only to the extent that more adequate edu- cational facilities would tend to improve the general intelligence of the workmen. In the repairing branch it is thought that additional schools would be an advantage to the workman as tending to improve the general character of bis work. One employer states that the demand for technically trained men is much greater than the supply, which is attributed at least in part to the lack of proper schools. There are some things which can only be learned by pi-actical shop experience, but for general all-round work the man who has learned the trade in a school gives the best satisfaction. Such shop knowledge as is neces- sary can be acquired in a short time, but the technical instruction given in the school will rarelj'^ be obtained in the shop. One employer is of the opinion that a young man can learn more in one year in the school than he can in four years in a shop. In the factory branch of the business no formal stage of apprentice- ship is necessarj'. The workmen are started at the lower orders of work and advanced systematically through the different operations as individual ability warrants. In the repairing branch the tendency among employers is not to take apprentices when trained help can be secui-ed. Those who take apprentices state that there is no limit as to time. The training is practical, but the theory of the trade is not taught at all. The progress of the apprentice all depends upon his ability and the interest manifested by his employer. ATTITUDE OF GRADUATES OF TRADE AND TECHNICAL SCHOOLS. ABCHITECTTJBAL DRAFTSMEN. Among the graduates reporting for this occupation all state that they had a taste for drawing and that they attended school to perfect themselves in architectural work, so that they might follow it up for a livelihood. The majority secured employment immediately upon graduation, and several report that the school authorities exerted 396 KEPOET OP THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOK. themselves in their behalf. While there is no fixed term of appren- ticeship, it is stated that the period which all beginners must serve "under instructions" was, in their cases, shortened by from one to two years. With one exception the graduates agree that their school training has resulted in higher wages, steadier employment, and more rapid promotion than would have been the case otherwise. On entering an architect's oiEce most of the graduates were obliged to work one year "under instructions" without wages, after which they were advanced according to their ability, their wages ranging from $6 to $10 per week during the second year to $18 per week in the fourth year after graduation.. They are all in favor of trade or technical education for those who have a desire to engage in industrial work. One graduate says: " A course of training in any school that will give a boy a knowledge of a trade or occupation is sure to be ben- eficial and will give him a better chance to succeed." BAKBEBS. Of the graduates of barbers' schools reporting, some secured employ- ment immediately upon graduation, while others failed to do so. Those who did not, assign such reasons as "too young to make favor- able impression upon employers," "could get better pay at other work," "went into business for myself," etc. Generally they do not feel that their school training assisted them in obtaining work, and the schools as a rule gave no aid in securing situations. There is a strong prejudice against barbers' schools on the part of employers, and the fact that a young man has attended one is rather a hindrance than a help in procuring a position. Therefore a great number of graduates set up shops of their own. Unions generally oppose the schools and do not recognize their work. Attendance at the schools shortened the time necessarj^ to become proficient barbers, but did not enable them to secure higher wages than are paid to other good barbers. About one-half of the graduates reporting say they would not rec- ommend barbers' schools as they are now conducted; that the course of study does not cover suflBcient time to afford opportunity for the necessary practical work; and that barbers' schools are in such disre- pute among barbers that their graduates do not stand an equal chance with shop- trained barbers. Those who would send their sons to bar- bers' schools would do so only to save time, and also that they might learn things of a professional character which can not be learned in a shop. BREWERS. In every instance the graduates who are engaged in the brewing in- dustry state that after working several years m the various parts of a brewery they found that m order to attain higher positions in the trade it would be necessarv for them to attend a brewers' school. All TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION — UNITED STATES. 397 secured employment immediately upon graduation, and the fact that they were graduates proved of great assistance in procuring employ- ment in a higher capacity and at greater remuneration than would otherwise have been the case. There is no regular system of apprenticeship in the industry. Most of the foremen and brewmasters are men who have worked their way up from the lower branches, in which they obtained a practical know- ledge of the business, which has been supplemented with a course in some brewers' school. In every case the school training received by the graduates has resulted in their obtaining steadier employment and more rapid pro- motion than would have been the case otherwise. Before attending school most of the graduates were employed as cellarmen. After completing the school course they secured employment as head cellar- men, foremen, or assistant brewmasters, at wages ranging from $1,200 to $2,000 per annum, and in the course of four or five years they were advanced to the position of superintendent or head brewmaster, in which occupation they receive from $3,000 to $5,000 per annum. It is the unanimous opinion that a young man who desires to become a first-class brewmaster should have the benefit of the technical training which is afforded by the brewers' schools. The brewmaster must have a thorough knowledge of every detail from the time the raw material enters the brewery until the finished product is placed upon the market, so that in case the latter should prove unsatisfactory he may know where to look for the cause and be able to apply the proper remedy. Before the brewers' schools became popular the operations in brew- ing depended very largely upon guesswork, and there was always more or less waste from over-fermentation, loose methods of handling, etc. But the theory of fermentation is now understood, the cooling, storing, bottling, and handling of the product has- been reduced to a science, and every detail from beginning to end is fully covered by the course of instructipn given in the schools. BRICKLAYERS. Two of the workmen interviewed in connection with this trade were negroes who attended one of the schools in Philadelphia. They gave as their reason for taking a course of instruction in the trade that they wanted to learn bricklaying, but, owing to their color, they could not get an opportunity to do so outside of the school. The white work- men gave as their reasons that they believed that the trade could be learned more quickly and thoroughly by attending a trade school. All secured employment immediately upon graduation, and in most cases they were aided by the school authorities. The fact that they were able to do satisfactory work was the most potent factor in obtain- ing employment. 398 REPOET OF THE COMMJ.SSIONEE OF LABOR. A period of apprenticeship is required in the trade, but in no case did any of the graduates serve the full period. Some were able to procure positions as skilled workmen at once, and others served an apprenticeship which was two years shorter than the regular term. In every instance their trade-school training has resulted in great benefit. Those who were obliged to serve an apprenticeship received $1.60 per day the first year, and from this amount their wages advanced to $3.60 and |4.40 per day the third year after leaving school. About one-third of the graduates are members of labor unions. All say that any boy who has an inclination to learn a trade ought to have the benefit of a trade-school training. In speaking of the schools for negro j^ouths, one of the graduates says: "If it were not for the trade school I would be nothing but a common laborer. The school gave me the chance to learn a good trade, and I look upon it as a great blessing to our race. It has helped many of our people to obtain good positions and made them self-supporting and better men." BTTTTER MAKERS. Graduates of dairy schools are usuallj" eraplayed as superintendents of creameries. They attend the schools to study the scientific princi- ples of butter making and to get a knowledge of such details of the trade as can i-arely be learned in the commercial creamery. It is essential for a successful butter maker to know the breeding, feeding, and care of dairy stock, and this can not be learned in a dairy. The schools always have applications for more men than can be sup- plied, and their recommendation is a sure guaranty" for a position. The graduates, therefore, find ready employment in a high capacity and at good wages. No apprenticeship is required of school graduates, but the graduates who furnished information for this report state that they were required by the schools to have worked one season in a creameiy before they were admitted to the schools. There is no fixed period of apprentice- ship in the trade, but such service is required of'persons who have not attended schools as will make them acceptable workmen. This period ■ is from one to two years longer than that required of those who have taken a course in a school. There are no labor unions in the trade, and terms of apprenticeship and rates of pay are adjusted between employers and each individual employee. Every school graduate furnishing information is a fast fi'iend of the schools and would send his son to one if he expected him to become a butter maker. 'They say a boy will not only get a knowledge in the schools which he can not possibly get in a factory, but that the things he might learn in the factory are more thoroughly learned in the schools and in a. much shorter time. The school trains the student to TRADE ANB TECHNICAL EDUCATION — UNITED STATES. 399 think, and instills the habit of looking for the' reason of things. He is, therefore, better prepared to profit by any subsequent experience in the factor}^ OABPEBrTERS. Several of the persons furnishing information had learned the prac- tical part of the trade before attending school, and their object ia taking a course of instruction was to acquire a knowledge of archi- tectural drawing and the theoretical principles of the trade. The others preferred this method of learning the trade. Those who were not already engaged secured employment immediatelj' upon gradua- tion, and in most cases the fact that they were graduates of a trade school proved of assistance in obtaining emploj'ment in a higher capacity and at better wages than would have been possible otherwise. More than one-half of the graduates were compelled to pass through a full period of apprenticeship before being engaged as journeymen, not many being able to procure positions as trained workmen. All agree that their trade-school training has resulted in higher wages, steadier employment, and in some cases more rapid promotion than they would otherwise have received. The wages received by those who were obliged to serve an apprenticeship after leaving school ranged from 11.50 per day for the first year to |2 per day in the second year, and $2.50 to $3 in the third and subsequent years. Only a few report that they are members of labor unions. Eegarding the question of sending a boy to a trade school to prepare for a trade, it is said that under the modern system of apprenticeship no boy can learn eveiy branch of the trade by shop work alone; that a boy who aspires to be more than an ordinary workman must possess a clear knowledge of the scientific principles pertaining to his trade, to obtain which he must have the benefit of such instruction as is given in the recognized trade and technical schools; and that even though he is obliged to serve an apprenticeship after leaving school, he will receive higher wages to start with and will stand a better chance for promotion. DESIGNERS OF ART NOVELTIES, HOUSE DECORATIONS, STAINED GLASS, ETC. Most of tlie graduates furnishing information under this head are vt'omen. Some had a liking for art work, but in the majority of cases the main object in taking a course of instruction in a school was to learn some branch of industrial art which would enable them to earn their own living. They had no trouble in securing employment after completing their studies, and with few exceptions received assistance from the school authorities. All but two state that the fact that they Were graduates resulted in their obtaining employment in a higher 400 KEPOET OF THE COMMISSIONEB OF LABOE. capacity and at a greater remuneration than would otherwise have been the case. They were fully prepared to engage in practical work on leaving school, and no apprenticeship was required. The wages they received ranged as follows: First year, $9 to $15 per week; second year, $13 to $16 per week; third year, $15 to $20 per week; fourth year, $17 to $25 per week; fifth year, $20 to $30 per week. They were unanimous in saying that their school training has been of great advantage to themselves, and they all believe that a similar course should be pursued by those who desire to engage in industrial designing. DESIGNERS OP TEXTILES. • Of the 16 graduates contributing information for this trade 5 are women. Various reasons are given for taking a course of instruc- tion in the trade. Most of the men had previously been engaged in different departments of textile mills and wanted to learn designing so that they might be able to obtain higher and better-paying posi- tions. Others desired to learn the trade, but found that in order to get employment in a designing room it would first be necessary to acquire a knowledge of the theoretical and artistic side of the work in some school of design. All of the women designers had a natural inclination for art work, and as industrial designing offered the best opportunities for the employment of their talents they concluded to foUow it up for a livelihood. With one exception, those not previ- ously engaged had no difficulty ^in securing employment upon com- pleting their studies, and as a rule they were assisted by the school authorities. In every instance the fact that they had completed a course in textile designing in a reputable school resulted in their obtain- ing employment in a higher capacity and at greater remuneration than would otherwise have been the case. A period of apprenticeship is usually required, and a majority of the graduates were obliged to serve several years as finishers of designs before being engaged as regular workmen. In some places it is thought that the period of apprenticeship required of graduates is unduly pro- longed by the chief designers. None of the women designers served an apprenticeship. One of the latter is an " outside designer," who has built up a profitable business in making designs for decorative silks, etc., which are disposed of among the manufacturers. The others are designers of oriental rugs, and they were qualified to engage in regular work immediately upon graduation. With one exception; the graduates were very enthusiastic in speak- ing of the benefits derived from their school training. Most of them admit that if it had not been for the instruction they received in the school itwould have been impossible for them to engage in the work of design- ing at all, as they could not get a chance to learn the trade in a design- ing room. There was considerable variation in the wages they received after entering upon the work of the trade. One man worked two TKADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION — UNITED STATES. 401 yeai's without wages as a finisher of designs, after which he was con- sidered a competent designer and received from f900 to $1,500 per year for several years, and later on was advanced to $3,000 per year. Another person worked seven years as a finisher, during which time he received from $3 to $15 per week, and upon becoming a full-fledged workman his wages were gradually increased to $40 per week. Still another, who was evidently more proficient than the rest, was able to command $1 ,200 the first year after graduation. The women designei'S started in at wages ranging from $10 to $18 per week for the first year, $12 to $25 per week for the second 3''ear, and $15 to $30 per week for the third and subsequent years. While there is some diversity of opinion regarding the course to pursue in order to obtain the best results from a school training, all agree that a thorough understanding of the theoretical and artistic principles of the trade is absolutely necessary, and that this can best be gained by attending some good school. Practical experience in a designing room is essential to develop the perfect designer, and it is said that the most successful workmen are those who have had the benefit of both kinds of training. Some are of the opinion that school training should precede practical training, while others believe that a boy ought to have a few years' experience in a mill before attending school. This, it is said, would enable him to grasp the details of prac- tical work more quickly and give him a decided advantage over the young man who has only a school training with which to start. In referring to the advantages of school training as compared with shop training, one designer who has met with good success in the trade says: A school of design affords the only means for learning the trade in a reasonable time. A boy learning the trade in a designing room wastes much valuable time in doing drudgery for the designer, who is usually averse to giving instruction on the important points of the trade, which must therefore be learned, if at all, by observation. In the school the student has the benefit of the experience and knowledge of many men, or a concentration of the best ideas in the trade. He receives careful instruction in the fundamental principles of indus- trial art, their practical application to the work of his trade is fully explained, and he is afforded every opportunity for becoming profi- cient without waste of time. DOMESTIC SERVANTS. One of the graduates in domestic training gave as her reason for taking a course of instruction in school that she saw her way clear to fit herself for nothing better than domestic service and she believed the training she would receive at school would be better than any she could obtain in any other way. Another stated that she liKed domes- tic work, and believed that with the school training she could obtain a 9257—02 26 402 BEPOET OF THE COMMISSIONEB OF LABOR. better positjon. They both secured employment immediately upon graduation. The school authorities actively exerted themselves in assisting them to positions, and the fact that they were graduates of a training school proved of assistance in securing employment in a higher capacity and with greater remuneration than would have been possible otherwise. Each thought the school training much more thorough than that received in actual service, and in the light of their own experience they would recommend a similar course for all young women who desire to enter domestic service. DKESSMAKEES. A number of those furnishing information for this trade had been employed in dressmaking establishments previous to attending the trade school. Their object in taking a course of instruction was to learn the trade in its entirety. In common with many others they had found that employing dressmakers were disposed to withhold instruc- tion from their apprentices, especially in the ai't of cutting and fitting. Another important reason which most of them gave was that they wanted to learn the trade so that they might follow it for a livelihood. Those who did not engage in business for themselves found employ- ment immediately upon graduation, and the recommendation of the school was of great assistance in this direction. The term of apprenticeship in this trade varies according to the aptitude of the individual and the disposition of the employer to give instruction. No apprenticeship is usually required of school gradu- ates. Those without previous experience begin at a low rate of wages and are advanced according to their ability. Generally speaking, their trade-school training has resulted in higher wages, steadier employ- ment, and more rapid promotion than would have been the case other- wise. The wages received after leaving school ranged from $3 to f 8 per week for the first year, ^5 to $12 per week for the second year, and $6 to f 15 per week for the third j-ear. Those who took up cut- ting and fitting exclusively were able to command from $16 to $25 per week for the first year, and one who had exceptional ability was receiving $50 per week the fourth year after completing her studies in the school. The general sentiment of the graduates is decidedly favorable to trade education, and thej' believe that those who desire to learn the trade should take a course of instruction in some good school, as it is almost impossible for a young woman to learn the entire trade in the workroom. ELECTBICAI. WOB.KERS. Two graduates in electrical courses gave as their reason for taking a course of instruction in a trade school that they wanted to learn a trade, but could not get a chance outside of the school. Another stated TBADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION UNITED STATES. 403 that he was influenced to attend the school by the fact that the elec- trical industries were practically in their infancy, and as he desired to follow some branch of the work he concluded that the best course to pursue would be to acquire a knowledge of the theoretical and scien- tific principles before engaging in practical work. With one excep- tion, employment was secured immediately upon graduation, and the school training proved of assistance in this connection. Two were compelled to serve apprenticeships before being engaged as qualified workmen, but the term was one year shorter than that required of nongraduates. All agree that their trade-school training has been a benefit to them, and in a general way has resulted in higher wages and steadier employ- ment. Upon engaging in practical work their wages ranged from $4.50 to $10 per week the first year, $6 to 111 per week the second year, and $8 to $12 per week the third year. They believe that every boy should be sent to a trade school to prepare for a trade. School training alone will not make him a finished workman, but it will make his task much easier when he engages in the actual work of his trade. GARMENT CUTTEBS. Graduates of cutting schools state that they found no difficulty in securing remunerative positions, and in most cases the fact that they had completed a course of instruction in such schools proved of assist- ance in obtaining employment. Some of the persons had had more or less experience in the trade before attending school, but not having any regular system for cutting they took a course of instruction for the purpose of learning one. Others had been employed as sewing- tailors and not being able to get a chance to learn cutting in a regular shop they went to the school for that purpose. Two graduates were obliged to serve an apprenticeship, but in each case the term was one year shorter than the regular period. They received $9 per week for the first year and $15 per week the second year after graduation. Those who were not obliged to serve an apprenticeship were able to command from $15 to $25 per week the first year, $18 to $30 per week the second year, $20 to $40 per week the third year, and one waa receiving $50 per week the fifth year after completing the school course. Two graduates report that they are members of labor unions. Generally speaking they are well pleased with their school training. The knowledge obtained in cutting schools has been invaluable to them, and they are of the opinion that every man who desires to become a master of the trade should take a course of instruction in some recog- nized school. In order, however, to secure the best results the stu- dent ought to have one or two years' experience in the trade before attending school. 404 EEPOBT OJF THE OOMMISSIONEB OF LABOR. ILLUSTRATORS. All of the graduates furnishing information for this occupation are women who studied illustration for the purpose of following it for a. livelihood. They secured employment immediately upon gradua- tion, and the fact that they had completed a course of instruction in recognized schools enabled them to obtain better positions than would otherwise have been the case. None of them were required to serve any apprenticeship. Wages ranged from |8 to $15 per week the first year and from $10 to $20 per week the second year after leaving school. They all claim that their school training has resulted in unquestionable benefit to themselves, and are of the opinion that no person can become proficient in the art of illustration without taking a course of instruction in some good school. MACHINISTS. Quite a number of the graduates who are engaged in this occupa- tion attended trade or technical schools which gave instruction in the theory and science of the trade as well as in the practical shopwork. This class of graduates desired to obtain a thorough knowledge of the fundamental principles of the trade before engaging in actual work. Several state that not being able to get a chance to learn the trade in a shop their only alternative was to attend a trade school. On the other hand there are those who after working in a machine shop for several years came to the conclusion that the theoretical and scientific instruction afi'orded by the evening trade and technical schools would enable them to obtain higher wages and advance to more responsible positions, and it was with this object in view that they attended these schools, while continuing to work in the shop during the day. Those who had not been previously engaged in the trade were able to secure employment immediately upon graduation, and several report that they were aided in this by the school authorities. In a number of instances it was said that the fact that they were trade or technical school graduates had some influence in their obtaining employment in a higher capacity and at greater remuneration than would otherwise have been the case. The term of apprenticeship is four years, and about one-half of the graduates were required to serve the full period. The others were allowed a reduction of from one to two years, and in no case did the labor unions object to the shortening of the period. Generally speak- ing, the trade or technical training received hj the graduates resulted in steadier employment, higher wages, and more rapid promotion than would have been the case otherwise. There was but one dissenting opinion in this connection, and it might be added that this same grad- uate deplored the fact that he did not pay more attention to his studies when in school. TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDTJCATION — UNITED STATES. 405 In order to present a clearer idea regarding the progress of the graduates, in so far as it can be measured by the wages they received for a series of years after leaving school, the range of weekly wages of those who were obliged to start in as apprentices is given separately, as follows: First year, $3.38 to $6; second year, 14.80 to |10; third year, $5.40 to $12; fourth year, 17.20 to $15; fifth year, $10.80 to |15; sixth year, $15; seventh to tenth years, inclusive, $18. Those who worked at the trade during the day while attending night school were qualified as journeymen immediately after leaving school, and consequently received higher wages than the others. The weekly wages of this class were as follows: First year, $9 to $15; second year, $11 to $18; third year, $13 to $18; fourth year, $15 to $18; fifth and sixth years, $16.50 to $18; seventh year, $16.50 to $23; eighth to tenth j^ears, inclusive, $18 to $23. About one-third of the graduates report that thej are members of labor unions. They are practically of one opinion regarding the importance of trade education, agreeing that every boy who has a taste for mechanical work and wants to learn a trade should attend a trade or technical school. A technical education, combined with practice in the trade, enables a man to know and understand what he is doing. It makes him more valuable to his employer, and he will make better progress and eventually attain a higher position. It is said that every machinist should have a thorough knowledge of mechanical drawing, but that this must be acquired outside of the shop. Two graduates state that they were so well pleased with their success after completing a course in mechanical drawing that they con- cluded to study mechanical engineering. One of these men graduated from the Cooper Union in 1891, and is now studying by the corre- spondence method, which he has found to be entirely satisfactory. MBCHABriCAI, DRAFTSMEN. Of the 40 graduates reporting for this occupation, 28 state that they wanted to take up mechanical drawing as a trade and believed that they could obtain better instruction and acquire a more thorough knowledge by attending a trade or technical school before entering a drafting room, and ly report that having been employed in other occupations, which for various reasons were found uncongenial, they concluded to take up mechanical drawing as offering better opportu- nities for advancement. All but 4 secured employment immediately upon graduation, and in each case it was said that the fact that they had completed a course in mechanical drawing was helpful in this regard. Twenty report that the school authorities aided them in procuring positions and 15 state that no such assistance was needed. While the fact that they were graduates did not in the majority of cases result in their securing employment in a higher capacity or at greater remuner- ation immediately after leaving school, it is generally agreed that the 406 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OE LABOR. training and knowledge obtained in the schools has enabled them to advance more rapidly and ultimately to receive higher wages. Two- thirds of the graduates had no occupation whatever before attending school. In some localities a regular apprenticeship of three or four years is required, and a number of graduates report that they were obliged to serve the full period before being engaged as competent draftsmen. In some cases there was a reduction of from one to three years made in favor of the graduates, and a few were qualified to take up regular work at once. While in a number of instances it is stated that there was no period of apprenticeship, yet the wages that these graduates received when they first engaged in practical work and the system under which they were employed would seem to indicate that it practically amounted to the same thing. In such cases the custom is to take young men who have completed a course in mechanical drawing in some school and put them to work ' ' under instructions " in the drafting room for two or thi'ce years and during this time they are paid wages ranging from $3 per week during the first year to ^ or f 6 in the second 3'ear, and from $7 to $9 per week in the third year. Generally, at the expira- tion of the third year there was a noticeable increase in wages as the graduates became more proficient, the wages for the fourth year being about f 12 per week. From this amount there was a gradual increase to ^25 per week, in the tenth year, wtich seems to be the general maximum wages paid for this class of work. It frequently happens that when mechanical draftsmen reach the point where they can com- mand $1,200 per j^ear they take up mechanical designing, which is the highest and most important branch of the work and usually commands higher wages. There are exceptional cases where graduates have commenced at low wages and in the course of time have been able to command more than ordinary remuneration. This is shown in the case of a graduate of an evening drawing school whose progress is noted as follows: First year, $280; second year. $340; third year, $400; fourth year, $470; fifth year, $875; sixth to eighth years, inclusive, $1,000; ninth and tenth years, $1,200; eleventh and twelfth years, $1,350; thirteenth and fourteenth years, $1,500; and in the fifteenth year, $1,600. Some graduates who were evidently more proficient than the others were able to command from $600 to $1,000 the first year after leaving school. Most of this class, however, had been employed at mechanical work, usually in machine shops, before attending school. All the graduates speak in the highest terms regarding the benefits they have derived from the instruction received in the schools, and the consensus of opinion is decidedly in favor of trade or technical educa- tion for every boy who desires to learn a ti-ade. It is said that no boy can have too much of the right kind of training, and that when equipped TRADE AND TEOHlflCAL EDUCATIOST — UWITED STATES. 407 with a sound theoretical knowledge to start with his success is reason- ably assured. Some graduates favor the plan which makes it possible for a boy to engage in the elementary stages of practical work in a shop during the day while gaining theoretical instruction in a night school. Those who spent two or three years in mechanical work before entering school are strongly in favor of a similar course for others. In support of this plan it is said that a knowledge of machinery and mechanical work would generally give a young man a better idea of the things which are most essential for him to know, and he would consequently pay more attention to his theoretical training and take more interest in what he was learning. In this particular trade it is impossible in many localities for a boy or young man to obtain a position in a drafting room unless he has completed a course in mechanical drawing in some recognized school. MILLINEBS. The young women furnishing information for this trade were actuated by a common purpose in taking a course of instruction in a millinery school; they wanted to learn the trade so that they might be able to earn their own living, and believed that the instruction afforded by the schools was more thorough and would enable them to learn the trade more quickly than it could be learned in a regular millinery establish- ment. Employment was secured immediately upon graduation, and in most cases the fact that they were graduates proved of assistance in this connection. All but one report that the school authorities helped them to procure employment. On engaging in practical work no apprenticeship was required. Some started in as " improvers" at $5 per week and others as trim- mers at $12 per week. All agree that their school training has proved beneficial and has resulted in higher wages and steadier employment than would otherwise have been the case. Generally speaking, they favor trade education for those who desire to learn the trade in its entirety. It is said that one of the most important things for a milli- ner to know is the artistic adaptation of shapes and colors so as to produce the best possible effect in meeting the requirements of each individual patron, and this part is seldom taught outside of a school. The instruction is more thorough in the school, and the teachers take a personal interest in the progress of the students. In the ordinary millinery establishment the apprentice does not receive the same atten- tion and for the most part is left to pick up the trade as best she can. PATTERN MAKEUS. Some of the graduates employed in this trade state that their only reason for attending a trade or technical school was that they wanted to learn the trade, and felt that they would be able to make better progress by learning the theoretical part first. A few report that 408 REPORT Olf THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. they desired to learn pattern making, but not being able to secure an opportunity in a regular shop, it was necessary for them to attend a trade school. Others state that after starting to learn a trade in a shop, they concluded to attend an evening technical school so that they might learn mechanical drawing and at the same time get a knowledge of the theoretical principles appplicable to the trade. Most of the graduates obtained employment immediately upon graduation, and in some cases they were assisted by the school authori- ties. Several state that the fact that they were graduates of a trade or technical school resulted in their procuring employment in a higher capacity and at a greater remuneration than would otherwise have been the case. An apprenticeship of four years is usually required in the trade, but only in two cases was it necessary for graduates to serve the full term. A reduction of from one to two years from the regu- lar period was allowed in favor of the other graduates, and this, it is said, did not meet with objection from the labor unions. The graduates, with one exception, state that their trade or technical school training has resulted in higher wages, steadier employment, and more rapid promotion than would have been the case otherwise. As in all other occupations, the wages received by the graduates after leaving school varied in different localities, according to the proficiency of the individual, graduates who were obliged to start in as apprentices receiving less than those who worked at the trade before attending school or those who were serving an apprenticeship in the shop during the day while going to school at night. The range of weekly wages for a series of years was as follows: First year, ^4.50 to $15; second year, $5.75 to $15; third j'ear, $9.75 to $15.50; fourth year, $12 to $19.50; fifth year, $13.50 to $19.50; sixth and seventh years, $15 to $19.50; eighth to tenth years, inclusive, $16.50 to $19.60. Only one of the graduates reports being a member of a labor union. All are heartilj'^ in favor of school training for boys intending to engage in trades. It is said that the practical part of this trade must be learned by actual work, but there are many important things that the apprentice or journeyman can not learn in a shop, so that the school is almost a necessity. PLUMBESS AND GAS FITTEBS. More than one-half of the graduates reporting for this trade bad been employed either as plumbers or plumbers' helpers prior to tak- ing up trade or technical instruction. Their object in attending the schools was to obtain a knowledge of theoretical principles which could not be acquired in actual work at the trade. The school sessions being held in the evening, they worked at the trade during the day, while pursuing their studies at night. TBADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION — UNITED STATES. 409 Those who had no practical experience before attending school believed that by taking a course of instruction they would be able to learn the trade much better and in a shorter time than it could be learned in the ordinary manner. This latter class found no trouble in securing employment as helpers after leaving school, and a few repoii that the fact that they were graduates enabled them to obtain better positions than would otherwise have been the case. Thej'' were com- pelled to serve an apprenticeship before being engaged as regular jour- neymen, but the period was from one to three years shorter than the regular term. Both classes of graduates are well pleased with the results of their school training. Some of those who had to serve an apprenticeship started as helpers at $6 per week, and others com- menced as junior plumbers at from $12 to $16.50 per week for the first year, and in the second or third year they were able to command regular journeyman's wages, which varied in different localities from $18 to $22.50 per week. About one-half of the graduates report that they are members of labor unions. There is a unanimous feeling in favor of trade or technical training for boj^s who are about to engage in trades. Some are of the opin- ion that the best results are attained when the school training is taken in conjunction with actual work in the trade during the time when a boy is serving his apprenticeship. Others think that a few years practical experience in the trade should precede the theoretical and technical instruction in the school. Modern sanitary methods and regulations have brought about many changes in the work of plumb- ing. Galvanized-iron pipe is taking the place of lead pipe in modern sanitary appliances, and in consequence there is not much lead work and the appi-entice has little opportunity to learn the art of wiping joints, etc. The plumber of the present day needs to know more about sanitary requirements, and he ought to be well grounded in the theory of the ti'ade. It is the general opinion that a thorough knowledge of these things can not be acquired outside of a trade or technical school. PRINTEKS. Of the 6 persons furnishing information for this trade 5 are negroes who attended trade schools that were conducted for the special bene- fit of colored youth. They all wanted to learn the trade, and 3 state that owing to their color they could not get a chance to learn in a printing office. The white workman gave as his reason that he desired to obtain a practical knowledge of the trade in the shortest possible time, and he felt that he coiild make better progress by attend- ing the school than by starting in a regular establishment. With the assistance of the school authorities all but one secured employment at the time of leaving school, and in every instance the fact that they 410 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. were graduates of trade schools enabled them to obtain higher and better paying positions than would otherwise have been the case. The white workman was obliged to serve an apprenticeship of two years before being engaged as a fully qualified workman. The j5rst year he received |8 per week and the second year $10 per week. The colored workmen spent from three to five years in the school, and on engaging in practical work were not required to serve any apprenticeship. Their wages ranged from $6 to $7 per week for the first year, ^Y to $9 per week for the second year and |8 to $12 per week the third year. None of the graduates belong to a labor union. All state that their school training has resulted beneficially in every respect, and they are of the opinion that every boy should have a good trade-school education before engaging in the actual work of a trade. The white graduate says that a boy of average ability will get a better general knowledge of the trade in one year in a trade school than he can by working three year's as an ordinary apprentice. The colored graduates are most enthusiastic in speaking of the advan- tages afforded by the trade schools which have been established for their race. It has always been difficult for colored boys to get an opportunity to learn a trade of any kind, but since trade instruction has been opened to them by the schools, it has been possible to engage in many occupations from which they had previously been debarred. SHEET METAL WOBKEKS. One of the graduates engaged in this trade was a journeyman before going to a trade school, and the others were serving their apprentice- ship at the time they were attending evening classes. The}' all had the same motive in taking a course of school instruction, namely, to gain a more thorough knowledge than could be acquired by shop train- ing alone. The term of apprenticeship of those who were serving their time while attending school was from one to two years shorter than the reg- ular period, and upon completing their studies thej' were able to secure employment as skilled workmen and received wages ranging from $21 to 124 per week. Their school training has been a great benefit to them, and they are of the opinion tlrat a similar course ought to be pursued by every boj' who desires to become a master of his trade. TEXTILE WORKEES. With one exception, the graduates engaged in textile occupations were already employed in mills when they entered the textile schools. Generally speaking, their chief object in taking a course of instruction in the trade was to obtain a theoretical as well as practical knowledge of the busmess, so that they might perfect themselves in the different branches and be prepared to fill higher and better paying positions. TEADE AND TECHNICAL EDTTOATIOH" UNITED STATES. 411 The graduate who had had no practical experience previous to enter- ing school was able, with assistance from the school authorities, to secure employment immediatelj'' upon finishing his course. It is said that it usually requires about four years' practical experience to be- come a competent workman, but none of the graduates, except two who had learned the trade prior to entering school, served the full time. All agree that their school training has resulted in higher wages, steadier employment, and more rapid promotion than they would have othei-A^'ise received. After leaving school, some commenced as weav- ers at $8 per week and in the course of a year were promoted to loom fixers at $12 per week. Later on they were advanced to the position of second hand at $14: to $16 per week, and one of them, who studied in an English school, reached the position of overseer at $25 per week the ninth year after graduating. Others were qualified as loom fixers immediately and received $14 per week, while a few were able to pro- cure positions as second hands at wages ranging from $13.50 to $18 per week for the first year. Trade education is considered necessary for boys or young men who desire to engage in the different branches of the industry and to rise above the ordinary workmen. Practical experience in a mill is essen- tial in all cases, but the theoretical and technical knowledge which fits a workman to fill the more responsible positions can be acquired only in a textile school. WATCHMAKERS AND B-EPAIBEBS. One of the graduates reporting under this head is employed in a watch factory, and all the others are employed in retail jewelry estab- lishments, where the greater part, if not all the work, consists of repairing. The usual reason assigned for taking a course of instruc- tion in a trade school was that the trade could be learned much better and in a shorter time than by serving a regular apprenticeship. With the aid of the school authorities they were able to secure employment immediately upon graduation, and their qualifications made it possible for them to obtain better positions than would have been the case if they had not attended school. While an apprenticeship of three or four years is usually necessary in the trade, none of the graduates was required to undergo any apprenticeship. Their school training is regarded as beneficial in every respect. After leaving school their wages ranged from $9 to $12 per week the first year, flO to $15 per week the second year, $12.50 to $18 the third year, and $15 to $19.50 per week the fourth year. The graduate who is employed in a watch factory states that if his son intended to follow the trade in a watch factory he would not send him to a watchmaker's school, for the reason that factory work does not require a man to be an all-round watchmaker, and he would in 412 REPORT OP THE OOMMISSIOKER OF LABOR. time receive in the factory all the training necessary for his success. On the other hand, he fully agrees with the other graduates that if a boy is to follow the trade in a jewelry establishment he ought to be sent to a trade school, as in the repairing business a thorough knowl- edge of every detail is essential to success. Another important reason is that the trade can be learned in a trade school in one-half the time that is usually required in a regular shop. The schools teach all that is known concerning the trade, while in a shop it is impossible for the apprentice to get thorough instruction. It is said that the technique of the trade can be learned only in a good school, and that the school- trained man will rise higher and more rapidly than the merely shop- trained workman, and will have no difficulty in obtaining steady emplojj^ment. MISCELXiASTEOUS OCCUPATIONS. Under this head are included graduates of ordinary trade and tech- nical schools who have worked their way up from apprentices to higher positions as mechanical designers, foremen, superintendents, construct- ing engineers, and manufacturers. All of this class of graduates reporting pursued their studies in night schools, and more than one- half of them had either learned the trade of machinist or were serving their term of apprenticeship at the time they took up theoretical instruction in the schools. The reasons given for taking a course of in';truction and training in the schools are practically the same as those which are reported under the head of machinists, the main object in all cases being to acquire a thorough knowledge of the theory and science of the trades in which they were already engaged or were about to enter. Those who were not already engaged in practical work secured employment upon graduation, and a few I'eport that the school authorities exerted themselves in their behalf. They were required to undergo an apprenticeship before being engaged as quali- fied workmen, but the period was from one to two years shorter than the regular term. Some took up mechanical drafting for a trade, but the majority went to work in machine shops. One of those who commenced as a machinist's apprentice received ti per week the first year and 15.50 per week the second year. He was then advanced to machinist at |9, |10.50, |12, and $15 per week in the third, fourth, fifth, and sixth years, respectively, and in the seventh year was made foreman at $20.60 per week. Another began as an apprentice in a drafting room and received |10 per week the first year and $12 per week the second year. He was then considered a competent mechanical draftsman and received from |17 to $27 per week during the next seven years, and in the tenth year after leaving school became a mechanical designer at $30 per week. Among those who had learned a trade before attending school was a machinist who, TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION — tTNITED STATES, 413 upon graduating, was qualified as a mechanical draftsman, in which occupation he worked for four years, receiving |18, |19, $21, and |23 per week, respectively. He next filled the position of foreman in a machine shop for one year at $25 per week, and was then promoted to chief draftsman at |30 per week. After working in this posi- tion for five years he resigned and started in business for himself, and is now a successful manufacturer. The foregoing is a fair illus- tration of the progress made by the other graduates. No other class of graduates is more enthusiastic over the benefits accruing from trade or technical education. They are all strongly in favor of such education for boys who desire to learn a trade, but agree with the general senti- ment of those reporting under other occupations that trade or techni- cal training alone will not make a finished workman. A combination of shop and school training is deemed necessary to obtain the best results. School training gives a boy a good theoretical foundation to build upon and enables him to make better progress when he engages in the actual work of his trade and to ultimately attain a higher degree of profi- ciency than the merely shop-trained workman. ATTITUDE OF LABOR UNIONS. BAKBESS. From the first establishment of schools for barbers the unions and the craft generally have been strongly opposed to them. Various reasons are assigned for this opposition, the main one being that the work of the schools is not thorough and the next in importance is that such schools increased unduly the number of barbers. The fight against the schools by the unions has been waged with unrelenting bitterness. In some localities the unions carried their grievances into the courts, and in more than one State the legislature was prevailed upon to regulate the practice of the trade by requiring licenses issued upon examination made by a competent board of examiners. But this did not greatly disturb the schools, and they continue to thrive. The opponents of these schools claim that the time required by the schools to graduate their students is entirely too short and that the practical instruction is altogether too meager. Notwithstanding this pronounced opposition the opinion is quite prevalent that schools properly conducted and ofl'ering a course of training of two or three years would be of benefit to the trade. The unions are beginning to realize that the schools have secured a foothold and there has been some attempt to elevate and improve them. In Douglas County, Nebr. , the unions have indorsed the American Barber College in Omaha," and the first experiment is now being made of craft control of the schools. The Trans-Mississippi Barber, a See pp. 168-170. 414 EEPORT OF THE COMMISSIONEB OF LABOR. the official paper of the State Barbers' Protective Association of Nebraska, in its issue of March, 1900, advocated craft control of the schools. The editor states that after several years of careful study and hard labor he became thoi'oughly convinced that it is impossible to control such institutions by law, as had been so fondly hoped by the craft, and that the solution of the question lies in craft control. He says that the old apprenticeship system has been outlived and that schools offering- a shorter and better course of training will attract a superior class of men into the trade. The schools as they have existed are pronounced rank humbugs, but their graduates turned out in six weeks are better equipped for their work than are large numbers of barbers who neither went to a school nor served a regular appren- ticeship. The unions limit the number of apprentices to one to each three barbers in a shop, and fix the term of apprenticeship at three years. Except in Douglas County, Nebr. , no union was found which recog- nizes the work done in the schools, and no matter how long the appren- tice has been in a school it counts for nothing with the unions. In this instance the graduates from the indorsed school are recognized as regular journeymen barbers when they have obtained a State license. Nearly all of the union officials answering the inquiries of the Depart- ment state that they would patronize schools if they were of a high order and would thoroughl}- teach the scientific side of the trade. BKEWEKS. While brewers' unions have not contributed pecuniary aid to brew- ing schools, they do give them moral support and are friendly to them. Union officials uniformly look upon such schools as a valuable adjunct to the industry. The unions limit the number of apprentices, the ratio varj'ing from one apprentice to fifteen journeymen to one to fifty, according to the size of the brewerj^, the smaller ratio being applied to large estab- lishments. The term of apprenticeship i.s two years without regard to school attendance. The union officials state that they would patronize brewing schools, but they would have their sons serve temis of apprenticeship first. They say it is necessary to work in a brewery to learn many minor things which schools have not the facilities to teach. But the schools give indispensable training which would require an unreasonably long time to get in a brewery ; in fact thorough technical training can not be had in the brewery at all. It is desirable that a boy should reach the highest position in his trade in the shortest possible time, and the schools are the best if not the only places where he can acquire the requisite knowledge. TKADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION UNITED STATES. 415 BKICKIiAYEES. It is generally conceded that any school where a workingman can receive instruction which will help him in his trade is a benefit. But in some localities, especially in Massachusetts and New York, it is held that a trade school to be really valuable should be open only to those who are at work at the trade. In Massachusetts it is thought that it would be a good plan in all trades to make the term of apprenticeship four years with four months in each year to be devoted to attendance *Ji a trade school. Another and more convenient course to pursue would be to have the trade instruction given in continuation (night) schools, so that the workman could attend them while still working at his trade. This latter plan is followed in most of the schools which give instruction in trade work. None of the unions has given pecuniary aid to the schools," though in one or two places they have the moral support of the local unions. In the "Working rules and apprenticeship system of the Master Builders' Association and the Bricklayers' Union, No. 3, of Boston, Mass.," the following statement is found: Recognizing the fact that special instruction in the fundamental features of the bricklaying trade (which instruction shall comprehend education of both mind and hands, so that the individual shall gain a proper knowledge of quantity and strength of materials and the science of construction) is of as much importance as special instruction in other trades or professions, and, realizing that the chances of an apprentice to get as much instruction as he is entitled to, while at work on buildings, is necessarily limited, the parties to these rules agree that they will join in an effort to establish an institution in this city (Boston) where all the trades will be systematically taught; that when such school is established they will unite in the oversight and care of the same and will modify these rules so that a reasonable deduc- tion shall be made from the term of an apprentice (not less than three years as fixed at present) by virtue of the advantage gained through instruction in said school. Such a school as the one mentioned in the above was started in Bos- ton by the Massachusetts Charitable Mechanic Association in October, 1900. It teaches the trades of bricklaying, carpentr}-, and plumbing onlj', though it is intended to add the teaching of other trades from time to time." Generally speaking, neither the unions nor the individual members thereof would be opposed to trade schools which are open only to apprentices or workmen, but schools which take in boys outside the trades and attempt to make mechanics of them are strongly opposed. Such schools help to create an abnormal supply of embryo workmen, and this tends to make the position of the skilled mechanic less secure and has a depressing effect upon wages. An apprenticeship of four "For particulars of this school, see pp. 65,66. 416 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONEE OF LABOR. years is usuallj'^ required, and the unions limit the number of appren- tices employed in the trade. In one place the local union deducts one year from the regular period of apprenticeship in the case of trade- school graduates. As to the question of sending their boys to trade schools, the con- sensus of opinion of the labor-union men is generally opposed to boys learning trades if possible to prevent it, but if no other opportunities offer, to send boys to such schools as are run in connection with actual work at the trade. They believe that a trade can be masterq^^ thoroughly in all its details only by a proper mixing of school training with worii at a trade at the same time. One or the other alone will not accomplish the purpose; at least school training alone never will, and shop training alone will not do it for the majority, nor for the exceptional few within a reasonable time. Under present conditions a competent bricklayer is never made by working at the trade alone, and only a combination of the two kinds of training will enable him to rise higher than his trade in the economic scale. BRIDGE BTJILXiEIlS ABTD STRtrCTtrRAI, lEOBT WOSKERS. The president of a union in one of the North Central States makes the following statement: This is a trade which, from its very nature, can not be taught in schools, though some parts of it might be taught to advantage. The matter of trade education has never been considered by the unions, but individual members have expressed a desire to see some attempt made in this direction. Apprentices are required to serve two years, and the number employed is limited, according to the class of work. I would send my son to a trade or technical school, because I believe that thorough education in any occupation makes a better vforkman and a better citizen. As a rule, our best workmen are those who are best educated, and if they had been educated in the special direction of their trade they would be still better mechanics. While it is not pos- sible for a man to do good work or to supervise construction without having practical experience, yet to follow and understand the plans of an engineer he needs technical training. He should at least possess a knowledge of industrial drawing. School training would certainly enable a boy to rise more rapidly in his trade and would increase his chances for obtaining better and steadier employment. CARPENTERS AND JOINERS. The opinion is expressed among trade union officials that industrial, technical, and continuation (night) schools, and also schools of design, are all very valuable to the workingman provided he is able to take the instruction they offer, but the trade school — the school which attempts to teach trades in their entirety — is of little, if any, value. It is claimed that the trade school does not and can not teach a trade and that it is impossible for a graduate to be a competent workman as TRADE AND TECHKICAL EDUCATION UNITED STATES. 417 a result of his school education alone, actual work at the trade being an absolute necessity for the making of the skilled mechanic. Another reason given why the trade school is not a benefit is that emploj'ers no longer desire the thoroughly-trained all-round man, but want only the specialist. They have men in the trade who do nothing but hang doors, others who do nothing but stick molding, etc., and it is men of this kind, who can do but one operation well and who do it quicklj', that the employer reall}'' wants. A coui-se in a trade school maj^, perhaps, at its best, teach a young man to perform all the operations of his trade fairly well, but it is thought to be impossible for him to compete with the specialist in any one of them, since he is not, and can not be, under present conditions, a competent workman. A technical school, however, which does more than teach the elements of the trade, which gives the pupil the science of it, the skill in drawing and designing and an insight into the underljdng theory of the trade, may, and probably will, produce a high-grade mechanic, the man who may become a foreman, a superintendent, or the head of a department in some great industry; but the trade school at its best, it is claimed, can not turn out a man who can compete with the specialist in any branch of his trade. The opinion was expressed that a boj^ desiring to learn a trade should not, therefore, be sent to the so-called trade school. Generally speaking, the unions have given neither moral nor pecu- niar}^ aid to trade schools, but, on the contrary, have opposed them, and the individual members are usually averse to the idea of such schools. In some places an apprenticeship of three years is required, but as a rule a man who has worked three years at the trade, whether as an appi'entice or otherwise, is eligible to membership in the unions. In one place the union limits the number of apprentices on the basis of one to everj"- ten journeymen. CIGAR MAKERS. Trade schools might be valuable to the workingmen who are engaged in mechanical establishments but not to cigar makers. The unions and the individual members are opposed to so-called trade schools which exist in this industry on the ground that they foster child labor and work injury to the trade. Schools have been started in this industry, and small sums of money exacted from boys and girls on the pretense of teaching them the trade, but after a few weeks' instruction they have been turned adrift to make room for others. These hojs and girls can not hold a job in a reputable shop, and consequently they shift from one place to another and are compelled to accept whatever wages they can get. When there is any labor disturbance they naturally drift into the shops 9257—02 27 418 EEPOKT OV THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOE. and become a menace to the union workmen. It is said that these schools are favored by the manufacturers, as they help to flood the labor market with cheap labor and are, therefore, an effective means for reducing wages. The unions require an apprenticeship of three 3'ears and the number of apprentices is limited to one to every five journeymen. ELECTRICAL WORKEIIS. Both the unions and the individual members are opposed to trade schools on the ground that they are not practical. It is claimed that they turn out a cheap class of workmen Avho accept employment regardless of the wages paid and thereby make trouble for the regular journeymen. The unions require an apprenticeship of two years, but do not limit the number of apprentices employed in the trade. They claim that trade schools may be useful to give a boy a knowledge of the use of tools and the various materials he would have to work with, but that they can not teach him a trade. This can be accomplished only by working at practical everyday work as it comes along. ELEVATOR ERECTORS. A representative union man in this trade states that schools which teach mechanical trades are valuable to the workingman if he will attend them. The union is not opposed to trade or technical schools. An apprenticeship of four years is required and the number of appren- tices employed in the trade is limited according to the requirements of the business. He would send a boy to a trade school for the reason that the technical and scientific knowledge there obtained would be a great help to him in the performance of his work. In this trade espe- cially a knowledge of hydraulic, mechanical, and electrical appliances is necessary, and schools which give instruction along these lines are a benefit to the mechanics. GARMENT WORKERS. The following statement is furnished by a prominent official of the United Garment Workers of America : Trade and technical schools are beneficial in so far as they teach jour- neymen the higher branches of a trade which Avould have the effect of stimulating craft pride and a desire for larger remuneration. In view of the changes which are continually taking place in the methods of production, a more general knowedge of mechanics would increase the workers' independence by making it possible for them to change from one branch of a particular trade to another when required in an emergency. In other words, technical training would enable the worker better to adjust himself to changing circumstances. But as there seems to be a superabundance of apprentices in every trade which guarantees a fair wage, and as this is a great obstacle which unions have to contend with in regulating conditions, it would appear TEADE AKD TEOHKICAL EDUCATION — UNITED STATES. 419 that trade schools would tend still further to depress wages and add to the number of unemployed by thrusting into the ranks large numbers of boys and young men in addition to those which are added through the natural channels. The national union has never given such schools any moral or pecu- niary-aid because in the tailoring and cutting branches the supply of apprentices is more than the interests of the trade demand. In the tailoring branch the ranks of the tailors are continually reenf orced by immigrants who quickly learn the minor parts of the trade in the thou- sands of sweat shops which are conducted by petty contractors -who themselves have only been here a short while. Besides there are a number of private cutti,ng schools which teach pattern drafting. Local unions of cutters require an apprenticeship of three years for a green hand, which period is reduced to one year in the case of a jour- neyman tailor. The number of apprentices is limited to one to every ten journeymen or majority fraction thereof. Owing to the over- crowded condition of the labor market, I would suggest that young men be trained in the agricultural pursuits, which offer an ever-widen- ing field. A balance must be maintained between the fundamental industry of farming and the mechanical trades. The tendenc}^, owing to the attractiveness of the cities, is toward a still further increase in the number engaging in the trades, thus adding to the distress. If schools were estaolished in the rural districts to teach young men the science of farming, I believe great good would be accomplished. GEAHITB CUTTEKS. A leading ofScial of the Granite Cutters' National Union in Massa- chusetts is of the opinion that schools which give trade instruction are valuable to the workingman, provided their teaching is confined to workingmen only. The unions limit the number of apprentices em- ployed in the trade, and an apprenticeship of three j^ears is required. Trade or technical education of any kind will not help a j'^oung man to become a journeyman in a shorter time, but it will add to his general intelligence and in the end will enable him to rise higher in the industrial scale. The unions have never given any aid to trade schools, but they are not opposed to them when their courses are open only to those who are actually employed in trade work. No boy should be sent to such a school to learn a trade, but only for the purpose of obtaining a theoretical and general knowledge, for the school alone can never make a mechanic. Practical experience in the trade is necessary. An official in another section practically coincides with the forego- ing, except that he believes that the schools should be open to all who desire to obtain instruction. MACHINISTS. In this trade the consensus of opinion seems to be that trade or technical schools are valuable to workingmen when conducted for the purpose of educating and training young men to become skilled m a 420 REPOBT 01' THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. trade, but when used as a means for providing a class of cheap help to supplant union mechanics in times of labor troubles they are a detriment. Except in one or two places in the North Central States, the unions have given but little attention to trade or technical schools, though the officials and representative members generally are in favor of them when not conflicting with the interests of journeymen. In two places in the North Central States the imions are hostile to schools which undertake trade education, on the ground that they have a tendency to overcrowd the trades, and that the}^ do not turn out practical work- men. In one of these, however, it is said that the hostility is dying out as the rank and file of the members come to realize that the domi- nant idea of "everyone for himself" makes it important that every mechanic should acquire all the knowledge possible regarding the theoretical and scientific principles of his trade. As the president of one union says: "Any course of training which will give a boy or young man a knowledge that will assist him in earning an honest living and place him in a better position to advance in the industrial scale is certainly a benefit, and schools that do this ought to be encom-aged." The unions limit the number of apprentices to one to every five journeymen, and the period of apprenticeship is fixed at four j^ears. PAINTEKS AND DECOSATOBS. In one place the unions are opposed to trade schools on the ground that they help to flood the labor market with an inferior class of workmen who work for low wages. This has a bad effect upon the standard of wages and makes considerable trouble for the unions. The unions in this ]3lace require an apprenticeship of fi\-e years and limit the number of apprentices to one to every five journej^men, and not more than two to each shop. It is said that a boy will make better progress by starting as an apprentice in the trade. In this way he will learn all the theory necessary and at the same time have the benefit of all kinds of practical work, such as he may expect to meet after he becomes a journeyman. In another locality trade schools are thought to be a benefit to workingmen as they afford them an opportunity to acquire a good theoretical knowledge of the trade. While an apprenticeship of four years is required they make no attempt to limit the number of apprentices. PATTERN MAKERS. Trade and technical schools ai'e valuable to workingmen in so far as they afford instruction which can not be had in the workshop. The unions have given neither moral nor pecuniary support to such schools, nor have they taken any decided action regarding them but TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION UNITED STATES. 421 the officials and representative members who were interviewed are in favor of them where they give thorough instruction in the theory and science of the trades. It is thought that some trade schools are little better than manual training schools, and consequently^ are of little practical benefit to the students. No school can turn out a skilled mechanic, but the technical knowledge, and more particularly the instruction in industrial drawing, which can be acquired in some schools is an advantage to anj"^ boy who desires to take up mechanical work. An apprenticeship of four j'ears is required, and wherever possible the number of apprentices is limited hj the unions. PLASTEEERS. In some sections of the North Atlantic States trade or technical schools are considered to be of no particular value to the workingmen in this trade. They receive neither moral nor pecuniary support from the unions, and while no official action has been taken regarding such schools, the individual members are generally opposed to them on the ground that they are not practical. It is said that they teach the use of tools very well and give the pupils some idea of plain work, but they do not teach them the entire trade. This, it is said, requires many years' experience in actual work. An apprenticeship of four years is required, and the number of apprentices is limited to three to each shop. An official of the local union in one of the South Central States is of the opinion that all trade and technical schools are a benefit to work- ingmen provided they are able to attend them. He states that his union is favorably disposed toward such schools, and that he would send his son to a trade school if he desired to prepare him for a trade. PLTJMBEES, GASFITTERS, ABTD STEAMFITTEBS. The labor unions and their representative members are strongly opposed .to trade-school education as applied to these trades, on the ground that too much time is devoted to theoretical work and too little to that which is practical. It is said that the employers prefer trade-school graduates because they will work cheaply. This is a source of trouble to the unions. An apprenticeship of five years is required, and in one locality the steamfitters' union endeavors to limit the number of apprentices. It is stated that in the schools the stu- dents are rushed through the simpler parts, and after completing the course they think that they are proficient, but when practical work is taken up outside they learn their mistake. Trade schools can give a boj"^ good theoretical training, but the trade itself can be learned much better by starting on practical work in a shop. 422 KEPOET OF THE OOMMISSIOHEE OF LABOE. PRINTERS. The trade union representatives responding to the inquiries of the Department consider that industrial, technical, and continuation {night) schools and schools of design have their functions and are valuable, but trade schools are of no practical value to the workingman. No boy should be sent to a trade school, at any i-ate not for the purpose of learning a trade, as for that purpose he could do much better in the shop. The opportunities for learning the printing trade are ample, and knowledge gained in regular office and shop work is much more satisfactory and practical than knowledge ga,in€d in a school. It is still possible for a boy to become a good printer by an education gained in the printing office alone. It is only in the larger offices that the tendency to specialization in the trade is marked. The unions have given no moral or pecuniary aid to trade schools, though in some parts of the North Atlantic States it is thought that night schools, with a course arranged to supplement office work, would probably receive their moral support if the question should be i"aised. The .unions and the individual members generally are opposed to trade schools, and some unions in Massachusetts have openly antagonized and condemned the idea of establishing such schools. It is contended that the trade school is usually a commercial enterprise instituted as a money -making scheme, professing to teach what it does not teach, a trade. Such schools have a tendency to cause an abnormal influx of 3-oung men into a trade where there is no room for them. The demand by legitimate emplo3^ers for young people to learn any specified trade is quite sufficient to keep up the standard of recruits in that special industry. An artificial stimulus such as a trade school disturbs the working of the natural industrial law, has a tendency to create a glut in the labor market, intensifies competition among workingmen, and has a depressing effect upon the standard of wages. The f)rinters' unions require a period of apprenticeship of from four to five years and limit the number of apprentices employed in the trade. They insist that trade-school graduates shall serve an appren- ticeship, of the same length as others in spite of their school education. SHEET METAL WORKERS. Trade and technical schools are valuable to workingmen because they give a theoretical training that can not be gained otherwise. The unions are not opposed to the schools or the graduates. On the contrary, the graduates are encouraged to join the unions. In this way the unions are better able to control the trade and the men who woi'k in it. An apprenticeship of four years is required and the number of apprentices is limited to one to every five journeymen or majority TKADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION — UNITED STATES. 423 fraction thereof, but not more than four in any one shop. A good education is a benefit to any boy no matter what trade he may follow. While trade schools can not teach a boy a trade, yet the theoretical and technical knowledge that young men obtain in such schools is a great benefit to them when they engage in actual trade work. TEXTILE WOKKEE.S. The following statement is furnished bj^ a prominent official of one of the textile workers' unions in Massachusetts : Trade and technical schools, schools of design, and all schools, how- ever designated, where trade or technical education can be obtained, are valuable to the workingman. All boys desiring to learn a trade or industrial occupation should attend such schools if possible, because the knowledge they acquire there gives them a better chance to rise in the industrial scale, and enables them to look forward with good reason to a future of some success and comfort, and not entirely devoted to grinding labor with only a pittance as reward. While the exceptional man may, and sometimes does, rise to high positions by his work in the mill alone, the average man can never do so in the textile industries without the aid of the special school educatiort. The textile labor unions have given moral aid only to trade schools. They recommend that their members attend them, and as unions they are inclined to favor such schools. Many of the individual members have been, and some now are, opposed to such schools, especially to the textile schools, because they believe that they are designed to help the rich rather than the poor, to provide technical and high-class edu- cation for young men of means who intend to go into manufacturing instead of providing opportunity for workmen to obtain a better educa- tion in their trades. This is not generally true, for while some of these schools furnish good opportunities for young men of means to obtain a higher education in technical and industrial lines, they also furnish the workingman, especially in the night classes, thorough and complete courses of training in the trades. Granting, however, that there is a basis for the criticism made, and that these schools do tend to provide for the educational wants of the sons of manufacturers, etc., rather than for the mill operatives, they ' would still be of assistance to the textile workers, because if we can obtain in this countr}'^, as owners and operators of mills, men who are well educated in the theory and science of textile manufacturing, we shall see constant progress made in the art, a greater variety of goods and goods of higher grades will be made, the processes of manufactur- ing will be improved, and the cost of the same cheapened as a result of superior technical knowledge. All this will be better for the workmen, as it will create a steady demand for their services and tend to bring them an increase of earnings. Personal experience in the mills of this country and of England has shown that the mills in the New England States are, generall}^ speak- ing, making too great a quantity of low grade goods, and arc already encountering competition in this line which they have difficulty in overcoming, and which they will soon be unable to meet. This condition is unnecessarj'. Our mills can make as good cloth as can be made in 424 KEPOKT OF THE COMMISSIONEB OF LABOR. any part of the woi-ld if their owners and operators will only pursue the right course, and the higher technical education given in our tex- tile schools will tend greatly to aid in the attainment of the end desired. The textile unions of this locality do not limit the number of appren- tices employed in the industry. AH they ask of anyone who enters a mill is that he join and support the union and aid it in its struggles for justice and right. These unions do not require a period of apprentice- ship in the textile trades, though it would be better for the industries if they did. CHAPTER III. TRADE Am TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN AUSTRIA. 425 CHAPTER III. TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN AUSTEIA. INTRODUCTION. The history of industrial education in Austria properly dates from the middle of the eighteenth century, when the policy was adopted by the State of calling in from foreign lands experts in particular branches of industry to give instruction to workmen in those trades. Thus, in 1749, Dutch masters were sent into Bohemia to give instruction in the making of cloth; in 1750 Italian artisans were called upon for the saine purpose. For cloth dj'^eing a dyer was called from France. In 1755 glass workers from Ferrara, Italy, were sent into Bohemia. During the j^ears 1766 to 1770 sizers were brought from Switzerland and dyers from Silesia. The first effort to establish a regular school for practical instruction was made in 1761. When the Trades and Factories Bureau of Moravia was created in that year, it was instructed to see "that a mechanical training school in the mother tongue, so necessary for the public good," be established as soon as possible. For reasons that are unnec- essary to dwell upon here, this idea was never carried out. In 1758, however, a real beginning in the provision for industrial education was made by the founding at Vienna of a manufacturers' drawing school (ManvfaTtturzeicliensclvule). The next step was made in 1770 by the creation, likewise at Vienna, of a commercial academy or high school {Realhandelsakademie). At this time the 'distinction between commercial and industrial education was not made. In fact most of the early efforts partook rather of commercial than industrial education, as industry was then almost wholly in the hands of the small artisans working under the guild sj's- tem. It was evident that so long as industrial activity consisted only in the practice of certain handicraft trades, and was independent of any principle based upon scientific inquiries, that there was little room for industrial schools as now organized. The chief significance of the founding of the commei'cial academy and other early institutions, from the standpoint of the present reports, is the evidence that it gives of the recognition of the desirability of giving practical instruction in matters relating to business through special schools. The Vienna 427 428 ' KEPOKT OF THE COMMISSIOIiEB OF LABOE. commercial academy did not meet with great success during the earlier years of its history. Trade and industry were so hampered by restric- tions and monopolies that there was little opportunity or incentive for improved workmanship or processes. These restrictions, however, were gradually removed. Immediately after the creation of the commercial academy, or dur- ing the years 1771 to 1774, the Government applied itself to the crea- tion of schools that would afford the same opportunities for instruction to manufacturers and handicraftsmen that the academy did to mer- chants. A comprehensive system of normal, central, and industrial ^ schools {Normal-^ Ilaupt- und Industrieschuleti) was founded in which industrial training received considerable recognition. This combina- tion of the general with industrial education made special progress in Bohemia. In 1787 there were 100 such industrial schools in that country, and in 1790 this number had increased to 232. After something of a setback to the movement during the closing years of the eighteenth century, owing to the reactionary commercial policy of the country, a new movement started in 1804. This took the form of the creation of modern, practical high schools {Ileal- und Burgerschulen), the object of which was to educate pupils who expected to enter into practical business operations. The courses of instruction comprised, among other studies, building, drawing, bookkeeping, commercial practice, and special subjects according to the industries of the localities in which the schools were located. The first school of this character was opened at lieichenberg, a private donation of 24,000 florins being secured for that purpose. In 1806 another school was founded at Prague. From this date efforts in behalf of industrial education began to be manifest in various directions. In 1808 a ^''Direktion uber das .Kunstfach der Yolksschiden^^ was created to have supervision over drawing in the schools of both Vienna and the prov- inces. In 1811 a modern high school (Realscliule) was instituted at Briinn, with a three-years' course modeled after the one at Vienna. In 1812 an art and industrial institute for women's work [Kunst- und Industrieanstalt fur vie'Miche Arbeiten) was created at Vienna, and supported by private donations. In 1815 was opened at Vienna the important Polytechnic Institute, the first of its kind in Austria, and the first but one in Europe, the Paris Ecole Polytechnique having been opened in 1795. The opening of the Vienna Polj'^teohnic Institute marked a great advance in industrial education. It furnished, as it were, a head to the system to be subsequently evolved. It was organized in two depart- ments — the mathematical-phjfsical and the commercial. To it was annexed the commercial academy, the founding of which has been mentioned, as a preparatory course. This institution permitted grad- uates of the Healschulen to continue their studies in the higher tech- TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION — AITSTEIA. 429 nical branches. The number of these schools continued to increase, additional ones being created at Brody in 1815, at Trieste and Lem- berg in 1817, at Rakonitz in 1834, and at Reichenberg in 1837. The Prague school, which may be taken as a type, was organized in three sections — the first for the training of artisans, merchants, manufac- turers, dyers, watchmakers, mechanics, and instrument makers; the second for agriculturists ; the third for those intending to enter certain Government positions. The institutions for industrial education in Austria in 1840, apart from the ordinary schools in which some attention was paid to industrial matters, may be recapitulated as follows: One polytechnic institute, Vienna; 2 provincial technical schools, Prague and Gratz; 1 commer- cial academy, Lemberg; 7 modern high schools, Vienna, Prague, Briinn, Trieste, Brody, Rakonitz, and Reichenberg; 4 provincial draw- ing schools, Prague, Olmiltz, Lembei'g, and Gratz; 1 manufacturers' drawing school, Vienna. These institutions were designed to meet the new needs of industry consequent upon the increasing application of science to industry and of production upon a large scale. In the ryeantime the small handi- craft trades were not only feeling the competition of the factories, but were without adequate schools for training the persons employed in them. To determine the best means of aiding these trades, the Govern- ment made a careful investigation of conditions. In consequence of this inquiry, there was passed the important imperial resolution of 1851, the purpose of which was to outline an elaborate scheme for the reorganization of the school system of the country so that the instruc- tion given should be more practical in character, and adequate provi- sion be made for training in particular branches of industry. According to this program the public school ( Yolksschule) was made the foundation for the entire educational structure. On this as a basis were to be erected schools having moi'e special ends in view. In par- ticular was especial attention to be paid to the interests of manufac- turers and handicraftsmen. This task was assigned to the modern high schools {Realschulen). The purpose of these schools was to be two- fold — preparation for industrial work and preparation for the higher technical institutions. There were furthermore to be created Sunday continuation schools and schools for giving instruction in special branches for handicraftsmen. Through them apprentices and journc}^- men would be able to educate themselves without interruption to their work. Although the intentions of the Government were good, political disturbances and other occurrences prevented energetic action being taken for some years. The creation of continuation courses for artisans proceeded but slowly during the fifties and sixties. Such as were established were usually in connection with the Real- sohulen, this being done at Briinn in 1862, Innspruck in 1856, Prague 430 KEPOET OP THE COMMISSIOlSrEB OF LABOE. and Salzburg in 1858, Laybach in 1860, Gratz in 1864, eta During the years 1858 to 1867 six such schools were created in connection with the Vienna high schools through the efforts of the board of trade and industr}^ of the city. In the latter year these schools were attended by a total of 1,440 pupils. Technical education was also being developed in other directions. Special schools for particular trades were created by communal authorities, private corporations, and manufacturers. Weaving schools were established at Reichenberg in 1852 and at Briinn in 1860; a drawing and modeling school for the glass industry at Stein SchOnau in 1856, and a school for the building trades at Vienna in 1865. The only large industrial school established by the State during this period was the Imperial Industrial Drawing School at Vienna. The origin of this school is really found in a course which was created in 1848 in connection with the Polytechnikum. It was made independent of this institution in 1865 and in 1870 was converted into a school for the building and machinery trades- Its importance historically lies in the fact that it was the first purely technical school of a secondary grade to be created by tha central Government. Notwithstanding the creation of the schools that have been men- tioned, it can not be said that rapid progress was made in the develop- ment of the scheme that had been outlined in 1851. The onlj^ direction in which substantial advance was made was in the creation of Rml- scliulen of various grades. Thus, at the end of 1853 there were in operation the following schools of this class: Lower Mealschiden organ- ized in connection with higher institution — 16 in the province of Lower Austria, 30 in Bohemia, 13 in Moravia, 4 in Silesia, 10 in Tyrol, 4 in Styria, 1 in Carinthia, 2 in Kiistenland, 11 in Galicia, 1 in Bukowina, 4 in Dalmatia, and 3 on the military frontier; separate lower Real- schulen — 1 each in the cities of Salzbui'g, Laj^bach, Cracow, Innspruck, Klagenfurth, Troppau, Budweis, Leitmeritz, and Brody; upper and complete liealschulen — 2 at Vienna, 2 at Prague, and 1 each at Lintz, Briinn, Gratz, Lemberg, Cracow, Keichenberg, Rakonitz, and Elbogen; higher Bealschttlen or technical institutes — 1 each at Vienna, Briinn, Gratz, Lemberg, Prague, Trieste, Cracow, and Pesth. For a decade and a half these schools served the double purpose of preparing pupils for the higher technical schools, the Foh/techiil-um, and the State schools of forestry and mining that had been created, and of giving instruction preparing in a general way for industrial and com- mercial pursuits. This arrangement, however, was far from satisfac- tory. In attempting to do two things, they did neither well. In 1867, accordingly, it was decided to transform them entirely. This was done by the substitution in their programmes of humanistic for scien- tific and technical studies. Thus the very purpose for which the Realschulen were originally created — that of preparing students for TKADE AlfD TECHNICAL EDUCATION — AITSTEIA. 431 active industrial work — was taken from them and they became prima- rily institutes preparing students for the higher technical or engineer- ing schools. They then stood in the same relation to these latter schools that the gymnasium did to the universities. This reorganiza- tion took eifect in 1868. The result was that, while Austria had, through these schools, built up an excellent system for the giving of scientific instruction, education for practical industrial work was neglected. The reorganization of the JRealschulen served the important purpose of bringing ovit clearly the necessity for special schools for training students in practical industrial operations. With the abandonment of the Realschulen as institutions for trade education, greater attention was paid to the other ^classes of schools, fihe creation of which has been noted. The continuation schools, Avhich were known under the desig- nation of industrial schools {Offiverheschulen), continued to develop. They were intended for apprentices and journeymen who were occu- pied during the day, to whom they gave such opportunities for a general education as would enable them more intelligently to carry on their work, without, however, training them for any particular trade. Their purpose thus was partly to supplement the common school edu- cation, which was somewhat deficient, and partly to give some knowl- edge of the sciences as far as they found practical application in ordinary industrial work. Several of these schools had courses in drawing relating to particular trades. In contrast with these continuation schools were the trade schools proper, which were gradually becoming more numerous in the Empire. At this date, 1867, there were weaving schools at Aussegg, Brunn, Bielitz, and Kumburg; a passementerie school at Vienna; a lace- making school at Rietz, Tyrol; a straw-plaiting school at Hochstadt, Bohemia; a drawing and modeling school at Stein Schonau; a building - trade school (Fried Martens) at Vienna; a school for mechanical work at Klagenfurth; wood-carving schools at Hallein and Imst; schools for watch making, wood turning, and optical work at Vienna; a school for dyeing and print work, one for x3'lography, one for embroidery, and a machinists' school at Neustadt; a school for shoemaking at Gratz, and a school for porcelain work at Elbogen, besides others of less importance. In the field of industrial art instruction there was at this time but one school, that created in 1862 in connection with the upper Real- schule at Innspruck, for giving instruction in modeling, carving, perspective, and painting. The central Government, however, had created an institution that was destined soon after to play a very important part in the development of artistic workmanship. This was the Museum of Art and Industry, at Vienna, founded in 1863. This institution was created for the purpose of elevating and improving 432 EEPOET OF THE COMMISSIONEK OP LABOR. artistic taste and work by direct instruction, as well as by the accumu- lation of artistic and industrial products for inspection by producers and consumers. By means of workshops for the making of plaster casts, photographs, etc., a large number of schools, both ordinary and industrial, were supplied with patterns and mod-els. By the publica- tion of a periodical — Ilittheilungen des Osterreichischen Miis&ums — information was further disseminated. The same purpose was also accomplished by the courses of lectures 'given under its auspices. Those means of activity, however, but partially accomplished the object of the museum. To complete its work it founded in 1868, as a branch of its organization, an industrial art school. In 1872 a course for the training of drawing teachers was added. In 1876 a far-reaching reform was made in the organization of the school by the division of its work into two sections — one devoted to general instruction and the other to technical trade instruction. Later on workshops for chasing and similar trades, for wood carving, for ceramic decoration and enamel work, for lace pattern making, and for wood scroll work were added. A chemical technical experiment station was annexed to the museum in 1876. A circumstance which greatly retarded the development of industrial education during these years was that the Government had not as yet evolved any comprehensive plan for such instruction nor decided upon the authorities that should be responsible for its carrying out. Prior to 1861 authority in regard to educational matters was vested in the ministry of education. In that year was created a ministry of commerce, and as one of its duties was stated to be ^'cooperation in the creation and regulation of Healschulen, industrial and nautical schools, and polytechnic institutions," the new department claimed and secured coordinate influences in the direction of industrial education. In 1872 the Imperial Council {Seichsrath) placed to the credit of each of these departments a yearly sum of 80,000 florins, to be applied to the development of industrial education. In order to pre- vent a conflict of authorit}^ a division of industrial schools was made between the two ministries. To the ministry of commerce were assigned schools teaching a distinct trade or branch of work and • weaving schools, in so far as they were not integral parts of other institutions, for general instruction. To the ministry of education were given all general science or industrial schools, continuation schools, or those supplementing the work of the ordinary public schools, and intermediate industrial schools {gewerhliche MittelscJmleri), such as those preparing building contractors, foremen, machinists, etc. Under this class were included all schools teaching a number of difl'erent trades. The result of this division of the field has been the development of two systems of industrial schools. To a consid- erable extent a rivalry existed between the two ministries, and it is TKABE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION AUSTRIA. 433- reported that in spite of the loss of efficiency coming from division, this rivaliy resulted in more action being taken than would otherwise have been the case. The chief care of the ministry of commerce was the development, of the special trade schools {Fachschulen). The guiding principle here adopted was that the schools should give as practical instruction as possible, and that the programme of each school should correspond to the industrial requirements of the locality in which it was located. In the selection of localities for the creation of trade schools the choice was made of those in which there existed a trade or industry suscep- tible of being aided b}^ the provision of trade instruction, or in which conditions were favorable for the development of a new or the resusci- tation of an old industry. The expenses of creating and supporting schools fell primarily upon the local authorities, the ministry of commerce cooperating through the grant of yearly subsidies. The latter also assumed tlie task of training or supplying proper teachers. The ministry of commerce especially strove to have created in each province one or more schools that should be model institutions {Musterstatten), in order that private and local authorities might have a guide and stimulus in their action. The ministry also made exten- sive investigations of industrial education in the Empire and in foreign countries. As the result of these efforts the ministry of commerce had created, or cooperated in creating, up to 1881, 76 or more special trade schools, namely, 5 technical schools for lace work, 1 for fancy embroider}', 26 for weaving, 25 for wood and stone work, 6 for glass and ceramic work, 1 for toy making, 1 for silver filagree work, 1 for firearms making, 1 for artistic locksmithing, 3 for iron and steel working, 2 for musicians, 1 for watch and clock making, 1 for shoe- making, and 1 for painting. During this same period the ministry of education was building- up schools of a somewhat different character. Higher technical edu- cation, as has been said, had already received a considerable develop- ment, but attention was principally concentrated upon the creatiou of intermediate industrial schools [geweriliche Mittelschulen). The first step in this direction was taken by the conversion of the imperial industrial drawing school at Vienna into a secondary industrial school for the building and machinery trades ( Gewerheschule fur das Bau- wnd MaschinenfacK) . In 1873 three new- industrial art schools of intermediate grade were established at Briinn, Czernowitz, and Bielitz, and the necessary funds for their maintenance provided by items in the regular budget of the ministry; The ministry also about this time began to devote greater attention to the matter of training teachers, the securing of proper school furnishings and materials for instruction, and the development 9257—02 28 434 BEPOBT OF THE OOMMISSIONEK OT LABOK. of improved methods of teaching drawing. Particiiu- care was bestowed mpon the application of art to industrial work. The incen- tive to this came from the fine showing made hy the French in art objects at the Vienna Exposition of 1873. The year 18Y4 marked a turning point in the organization of these secondary industrial schools, since reforms were then inaugurated that have given to the modern system its present character. An official inquiry was instituted by the ministry of education in regard to indus- trial education in Austria and foreign countries. The report of this inquiry (") recommended, among other things, that the industrial school system should seek to give instruction of a more specialized character, and that greater emphasis be placed on the practical features. Espe- cially was it suggested that a limited number of large model industi-ial institutions (grosse imisterliaft ausgestattete GevjerbebildxmgastatUn) be created at a few central points, so that they might serve sas, types for the organization of smaller schools. As the result of these recommendations an imperial decree was issued October 11, 1875, providing for the institution of State indus- trial schools. The motive for the founding of these institutions was stated to be as follows: The rapid development of industrial technics; the great increase in industrial educational institutions in other coun- tries; the prominence assumed by the national sciences inconsequence of the increasing use of machinery; the ascendency of the system of large production over small- production; the competition of countries which enjoyed a better developed system of industrial education; the complaint that Austrian manufacturers had to go abroad for technical experts of a medium grade, and that the Austrian must go to foreign institutions for such instruction. These State institutions, which were duly created in the following j^ear, were organized upon a thoroughly systematic basis. The exist- ing secondary industrial schools were defecti^'ely constituted in respect to the requirements of admission and the classification of students. Students having received the most .diverse preparation in other insti- tutions were placed on the same basis, no distinction beiiig made between those who had and those who had not had practical experi- ence in a trade. This system of mixing the students in the same courses and classes was abolished, and two classes of students were created according to the previous training that they had had and their intended vocation. The schools themselves were-divided into the two classes — those for foremen ( Werl'meistersclnden) and higher industrial schools (Jibliere Geuvrhesclnilen). The plan then adopted remains practically unchanged at the present time, and is described in detail under the head of Schools for Important Groups of Trades. aExposd iiber die Organisation des gewerblichen Unterrichts in Oesterreich. TEADE AND TECHHICAL EDUCATION AUSTHTA. 435 Immediately on the definite formulation of this scheme, or in 1876, the ministr}^ of education began the construction of schools after the pattern determined upon. Such schools {Staatsgewei'hescJmlen) were opened at Prague, Eeichenberg, Salzburg, and Gratz. The school at Prague was for the building and machinery trades; that at Richen- berg for building, machinery, and chemical trades; and at SaM)urg and Gratz for the building and ornamental trades. The Reichenberg school was to be regarded as both a higher industrial and a foremen's school, while the others belonged to the latter category only. To anticipate somewhat, it may be said that additional schools have since been created, so that on January 1, 1900, there were 18 State indus- trial schools, of which 9 were higher industrial schools with various branches and foremen's schools attached, and 9 foremen's schools only. Each of these schools also had annexed to it an industrial continuation school which was intended to serve as a model for independent institu- tions to be created later on. These State industrial schools proved to be remarkably vigorous and successful institutions. By means of a single supervisory office and the employment of expert school inspectors the ministry of edu- cation was enabled to obtain an exact insight into the workings, condi- tions, shortcomings, and merits of these newly organized educational institutions. In this way tbe methods of instruction, the working materials, and the teaching personnel were subjected to constant improvement. The ministry of education did not, however, limit its activities to this one direction. Among the other work during the decade — ^^1870 to 1880 — may be mentioned the attention paid to the development of industrial art, the endowment of the Austrian Museum of Art and Industry, the reforming of the industrial art school at Vienna, the con- tinued improvement in the teaching of drawing in all the schools, the creation of special drawing and modeling schools, and the development of the continuation or Sunday and evening schools for working arti- sans. During this period was also created the Imperial- Royal Tech- nological Industrial Museum, which was destined to serve as a central institution for the technical side of industry in the same manner as the existing Museum of Art and Industry did for the artistic side. In 1881 a new era in the history of industrial education was inaugu- rated. It was then that the schools were welded into one logical sj's- tem such as exists at the present day. Developments since that date have been merely in the way of carrying on the plans then formu- lated. Prior to 1881, as has been stated, industrial education was intrusted partly to the ministry of education and partly to the ministry of commei'ce. This division of authority became increasingly detri- mental to progress as the importance of the work became greater. Until unity of administration was obtained, a harmonious system could 436 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONEE OF. LABOR. not be created. Accordingly in 1881 a law was passed which provided that "beginning with the year 1882 the appropriations for the entire industrial educational system should be placed to the credit of the min- istry of education, and should be managed by it with the cooperation of the ministry of commerce." Immediately after the passage of this law the ministry of education organized a system for the supervision and administration of indus- trial schools, which has continued with little or no change to the pres- ent day. This system, briefly, is as follows: The entire sj^stem of industrial education in Austi'ia is under the jurisdiction of the minis- try of education. The ministry of commerce has a consultative voice onljr. The provincial authorities act as intermediaries between the ministry of education and the particular schools, but all acts emanate from or are subject to the approval of the ministry of education. In the performance of the duties in the field of industrial education the ministry is assisted by two bodies — the central commission on indus- trial education and the central inspection service for industrial educa- tion. The function of the central commission is to cooperate in an advisory way with the ministry in respect to matters pertaining to (1) proposed laws relating to industrial education and inspection, (2) the creation, transformation, consolidation, or abolition of industrial edu- cational institutions, and (3) the organization and management of exhibitions of industrial educational institutions. The central com- mittee also has the initiative in all didactic and administrative mat- ters so far as they relate to industrial education. The members are chosen for five years, one-half by the ministry of education and one- half by the ministry of commerce, and consist of persons whose accomplishments in the field of economics, technology, or art, or whose knowledge of industrial or educational matters in their districts are such as to make their advice of value. Membership is honorary, no compensation being given beyond a per diem for attendance upon meetings. In addition to the regular members, the ministrj^ of com- merce delegates a special representative who has a vote in the proceed- ings. A chief of division of the ministry of commerce presides over the meetings. The administrative reporters {Referenteii) for industrial education in the ministry of education and the inspectors of industrial schools are also required to attend. The central committee may also in individual cases avail itself of the service of technical experts. The inspection service is organized according to the character of the institutions to be inspected, and not by territorial division. Provi- sion is made for the appointment of 5 inspectors for technical, 3 inspectors for artistic, and 1 inspector for didactic-pedagogic affairs. The persons selected must be familiar with the actual needs of indus- try, as well as educational requirements. The mmistry of education publishes a periodical entitled '^ Central- llatt fur das gewerbliche IJnterrichtswesen in Oesterreich^'' the objects TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION AUSTRIA. 437 of which arc stated to be: To serve as a means of publishing. all admin- istrative resolutions and orders relating to industrial education; to give an extended circulation to the more important matters contained in the session reports of the central committee; to make known the principles regarding industrial education which are approved by the Government and by the central commission, and to explain, as far as circumstances permit, the reasons for official orders. CLASSES OF INSTITUTIONS. The result of this constant reorganization of the schools and the centralization of administration and supervision that has been described has been to give to Austria an exceptionally logical system of indus- trial schools, and has made it possible to refer each school to a distinct class of institutions." Thus the ministry of education classified the industrial schools into the following groups: 1. Central industrial educational institutions. 2. Schools for important groups of trades. 3. General handicraft schools. 4. Schools for particular trades. 5. Industrial continuation schools. 6. General drawing schools. CENTRAI, INDirSTBIAIi EDTJCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS. The institutions under this general group {gewerhliche Central- anstalten) are, with one exception, the industrial art school of Prague, located in Vienna. Their function is the promotion of industrial edu- cation along particular lines or in some special way, and to serve as models for other schools in the Empire. A brief outline of each of these institutions will give an idea of their purpose and scope. The Austrian Museum of Art and Industry ( Oesterreichisches Mu- seum fur Kunst %in(l Industrie) at Vienna comprises (1) a museum of plaster casts, textile fabrics, laces, embroidery, ceramic objects, glass- ware, jewelry, enamel, metal work, etc. , which are intended to serve as patterns and models in the cultivation of industrial art; (2) a workshop for making plaster casts of original works of art, orna- ments, etc., to be furnished to the industrial art, drawing, and other schools; and (3) an industrial art school founded in 1868, whose object is to supply skilled workers and teachers in the industrial arts. This school includes (1) a department for general work; (2) trade schools for architecture, painting, sculpture, and plastic art; (3) special work- shops for chasing, wood carving, ceramics and enamel work, lace designing, etching, and artistic wood sawing and cutting; and (4) a chemical laboratorj^. The Technological Industrial Museum {Technologisclies Gewerhe- Museum) at Vienna was founded in 1879 and consists of a school -for 438 KEPOKT Oy THE COMMJSSIOTTEB, 01? LABOR. various trades, a testing and experiment station, and an industrial museum. The educational work of the institution comprises depart- ments for woodworking, for industrial chemistry', for the metal industry, and for electro-technics. This institution is described in detail on pages 455 to 475. The Educational and Experiment Station for the Graphic Industries {Grajyhische Lelir- %md. Yersuclhsanstalt) was founded in Vienna in 1888. It is intended to encourage industrial art by teaching the most important methods of photographic reproduction and graphic work generally. It has four departments; (1) a school of photography and reproduction; (2) a school of printing and illustrating; (3) an experi- mental laboratory for photo chemistry; and (4) a museum for the graphic industries. The Educational and Experiment Station for the Leather Industiy (JLelir-vnd Yersuclimnstalt fur Led^^rindustrie) at Vienna vv- as founded in 18T4 for the purpose of making scientific researches in the leather industry and the application of the results in practice. Its work con- sists of experimental tests and processes used in the leather industrj' with reference to their practical value and utility, the making of tests requested bj^ the authorities, associations, and individuals, and the giving of advice and instruction to manufacturers and others engaged in the leather industry. There is also a course for voung persons in which theoretical and practical instruction is given. The Trade School for Artistic Embroidery {Fachsclivle fur Kun-ff- sticlcerei) at Vienna was founded in 1874, and gives instruetton in all branches of embroidery work, special attention being directed toward the revival of ancient and the introduction of foreign styles of em- broidery and the cultivation of an artistic taste in embroidery work. The school has a five years' course. Graduates of this school are eligi- ble as teachers in embroider}' schools. A special com-ee in restoring carpets and tapestry was recently introduced. The Central Eace-Making Course {Centred- Spitseucvrfi) at Vienna was opened in 1879. It is intended to gi\-e a higher training to persons already skilled in lace making. The coui-ses consist of lace sewing, lace making, and crocheting, and cover a period of ten montlis each. The Model Trade School for Basket Making {MmtcrwerlistaUe fur Korlfiechtere!) at Vienna was founded in 1886. It is intended to edu- cate teachei-s for the basket-making schools and also to prepare the patterns and models used in such institutions. The Industrial Art School {Kundgeirerlie- Sckule) at Prague, which was founded in 1888, is intended to educate persons for industrial art work and to train teachers for industrial art and drav^ing schools. It comprises a general art school, trade and special schools of various kinds, a school for women, and Sunday and evening schools in industi'ial art. TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION? AUSTRIA. 439 The following statement shows the attendance at these institutions at the beginning of the school term, 1899-1900: AUSTRIAN MUSEUM TTOK AKT ASD INDUSTRY, VIENNA. Pupils. Department for general work .^. 101 Trade school for architecture 25 Trade school for pamting ■ 70 Trade school for sculpture and plastic art 4 Workshop for chasing 11 V/orkshop for wood carving -- 10 Workshop for ceramics and enamel Avork 4 Workshop for lace designing 3 Workshop for artistic wood carving 3 Total 231 TECHNOLOGICAL INDUSTRIAL MUSEUM, VIENNA. Department for woodworking 50 Department for industrial chemistry 54 Department for metal industry 152 Department for electro-technics 417 Evening and Sunday courses -. 415 Total - . 1, 088 EDUCATIONAL AND EXPERIMENT ST.ATION FOR THE GRAPHIC INDUSTRIES, VIENNA. School of i>hotography and reproduction , 132 School of printing and illustrating - 18 Total 150 EDUCATIONAL AND EXPERIMENT STATION FOR THE LEATHER INDUSTRY, VIENNA. Theoretical and practical oonrse 7 TRADE SCHOOL FOE ARTISTIC EMBROIDERY, VIENNA. Trade school, proper 57 Course in restoring carpets and tapestry . ., _ 5 Total - - -. 62 CENTRAL LACE-MAKING COURSE, VIENNA. Course in lace sewing - 6 Course in lace making - 10 Course in crocheting - 6 Total - 22 INDUSTRIAL ART SCHOOL, PRAGUE. Depai'tment for figure and ornamental drawing and painting 67 Department for figure and ornamental modeling 30 School of decorative architecture 9 School of ornamental modeling and embossing -.'- <5 School of decorative drawing and painting - 5 440 BEPORT OF THE COMMISSIONEE OF LABOE. Pupils. ' Trade school of artistic metal -work 4 Trade school of wood carving 2 School of flower painting - - 8 School of textile art 6 Drawing and painting school for women - - - ''S Artistic embroidery school for women 20 Evening and Sunday courses in industrial art 116 Total • 311 Statistics of attendance at the Model Trade School for Basket Making were not available. SCHOOLS FOE IMPORTANT GROUPS OF TRADES. The instruction given in these institutions {FaeliscTiulen fur die geioerblichen Ilauptgmppen)^ which are generallj' known as State industrial schools {Staats-Qewerbeschulmi), is mostly of a higher char- acter than that given in the ordinary trade schools and covers a num- ber of trades and industries which have a common educational basis. They include schools of industrial art, for the building trades, for machinery construction, for the chemical industries, and for the tex- tile trades. They are located only in large centers where they are of special advantage to the local industries. While each school is under one management and has one general plan of instruction, it is really a combination of several industrial trade schools, that portion of the instruction being differentiated which relates to each particular trade or industry. The schools are of two grades — those known as the higher industrial schools {hohere Gewerbeschuleii) and schools for foremen ( Werhneister- schulen). In half of the institutions both the higher industrial school and the school for foremen are included in the same institution, and in the larger cities the instruction in one institution covers several dis- tinct groups of industries. The schools for foremen ( Wcrkineiderschulen) were created for the purpose of permitting workers in the building, metal, textile, chem- ical, and art industries, such as carpenters, masons, stonecutters, cab- inetmakers, machinists, tinsmiths, locksmiths, weavers, and employees in the chemical-technical works, to educate themselves in their respec- tive spheres in the shortest time possible, and thus fit themselves for the positions of foremen, master builders, draftsmen, etc. The gen- eral conditions of admission are that the candidates shall have com- pleted their regular public-school education. The pupils consist mostly of persons who have wholly or partly learned a trade and who wish to obtain such theoretical and technical knowledge as will fit them for higher-class work. Such instruction as is of a general educational character is here reduced to the smallest measure possible. According to local conditions the schools comprise several technical divisions for TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION AUSTRIA. 4J|L building trades, metal working, textiles, and chemical work, as well as for small handicraft trades and artistic work. Each of these divisions comprises four semiannual courses. The two lower courses are so arranged that persons unable to attend the remaining courses can obtain sufficient training to fit themselves for such posts as overseers, stationary and locomotive engineers, firemen, etc. The courses for the building trades are given only in' the winter terms so that students can work at their trades during the busy season. In order to make it easier for deserving persons to attend these covirses scholarships are provided by the State and by local employers. In many respects this system of schools for foremen was copied after schools existing in Germanj^. The schools have workshops and laboratories. The higher industrial schools {Jiohere Geiobrbeschulen) are entirely different in character from the schools for foremen. This difference is not only in the qualifications for entrance and the destination of students, but also in the methods of instruction. Their purpose is to furnish a grade of instruction coming immediately after that of the Healschule, Realgymnasmm, or Gymnasium. Their programmes embrace four classes of one year each. The object of the training is to prepare persons for the higher technical and administrative positions in industrial establishments, and particularly in the building, machin- ery, and chemical trades. The positions specially in view are those of master builders and contractors, superintendents of mechanical and metallurgical works, machine shops and gas works, proprietors and directors of manufacturing establishments, heavy motive-power works^ master mechanics in the railway service, superintendents of brew- eries, distilleries, etc., and generallj'' those positions which require both administrative ability and technical knowledge as well as a gen- eral scientific and liberal education. These schools are organized into departments according to the subjects taught, viz, building trades, mechanical -technical, chemical-technical, and textile. The same school may include only one or several of these departments. The course of instruction in each case depends upon the particular object of the school. The general educational prepara- tory branches constitute the basis upon which the special trade educa- tion rests. As far as it is possible each pupil is trained for his own particular line of work. During the summer vacation the pupils are given opportunities for practical work in building enterprises, work- shops, and factories. The schools have mechanical workshops and electrical and chemical laboratories. The teachers in both grades of the State industrial schools are partly graduates of the technical high schools, partly persons trained in industi'ial art, and partly pe^-sons qualified as teachers of intermediate schools. They are required ta keep in close touch with their schools and the manufacturers of the. vicinity, especially by doing work of practical value to the industries,. m.2 EEPOBT OF THE COMMISSIONEB OF LABOR. conducting special courses for manufacturers, etc. All of these schools have, in addition to the regular day courses, evening industrial con- tinuation schools or special evening drawing or industrial courses. On January 1, 1900, there were 18 State industrial schools in Aus- tria and 1 was in course of construction. In addition, there were 2 group schools which were not maintained by the State. The following table shows the character and attendance of 28 of the State schools at the beginning of the school term 1899-1900: ATTENDANCE AT THE STATE INDUSTEIAL SCHOOLS AT THE BEGINNING 0¥ THE SCHOOL TERM 1899-1900, BY COURSES. SCHOOIiS FOK FOKElMiSlV. Courses, School for Joremen at— BuUdlng trades. Mechan- ical-tech- nical. Indus- trial art. "Weaving. Dyeing. Electro- tech- nical. Blelitz • 68 96 06 14 26 Briinn (Boheiuian) . 16J 153 Bxiinn (textile school) 7 Cracow 16 119 207 97 89 40 201 130 111 158 175 Gratz 44 65 111 Pardubitz , . 40 82 55 06 66 Pilsen (German) -- Reichenberg , 24 .90 Trieste Vienna ( First district) 301 Vienna (Tenth district) 62 Total 1,941 601 340 21 26 53 RiamS.^ INBUSXKIAL, SCHOOI.S. Courses. state industrial school at— Prepar- atory. Building trades. Mechan- ical-tech- nical. Chcmic- al-tech- 1 Textile, nical. 62 77 87' 78 92 83 ; Brunn (German) Briinn (textile school) 39 99 72 44 64 142 66 30 115 49 93 147 105 87 110 33 1 VUsp-n (GRTmnn) 54 ! 69 ; 90 40 90 Trieste Vienna (First district) Total 520 538 711 239 ! 39 1 Of the 18 schools shown in the above table, 9 comprise both the higher industrial school and the school for foremen in the sam« insti- tution. The remaining 9 institutions are schools for foremen only. In addition to the attendance enumerated above, a considerable num- ber of persons attended special courses, continuation schools, and drawing halls connected with these institutions. Following is a state- TEADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION AUSTRIA. 443 ment of the total attendance of the 18 institutions at the beginning of the winter term 1899-1900. Pupils. Regular day courses at the 9 higher industrial schools 2, 0-17 Begular lisiy courses at the 18 schools for foremen 2, 982 Special courses at 12 schools 2, 117 Oommercial day courses at 1 school 195 Industrial continuation classes at 16 schools 3, 219 Oommercial continuation classes at 2 schools 228 Open drawing halls at 4 schools , 207 Miscellaneous courses at 6 schools - 867 Total attendance 11, 862 The industrial schools which were not maintained by the State are the Higher Industrial School, at Hohenstadt, and the Lower Austrian Provincial Industrial School, at Vienna. During the 3'car 1898 the ministry of education expended 1.4-18,000 gulden (f587,888) for the maintenance of this class of schools. GEJTEBAL HAKDICKAFT SCHOOLS. While the schools for important groups of trades and for individual trades do not admit pupils until they have passed their fourteenth year of age, and are therefore inaccessible to persons who have to begin to earn a livelihood at that time, the general handicraft schools {allgerneine Handwerhersclmle'ti) admit pupils at the age of 12 years, or before they have passed the compulsory school age. The trade schools educate the pupils for specific trades, but the handicraft schools, which are more in the nature'of manual-training schools, give a thorough preparatory training for industrial work in general, especially such as will tend to supply the handicraft trades with a select class of young workingmen. In this way they offer to the sons of workingmen an op]3ortunity to obtain a training in practical work, which they can not obtain in the ordinarj' public schools. The general handicraft schools therefore include, in a two or three years' course, a continuation of the regular public-school education, combined with in- struction in a number of branches of work which is of practical value in industrial occupations. Instruction in drawing is speciall3' emphasized, manual training is combined with theoretical work, and for this pur- pose modeling rooms and workshops are attached to the schools. The handicraft schools are not intended to replace apprenticeships, but only to constitute a good preparatory training therefor. Continua- tion schools and public drawing rooms are also attached to these handi- craft schools. The teaching personnel consists of thorough master worlaaen for the practical work and of regular graduated teachers for the public-school instruction. These schools have existed only about fifteen years and on account of their great expense are few in number. As these institutions are manual training z-ather than trade schools a detailed description is not given. In order to give a general idea of 44^ BEPOKT OF THE COMMISSIOITEE OF LABOB. the scope of the instruction, the following statement of the subjects taught and the hours devoted to each is shown: PROGRAMME OF INSTRUCTION AT A GENERAL HANDICRAFT SCHOOL AS PRESCRIBED BY THE MINISTERIAL ORDER OF MAY 5,1896. Subjects taught. Hours per week. First year. Second year. Third year. Religion Language and business forms Geography Elements of physics and mechanics Materials and technology Industrial arithmetic Bookkeeping and industrial law Free-hand drawing Geometry and geometrical and perspective drawing . Industrial drawing Modeling Manual training Penmanship Total . 34 2 2 4 2 8 4 14 The following table shows the attendance at each of the handicraft schools at the beginning of the winter term 1899-1900: ATTENDANCE AT THE GENERAL HANDICRAFT SCHOOLS, WINTER TERM, 1899-1900. Location of school. Handi- craft school. Open drawing hall. Continu- ation school. Total. Lintz . 107 65 46 70 90 104 37 104 98 67 74 20 42 10 20 17 41 30 75 10 20 20 219 168 22 143 362 146 134 146 188 .52 320 346 Klag enf urth 265 78 Kladno 459 Leitomischl 201 Jung-Buiitzlau 3'>5 Kolin Wolin 139 Total r . 852 305 1,SS9 3,046 During the 3'ear 1898 the ministry of education expended 94,000 gulden (138,164) for the support of these handicraft schools. Of the 11 State handicraft schools enumerated above 5 are com- munal schools receiving State subsidies, and are located at Jung- Buntzlau, Kolin, Kuttenberg, Leitomischl, and Wolin. SCHOOLS FOK PARTICULAR TRADES. These schools {FacJiscJmlen fur e'mzelne (lewerlliche Ztoeige) are intended to promote important individual trades, and are therefore located not only in the larger industrial centers but also in smaller communities where certain individual trades have attained some importance. This applies specially in the case of weaving, glass and ceramic industries, and stone and metal working. Another important object of these schools is to revive and improve home or cottage TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION AUSTRIA. 445 ■\ndustries, which are still carried on to a considerable extent in many- localities in Austria, but in which, owing to the crude and primitive methods of production, the persons engaged had been unable to earn more than a scant livelihood. It is intended that these schools should teach such workers the best methods of production in accordance with the spirit of modern times and with modern appliances. The schools differ greatly in the scope of their work as well as in their attendance, the latter ranging from six pupils with one teacher to several hundred pupils with a dozen or more teachers in one school. A distinguishing mark of all these schools is the great prominence which is given to drawing. The length of the course of training varies, extending in some cases to four years. In most schools pupils, in order to be admitted, arei'equired to have completed their regular common-school education and to have passed the age of 14 years. The certificates of graduation in many of these trade schools take the place of the handicraft certificates {Befdhigungs- nachweis) required by the industrial code, and entitle the holder to the independent practice of his trade. The institutions which can issue such certificates are specially designated by official orders of the ministry of education with the approval of the ministry of commerce. The teaching personnel of these schools consists partly of instruct- ors trained in pedagogy and partly of experts in technical or artistic work. The management is usually intrusted to persons who have received a high-school education, these persons being in many cases architects or mechanical engineers. For the industrial art branches teachers are usually selected who have been educated in the industrial art school of the museum at Vienna. Aside from the actual teach- ers, all trade schools have for the practical training, especially for instruction in the workshops, master workmen who were specially trained as superintendents or foremen in large manufacturing estab- lishments. To the last-mentioned class of instructors usually belongs the difficult task of giving to the pupils a training which is to replace apprenticeship. The trade schools for particular industries may be grouped as fol- lows: (1) schools for lace work and embroidery; (2) schools for weav- ing, knitting, etc.; (3) schools for wood, iron, and stone work; (4) schools for earthenware and glassware; (5) schools for metal working; and (6) schools for various other trades. In 1899, according to an official report published by the Austrian ministry of education, there were 96 State trade schools and 62 private and State-subsidized schools in Austria. In 1898 the ministry of education expended 1,004,000 gulden (|407,624) for schools of this 446 EEPOKT OF THE COMMISSIONEK OF LABOE. character. The following table shows the attendance at each of the 96 State trade schools at the beginning of the school term 1899-1900: ATTENDANCE AT STATE SCHOOLS FOR PARTICULAR TRADES, 1899-1900. Day trade courses. Contin- uation courses. other courses. Character of school and locality. Regular pupils. Special pupils. Total pupils. Total. SCHOOLS FOR LACE WORK AND EMBEOIDEKY. Lace work: 33 24 82 48 6 62 33 46 C5 24 42 10 18 49 8 8 16 1 8 3 41 27 98 49 14 65 33 53 65 24 46 16 22 57 Cles 27 Flitseh , . . . 49 Idria 102 167 33 Luserna 7 53 65 Proveis . . .. 24 4 46 Embroidery: 16 Graslitz .... 4 8 22 36 93 Total... 548 62 610 138 74S SCHOOLS FOR "WEAA'IXG, KNITTIXG, ETC. "Weaving: Benniscli . .. 17 9 14 3 S6 14 22 18 29 38 30 12 7 9 7 39 28 14 17 26 42 5 27 IS 22 28 23 20 9 26 30 1 18 9 16 8 36 14 22 18 30 88 81 12 7 18 8 47 28 15 18 37 43 5 27 18 31 28 23 27 9 26 36 21 39 6 7 15 Fretidenthal 2 4 27 3 Hohenelbe 49 6 36 86 w 20 Jiigerndorf .■ 58 69 87 Landskron 1 30 14 i' 16 39 6 62 1 31 13 23 9 1 8 57 14 70 117 Eochlitz 30 47 58 1 1 11 1 62 Kumburg 56 77 23 74 69 Schonberg 66 39 44 Starkstadt 27 Sternberg 16 17 96 51 Wamsdorf 9 127 3 -29 16 31 Zwittau 17 62 69 Knitting: 7 Strakonitz 9 Weaving and knitting: Asch SO 255 106 6 291 Total 639 59 698 738 569 2,005 SCHOOLS FOR WOOD, IKON, AND STONE WORK. 11 53 43 79 30 44 33 40 51 29 58 53 29 75 „ 13 63 47 81 39 48 34 43 62 38 58 53 31 83 15 92 101 219 52 48 84 23' 81 95 IS 112 145 Bergreichenstein 4 2 9 4 1 3 11 9 171 381 186 114 34 Gottschee 53 61 96 231 68 79 53 Hallein 108 30 21 Kolomea 2 8 63 ■48 45 142 128 Laybaclv TRADE XNB TECHBTIOAL EDUCAXION ATJSTEIA. 447 ATTENDANCE AT STATE SCHOOLS FOR PARTICULAR TRADES, 1899-190G— Concluded. Day trade courses. Contin- uation courses. Other courses. Character of school and locality. Regular pupils. Special pupils. Total pupils. Total. SCHOOLS FOE WOOD, IRON, AND STONE WOKK— concluded. Woodwork— Concluded. 22 14 66 75 41 2fl 100 14 9 19 {") 04 19 40 9 1 23 14 73 75 41 20 100 23 12 19 {") 80 20 40 15 70 93 14 Villach 17 133 88 71 81 206 93 2.56 Wallern 112 Wurbenthal. ..". 51 100 Basket making: 9 8 23 12 19 Zaga Stonework: Horitz 16 7 C) C) 89 169 26 42 42 49 131 6 57 Total . . 1,130 114 1,244 972 993 3,209 SCHOOLS FOR EARTHENWARE AND GLASSWORK. Earthenware: 41 ■ 19 54 60 31 18 5 3 6 6 5 9 46 22 60 56 36 27 33 30 109 22 128 112 159 88 5 22 193 190 Glasswork: 195 74 189 Total 213 34 217 520 131 898 Machine construction: 87 76 68 69 62 IS 61 25 22 17 8V 76 58 70 63 19 62 27 25 19 91 27 205 76 Prerau . 1 1 1 1 2 3 2 32 90 Honsesmi th ing : 70 68 Iron and steel work: •Fulpin-es 37 56 ti2 27 25 Meta^l work: Nixdorf 98 20 137 Total 495 11 606 226 79 811 MISCELLANEOUS SCHOOLS. Musical-instrument making: - Graslitz 179 276 56 20 i 105 69 2 4 3 284 345 58 24 81 33 284 345 Artistic brazing, engraving, and bronze work: 196 12 37 97 27 291 133 Precioms-ston-e grinfiing and setting: Tumau . . - 58 33 Total 586 189 775 208 161 1,144 EECAPITULATION. SohooJs for lace vvork and embroidery 548 ■639 1,U0 213 495 6«6 62 59 114 34 11 189 610 698 ],244 247 506 775 138 589 993 131 79 161 748 738 972 620 226 208 2,005 3,209 Sc-bools for eartheuware and glasswork 898 811 1,144 3,611 469 4,080 2,664 2,071 8,815 a Not reported. 448 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONJIB OF LABOR. Following is a list of the places in which are located the 62 private and State-subsidized trade schools in Austria for which no statistics of attendance could be obtained: PRIVATE AND STATE -SUBSIDIZED TRADE SCHOOLS. lace work: Drosau, Gottesgab, Heinrichsgriin, and Wamberg, in Bohemia; Kan- czuga and Zakopana, in Galicia; Prettau, in Tyrol. Embroidery: Cracow and Makow, in Galicia. Weaving: Gliniany, Gorlice, Korczyna, Kosow, Krossno, Lancut, Rakzawa, Eych- wald, and Wilamowice, in Galicia. Woodwork: Bleiberg and Malburgeth, in Carinthia; Kalwarya and Stanislau, in Galicia; AVal. Meseritsch, in Moravia. Basket making: Konigsaal, Eothwasser, Senftenberg, Silber-Bergstadt, and Wolin, in Bohemia; Rattendorf and Steinfeld, in Carinthia; Czerwona Wola, Dzurow, Rudki, Skolyszyn, Stryharice, AA'ojslaw, and Zator, in Galicia; Zwettel, in Lower Austria; Neustadtl, Roznau, Wisowitz, and Wsetin, in Moravia; Hillersdorf, in Silesia, Denno, Male, and Proveis, in Tyrol. Stonework : Friedeberg and Saubsdorf , in Silesia. Wagon making: Grybow and Grzymalow, in Galicia. Wagon making and joining: Kamionka Strzumilowa, in Galicia. Earthenware: Kolomea, Poreba Zegota, and Touste, in Galicia. Shoemaking: Alt-Sandec, Uhnow, and'Witkowo, in Galicia. Music: Petschau and Pressnitz, in Bohemia. Eope making: Radymno, in Galicia. Iron and steel work: Waidhofen a. d. Ipbs, in Lower Austria. Trade drawing: Aussee, in Styria. IWDUSTBIAL COIfTIBnJATION SCHOOLS. These schools {gewerhliche Forth ildungsscJailen) are intended to give to the great mass of working people who are already engaged in gain- ful occupations, and therefore have not the time to attend day schools, an opportunity to extend and to increase the knowledge necessary for their occupations by giving theoretical instruction in the evenings and on Sundays. "With regard to their purposes they may be divided into general industrial continuation schools {allgemelne geirerUlclbe Fort- lildungsschiden), trade continuation schools {fachliche Fortbildungs- schiden), and continuation schools for girls. The general industrial continuation schools are conducted by virtue of a decree of the ministry of education, dated February 24, 1883. They are maintained by employers of labor in their respective locali- ties and are subsidized, as a rule, by the State to the extent of one- third of their annual expenditures. The State, through the ministry of education, further encourages these schools by maintaining model continuation schools in connection with the State industrial institu- tions, by supplying educational material, and by training teachers for these schools by means of special vacation courses at the State indus- trial institutions. The attendance at these industrial continuation schools is not usually compulsory, but the industrial code of Austria requires employers to TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION — AUSTRIA. 449 allow employees under 18 years of age the necessary time for attend- ance at these schools. The instruction generally covers about seven months each year, beginning in the fall and ending in the spring. The branches taught are elementary and technical drawing, business forms, industrial mathematics, and bookkeeping. The trade continuation schools {facJiliche ForthildungsscJmlen) are intended for individual trades or groups of similar trades. In these schools the instruction is much more specialized than in the preceding class, special attention being given to the needs of particular trades and industries. Among these schools may be considered the trade continuation courses maintained in connection with the trade schools for particular industries. The schools offer to persons following particular trades, but unable to attend the day schools, opportunities to continue their particular technical training on Sundays and even- ings. In Vienna there are many of these trade continuation schools maintained by the trade guilds and subsidized by the State. The instruction given in these schools covers a two to three years' course of about ten hours per week, and comprises theoretical as well as industrial training. In addition to the above-mentioned industrial continuation schools there are also in a number of cities industrial continuation schools for girls. Their object is to educate girls who wish to be trained in indus- trial or commercial pursuits. They are usually created by private emploj^ers and subsidized by the State. Complete statistics of attendance at industrial continuation schools were not available. The attendance at continuation schools conducted in connection with the State industrial schools, the general handicraft schools, and the State schools for particular trades, is shown in con- nection with the general description of these institutions. Following is a recapitulation of the attendance at these continuation schools at the beginning of the school term 1899-1900: ATTENDANCE AT INDUSTEIAL CONTINUATION SCHOOLS CONDUCTED IN CONNECTION AVITH OTHER INSTITUTIONS, 1899-1900. Clas3 of school. ! Schools. Pupils. State industrial schools Handicraft schools Weaving schools Schools for wood and stone work Schools for earthenware and glass work Schools for metal work School for hrazing, engraving, and braze work . Total 16 ?,219 11 1,889 14 738 15 984 5 520 3 226 1 196 65 In addition to these there were in 1899 about 660 industrial contin- uation schools in the Austrian Empire which were not attached to other 9257—02 29 460 BEPOET OF THE COMMISSIONEB OF LABOE. technical schools. Their total attendance was estimated to be about 100,000. On pages 5^8 to 560 are given a description and statistics of the industrial continuation schools in the city of Vienna. GENERAL DRAWING SCHOOX.S. Besides the various trade and technical schools above mentioned there are schools for drawing and modeling {Zeichen- und Modelier- sohulen) which offer to all persons, regardless of occupation, opportu- nities for perfecting themselves in drawing and modeling. These schools do not possess a special trade or technical character. Some are connected with museums or other educational institutions, while others are conducted independently. Of the latter, three in Vienna and one in Briinn are subsidized by the State. The total attendance of these four schools at the beginning of the school term 1899-1900 was 262 persons. To recapitulate, the total attendance at the State industrial educa- tional institutions of Austria, excluding continuation schools, was as follows at the beginning of the school term 1899-1900: ATTENDANCE AT STATE INDUSTRIAL EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS, 1899-1900. Class of school. Schools. Pupils. Central industrial educational institutions. Schools for important groups of trades Gen eral handicraft schools Schools for particular trades General drawing schools 7 1,871 18 11,862 11 S,046 96 a 8, 815 4 262 Total. n Not including 1 school not reported. The total amount expended by the State in 1900 for industrial edu- cational institutions, including the subsidized museums and commercial schools, was 8,222,000 crowns ($1,669,066). The following table, compiled from statistics contained in a work entitled "Z>z'e Entvncklung des geioerblichen Unterrichtswesens in Oester- reich,''^ by Baron Eudolph von Klimburg, an officer of the Austrian Government, shows the development of State and other institutions for trade and technical education in Austria from 1877 to 1895: TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION — AUSTRIA. 451 TR.iDH AND TJECHNICAL INSTITUTIONS, AND ATTENDANCE AT THE CLOSE OF EACH SCHOOL TEEM, 1877 TO 1895. Instltutionsi Teach- ers. Attendance. Year. Schools for im- portant groups of trades. Gen- eral handi- craft Schools for partic- ular Contin- uation and draw- Total. Schools for im- portant groups of trades. Gen- eral handi- craft Schools for partic- ular Contin- uation and draw- Total. schools. trades. schools. schools. trades. schools. 1877 10 72 127 209 900 712 (") iil6, 905 17, 617 1878 10 73 373 256 1,108 988 l") !>22, 866 23,854 1879 10 75 195 280 1,210 1,067 (") 628, 3.57 29,424 1880 10 78 207 295 1,247 878 (« 626,295 27,173 1881 10 80 227 317 1,425 1,039 h 628, 227 29,266 1882 11 118 216 345 1,516 1,314 14 630,440 31,754 1883 16 92 302 410 1,980 1,615 3, 677 30, 862 36, 154 1884 17 106 320 443 2,253 2,066 4,937 35, 675 42,678 1885 17 110 348 c492 2,547 2,392 5,498 37,883 45,773 1886 19 117 378 514 2,868 2,482 6,120 42,371 50,973 1887 20 117 412 549 3,134 2,502 5,763 47, 266 65,531 1888 21 120 439 680 3,450 2,763 5,710 49,468 57, 941 1889 21 6 118 474 619 3,754 2,948 346 5,703 54,442 63,439 1890 23 8 129 483 643 4,060 2,941 474 5,952 58,340 07,707 1891 19 8 139 536 702 4,416 3,236 742 8,131 61,354 73,463 1892 20 8 145 578 751 4,802 8,366 768 9,277 65,423 079,834 1893 20 8 147 631 806 5,176 3,476 771 9,586 70,754 84,587 1894 20 10 154 661 845 5,490 3,589 799 9,002 73,791 c87, 601 1895 20 11 152 708 891 6,875 3,849 1,022 9,607 78, 162 92,640 a Included in continuation and drawing schools. 6 Including schools for particular trades. oThis total does not agree with the sum of the Items; the figures given, however, are according to the original. The table following, obtained from the same source, shows the expenditures of the Austrian ministry of education for industrial education each year from 1892 to 1898: EXPENDITURES OF THE MINISTRY OP EDUCATION FOR INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN AUSTRIA, 3892 TO 1898. [Original figures were given in thousands of gulden.] Expenditures. Y'ear. Schools for important groups of trades. General handicraft schools. Schools for particular trades. Industrial continua- tion schools. Other. Total. 1892 $384,076 414,526 426,894 469,742 486,388 523,334 587,888 $30,450 30,044 32,886 34, 104 34,916 35,728 38,164 8304,094 317, 898 334,544 354,438 373.520 395,444 407,624 863, 742 70, 644 78,764 86,884 93, 380 101,500 112, 868 8113, 274 116, 928 122, 206 129, 920 140,070 146, 972 156,716 8895, 636 1893 950, 040 1894 994, 294 1895 1,075,088 1896 1,128,274 1897 1,202,978 1898 1,303,260 DEVELOPMENT AND SUPERVISION OF THE APPRENTICE- SHIP SYSTEM. Austria, like German3'^, while perfecting her system of industrial schools, has by no means abandoned the appenticeship system as a valuable means for the imparting of trade training. On the contrary, the effort now being made to perfect this system constitutes one of the most important and interesting phases of the modern movement for the making of skilled workmen. It has been shown that the chief means 452 EEPOBT OF THE COMMISSIONEE OE LABOE. by which the apprenticeship is sought to be preserved and brought into harmony with existing industrial conditions is through the promo- tion of trade associations after the model of the old guild. The same method and action is followed by Austria. The old guilds, for many years declining in importance, had at the time of the enactment of the industrial code of 1859 reached the last stages of decay. This code, as one of its main purposes, attempted to restore the power of these associations. It made it obligatory upon employers to maintain their relations with their guilds, or to restore them when they had been discontinued Further efforts to reorganize the guilds so as to bring them more in harmony with changed industrial conditions, and to make of them efficient organizations, were made in the laws of March 15, 1883, and Februarj' 23, 1897. The law of 1883 is of especial importance. It established the guilds upon a new basis, which exists at the present time, as the law of 1897 introduced but slight modifications. The most important feature of the law of 1883 is that whereby the funda- mental difference is recognized between the conditions in the large industrial establishments or factories and those in the handicraft trades. The true sphere of activity for the guilds was seen to be in bringing together for purposes of mutual benefit the small independent employ- ers and artisans. The law, therefore, exempted the heads of factories from the obligation of membership in the guilds. The powers and duties of the guilds as regards the small employers and handicraftsmen, however, were considerably enlarged. It was hoped through the guilds to enable these classes to hold their own against the growing power of the larger establishments. The principle of obligatory guilds is unreservedly accepted. The law provides that whoever carries on a trade on his own account or as a contractor, becomes by virtue of his undertaking such trade a mem- ber of the guild for his industry and district. At the same time all the employees become associates {AngeJiorige). The following statement of the functions of these guilds shows to how large an extent they are bodies to look after the training of apprentices. Their duties are (1) to maintain harmonious relations between employers and their employees, especially in respect to the organization of the labor force, the provision of guild shelters or lodges, and the securing of employment for persons out of. work; (2) to provide for a satisfactory apprenticeship system, by the prep- aration of regulations, subject to the approval of the authorities, regarding the technical and moral instruction of apprentices, the length of their terms of service, examinations, etc., and the watching over the compliance with these regulations, the ratification of the cer- tificates granted to them, and the determination of the conditions to be required for the keeping of apprentices, and the number of appren- TEADi; AND TECHNICAL EDtJCATIOW — AUSTRIA. 453 tices in proportion to the number of other employees; (3) to create arbitration committees for the adjustment of disputes between mem- bers of the guilds and their employees arising out of their labor, apprenticeship, and wage relations, and to create arbitration institu- tions for the adjustment of disputes between members of a guild, for which purpose several guilds may unite; (4) to further the creation of and themselves to establish and maintain trade schools; (5) to care for sick employees through the creation of new or the support of existing sick funds; (6) to care for sick apprentices; and (7) to prepare an annual report of the work of the guild which may be of use in the prepara- tion of trade statistics. In addition to this regular report, guilds must, whenever called upon, furnish the chambers of commerce and industry of their districts information or advice upon particular subjects within their province. They must also especially give their opinion to the industrial authorities, whenever it is requested, concerning the grant- ing of a trade certificate ( Gewerhesohein) authorizing the prosecution of a handicraft trade, or a license to carry on a licensed trade, when especial qualifications are necessary, and when the evidence concern- ing the competence of the applicant does not seem to be sufficient. The guilds may also make recommendations upon their own initiative to the chambers of commerce and industry. The guilds have the right to impose and collect entrance fees or incorporation dues from their members and apprenticeship fees to be paid by the apprentices after the completion of their terms of service. The amount of these dues is fixed by the political authorities after obtaining a decision of the general assembly of the guild. Of the receipts from apprenticeship fees, not more than one-half may be used for general expenses; the other half must be used for the purpose of educating or otherwise benefiting the apprentices. These guilds see that the provisions of the law regarding appren- tices are carefully carried out. The law relating to this subject speci- fies that only competent persons shall be entitled to have apprentices, and this right, may be withdrawn if the employer misconducts himself or neglects the training of apprentices who are under his chai'ge. The follov^ing are some of the important provisions of the law regarding the serving of apprenticeships in the Empire: The engagement of an apprentice must be by an express contract, which must be definitely concluded at the end of the probationary period. This contract may be verbal or in writing. If verbal, it must be entered into before the executive board of the guild to which the employer belongs, or, when such an organization is not in existence, before the communal authorities. If the contract is in writing, it must be immediately transmitted to the guild or communal authorities. Whether verbal or in writing, the guild or communal authorities must enter the contract in a register to be kept for that purpose. 454 REPOET OF THE COMMISSIOKEE OE LABOE. The contract must contain (1) the name and age of the employer, the industry which he carries on, and the address of his place of busi- ness; (2) the name, age, and residence of the' apprentice; (3) the name, residence, and occupation of his parent, guardian, or other legal repre- sentative; (4) the date and duration of the apprenticeship contract; (5) a clause stating that in addition to the other legal obligations of the parties the employer binds himself to instruct the apprentice in his trade, or to have it done b}' a competent representative, and the appren- tice will be required to apply himself diligentl}^ to his trade; (6) clauses showing the conditions of the contract as regards apprenticeship fees or wages, board, lodging, and clothing, the duration of the apprenticeship term, and the guild fee for the certificate of indenture and release. The more impoi'tant features of the contract must be entered by the communal authorities in the labor book of the apprentice. Except in cases otherwise specially provided for by law, the term of apprenticeship must be not less than two nor more than f oui- years in nonfactory trades and not more than three years in factory trades. When an apprentice has served a portion of his term with one employer and is regularly transferred to the service of another, the time so served must be included in the entire term. The first four weeks of the apprenticeship term must be considered as a period of probation, during which the conti-act can be terminated by either party. This period naay be extended, but must not be longer than three months. The employer must interest himself in the industrial education of the apprentice, and must not deprive him of the time and opportunity necessary for this purpose by using him for other purposes. He or his representative must look after the morals and deportment of minor apprentices, both in and outside the workshop. He must require of the apprentice diligence, good manners, and the fulfillment of his religious duties. He must not illtreat the apprentice, and must protect him from illtreatment on the part of fellow-workmen or members of his household. He must see that the apprentice is not required to perform work, such as transporting burdens, etc., which is be3'ondhis ph3'sical strength. The employer or his representive is further required to allow appren- tices who have not j^et been absolved from the obligation to attend an industrial continuation school, or an institution of equal merit, the necessary time for attendance at the existing general industrial con- tinuation schools {gewerWicJie Fortbildungsschulen)^ as well as the trade continuation schools {fachliche FortbilduTigjschuJen), and also to see that they do attend such schools. • Upon the termination of the apprenticeship, the employer must fur- nish the apprentice with a certificate {Zeiigniss), showing the trade in which the apprenticeship was served, the conduct of the apprentice. TBADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION — AtJSTEIA. 455 and the technical education that he has received. In case the appren- ticeship is regularly completed, and the employer is a member of a guild, this body must prepare a formal apprenticeship certificate {Lehrbrief). In both cases the material contents of the certificate must be entered in the labor book of the apprentice and be attested by the local police authorities. These provisions of the law are by no means a dead letter. They set forth the actual conditions under which most of the handicraft trades are learned at the present time. The practical instruction is obtained in actual shopwork under competent instructors, while mat- ters of theory, -trade drawing, etc., are taught in the industrial or trade continuation schools. IlsTDIVIDTJAL SCHOOLS. In the foregoing pages an attempt has been made to trace the devel- opment and to show the present status of trade and technical educa- tion in Austria as well as to describe the various classes of educational institutions. In the pages which follow detailed accounts are given of one or more important or typical schools of each class, arranged in the order of the classification given. CENTRAL INDUSTRIAL EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS. A detailed description need be given of only one of these institu- tions. The one selected, the Technological Industrial Museum {Tech- nologisches Gewerbe- Museum), Vienna, is probably one of the most complete and best equipped institutions for industrial education in Europe. TECEBTOLOGICAL INDUSTRIAL, MUSEUM, VIEKTNA. After repeated attempts, made both by the State and by private indi- viduals, to organize a central technological institution the Lower Aus- trian Industrial Society {Niederoesterreichisclier Gewej-ieverehi) in 1879 founded as a nucleus for such an institution a department or school of woodworking. In 1881 a department for tinctorial chemistry was added. In 1888 the proceeds of an industrial exposition at Vienna, amounting to 55,000 florins ($18,975), were devoted to this institution. About this time trade schools and experiment stations were established in difi'erent parts of Vienna as adjuncts to this institution, and schools for metal work and electro-technics were added. More recentl}^ test- ing and experimental stations for the paper industry, building mate- rials, machinery, electricity, and the brewing industrv were created in connection with the industrial museum. The school, which in 1879 opened with a few instructors and 44 pupils, had on December 31, 1899, a total of 147 teachers and 1,317 pupils. The educational work of the museum, as at present organized, consists of trade schools having all-day sessions, courses for master 456 EEPOKT OF THE COMMISSIONEK OF LABOB. workmen, and special evening and Sunday classes. The day schools comprise a department for the wood industry, consisting of a lower and a higher trade school for cabinetmaking, joining, and a special course in paper manufacturing; a department for the chemical indus- tries, consisting of a trade school for dyeing, a higher trade school for the chemical industries, and a school for tinctorial chemistry; a depart- ment for the metal industries, consisting of a lower and a higher school for iron and steel working and a special course for boiler tenders and enginemen; a department for electro-technics, consisting of a lower and a higher trade school of electro-technics. The courses for master workmen are for shoemakers, joiners, tailors, locksmiths, and carpen- ters. The special evening and Sunday courses relate to drawing, eiectro-technics, and technological and miscellaneous subjects. DEPARTMENT OF "WOOD INDUSTBY. This department is intended to educate persons in the cabinetmaking and joining trades. The attendants are of two kinds — regular and special. The regular pupils are persons who desire to obtain a com- plete training in the school and who follow the prescribed programme of studies. Special pupils are those who follow only certain portions of the programme in order to perfect themselves in some features of their trade. The school is in session from October 1 to July 31. Upon admission to the school a matriculation fee of 4 crowns ($0.81) is charged. The regular pupils pay a tuition of 240 crowns ($48.72) per j-ear. The payment of this tuition may be wholly or partly dis- pensed with in the case of worthy pupils without means who have attended at least one half-year term. All instruction materials and apparatus which the pupils require for their theoretical work are fur- nished at their own cost. The copies and models used are supplied by the school. For the shop work each pupil must have a complete set of working tools, which he may purchase in monthly installments or rent from the museum at 2 crowns (|0.41) per month. The objects made in the shops belong to the institution. The proceeds from their sale, after deducting cost of materials used, are devoted to the fund for the aid of needy and worthy pupils. The lower trade school for cabinetmaking and joining is intended to replace the regular shop apprenticeship hy giving a practical and theoretical training in furniture and joinery work. The course of instruction covers four years. In order to be admitted persons must have completed their fourteenth year of age and their public school education and must be in proper physical condition. Pupils can not pass from one year's grade to another without having passed a satis- factory examination. Upon successfully completing the four years' course pupils receive graduating certificates which entitle them by law to all the privileges of skilled artisans. The hours of instruction are from 8 a. m. to 12 m. and from 2 to 6 p. m. During the third TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION AUSTRIA. 457 and fourth years lectures are given once or twice a week during the winter term, and in the fourth year practical work is required on Sun- days from 8 to 10 a. m. During the summer term pupils are occa- sionally taken on excursions to woodworking establishments in the vicinity. The following statement shows the suojects taught ana the hours per week devoted to each in the lower trade school for cabinetmaking and joining for each of the four years of the full course: First year: German language and business forms, 6; arithmetic, 4; free-hand draw- ing, 6; geometric and projective drawing, 8; elements of physics and mechanics, 2; shopwork, 18. Second year: Arithmetic and elements of algebra, 4; free-hand drawing, 4; geo- metric and perspective drawing, 6, trade drawing, 4; physics, winter term, 3; shop- w^ork, winter term, 23; summer tei-m, 31. Third year: Architectural styles, 4; ornamental drawing, 2; trade drawing, cabinet- making, 6; trade drawing, joinery work, 4; general chemistry, 2; mechanics, 3; practical arithmetic, 1; shopwork, winter term, 24; summer term, 28. Fourth year: Ornamental drawing, 2; trade drawing, cabinetmaking, 6; trade drawing, joinery work, 4; arrangement and management of workshops, winter term, 1; technology of wood, winter term, 2; wood joining, 2; practical bookkeeping and correspondence, winter term, 2; industrial hygiene and prevention of accidents, win- ter term, 2; technical finishing processes, winter term, 4; shopwork, winter term, 27; summer term, 40. • Following is a synopsis of the foregoing course; German language and business forms: General exercises in oral and written expres- sion and the most important forms of business letters. Mathematics: Practical arithmetic, including proportion and percentage; funda- mental cperations of algebra, including equations of the first degree with one or more unknown quantities; elements of geometry with demonstrations of theorems, espe- cially with reference to the theory of triangles, the square, and the circle. Free-hand drawing: Instruction in this subject has for its aim the attainment of a certain degree of skill in the presentation of geometric forms by free-hand. Exer- cises in measuring by the eye and preparation for ornamental drawing. This object is attained by extending the elementary instruction received in the common school to drawing simple plane ornaments from copies in outlines and color, and to a system- atic course of drawing more difficult plane ornaments and simple gypsum models. Geometric and projective drawing: Development of the fundamental forms of plane geometry and stereometry, with special reference to the needs of the cabinetmaker. Elements of descriptive geometry limited to the forms of projections and various pro- files as found in cabinetmaking. Essentials of shades, shadows, and perspective, in so far as they are necessary for correct and attractive drawings of objects in cabinet- making and joining. Architectural styles: Elements of profiles; their assembling for decorative purposes; their use in frames and casings; kinds of casings; the various kinds of columns. Ornamental drawing: Profile, checker work, ornamental gypsum models. Trade drawing: In trade drawing jsarticular attention is given to exactness of form and to technically correct construction of objects. The technical constructive side of cabinetmaking and joining is therefore emphasized in this course, while the sesthetic side, which becomes especially prominent in decorative cabinetmaking, receives con- sideration only in so far as it appears indispensable in a technical school; but it is constantly borne in mind that it is not the purpose of this course to give students an artistic education. 458 KEFOET OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOE. Furniture making: Theory of profiles — Drawing of elementary profiles in regular order, combining them with reference to their practical application; drawing of pro- files, casings, doors for wardrobes, wainscoting. Theory of style — Drawings of the various kinds of columns, with illustrations for transferring them to wood. Furni- ture drawing — Beginning with the drawing of plain furniture on a scate of one-tenth or one-fifth of its natural size, considering the details in their natural size, sketching of ordinary types of furniture in one-tenth or one-fifth of its natural size, and advanc- ing gradually to higher grades of objects, always following the same methods. Draw- ing of wainscoting. Joining: At the beginning of this course a brief synopsis of architectui-e is ^ven as an introduction to trade drawing. This is followed by joining, its special applica- tion, construction of floors, doors, and windows; sketches from models, drawing of these sketches in one-tenth or one-fifth of their natural size, and sketches of details from drawings on a smaller scale. Elements of physics and mechanics: General properties of bodies, statics, motion. Phj'sics: Sources and diffusion of heat, expansion of bodies by heat, specific heat. General chemistry: Elements of inorganic and organic chemistry, including reduc- tion of metals, properties of acids and salts, carburet of hydrogen, and dry distilla- tion. Mechanics: The various kinds of motion, with special reference to rotation; com- position and resolution of forces; gravity, center of gravity; friction, friction of motion; equilibrium; elements of machinery; essentials of statics; the most important princi- ples of hydrostatics and hydrodynamics. Arrangement and management of workshops: Arrangement of shafting; mounting of wood-working machinery; efficiency auid power of wood-working machinery. Technology of wood: Explanation of the structure of wood; the value of wood, with reference to its technical industrial properties, impregnation, and conservation; discussion of tools and machines used in- wood working and their essential qualities; general view of the important branches of the wood-working industry. Technical finishing processes: Dressing, staining, rubbing, polishing, varnishing, japanning, gilding, etc.; consideration of the various auxiliaries; preparation and properties of glue, etc. Industrial hygiene and prevention of accidents: Laws and regulations; instruction regarding the ai-rangement of working rooms; protective measures ia the use of steam boilers, steam apparatus, and machinery, and in the erection of buildings; measures for prompt assistance in cases of accidents in factories. V/ood joining: Joinery work in general; the principles governing the correct application of the various kinds of wood joining; wood joining in house carpentry and cabinetmaking. Workshop: Tlie pi-actical instruction embraces the \'arious kinds of work found in cabinetmaking; the sharpening of tools, sawing in general, the planing of wood, the dressing of cross-grained wood, joining, gluing iu general, grooving and tonguing, the cutting of grooves, dovetailing, ripping, mortising, doweling, veneering, furbish- ing, polishing of plane surfaces, molding, finishing and polishing of patterns; the cutting, dressing, and polishing of checkerwork; construction of entire objects from plain to more difficult subjects; joinery work, doors and windows. By means of systematic methods in the workshop the instruction aims at thorough- ness and that degree of manual skill which apprentices can attain only through a comriderable expenditure of time. At the very beginning instruction is directed to the use oi material and technical appliances with reference to the construction of useful objects, followed by the making of constructive details. Exactness in execu- tion and precision is constantly insisted upon. The acquisition of the highest possi- ble degree of speed in execution receives consideration later on. Nor is the student permitted to advance to a higher grade of the course until he has passed every lower grade satisfactorily. TKADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION AITSTBIA. 459 The higher trade school for cabinetmaking and joining is intended (1) to give to cabinetmalcers and joiners, who have learned their trade and have had considerable practical experience, such a higher technical training as will fit them for positions as foremen, superintendents, draftsmen, or managers of establishments; (2) to educate persons for the positions of foremen and technical instructors in trade schools for woodworking. Persons in order to be eligible for admission must be graduates of the lower grade intermediate schools ( Untergymnasium, TJnterrealschule, Burgerschule), graduates of the lower trade school for cabinetmaking and joining, or they must produce evidence that they have learned and practiced the joiner's trade. Special pupils must be at least 18 years of age, must have learned their trade, and have had a" thorough practice in the same. The course of instruction for regular pupils covers two years. Upon completing this course they receive graduation certificates. Special pupils receive certificates of attendance. The hours of instruction are from 8 a. m. to 12 m., from 2 to 6 p. m., and from 7 to 9 p. m. During the summer term pupils are occasionally taken on excursions to woodworking estab- lishments. The following statement shows the subjects taught and hours per week devoted to each in the higher trade school for cabinetmaking and joining for each of the two years of the full course: First year: Descriptive geometry, 4; ornamental drawing, 2; trade drawing, cabi- netmaking, 6; trade drawing, joinery work, 4; wood joining, winter term, 2; struc- ture of tlie most important kinds of wood, total number of hours per year, 24; location, production, and technical properties of wood, total number of hours per year, 24; practical arithmetic, 1; industrial hygiene and prevention of accidents, winter term, 2; practical exercises in the workshop, winter term, 29; summer term, 33; practical exercises in turning, total number of hours per year, 48. Second year: Trade drawing, cabinetmaking, 6; trade drawing, joinery work, 4; ornamental drawing, 2; chemical technology of wood, winter term, 2; technical finish- ing process, total number of hours per year, 48; arrangements and management of workshops, winter term, 1; mechanical technology of wood, winter term, 2; technol- ogy of auxiliaries, winter term, 2; wood joining, 2; practical arithmetic and corre- spondence, winter term, 2; practical exercises in the workshop, winter term,^ 29; summer term, 36. Following is a synopsis of the foregoing course: Descriptive geometry: Eecapitulation of plane geometry and stereometry, projec- tion, shadows, perspective. Ornamental drawing: Sketching of ornaments, special drawing and designing of objects. Structure of the most important kinds of wood: Explanation of the structure of wood; discussion of the characteristic features of the most important kinds of wood; practice in determining the various kinds of wood, with or without the aid of the microscope. Origin, production, and technical properties of wood: Origin of the most important kinds of timber; examination of the quality and adaptability of standing timber for certain purposes; the cutting, transportation, and proper treatment of wood; exami- nation of wood with reference to its technical and industrial qualities. 460 KEPOBT OF THE COMMISSIONEK OF LABOR. Chemical technology of wood: Discussion of the structure of wood from the chem- ical point of view; chemical properties of timber and the influence of chemical proc- esses; impregnation, conservation; products which can be obtained from wood by chemical means. Technical finishing processes: Discussion of the various technical finishing proc- esses, as dressing, staining, polishing, varnishing, japanning, painting, gilding, etc. ; consideration of the various auxiliaries; preparation and properties of glue, etc. Arrangement and management of workshops: Arrangement of shafting, mounting of woodworking machinery, efficiency and power of woodworking machinery. Mechanical technology of wood: Discussion of tools and machines employed in woodworking and their essential qualities, especially introduction of new mechan- ical apparatus and appliances. Technology of auxiliaries: Discussion of the properties of the various auxiliary articles employed in woodworking, as cast iron, wrought^ron, steel, bronze, tin, etc. ; discussion of articles made of other material used in joining together the various parts of objects made of wood, as screws, nails, rivets, wire tacks, clasps, hinges, locks, latches, etc. ; suggestions as to the proper use of these auxiliary articles; pack- ing and transportation of the various products of the woodworking industry. Wood joining: Wood joining in general; the principles governing the correct application of the various kinds of wood joining; suggestions regarding practical work in wood joining; wood joining in house carpentry and cabinetmaking. Practical arithmetic: Computations in whole numbers, fractions, anquot parts, ratio and proportion, partnership, percentage, interest, square and cube roots, men- suration, cubical contents of timber; estimates of the various necessary supplies; computing selling price. Practical exercises in the workshop: This subject embraces more difficult work by the students and general practice in technical work, with which they have so far been unfamiliar. Practical exercises in turning: Instruction in this branch has for its aim the training of the student in the auxiliary trade of turning, in order to enable him to estimate correctly the various articles produced in this trade, in so far as it touches upon cabinetmaking. The special course for the paper industry is intended to give young men an opportunity to obtain a theoretical education in paper making, wood-pulp grinding, and cellulose manufacturing. This school opens October 1 and closes March 31. Admission to this school is limited, and only those persons whose previous training has been such as to enable them properly to understand the subjects taught are admitted, preference being given to those who have had several years' experi- ence in paper making. The matriculation fee is 4 crowns ($0.81), and the tuition for the entire course is 320 crowns ($64.96). All instruc- tion, materials, and drawing utensils, except copies, models, and labo- ratory supplies, are paid for by the pupils. Occasional visits are made to paper mills and cellulose factories. In order to obtain grad- uation certificates, pupils must successfully pass examinations in all the branches taught. Persons taking this special course are at liberty to attend Sunday and evening courses at the museum, either in drawing, electro-technics, or other subjects. The following statement shows the subjects taught and the hours per week devoted to each in the special course in paper making: TEADE AND TJECHNICAL EDUCATION- — AUSTRIA. 461 Technology of the manufacture of paper, 6; special drawing, 6; elements of machinery and machine drawing, 4; general chemistry, 2; knowledge of goods, 1; chemistry of paper making, 1; practice in microscopy, 2; motors and machine tools, 2; exercises in the chemical laboratory, 12; exercises in the testing institution for the examination of paper, 4; technology of bleaching materials, 2. DEPAETMENT OP CHEMICAL- INDUSTRIES. This department of the museum is intended to fit persons having a preparatory knowledge of chemistry for practical work in the chem- ical industries by teaching the technology of chemistry, both theoret- ically and practically. The instruction is so specialized that each pupil, besides obtaining a general technical knowledge, is given a thorough education in the application of chemistry to the particular trade or calling which he intends to adopt. Special emphasis is given to the chemical operations of the textile industry. The department for chemical industries comprises a trade school for dyeing, a higher trade school for the chemical industries, and a school for tinctorial chemistry. The lower trade school for dyeing has for its purpose the training of competent overseers or superintendents of dyeing establishments and master dj^ers. Candidates for admission must have the education required of graduates of the grammar or intermediate schools, and must pass an- entrance examination. The school is in session from October 1 to July 31, and the full course covers three years. The matriculation fee is i crowns (f0.81), and the tuition is 100 crowns (|20.30) per j'ear. The tuition may be wholly or partly remitted in the case of worthy persons without means. All books and materials used in the theoretical work must be furnished at the expense of the pupils. A fee of 10 crowns (|2. 03) per month the first year and of 20 crowns ($-1.06) the second and third years is charged for the use of gas, water, steam, and chemicals in the laboratory. A deposit of 20 crowns (14.06) the first 3"ear, 40 crowns ($8.12) the second je&r, and GO crowns (112.18) the third year is required to cover anj^ pos- sible damage to materials or apparatus. Examinations are held at the end of every half-year term, and pupils can not advance until they have passed them satisfactorily. Upon completing their three-years' course pupils receive certificates of graduation. The following statement shows the subjects taught and the hours per week devoted to each: First year: German language and business forms, 6; arithmetic, 4; physics, 4; inorganic chemistry, winter term, 4; organic chemistry, summer term, 4; practical exercises in the laboratory, summer term, 12; mineralogy, winter term, 1; geomet- rical and projective drawing, 6; free-hand drawing, 4; review of chemistry, 2. Second year: Encyclopedia of chemical technology, 4; practical exercises in the laboratory, winter term 32, summer term 36; analytical chemistry, 2; mechanical technology, winter term, 3; study of goods and materials, winter term, 3; elements of machinery, summer term, 2; industrial bookkeeping, winter term, 2. 462 KEPOET OP THE CCMMISSIOTSTEK OF LABOR. Third year: Special chemical technology, 4; technical analysis, 2; mechanical technology, winter term, 3; elements of machinery, winter term, 2; practical exer- cises in the laboratories, winter term 33, summer term 38. Following is a synopsis of the foregoing course: Physics : The most important elements of physics, -with special reference to dyeing. Inorganic chemistry: The most important elements and their combinations, with special reference to the chemicals used in the chemical industries. Organic chemistry: The most important organic combinations, with reference to technics, especially to dyestuffs and dyeing materials. Encyclopedia of chemical technology: Chemical technology of water, heating and heating materials, lighting; chemical industry; metals and metallic coloring sub- stances; general survey of the more important sections of organic technology, etc Special chemical technology (dyeing and bleaching): Technology of fibrin; opera- tions of bleaching; mordants and their uses; explanation of the processes of dyeing; the principal dyestuffs and their uses; composition of dyeing formulas; calculations. Practical exercises in the laboratory: Qualitative tests of the most important bases and acids; simple technical tests in so far as they are necessary to the dyer. Practical exercises in the dyeing laboratory: Dyeing with simple dyestuffs; ex- periments in bleaching; mordants and quantitative dyeing, experimental dyeing, dye- ing from patterns, etc. (dyeing and bleaching of cotton, linen, hemp, jute, wool, silk, and mixed textiles). Mechanical technology: The manufacture of textiles; a general survey of spinning and weaving. Elements of machinery: Elementary principles, theory of steam boilers and steam apparatus, with reference to dyeing. Study of materials and goods; A brief discussion of dyestuffs, sources of supply, and market quotations. Geometric and projective drawing: Development of geometrical figures in plane geometry and stereometry. Free-hand drawing: Instruction in this subject has for its aim the attainment of a certain degree of skill in drawing geometrical figures by free-hand; exercises in measuring by the eye and preparation for ornamental drawing. This object is attained by extending the elementary instruction received in the common school to drawing simple plane ornaments from copies in outlines and color and to a systematic course of drawing more difficult plane ornaments. The higher trade school for the chemical industries is intended to give such a general education in chemistrj' and chemical technology as to prepare persons for positions as chemical experts in industrial establishments. The instruction is theoretical and practical, special attention being given to the particular line of work the pupil intends to follow. Candidates for admission as regular pupils must be gradu- ates of intermediate schools or schools of a like grade. Others may be admitted as special pupils. The course covers two years. The school opens October 1 and closes July 31. Pupils are encouraged to work during their vacation in establishments where they can obtain practical experience in their chosen occupations. The matriculation fee is 2 crowns (10.41). The tuition is 100 crowns (120.30) per year, and may be remitted in the case of persons of small means. A fee of 20 crowns (14.06) per month is charged for labora- tory work. All books or materials used for ther-etical work must be TRADE AWD TECHNICAL EDUCATION AUSTKIA. 463 furnished by the pupils. A deposit of 40 crowns ($8.13) the first year and 60 crowns (112.18) the second year must be made to insure against losses resulting from possible damage to materials, apparatus, etc. Examinations are held at the end of each half-year term, and these must be successfull3^ passed by pupils in order to advance. Upon completing their full course pupils receive graduation certificates. The instruction relates exclusively to technical subjects. The fol- lowing statement shows the subjects taught and the hours per week devoted to each: First year: Inorganic chemistry, winter term, 5; organic cnemistry of sebaceous substances, summer term, 3; organic chemistry of aromatic compounds, summer term, 3; qualitative analysis, winter term, 2; quantitative analysis, summer term, 2; general pharmacology, winter term, 3; mechanical technology (spinning), winter term, 3; elements of machinery, summer term, 3; mineralogy, winter term, 2; prac- tical exercises in the chemical laboratory, winter term, 24; summer term, 27; mathe- matics, 2; physics, winter term, 3; summer term, 2; mechanics, summer term, 2. Second year: General chemical technology, C; special chemical technology, 4; technical analysis, 2; mechanical technology (weaving), winter term, 3; elements of machinery, winter term, 2; practical exercises in the chemical laboratory, winter term, 25; summer term, 32; general mechanical technology, winter term, 2. Following is a synopsis of the foregoing course: General chemistry: A systematic study of the elementary substances and their compounds, with special reference to their technical application. General chemical technology: A complete course in technology, involving the principal chemical processes. This course is so arranged that those branches which form the subject of special studies are treated more exhaustively, and in cases of sev- eral students pursuing the same special study separate lectures are given on these subjects. Special chemical technology: The lectures in this course are arranged to suit the special studies of the students; but no separate lectures are given when only a few students pursue the same special course, special studies, in such cases, being pursued in connection with the laboratory work and under personal instruction. Qualitative analysis: Analysis of inorganic compounds; analysis of important organic compounds. Quantitative analysis: Simple quantitative determinations; methods of titration and compound quantitative analysis. Technical analysis: Commercial value of raw and manufactured pro:lr.cts, both organic and inorganic. Pharmacology: A description of drugs, with special i-eference to the course under consideration, and their commercial values. General mechanical technology: The working properties of metals, wood, and stone; brushing and separating, casting, hammering, pressing, rolling, and drawing; chiseling, sawing, turning, boring, polishing, etc.; work in combining (welding, sol- dering, riveting, etc.). Mechanical technology of textiles: A general outline of themanufacture of textiles — spinning, weaving, and finishing. (These lectures are arranged to accommodate stu- dents of special subjects. ) Elements of machinery: Elementary principles, transmission, pumps, steam boil- ers, steam engines, water motors, presses, centrifugal machines, force pumps, digest- ing furnaces, machines for crushing, extracting apparatus, filtration, compressing machines, etc. IVIineralogy: Crystallography and systematic description of minerals. 464 EEPOET OF THE COMMISSIONEE OF LABOK. Mathematics: Algebra through equations of the second degree with two unknown quantities and progression, geometry, trigonometry, elements of analytical geometry, differential and integral calculus. Physics: A general course, embracing the elements of mechanics, heat, light, and electricity. Practical exercises in the chemical laboratory: These exercises embrace analytic and synthetic work of a general and of a special character; in the latter case they are adapted entirely to the individual needs of the student. A thorough knowledge of qualitative and quantitative analysis forms the basis upon which the general and special technical analysis is further developed. The synthetic work is either of a general nature and is pursued parallel with the theoretical studies, or it relates to the special course of the student. In general the following course is pursued: First year: Experiments in inorganic compounds and practice in the solution of chemical problems; quantitative analysis, with special attention to volumetric analy- sis; synthetic work; experiments in organic compounds, with practice in the most important typical reactions. Second year: General and special consideration of the most important industrial products of organic and inorganic origin; special synthetic work; bleaching, dyeing, printing; production of organic dyestuffs, mordants, varnish, soaps, various prepara- tions, etc. Excursions to large manufacturing establishments whose productions are on the lines of this course of studies. DEPARTMENT OF METAL INDUSTRIES. This department is intended to educate pupils for practical work in the metal trades where iron and steel constitute the raw materials. It also serves to continue the education of those already engnged in one of the metal trades. There are, therefore, two schools — a lower and a higher school for iron and steel working. The pupils are either regular or special. The schools are in session from October 1 to July 31. The matriculation fee is 4 crowns ($0.81). The tuition is 240 crowns (|i8.72) per j'ear, both for regular and special pupils, at either school. The tuition may be remitted in the case of pupils without means. In addition to the tuition a fee of 20 crowns ($4.06) per year is charged for wear and tear of tools and for the use of materials. All books and requisites for the theoretical work are furnished at the expense of the pupils. The products of the workshops belong to the museum. The object of the lower trade school is the practical and theoretical training of persons for the housesmith's trade and for machine con- struction work {Ban- und MascMnenschlosserei). The instruction comprehends a comjilete training in the theory and skill requisite for these trades and thus replaces the regular apprenticeship. The course covers four years. Candidates for admission must be 14 years of age, must be graduates of the public schools, must be physically sound, and must pass an entrance examination. Pupils can not advance from one year's grade to another without passing a satisfactory examination. Upon successfully completing the full course they receive graduation certificates which, by virtue of a ministerial decree, entitle them to TBADE AND TECHJSTICAL EDUCATION — AUSTRIA. 465 practice their trades as master workmen. Each graduate is required to produce a masterpiece before receiving such a certiiicate. Special pupils receive certificates of attendance. The daily hours are from 8 a. m. to 12 m. and from 2 to 6 p. m. During the third and fourth years instruction is also given on certain days from 7 to 9 p. m. Occasional visits are made to manufacturing and other industrial establishments. The following statement shows the subjects taught and the hours per week devoted to each: First year: German language and business forms, 6; arithmetic, 4; free-hand drawing, 6; geometrical and projective drawing, 8; elements of physics and mechan- ics, 2; workshop, 18. Second year: Arithmetic and elements of algebra, 4; free-hand drawing, 4; geomet- rical and projective drawing, 6; special drawing, 2; physics, 3; mechanics, 3; ele- ments of machines, 4; mechanical technology of metals, 2; workshop, 16. Third year: Mathematics, 4; descriptive geometry, 3; special technical drawing, 6; special industrial drawing, 3; general chemistry, 2; mechanical technology of metals, 3; elements of machinery, 3; industrial arithmetic, v/inter term, 2; bookkeeping, winter term, 2; workshop, 24. Fourth year: Mathematics, winter term, 3, summer term, 2; special drawing, 10; building construction and drawing, 4; elements of machinery, 5; chemical tech- nology of metals, winter term, 2; technical finishing processes, with practical work, winter term, 2; industrial hygiene and prevention of accidents, winter term, 2; spe- cial course for firemen and steam-engine tenders, summer term, 4; workshop, 24. Following ia a synopsis of the foregoing course: German language and business forms: General exercises in oral and written expression and the most important forms of business letters. Mathematics: Practical arithmetic, including proportion and percentage; funda- mental principles of algebra, including equations of the second degree; elements of geometry, with demonstration of theorems, especially with reference to the theory of triangles, the square, and the circle; application of algebra to geometry and mechanics; application of trigonometry to problems in plane and volumetric meas- urements and in mechanics. Free-hand drawing: Instruction in this subject has for its aim the attainment of a certain degree of skill in the drawing of geometric forms by free hand. Geometrical and projective drawing: Students receive instruction in the principles of geometrical and projective drawing, especially the drawing of practical objects, with especial reference to their future work. Descriptive geometry? The elements of descriptive geometry. Technical trade drawing: Exercises in free-hand sketching and in drawing parts of machines which are treated of in connection with the subject of elements of machinery; drawing of machines from patterns and models, and drawing of machines from specifications with the aid of sketches, models, or patterns. Industrial trade drawing: Drawing of ornamental trellis work and of all kinds of ornamental objects from sketches and patterns. Physics and mechanics: The elements of physics; heat, acoustics, optics, statics, and dynamics. Elements of machinery: Description of the various joints and fastenings used in machinery and the most important technical properties of metals; rivets, screws, wedges, pipes, faucets, valves, slides; shafts, axles, wheels, grooves; friction wheels, cogwheels, driving gear (belting, hemp, cotton, cable) ; gear for uncoupling; winches, 9257—02 30 466 EEPOET OF THE COMMISSIOKEE OF LABOR. wheel and axle, cross bars and guide rods, steam engines, pisixin rods, piston-rod collars, fly wheels, beds for fly wheels, the mounting of motors, gearings and their mounting, pumps, force pumps, rotary pumps, centrifugal pumps, injectors and pulsometers; lifting gear — blocks and pulleys, windlass, reels, elevators, cranes; liousesmith's work; principles of the steam engine, types of steam engines, valve motion, governors, equipment, running and taking care of steam engines. The students of the fourth-year class have practical work during the summer term at the boilers and the working machinery of the Technical Industrial Museum under the supervision and direction of the regular engineers. Special summer course for firemen and steam-engine tenders : Steam and its properties, generating steam, fuel, combustion, stoking, the types of boilers; the embedding of boilers, the principles of boilers, armature, the tending of boilers, defects of boilers and their causes; principlea of the steam engine, types of steam engines, gearing, equipment of the steam engine, the tending and care of steam engines. Mechanical technology of metals: Consideration of the most important metals — cast iron, wrought iron, steel, copper, zinc, tin, lead, aluminum, gold, silver, platinum, and their alloys; tombac, brass, bronze, German silver, britannia metal, with refer- ence to their properties and their action in the various methods of working them. Blacksmithing and cutting tools — hammers, anvils, punches, etc., chisels, turning and planing tools, scrapers, augers, drills, files, rasps, broaches. Tools for di\'iding, tracing, and measuring — rules, compasses, tools for tracing, templets, general and special tools for measuring angles. Blacksmithing — forges and bellows; explana- tion of the various operations of blacksmithing. Smelting, especially iron, and. the furnaces used. Production of models with and without core; patterns. Casting — fui'nace, fire box, patterns, and fast molds. Soldering. The simple turnmg lathe and rose engine, with cross beams; turning tools; tools for making screws and nuts. General chemistry : An elementary course in inorganic and organic chemistry. Chemical technology of metals: Classification of metals, places where they are found, their production; explanation of the chemical ]>rocesses in the production of the most important metals and their compounds. Building construction and architectural drawing : The elements of building con- struction. Workshop: The practical instruction embraces all the operations of the houae- smith's trade and of machine construction work, including metal turning, practice in the use of machine tools; the making of tools for mea-suring and tracing, the casting of simple molds, and pattern making. In the workshop the students work under the immediate direction of experienced master workmen and foremen, and special attention is given to the thorough training of the ■student in the above-named branches as well as to their proper conduct. Special weight is given to exactness, neatness, and precision, the object in view being the acouisition of such skill and rapidity iu the execution of their work as will qualify tien^ to enter upon tlie prac- tice of their trades. The higher trade school for iron and steel work is intended to give graduates of the lower trade school and others having a similar training such further instruction and practice as will fit them to become mana- gers, superintendents, or foremen. The pupils maj- be either regular or special. The course of study for regular pupils covers two years. Candidates for admission must have successfully passed through the grammar schools or schools of like grade {JJ7ite7'gymnasium, Vhte)'- o-ealschule, or Burgerschxde)^ and must be graduates of the lower trade school for iron and steel work ^r a school for electro-technics at the museum or a ."^.milar tr^d^* school, bx they m>'.st give evidence that they TKADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION — AUSTRIA. 467 have learned their trade both titeoretically and practically. Special pupils must be at least 18 years of age and have had a thorough expe- rience as master workmen or journeymen. In order to be graduated, reg-ular pupils must successfully pass examinations in all the obligatoiy branches taught. Upon completing their course pupils receive gradu- ation certificates, which show not only the successful termination of each study, but also the previous experience and special qualifications of the pupils. Special pupils receive certificates of attendance. The following statement shows the subjects taugbt and the hours per week devoted to each: First year: Mathematics, 2; descriptive geometry, 2; mechanics, 2; machine con- struction, 2; trade drawing and diawing of machines, 6; building construction and drawing, 2; chemistry and physics, 2; mechanical technology, 2; chemical technol- ogy, winter term, 2; telegraphs, telephones, and electric clocks, winter term, 2; prac- tical exercises in the workshop, 24. Second year: Mathematics, 2; mechanics, 2; machine construction, 2; trade draw- ing and drawing of machines, 10; building construction and drawing, 2; mechanical technology, 2; magneto-electrical, dynamo-electrical machines, power transmission, gearing, lamps, winter term, 2; batteries and accumulators, electro-technical meas- urements, winter term, 2; technical finishing processes and galvanoplastics, winter term, 2; practical exercises in'the workshop, 24. Following is a synopsis of the foregoing course: Mathematics: The course of the lower trade school in- more expanded form, vi-ith special reference to trigonometry and stereometry, illustrated by numerous examples. Descriptive geometry, including elements of projections and perspective. Mechanics: The course of tlie lower trade school in more expanded form. Machine construction: Wheels, belting, and all kinds of cable work, simple lifting machines, pulleys, cylinders, reels, elevators, cranes; steam-boiler construction; prin- ciples of boilers; capacity, safety valves, feeding apparatus, stoking, heating appa- racus, hydrostatic-pressure tests, furnaces; principles of the steam engine; types of steam engines; principal parts, gearing, etc.; graphic description of simple centrifu- gal regulators; mounting, tending, etc.; pumps — the most important types (piston, rotary, and centrifugal), pulsometers, injectors; equipment of pumps, mounting and tending; hydraulic motors, gas motors, hot-air motors, petroleum motors. Special drawing and drawing of machines: Object drawing illustrative of the lectures on the elements of machinery and technology; practical drawing of details from simple sketches or of entire objects. Building corJBtruction and drawing: Constructions in iron, aa skylights, conserva- tories, staircases, rafters; drawing of simple objects entering into the interior construction of buildings; plain dwelling houses; construction of factories and workshops. Physics: Elements of magnetism and electricity. Chemistry: Qualitative and quantitative determination of metals and metallic ores; alloys and compounds. Mechanical technology of metals: Special metallurgy oiiron; blacksmithing appa- ratus propelled by motors — levers, steam hammers, compressors; rolling and drawing; cutting and boring machines.; shears; grinding and polishing; the principal prop- erties of wood with reference to its adaptability to pattern making. Practical exercises in the workshop: Working in metals by means of hand tools and machinery, mounting, adjusting, forging. Students take part also in instruction in pattern making. 468 EEPOKT OF TEE COMMISSIONEE OF LABOE. The special course for boiler tenders and enginemen is intended to give to j^oung men such a knowledge of boilers and engines, and of the laws governing the same, as is necessary to enable them intelli- gently to tend boilers and stationary steam engines. The courses are given from April 1 to July 31 of each year. Candidates for admission must be at least 17 years of age, and must show that thej^ have had at least two years' shop experience. The matriculation fee is i crowns ($0.81) and the tuition is 2 crowns (10.41) per month. Persons attending the all-day classes at the museum majf attend this course free of charge. Pupils completing this course receive certiiicates. The course of instruction, which is given four hours per week, relates to steam and its properties and attributes, steam generating, the various kinds of fuels used, stoking, different types of boilers and boiler installations, fixtures, boiler tending, boiler defects and their causes, and the laws governing boiler inspection; the principles of the steam engine, types of engines, tending, regulating, and equipment of steam engines. DEPARTMENT OF ELECTEO-TECHNICS. This department comprises a higher and a lower trade school of electro-technics. The lower trade school is intended to give" such a theoretical and practical knowledge as will enable 3'oung men to become electrical workers and fitters and foremen in electrical establishments, light and power plants, etc. The pupils are either regular or special. The school is in session from October 1 to July 31. The matriculation fee is 4 crowns (§0.81). The tuition is 240 crowns ($48.72) per year for regular and for special pupils. Students without means maj- be relieved from the payment of tuition after having attended at least one half-year term. A fee of 60 crowns ($12.18) per year is charged for the use of m^aterials and the wear and tear of tools and apparatus. All books and requisites for the theoretical work must be furnished at the expense of pupils. Copies of models are furnished by the school. The products of the workshop belong to the museum. The course of instruction covers three j^ears. Candidates for admis- sion as regular pupils must be at least 14 years of age, must have a grammar or intermediate school education, must pass an entrance examination, and upon being admitted must take up all the studies mentioned in the programme. Special pupils must be 18 years of age and must have the necessary preparatory education. . In order to advance from one class to another a satisfactory examination must be passed. Each person successfully completing the three-year course receives a graduation certificate, which specifies the length of time of attendance and the qualifications of the graduate. This certificate TBADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION — AUSTRIA. 469 entitles the holder to the independent practice of his trade. Special pupils receive certificates of attendance. The school is in session from 8 a. m. to 12 m. and from 2 to 6 p. m. Occasional visits are made to establishments and electrical plants. The following statement shows the studies and the hours per week devoted to each: Preparatory: German language, 4; geography and history, 3; arithmetic, 4; free- hand drawing, 4; geometric and projective drawing, 8; elements of physics and mechanics, 3; workshop, 18. First year: German language, 4; geography, 3; arithmetic and elementary algebra, 4; geometric and projective drawing, 6; physics, 3; mechanics, 3; elements of machines, 4; special drawing, 2; mechanical technology of metals, 2; workshop, winter term, 12, summer term, 15. Second year: German language, 3; geography and history, 3; mathematics, 4; general chemistry, 2; elements of machines, 3; special drawing, 6; mechanical tech- nology of metals, 3; physics, 4; telegraphy and telephones, 2; workshop, 16. Third year: German language, 2; geography and history, 3; mathematics, 2; special drawing, 6; elements of dynamo machinery, 2; technics of lighting, 2; theory of measurements and instruments with exercises, 8; galvanoplastics, 2; signals, 1; workshop, winter term, 16, summer term, 20. Following is a synopsis of the foregoing course: German language: Practical exercises in the German language, including gram- mar, composition, and rhetoric; reading and analysis of masterpieces selected from German literature. Geography and history: A general course in descriptive, mathematical, and phys- ical geography; ancient, medifeval, and modern history. Mathematics: A complete course in practical arithmetic; elements of algebra, including equations of the second degree; plane geometry and trigonometry, with their application to measurements of surfaces and volume and to problems in mechanics. Free-hand drawing: Instruction in this subject aims at the attainment of a certain degree of skill in the drawing of geometric figures by free hand. Geometric and projective drawing: Students receive instruction in the principles of geometric and projective drawing, with special reference to their future work. Elements of physics and mechanics: Elementary properties of bodies; mechanics of solids, fluids, and gases; elements of acoustics and optics; statics and dynamics. Elemente of machines: Description of the various joints and fastenings and the most important technical properties of metals; rivets, screws, wedges, pipes, faucets, valves, slides, shafts, axles, wheels, grooves; friction wheels, cogwheels, driving gear (belting, hemp, cotton, cable); gear for coupling and uncoupling; all details of the steam engine. Special drawing: Exercises in free-hand sketching and in drawing parts of machines which are treated of in connection with the subject of elements of machinery and electro-technics; drawing of machines from patterns and models, and from specifica- tions with the aid of sketches, models, or patterns. Mechanical technology of metals: Consideration of the most important metals — cast iron, wrought iron, steel, copper, zinc, tin, lead, aluminum, gold, silver, plati- num, and their alloys; tombac, brass, bronze, German silver, britannia metal, with reference to their properties and their action in the various methods of working in them. Blacksmith tools and cutting tools — hammers, anvils, punches, etc., chisels, turning and planing tools, scrapers, augers, drills, files, rasps, broaches. Tools for dividing, tracing, and measuring— rules, compasses, tools for tracing, templets, gen- eral and special tools for measuring angles. Blacksmithing — forges and bellows; 470 EEPOBT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. explanation of the various operations of blacksmithing. Smelting, especially iron, and the furnaces used. Production of models with and without core; patterns. Casting— furnace, fire box, patterns, and fast molds. Soldering. The simple turn- ing lathe and rose engine, with crossbeams; turning tools; tools for making screws and nuts. General chemistry: Elements of inorganic and organic chemistry. Physics: Magnetism, magnets, magnetic force, poles, magnetic axis, attraction and repulsion, magnetic influence, magnetizing, temporary and permanent magnets, ter- restrial magnetism, declination, inclination, horizontal components and their deter- mination, magnetometer; electricity — frictional electricity, transmission of electricity, positive and negative electricity, electroscope, electrical influence, theory of elec- tricity, laws of electric action, density, tension, eleotrophorus, electrical machine, induction, condensers, effects of frictional electricity, velocity of electricity, atmos- pheric electricity; galvanic electricity; fundamental test, tension, force, capacity, Volta's theory, the galvanic current, electrolysis, polarization, galvanic elements, accumulators, effects of a current, galvanometers. Ohm's law, deduction, absolute and practical unit, currents, electro-magnetism, effect of magnets upon currents, induction (magnetic, voltaic) batteries; thermo-electricity; the principal elements. Telegraphy and telephones: Construction of plants; general discussion of the ma- terials used in construction; protective appliances for telegraphs and telephones against storms. Electro-magnetic transmission — the Morse system, with its main and accessory apparatus, polarized apparatus, relays, systems of duplex teleg- raphy; apparatus for submarine lines; Hughes's telegraphic printing system; the automatic systems; authographio telegraphs; house, market, and fire-alarm tele- graphs; telephone and microphone systems, methods of disposition, equipment of central stations; interurban telephones; telegraphic clock regulators. Dynamos, transformers, power plants: Direct-current machines, armature, mag- netic field, reaction of currents, theory of electro-magnetic engines, theory of series dynamos, characteristics, currents; theory of compound inachines; field magnets, description of special types; alternating-current machines, generating alternating currents, motors; transformers; transformation of direct and alternating currents, elementary theory, discussion of special tj'pes. Technics of lighting: Surface and underground transmissions; branches and con- nections; construction, insulation; computing and testing transmissions; electric lamps, arc and incandescent; conduits. Theory of measurements and instruments, with practical exercises: General and special obser%'ations, carriage, mirror readings; segment and tangent needles; gal- vanometer; electro-dynamometer, voltameter, electrometer, calorimeter, rheostat; methods and apparatus for measuring resistance, efRciency, temperature coefficient; methods and apparatus for measuring the current and determining eletromotor force; photometer (method of measuring, the necessary instruments). The object of the practical work is to familiarize the student thoroughly with the practical use of the instruments. He is required to perform the work and measurements in whicli he has received theoretical instruction, in order to give him that degree of skill and reliance which he needs in his future work. The practical exercises, tlierefore, embrace work which has reference to the measurement of resistance, efficiency, capacity, force of currents, and tension, to measurements of incandescent and arc lamps, and to dynamos. Signal systems and lightning rods: Signal and control apparatus for special pur- poses, with special reference to railways; consideration of lightning rods, their con- struction; other appliances for protection against lightning; test of lightning conductors. Galvanoplastics: The plating of metals and their alloys; preliminary and finisli- ing operations; the most common methods of plating metals; processes of refining. TBADE AND TECHNICAL EDTJOATION — AUSTRIA. 471 The higher trade school of electro-technics is intended to give such skill and technical knowledge as will fit persons for all branches of practical electrical work and at the same time give such a higher tech- nical training as will enable them to occupy important positions in electrical establishments. The pupils are either regular or special. The school opens October 1 and closes July 31. The matriculation fee is 4 crowns ($0.81), and the tuition is 240 crowns ($48.72) per year for both regular and special pupils. In the case of pupils without means the tuition may be remitted. A fee of 10 crowns ($2.03) is charged for laboratory work. The pupils must pay for all books and materials used in the theoretical work. The products of the shops belong to the museum. The regular course of instruction covers two years. Candidates for admission must be graduates of the lower tirade school of electro- technics or must have passed through at least six grades in an inter- mediate school, or if they are graduates of a lower intermediate school, they must have passed through two grades of a higher State industrial school. Special pupils must be at least 18 years of age. Examinations in all branches must be successfully passed in order to advance from one grade to another. Pupils receive certificates setting forth the successful completion of each of the studies and the previ- ous experience and special qualifications. The final examinations are regulated by the ministry of education. The school is in session from 8 a. m. to 12 m. and from 2 to 6 p. m. Occasional visits are made to establishments and electric plants. The following statement shows the branches taught and the hours per week devoted to each: First year: German language, 2; geography and history, 2; elements of higher mathematics, 2; physics, 4; elements of machinery, 2; electro- technics, 3; general chemistry, winter term, 3; summer term, 2; special drawing, 8; workshop and lab- oratory, winter term, 22; summer term, 21. Second year: German language, 1; geographyand history, winter term, 2; summer term, 1; mathematics, winter term, 3; summer term, 2; electro-technics, 3; chemis- try, 2; special drawing, 8; elements of machinery, 1; workshop and laboratory, 24. Following is a synopsis of the foregoing course : German language: Selections from German literature, with exercises based upon these selections. Geography and history: Modem history and geography of Europe, with special reference to lines of transportation. Mathematics: Elements of higher mathematics, including logarithms, binomial formulae, analytical geometry, differential and integral calculus. Physics: Review of the most important sections of mechanics, v.ith special refer- ence to statics, theory of heat, especially mechanical heat; optics; exhaustive treat- ment of magnetism and electricity. Elements of machinery: Estimates of plants; encyclopedic treatment of lifting gear and pumps; steam boilers; steam engines. Electro- technics: Multi-polar .direct-current generators, measurements; direct- current motors; power transmission; insulating measurements for cables; determining errors; theory of alternating currents. 472 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. General chemistry: The elements of inorganic chemistry. Special drawing: Exercises in drawing and sketching various apparatus and instruments. COURSES FOR MASTER WORKMEN. These courses are open only to master workmen and to journeymen who have already acquired a certain degree of skill in their respective trades. Model workshops, with corresponding courses, were open during the school year 1899-1900 for shoemakers, joiners, tailors, housesmiths, and carpenters. To be admitted to these courses, appli- cants must have attained the age of 24 years and must not be over 4-6 years old. They must present satisfactory recommendations and must have satisfied all military requirements. In selecting apj)licants to these courses preference is given in the first place to masters and in the second place to journeymen who intend shortly to practice their trade as masters, or who are members of a trade association or similar organization or can produce evidence that they will shortly become members of such an organization. The hours of instruction are from 8 a. m. to 12 m. and from 2 to 7 p. m. The entrance fee to all courses is uniformly 4 crowns ($0.81), pay- able in advance. The number of persons attending these courses is limited to 18 in the course for shoemakers; to 15 in the courses for joiners, tailors, and carpenters; and to 12 in the course for housesmiths. Following are the courses in detail: Course for shoemaliers: There are from 4 to 6 of these courses a year, each course continuing six weeks. The following subjects are taught: Taking measurements, trade drawing, cutting, hand work on uppers and bottoms; the use of the most important modern machines employed in shoemaking; industrial bookkeeping and computations; elements of law. Tuition is 50 crov/ns ($10.15), payable in advance. Persons without means may, upon proper application, have their tuition remitted and may receive pecuniary assistance. For residents of Vienna the pecuniary assistance for masters amounts to 120 crowns ($24.36), and for journej'men 100 crowns ($20.30); for nonresidents it amounts to 180 crowns ($36.54) for masters and 140 crowns ($28.42) for journeymen, with reimbursement of their railroad fare for third-class passage. Persons who thus receive pecuniary assistance are exempt from the pay- ment of tuition, but in no case is there an exemption from the payment of the entrance fee. Course for joiners: There are several of these courses each year, each course con- tinuing eight weeks. Systematic instruction is given in the following subjects: Trade drawing (windows, doors, portals, etc.); shopwork; the making of windows, doors, etc., from detail drawings in natural size, by means of modern tools and especially modern machinery; estimates; technology of auxiliary articles, as clasps, etc.; tools and woodworking machines; industrial bookkeeping and computations; elements of law. The tuition for this course is 80 crowns ($16.24). Persons without means may, upon proper application, as in the case of the course for shoemakers, have their tuition remitted and may receive pecuniary assistance. For residents of Vienna the pecuniary assistance for masters amounts to 160 crowns ($32.48) and for journeymen 140 crowns ($28.42). For nonresidents it amounts to 240 crowns ($48.72) for TEADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION — ATJSTEIA. 473 masters and 190 crowns ($38.57) for journeymen, with reimbursement of tlieir rail- road fare for third-class passage. Persons who thus receive pecuniary assistance are exempt from the payment of tuition. Course for tailors: There are from 4 to 6 of these courses eacli year, each course continuing six weeks. Systematic iaistruction is given in the following subjects: Taking measurements; trade drawing; designing patterns; cutting; the making of model pieces; industrial bookkeeping and computation; elements of law. The con- ditions as to tuition, pecuniary assistance, etc., prevailing in the course for shoe- makers are also applicable to this course. Course for housesmiths: There are several of these courses each year, each course continuing eight weeks. Systematic instruction is given in the following subjects: Special drawing of the most important articles pertaining to the housesmith's trade, as locks, clasps, etc.; lectures on trade drawing; shop work; instruction in the mak- ing of various articles pertaining to this trade, with special reference to the treatment of various metals, selection of tools, use of the most important machine tools, etc. ; technolog5' — the most important materials, their properties and their manufacture; housesmith's tools and metal- working machines, machines and motors; description of the construction and the use of small motors, repair of locomobiles and agricultural machines; industrial hygiene and prevention of accidents; industrial bookkeeping; practical arithmetic; elements of law. The same conditions as to tuition, pecuniary assistance, etc., which prevail in the course for joiners are also applicable to this course. Course for carpenters: This course is intended to educate a class of competent fore- men, and, owing to its more extensive subject-matter as compared with the other courses for master workmen, its duration has been extended to twelve weeks. The course of instruction embraces geometrical drawing, roofing, building construction, technology, practical arithmetic, practical work in carpentry, elements of law. Tui- tion in this course is free. The stipends for those who are residents of Vienna are uniformly 200 crowns ($40.60), and for nonresidents 240 crowns ($48.72). SPECIAL EVENING AND SUNDAY COURSES. These courses are intended for men who are engaged in practical work, and they are so arranged as to offer the greatest scope of instruction possible in order to suit the special needs of each individ- ual. The courses are open from the beginning of October until the end of March. Applicants for admission must have attained the age of 17 years. The entrance fee is i crowns (^0.81), paj'able in advance. Tuition for the term is 12 crowns ($2.44), which in certain cases may be paid in installments. There is no exemption from the payment of these fees. Each person has the choice of the lectures and exercises, but no change from one course to another is permitted after the open- ing of the lectures. Certificates covering the subjects pursued are issued only to those who apply for them at the beginning of the term, who are regular in their attendance, and who pass the required exam- ination at the close of the lectures or exercises. The following is a synopsis of the various subjects of instruction: DRAWING. 1. Geometrical and projective drawing, two hours per week. Elementary exerc ises in geometrical and projective drawing, shadows, and network. 474 EEPOET OF THE COMMISSIOKEB OF LABOE. 2. Trade drawing for joiners, four hours per week. Drawing from copies on various scales; remodeling from copies; detail drawing from copies and sketches. 3. Technical drawing for housesmiths and machinists, four hours per week. Exer- cises, in drawing from copies wdth due regard to the prsTious knowledge of the student. 4. Industrial drawing for housesmiths and other metal workers, two hours per week. Exercises in drawing and sketching of various articles produced in the metal trades. TECHNOLOGICAL LECTURES. 1. Location, production, and technical properties of wood, two hours per week. The location of the most important kinds of timber in Austria; examination of the quality and properties of standing timber for certain purposes; cutting, transportation, and proper treatment of wood; examination of wood with reference to its technical and industrial properties. 2. Structure of the most important kinds of timljer, two hours per week. The cel- lular structure of timber; the arrangement of cells; the concentric layers; difference between the older and newer concentric layers; characteristics of the most important kinds of timber. 3. Chemical technology of timber, two hours per week. Examination of the struc- ture of timber from a chemical point of view; phenomena of a chemical nature in timber and effect of chemical processes upon the same; impregnation; preservation; products obtained from timber by chemical processes. 4. Technical finishing processes of wood with practical exercise,-?, four hours per week. Dressing, staining, polishing, varnishing, japanning, gilding, etc. ; examina- tion of the various auxiliaries; preparation and properties of .glue, etc. 5. Chemistry of food, two hours per week. Meat, meat products, preserved meat, milk, butter, cheese, honey, flour, table oil, coffee, substitutfiS for coffee, wine, beer, brandy, and other spirituous liquors, water. 6. Technology of bleaching material, two hours per w'eek. Chlorine, biuoxide, manganate of potash, sulphuric acid, sulphite of soda, hydrosulphurous acid, hydro- sulphite of soda, properties of these and other bleaching materials. 7. Motors and machine tools, two hours per week. Historical, theory of the steam engine, gearing of steam engines, machine tools for metal working, turning lathes, planing and shaping machines, boring machines, grinding machines, mortising machines, friezing tools and presses. 8. Chemical technology of metals, two hours per week. Location, chemical proper- ties, special characteristics of metals; production of metals; influence of impurities; influence of carbon in iron; precious and base metals; their oxides; compounds. 9. Technical finishing processes of metals with practical exercises, two hours per week. The plating of metals and their alloys; the most common methods of plating metals; finishing processes; grinding, scouring, staining, calcining, etc. 10. Industrial hygiene and prevention of accidents, two liours per week. The proper arrangement of workshops, protective measures against accidents in factories, etc. ELECTRO-TECHNICS. 1. Elements of electricity and magnetism, two hours per week. Magnetism; fric- tional, galvanic, and thermo electricity. 2. Telegraphs, telephones, and electric clocks, two hours per week. The open current, the Morse system, the closed current, submarine telegraphy, dial telegraph, telephones, microphones, electric clocks. 3. Electrical machines and transformers, two hours per week. Induction, direct current machines, alternating current machines, trauHformei-s. TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION — ATJSTEIA. 475 4. Transmission of power, lamps, plants, two hours per week. Theory of trans- mission of power, the different systems, construction of arc lamps, incandescent lamps, construction and estimates of plants. 5. Batteries and accumulators, electrical measurements, two hours per week. Units of measure, galvanic and thermo elements; accumulators; the most important sys- tems; measuring instruments; methods of measuring resistance, current, and tension; photcimetry; practical exercises on Sunday mornings for a limited number of stu- dents on the determination of resistance, the force of currents, tension, mtensity of light, etc. OTHEE SUBJECTS. 1. Mathematics, six hours per week. Practical arithmetic, including square and cube roots, elementary algebra, and plane geometry. 2. Bookkeeping and correspondence, two hours per week. Single-entry book- keeping and industrial correspondence, including the principal legal forms, as con- tracts, documents, etc. 3. Chemistry of the perfumery industry, one hour per week. Chemistry of per- fumes, description of natural and artificial perfumes, methods of producing artificial perfumes, technology. 4. Stenography, two hours per week. A course in stenography with exercises in reading and writing stenographic correspondence. Tuition for this course is 6 crowns (11.22). SCHOOLS FOR IMPORTANT GROUPS OF TRADES. These institutions are usually known as "industrial schools" {Gewer- 'bescliulen). Of the twenty schools enumerated in the introduction the State schools at Reichenberg and Innspruck have been selected for detailed description, because in the scope of their work and character of their organization they are fairly representative of the entire class. STATE IHDUSTBIAL SCHOOL AT KEICHENBBKG. This school (/&. Ti. -Staats-Gewerheschide), which comes within the class of schools for important groups of trades, was founded in 1875. Its object is to train persons for important positions in industi'ial establishments and for handicraft trades, in accordance with the needs of modern industry. The aim of the school is, among other things, to advance domestic industry to a position of independence of foreign markets. The institution consists of two divisions, a higher industrial school {hohere Oewerbeschule) and a school for foremen ( Werkmeister- schule}. The former includes a department for the building trades, a department for the mechanical trades, and a department for the chemical industries. The school for foremen comprises a department for the building trades and one for mechanical industries. An mdus- trial continuation school is also conducted in connection with this institution. The higher industrial school aims to give, by. means of systematic instruction, all the necessary technical knowledge required in the practical operation of factories or handicraft trades, and at the same "476 EEPOKT OF THE COMMISSIONEE OF LABOE. time to give a certain degree of general education whereby persons may become competent to carry on higher technical trades or to occupy important positions in manufacturing establishments. Thus, the depart- ment for building trades is intended to educate architects, building contractors, and foremen of stonecutters, carpenters, etc. The mechan- ical-technical department is intended for future manufacturers, super- intendents of factories, and technical experts in machinery construction work, metal working, wood working, electro-technics, spinning and weaving mills, etc. The chemical-technical department is intended for manufacturers, superintendents, and technical experts in the various chemical industries, such as dyeing, textile printing, bleaching, sugai refining, distilling, brewing, glass and pottery works, chemical works, etc. For students desiring to devote themselves to the textile indus- tries a special course in the theory and practice of weaving is pro- vided. There is a special laboratory for students taking the course in electro-technics, and a mechanical workshop for those taking the mechanical-technical course. Graduates may continue to work in these shops in order to devote themselves exclusively to practical work for one or two half-year terms. For the chemical branches of the textile industry there is a dyeing school and a laboratory. The course of study in each department covers four years. Candi- dates for admission must be at least 14 years of age, must be graduates of three-grade grammar schools {dreiclassige Burgerschulen) or of insti- tutions of a similar rank and must pass an entrance examination in arithmetic, geometry, and natural philosophy. The final examinations prior to graduating cover the whole course of the school. The school term begins September 16, each year. The tuition is 8 florins ($3.25) per half-year term. The regular students in the chemical-technical department pay, in addition, 15 florins ($6.09), and the special students 25 florins (110.15), per half-year term for the use of the laboratory. Persons without means may be granted free scholarships. Following is the programme of the subjects taught in the higher industrial school and the hours per week devoted to each: MECHANICAL-TECHNICAL DEPARTMENT. First year: German language, 5; geography, 3; algebra, 5; geometry, 4; geomet- rical drawing, 4; physics, 4; chemistry, 3; free-hand drawing, 6. Second year: German language, 3; geography and history, 3; mathematics, first term, 10; second tei-m, 6; descriptive geometry, first term, 9; second term, 7; physics, 4; chemistry, 4; mechanics, second term, 4; free-hand drawing, first term, 6; second term, 4; machine drawing, second terra, 4. Third year: German language, 3; geography and history, 3; mathematics, first term, 6; second term, 2; mechanics, first term, 4; second term, 7; machine construction, 16; general mechanical technology, 6; chemical technology, 2; mensuration, second term, 2. Fourth year: German language, 2; geography and history, 3; theoretical and applied ^ mechanics, first term, 8; second term, 7; machine construction, first term, 7; second TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION — AU8TEIA. 477 term 8; machine drawing, 13; elements of machinery, first term, 4; general mechan- ical technology, second term, 4; elements of architecture and architectural drawing, 2; special mechanical technology, 4. Following is a synopsis of the foregoing course: The course in drawing embraces exercises in free-hand drawing and sketching parts of machines and entire simple machines, perspective drawing of machine models, and machine drawing with lectures on the elements of machines and their construction. Machine construction: Elements of machines, construction of pul.eys, windlasses, cranes, presses, pumps, water wheels, turbine wheels, steam boilers, steam, caloric, and gas engines, steam-engine gearing. Electro-technics — dynamos, measuring instru- ments, lamps, and plants; measurements of currents, resistance and tension, with practical illustrations; simultaneous measurements of electrical power of dynamos and of electric lamps. General mechanical technology: Technology of metals and of wood with special reference to their use in machinery; drawing and sketching of tools, machinerj^, and factory equipments; principles of spinning, weaving, finishing, and paper making. Chemical technology: Technology of fuel, water, lighting; scouring, bleaching, dye- ing, and printing; distilling, brewing, and sugar refining. Mensuration: Arrangement and use of the most important measuring and leveling instruments. Theoretical and applied mechanics: Mechanics of power-transmitting machines and motors, hydraulics, theory of water motors, of pumps and ventilators; theory of mechanical heat with reference to steam and gas; theory of steam and caloric engines; electro-mechanics based upon experimental physics with special reference to electric lighting and transmission of power. Machine drawing: Drawing of connected parts of machines, reproduction of machines, drawing of machines from sketches or from simple designs. Elements of machines: Machines, their construction, efficiency, required power, and their work, their arrangement and proper gearing. Elements of architecture and architectural drawing: Elements of building construc- tion with special reference to the wants of the students. Special mechanical technology (for students who intend to take up the textile or paper industry) : Spinning and weaving with special reference to the construction of the machines pertaining thereto; finishing machines; paper making; drawing and sketching from samples and reproduction of working machines pertaining to the textile industry. BUILDING-TEADES DEPARTMENT. First year: Indentical with the first year of the mechanical-technical department. Second year: German language, 3; history and geography, 3; mathematics, first term, 10; second term, 6; descriptive geometry, first term, 9; second term, 7; physics, 4; chemistry, 4; elements of architecture, second term, 6; free-hand drawing, 6. Third year: German language, 3; history and geography, 3; building construction, 15; architectural mechanics, 4; architectural styles, 6; chemical technology, 2; free- hand drawing, 6. Fourth year: German language, 2; history and geography, 3; building construc- tion, first term, 24; second term, 20; architectural styles, 2; architectural mechanics, 2; mensuration, second term, 4; free-hand drawing, 6. Optional — stonecutting, second term, 3. Following is a synopsis of the foregoing course: Free-hand drawing: This course embraces exercises in free-hand drawing from plastic models, especially the ornamental styles used in the various architectural branches; designing, with special reference to architectural ornaments and decora- tions; exercises in pen drawing. 478 KEPOET OF THE COMMISSIONEE OP LABOE. Building construction: Consideration of the various building materials; excavation, foundation, masonry work, carpenter's work, housesmith's work, painting, paper- hanging, etc. ; heating and ventilation; water, telephone, and gaa connections; closets and sinks; the different types of the most common buildings in city and country; remarks on location, size, and connection of rooms; building hygiene and protective measures; estimates and building contracts; building regulations; exercises in draw- ing plans for agricultural and industrial buildings and dwelling houses. Architectural mechanics: Composition and resolution of forces; gravity; stability; their application to architecture; principles of mechanics; theory of lifting machines, etc. Architectural styles: The various orders, attic, doric, etc.; moldings and casings in general; base moldings, breast moldings, etc. ; profiles of door and window casings; arrangement of facades; the various styles of architecture with reference to orna- mental and constructive details; the oriental style; systems of Greek and Eoman architecture and their most important monuments; Byzantine and Mohammedan style; Komanesque and Gothic architecture; studies in Italian renaissance and that of other countries; architecture of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Chemical technology: Technology of fuel, water, glass, clay; principles of distill- ing, brewing, and sugar refining. CHEMICAL-TECHNICAL DEPAKTMENT. First year: Identical with the first year of the mechanical-technical department. Second year: German language, 3; history and geography, 3; mathematics, first term, C; second term, 4; descriptive geometry, 3; physics, 4; chemistry, first term, 8; chemical laboratory work, second term, 6; mechanics, second term, 4; mineralogy and geognosy, 3; free-hand drawing, first term, 6; second term, 4. Third year: German language, 3; history and geography, 3; general chemistry, 4; technical chemistry and chemical technology, first term, 3; second term, 5; chemical laboratory work, 20; mechanics, 2; elements of machinery, 3. Fourth year: German language, 2; history and geography, 3; technical cliemistry and chemical technology, 6; chemical laboratory work, 22; elements of machinery, 3; mechanical technology* 3; building construction and dra\i'ing, 2. Following is a s)'nopsis of the foregoing course: Chemical laboratory work: Setting up of simple apparatus; practice m chemical operations; simple analysis by dry methods; reactions; simple analysis by wet methods; lectures on analytical chemistry with practice in qualitative analysis; preparation of chemicals; exercises in quantitative determinations, with special reference to the technical-analytical work of the student in his specialty. Mechanics: Com.position and resolution of forces; gravity, friction, and resistance; simple machines; stability; the essentials of physics with reference to the needs of the chemist; geodynamics; equilibrium and motion of fluids and gases with special reference to technical chemistry. Mineralogy and geognosy: Studies of the most important minerals, their crystallo- graphic, physical, and chemical properties; elements of geognosy. Free-hand drawing: Exercises La reproducing and sketching part.s of machines, chemical apparatus, and of machines from models and drawings; exercises in colors. Technical chemistry and chemical technology: Examination and filtration of water; manufacture of various chemical products, metalloids, acids, salts, combusti- bles, and gunpowder; technology of lime, gypsum, and cement; manufacture of glass and earthenware, etc.; fuel and lieating; lighting and hghting material; organic dye- stuffs, dyeing, printing, and bleaching; industries connected with agriculture; fat and soap industry; tanning; excursions to factories and workshops for purposes of oba'ei-vation. TRADE AWD TECHNICAL EDUCATION ATJSTBIA. 479 Elements of machinery; Description and construction of the most important parts of machines, calculating machines, and measuring instruments; the use of motors; measurement of water power; description and explanation of vertical and horizontal v;ater wheels, pumps; ventilators, presses; application of steam power, production of steam; description and explanation of steam engines; electric lighting.' Mechanical technology: Technology of metals and of wood; spinning, weaving, and paper making. Building construction and drawing: Elements of architecture \vith reference to the future work of the student. Optional studies: Modeling in clay, work in gypsum, wood, and stone, three hours; bookkeeping and business correspondence, two hours; fire department, its organiza- tion and service, two hours; relief measures in cases of accidents, ten hours; laws and regulations governing trade and commerce, two hours. SPECIAL COURSE IN THEORETICAL AND PRACTICAL WEAVING. [Arranged for students who intend to devote themselves to the textile industry.] Theory of weaving: The three classes of fabric formations; weaving of cotton', worsted, and woolen fabrics; formation of the outer and inner weave; calculations for the heddles; separation of simple cotton, wool, and mixed fabrics; double weaving; fancy goods; calculations for yarn. Handloom wea"^'ing: Work on Jacquard looms; tying up; counting and punching cards. Theory of mechanical weavmg: Principles of power looms; formation of fabrics; mechanism of looms. Instruction in this subject is in connection with the subject on special mechanical technology. Practice in mechanical weaving: Weaving on various power looms; mounting the same and taking them apart; putting together of cards according to the class of fabrics. The school for foremen is intended to give to persons already engaged in the building trades, or in some branch of practical mechan- ical work, an opportunity to obtain, in the shortest possible time, such skill and theoretical knowledge as is of greatest value to a master workman or foreman in an industrial establishment. The school com- prises two divisions : A building trades department for master masons, builders, architectural draftsmen, carpenters, stonecutters, joiners, tinsmiths, roofers, plasterers, etc. ; and a department for mechanical trades, such as machinists, locksmiths, machine bviilders, instrument makers, blacksmiths, boiler makers, coppersmiths, millwrights, over- seers in weaving mills, master spinners, sizers, etc. This school is especially suited for young men who wish to succeed their fathers in the management of their own mechanical establishments, such .as machinery construction, locksmithing, weaving, spinning, sizing, etc., or the building trades. Each division consists of four half-year courses, which in the building trades department are given only during the winter term and thus extend over a period of four years. This enables the students of the latter department to practice their trade during the building season of each year. 480 KEPOBX OF IHE COMMISSTOWEB OF LABOR. Candidates for admission must have completed their common- school education and must show that they have practiced their trade at least two years. Persons who have not completed the second grade of a grammar school {Burger schule) must attend a two years' course in an industrial continuation school before being admitted. The school term begins September 16 in the department for mechan- ical trades and October 16 in the department for the building trades. The tuition is 6 florins (|2.44) per half-year term. A fee of 10 florins (f4.06) per half-year term is charged for the use of the workshop. Pupils without means may receive free scholarships. Graduates of the building-trades department are given an oppor- tunity to enter the State railway service of Austria as minor officials. Upon entering the railway service they receive a salary of 1.26 florins ($0.51) per day each and the uniform of assistant road overseer {Aushilfs-Bahnmeister). After a period of probation advancement is made to the position of road overseer {BaJimneiater)^ with a yearly salary of 600 florins ($203) and free residence. Following is a programme of the subjects taught and the hours per week devoted to each: BUILDING-TRADES DEPARTMENT. First term: German language, 4; geography, 1; arithmetit;, 6; geometry, 5; pro- jections, 8; physics, 4; free-hand drawing, 8; building construction, 4. Second term: German language, 3; business correspondence, 1; geometry, 4; pro- jections, 8; physics, 2; building construction, 13; architectural styles, 2; free-hand drawing, 8. Third term: German language, 2; business correspondence and bookkeeping, 2; mensuration, 2; algebra, 4; building construction, 15; architectural styles, 6; free- hand drawing, 8. Optional: Modeling in clay, work in gypsum, wood, and stone, 3; fire extinguishing, 2. Fourth term: Mechanics, 4; building, construction, 4; designing, 21; free-hand drawing, 10. Optional: Stonecutting, 8; fire department, its organization and service, 2; relief measures in cases of accident, 10. Following is a synopsis of the foregoing course: The course in free-hand drawing embraces exercises from plain designs tothe rep- resentation of plastic ornaments, exercises in coloring surface ornamentation, draw- ing from models, especially those relating to architecture, exercises in sketching, working drawings for builders from models, drawings of fagade details in natural size, by the use of samples and models. Building construction: Stone and frame work, vaults, staircases, ceilings, floors, plflstering, roofs and roofing, building materials, carpenter work, house and locksmith work, glazier work, painting, heating and ventilation, closets and sinks, wells, foun- dation, iron construction, plans for urban and rural buildings, estimates, building regu- lations, building hygiene and protective measures. Architectural styles: Profiles of casings, their representation on a large scale, the various orders, with special reference to the Roman style, arrangement of casings, windows, and doors. Mensuration: The most important measuring and leveling instruments, practical exercises In laying out and platting building lots and buildings. Designing of rural and urban buildings from various plans. TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION — AUSTKIA. 481 MEOHANICAL-TEADES DEPARTMENT. First term: German language, 4; geography, 1; arithmetic, 6; geometry, 5; pro- jections, 8; free-hand drawing, 8; physics, 4; mechanical technology, 4. Second term: German language, 3; business correspondence, 1; algebra, 4; geome- try, 4; physics, 4; elements of machinery, 5; free-hand drawing, 6; projections, 7;, machine drawing, 6. Third term: German language, 2; business correspondence and bookkeeping, 2- mathematics, 4; physics, 4; mechanics, 6; elements of machinery, 3; machine draw- ing, 14; mechanical technology, 4; special mechanical technology, 4. Fourth term: Mechanics, 8; elements of machinery, 7; machine drawing, 16; build- ing construction, 2; special mechanical technology, 4. Following is a synopsis of the foregoing course: Elements of machinery: Cranes and elevators; pumps and ventilators; stoking, boilers, steam engines, and how to tend them; water motors; motors for small estab- lishments; thorough knowledge of the construction and the relative speed of machine tools, their power and their efficiency; dynamos, apparatus for electrical, measurements, lamps, and electric plants. Also special lectures on the construction- of mills, breweries, distillerie?, waterworks, etc., according to the special needs of the students. Mechanical drawing: Drawing of the different parts of machines from samples and. models, and from rules; reproduction of entire machines. Mechanical technology: Principles of spinning, weaving, finishing, paper making. Special mechanical technology (for students who intend to take up the textile- industry) : Spinning and weaving with reference to the construction of the machines, pertaining thereto; finishing machines; paper making; drawing and sketching from. samples and reproduction of working machines pertaining to the textile industry. Building construction: Building materials, foundations, building regulations, plat- , ting, and leveling. Optional studies: Practical exercises in the mechanical workshop; fire-extinguishing: department, its organization and service; relief measures in case of accidents. The continuation school offers opportunities for handicraftsmen of all trades to extend their technical training in the evenings and on Sunday mornings. Special attention is given to instruction in draw- ing and modeling, which is gradually specialized for the particular trade followed by the student. The instruction given at the school, comprises geometry, geometrical drawing, and the study of projec- tions, seven hours per week; drawing for the building trades, sevent hours; drawing for the metal trades, seven hours; free-hand and_ industrial art drawing, seven hours; modeling, four hours. Instruc- tion is given on three week days from 6.30 to 8.30 p. m. and on Sundays- from 6 a. m. to 12 m. In addition to these, special courses are given in bookkeeping and accounting, two hours per week; estimating cost, of production of joinery work, two hours per week, for journeymen;, architectural styles, two hours per week, for joiners, stonecutters, etc. ; . mechanics, two hours per week, for machinists, turners, instrument makers, etc. , and a course for boiler and engine tenders, two hours . per week. Each course lasts seven months — from October 1 to May 1. At the close of each course pupils receive certificates of scholarship,, attendance, and deportment. The tuition is 2 florins (f 0. 81) per course. 9257—02 31 482 EEPOKT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOE. The attendance of the day courses at the Eeiehenberg industrial school was as follows at the beginning of the school term 1898-99: Higher industrial school: First year, 90; second year, 77; third year, 78; fourth year, 75; total, 320. Of these, 90 were in the pre- paratory class, 57 in the department for the building trades, 98 in the mechanical-technical department, and 76 in the chemical-technical department. School for foremen: Building trades department — first year, 48; second j'ear, 40; third year, 38; fourth j'^ear, 39; total, 165. Mechan- ical trades department — 68 pupils, of whom 62 took the mechanical and 6 the chemical trade course. At the close of the school term 1897-98 there were 72 graduates from the higher industrial school, 30 from the building trades depart- ment and 29 from the mechanical trades department of the school for foremien. The following table shows the number and occupations of persons attending the regular courses of the industrial continuation classes attached to the school at the beginning of the school term 1898-99: NUMBER AND OCCUPATIONS OF PERSONS ATTENDING THE CONTINUATION CLASSES OP THE STATE INDUSTRIAL SCHOOL AT REICHEWBI5EG, 1898-99. Attendance. Occupations. Attendance. Occupations. Masters and jour- ney- men. Ap- pren- tices. Masters and jour- ney- men. Ap- pren- tices. Locksmiths 2 5 9 19 1 2" 1 1 1 1 33 2 4 1 1 6 Bookbinders \ Slate; roofers Dyers. . 2 4 2 6 &toneciitters Wood carvers - J Carpenters Tailors , 1 Finiahers Lithographers 9 Electricians . /. 1 Cabinetmakers 10 I 12 Brass workers 1 2 1 Machinists Ornamental and decorative painters 4 2 Spinners 1 Total 52 Sculptors 9 STATE lUBUSTBIAL SCHOOL AT INUSPSXJOK. This institution (/i'. 7i: Staats-Geirerleschule) comes within the same class as the preceding, except that it does not include a higher indus- trial school, but is only a school for foremen. It comprises a depart- ment for the building trades and one for industrial art. The department for the building trades includes: (1) A school for builders, with two full-year and three half-year winter terms, intended for draftsmen, master builders, etc. ; (2) a school for carpenters, with two full-year and one half-year winter terms; (3) a school for stone- cutters, with two full-year and one half-year winter terms; (4) a school TEADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION AUSTRIA. 483 lor joiners, with a four years' course, including practical training in workshops; (5) a school for lock, house, and tin smiths, with a two years' course. The department for industrial art comprises: (1) A trade school for the woodworking industry, with a four years' course, including a workshop for cabin etmaking, turning, inlaid work, and wood carving; (2) a trade school for metal v/ork, with a four years' course, including a workshop for brass and bi'onze work, gold and silver smithing, engrav- ing, chasing, electroplating, and fancy wrought-irdn work; (3) a trade school for painting and decorating, with a two and one-half years' course, intended for decorators, glass stainers, sign painters, majolica decorators, lithographers, xylographers, retouchers, mosaic workers, etc. In addition to these, there are four special courses given at this institution, namely: (1) A course for makers of instruments of preci- sion; (2) a drawing course for girls; (3) an industrial continuation school; (i) an open drawing hall for men, where instruction is given on Sunday mornings. Candidates for admission to the first-year classes must have com- pleted their regular common-school education. Those taking the industrial continuation course must, in addition, be actually serving as apprentices or journeymen. The drawing hall is open only to masters and journeymen. The matriculation fee is 1 gulden (|0.41) and the tuition is 3 gulden ($1.22) per half-year term in the building trades and industrial art departments, 2 gulden ($0.81) in the special course for makers of instruments of precision and the drawing course for gii'ls, and 1 gulden (fO.il) in the industrial continuation school, no matriculation fee being charged in the latter. No tuition is charged for attendance at the open drawing hall. Free scholarships are granted to persons of small means. Following is a programme of the branches taught at this institu- tion and the hours per week devoted to each: BUILDING-TRADES DEPARTMENT." First year: Eeligion, 2; German language, winter term, 5; summer term, 2; geog- raphy, winter term, 3; arithmetic, winter term, 4; summer term, 3; geometry, winter term, 5; summer term, 2; geometrical drawing, winter term, 9; free-hand drawing, winter term, 10; summer term, 12; penmanship, winter term, 3; summer term, 2; business correspondence, summer term, 2; projections, lectures and draw- ing, summer term, 12. Second year: German language, winter term, 2; physics, winter term, 4; algebra, in schools for builders and carpenters only, winter term, 8; summer term, 2; projec- tions, winter term, lectures, 2; drawing, 6; architecture, winter term, 3; summer term ''The branches taught are pursued in common by all students of the schools embraced in this department, unless otherwise stated. 484 KEPOET OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOK. in schools for builders and carpenters, 3; in schools for stonecutters, joiners, and housfr and tin smiths, 2; architectural drawing, winter term in schools for builders and car- penters, 9; in schools for stonecutters, joiners, and house and tin smiths, 12; summer term, in schools for builders and carpenters, 9; in school for stonecutters, 12; in schools for joiners and house and tin smiths, 16; free-hand drawing, winter term, 8; summer term, 10, except in school for stonecutters, 9; business correspondence and bookkeeping, summer term, 3; projections and linear perspective, summer term, lectures 1, drawing 4; ornamental styles, summer term, 4; modeling, summer term, in school for stonecutters, 4. Third year (winter half-year term) : Graphical statics, in schools for builders and carpenters, 2; building materials, in schools for builders and carpenters, 2; architec- ture, in schools for builders and carpenters, 3; architectural drawing, in schools for builders and carpenters, 15; in school for stonecutters, 16; free-hand drawing, in schools for builders and carpenters, 10; in school for stonecutters, 14; modeling in school for stonecutters, 4. Fourth year (winter half-year term): Architectural styles, 2; architectural draw- ing, in schools for builders and stonecutters, 10; in school for carpenters, 8; architec- tural mechanics, in schools for builders and carpenters, 3; architecture, in school for builders, 4; architectural drawing in school for builders, based upon the lectures on the preceding subject, 11; business relations of the builder, in schools for builders, and carpenters, 1; rural architecture, in schools for builders and caipenters, 2; via- tecture, in school for carpenters, 6; drafting in school for carpenters, 11; in school for stonecutters, 16; free-hand drawing, in schools for builders and carpenters, 6; model- ing in school for stonecutters, 11. Fifth year (winter half-year term), school for builders only: Surveying, 3; viar- tecture, 6; drafting, 20; general history of art, 2; free-hand drawing, 8. Optional — modeling, 6. Following is a synopsis of the branches especially pertaining to the building tradesr Architecture (all schools) : Architectural styles, kinds of masonry, stone bond^ for walls, round and polygonal pillars, construction of chimneys, basements, and walls;, ■framing, framing timber, etc., iron bonds, construction of masonry, fastening pins, and their applications. Schools for builders and carpenters: Natural and artificial foundations, piling,, concrete work, theory and bearing strength of such foundations; sheet piling, dikes,, truss frames, construction of ceiUngs and floors from wood, construction of ceilings: from wood and iron, block walls, framed partitions, rough brickwork, construction of roofs, truss work for small and large spans, dome and tower roofs, framing, joining- of rafters, covering of roofs, construction of roofs from wood and iron, construction of casings, plain scaffolding for arches with small and large spans, construction of wells, inclosures. School for stonecutters: Natural building stone, with special regard to the local conditions of Tyrol and the Vorarlberg; mortars; stonecutters' tools; stone quarry- ing, dressing stones, working drawings; cut of stones for basements and casings, free- stone masonry, arches, and vaults; cut-stone ribs in Gothic vaults, their projection and setting; stone walls between doors and windows, Gothic carved work; projec- tion and estimates of staircases, forms of stairs and stone railings. School for joiners: Characteristics of the various kinds of wood used by joinersj construction of the various kinds of doors, windows, gates, sliding doors, air tubes,, window blinds, shutters, flooring, wainscot work, wooden ceilings. School for house and tinsmiths: Production and properties of iron; the various, kinds of iron used in commerce; the various kinds of tin and its production; tin- smiths' and housesmiths' tools; fastening pins, rivets, tie bands, and screws; tin roofing, eaves, pipes, water spouts, gabled dormer windows; construction of locks, door and window fastenings; windows of fancy iron, screens, lightning rods, and. tower caps. TBADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION — AUSTEIA 485 School for builders only (fourth year) : Arches and vaults and their representation in building plans; barrel, intersecting, cloister, and domed vaults, their scaffolding, construction in layers with regard to the cut of stone; production of brick; the Prus- sian cellar vault and the surbased spherical vault; the vaulting between traverse and girdles, oblique barrel vaults; house and street drainage, the use of hollow tiles; estimates of the cubical contents of all kinds of vaults; estimates for the various kinds of wooden, stone, and iron staircases; construction of windows, doors, gates, furnaces, ranges, stoves, and chimneys; theory of steam heating, ventilation, plans for kitchens, cellars, dining rooms, and laundry rooms; plans for water-closets, sinks, ice pits, baking ovens, embedding of steam boilers, chimneys, iron supporters, and columns; construction of balconies and projectures. Architectural drawing (all schools): Drawing of plain building details from sam- ples; drawing of wood and stone bindings from samples and models; exercises in con- struction; sketching in colors; exercises in drawing architectural forms from nature. Generally, the students draw the objects which pertain to their particular line of work. The exercises in drawing are based mainly upon the lectures on architecture, and follow the methods used in the Government architect's office. Special attention is given to the detail working drawings, particularly in the schools for joiners, house- smiths, and tinsmiths. Schools for builders, carpenters, and stonecutters: Drawing of the antique orders and of the renaissance, their details on a larger scale; drawing of base moldings, separating moldings and capital moldings of the Roman and renaissance periods in outlines and representing the cuts in colors; natural details of casing profiles with reference to the ornamental; drawing of portions of facades from correct types of the renaissance and particularizing them in natural size. The stonecutters also draw details of the Gothic style, tombstones, chimneys, simple wells, and the various forms of lettering most commonly used in stone masonry. The carpenters draw only the Tuscan and Doric orders after Vignola, details of frame buildings, verandas, and details in natural size. Free-hand drawing: Drawing of architectural moldings with plastic ornaments, bas- reliefs, acanthus, capitals, rosettes, etc., from plaster casts. The stonecutters also draw ornaments for filling in, brackets, etc., foliaceous ornaments of the Gothic style, and profiles of all kinds of molding. The carpenters draw also carved beam heads, vertical uprights, etc. The housesmiths draw mainly details of smiths' work, ornamental railing, mountings, and locks of various kinds. The tinsmiths draw ornamental motives on balcony brackets, casings, etc. Pencil and rubber, water colors, quills and pens are mainly employed in drawing. Modeling: Modeling from simple plastic samples in clay; exercises in more com- plicated ornamental motives from models, and finally of sculptuary details from drawings in natural size. Building materials: Stratification of rocks, natural building stones, their classifica- tion, production, and use, with special reference to local conditions; artificial building stones and their production; brick, brickkilns, beton stones; lime, Portland cement, limekilns and cement mills, gypsum, mortar, hydraulic mortar, cement mortar; building timber, the cutting of timber, characteristics of sound timber, classification and use of timber in building construction; the various metals employed in building construction and their production; other materials, as glass, paints, varnish, etc. Architectural forms: Classification of the various orders, modules; the various orders of the Grecian, Roman, and renaissance periods, the Tuscan order, the Doric, Ionian, and Corinthian orders of the Greeks; Italian masters of the sixteenth cen- tury. In considering the Roman orders and those of the renaissance period, atten- tion is given to the changes which took place in the detail forms of the Greek period. Of the orders of the renaissance period, those of Vignola are chiefly considered. The Tuscan order of the renaissance, being of the most importance to the builder, 486 EEPOET OF THE OOMMISSIONEK OF LABOR. receives special attention. Exterior of buildings — the foundation and division of walls; windows and doors, arcades, lialls, balconies, projectures, dormer windows, roofs, formation of facades and their composition; remarks on the influence of the construction and the position of the building in regard to its architectural style. Architectural mechanics: Theory of vaulting and retaining walls; estimates of simple iron constructions with regard to their bearing strength; transporting machines. Business relations of the builder: Building regulations for cities and the country, their meaning and influence upon construction and exterior style of buildings, build- ing plans, scales of building plans, sketches, designs, detail plans, estimates, methods of calculating the various kinds of builders' work; essentials of bookkeeping, build- ers' contracts, builders' journal, weekly rolls, bills, receipts, statements; examination of the building ground, marking out, leveling; work and obligations of the architect, the master mason, the foreman, and the clerk of the architect's office. Rural architecture: Construction and plans of the most important agricultural buildings, with exercises in drawing as outlined under drafting. Drafting: The carpenters draw from plans and in detail complex props and sup- ports of roofs, frame and block houses, scantling work, etc., with special refference to rural architecture. The ornamental details are drawn in natural size in connection with free-hand drawing. Statements and estimates are made of one of these objects. The stonecutters draw window and portal frames, tombstones, simple wells, etc., and represent the natural details according to the methods in use in architecture. School for builders only — Lectures on the general principles governing the drafting of buildings; drafting plain city dwellings, country houses, and agricultural buildings; exercises in making plans and estimates. Surveying: Explanation of the most common surveying instruments; elements of surveying, laying out building lots, measuring altitudes, leveling, drawing profiles of elevations, exercises in platting, and practice in surveying. Viatecture in connection with exercises in drawing: Laying out streets, longitudi- nal and cross profiles, construction of streets; construction of plain bridges from wood and stone; construction of sewers, embankments, dikes, and locks. General histo'ry of art: A general survey, with practical illustrations of prominent monuments of art, and with special reference to the monuments of the renaissance. INDUSTRIAL-ART DEPARTMENT. Schools far wood and metal work. First year: Religion, 2; German language, wmter term, 5; geography, winter term, 3; arithmetic, winter term, 4; summer term, 3; geometry, winter term, 5; geomet- rical drawing, winter term, 9; free-hand drawing, winter tenn, 10; summer tenn, 6; penmanship, winter term, 3; German language and business correspondence, summer term, 4; shopwork, summer term, 43. Second year: German language, winter term, 2; physics, winter term, 4; projec- tions and drawing, winter term, 8; summer term, 6; free-hand drawing for joiners and turners, winter term, 4; special drawing for wood carvers and metal workers, winter term, 4; modeling for wood carvers and metal workers, 4; geometry, summer term, 2; architectural forms, summer term, 1; architectural drawing, summer term, 4; wax molding for wood carvers and metal workers, summer term, 4; shopwork, winter term, 36 and 32, respectively; summer term, 45 and 41, respectively. Third year: Ornamental forms, winter term, 4; estimates, winter term, 1 ; technol- ogy of wood, 1; technology of metals, 1; modeling for wood carvers and metal work- ers, winter term, 4; summer term, 6; wax molding for carvers and meta,l workers, winter term, 4; summer term, 6; special drawing for joiners and turners, 10; special drawing for wood carvers and metal workers, 6; shopwork, winter term, 38; summer term, 47 and 45, respectively. TRADE ABTD TECHNICAL ECUCATIOW AUSTEIA. 487 Fourth year: Practical bookkeeping, winter term, 2; ornamental forms, winter term, 4; trade drawing, 10 and 6; modeling, for wood carvers and metal workers, 6; wax molding, for wood carvers and metal workfirs, 6; elements of surface anatomy, for wood carvers and metal workers, summer term, 2; general history of art, summer term, 2; shopwork, winter term, 38 and 36, respectively; summer term, 46 and 42, respectively. Following is a synopsis of the branches pertaining to the schools for wood and metal work: The subject of technology of -wood embraces the following: General properties, production, and treatment of timber; classification of timber; the various processes employed in wood working; tools and implements for mounting and securing; meas- uring and marking; splitting and cutting tools; joining, mediums for joining, stain- ing, polishing, japanning; hand and steam power machines employed in wood working. Technology of metals: Classification, properties, and use of the most important metals employed in industrial art, their location and production. Production of alloys, their properties and uses, especially of bronze, gold and silver alloys, and the production of niello. Shopwork: Instruction in the workshop begins with exercises in the use of mate- rial and the handling of tools without regard to complete objects; this is followed hy practice in the construction of detail parts of objects and of entire objects of the simplest nature. Each step of the work must be satisfactorily completed by the student before he advances to the next higher grade. The construction of complete objects of various kinds in th« wood industry and in artistic metal work completes the course of instruction in shopwork. The objects made by the students may become their property by paying for the material used, or they may b« acquired by the board of directors by compensating the students for their labor. School for painting and decorating. First year: Religion, 2; German language, winter term, 5, summer term, 2; geog- raphy, winter term, 3; arithmetic, winter term, 4, summer term, 3; geometry, win- ter term, 5, summer term, 2; geometrical drawing, winter term, 9; free-hand drawing, winter term, 10, summer term, 12; penmanship, winter term, 3; business corre- spondence, summer term, 2; projections and drawiag, summer term, 8; physics, summer term, 4. Second year: German language, winter term, 2; bookkeeping, winter term, 2; projections and drawing, winter term, 7; ornamental forms, winter terna, 4; free- hand drawing, winter term, 10, summer term, 9; trade drawing, winter term, 10; elements of anatomy, summer term, 2; industrial art drawing and decorative paint- ing, summer terra, 18; architectural forms, summer term, 9. Third year, winter term: Business <;aIemiati-ons, 1; industrial art forms, 4; general history of art, 2; free-hand drawing, 10; industrial art drawing and decorative paint- ing, 22. Business calculations embrace exercises in computing the purchase price from given conditions; computing the selliag price; calculating the selling prices of goods with reference to interest rates, depreciation of plant, coste of management, net profits desired, etc.; arranging and compiling eatimates .of cost. Industrial art forms in connection with exercises in sketching: Explanation of technical forms and art forms; influence of the material on form; application of structural symbols to industrial art forms; general principles of surface decoration on buildings and objects of industrial art (ceiling and wall decoration, facade paint- ing, glass ~ staining, majolica decorating); sketching in outlines; simple shading or sketching in colors the objects treated of in the iectm-es. 488 EEPOBT OF THE COMMISSIONEE OF LABOB. OOTJESE FOR MAKERS OF INSTRUMENTS OF PRECISION. The special course for makers of instruments of precision is intended to give such theoretical knowledge and skill in drawing as are important and necessary to the practical workman in this industry. Applicants for admission to this course must have completed the studies of the first three half-year terms at the State industrial school as outlined in the following programme, or they must produce satisfactory evi- dence of having pursued such studies elsewhere. Following is the programme of the preparatory half-year term courses: First and second terms: The studies of the first and second half-year terms corre- spond with the first year of the department for building trades, except that architec- ture and architectural drawing are omitted, their places being supplanted by an increase of hours in geometry and theory of projections. Third term: German language and business correspondence, 2; bookkeeping, 2; algebra and plane trigonometry, 4; graphic statics, 2; theory of projections, lectures, 2; drawing, 10; technology of metals, 4; free-hand and trade drawing, 12. The special course which follows the preparatory course, as outlined above, con- tinues for ten months, with twelve hours' instruction per week, of which two hours are devoted to lectures and ten hours to drawing. Lectures are given on measuring instruments, on apparatus for electro-technics, on the component parts of watches, etc. Drawing from samples and models based upon the lectures. During the remaining hours of the day the students are occupied in practica,l work in the mechanical work- shops of Innspruck. DRAWING COURSE FOR GIRLS. This course embraces the following subjects: Elementary drawing (geometrical and free-hand); textile drawing (for embroidery, fancy work, etc.); decorative and majolica painting (painting in water colors, painting on wood, silk; painting in enamel on crockeryware and porcelain); free-hand drawing (figural and ornamental drawing from samples and plastic models). Students who at the beginning are not sufficiently advanced in drawing receive, first, instruction in elementary drawing and gradually advance to textile drawing and painting according to their proficiency. It is recommended that students attend this course for at least two years. INDUSTRIAL CONTINUATION SCHOOL. Instruction in the industrial continuation school is limited almost entirely to exer- cises in drawing and modeling. An opportunity is thus given to young persons who have already entered upon a trade and are therefore unable to attend the regular courses of the State Industrial School to acquire a manual skill in drawing and modeling which is so necessary in the practical work of most industrial branches. The school is divided into two classes : ( 1 ) The preparatory class, extending through one year; (2) the advanced class, extending through at least two years. The first class admits students who have had very little or no previous instruction in drawing. The second class admits students who have passed the first year's course satisfac- torily or who can show that they have already taken a course in elementary drawing. Following is the programme of the subjects taught in this school and the number of hours per week devoted to each: Preparatory class: Elementary drawing (geometrical and free-hand), 6; penman- ship and business correspondence, 2; practical arithmetic, 2. Advanced class: Technical drawing, 4; free-hand drawing, 4. TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION AUSTRIA. 489 Instruction in modeling is given only to students of the advanced class of this school and is limited to those whose occupation urgently requires a knowledge of this subject. The students have alternately one week exercises in drawing and one week exercises in modeling. OPEN DRAWING HALL FOR MEN. Thi§ drawing hall, which is open on all Sundays and holidays from 9 a. m. to 12 m. free of tuition, is intended to afford masters and journeymen who are so situated as to be unable to attend any of the other courses of the State industrial school the opportunity to cultivate taste and style in drawing. Instruction in elementary draw- ing, and in the copying and designing of industrial subjects, is given by proficient teachers. An opportunity is also given to the graduates of the State industrial school, under the guidance of their former teachers, to further improve themselves in their spe- cialties, and by iijeans of the accessories of the institution to solve problems met with in their practice. A branch oj; the State industrial school at Innspruck is the trade school for wood carving and cabinetmaking at Hall, Tyrol. The object of the trade school at Hall is mainly the training of com- petent wood carvers. At the same time it is a practical preparatory school for those who intend to devote themselves to the cabinetmaker's trade. The school includes: (1) A workshop for wood carving and cabinet- making, with a course in elementary and technical drawing and mod- eling, practical arithmetic, business correspondence, and bookkeeping; (2) a Sunday and holiday course in elementary and special drawing; (3) a course in drawing for pupils of the public schools. The workshop, with its course in di'awing and modeling, is open to young persons who have at least satisfied the common school require- ments. The Sunday and holiday course is open only to those who have already entered upon a trade. Students are admitted to the school at the beginning of October and March each year. The hours of instruction in the workshop, including drawing and modeling, during the winter term, are from 8 to 11 a. m. and from 1 to 6 p. m. ; during the summer term, from 7 to 11 a. m. and from 1 to 6 p. m. On Sundays and holidays the hours of instruction are from 9, a. m. to 12 m. 490 BEPOET OF THE OOMMISSIOJS'EK OF LABOR. The following statement shows the attendance at each of the depart- ments of the State industrial school at Innspruck and the branch school at Hall, for the school term 1898-99: ATTENDANCE AT STATE INDUSTRIAL SCHOOL AT INNSPEUCK AND BRANCH TRADE SCHOOL AT HALL, 1898-99. Departments. Regular pupils. Winter Shimmer term. term. Special pupils. State industrial school at Innspruck; Building trades department Industrial art department Course for makers of instruments of precision Drawing course for girls Industrial continuation school Open drawing hall for men Branch trade school at Hall: Trade school for wood carving and cabinetmaking . Sunday and holiday drawing classes Drawing classes for pupils of the public schools 84 46 4 19 117 35 41 44 a4 a 21 a 117 40 30 4 32 21 Total . 57 a Attendance during the summer term is optional. SCHOOLS FOR PARTICULAR TRADES. The schools for particular trades comprise the most numerous class of industrial schools in Austria. According to an official enumeration there were 96 State schools and 62 private and State subsidized schools of this class in Austria in 1899. Of this number 37 State schools have been selected for individual description. These are grouped in accord- ance, with the classification given in the introduction, na,mely: (1) Schools for lace work and embroidery; (2) schools for weaving; (3) schools for wood, iron, and stone work; (4) schools for earthenware and glasswork; (5) schools for metal working; (6) schools for other trades. Schools for Lace Wokk and Embroidery. state school. foe, machine embboidekt, dornbikit. The object of this school is to give the necessary theoretical and practical training for successfully carrying on the machine embi*oidery trade. The instruction embraces five embroidery courses of two months each, five courses in pattern embroidery work of two months each, and nine courses in art embroidery of one month each for special pupils. The subjects taught include machine embroidery, pattern designing, pattern embroidery, restoring, cutting, and preparing embroidery goods, embroidery work on tulle and other goods, open- work, gold and silk embroidery, and art embroidery on sewing machines. Following is a synopsis of the courses of instruction: Embroidery courses: Study of machinery used in embroidery work, such, as embroidery and crocheting machines worked by treadles; hand embroidery; study of materials used for ground work in embroidery, their necessary qualities, and their uses on embroidery machines; bleaching and finishing; study of yarns used in TRADE ANB TECHNICAL EDTJCATIOW AUSTBIA. 491 embroidery, including qualities and processes of various kinds of yams or threads, and the particular materials used in special kinds of embroidery work; instruc- tion in the various styles of embroidery, such as hand embroidery, chain-stitching machine embroidery, etc., and in the use of embroidery machines; practical study of the quality and value of the finished products of embroidery work; pattern drawing and enlarging. The school is under the management of a board consisting of the mayor of Dornbirn and 5 associates. The teaching personnel consists of the director and a number of assistants. The school year begins October 1 and ends July 30. During the school term 1897-98 an evening course was also held at the school. For the regular courses a tuition fee of 1.50 florins ($0.61) per course of two months is charged. A tuition fee of 5 florins ($2.03) per month is charged for the special embi'oideiy courses. Provision is made for free scholarships for needj^ and industrious pupils. The school received a subsidy of 400 florins ($162) from the provincial council (Zandesausschuss), and donations for stipends and scholarships were received from other sources. During the school term 1897-98 there were 28 pupils taking the embroidery course, 51 the pattern embroidery course, and 16 the art embroidery course. STATE SCHOOX, FOB, HAND AND MACHINE EMBROIDEBY, GRASLITZ. This school embraces the following divisions and courses: (1) An embroidery trade school, which has for its purpose the theoretical and practical training of workers on embroidery machines; (2) a pattern embroidery course, which covers instruction in pattern embroidery, mending, and restoring; (3) a division for open-work embroidery and (4) a special course in art embroidery. Under normal conditions pupils can complete the first and second courses in three months. The time required for completing the third and fourth courses depends upon the aptitude of individual pupils. The theoretical instruction embraces general educational, technical, and industrial art branches, drawing, sketching, pattern drawing, and designing. The technical instruction comprises the study of em- broidery machines and the technical properties of the goods, yarns, etc., used in embroidery work. In the practical instruction, on which the greatest stress is laid and t^ which the most time is devoted, pupils are systematically instructed along ali lines of their future work, and the greatest value is attached to accuracy. In these trade courses the pupils are given afi opportunity to gain a knowledge of all the branches of embroidery work and to master its difficulties. Candidates for admission must be 14 years of age and must have graduated from the common schools. The tuition is 1 florin ($0.41) for the course, and a matriculation fee of 50 kreutzers ($0.20) is charged. 492 KEPOKT OF THE COMMISSIONER OE LABOB. Foreign pupils must pay a tuition fee of 10 florins ($4.06) and are admit- ted only by permission of the ministry of education. Instruction is given on Wednesdays from 2 to 5 p. m. f i-om October 1 to July 16. The school is under the management of a board, consisting of the mayor of Graslitz and 4 associates. There are 3 instructors, a prin- cipal, and 2 trade teachers. The school received a subsidy of 200 florins (f81.20) from the ministry of education for the year 1898. During the school year 1899-1900, 22 pupils attended this school, of whom 18 were regular and 4 were special pupils. All attended the day courses. The school does not undertake to provide good positions for all graduates. They generally find employment as embroiderers, and under favorable circumstances advance to become master workers or overseers. STATE SCHOOI, FOR EMBBOIDEBY AND LACE MAKING, LAYBACH. This school is organized into three departments: Embroidery, lace making or sewing, and lace crocheting. Tuition is free, materials also being furnished gratuitously. This school gives instruction in artistic work that can not well be obtained in the ordinary workshops or the homes of the working classes. Instruction is thus given in decorating, designing, embroidery materials, styles, etc. Pupils may be either regular or special. The programme of instruction includes elementary and technical drawing, cutting out designs, and transferring designs from patterns to goods to be embroidered, thirty-four to thirty-eight hours per week; German and Slavonic languages, arithmetic, bookkeeping, and business forms, thirty-four to thirty-eight hours per week. The prac- tical work varies according to the department. The course in embroid- ery covers three years, practical instruction being given twenty-three hours each week during the first and second years and thirty hours during the third year. The course in lace making or sewing likewise covers three years, twenty hours being devoted each week to practical work during the first and second years and twenty-six hours during the third year. The course in lace crocheting covers two years, twenty hours per week being devoted to practical work the first year and twenty-two hours per week the second year. The work includes every technical feature of embroidery, lace sewing, and lace crocheting. The attendance during the school term 1899-1900 was 93 pupils, of whom 49 were regular day pupils, 8 were special pupils in the day courses, and 36 attended other classes. Schools for Weaving. state schooi, fob weaving, beichenbebg. This institution contains a day trade school with a two years' course, an industrial continuation school, and a workshop for power-loom TKADE AND TECHNICAL EDTJCATIOW — AUSTRIA. 493 weaving. The day school compiises an all-day trade course, including four weeks of practical preparatory work, and a special course for stu- dents of the State Industrial School at Eeichenberg (see pp. 475 to 482). The object of this day. school is to give such systematic, theoretical, and practical instruction in all branches of the weaving industry as will fit graduates to fill positions as manufacturers, overseers, master weavers, draftsmen, and other positions in weaving establishments. The school also serves to educate young persons who wish to fill mer- cantile positions in which a knowledge of textile fabrics is necessary. The complete instruction covers two years. During this period only a general foundation in all the branches taught can be given, the pupils being allowed an additional half or whole year in which to specialize for their chosen vocations. The theoretical instruction embraces technical, commercial, mathematical, and general educational branches. Special attention is given to the technical work, to drawing, and to practice in the workshop. Following is a statement of the subjects taught and the hours per week devoted to each: SUBJECTS TAUGHT AND HOURS PER WEEK DEVOTED TO EACH, STATE SCHOOL FOR WEAVING, REICHENBERG. Subjects taught. Hours per week. First year. Second year. Theory of textiles Analysis of textile fabrics and cost of production. Technology of hand-loom weaving Technology of power-loom weaving Technology of sjjinning Sizing and finishing Machinery Mechanical drawing Descriptive geometry and drawing Free-hand and pattern drawing Pattern designing Practical weaving on hand looms Practical weaving on power looms German language Industrial arithmetic and- business forms Indastrial bookkeeping Total. 2 44 The technological studies are intended to furnish the pupils with such information as relates directly to the production of textile fab- rics. They include a thorough study of the nature and origin of raw materials, such as yarns, threads, etc., used in weaving; the technical features of textile fabrics with regard to design and the production of certain textile effects; installation and use of appliances and machinery used in weaving; and calculation of the strength and adaptability of materials used in the production of different kinds of fabrics. The other technical studies, such as descriptive geometry, machinery, and mechanical drawing enable graduates properly to understand drawings of machinery and to sketch the details of machines used in the weav- ing industry. They further teach the pupils the elements of machine 494 EEPORT OF THE OOMMISSIONEK OF LABOR. construction and give an insight into mechanical power transmission, motors, etc. The instruction in drawing is intended to educate the taste of the pupils in textile art and in pattern designing. The com- mercial studies include correspondence, commercial arithmetic, prin- ciples of exchange, and elementary bookkeeping, with special reference to the textile industrJ^ The practical work embraces, in the first year, general preparatory work and Aveaving on handlooms; in the second year, weaving and preparatory^ work on Jacquard, hand, and power looms. For this purpose the school is provided with workshops equipped with i3 hand and 22 power looms, besides machinery and apparatus for the prepar- atorj^ work. The practical work is so arranged that pupils not only learn the various kinds of weaving, but are given an insight into the entire operation, from the raw material to the production of the finished article. Candidates for admission must be graduates of the grammar schools or of the fourth -year class of an intermediate school or a school of like grade. They must be at least 14 years of a.ge, and have a proper physical development. Although previous training in weaving is not absolutely' required, experience has proved that those persons who have had a year or two of practical work in weaving can derive much greater benefits from the school. The four weeks' preparatory course is therefore required of all who have not had practical experience. The tuition fee is 10 florins (f4.06) per half-year term, the matricula- tion fee 3 florins ($0.81), while a fee of 5 florins ($2.03) is charged for materials used. Foreigners must pay double these amounts. Per- sons who do not possess the qualifications requisite for admission to the regular courses ma}' be admitted as special pupils. In that case they must be at least 16 j-ears of age, and must pay double the amount of tuition and other fees that are paid by regular pupils. If they take only single courses as special pupils, they pay according to the number of courses attended, but never less than 10 florins (f4.06). Needy pupils may be partly or wholly exempted from the payment of tuitions and fees. The school year begins September 36 and closes July 15. The pi-eparatory course begins August 15. Eegular pupils receive diplomas on graduating, and special pupils obtain certificates of attendance. The course for pupils of the State Industrial School covers two years, and offers such pupils an opportunity to perfect themselves in the theoretical and practical work of weaving without interfering with their regular studies at the industrial school. Instruction is given five hours each week during the first year and three hours each week during the second year, and embraces the study of textiles, analysis, and practical work. This course is open only to pupils of the third and fourth classes of the mechanical divisions of the State Industrial TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION AUSTRIA. 495 School. The tuition is 5 florins (|2.03) per year. Besides this a fee of 2 florins ($0.81) per year is charged for the use of materials. The industrial continuation school is in session on Sundays and on Tveek-day evenings. Its purpose is to give a special training in certain lines of textile work to young persons who are employed during the day. The regular evening course is intended mainly for persons who are employed in the local cloth-weaving industry, although pupils can also obtain instruction in cotton, carpet, and other weaving. This course covers two years. The subjects taught are the theory of weav- ing, practice in handloom weaving, and free-hand, pattern, and textile drawing. Instruction is given on Mondays and Fridays from 6 to 9 p. m. , and on Sunday mornings. Candidates for admission must be over 14 years of age, must be graduates from the common schools, and must have a practical knowledge of weaving. The tuition is 5 florins (|2.03) per year, and a fee of 1 florin ($0.41) for requisites is charged. Needy pupils are exempted from paying tuition, and a part of the necessary books and requisites is also furnished them. The course lasts from September 16 to May 31. The regular Sunday course serves a purpose similar to the evening course and is intended mainly for those persons who live some distance from Reichenberg. The instruction is the same as that given in the evening course, with the exception of drawing and the practical work. The conditions for admission, length of course, and fees are also the same. In addition to these two continuation courses there is also a review course which covers a period of one year and is intended mainly for pupils who have graduated from the former, in order to give them a more thorough education, to specialize along certain lines, and to keep in touch with the most recent ideas in the science and art of textile work. This course is entirelj' optional. Admission to this school is conditioned upon previous attendance at the school for weaving. The tuition and fee for requisites are the same as in the evening school. The workshop for power weaving is intended to instruct pupils one entire day of each week in the use of certain styles of power looms. Candidates for admission must be graduates from weaving schools and must have a practical knowledge of power-loom weaving. The tuition is 10 florins ($4.06) for the whole course, and 2 florins (10.81) is charged for the use of materials. The management of the entire institution is in the hands of a board consisting of the president of the chamber of commerce and 10 asso- ciates. The corps of instructors consists of a director, 4 technical instructors, 3 assistant technical instructors, 2 shop overseers, and 1 assistant teacher. The school has received much encouragement from local firms in the 496 EEPOET OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. way of gifts of machinery, materials, etc. During the school term 1897-98 this school received for aid of various kinds to pupils a sub- sidy of 200 florins (|81.20) from the ministry of education, 160 florins ($60.90) from the savings bank of Eeichenberg, and interest from various endowment funds amounting to 339 florins (fl38). At the beginning of the school term 1899-1900 there were 117 pupils at the school, of whom 39 were regular day pupils, 8 special day pupils, and 70 attended the continuation courses. During the school term 1896-97, 16 pupils graduated from the day school and 86 from the continuation school. Of 97 persons who graduated from the day school in 1895, 1896, and 1897, nearly all obtained employment in the textile industry, some as pattern designers at wages ranging from 12 to 20 florins ($4.87 to $8.12) per month in the beginning, and from 20 to 80 florins (18.12 to 132.48) per month later on. STATE SCHOOIi FOB WEAVING, SCHONBEBG. This institution is designed to educate pupils by theoretical and prac- tical instruction in such a way as to fit them to become manufacturers, managers, pattern designers, weavers, and merchants in the silk, linen, and woolen weaving industries. The school embraces three divisions: A day trade course of two years; an evening and Sunday course of one year, and an industrial continuation course of one year. A pre- paratory course of four weeks in practical weaving precedes the day course. The day trade school is intended for graduates of the common, grammar, or intermediate schools who desire to take a two years' course of study in weaving. Instruction is given in the theoretical, technological, industrial art, commercial, and practical branches of the weaving industry. The theoretical instruction during the first year includes the study of weaving on ordinary and Jacquard looms and the simpler forms of textile work. In the second year this instruction is continued, together with the study of the use and application of pattern cards in Jacquard looms and the- production of such cards. The work is so arranged that pupils gradually acquire a theoretical knowledge of the art of weaving from its simplest to its most complicated form, and enables them to develop original designs and ideas in textile fabrics. Another feature of the theoretical work is the analysis of fabrics, textile cal- culations, determining the cost of production and selling price, etc. The analysis of fabrics is taught step by step, from the simplest to the most complicated fabrics, and is intended to cover all classes of woven goods. The greatest attention is given to this theoretical instruction, because it is a feature of textile knowledge which is indispensable to persons in higher positions, and which can not be acquired in actual practice. TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION AUSTRIA. 497 The technological instruction embraces during the first year the study of materials, spinning, the technology of handloom weaving, and technical drawing; and during the second year it includes, in addi- tion, the science of mechanics, machines and motors, the technology of power-loom weaving, and the sizing or finishing of fabrics. Pupils are given a knowledge of the difi'erent materials, their origin and use, etc., by means of text-books and mechanical and technical descriptions. They are instructed in the spinning processes of different materials and the quality and number of yarns and threads. The technology of hand and power weaving gives the pupils an idea of the construction and use of all machines, tools, and apparatus used in weaving and the adaptability of certain kinds of looms to certain styles of fabrics. The industrial art branches, such as free-hand and pattern drawing and pattern-card "designing, are intended to educate the artistic taste of pupils with regard to form and color and to enable them to design original patterns to be used in weaving. This is accomplished by sys- tematic instruction in drawing and painting from objects, from plaster models, from fabrics, and from nature, such as plants, flowers, etc., special weight being given to the nature studies. The commercial branches embrace penmanship, business forms, and industrial arithmetic in the first year, and exchange and industrial bookkeeping, in addition, in the second year. These commercial studies are intended to familiarize pupils with the office work of a weaving mill. Instruction in the second year is divided into two groups. In the first group, besides the commercial and theoretical subjects, which are common to both, special attention is given to technological and practi- cal exercises in weaving; in the second group emphasis is given to pat- tern and industrial drawing, and less attention to technological subjects. Four workrooms are devoted to the practical work of this institu- tion. These contain 26 handlooms and 12 power looms, together with the necessary machinery and apparatus for the preparatory operations, such as spooling, warping, beaming, twisting, etc. , special attention being given to fancy linen, silk, and velvet weaving on hand and power looms. Beginning with the simplest work, pupils are taught, under the direction of master workmen, to fix the looms, to perform all the other preparatory work, and to weave marketable fabrics of cotton, linen, and silk, special importance being attached to the execu- tion of perfect work. Candidates for admission must be graduates of common, grammar, or intermediate schools, and must have the physical fitness for their chosen trades. Pupils who wish to take the second-year course must show that they have completed the first-year work in a weaving school having a two-year course. Instruction is free, but pupils must pay a 9257—02 32 498 EEPOET OF THE COMMI8SI0NEE OF LABOR. fee of 10 gTilden (|4:.06) for materials used. Foreigners must pay in addition a matriculation fee of 50 gulden (f20.30). Provision is made in the way of stipends, amounting to from 20 to 60 gulden (|8.12 to f20.30), for industrious pupils without means. At the end of each term pupils are given a certificate showing the result of the work for the year, and at graduation a certificate showing the result of the entire school work. The school year begins September 16 and ends July 15. The evening and Sunday courses are open only to persons who are engaged during the day as factory officials, merchants, or weavers, and who therefore have no time on week days to educate themselves in the theory and practice of weaving. Entrance is conditioned upon a common school education and employment in the weaving industry. Journej'men and apprentices of all trades may be admitted as special pupils in the ii'awing courses. The instruction includes only such theoretical, industrial art, practical, and technological branches of the weaving industry as relate to hand weaving. Instruction is given on Tuesdays and Thursdays from 7 to 9 p. m. and on Sundays from 9 a. m. to noon. The school year begins September 16. The trade continuation course is intended for graduates of the day and evening and Sunday courses who wish to perfect themselves in some special branch of weaving or in pattern drawing. The course is entirely optional and may extend over several years. It gives experi- enced workmen an opportunity to fit themselves to become master workmen or textile draftsmen. No tuition fees are required. Instruc- tion is given on Thursdays from 7 to 9 p. m. and on Sundays from 9 a. m. to noon, and begins September 16 of each year. The direction of the entire institution is in the hands of a board consisting of the mayor of Sch&nberg and 6 associates who are en- gaged in the textile industry. The teaching personnel comprises a director, 2 trade instructors, 3 master workmen, and 1 assistant teacher. The institution receives the most active encouragement from per- sons engaged in the local textile industry. The school authorities maintain the closest relations with manufacturers by giving and receiving advice, supplying them with skilled workmen, and otherwise advancing their interests. During the school term 1897-98 a subsidy of 150 gulden ($60.90) was received from the ministry of education for stipends for pupils without means; 106 gulden ($43.04) were, realized fi-om the sale of objects made in the school, and 550 gulden (1223) were received from other sources, all of which was used for stipends and other assistance to pupils. In addition to the courses above enumerated there is a general indus- trial continuation school conducted in the same building under the same teaching personnel, but under a separate board of control, and is TRADE AND TECHNIGAL EDUCATION AUSTRIA. 499 X30iisidered as an independent institution. The purpose of this scJhooJ is to afford an opportunity to journeymen and apprentices to obtain a theoretical and, as far as possible, a practical training in such branches of textile art, technologj^, and commerce as may be useful to them in •the practice of their ti-ades. The materials, objects, books, etc., used in the day and trade continuation courses are available for use in this school. The course comprises a preparatory class of two divisions, a first-year class of two divisions, and a second-year class. Instruction is given on four week daj^s from 7 to 9 p. m. and on ■Sundays from 9 a. m. to noon and from 1 to 4 p. m., and covers the following subjects: Preparatory class — reading, penman sliip, compo- sition, arithmetic, .and drawing; first year class — business forms, arithmetic, geometry, and elementaiy free-hand drawing; second-year .class -^business forms, industrial boolikeeping and arithmetic, ex- change, and industrial drawing. The school year begins October 1 and ends May .31, each pupil recei\'ing a certificate upon graduation. Candidates for admission to this school must have graduated from the .common schools and must have a knowledge of reading, writing, and arithmetic. Instruction is free in all the classes. During the school term 1897-98, 263 pupils matriculated in the various classes conducted in this institution, of whom 238 remained untiil the .close of the year. Of the 263 pupils, 53 attended the regu- lar day courses, 23 attended the evening and Sunday courses, 9 .attended the trade continuation course, and 177 attended the general industrial continuation school. It is reported that the graduates of this school always find posi- tions in textile establishments. Manj' of them are filling positions as superintendents or are owners of textile mills. The school author- ities endeavor to place all their graduates in positions when they com- plete their school instruction. Of 180 persons who graduated from the day school in 1895, 1896, and 1897 all obtained employment in textile establishments as weavers, overseers, clerks, and pattern ^designers, at wages ranging from 300 to 500 fiorins (|122 to $203) per year. STATE SCHOOI, FOB "WEAVING, WAKWSDOKF. This institution comprises a day school and evening and Sunday courses. The -day school undertakes, through theoretical and prac- .tical inatruction, to educate persons for positions as overseers, master workmen, .textile designers, .and othei' occupatioras in textile establish- ments. The course covers two 3'.ears. Instruction is given each week day from S a. m. to noon, and from 2 to -6 p. m., except Saturday. After fiatdsfactorj'' graduation from the last year's class, pupils maj' .take an .additiomal yeai' of practical instruction, provided that in the 500 EEPOBT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOE. judgment of the director good results are likely to follow. The sub- jects taught and hours per week devoted to each are as follows: SUBJECTS TAUGHT AND HOURS PER WEEK DEVOTED TO EACH, STATE SCHOOL FOR WEAVING, WARNSDORF. Subjects taught. Hours per week. First year. Second year. Practical weaving Practical weaving on power looms Practical weaving on treadle and Jacquard looms . Study of weaving Analysis « Study of materials used in textile fabrics Technology of hand weaving Technology of machine weaving Free-hand and trade drawing Free-hand drawing Pattern designing Geometrical drawing Technical drawing Study of machinery Sizing and finishing Bookkeeping Business forms Arithmetic German Penmanship Total 43 The evening and Sunday courses afford an opportunity to master workmen, journeymen, and other textile workers to perfect them- selves in their respective occupations. The subjects taught include reading, drawing, and commercial science. Instruction is given on Sundays from 9 a. m. to noon, and from 8 to 9.30 p. m. on week days except Saturday. The course of instruction covers two years. The subjects taught and hours per week devoted to each follow: SUB.IECTS TAUGHT AND HOURS PER WEEK DEVOTED TO EACH, EVENING AND SUNDAY COURSES, STATE SCHOOL FOR WEAVING, WARNSDORF. Subjects taught. Hours per week. Free-hanJ and industrial drawing Study of weaving Analysis and textile calculation .. Technology of power weaving Bookkeeping and arithmetic Penmanship Practical weaving on power looms Practical weaving on hand looms. Total Candidates for admission to the day school must be 14 years of age and must be graduates of the common schools. Each regular pupil, upon entering the school, must bring a statement from his father or guardian pledging himself to see to the regular attendance of the pupil. Pupils who are 24 years of age or over must sign this declara- tion themselves. The school year begins September 15 and ends July 15 of the following year. Entrance to the first-year course must be TRADK AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION — AUSTRIA. 501 preceded by a four weeks' practical course beginning July 20. This course is intended to instruct pupils in the use of looms and in pre- paratory operations. The tuition fee is 20 florins ($8.12) per year, but foreign pupils must pay 60 florins ($20.30) per year. The fees for special pupils are fixed by the director of the school. Pupils who are unable to pay the tuitions are exempted from these pay- ments. Pupils of the evening and Sunday courses, which begin October! and end July 30, pay 2 florins (10.81) per year for the theoretical course and 3 florins (fl.22) per year for the practical course. The management of the school is in the hands of a board consisting of the mayor of Warnsdorf and 6 associates, who are generally textile manufacturers. The teaching personnel consists of the director, 4 technical instructors, 2 master workmen or overseers, and 1 assistant teacher for German and penmanship. The most cordial relations exist between this school and the local textile firms. Numerous excursions are made by pupils, under the guidance of the director or the instructors, to local and other establishments for the purpose of getting practical knowledge and advice. At the beginning of the school term 1899-1900 there were 127 plipils in attendance at this school. Of this number 22 were regular and 9 were special day pupils, and 96 attended the other courses. Of 105 •persons who graduated during the years 1895, 1896, and 1897, all obtained employment in the weaving industry, at wages ranging from 20 to 30 florins (|8.12 to $12.18) per month. STATE SCHOOL FOB WEAVING AND KNITTING, ASCH. This institution embraces a day trade school and an industrial con- tinuation school. The day school includes a department for weaving, one for knitting, and one for textile drawing. In each of these departments the course of instruction covers two years of ten months each. The industrial continuation school includes a course for weavers and a course for knitters. The trade school for weaving aims to educate pupils for positions as weavers, master weavers, overseers, superintendents, manufacturers, and persons who wish to perfect themselves as buyers or sellers in the manufacturing branch of the textile industry. The instruction covers all branches of the weaving industry, although in the second year special attention is given to the particular branch chosen by the pupil. The theoretical instruction embraces the technical, industrial art, and mercantile branches of the textile industry, analj'sis of fabrics, and technical drawing. This theoretical work is intended to give the pupils a knowledge of the composition, nature, and value of textile fabrics and to develop their artistic taste and ideas of color harmony. The technical branches, such as mechanics, science of machines and 502 KEPOKT OF THE COMMISSIOIfEK OF LABOK. motors, study of materials, the tecbnology of spinning, of power-loom weaving, and of sizing., and industrial hygiene, are intended to give pupils the necessary knowledge of the machinery used in the textile industry, the technical properties of raw materials used, and the adapta- bility of particular st_vles of looms for the production of certain kinds of fabrics, etc. The instruction in geometrical perspective and mechanical drawing is intended to teach pupils to sketch the machin- ery, fittings, etc., in textile establishments. The mercantile instruc- tion covers the nec43ssary business forms used in this industr\% book- keeping, and exchange. The greatest importance is attached to practical shopwork. The pupils are taught all the branches of their future occupation, much emphasis being given to clean and accurate work. In the hand-weaving room the pupils ai'e taught the preparatory Avork and elementarj^ pro- cesses of weaving, and are given an opportunitj^ to familiarize them- selves with the i omplicated mechanisms of ordinary' and Jsicquard looms. This practical work makes it easier for the pupils to comprehend the lectures on hand and Jacquard weaAdng. In the power-loom weaving room the pupils learn all the various preliminary operations of power- looirf "weaving, such as spooling, warping, beaming, piecing, etc. Candidates for admission to the trade school for weaving must be over 14 years of age and must have graduated from the common schools. The matriculation fee is 1 gulden (-$0.4:1), but foreigners pay- 2 gulden (f0.81). The tuition fee is 20 gulden (i^8.12) for Austrians and 50 gulden (120.30) for foreigners. Special pupils jjay one- half the regular tuition for a course of five weeks and the whole tuition when the course extends over five weeks. Provision is made for free scholarships for worthy and industrious pupils. The school j^ear begins September 16 and closes July 15. The trade school for knitting is intended to pi'cpare pupils, by theoretical and practical instruction, to become master w'orkmen and buyers and sellers of fabrics in the knitting industry. The plan of instruction is similar to that employed in the school for weaving, knitting being substituted for weaving. The terms for admission, length of courses, tuitions, etc., are the same as in the school for weaving. The trade school for textile drawing aims to train pupils to become textile draftsmen. The couree of instruction is similar to that of the school for weaving except that more attention is paid to the indus- trial art branches and correspondingly less to other work. The terms of admission, length of course, tuition, provisions for needj^ pupils, etc., are similar to those in the school for weaving. The purpose of the industrial continuation school for weavers is to afford an opportunity to persons employed during the da^^ to perfect themselves in the theor3'- and practice of the weaving industry. TRADE AND TECHTSTICAL EDUCATION—- ATJSTBIA. 503 Instruction is given on Tuesdays and Thursdays from 7 to 9 p. m. and on Sundays from 8.30 to 11.30 a. m. Tiie course of instruction covers one year, although pupils may attend for a longer time in order to become more thorough in the branches taught. Candidates for admis- sion must be over 1-1 years of age, must have graduated from the com- mon schools, and must have previous knowledge of practical weaving. In the di-awing class special pupils are admitted who are under 14 years of age. The theoretical work embraces instruction in the art of weaving, analysis of fabrics, textile calculations, the technology of hand weaving and of materials used, and free-hand drawing. In the workshop of the school the pupils are given an opportunity to learn the various preparatory operations as well as that of weaving. The trade continuation school for knitters is intended to give to young persons employed in knitting operations the same opportuni- ties that the preceding school gives to weavers. The period of instruc- tion and terms of admission are similar to those for the weaving school. * The tuition fee of the trade continuation department is 4 gulden (11.62) for Austrians and 8 gulden ($3.25) for foreigners. Needy pupils may be admitted without the payment of a tuition fee by obtaining a certificate from the Bohemian government. Foreigners are never exempted from the payment of tuition. The entire institution is under the management of a board consist- ing of the mayor of Asch and 9 associates who are engaged in the weaving industry. The corps of instructors consists of a principal, 9 teachers, and 1 assistant teacher. In 1896-97 the day school for weaving graduated 19 pupils, the school for knitting 4 pupils, the trade continuation school for weaving 55 pupils, and the trade continuation school for knitting 13 pupils. At the beginning of the school term 1899-1900 there were 106 pupils at the school, of whom 26 attended the day classes and 80 the continua- tion classes. The school has received much assistance from local tex- tile firms and the most cordial relations exist between them. During the school term 1897-98 the sum of 160 florins (160.90) was received from the savings bank of Asch and 280 florins ($114) from the min- istry of education for the assistance of needy and industrious pupils. The school does not undertake to provide good positions for gradu- ates, its object being to educate workmen in such a wsly as to enable them eventually to fill positions as master workmen, overseers, or manufacturers. Of the 74 persons graduated from the day school during the years 1895, 1896, and 1897, 64 obtained employment in textile establishments, at from 5 to 10 florins (12.03 to §4.06) per week, as textile workers, oflice men, and pattern designers. 504 BEPOET OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOE. STATE SCHOOL FOE, THE TEXTILE INDUSTRY, VIEBTNA. The purpose of this school is to give a thorough education in both the theorj'' and practice of the various textile occupations. It is organized in two departments, which are nearly separate schools. The first, or trade school proper, consists of three sections, relating, respec- tively, to weaving, knitting, and industrial drawing. Each section has a day course continuing for two years. It is expected that pupils completing these courses will be competent to take places of responsi- bility, such as overseers, superintendents, etc. The requirements for admission to these courses are that the candidates shall be 14 years of age or over and have completed a course in a grammar school, a school of arts and sciences, or a school of similar standing. In the case of minors the consent of the parents or guardians must be obtained. For those who have already had a technical education a special course of studj' may be prescribed. Instruction is given by a corps of teachers consisting of the director, who also teaches drawing, pattern making, and flower painting, and professors of composition and the technology of hand weaving, geome- try, mechanical technology and machine drawing, drawing in relation to textile patterns, style, colors, the history of art, practical weaving on power and hand looms, and practical knitting. The second department consists of three continuation courses, which relate to (1) weaving, designing, etc. , (2) knitting, and (3) fringe, lace, and ribbon making. These three courses are given in the evenings and on Sundays, and continue for two years of ten months each. The pur- pose of these courses is to permit apprentices and other workers in the textile industry to complete their trade education. For the most part, the pupils in these courses have already had practical experience in their trades, and consequently the instruction given in the school is almost wholly theoretical. Instruction is free to apprentices and workmen in the textile industrj^. Others pay a small fee. The fol- lowing statement shows the occupations of the pupils in attendance during the year 1897-98: OCCUPATIONS OP PUPILS OF CONTINUATION COURSES, STATE SCHOOL FOR THE TEXTILE ENDUSTEY, VIENNA, 1897-98. Occupations. Journey- men. Apj)ren- tices. Pattern designers , 19 9 6 29 9 4 31 47 2 Fringe makers 95 25 Knitters 11 4 Clerks in textile houses Total 106 184 Teachers in these courses are the same as those for the day school. To encourage diligence, many prizes, medals, and diplomas are given. TKADE AND TECHNICAL EDQCATION — AUSTRIA. 505 The following statement shows the total attendance upon the two sections for the school year 1897-98, classified according to age periods: ATTENDANCE AT STATE SCHOOL FOE THE TEXTILE INDUSTRY, VIENNA, 1897-98. Age periods. Trade sohool proper. Continua- tion school. 7 22 37 1C2 15 to ] 7 years 20 108 Total 66 290 The work of the school is supervised by a board composed of busi- ness men and manufacturers. It is also subject to State inspection. Regarding the results accomplished, the director of the school reports that the graduates have little difficulty in finding employment and that they give general satisfaction. In one of his annual reports he says that the relations between the school and the industrial establish- ments are close, a condition of affairs that is of great value to the school; also that there is scarcely a textile establishment in Vienna that does not include one or more of its former pupils, many of them holding high positions. The 195 weavers who graduated from this school in 1895, 1896, and 1897 have mostly obtained positions in mills or as pattern designers at wages ranging from 500 to 800 ilorins (|203 to 1325) per year. Schools foe Wood, Ieon, and Stone Work. state school fob basket making, bleistabt. The purpose of this school is to give systematic, theoretical, and practical instruction in basket making and in willow culture. The complete course of instruction covers three years, because the basket makers are not trained in any special branch, but in all lines of this industry. Candidates for admission to the regular and special courses must be graduates of the common schools. Each of the regular pupils is received on probation for two months, after which time his admission to the school is determined. The school opens September 16 and closes July 30. The practical work in pillow culture usually begins about April 1 and lasts until May 31, instruction being given from eight to ten hours per week in this work. For this purpose the school utilizes a willow nursery 100 square meters (1,076 square feet) in area, and a willow plantation of about 6,600 square meters (71,042 square feet). The theoretical instruction in willow culture precedes the practical work, and is given one hour each week from October to March, inclusive. 506 KEPOKT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOE. The instruction in industrial drawing given at this school enables the pupils to design and execute the various kinds of willow ware. Ste- nography and gymnastics may be taken up by the pupils as optional studies. The income of the sohool depends to a certain extent upon the px'o- ceeds from the sale of articles made hj the pupils of the third-year course, but only such pieces of work are taken as fit in with the regu- lar course of instruction. Weekly sums of money are paid as premi- ums to pupils executing good work. Stipends are granted t» indigent and worthy pupils. The latter are also given free medical aid when needed. The management of the school consists of a board of 9 persons. The director of the school is the only instructor. Subsidies are received from various sources, which during the term 1897-98 amounted to 310 florins (|126). At the beginning of the school term 1899-1900, 23 pupils attended the school, of whom 14 were regular and 9 were special. Of the 18 persons graduated from this school in 1895, 1896, and 1897, 17 obtained emploj'ment in the basket-making industry. STATE SCHOOL FOS BASKET MAKING AND -WlliLOW CTJLTTTItE, EOGLIANO. The purpose of this school is to improve the local cottage industiy of basket making and to place this industry on a basis of successful competition with the foreign trade. The course of instruction, which is both theoretical and practical, covers three years. The theoretical instruction includes commercial arithmetic, reading and writing in the German and Italian languages, industrial drawing, willow culture, and study of haaterials and tools used in the basket- making industrj^. Practical instruction in the workshop, which takes up the greater part of the time, embraces all branches of basket work as 'svell as the manufacture of wickerwork furniture. It also includes practical work in willow culture. Candidates for admission must be 14 years of age, must be graduates of the common schools, and must be physically adapted to this work. The instruction is free, except to foreigners, who are required to pay a tuition of 50 florins (f20.30) per year. Upon graduating, pupils receive a certificate which entitles them to the practice of their trade of basket making. , The teaching personnel of this school consists of a director, an assist- ant instructor, and a foreman. During the school term 1897-98 the school received a subsidy of 200 florins (^81.20) from the ministry of education, and 100 florins (140.60) from, the sale of objects made by the pupils^ which sums were used for stipends to worthy and indigent pupils. TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION— AUSTKIA. 507 At the beginning of tbe school term 1809-1900 there were 9 regular and 3 special pupils at the day school. Four persons were graduated in the 3'ears 1896, 1896, and 1897, all obtaining employment as basket makers. STATE SCHOOL FOE, WOODWORKIKTG, BERGREICHENSTEIIT. This institution comprises a day trade school and an industrial con- tinuation school. The purpose of thedaj^ school is to give such practical and theoretical training as will enable persons to work independently and with good results in the various branches of the woodworking industr}'. It is divided into the following trade sections: Furniture making and carpentry; wood turning, carving, and pyrographj^; wagon making; joinerj' and woodenware making, and cooperage. The period of instruction in furniture making and carpentry- is four years and that of the other branches three years. The school opens Sep- tember 16 and closes July 31. The theoretical instruction embraces religion, German business iorms, industrial arithmetic, geometry, free-hand drawing, geometrical drawing, perspective and shading, architecture, free-hand drawing from models, technology of wood, bookkeeping, penmanship, industrial drawing, and styles of ornamentation. All this instruction is given in accordance with a fixed programme. Instruction in the drawing branches is such that pupils after graduating are able to make correct working drawings, sketches, and designs. In the workshop pupils are instructed by experienced master workmen in all the grades of manual work. The graduating certificates entitle pupils to practice the trades of carpentry, wood turning, wagon making, and cooperage. The industrial continuation school consists of two classes and under- takes to give apprentices in this industry such industrial, technical, and commercial instruction as will be useful to them in their ^'ocations. The school received during the school term 1897-98 from various sources 1,386 florins {|563) for the aid of indigent and worthy pupils. In addition to such contributions, 1,200 florins ($487) per year are received from the State and communal authorities of Horitz for stipends. A number of families in the city furnish free dinners to indigent pupils. The school is managed hj a board consisting of 10 persons, most of whom are engaged in local industries. The teaching personnel con- sists of the director, 2 trade instructors, 6 foremen, and 4 assistant instructors. At the beginning of the school term 1899-1900, 63 pupils attended the regular day school and 92 attended the continuation classes, mak- ing a total attendance of 145. The 18 persons graduated from the day school in 1896, 1896, and 1897, all obtained employment in wood- working establishments as cabinetmakers, wagon makers, wood turners, designers, and foremen. 508 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER "OF LABOR. STATE SCHOOL FOE, THE WOODWOK.KING INDUSTRY, BOZEN. This institution embraces a day trade school, an open drawing and modeling hall, a general industrial continuation school, a drawing course for girls, and a drawing course for pupils of the common schools. The day trade school trains pupils as journeymen, foremen, drafts- men, and pattern makers in the woodworking industries by means of practical and theoretical instruction. It also aims in other ways to advance the interests of the local woodworking industry. Special attention is given to woodworking in connection with church architec- ture. The school is divided into the three trade sections of joining, wood carving, and wood turning. The course of instruction covers a period of three years. A prepar- atory course is given to persons who are not prepared to enter the regular trade courses. This preparatory course not only serves to displace from one to two years of the common school, but also gives an elementary training in joining, wood carving, and wood turning, and in the use of tools. The principal subjects taught in the trade divisions are: Drawing, including elementary and free-hand drawing from models, geometrical drawing, perspective and shading, archi- tectural styles, and industrial drawing; various technical subjects, such as nature studies and mechanical and chemical technology of wood, and commercial subjects, such as industrial arithmetic, business forms, and bookkeeping. These subjects are taught systematically and with special reference to the requirements of practical work. The practical instruction, to which the greatest importance is attached, is given in the workshop under the direction of instructors and fore- men. Books, models, and a collection of technical and antique objects relating to the woodworking industry are on hand for the use of instructors and pupils. The school also admits special pupils. The school opens September 1 and closes July 15. In order to enter the preparatory course pupils must be 12 years of age and must have a satisfactory scholarship record in the common schools. Candidates for admission to the trade divisions must be 14 years of age, must be physically fitted for their chosen occupation, and must have a theo- retical knowledge such as is given in the preparatory course. A tuition fee of 3 florins ($1.22) per term is charged, indigent and worthy pupils being exempted from this payment. Foreign pupils, who can be admitted only by special permission of the ministry of education, must pay a tuition fee of 30 florins ($12.18) per half-year term. A matriculation fee of 1 florin (|0.41) is charged. The open drawing and modeling hall gives an opportunity to jour- neymen and manufacturers in the woodworking industry to get a training in drawing and modeling and in making sketches and plans of work to be executed, to use the collection of models and objects of the TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION AtJSTBIA. . 509 day trade school, to study industrial art, and receive technical advice and information. No fees are charged for these services. The general industrial continuation school is intended for appren- tices of Bozen, and offers an opportunity to obtain a theoretical and, as far as possible, a practical and technical training in such industrial-art and commercial branches as will be of benefit to them in the practice of their trades. It comprises a preparatory' course and two one-year courses. Reading, writing, arithmetic, and drawing are taught in the preparatory course, and industrial arithmetic, business forms, book- keeping, free-hand, geometrical, and industrial drawing are taught in the regular courses. Instruction is given on Sundays from 9 to 11 a. m., and on week days, except Saturday, from 7 to 9 p. m. The school opens October 1 and closes April 30. Instruction is free, and the drawing and writing materials are furnished to the pupils. The drawing course for girls is intended to give instruction in draw- ing and such a degree of training in style and decorative art as will be useful to them in their handiwork and in tastefully arranging their homes. To this end exercises are given in pattern drawing, painting on silk and wood, and pyrography. The course begins October 1 and ends June 30. No charge is made except a matriculation fee of 1 florin ($0.41). Thfe drawing course for pupils of the common schools is intended to give a training in drawing which can not be obtained in the cOmmon schools. It also aims to prepare these pupils to enter the trade school. Instruction is given for two hours on certain afternoons of the week from October 1 to June 30. No fees of any kind are charged. The entire institution is managed by a board consisting of the mayor of Bozen and 8 associates, most of whom are engaged in the wood- worldng industry. The teaching personnel consists of a director, 3 foremen, 7 trade instructors, and 3 assistant instructors. An important feature of this institution is to advance the interests of the small local industries by loaning objects, specifications, and models; preparing, free of charge, drawings, plans, etc., for special work; giving advice concerning methods of work and sources of information, and preparing cost and price lists. During the school term 1897-98 the continuation school received a subsidy of 200 florins ($81.20) from the ministry of education and one of 200 florins ($81.20) from the provincial diet. The school received from various sources, for scholarships and stipends, sums amounting to 1,280 florins (|520). At the beginning of the school term 1899-1900, 171 pupils attended this institution. Of these, 43 were regular and 4 were special pupils of the day trade school, 101 attended the continuation school, and 23 attended other courses. Of the 14 persons graduated from the day school in 1895, 1896, and .510 . BEPOET OF THE COMMISSIOISTEB, OF LABOB. 1897, 11 obtained emploj^meBt in the woodworking industry as jour- neymen, at wages ranging from 7 to 12 florins (12.84 to 14;, 87) per week. STATE SCHOOL FOB ■WOODWOKE:IW&, CWRTJUIM. This institution comprises a day trade school, an industrial continu- ation school, an open drawing and modeling hall, and a course in mod- eling for pupils of the grammar school. The day school has a preparatorj^ course and a trade coui'se, the lat- ter being divided into sections for cabinetmaking and carpentrj- , for wood carving, and for wood turning. Its pui'pose is to give theoret- ical and practical instruction in these trades. The preparatory course covers two years and the trade course thi^ee years. The preparatory course is intended for those persons v/ ho have had no previous prepa- ration for entrance upon the regular trade course, and imparts such theoretical and practical knowledge as will enable pupils to take up the trade course. Persons who have had previous theoretical and prac- tical training can immediately enter upon the trade course and gradu- ate in tliree years. As the preparatory course niSLj be begun at the •age of 12 3^ears, pupils can graduate from the day school at 17 years of age. The theoretical instruction of the day school embraces general edu- cation, industrial art, technical, and commercial branches. The general educational branches, which are for the most part taught in the two years' preparatory course, replace suoh studies as would be taught pupils of the common school at the a-g'es of 13 and 14 years. Special attention is paid to drawing, which includes tree-hand drawing, per- spective, shading, etc. In the instruction in drawing the endeavor is made to teach pupils to make correct working drawings from sketches and to execute original designs of simple objects used in the trades. The technological branches embrace the teaching of building, the tech- nical properties of wood, the use of tools and woodworking machinery, the installation and arrangement of workshops with special reference to motors, power transmission, and adaptability of certain m^otors to small industries, and the provisions to be made for the health and .safety of workmen. In the commercial branches pupils are taught the important business forms and usages in commercial transactions, bookkeeping, and the study of selected portions of the industrial code. More than one-half the time of the pupils is devoted to sho.pwork In the first year of the preparatory course all pupils are instructed alike in carpentiy, wood carving, and turning, but in the second year they are classified according to their chosen trades. In the regular trade courses pupils begin b3' making simple objects, and .are gradually taught the difi^erent methods of work which finally fit them for the ^execution of larger and more complicated pieces. TBADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION AUSTKIA. 511 Candidates for admission to the preparatory course must be over 12 years of age and must have attended the common schools for six years. In_the trade-school courses, candidates must be 14 years of age, must have passed through the two years' preparatory course, and must have the necessary physical qualifications for the trade chosen. The educa- tion obtained in the preparatory school may be replaced bj' that of a two years' course in a handicraft school, or in a public school if candidates can show that they have obtained a sufficient practical experience. In the admission of candidates prefei-ence is given to sons of persons engaged in the woodworking industries; and if such pupils are indigent and worthy, special provision is made for them in the way of stipends and other assistance. Persons who have had practical experience in this industry are also given a preference, and experience has shown that the best results follow the instruction of this class of pupils. The school year begins September 16 and ends July 31. Instruction is free, but foreign pupils must pay tuition. Special stipends are provided for indigent and worthj" pupils, the money for this purpose being provided by the ministry of education, the Prague Chamber of Commerce and Industry, and the local aid society, the last mentioned also supplying books, drawings, materials, etc., to needy pupils. Special day-school pupils are permitted to attend classes in single branches of studj'. The number of these depends upon the capacity of the school. The general indns-trial continuation school aims to give apprentices and helpers in this industry theoretical and, as far as possible, practical instruction in those indastrial art, technical, and commercial branches which are useful to them in their trades. This continuation school comprises a preparatory one-year course and a two-year industrial course. Candidates for the continuation classes must have completed their common-school education and must have a good knowledge of reading, writing, and arithmetic. The preparatory course embraces reading, writing, arithmetic, and drawing. The industrial course embraces business forms, industrial arithmetic, bookkeeping, free- hand drawing, geometry and geometrical drawing, trade di'awing, and modeling. Instruction is given on weekdays, except Saturdays, from 7 to 9 p. m., and on Sundays from 9 a, m. to noon. On account of the limited time given to instruction and the exhausted condition of the pupils, who are compelled to work at their trade during the day, graduates are encouraged to attend the open drawing hall or the reg- ular trade school. All apprentices of members of the local guilds, except those of bakers, butchers, and barbers, are required to attend this continuation school. The school opens October 6 and closes April 30. Tuition is free, but a matriculation fee of 30 kreutzers (fO. 12) 512 EEPOBT OF THE COMMISSIONEE OF LABOB. must be paid. Indigent pupils are exempt from this payment. Books and other requisites are furnished free of charge to the pupils. The drawing and modeling hall is open during the usual day and evening school hours to persons engaged in the woodworking industry. Here graduates of the industrial continuation school may continue their instruction in industrial drawing. Instruction is also given to young women three times per week, from 1.30 to 3.30 p. m., during the winter months, in the open drawing hall for women. This com- prises ornamental free-hand drawing and drawing from patterns for white and colored embroidery; The women are also taught the art of tastefully decorating their homes. The course begins October 1 and ends July 81. Instruction is free. The modeling course for boys of the public schools is intended to give them an opportunity to learn elementary modeling in clay and to make plaster casts. Boys of the second and third yeaj* classes of the public schools of Chrudim are admitted to this course as far as the capacity of the school permits. Instruction is given free from 2 to 4 p. m. on Wednesdays and Saturdaj^s from September 18 to July 15. The school management consists of the mayor and 8 associates. The teaching personnel comprises a director, 9 trade instructors, 2 assistant instructors, and 3 foremen. This institution undertakes also to advance the interests of the small industries of the locality by loaning, gratuitously, drawings, specifi- cations, and models of articles made in the school; giving advice on important subjects, such as sources of materials used, calculating the cost of production, etc., giving public lectures, sending representatives to expositions, turning over large orders to individual manufacturers, etc. The school has a collection of drawings, models, and other objects for the use of manufacturers in other lines of work, such as locksmith- ing, fancy wrought-iron work, stonecutting, ceramics, etc. During the year 1897-98 subsidies for the aid of indigent pupils, amounting to 3,591 florins (11,4:68), were received from the ministry of education and from other sources. At the beginning of the school tei-m 1899-1900 the attendance of the school was 381 pupils. Of this number 79 were regular and 2 were special day pupils, 219 attended the continuation school, and 81 attended other classes. Graduates of the day school generally begin work as journeymen. Those who served as journeymen befox-e entering the school often obtain good positions at once, such as foremen or managers. Ac- cording to the statement of the director, the school does not under- take to train finished skilled workers. In all trades it is necessary to have some years of practical training to become thoroughly efficient, and such experience can not be obtained in any trade school. In this respect, however, the trade school prepares the worker for obtaining TEABE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION — AUSTBIA. 513 greater benefit from such experience by giving him a good fundamental education. Of 3-1 pupils who graduated from the day school during the years 1895, 1896, and 1897, 33 obtained positions as journeymen, draftsmen, and foremen in Vienna, Salzburg, and in Bohemia, the foremen at wages averaging 50 florins ($20.30) per month and the journeymen and draftsmen at wages ranging from 7 to 16 florins ($2.8i to $6.09) per week. One graduate entered the Technihtm at Mittweida, Saxonj^. STATE SCHOOL FOE. WOODWORKING, EBENSEE. The object of this school is to give the necessary theoretical, and practical training to fit persons for the practice of the various wood- working trades. The institution comprises a day trade school, an open drawing hall, and a drawing course for pupils of the public schools. The day trade school is divided into six sections as follows: (1) Ornamental and figural wood carving, (2) special course in animal figure carving, (3) cabinetmaking, (4) wood turning, (5) carpentry, (6) toy making and papier-mach^ work. Workshops, in charge of prac- tical instructors, are provided for the manual work. The theoretical work comprises drawing, geometr}', modeling, arithmetic, and indus- trial bookkeeping, special attention being given to the development of the artistic taste in pupils. The course of instruction in the da}^ school covers a period of four years, both regular and special pupils being admitted. Candidates for admission as regular pupils must be graduates of the common schools and must be physically fitted for the trades chosen. The school year begins September 16 and ends July 31. No tuition fee is charged. Certificates of graduation are given pupils upon the completion of the course, which entitle them to the practice of their trades as skilled workers. The programme of instruction and hours per week are: First year — Ornamental free-hand drawing, six hours; geometrical drawing, three hours; business forms and arithmetic, two hours. Second year — Free-hand drawing from models, six hours; perspective and shading, three hours. Third year — Architecture, four hours; industrial draw- ing, four hours; business forms and bookkeeping, two hours. Fourth year — Industrial drawing, four hours; bookkeeping, one hour; model- ing, four hours for pupils of the carving section; wood construction work, two hours for pupils of the carpentry section. The greater part of the time is devoted to instruction in the workshops. There the pupils are systematically instructed in their particular lines of trade, special stress being laid on exact work. In the last two years of each course pupils are required to produce marketable objects, which they execute from their own drawings. 9257—02 33 511 EEPOBT OF THE COMMISSIOKEK OF LABOR. The open drawing hall for men is intended to give itistruction in free-hand and industrial drawing to journcj^men, graduates of the school, or other young persons emploj^ed during the day. Instruction is given from 5 to 7 p. m. on Monday's and Thursdays from October 1 to May 31. The drawing course for school children is intended to give better instruction in drawing than can be given in the common schools. This course is especially intended for pupils who wish to enter the trade school, and aids them in selecting their proper vocations. In- struction is given to older pupils from 8 to 11 a. m. on Saturdays and to younger pupils from 3.30 to 5 p. m. on Mondays and Thursda3's from September IT to July 15. The teaching pe]'sonnel consists of a director, 6 trade instructors, and 1 foremen of workshops. The relations between this school and the local woodworking industry are confined to advice, drawings, etc., given to cabinetmakers, there being no other woodworking industries in the immediate vicinity. Plans and drawings are executed from time to time for various woodwork decorations for buildings and churches. The school endeavors to be of assistance to manufacturers in the woodworking industry not only of Ebensee, but of other localities. During the school term 1897-98 a subsidy of 650 florins ($264) was received from the provincial council and 100 florins ($40.60) from the tovrn of Ebensee. For the purpose of giving stipends to worthy pupils, 600 florins ($203) were contributed by the ministry of education and 610 florins (1248) were received from other sources. At the beginning of the school term 1899-1900 there were 114 pupils at this school, of whom 44 attended the day school as regular pupils and 4 as special pupils, and 66 attended the other classes. Of the 20 persons graduated from this school in 1895, 1896, and 1897, 15 obtained employment in the woodworking industr}^ as carvers, cabinetmakers, turners, and carpenters. STATE SCHOOL FOE. WOODWORKING, HALLEIM. This school comprises a day trade school, an open drawing hall, a drawing school for pupils of the public school, and an industrial con- tinuation school. The day school is intended to educate, by means of theoretical and practical instruction, young persons for the practice of the trad«s of wood carvers, cabinetmakers, wood turners, and- carpenters. The course of instruction for each of these trades covers four years. The day courses consist of a preparatory course and special courses in orna- mental and figural wood carving, joining and cabinetmaking, wood turning and fancy woodwork, and carpentry work. The theoretical instruction embraces educational, technical, Indus- TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDtTCATION — AU8TKIA. 515 trial art, and commercial branches, the greater part of the instruction being given, however, in the workshop. B}^ means of instruction in drawing, which includes free-hand, geometrical, and industrial drav\'ing, drawing from models, perspective and shading, and architectural draw- ing, pupils are taught to produce correct con.structive and artistic work, to draw from sketches, and to design and execute simple objects. Pupils in wood cai'ving are also instructed in the elements of anatomy, and in the carpentry- division special attention is given to architectural drawing, the art of building, machine construction, bridge and water- works construction, etc. The technological training includes a study of materials and tools, technical properties of wood, and the uses of machinery in woodworking. In the commercial branches instruction is given in the most important business forms and correspondence, elementary bookkeeping, and commercial arithmetic. The greatest atteption, however, is paid to instruction in the workshop, where pupils learn the necessai-y manual skill which enables them to gain a liveli- hood in a private establishment. The school session begins September 16 and ends May 31. Candi- dates for admission to the day trade school must be li years of age and must have completed the common-school education. Stipends are granted to indigent and worthy pupils. Tuition is free, except to for- eigners. The necessary books, instruments, and other requisites are furnished free of charge to pupils. Each pupil, upon graduating, is given a certificate entitling him to practice his trade as a skilled woriv- man. In addition to the regular pupils the school also admits, as special pupils, apprentices, journeymen, and master workmen in the building, industrial ail, and other trades who wish to pursue certain lines of study. Stoniecutters' apprentices, wood carvers, cabinetmak- ers, etc., working in this and in neighboring towns often avail them- selves of this opportunity. The open drawing and modeling hall is intended to give to persons engaged in this industry and to graduates of this school an oppor- tunity to practice in free-hand and industrial drawing and in modeling. Instruction is gratuitous, and is given on Sundaj's from 9 a. m. to noon. The drawing course for pupils of the public schools enables them to get a better knowledge of drawing than is obtainable in the common schools. The instruction in this course is given free of charge on Wednesdays and Saturdays from 1 to 3 p. m. from September 17 to July 15. The industrial continuation school is intended to give apprentices of the local industries theoretical and practical instruction in such indus- trial art, technical^ and commercial branches as they may utilize to their advantage in their occupations. The school comprises a prepar- atory class, in which reading, writing, arithmetic, and elementary 51(3 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. drawing are taught, and two classes in free-hand, geometrical, and industrial drawing, and industrial arithmetic and bookkeeping. Instruction is given from 5 to 7 p. m. on four week days and from 10 a. m. to noon on Sunday's. Attendance at this school is compulsory for apprentices in Hallein. The course opens October 1 and closes April 30. The trade school proper and the continuation school are each man- aged by a separate board consisting of the mayor and 5 associates. The teaching personnel of the trade school consists of the director, 3 trade instructoi's, 2 foremen, and 3 assistant instructors. Theper,sf)n- nel of the continuation school consists of the director of the trade school and 6 instructors. Besides training young men for the woodworking trade, this insti- tution endeavors to further the interests of this industry in this locality bj^ supplying drawings and models, loaning books, and giving advice to local manufacturers. During the school term 1897-98 the school received subsidies amounting to 458 florins ($186) from the provincial diet, the chamber of commerce of Salzburg, the town of Hallein, and the local trade guilds. Sums amounting to 946 florins (1384) were received from various sources to be used as stipends for indigent worthy pupils. At the beginning of the school term 1899-1900 the attendance at this institution was 231 pupils. Of these, 51 were regular and 11 were special day pupils, 61 attended the industrial continuation school, and 108 attended the other courses. Of the 21 persons graduated from the day school in 1895, 1896, and 1897, 17 obtained positions as journeymen in the woodworking indus- try at wages ranging from 350 to 1,000 iiorins ($142 to ^06) per year. The director of this school in his report for the school term 1897-98 made the following statement: " The transition of graduates from the school to private workshops is the most trying period because they are expected to do not only good but also rapid work. These graduates must compete with skilled workers who devoted their entire apprenticeship to practical Avork, while nearlj' half of the graduates' time was devoted to general and theoretical education, and the latter are therefore at a disadvantage with regard to rapid work. If, how- ever, the graduate is apt and energetic, he will soon pass over this period, will acquire the speed of his fellow-workers, and will in addi- tion have an opportunity to demonstrate the value of his school training, so that foremen, superintendents, and managers will find them a valu- able aid in the preparation of plans and specifications and in the execu- tion of work therefrom. " In this manner graduates have at times risen to important positions, although the school does not aspire to educate foremen, superintendents, or draftsmen. TRADE A-ND TECHNICAL EDUCATION AUSTRIA. 517 STATE SCHOOL FOB WOODWORKING, LAYBACH. This school gives both theoretical and practical instruction in the different branches of the woodworking trade. It has special depart- ments for carpentry and cabinetwork, wood turning, wood carving, and figure carving. There are also two other departments — one for basket making and one for trade drawing. The latter is an open drawing hall to which artisans can resort for making ti'ade drawings under competent instruction. In all the courses great attention is given to drawing. The tech- nical courses include instruction in such matters as the operation of small motors, the properties of wood, the planning of workshops, business principles, and industrial hygiene. The greater part of the time of the pupils is devoted to practical work in workshops. Four 3'ears are required to complete the course in each of the sections devoted to woodworking practice. The basket-making coui'se is for two j^ears only. Two classes of attendants are received — regular and special pupils. Tuition is free to Austrians. Foreigners pay a tuition fee of 100 florins ($40.60). Regular pupils receive text-books and other requi- sites free. Women are admitted to the department for basket making. Candidates for admission must have completed their primary education and must be at least li j^ears of age. The open drawing hall is free to employers and workmen, and instruction is given them on Sundays from 8 a. m. to noon. The corps of teachers includes 13 persons. The attendance at the beginning of the school term 1899-1900 was 128, of whom 75 were regular and 12 were special day pupils, and 45 attended the other courses. In but exceptional cases do graduates enter immediately into respon- sible positions. They must work as ordinary workmen, and reach such positions as foremen, designers, etc., only after j^ears of labor. Of the 28 persons graduated from this school in 1895, 1896, and 1897, 27 obtained employment in the woodworking industrj' as journej^men. STATE SCHOOL FOE CABINETMAKING, MABIANO. This institution comprises a day trade school and an evening con- tinuation school. The object of the institution is to give a theoretical and practical training in the cabinetmaking trade, to develop the existing cottage industry, and, by a thorough training of the younger generation, to increase the efficiency of the working population in the manufacture of marketable furniture. In the day school the course of instruction covers four j^ears. The theoretical instruction embraces the Italian and German languages, industrial arithmetic, free-hand drawing, geometry and geometrical drawing, geography and history, technology, industrial bookkeeping. 518 EEPORT Off THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOE. free-hand drawing from models, perspective, industrial drawing, and styles of ornamentation. Much attention is given to commercial instruction in order to enable the local cabinetmakers to look after their export trade without the use of middlemen or agents. Candi- dates for admission must have completed their common-school educa- tion and must be physically fitted for the industry. Tuition is free except to foreigners, who must pay 50 florins (120.30) per year. Tools and other requisites are furnished free of charge to the pupils. The workshop has a capacity for 20 pupils. The term begins September 1 and closes July 15. In the evening continuation school theoretical instruction is given to journej'men and apprentices of this industry. The instruction is divided into two courses and embraces the following subjects; Free- hand and constructive drawing, business- forms, industrial arithmetic, bookkeeping, penmanship, economic lectures,, and singing. Instruc- tion is given on week days from 6 to 8 p. m. from October 1 to May 31. The teaching personnel consists of a director, 3 instructors, and 2 foremen. At the beginning of the school term 1899-1900, 93 pupils atteaded the school, of whom 1 vras a special and 22 were regular pupils, and 70 attended the continuation schools The Y persons graduated from the day school in 1895, 1896, and 1897, all obtained employment as journeymen- in the cabinetmaking industry at wages ranging from 1 to 2.50 florins (f0.41 to $1.02) per day. Th« trade school has been of assistance to the local cottage in- dustry, both technically and commercially, by furnishing plans,, draw- ings, designs, and models for furniture, etc., to local establishments. STATE SCHOOL FOB WOOD TUBNING, TACHAtT. This institution comprises a day trade school and an industrial con- tinuation school. The purpose of the trade school is to give a thor- ough theoretical and practical training which will fit young men for the practice of the wood turner's trade. The theoretical instruction includes free-hand drawing, drawing fl'om models, geometry and geo- metrical drawing, perspective, architectural styles, industrial drawing, technology, arithmetic, business forms, and bookkeeping. The prac- tical work gives pupils a knowledge of the use of all the tools and apparatus emiDloyed in the turner's trade. The methods and opera- tions of wood carving and cabinetmaking are also taught, but the capacity of the shop for such work is limited to four pupils. The courses of instruction in wood turning and in cabinetmaldng- cover three years and that in wood carving four years. Candidates for admission to the trade school must be over li years of age, must have graduated from the common schools, and must have the physical fitness necessary for their respective trades. The school TBADE AND TECHNICAL EDDTJATIOH" — AUSTRIA. 519 term begins September 16 and closes July 31. No tuition of anj- kind is charged. Materials necessary for instruction are furnished free, and indigent deserving pupils are given monthly stipends of from 1 to 10 florins (^0.41 to $4.06) from a fund set aside for this purpose ^)y the town government. The general industrial continuation school is intended for appren- tices and journe3'men who can not attend the trade school and who wish to perfect themselves in certain theoretical bi'anches. The course of instruction covers two years. In the lirst-year course are taught free-hand drawing, geometry and geometrical drawing, arithmetic, reading, and composition; in the second-year course, industrial draw- ing, arithmetic, business forms, and bookkeeping, with special refer- ence to this industry. This school opens October 1 and closes April 30. In the first-j-ear course instruction is given on Sundays from 9 a. m. to noon and on weekdays from 7 to 9 p. ui.; in the second-year course from 9 a. m. to noon on Sundays and on three weekdays from 7.30 to 9 p. m. The instruction, as well as the necessarj' requisites, is furnished free. On account of the lack of accommodations admission to this school is limited, and instruction is usually given only to per- sons engaged in industries where a knowledge of drawing is necessary. The school is under the management of a board of 10 members, mosl of whom are engaged in the woodworking industry of this locality. The teaching personnel consists of a director, 3 foremen, and 1 assistant instructor. During the school term 18^7-98 this institution received a subsidy of 60 gulden (f20.30) from the chamber of commerce of Eger for the industrial continuation school. A sum of 260 gulden ($102) was received from the ministry of education, 199.50 gulden (|81) from the school fund, and 20 gulden (18.12) from the local savings bank for the aid of vrorthy pupils.- At the beginning of the school term 1899-1900 there were 14 pupils in attendance at this school. The 4 persons graduated in 1895, 1896, and 1897, all obtained employment as journeymen in wood-turning establishments at wages ranging fixjm 6 to 12 florins (f2.44 to $4.87) per week. STATE SCHOOL TOR WOODWORiCING, VILLACH. This school is an important one. It consists of a number of more or less independent schools or courses having for their purpose the imparting of technical instruction to different classes of the worlring population. It embraces a day trade school, consisting of a pre- paratory school of two }'ears' work and a trade school of three years' work; a drawing course for boj^s attending the public schools; an open drawing hall for men; an open drawing hall for women; an industrial continuation school, consisting of a prex'aratoi'y course 520 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. of two years and a regular course of two 3'ear,s; and a commercial school, consisting of a regular course of three 5^ears and a course for stenographers. The day school is intended for j'oung men who desire to learn the woodworking trades. It is so organized that it turns out graduates as fully fitted for the practice of the trades in which they have been receiA'ing instruction as is possible in a trade school. Boys may enter the preparatory' course at 12 years of age. After two years' work in this course they pass three j^ears in the trade school proper, thus graduating at ] 7 years of age, or, as the director of the school says, when the transition from the school to business life is not a diffi- cult one. To enter the preparatory course candidates must be at least 13 years of age and must have passed a six years' public school course. For admission to the trade school proper they must have passed the pre- paratory course or a two years' course in an artisans' school, school of arts and sciences, or other institution which is in ever}' respect up to the standard of the preparatory course. Deserving pupils receive scholarships. Free dinners and free tickets to the public kitchen are also given. Owing to the large number of applicants for admission a competitive examination determines the ones to be received. The instruction given is both theoretical and practical, though much the greater part of the time of the pupils is devoted to the latter. Much attention is given to drawing in its application to the wood- working trades. In this way the pupil is prepared to become an inde- pendent journeyman, capable of designing as well as executing work. Different styles are taught in courses devoted to the history of art. The technical studies include instruction in machinery, small motors, the properties of wood, the establishment of working plants, the tech- nology of woodworking, outlines of industrial h3'giene, commercial accounts, etc. In the workshops the pupils are given a systematic training in all the practical work of their trade. In the preparatory course each pupil has exercises in cabinetmaking, wood turning, and carving, in order to make him acquainted with the rudiments of all branches of the woodworking trade. A definite choice of the particu- lar occupation to be prepared for is not made until the pupil enters the trade school proper. Besides the regular pupils the trade school permits apprentices, helpers, and masters in the small construction and art trades to attend the courses from 8 a. m. to noon and from 2 to 5 p. m. as special pupils. The courses open to them are those in geometrical, free-hand, and industrial drawing, planning and designing of industrial art and architectural objects, etc. These courses are well attended by carpen- ters and masons. Admission is free as far as accommodations permit. The drawing course for boys attending public schools has as its pur- TEADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION — AUSTRIA. 521 pose the giving of a more thorough training in drawing than they can receive in their regular schools, and particularly instruction in draw- ing as applied to industry. These courses are held ever}'^ AVednesday from 10 a. m. to noon throughout the year. The open drawing hall for men furnishes a place to which directors of industrial establishments, graduates of the school, and others can resort to receive further instruction in drawing and designing. Instruc- tion is free and is given from 9 a. m. to noon on Saturda3^s and from 7 to 9 p. m. on Wednesdays. The open drawing hall for women is intended for those who desire instruction in drawing as an aid to their work. The industrial continuation school is for the instruction of appren- tices who are at work during the da3^ The instruction is theoretical, as the practical work is learned by the pupils in workshops. Attend- ance is compulsory upon all apprentices in the city except those in the bakerj" industry. The school is in session from 9 a. m. to noon on Sundays and from 7 to 9 p. m. on three week days. The commercial continuation school offers analogous supplemental instruction to com- mei'cial employees. The trade school pioper and the continuation school are under the management of separate governing boards, that of the former consist- ing of the mayor and 7 associates and that of the latter of the mayor and 9 associates. The corps of instructors for all the branches includes 22 members. The school is supported by the joint contributions of the State, the chamber of commerce, the savings bank, and commercial organizations. The following statement shows the number of pupils registered in each of the various branches of the school during the school term 1897-98: Day school: I'upils. Preparatory course 33 Trade school proper 24 Special pupils 23 Drawing course for public-school boys 93 Open drawing hall for men 27 Open drawing hall for women 20 Industrial continuation school 162 Commercial continuation school 46 Total 428 At the beginning of the school term 1899-1900 there were 56 regular and 17 special day pupils, and 133 others, not including those who attended the continuation courses. Of 24 persons who graduated from the day school in 1895, 1896, and 1897, all obtained employment in the woodworking industry as cabinet- makers, wood carvers, etc., at wages ranging from 7 to 12 florins ($2.84 to 14.87) per week. 522 EEPOKT OF THE COMMISSIOWEK OF LABOE. STATE SCHOOL FOS, ■WOODWOKKIITG, WALLACHISCH mESEi?,ITSCH. This school comprises a day trade school, an open drawing hall, a manual training school for pupils of the public schools, and an indus- trial drawing hall. The purpose of the day trade school is to educate pupils for the various woodworking trades by giving them a system- atic training in theory and practice and imparting such a measure of efficiency as is demanded by the development of the modern wood- working industry. The instruction includes a preparatory course of one year, which is the same for all pupils, and a three or four years' course in a trade chosen by the pupil. The woodworking trades taught at the school are carpentry and cabinetmaking, ornamental wood carving, figural wood carving, wood turning, and decorating and gilding. Each of these courses covers three years, except that in figural wood carving, which covers four years. The theoretical instruction embraces general preparatory, technical, industrial-art, and commercial branches, special attention being given to drawing and styles of architecture and ornamentation. Instruction in drawing includes free-hand drawing from copy and models, geo- metrical drawing, perspective and shading, architectural drawing, and special trade drawing. By this means pupils are enabled to make drawings and original designs for work to be executed in wood. The technical instruction includes a study of the properties of wood and of the important materials used in connection with woodworking. The commercial branches include business forms, industrial arithmetic, bookkeeping, and business practice. The greater part of the time of the pupils (63 per cent) is given to instruction in the workshop. In the preparatory course instruction is given in the use of tools and in the technical uses of wood. The work done is intended to prepare pupils for the trade courses. It also enables the pupils to choose the particular branch of woodworking which they are best adapted for. The special purpose of the workshop for carpentry and cabinetmaking is to perfect pupils in these trades. In this workshop much attention is given to the making of church fix- tures such as altars, pulpits, etc. , for which there is quite a demand in this locality. The instruction in the workshop for ornamental wood carving includes modeling, making and repairing plaster casts, exer- cises in the various styles of carving, such as round and hollow carving, furniture ornamentation, etc. Pupils in this course are also instructed in gilding and decorating, and in pyrography. The workshop for fig- ural wood carving gives pupils an opportunity to perfect themselves in this work, especially in the execution of statues and figures for churches. In the wood-turning shop pupils are taught the execution of all styles of wood turning required in the furniture and carpentry trades, as well as in the manufacture of turned wooden ware and bone TRADE AKB TECHNICAL EDUCATION AUSTRIA. 523 and horn objects. In the workshop for decorating and gildhig, spe- cial attention is given to the gilding and painting of statues, figures, and ornaments of all sorts used in churches. In general, the practical instrviction in the workshops is intended to replace the private instruc- tion received by apprentices working under masters, the school being better fitted to give the pupils a comprehensive knowledge in a shorter time. This school does not prepare pupils to enter upon the higher posi- tions, su<;h as foremen, draftsmen, etc. It only undertakes to train them to become skilled workers in the woodworking trades. In the admission of pupils preference is given to sons of persons engaged in this industry. Candidates for admission must be graduates of the common schools and must have physical fitness for the trade to be learned. Candidates for admission to the trade coui'ses must have passed through the preparatory school or a school giving a similar education. Special pupils are admitted according to the capacity of the school. The same conditions of admission apply in the ca.se of special pupils as in that of regular pupils. A matriculation fee of 1 gulden ($0.41) and a tuition fee of 12 gulden ($4.87) are charged. Indigent and worthy pupils are exempted from the paj- ment of tuition, and other provision is made for them in the form of stipends, ete. The opeii' drawing hall for persons engaged in this industry is intended to bring this school into closer relations with the local indus- try. Advice and instruction is given concerning the execution of woodwork from drawings, objects, and models. Although this hall wa-s originally intended for masters and journeymen, any adult may receive instruction there. Graduates of the trade and continuation schools are here given a special opportunity to perfect themselves in trade drawing. Instruction is given two hours on Sunday mornings during the entire school term, and two hours on Monday afternoons during the winter term only, a charge of 1 gulden ($0.41) being made for such instruction. The course in manual training for pupils of the public schools is intended to give a general idea of the use of tools and to encourage a taste for manual labor. The pupils are not prepared here for any special trade. The general industrial continuation school is intended to give apprentices in the handicraft trades such a general training, commercial education, and skill in drawing as is necessary in the every-day prac- tice of their trades. For this reason the continuation school comprises a preparatory course, with instruction in reading, writing, arithmetic, and the elements- of drawing, and a regular continuation coui-se, with instruction in free-hand, geometrical, and industrial drawing, business forms, arirt::hmetic, and bookkeeping: Instruction is given on Sundays 524 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIOIfER OF LABOE. from 9 a. m. to noon, and on four week da3'S from 6 to 8 p. m., beginning October 1 and ending July 30. No tuition fee is charged, but a matriculation fee of 1 gulden (^0.41) is requii-ed. Indigent pupils are exempted from the pajnnent of this fee and are supplied with the necessary materials. All apprentices are compelled to attend this school. Owing to the limited time of instruction the training is very much restricted, and for this reason graduates of the school often con- tinue their education bj- attending the open drawing hall. The teaching personnel of the entire school consists of a director, 6 foremen, 6 trade instructors, and 8 assistant instructors. During the school term 1897-98 the institution received subsidies for the industrial continuation courses amounting to 692 florins (1281) from the ministry of education, and 187 florins (175.92) from the Chamber of Commerce and Industry of Olmutz, the local town government, and the local guilds. The sum of 1,730 florins (1702) was received from these and other institutions for scholarships, stipends, and other aid to worthy pupils. At the beginning of the school term 1899-1900 256 pupils attended this institution, of whom 17 were attendants at the day school, 93 at the continuation school, and 8S at other classes. Of the 31 persons graduated from the day school in 1895, 1896, and 1897 nearly all obtained employment as journeymen in woodworking establishments at wages ranging from -10 to 50 florins ($16.24 to $20.30) per month. One of the principal objects of this institution is the advancement of the small industries of the locality. This object is attained by the execution of work in the shops of the school, the securing of orders for articles, executing sketches, plans, and specifications, giving advice on technical subjects, sources of materials used, etc. The usefulness of this school is not restricted to this town, but often extends to other localities. STATE SCHOOL FOE, WOOD AND lEON WORK, BKUCK a. d. MTJE,. This institution consists of a day school, a drawing hall, and an industrial continuation school. The day school has workshops for carpentering and cabinetwork, wood turning, and locksmithing. It seeks to replace regular apprenticeships by giving a more theoretical and practical course of instruction than could be afforded in a private workshop. The theoretical instruction comprises a course in general education, drawing, and commercial branches. By means of the draw- ing course the pupils are taught in the preparation and execution of plans and drawings which apply to their respective trades. In the commercial course they are ^taught such branches as may be needful to them in their business as master workmen. Through practical in- struction in the workshops the pupils are made familiar with all the TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION — AUSTEIA. 525 work by creative methods, styles of ornamentation, and in fact such high-class work as they could not learn in a private establishment. In order to be admitted to the school, candidates must have com- pleted their common-school education and must possess the physical fitness for learning the trade. No tuition fee is required, except a registration fee of 1 florin (f0.41). Foreigners must pay 25 florins (110.15) for the half-year term. The utensils required in the work- shops are furnished free to all pupils. The course of instruction for the regular pupils is four years. Every pupil who successfully passes through this school receives a certificate entitling him to follow his trade as a ]'ourne3'man or master. Experience has shown that pupils of ordinary intelligence and ambi- tion, who possess the preliminary education required, can successfully pass through the school in the allotted time. Provision is made for worthy and needy pupils in the form of scholarships and other assist- ance. The drawing materials are furnished free to the pupils, and they receive special remuneration from the sale of objects made in the workshops. Reduced railroad rates are allowed pupils who attend this school. The school opens September 15 and closes July 31 of each year. The free drawing hall has two divisions, one for men and one for women. In the former instruction is given to masters and journeymen and to apprentices who wish to perfect themselves in drawing. The classes are held on Sundays from 8 a. m. to noon, from October 15 to June 15 of each year. The drawing hall for women affords an oppor- tunity to women to practice drawing such objects as are of material benefit to them in female handiwork. Instruction is given on week daj'S from 8 a. m. to noon, from September 15 to Jul}^ 31 of each year. The industrial continuation school for males is intended for persons who are serving an apprenticeship. The subjects taught are reading, writing, industrial arithmetic, bookkeeping, and drawing. The course of instruction covers two years, the pupils finishing the course receiv- ing a graduating certificate. The school is in session from October 15 to May 15 of each year. This institution is under the control of the mayor of the city and seven curators, most of whom are persons engaged in manufacturing handicraft trades. The teaching personnel consists of a director and 11 teachers. The most cordial relations exist between the manage- ment of this school and the local manufacturers. The school receives a subsidy of 100 florins ($40.60) for the use of the continuation school. During the school year 1897-98, 506 florins (|205) were realized from the sale of the work executed by pupils in the workshops. This money was divided among the pupils. The attendance of the school was 131 pupils at the beginning of the school year 1899-1900. Of these, 40 attended the day school, 42 the 526 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. continuation school, and 49 the other classes. The 22 persons gradu- ated from the school in 1895, 1896, and 1S97, all obtained employment as journeymen in workshops of the wood and iron working industry at good daily wages. STATE SCHOOI, FOB STONECtTTTING, LAAS. This school, in Tyrol, was founded for the purpose of aiding in the development of the local marble industry and to train young persons of this locality for that class of work. The school includes a day trade school and a drawing school for pupils of the public schools. The daj"- school has two divisions, one for stone carving and one for stonecutting. The former course covers five years and the latter four years. Theoretical and practical instruction is given in both courses. The theoretical instruction consists mainly of drawing and modeling, commercial branches, and the necessaiy technical knowledge for this industry. The greater portion of the time is devoted to practical work, so that the pupils may enter dii-ectly upon their trades when they graduate, even though a further training in drawing and modeling may be desirable. The school term begins October 1 and closes August 15. During vacation time, from August 15 to September 1, additional instruction is given in the workshop. Tuition fees are required for foreign pupils only. The number of regular pupils is limited to 20. Stipends and other aid is provided for indigent and worthy pupils. Drawing paper and tools are furnished by the school. Special pupils are admitted to the theoretical instruction classes whenever the capacity of the school permits. The drawing course for pupils of the common schools is intended for boys who wish to enter upon the mai'ble industry. Instruction is given from 8.30 to 11 a. m., on Thursdays, from October 15 to April 30. The management of this institution is in the hands of a board of 10 members. The teaching personnel consists of the director, 2 trade instructors, 2 foremen, and 1 assistant instructor. The school received a subsidy of 80 florins ($32.18) from the chamber of commerce of Bozen for fuel and light. The sum of 150 florins (160.90) was received from the ministry of education, and 220 florins (§89.32) from other sources for stipends and other aid to pupils. The attendance at the school was 26 pupils at the beginning of the school term 1899-1900, of whom 19 were regular and 7 special pupils. Of the 13 persons graduated from this school in 1895, 1896, and 189T, 10 obtained employment in the stone-working industry as stone carvers and journeymen stonecutters, at wages i-anging from 10 to 15 florins (14.06 to 16.09) and from 8 to 12 florins (|3.26 to §54.87) per week, respectively. TKA.de and technical EDVCATION — AUSTBIA. 527 Schools fob EAiiTHENWAUE and Glasswobk. STATE MODELING SCHOOli EOE, CERAMIC ASTD RELATED INDTTS- TEIBS, OBEBLEtXTEK'SDOBI'. This institution embraces a day trade school and a general industrial continuation school. The purpose of the day trade school is to give a thoroug>h education in ornamental and figural modeling, together with such a practical and theoretical training as will fit pupils to practice the trade of modeler. The principal subjects taught are drawing and modeling in ornamental as well as figural work in majolica and terra cotta and the application of drawing and modeling to stone and stucco work and metal casting. Three years are required to complete the course, but in many cases a fourth j^ear's attendance is necessary. The instruction in drawing consists of free-hand and geometrical drawing, drawing from plaster casts in chalk and charcoal, India ink and colors, figural and anatomical drawing from plaster casts, and trade drawing, mostly of earthenware objects. The modeling work begins with the simplest forms in ord^r that pupils ma jr familiarize themselves with the use of tools and materials. This is followed by modeling ornaments of various kinds, instruction being given in styles of orna- mentation and their characteristics. Finally the. application of models ing to practical work is taught. The figural modeling begins with the reproduction of parts of the human body, followed by the modeling of anatomical and other bodies from casts and from photographs. The practical work embraces modeling, casting, retouching, making models for reproduction in plaster, and turning on the potter's wheel. The theoretica;l subjects taught are arithmetic, business forms, and book- keeping. These are taught three times per week, from 6 to 9 p. m., in connection with the continuation school. The drawing and composi- tion books and other requisites are furnished free to all pupils, and text-books also to those who can not afford to furnish them. Candidates for admission to this school must have the necessary physical and mental fitness, must be over li j^ears of age, and must be graduates of the common schools. No fees of any kind are required except from foreignei's, who pay a tuition of 30 florins (§12.18) per half-year term. Special pupils are admitted to the day school for the purpose of perfecting themselves in drawing and modeling. They pay no fees for attendance. In the general industrial continuation school the course covers three years. All apprentices both of handicraftsmen and of merchants are required to attend these classes. No apprenticeship term is completed until the apprentice has obtained a gi-aduation certificate from this school. The instruction is given on three days of the week from 6 to 9 p. m., and on Sundays from 9 a. m. to noon. The school opens September 16 and closes Julj'- 31. The subjects taught are industrial arithmetic, business forms, bookkeeping, free-hand and geometrical 528 EEPOKT OF THE COMMISSIOHEB OF LABOK. drawing, perspective, aud industrial drawing. The necessarj' requisites are supplied to pupils, and no tuition fees are charged. The managing board of the day and continuation schools consists of the mayor and 4 associates. The teaching personnel consists of the director and 4 instructors. At the beginning of the school term 1899-1900, 22 pupils attended the day school, of whom 3 were special pupils. The number of attendants at the continuation school during this year is not known, but 132 matriculated in 1897. The large earthenware manufactory in this city was founded in 1897 by a former graduate of this school. Aside from this, Oberleutens- dorf has no workshops in which modeling may be practically applied. The school, however, stands in close relation with the manufacturers of neighboring towns, and much aid is given them in the form of models, drawings, and technical advice. The 20 persons graduated from the day school in 1895, 1896, and 1897 obtained employment as designers and modelers in ceramic establishments at wages ranging from 40 to 80 florins (.?16.24 to $82.48) per month. STATE SCHOOL FOB, THE EARTHENWARE INDUSTRY, TEPLITZ. The purpose of this institution is to offer to young persons wishing to enter the earthenware industry an opportunity to obtain the neces- sary theoretical and practical training and to develop a superior artis- tic taste. Persons adopting other industrial art occupations may also be admitted, but the instruction of the school is mainly directed toward the earthenware industry. The school also aims to improve the qual- ity of the earthenware made in its vicinity bj^ giving free instruction, loaning worldng models, drawings, books, etc., and giving advice about sources, prices, etc., to local manufacturers. This close relation with the business interests exists not only in the case of the earthen- ware but also of all other art industries. The institution embraces a day trade school, an open drawing, modeling, and painting hall, and an evening and Sunday course in drawing, modeling, and painting. The day trade school instruction includes classes in drawing, model- ing, painting, and chemistry. The first year is a preparatory course, the second and third years constituting the regular trade course. The preparatory course is intended to give pupils the necessarj'- training in drawing, modeling, and painting, and to fit them to enter the trade course. The instruction includes elementary free-hand drawing from simple ornaments and from objects and models, modeling objects in clay, and the elements of technical dr-awing and geometry, as far as these are nec- essary in the earthenware industry ; the simplest elements of aquarelle and enamel work, hy which pupils obtain an idea of colors and their mixture, the uses of painting utensils, and flower painting. Exer- TBADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION — AUSTEIA. 529' cises in calligraphy, including various styles of ornamental letterings are also given. The instruction in chemistry relates to the important- metals and metalloids used in the ceramic industry, their compounds, signs, and formulas, and the most important elements of organic chem- istry. The instruction- in physics, mineralogy, and botany also has- special reference to the ceramic industry. Candidates for admission must be li years of age and must be gradu- ates of the common schools. Special pupils are admitted to the day school for the purpose of taking up individual branches of study^ Handicraftsmen in the building trades, such as masons, carpenters,, etc., attend during the winter months only, some during the daytime- and others on evenings and Sundays. Scholarships are provided for needy and industrious pupils. Books and other requisites are also- furnished in such cases. Tuition is free except for foreigners, -who- pay a fee of 50 florins ($20.30) per year. The school term begins- September 16 and ends July 31. The dra-wing, modeling, and painting hall -was opened as a separate- division of the school on October 1, 1887. Instruction is given free on. four daj^s of the -week in free-hand and industrial drawing, modeling, and painting. The main purpose of this hall is to offer opportunities for instruction to masters and journeymen who are already practicing' in this industry. The number of pupils is limited. The evening and Sunday school connected with this institution is' intended to give apprentices and journeymen such instruction in draw- ing, modeling, and painting as will be of service to them in their respective trades. The greater number of these pupils are employed, in earthenware establishments in this locality. Instruction is given on Sundays from 9 a. m. to noon, an^ on Tuesdays and Thursdays from. 7 to 9 p. m. , no tuition fee being charged. The school opens October 1 and closes April 30. The management of the entire institution is in the hands of a board consisting of the mayor and 6 associates. The teaching personnel consists of a director, 6 trade instructors, 3 foremen, and 1 assistant instructor. During the school term 1897-98 a subsidy of 50 florins ($20.30) was received from the Chamber of Commerce in Eeichenberg. Besides- this, 773 florins (1311:) were received from other sources for stipends- and assistance of various kinds to pupils. During this term a number of excursions were made to various manufact-uring establishments^ under the guidance of the instructors. At the beginning of the school term 1899-1900 193 pupils attended the school, of whom 54 were regular and 6 were special pupils; 12& attended the Sunday and evening classes, and 5 attended other ccrurses. Graduates do not, as a rule, obtain important positions when leaving this trade school, and if they do it is usually because they had previous- 9257—02 Si 530 KEPOET OF THE COMMISSIONEE OF LABOE. practical experience. The 52 persons graduated from the day school in 1895, 1896, and 1897, obtained employment in earthenware estab- lishments as journeymen at wages ranging from 6 to 8 florins ($2.44 to 13.26) per week, and 40 to 70 florins ($16.24 to $28.42) per month. STATE SCHOOL FOE TEE EAKTHENWARE INDUSTRY, ZBTAIM. This school embraces a day trade school j an open drawing hall for men, an open drawing hall for women, and an industrial continuation school. The day school aims to train pupils in the work of the earthenware industry. It is intended for graduates of the common, grammar, man- ual training, or the lower classes of intermediate schools. The regu- lar course covers three years, but pupils who wish to obtain a further training in chemistry, modeling, painting, etc. , may continue to attend a fourth year, and, with the permission of the ministry of education, a fifth year. The school opens September 16 and closes July 31. Both regular and special pupils are admitted, special pupils being either graduates of this school who "wish to obtain a further training in certain lines, or persons engaged in practice who wish to perfect themselves in certain branches of their work. The subjects tauglit are as follows: First year — Eeligion, lai^uages, geometry, geometrical drawing, aritrimetic, physics, calligraphy, free-hand drawing, modeling, and turning. Second year — Eeligion, industrial arithmetici correspondence, inor- ganic chemistry, perspective, stereometry, form and heraldic design, free-hand draw- ing, modeling, turning and molding or ceramic painting. Third year — Eeligion, industrial correspondence, bookkeeping, inorganic chemistry, ceramics, industrial chemistry, perspective, industrial drawing, modeling, and execution of practical work from patterns. The open drawing hall for men is intended to give persons engaged in the earthenware industry and graduates of this school an opportu- nity to perfect themselves in free hand and industrial drawing, in mak- ing sketches, and in preparing plans of objects to be executed. It is open from October 1 to July 15. The open drawing hall for women serves a similar purpose to the preceding, being intended to give girls who have completed their com- mon-school education an opportunity^ to practice such drawing as may be useful to them in their occupations. It also opens October 1 and closes July 15. The general industrial continuation school is intended to give appren- tices such theoretical and practical training as will be of benefit to them and will increase their efficiency as workmen in the handicraft trades. The school also educates journeymen and strives to develop their taste for art in this industry. The school opens October 1 and closes May 31. Th« management of the entire institution is in the hands of a board ■consisting of the mayor and 5 associates. The teaching personnel TEADE AND TECHJSTCAL EDUCATION — AITSTKIA. 531 consists of a director, 7 trade instructors, 7 assistant instructors, and 2 foremen. During the school term 1897-98 the school received 350 florins ($145) from the ministry of education and 3,254 florins (^15) from other sources for scholarships, stipends, and other aid to pupils. At the beginning of the school term 1899-1900 there were 190 pupils at this school, of whom 50 were regular and 6 special day pupils; 112 attended the continuation school and 22 attended other courses. This institution is also of assistance to the local manufacturers bv preparing patterns and models for their use, and hy making chemical and technical tests and researches. STATE SOHOOIi FOE, THE GLASS INDUSTSY, HAIDA. This institution embraces a day trade school, a Sunday school, an open drawing hall, and a drawing course for pupils of the common schools. The day school is intended to give the necessary instruction to per- sons desiring to become glass stainers, engravers, and etchers in the various branches of the glassworking industry. The course covers four years and is open to persons who have been graduated from the public schools. . Pupils may be graduated at the end of three j^ears, but experience has shown that in order to be thoroughly competent a four years' attendance is necessary. The school opens September 16 and closes July 31. The theoretical instruction of the day school comprises general edu- cational, technical, and commercial branches, including drawing. The latter, to which special emphasis is given, comprises free-hand, tech- nical, and industrial drawing. The regular practical instruction is carried on simultaneously with the theoretical work. The commercial course comprises the most important business forms, arithmetic, and bookkeeping. The plan of instruction of the day school is as follows: First year — Elements of free-hand drawing, geometrical drawing, physics, chemistry, commercial arithmetic, business forms, writing, and practical work. Second year — Free-hand drawing from models, study of perspective, shading, form, heraldic design, industrial drawing, decorative painting, modeling, technology, chemical laboratory work, commercial arithmetic, business forms, and practical work. Third year — Free-hand drawing from models, industrial drawing, decorative painting, modeling, chemical laboratory work, industrial bookkeeping, and practical work. Fourth yeai- — Industrial draw- ing and practical work. The day school has regular and special pupils, the former being those who wish to take regular courses and the latter those who take only certain subjects or who wish to obtain a better practical training. The Sunday school is designed for journeymen and apprentices who receive instruction on Sundays from 9 to 11 a. m. , beginning the first Sunday after September 16 and ending the last Sunday in May. The 532 REPORT OP THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. subjects taught are free-hand and industrial drawing- and decorative painting. The drawing hall is open during three forenoons of each week to persons engaged in the glassworking industry. Its purpose is to offer facilities for further development in drawing and in the execu- tion of working plans. This hall is especially adapted to the further training of graduates of the day trade school. The drawing course for pupils of the common schools is intended for pupils of the higher classes. They receive instruction in elemen- tary free-hand drawing on Saturdays and Sundays from 2 to 4 p. m. The management of the school is intrusted to a board consisting of the mayor of Haida and 7 associates, most of whom are persons engaged in this industry. The teaching personnel comprises a director, 7 trade instructors, 1 foreman, and 1 assistant instructor. The industrial continuation school at Falkenau, which is under the supervision of the director of the trade school at Haida, is intended to give glassworkers, such as stainers, engravers, etc., an opportu- nity to obtain a further knowledge of drawing and instruction in mercantile branches. The management of this school is in the hands of a board consisting of the mayor of Falkenau and 8 associates. The school has 2 instructors. The term begins September 1 and closes June 30. The trade school at Haida renders assistance to the local industries bj'^ executing patterns, designs, etc., giving advice, and placing its librarj^ and models at the disposal of local manufacturers. During 1898 the institution at Haida received 894 florins ($363) from the ministry of education and from other sources for aid to indigent and worthy pupils. In addition to this the ministry of edu- cation made provision for two stipends of 180 florins (173.08) each and one of 150 florins ($60.90), and various organizations contributed smaller sums. During the school term 1899-1900, 195 pupils attended the school at Haida. Of these 31 were regular and 5 were special day pupils, and 159 attended the continuation and other courses. Of 16 persons graduated from the day school in 1895, 1896, and 1897, 13 obtained employment in the glass industry as designers and glass engravers at wages ranging from 20 to 60 florins ($8.12 to $21.36) per month. STATE SCHOOL FOR THE GLASS INDUSTRY, STEIN SCHONAXJ. This institution embraces an industrial art school, a drawing course for pupils of the public schools, a special course in chemistry, an open drawing hall, and a trade continuation school. The object of the industrial art school is to educate designers and painters in the hollow glassware and porcelain industries by giving them, by means of systematic theoretical and practical instruction, a TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION — AUSTRIA. 535 higher degree of efficiency in their art than they could obtain in ordi- nary practice. The course of instruction covers three years, although pupils may continue for a fourth year if they desire to do so. The theoretical instruction includes a thorough training in drawing, painting, elementary instruction in form and in heraldic design, and general educational, technical, industrial art, and commercial branches. The instruction in drawing comprises elementary drawing, drawing from models, drawing and painting from nature, such as animals, plants, etc., geometry, perspective, and shading. Much attention is given to a proper development of taste in form and ornamentation and in the matching of colors and tHe applications of various styles of ceramic art, so that pupils may be enabled in actual practice to execute work from sketches or objects and to design glass and porcelain ware. The technological subjects include the fundamental principles of chem- istry and chemical properties of materials used in this industry, such as glass, porcelain, china, etc., etching, and preparing enamel and metallic colors. In the commercial instruction pupils are taught such business forms and practices as may be of value to them in the practice of their trades. The greatest importance is given to practical instruction, so that pupils may learn the methods of work and decoration which are required in actual practice. The instruction during the first and part of the second year in glass engraving and decorating is confined to work especially designed to develop their skill, after which the pupils take up marketable objects. The greatest stress is laid upon accurate, substantial work. Candidates for admission to this industrial- art school must have been graduated from the common schools, and preference is given to sons of persons engaged in this industry. During the school term 1897-98, 80 per cent of the pupils were sons of such persons. Pupils are required to attend the school regularl}^ Needy and worthy pupils receive stipends of from 20 to 100 florins ($8.12 to $i0.60), according to their needs and scholarship. Instruction is free, but for- eigners are required to pay a tuition of 50 florins ($20.30) per school term. The school opens September 16 and closes July 31. Upon completing their course of study pupils receive graduation certificates which entitle them to practice their respective trades. Apprentices, journeymen, and designers of related industries may be admitted to this school as special pupils in order to perfect themselves in certain lines of work. There is no specified period of instruction for special pupils, although they must, when entering the school, designate the subjects that they wish to take and the hours they intend to devote to each, and they are required to attend accordingly. The drawing course for pupils of the common schools covers one year, and is intended to give them a better knowledge of drawing than 584 EEPOKT OF THE COMMISSIONEK OF LABOB. it is possible to obtain in the common schools. Pupils of the higher classes of the common schools are admitted, but only so many as the capacity of the school permits. The course begins September 16 and closes July 15. Instruction is given on Thursdays from 9 a. m. to noon and from 1.30 to 3.30 p. m., and is gratuitous. The special course in chemistry gives to persons engaged in the glass and metal industries and to pupils attending school an opportunity to become acquainted with the fundamental principles of chemistry, the principal chemical elements and combinations, and the methods of decorating, staining, coloring, etc. , used in the glass and metal indus- tries. The instruction given is b'oth theoi-etical and practical. These lectures are given every Thursday from 7.30 to 8.30 p. m. from March 1 to July 15. No tuition is charged. The open drawing hall, which stands in close relation with the local industries, is intended for masters and journeymen and any other adults who wish to obtain instruction or pi-actice in drawing, model- ing, and designing for their particular occupations. Instruction is given from 9 a. m. to noon on Mondays and Wednesdays during the regular school term. No fees are charged. The trade continuation school gives such theoretical and practical instruction to apprentices and journeymen as is useful to them in the practice of their trades. Instruction is given fourteen hours per week, and comprises the following subjects: Course for apprentices — First year, elementary free-hand drawing, industrial arithmetic, and busi- ness forms; second year, free-hand drawing from models, decorative painting, industrial drawing, arithmetic, business forms, and book- keeping. Course for masters and journeymen: Decorative painting, ligural and industrial painting. Three years are usually required to complete these courses, the first being intended as a prepai-atory school for pupils who have had no training in drawing. In the course for apprentices instruction is given from September 16 to July 15 each Monda}', Wednesday, and Sunday from 9 a. m. to noon and from 7 to 8 p. m. , and in the course for masters and. journej'men from October 1 to March 31 each Sunday from 9 a. m. to noon. No tuition fees are charged. The teaching personnel consists of a director, 4 trade instructors, 2 foremen, and 1 assistant instructor. During the j'ear 1898 the school received for use as stipends and other aid to needy pupils the sum of 300 florins (|122) from the ministry of education and 399 florins ($162) from various other sources. There were 189 pupils in attendance at the school at the beginning of the school year 1899-1900, of whom 18 attended the day classes as regular and 9 as special pupils, 88 attended the industrial continuation school, and 71 the other classes. Of 21 persons graduated from the day school in 1895, 1896, and 1897, 18 obtained employment in glass TBADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION — AUSTKIA. 535 Tvorks as designers, glass stainers, and glass engravers at wages rang- ing from 6 to 15 florins (12.44: to 16.09) per week. The chief purpose of the trade school is to elevate industrial art not only by the training of skilled workmen, but by advancing in every way the smaller industries. In this way the service of the school extends not only to those engaged in the glass industry, but also to stonecutters, bronze workers, decorators, fancy wrought-iron workers, cabinetmakers, etc. Schools for Metal, Working. state schooii rob machine consteuction, ki/agenfttrth. This is a day school which prepares young men to become efficient workmen in all the branches of the machine construction industry. In order to be admitted candidates must be over 14 years of age, must be physically strong, and must have successfully passed through the common schools. Special pupils are admitted if the capacit)' of the school permits. The tuition for the regular pupils is 10 florins (|4.06) per term. No tuition is charged for persons of small means. For- eigners must pay a fee of 25 florins (fl0.15). Special pupils pay 3 florins (11.22) per month. The school opens September 15 and closes July 31. Examinations for admission are severe, preference being given to persons who have had some practical experience in the work- shop or some other school, and to sons of owners of manufacturing establishments. The matriculation fee is 50 kreutzers (|0.20). The instruction is theoretical and practical, and the course covers three years. The theoretical instruction comprises general educa- tional, technical, and commercial branches and drawing. The practi- cal instruction includes all forms of machine construction work and engine and boiler tending. During the first year the pupils are taught simple file work and lock and key making, metal turning, drilling, thread and screw cutting, tool making, pattern making, to assist at forge work, and to tend steam engines. The work during the second year is similar to the preceding, except that it is more difficult and complicated. During the third year pupils are taught the actual work of machine construction, such as the making of lathes, drilling machines, etc., together with engine tending and pattern makmg. Pupils are also taken to manufacturing establishments in order to see practical work in this industry. Pupils completing their three-year course receive certificates which entitle them to all the privileges of journeymen and master workmen. Whenever they are found to be physical^ or mentally unfit to con- tinue their course, they are dismissed from the school, in which case they receive a certificate of' attendance such as is given to special pupils. 53fi KEPOBT OP THE COMMISSIONEB OF LABOB. In addition to the regular course mentioned above, a special course is given during the months of February and March to persons wishing to prepare for the engineers' and boiler tenders' examinations. Instruction in these courses is free and is given from 6 to 7 p. m. on week days. The teaching personnel consists of a director, a technical instructor, 6 foremen and 2 assistant foremen of workshops, and 5 teachers. Subsidies amounting to 2,360 florins ($958) were received from the state and provincial governments and from the provincial savings bank for the aid of needy pupils. The attendance at the beginning of the school term 1899-1900 was 206, of whom 87 were regular day pupils, 27 attended a special course in boiler and engine tending, and 91 attended the continuation courses. Of 63 persons gi'aduated in 1895, 1896, and 1897, 57 found employ- ment in machine construction establishments as journeymen, drafts- men, and assistant foremen, at wages ranging from 35 to 125 florins (114.21 to $50.75) per month in the beginning. After some practical experience these graduates received wages ranging from 1,800 to 2,400 florins (1740 to |974) per year. STATE SCHOOL FOK liOCKSMITHING, SWIATNIKI. The object of this school is to educate persons as practical lock- smiths and to further the interests of the locksmithing industry in the locality. The school comprises a day ti'ade school with a four years' course. Both regular and special pupils are admitted, the lat- ter receiving instruction in any special branch of this industry. Pupils after being graduated usually enter the locksmithing industry as journeymen, and their superior intelligence and knowledge soon lift them above the ordinary workman to fill positions as foremen or managers. The course comprises theoretical and practical instruction, sixteen hours per week being devoted to the former and thirty -two hours per week to the latter. The theoretical instruction embraces general educational, technical, and commercial branches. The general educational instruction em- braces religion, German and Polish languages, arithmetic, general business principles, and penmanship. The technical subjects embrace free-hand drawing from objects and models, geometrical drawing, including perspective and shading, and trade drawing, which also includes the designing of simple objects. This drawing instruction is intended to enable pupils to fill positions as draftsmen when required to do so, and to make correct working drawings from sketches exe- cuted by themselves. The technical branches also include physics, chemistry, and technology to such an extent as is necessary for a cor- rect understanding of the various objects and materials met with in TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION — AUSTRIA. 537 this industry. In the commercial branches pupils are taught the important business forms, industrial calculations, and the fundamental principles of elementary bookkeeping. The greater part of the time is devoted to practical instruction in the workshop. This comprises principally the working of iron and steel and such other metals and woodwork as may be necessary to familiarize the pupil with the manipulation and properties of all materials which are handled in the locksmith's trade. The pupils are also taught the use of machinery and tools used in this industry. Candidates for admission as regular pupils must be graduates of the common schools, must be over 13 years of age, and must be physically fitted for the locksmith's trade. Pupils who have had previous train- ing may enter a class above that of the first year. Preference is given to sons of persons engaged in the local locksmithing industry, the percentage of such pupils in 1898 being 25. No tuition is charged except to foreigners. A matriculation fee of 2 florins (81 cents) is required in order to defray the expenses of school requisites, which are furnished pupils free of charge. Provision is also made for worthj^ and needy pupils. Special pupils must pay a fee for the use of tools and machines. The school management consists of a board of 9 members. The teaching personnel comprises a director, 1 instructor, 7 foremen, and 2 assistant foremen. At the end of the school term 1896-97, 7 pupils were graduated from the day school. This school assists the local industry bj'^ placing its machines at the disposal of persons engaged in this handicraft. This service is of especial benefit in view of the fact that not a single motor or power machine has thus far been used in the locksmithing industry outside the school. This school also endeavors to raise the standard and quality of the articles made in this locality by making tests and securing new tools by which articles maj' be made with less expense and without injury to their quality. For the year 1897-98 the school received for the aid of worth}- and needy pupils 400 florins ($162) from the ministry of education, 1,0.30 florins ($418) from the provincial council, and 855 florins (§347) from other sources. At the beginning of the school term 1899-1900 there were 63 pupils in attendance at this school, of whom 62 took the regulai' and 1 the special course. Of 16 pupils graduated from this school in 1895, 1896, and 1897, 1 is a foreman in the workshop of this school and the others are either owners of or skilled employees in house and lock smithing establish- ments. Those working for wages earned from 1.10 to 1.30 florins (45 to 53 cents) per da3^ 538 EEPOBX OF THE COMMISSIONER 01' LABOE. STATE SCHOOL FOR IRON AND STEEL "WORK, FULPMES. The purpose of this school is to prepare trained workers in such occupations relating to metal working as those of machinists, cutlers, and tool makers. It is especially intended to meet the needs of those expecting to work in their own homes or in small shops. Like many other schools, there are two distinct departments, the one con- sisting of courses given during the day and constituting the trade school proper and the other of evening courses intended for young apprentices who are compelled to work during the daytime. The lat- ter is essentially a continuation school. The day school comprehends three years of instruction. This instruction is both theoretical and practical. A great deal of attention is paid to drawing and the training of the pupils in the making of sketches and working plans, as well as in their interpretation. The more technical courses relate to mechanics, machinery, transmission of power, character of materials, etc. Attention is also given to the commercial asjjects of the different trades. Every effort is made to impress upon the pupil the necessity for exactness and the following of correct methods i-ather than mere dexterity. He is instructed in the use of the latest devices and patterns and in recent progress of the trade. Besides the regular pupils, special pupils may attend such courses as they desire. The evening courses are entirely theoretical. The most important subject taught is drawing. The school has only recently been established, and it is too early to estimate results. The number of pupils registered in 1899-1900 was 19 in the day courses and 37 in the evening or continuation course. STATE SCHOOL FOE THE IRON AND STEEL INDUSTRY, STEYER. This institution embraces a day trade school, an industrial continu- ation school, and a special course for boiler tenders and enginemen. The day trade school trains young men in the cutlery and tool-making trades by giving them a methodical, theoretical, and pi-actical educa- tion. The course covers three years of ten months each. Instruction is given daily, except on holidays and Sundays, from 8 a. m. to noon and from 1.30 to 6 p. m. Both regular and special pupils are admit- ted. Regular pupils must be at least 14 years of age, must be physi- cally fitted for this trade, and must have graduated from the common schools. A tuition fee of 5 florins (12.03) is charged. Needy indus- trious pupils are exempted from the payment of this fee. The pupils must supply the requisites for the theoretical instruction, but the tools and materials for the practical work are furnished by the school. The articles made in the workshops are the property of the school, but they may be bought by the pupils at the close of the year at the actual TBAD'E AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION AUSTRIA. 539 cost price. Upon completing the three years' course regular pupils are given certificates of graduation. Special pupils obtain certificates of attendance. The industrial continuation school for journeymen is intended to give persons who are employed during the day guch instruction in drawing and commercial branches as may be useful to them in the practice of their trade. The instruction is given in two courses of seven months each, beginning October 1 and ending April 30, the classes being in session on week days from 7 to 8 p. m. and on Sun- days from 8 to 11 a. m. The subjects taught are industrial arithmetic, bookkeeping, correspondence, penmanship, and geometrical, free- hand, and industrial drawing. In order to be admitted pupils must have attended the common schools, and must have served an appren- ticeship. A tuition fee of 1 florin (|0.41) per term and a matriculation fee of 50 kreutzers (f0.20) are required. Pupils without means are exempted from the payment of these fees and are also furnished with the drawing materials. Certificates are given to graduates of the continuation school. The special course for boiler tenders and enginemen is given on Sundays from 2 to 4 p. m., from October 1 to February 28. A tuition fee of 1 florin (?0.41) is charged. Graduates receive certificates show- ing the result of their work and conduct while in attendance at the school. The management of the entire institution is in the hands of a board consisting of the mayor of Steyer and 7 associates. The teaching per- sonnel consists of a director, i trade instructors, 2 assistant instructors, 3 foi'emen, and 1 assistant foreman. During the year 1898 the school received 600 florins (1244) from the ministry of education and 1,760 florins ($715) from other sources for scholarships, stipends, etc. At the beginning of the school term 1899-1900 there were 61 regu- lar pupils and 1 special pupil in attendance at the day trade school, the number attending the other courses not being' reported. At the beginning of the preceding year there were 66 regular day pupils and 88 pupils attending the continuation school and the boiler tenders and engineraen's course. The 44 persons graduated from the day trade school in 1895, 1896, and 1897 obtained employment as journeymen in iron and steel work- ing establishments at wages ranging from 9 florins (|io.66) per week to 100 florins ($40.60) per month. STATE SCHOOL FOR }?IE,BAIIMS MAKING, FEBIiACH. The making of firearms, especially those for sporting purposes, seems to be an industry in which it is very much desired that the workmen should have a thorough training in the fundamental princi- ples of the trade, as well as to have their artistic faculties developed. 540 EEPOET OF THE COMMISSIONER OP LABOK. In few trades, therefore, ha^ie special trade schools been of more service. In Austria the school at Fcrlach has been fairly successful in meeting these various requirements. The school gives instruction in all the branches of the industry. It is organized in four departments — one for the making of .all the ironwork of sporting guns; one for gunlock making; one for stock making, carving, and wood turning; and one for engraving, etching, and inlaid work. Each of the four departments requires three years of study. The j'outh v/ho enters at the minimum age (14 j-ears) is thus enabled to begin work at 17 years of age. The purpose of the school is declared to be to create a body of workingmen who possess a full theoretical knowledge of the industry' as well as practical skill in one particular branch. This, the I'eport of the school says, is sought to be accom- plished bj' (1) thorough practical instruction in the workshops under competent masters; (2) thorough instruction in the technology of arms, so that the pupil may become familiar from a theoretical stand- point with all matters involved in the making and use of firearms; (3) thorough instruction in trade and free-hand drawing and modeling, so that original construction work can be done; (4) thorough instruction in commercial matters, permitting the pupil to obtain the best results from his knowledge; and (5) to raise the general level of the working- men by providing a small library where they can find the means for general education and culture. During the winter term the hours of instruction are from 8 a. m. to noon and from 1 to 6 p.m., and during the summer term from 7 a. m. to noon and from 1.30 to 6 p. m. The 5^early tuition fee is 10 florins (84.06) for those residing in the district and 60 florins ($24.36^ for others. Instruction is given by 10 teachers. In spite of the apparently excellent ideas governing the work and organization of this school, it has not met with a very great recogni- tion on the part of employers of the district or of the classes to be benefited. Thus the number of pupils registered in 1899-1900 was but 27. The reason for this lack of support seems to lie with the employers, who are not prepared to adopt modern methods. There is apparently a greater need for the education of the employer than for that of the employee. The following statement of the director of the st^hool is interesting as showing the difSculties that a trade school has ti) contend with where industry is in a backward condition. He says: Though the l»eneficial influence of the school in the district has been manifest in a number of instances, wherein graduates have profited by the instruction, this is only in exceptional cases, as where the graduate owns his business or where he has a certain influence with his employer. The greater part of the good work of the school goes astray, not find- ing the proper conditions under which to develop. The graduate, as TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION AITSTEIA. 541 a rule, enters as a journeyman in some small local shop for gun making, where he finds opportunities for only a one-sided employment. What good does the instruction he has received here do him when, instead of having modern tools and appliances to deal with, he is forced to use slow contrivances long antiquated? The emploj^er, however, looks more favorably upon the workman who comes from a competing shop and has gained a skill in a clumsy way, whereas the trade-school grad- uate is looked upon as having all sorts of useless information. * * * Furthermore, as the employers are constantly on the lookout for the more capable young men as apprentices, and the parents are anxious to be rid of the care and the support of their boys as soon as possible, the attendance of the school is a small one and is composed of inferior material, both physically and mentally. The director then adds that fortunately this condition of affairs is gradually improving as the possible benefits of the school make them- selves known. STATE SCHOOL FOE THE METAL INDTJSTKY, NIXDOEE. This institution comprises a day trade school, an open drawing hall, an industrial continuation school, and a drawing course for pupils of the common schools. The object of the day trade school is the training of thoroughly qual- ified handicraftsmen for the local metal industry, particularly the cutlery and metallic' button making trades. By means of systematic, theoretical, and practical instruction it aims to develop a high degree of skill in the execution of improved, neatly finished, and artistic work. The course of instruction covers three years. The school opens September 16 and closes July 31. Graduates of the common schools are admitted. Tuition is free, and the tools and requisites are supplied by the school, but pupils who are able must supply their own drawing materials. The school admits regular and special pupils. The theoretical instruction embraces free-hand, geometrical, figural, and industrial drawing, drawing from models, perspective and shading, geometry, calligraphy, industrial arithmetic, business forms, and book- keeping. The drawing instruction enables pupils to work from draw- ings and plans and to obtain a good foundation for the practical shop- work. The instruction in the commercial branches acquaints pupils with businofs forms and practices. The exercises in modeling are intended to teach pupils the fundamental principles of form and to enable them to execute such work in plaster as they may have occasion to perform in their occupations. The practical instruction embraces such technical work as is per- formed in the metal trade of Nixdorf. Pupils are taught surface engraving, engraving for enamel and inlaid work, letter engraving, to make steel dies and stamps, and to execute enamel and inlaid work. Attention is also given to etching, coloring, and painting on metals, 542 EEPOBT OF THE COMMISSIONEE OF LABOB. wood, and horn, and electro typing. Special pupils may be admitted for the purpose of taking up certain individual branches of study. They are usually persons of mature age, who wish to perfect them- selves in certain branches of their work. The open drawing hall is intended to give persons engaged in the industries of Nixdorf an education in drawing and industrial art work, the drawings, models, and patterns of the trade school being at their disiDosal. No tuition is charged, but the materials used have to be furnished bjr those who attend. A section of the open drawing hall is used for a drawing course for girls. This course is intended to give embroidery workers such a knowledge of drawing as will enable them to design their own patterns. The purpose of the industrial continuation school is to give to apprentices a theoretical and, as far as possible, a practical training in such industrial art, technical, and commercial "branches as they may utilize in their trades. This school comprises a preparatory class, two advanced classes, and a special course in drawing. The subjects taught are elementary free-hand, geometrical, and industrial drawing, reading, arithmetic, business forms, and bookkeeping. Instruction is given on week days, except Saturdays, from 7 to 9 p. m., and on Sun- d&ys from 9 a. m. to noon. The school opens September 15 and closes Majr 15. No tuition fee is charged, but each^pupil must Day 1 gulden (10.41) for school supplies. The drawing course for pupils of the common schools is intended to give such pupils instruction in drawing which they can utilize in their future vocations. Instruction is given free of charge on Wednesdavs and Saturdays, from 2 to 4 p. m. The entire institution is managed by a Doard consisting of the mayor of Nixdorf and 9 associates, most of whom are engaged in the metal industry. The teaching personnel consists of the director, 5 trade instructors, and 3 assistant teachers. The industrial continuation school received subsidies amounting to 800 florins ($325) from the provincial council, the chamber of com- merce of Reichenberg, and the town of Nixdorf. It also received for the aid of indigent pupils from various sources 630 florins ($256), 100 florins (^540. 60) of which was given by the ministry o;^ education. There were 137 pupils at the school at the beginning of the school term 1899-1900, of whom 17 were regular and 2 were special day pupiiw; 98 attended the continuation courses, and 20 attended the other courses. The 29 persons graduated from the day school in 1895, 189G, and 1897 obtained employment in the metal-working industry at wages ranging from 10 to 20 florins (^.06 to $8.12) per week. TKADE AWD TECHNICAL EBUCATIGIf ATTSTEIA. 543 Schools pob Other Trades. STATE SCHOOX, FOK ARTISTIC BRAZING, ENGRAVING, AND BRONZEWORK, GABXONZ. This institution embracer a day trade school, a drawing course for pupils of the common or grammar schools, a trade continuation school, and an open drawing hall. The day trade school has divisions for metal engraving and chasing, for gold and silver smithing, for brazing, for drawing and painting, for ceramic work, and for ecclesiastical painting. The last mentioned is an industry peculiar to Gablonz and the surrounding towns. The purpose of the school is to give systematic, theoretical, and workshop instruction in these branches and to impart such a degree of scientific and general knowledge as may be necessary for the advancement of these industries. All courses cover three 3'ears, although pupils are advised to continue a fourth year in order to get a more thorough training in their special lines of work. The theoretical instruction embraces general educational, technical, industrial-art, and commercial branches. The instruction in free-hand and geometrical drawing, perspective, shading, and industrial drawing is intended to enable pupils to execute working drawings in all their details and to prepare sketches and designs and to educate the taste in form and style. Instruction is also given in heraldic design. The commercial instruction includes business forms, arithmetic, and book- keeping. The greater part of the time of the pupils is spent in the workshop, where they are given all the necessary preparatory training for their respective trades. The engraver is taught all kinds of flat-surface engraving, letter engraving, engraving for enamel work, die cutting, and such other metal work as may be required in the engraver's trade. The chaser is taught all the various operations of chasing on tin and other metals. The braziers and gold and silver smiths learn all the different methods of work in their respective trades from the prepa- ration of the metal to the completion of ornaments and other objects. The latter also receive instruction in surface engraving, enameling, and gold and silver plating. Pupils of the division for ceramic paint- ing are instructed in painting on porcelain, majolica, and glass, color enameling, and glazing. These pupils receive instruction in drawing from models, in decorative painting, and in drawing and painting from nature. This course is also recommended to persons who wish to become lithographers, draftsmen, decorative painters, etc. The school year begins September 16 and ends Julj^ 31. Candidates for admission to the day trade school must be 14 j^ears of age. A tui- tion fee of 6 florins ($2.M) per year and a matriculation fee of 50 kreutzers ($0.20) are charged. Free tuition and stipends are given to 544 KEI-OET OF THE COMMISSIONEB OF LABOR. worthy indigent pupils. Foreigners pay the regular matriculation fee and a tuition of 60 florins ($24. 36) per year. Eegular pupils who graduate from the day school are entitled to practice their respective trades. Persons who take only single subjects are admitted to the day school as special pupils. In this waj^, for instance, apprentices who can no take the entire day course may receive a fundamental education in drawing, modeling, and commercial branches. The tuition fee is the same as that for regular pupils. The drawing course for pupils of the common schools is intended to give them a better knowledge of drawing than they can obtain in the regular public-school course. Instruction is given from 2 to 4 p. m. on Wednesda5^s and Saturdaj^s, from September 16 to July 15. The pupils must be at least 10 years of age, and the number admitted depends upon the capacitj^ of the school. A tuition fee of 1 florin ($0.41) per term and a matriculation fee of 60 kreutzers ($0.20) are charged. Each pupil must furnish his own requisites. The trade continuation school and the special courses are intended to give to apprentices and journeymen instruction in drawing and in the industrial and technical work pertaining to individual trades or groups of trades. The school thus comprises 7 trade classes and 5 special courses. The trade classes are as follows: 1 class in technical and trade drawing for carpenters, cabinetmakers, housesmiths, mold- ers, machinists, and similar trades; 4 classes in free-hand and industrial art drawing for braziers and engravers; 1 class in free-hand and trade drawing for persons engaged in painting and decorating porcelain and glass, and for house decorators, lithographers, etc. ; 1 class in model- ing for engravers, stucco workers, etc. The special courses comprise a class in decorative flower painting, painting on porcelain, and enamel work; a class in figural drawing from plaster casts and from nature, and painting from nature; a class in surface engraving and chasing, which is intended mainly for braziers; a class in metal coloring and galvanizing for braziers; a class in metal pressing and stamping, in which instruction is given by classes of from one to two pupils each. Candidates for admission to this school or to these courses must have passed through at least the second year of the grammar school, or through a general continuation school. The instruction is given on two or three evenings of each week and on Sunday mornings from October 1 to May 31. The special courses are intended particu- larly for aiasters and journeymen. The tuition is 1 florin ($0.41) per term and a matriculation fee of 50 kreutzers ($0.20) are required. The drawing hall is open daily to persons engaged in the various industries, where they have access to the technical library and have opportunities to make sketches and drawings from the collections on hand. They can also obtain technical information and advice with regard to industrial art. No charge is made for these services. TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION AUSTRIA. 545 The teaching personnel of the entire institution consists of a director, 12 trade instructors, and 2 assistant instructors. During the school term 1897-98, 1,391 florins ($665) were given to the pupils in the form of scholarships, stipends, etc., of which amount 550 florins (1223) were received from the ministry of education and the remainder from other sources. At the beginning of the school term 1899-1900 this institution had an attendance of 291 pupils, of whom 56 r/ere regular and 2 were special daj^ pupils; 196 attended the trade continuation courses, and 37 the other classes. The best results are obtained from attendance at this school, gradu- ates often entering upon or advancing to good positions. Of the 45 persons graduated from the day school in 1896, 1896, and 1897, 43 obtained employment in industrial art establishments as engravers, chasers, braziers, ceramic designei's, and decorators at wages ranging from 7 to 16 florins (|2.84 to 16.09) per week and from 30 to 45 florins (112.18 to $18.27) per month. state school fob drawing and modeling, st. ttlkich ih gbSden. This school consists of- a number of courses intended to meet the needs of different classes of the working population in instruction in drawing, designing, and modeling. There is, first, a day course cover- ing a period of two years, which gives general instruction to boys 1-5 years of age or over, with special reference to drawing. It is taken by those who expect to enter upon work in which a knowledge of drawing will be useful. The hours of instruction are from 8 to 11 a. m. and from 1 to 4 p. m. Tuition is free. Secondly, there is a so-called course for apprentices, also covering two years, in which the hours of instruction are from 5 to 7 p. m. four work-days each week from October 1 to March 19 and from 6 to 8 p. m. from March 19 to June 1. Instruction is also given for two hours on Sunday morning. This course is intended for boys actually working in shops, and gives them theoretical training in drawing, which they i!an not well obtain in the shop. A third course is for journeymen, permitting this class to obtain a much-needed instruction in di-awing and modeling as applied to their trades. There are also a general finishing course on Sundaj^ morning and a drawing course for boys attending the public schools. The total attendance on all these courses at the beginning of the school term 1899-1900 was 133 pupils, of whom 20 attended the day courses as regular and 4 as special pupils, 12 attended the continuation course, and 97 attended other classes. 9267—02 35 546 KEPOET OF THE COMMISSIONEE OP LABOB. STATE SCHOOL FOE, PRECIOXTS-STONE GMNDING AND SETTING, TUBNAtr. This school comprises a day trade school and an open drawing hall. The day trade school has divisions for precious-stone grinders, gold- smiths, and precious and ornamental stone engravers. Its purpose is to give such theoretical and practical instruction as will enable pupils successfully to practice these trades. The period of instruction in the division for lapidaries is three years and in the divisions for gold- smiths and precious and ornamental stone engravers four years. The theoretical instruction consists of such general and industrial studies as may be of value in the practice of these trades. Free-hand and geometrical drawing, perspective, and shading, study of forms and styles of ornamentation and trade drawing are taught, with a view to fitting the pupils to prepare artistic designs and sketches for execu- tion in the workshop. Modeling in clay and wax is taught, in order to cultivate the taste for form and to enable pupils to ^execute such models for metal casting as are used in jewelry work. Instruction in mineralogy, and especially in crystallolog}'^, is given, to enable pupils to obtain a thorough knowledge of metals and stones, their names, prop- erties, and uses. Industrial arithmetic, bookkeeping, and business forms are taught, to give pupils such a mercantile knowledge as may be useful to them in carrying on a business of their own. In the workshops pupils acquire such manual skill and practical knowledge as can not readilj^ be obtained in ordinary shops. In the private workshops grinders of precious stones are usually trained only in the grinding of certain stones or in certain styles or patterns of grinding, there being very few who are capable of performing all the operations of the precious-stone grinding art. In this school pupils learn all the known styles of grinding, as well as machine engraving, on precious and ornamental stones. In the pri\'ate workshops for gold- smithing, also, the work is usually specialized. At this school, how- ever, the pupils are taught not only the local industry of Bohemian garnet setting, but the setting of all styles of precious stones, besides the manufacture of jewelry and some of the accessory features of the goldsmith's art, such as engraving, chasing, etc. They also learn how to manipulate the various machines and tools used, the alloying of metals, and the methods of refining and finishing gold and silver ware. The division for precious-stone engraving is intended to give a com- plete technical and artistic training in this work, so as to enable pupils to engrave lettering, monograms, and heraldic coats of arms, and to carve objects in precious and ornamental stone. The school opens September 16 and closes July 31. Candidates for admission must be li years of age and must be graduates of the com- mon schools. Pupils of the grammar schools or institutions of like grade are given a preference. No tuition fees are charged natives, but TEADE ANB TECHNICAL EDUCATIOIT — AtTSTBIA. 547 foreigners must pay 100 gulden ($40.60) per term. Worthy and indi- gent pupils receive stipends of from 30 to 80 gulden (1-12.18 to $32:. 48) per year. Special pupils may be admitted at any time of the year, in order to take up single branches of work. When graduated, the regular pupils receive certificates which entitle them to practice their respective trades. Special pupils receive certificates of attendance. The open drawing hall is intended to offer not only to persons engaged in the goldsmithing and lapidary industries, but to all other local handicraftsmen, an opportunity to obtain instruction in elemen- tary, ornamental, and trade drawing and modeling and to receive such advice with regard to industrial art as they may need in their voca- tions. This drawing hall has a division for men, one for boys, and o-ne for girls of the public schools. The entire institution is managed by a board of 8 persons. The teaching personnel consists of a director, 4 trade instructors, 2 fore- men, and 2 assistant instructors. In 1898 the school received 450 gulden ($183) from the ministry of education and 575 gulden ($233) from other sources for use as stipends and otherwise in aid of worthy pupils. At the beginning of the school term 18&9-1&00, 58 pupils attended this institution, of whom 25 were regular and 6 were special day pupils, and 27 attended the open drawing hall. After being graduated, pra^pils usually find employment as journey- men in Turnau, Prague, and Vienna, or execute work to order in their own shops. The 23 persons graduated in 1895, 1896, and 1897 obtained employment as journeymen in precious-stone cutting and gold-work- ing establishments at wages ranging from 6 to 12 florins (|2.03 to 14.87) and from 10 to 15 florins (14.06 to 16.09) per week, respectively. STATE SCHOOL FOB WATCH AND CLOCK MAKING, KABLSTEIBT. This school is organized in two departments, one relating to watch making and repairing and the other to clock making and repairing. The aim of the school is to prepare workmen capable of performing the practical operations of clock and watch making-, as well as the repair of thes'e instruments. The pupils thus learn to make all the parts of clocks and watches as well as to put them together. The duration of instruction is three years. To be admitted, pupils jnust have received an elementary education. The instruction is both theoretical and practical. The theoretical instruction includes the technology of the trade and designing. Attention is also paid to' the commercial aspects of the trade, methods of business, the keeping of accounts, etc. The greatest emphasis, however, is laid on practical work, as five days of the week are devoijed to practical instruction, while only one day is given to the theoretical studies. 548 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. The teaching personnel is composed of a director, who is also the professor of mechanics and of the history of watch making, and one teacher of mathematics. The number of pupils registered during the school year 1899-1900 was 33. The director reports that pupils on leaving the school find immediate employment either in the city or in other districts. There is a con- stant demand for those who have completed the course. Much of the success of the school is stated to be due to the fact that the school keeps in close touch with its former pupils. The school offers espe- cially valuable opportunities to workmen who desire to attend the courses only for a short time or for the purpose of obtaining special instruction. All of the 28 persons graduated from the day school in 1895, 1896, and 1897 obtained employment in watch and clock making estab- lishments, at wages ranging from 7 to 20 florins (f2.84 to 18.12) per month. INDUSTRIAL CONTINUATION SCHOOLS. As stated in the introduction, there were about 650 industrial con- tinuation schools in the Austrian Empire in 1899, besides those courses which are connected with other industrial institutions. These schools have reached their highest degree of development in the city of Vienna. As the Vienna continuation schools are all under the same local administration and have many features in common, they can best be described collectively. INDTJSTKIAL CONTISTTTATIOBT SCHOOLS, VIENNA. The industrial continuation schools of the city of Vienna are organ- ized and conducted in accordance with a provincial law passed by the Lower Austrian diet November 28, 1868, and subsequent amendments. According to the provisions of this law, these schools are organized for the purpose of giving to apprentices and journejanen such a theoretical and, as far as possible, practical knowledge and skill as is necessai-y to enable them to carry on their vocations. The Lower Austrian provincial school board determines the number of schools to be created. The schools comprise general industrial courses, special trade courses, and preparatory courses. They are conducted either independently or in connection with other institutions. Where these courses are conducted in connection with other schools the teachers of the latter are required to conduct them, and are permitted to use the instrixction materials of the schools for this purpose. Extra com- pensation is granted for such service. The courses of study are prescribed by the provincial school board, afler consultation with the local school board, and must accord as TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION AUSTRIA. 549 nearly as possible with the local needs. The preparatory courses must continue the instruction given in the public schools. In the in- dustrial school the instruction must have a technical tendency. Special and trade courses may also be created whenever necessary. Papils entering these schools must pass an entrance examination. Attendance may be made compulsory in the case of certain categories of apprentices by action of the provincial school board, with the approval of the provincial council and the Lower Austrian chamber of commerce and industry. Employers of such apprentices are required to look after their attendance and to cooperate with the authorities in the enforcement of the regulations governing such attendance. The compulsory school must not take up more than eight hours per week, and the instruction must be given on week-day even- ings and on Sundays. Every employer is required to permit his appren- tices and journeymen, of either sex, to attend the schools organized by virtue of this law, provided the hours of instruction are on Sundays or before 9 a. m. or after 6 p. m. on week days. At the close of each course of study the pupils receive gra,duation certificates. The Lower Austrian provincial diet, upon the suggestion of the provincial school board, made with the approval of the Lower Austrian chamber of commerce and industry, determines the total amount to be contributed for the support of the industrial continuation schools. For Vienna these contributions are assessed as follows: Owners of industrial establishments, according to the amount of their income tax, 45 per cent; the municipal government, 20 percent; the provincial government, 26 per cent; the owners of industrial establishments of Lower Austria who are required to contribute toward the chamber of commerce and industry, according to the amount of their income tax, 10 per cent. The cost of organizing and maintaining special trade courses devolves upon the participating owners of establishments in each school district. Whenever the provincial school board perceives that such a trade school accomplishes its purpose and that the participating employers carry out the provisions of the law regarding compulsory attendance, the amount expended may be reimbursed out of the funds for the support of the regular industrial continuation schools. When- ever continuation courses are connected with other schools the latter bear the expenses for fuel and light. All the industrial continuation schools of Lower Austria are under the jurisdiction of the provincial school board. In the consideration of matter's relating to these schools this board must include two rep- resentatives of the chamber of commerce and industry and two repre- sentatives of the industrial school inspectors of the province. This board regulates the organization of continuation schools, prepares 550 BEPOET OF THE COMMISSIONEB 0¥ LABOK. the programmes of instruction, determines the quota of the appro- priation to be expended for each school, and the s£ilaries of teachers, etc. , and has general supervision over the schools. Each special-trade continuation school is under the immediate supervision of a committee of six members elected for three years by the participating owners of establishments, and they in turn are under the jurisdiction of the local school board, or in the case of Vienna, under the industrial school commission. The preparatory and general industrial continuation schools are under the immediate control of the local school board. In matters pertaining to these schools, the industrial school inspectors and principals of continuation schools are represented in these local boards. The provincial school board may create special industrial school commissions whose jurisdiction replaces that of the local school boards with regard to this class of schools. This body appoints the principals, teachers, and other employees, supervises the instruction, and conducts the administrative and economic affairs of the schools. Such a commission exists in Vienna. The industrial school inspectors are elected for three years by the owners of establishments who con- tribute toward the support of the continuation schools. They, as well as the members of the school boards, serve without pay. They are required to visit the schools, as assigned by the local school board, and report to the latter. Schools maintained purely by private means do not come within the provisions of this law. The industrial school commission {Gewerbeschul- Commission), which has immediate supervision over the industrial continuation schools of Vienna, publishes annual reports of the operations of these continua- tion schools or^ classes. According to the report for the school term 1898-99, the industrial continuation schools of Vienna were divided into the following four classes: (1) Industrial preparatory courses; (2) industrial continuation schools for apprentices and journeymen; (3) industrial continuation schools for girls; (4) trade continuation schools for apprentices and journeymen, and trade schools for the female apprentices of the association of linen-goods manufacturers. The preparatory courses include classes of a general nature and special courses for hotel and cafe emplo5'ees. The industrial preparatory courses were first instituted in 1873 and are compulsory for apprentices who have not completed their com- mon school education and are over 14 years of age. These schools are intended to give such an education in reading, writing, arithmetic, and drawing as will prepare apprentices for the studies taught in the industrial continuation schools. Instniction is given on Sundays from 8.30 to 11.30 a. m., and on Mondays from 6.30 to 8.30 p. m. No tui- TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION AUSTRIA. 551 tion fee is charged. The following subjects, and hours per week for each, are prescribed for the preparatory courses: First year: Reading, grammar, and composition, 3; aritiimetic, 2; penmanship, 2. Second year: Beading, grammar, and composition, 2; arithmetic, 2; penmanship, 1; free-hand drawing, 2. During the school term 1898-99 there were 69 of these prepara- tory continuation schools, Avith 135 classes and 258 principals and teachers. Of 12,901 pupils enrolled 9,479, or 73.5 per cent, remained until the end of the term, and 10,026, or 77.7 per cent, completed their course of study. The average attendance was 8,407, or 65.2 per cent of the pupils enrolled. The attendance at these schools is greatest during the winter months. The preparatory courses for hotel and cafe employees are intended to give to apprentices in that industry the necessary preliminary edu- cation which will fit them for admission to the trade continuation schools of the hotel keepers' and cafe owners' g\ii\(\.s,{Gciiossenschaften der Gastvnrte und Kaffeesieder) of Vienna. The programme of instruc- tion is the same as for the general industrial preparatory courses. Instruction is given three times per week froni 4.30 to 6.30 p. m. During the school term 1898-99 there were 8 of these schools in Vienna, with 11 principals and teachers and 649 pupils. Of the latter, 522, or 80.4 per cent, remained until the close of the term, and 466, or 71.8 per cent, completed their course of study. The industrial continuation schools for apprentices and joiirneymen are intended to give to apprentices and journeymen such a theoretical and, as far as possible, a practical knowledge and skill as will better fit them for the practice of their trades. Only such persons are admitted as have passed the compulsory school age and can present certificates of graduation from the common or grammar schools ( Volhs- oder Biirgersohulen) or can pass the prescribed examinations. No tuition fee is charged. Instruction is given on Sundays, usually from 8.30 to 11.30 a. m., and on from three to five week days from 6.30 to 8.30 p. m. The following courses of study and hours per week devoted to each are prescribed for all the industrial continuation schools for appren- tices and journeymen of Vienna: First year: German language and business forms, IJ; geography, IJ; arithmetic and geometry, 1; geometrical drawing, 4; free-hand drawing, 4. Second year: Drawing for the building trades, 3 to 4; mechanical drawing, 3 to 4; industrial-art drawing, 3 to 4; modeling, 2 to 4; physics, 1 to 2; industrial chemistry, 1 to 2; projections, 1; elements of architecture, 1; elements of mechanics and machinery, 1 to 2; bookkeeping and industrial law, not specified; mechanical tech- nology, 1 to 2; stonecutting (winter term), 4. 552 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. During the school term 1898-99, there were 35 of these industrial continuation schools in Vienna, with 72 separate classes and 381 princi- pals and teachers. Of 8,445 pupils enrolled, 6,672, or 79 per cent, remained until the close of the term, and 5,668, or 67.1 per cent, com- pleted their course of stud3^ The average attendance was 6,046, or 71.6 per cent of the pupils enrolled. The industrial continuation schools for girls have for their object the education of working girls or women and those who wish to pre- pare for an industrial or commercial vocation in such branches of study as will bo of value to them in their work. Only such females are admitted as can present certificates of graduation from the common or grammar schools. Instruction is given on Sunday mornings and on week-day afternoons. The course of instruction is not the same in all the schools. Some schools ha^'e two and others have three year courses. The following programme of studies and hours per week devoted to each, for one of the schools, will give an idea of the nature of the instruction: First year: German language, 1; style and business forms, 1; correspondence, 1; arithmetic, 2; bookkeeping, 1; geography, 1; physics, 1; penmanship, 1; drawing, 3; French language, 2; female handiwork, 10. Second year: German language, 1; commercial correspondence, 1; arithmetic, 2; bookkeeping, 1; geography, 1; chemistry, 1; stenography, 2; drawing, 3; French language, 2; exchange, 1; female handiwork, 10. Instruction in handiwork consists of sewing, art embroidery, dressmaking, taking measurements, and drawing patterns for garments. During the school term 1898-99, there were 8 industrial continuation schools for girls, with 22 separate classes, and 98 principals and teach- ers. Of 1,598 pupils enrolled 1,375, or 86.4 per cent, completed their course of study. The average attendance was 1,298, or 81.5 per cent of the number enrolled. The special trade continuation schools and courses are each organized for a particular trade. Most of them were created by trade guilds. During the school term 1898-99, there were 33 of these schools in Vienna which had been placed under the jurisdiction of the school authorities in accordance with the law of November 28, 1868. Of these 33 schools, 31 were for males, and 2 for females. The 33 special trade continuation schools contained 107 separate classes, with a total teaching personnel numbering 300. During the school term 1898-99,^ 9,519 pupils matriculated, of whom 8,024, oi''84.3 per cent, remained until the close of the term, and 6,765, or 71.1 percent, completed their course of study. The average attendance was 7,658, or 80.4 per cent of the pupils enrolled. The following talile shows the number of schools, teachers, and pupils for each trade represented in these insti- tutions: TEADE AND TECHmOAL EDUCATION AUSTBIA. SPECIAL TRADE CONTINUATION SCHOOLS, VIENNA, TERM 1898-09. 553 Trades lor which organized. Bakers Basket makers Bookbinders and makers of leatJiev and pasteboard goods Braziers, bronze workers, and chasers Butchers Cabinetmakers Confectioners Decorators, interior Glaziers Hotel and restaurant employee.') Jewelers and gold and silver smiths Lithographers and lithographic and copperplate printers. Lock and house smiths Mercantile employees Opticians Painters, house and wagon .' Paper hangers Piano and organ makers , Printers and type founders Seamstresses Tailors Tinsmiths -■ ■Watchmakers Weavers, knitters, and trimming makers Wood turners Total Schools Princi- pals and teachers. Pupils. Matric- ulated. 80.5 29 64 122 467 184 158 156 44 1,022 240 91 180 3,308 33 149 170 57 629 326 355 260 195 299 276 9,519 f:om- pleted course. 574 18 51 105 334 133 138 100 41 647 180 58 162 2, 272 25 96 112 87 501 221 265 185 105 220 183 6,766- 111 these trade continuation schools there is no uniformity of pro- grammes, the course of study at each school being specialized to fit the particular trade for which the school was organized. Following are the subjects taught, and hours per week devoted to each, for each of the trade continuation schools, except those for mercantile employees : TRADE CONTINUATION SCHOOL FOE BAKERS. Preparatory course: Arithmetic, 2; German language and reading, 2; exercises in orthography, 1; style, 1. Trade course: Arithmetic and bookkeeping, IJ; business form.-?, IJ; physics and chemistry, 3. TRADE CONTINUATION SCHOOL OF THE BASKET MAKERS' GUILD. First year: Geometry and geometrical drawing, 2; free-hand drawing, IJ; trade drawing, IJ. Second year: Geometry (stereometry) and projections, 1; geometrical and pro- jection drawing, 1; free-hand drawing, IJ; trade drawing, IJ. Third year: Projections and shading, 1; projection drawing, 1; shaded designs, 1^ free-hand drawing; trade drawing, 3. TRADE CONTINUATION SCHOOL OF THE BOOKBINDERS AND LEATHER AND PASTEBOARD GOODS AND CASE-JIAKERS' GUILD. Free-hand, trade, and geometrical drawing, 6; practical instruction in hand and press gilding, 4; bookkeeping, time not specified. TRADE CONTINUATION SCHOOL FOR BRAZIERS, BRONZE WORKERS, AND CHASERS. First year: Study of projections, with exercises in drawing, 2; free-hand drawing, 4 modeling, 4. 554 EEPOET OF THE COMMISSIOWEK OF LABOR. Second year: Free-hand drawing (for chasers), 2; free-hand drawing (for mounters and other bronze workers), 4; modeling, 2; chemistry and physics, 2; chasing (for chasers), 4; chasing (for mounters and other bronze workers), 2. Third year: Trade drawing, 2; modeling, 2; chasing, 4; bookkeeping, 2. Preparatory course : Reading and grammatical exercises, 2; arithmetic, 2; penman- ship, 1. First year: German language, 2J; arithmetic, IJ; trade instruction, 1. Second year: German language, IJ; industrial arithmetic, bookkeeping, 2J; trade instruction, 1. TRADE CGNTINrTATION SCHOOL FOR APPRENTICES OF THE VIENNA Technical drawing: Elements of geometry, study of geometry, elements of shading. Trade division for cabinetmakers: Free-hand drawing, furniture drawing from objects, free-hand drawing from plaster models. Trade division for joiners: Drawing of simple joinery objects, drawing from plaster models. Industrial aritkmetic: Business forms, industrial bookkeeping. The hours per week devoted to each study are not specified. TRADE CONTINUATION SCHOOL OF THE CONFECTIONERS' GUILD. First year: Free-hand drawing, 2; German, 1; arithmetic, 1; chemistry, 1; pen- manship, 1. Second year: Free-hand drawing, 1; modeling, 1; German, 1; arithmetic and indus- trial bookkeeping, 1; chemistry and study of materials, 1. TRADE CONTINUATION SCHOOL FOR DECORATORS AND DECORATITE PAINTERS. First year: Language, 2; arithmetic, 2; geometry, 1; free-hand drawing, 2; geo- metrical drawing, 2. Second year. Chemistry, 1; arithmetic, 1; bookkeeping, 1; trade instruction (draw- ing and modeling), 6. TRADE CONTINUATION SCHOOL OP THE GLAZIERS, GLASS DEALERS, AND GLASS GRINDEKS' GUILD. Language, including grammar, composition, and business forms, 1; arithmetic, 1; free-hand drawing, 2; penmanship, 1; trade instruction, 2. trade continuation schools of the restaurant and cafjfe keepers' guild. For restaurant-keepers' eqij^reniices. First year: German language, 2; arithmetic, 1; calligraphy, 1; French language, 2. Second year: Business forms, 1; bookkeeping and arithmetic, 1; trade instruction, 2; French language, 2. For cafi-keepers' apprentices. First year: German language, 2; arithmetic, 1; French language, 2; trade instruc- tion, 1. Second year: Business forms, 1; arithmetic, 1; French language, 2; trade instruc- tion and study of food and food products, 1; geography and bookkeeping, 1. TBABE AND TECHNICAL- EDUCATIOlSr AUSTEIA. 555 Special coursei. For cooks' apprentices: Drawing and modeling, 2. For graduates of the first-year courses: French language, 2. For graduates of the second-year courses: French language, 2 to 4; English lan- guage, 2 to 4. TRADE CONTINUATION SCHOOL OF THE HOTEL-KEEPEES' GUILD. First year: German language (business forms), 1; industrial arithmetic, 1; pen- manship, 1; French language, 2; instruction in the manner of serving and in the nature of food and food products, 1. Second year: German language (business forms), 1; industrial bookkeeping and arithmetic, 1; geography and history of native country, 1; instruction in the manner 'of serving and in the nature of food and food products, 1. Special covrses. For cooks' apprentices: Drawing and modeling, 2. For graduates of the second-year course: French language, 2 to 4; English lan- guage, 2 to 4. TRADE CONTINUATION COURSE FOR JEWIILBRS, GOLD AND SILVER SMITHS, AND ENGRAVERS. First year: Projection drawing, 2; free-hand drawing, 4^ modeling, 2 to 4; physics (summer term), 1; chemistry, 3; calligraphy (summerterm) ,1; engraving,4; chasing, 4. Second year: Modeling, 2 to 4; chemistry, 3; engraving, 4; chasing, 4; book- keeping, 2. TRADE CONTINUATION SCHOOL FOR LITHOGRAPHERS AND LITHOGRAPHIC AND COPPERPLATE PRINTERS. First year: Elementary free-hand drawing, geometry and geometrical dra^ving, study of materials, industrial arithmetic, calligraphy, German language. Second year: Free-hand drawing and industrial art, trade drawing, study of pro- jections, calculating and making price estimates, study of materials with special reference to the art of printing. The hours per week devoted to each study are not specified. trade school for apprentices of the vienna lock and house smiths' guild. First year: Geometrical drawing, 2; projections; free-hand drawing, 3; industrial arithmetic and bookkeeping, 1. Second year: Industrial arithmetic and bookkeeping, 1; trade drawing, 2; technology, 1. This course is intended only for apprentices who have completed a course of study at an industrial continuation school and are approaching the close of their term of apprenticeship. The instruction is therefore entirely technical and includes the study of optics, the nature and use of lenses and optical instruments, the structure of the eye, etc. TRADE SCHOOL FOR HOUSE AND WAGON PAINTERS' APPRENTICES. First year: Language, 2; arithmetic, 2; drawing, 2. Second year: Language, 1; arithmetic, 1; geometry and geometrical drawing, 2; free-hand drawing, 2. 556 KEPORT Of TEE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. TRADE CONTINUATION SCHOOL OF THE PAPER HANGERS' GUILD. First year: German language and business forms, 1; arithmetic, 1; geometrical designs in connection with geometrical drawing, 2; free-hand drawing, 2. Second year: Arithmetic and simple industrial bookkeeping, 1; geometiy and study of projections, 1; free-hand drawing, 3; practical instruction, 1. Third year: Free-hand drawing and study of styles, 4; practical instruction, 1. TRADE CONTINUATION SCHOOL FOR ORGAN AND PIANO MAKERS. First year: German language and business forms, IJ; geography, |; physics, 1; geometry and geometrical drawing, IJ; free-hand drawing, IJ. Second year: Industrial laws and business forms, 1; arithmetic and industrial book- keeping, 1; projections, 1; acoustics, 1; constructive drawing, 3. TRADE CONTINUATION SCHOOL FOR PRINTERS' AND TYPE FOUNDERS' APPRENTICES. First year: German language, 2; drawing, 2; industrial arithmetic, 1; instruction in composition, 1; reading from manuscripts and proof reading, 1. Second year: German language, 1; French language, 1; drawing, 2; instruction in composition, 1; instruction in printing and study of materials, 1; reading from manuscripts and proof reading, 1. Third year: German language and history of the art of printing, 1; French lan- guage, 1; instruction in composition, 2; instruction in printing and study of mate- rials, 2; reading from manuscripts and proof reading, 1. Glass in type founding: Instruction in type founding and study of materials, li; physics and mechanics, 1}. TRADE CONTINUATION SCHOOL FOR FEMALE APPRENTICES OF THE LINEN GOODS MANUFACTURERS' GUILD. First year: German language, 1; arithmetic, 1; penmanship, 1; drawing, 2; female handiwork, 4. Second year: German language, 1 ; arithmetic and industrial bookkeeping, 1; study of materials, 1; drawing, 2; female handiwork and work on sewing machines, 4. TRADE CONTINUATION SCHOOL FOR APPRENTICES OF THE GARMENT makers' GUILD. ■ Preparatory course: German language, 3; arithmetic, 2; free-hand drawing, 2. First year: German language and business forms, 2; arithmetic, 2; free-hand drawing, 2; trade instruction, 1. Second year: German language and business forms, 1; arithmetic and industrial bookkeeping, 1; free-hand drawing, 2; geometry, 1; anatomy, 1; trade instruction, 2. Third year; German language and business forms, 1; arithmetic and industrial bookkeeping, 1; free-hand drawing, 2; geometry, 1; anatomy, 1; trade instruction, 2; special trade instruction for ladies' tailors, 2. TRADE SCHOOL FOR APPRENTICES OF THE TINSMITHS' GUILD. First year: Arithmetic, 1; geometrical designs in connection with geometrical drawing (every other week), 2; free-hand drawing (every other week), 2. Second year: Free-hand, geometrical, and trade drawing. The time devoted to each study is not specified. TEADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION — AUSTEIA. 557 TRADE CONTINUATION SCHOOL FOR WATCHMAKERS. First year: Arithmetic, IJ; geometery, geometrical and projection drawing, 2; physics, J; applied theory (trade instruction), 1; trad© drawing, 1. Second year: Arithmetic, J; physics, 1; applied theory (trade instruction), IJ; trade drawing, 3. Third year: Trigonometry, J; chemistry, J; electricity and magnetism, 1; applied theory (trade instruction), 2; trade drawing, 2. TRADE CONTINUATION SCHOOL FOR WEAVERS, KNITTERS, AND TRIMMING MAKERS. Course for iveamrs. First year: Technology of hand weaving, study of materials, study of weaving, analysis, and calculation, 3; free-hand drawing and practical weaving, 3. Second year: Technology of hand weaving, study of weaving, analysis, and calcula- tion, 3; trade drawing, making of designs, and practical work, 3; German business forms, commercial arithmetic, and bookkeeping, 2. In the first year plain weaving and in the second year Jacquard weaving is taken up. Course for knitters. First year: Technology of knitting, study of naaterials, analysis, calculation, 3; practical work on simple knitting machines, 6; German business forms, commercial arithmetic, and bookkeeping, 2. Course for ribbon and trimming makers. First year: Trade technology, study of materials, study of weaving, analysis, and calculation, 3; free-hand drawing, and practical work, 3. Second year: Trade technology, study of materials, study of weaving, analysis, and calculation, 3; free-hand drawing and practical work, 3; German business formsj commercial arithmetic, and bookkeeping, 2. TRADE CONTINUATION SCHOOLS OF THE VIENNA TURNERS' GUILD. First year: Elementary free-hand drawing, 2; geometrical drawing and elements of geometry, 3; industrial arithmetic, business forms, and industrial bookkeeping, 3; physics and chemistry, 2. Second year: Stddy of styles, trade drawing, and modeling, 6; technology of the wood-turning industry — (1) theoretical instruction with demonstrations, 2; (2) prac- tical instruction alternating with trade drawing — (a) wood turning and other raw materials, 6; (6) carving on wood, meerschaum, agalmatolite, and engraving on mother-of-pearl, bone, amber, etc., 6; calculation, 1; chemical instruction in bleach- ing, coloring, etc., 1. Third year: Study of styles, trade drawing, and modeling, 6; practical instruction alternating with trade drawing — (1) turning in wood and other raw materials, 6; (2) carving in wood, meerschaum, etc., and engraving on mother-of-pearl, bone, etc., 6; (3) methods of finishing by chemical treatment (bleaching, coloring, macerating, etc.), 3. These special trade courses usually cover from one to three years each. The length of the school term is usually ten months per year, although in a few cases it is considerably less. The hours of study vary greatly in the different schools, ranging from li to 20 per week. 558 EEPOBT OF THE COMiUSSIONEK OE LABOE. At the beginning of the school term 1898-99 there were 153 indus- trial continuation schools, with 344 classes and 1,048 principals and teachers, under the supervision of the industrial school commission of Vienna. A total of 33,107 pupils matriculated, of whom 24,238 com- pleted their course. The following table shows the total number of schools, classes, teachers, and pupils for each of the four classes of continuation schools: INDUSTRIAL CONTIIS-UATION SCHOOLS, VIENNA, TEEM 1898-99. Schools Character of school or course. Classes. Princi- pals and teach- ers. Pupils. Matric- ulated. Com- pleted ociirse^ General preparatory courses and preparatory courses for • hotel and caft^ employees Industrial continuation schools for male apprentices Industrial continuation schools for girls : Special trade continuation schools for male and female ap- prentices Total , 269 381 98 13,530 8,445 1,593- 1, 0-18 83,107 10;. 492 5,668 1, 313 6,765 24, 238 The number of apprentices and journeymen who matriculated in each of these classes of schools, except the industrial continuation schools for girls, is shown for each occupation in the two following tables: APPRENTICES AND JOURNEYMEN MATRICULATING IN THE INDUSTRIAL CONTINUATION SCHOOLS OF VIENKA, BY OCCUPATIONS. ATrKENTICES. Industrial continuation schools. Occupations. Industrial continuation schools. Occupations. Trade. Gen- eral. Pre- para- tory. Total. Trade. Gen- eral. Pre- para- tory. Total. 805 26 3 3 140 11 2 221 1-1 201 21 40 520 """'45' 43 88 13 6 3 4 43 4 42: 37 30 45 28 236 3 8 113 10 81 46 88 2,278 13 95 76 6 ^2 13 4 13 138 '"'39' 48 56 853 57 376 14 10 362 24 327 67 595 2,980 142 140 124 173 226 19 3,301 175 181 8 81 85 242 14 15 65 14 69 7 19 9 267 41 3 24 63 3 1 78 7 13 36 4 183 129 1 15 1:5 1 19 2 7 36 20 95 8 17 82 638 2 17 36 52 Blacksmiths 143 Earthenware makers Engravers, glass and 105 26 Bookbinders 28 181 Brass workers Fan makers 20 Bronze workers 45 55 Brush makers Finishers textile 13 467 182 129 450 Cabinetmakers and 170 4 Caf(5 employees 39 Gas and water pipe Case and sheath 5 79 180 88 1 chasers Gildera . 1 61 9 2 26 2'-) 326 19 17 ■ 53 6 81 Clock and watch Glass blowers... 11 9 44 Commercial occupa- 3,294 158 42 tions Gold and silver smiths and jewel- U6 Confectioners Coopers 537 Copperplate printers. 4 Gunsmiths 27 Hairdressers andbar- Cutlers, tool smiths, 34 and ornamental Hat makers' 135 wrought-iron Hotel and restaurant 893 1,537 2 Decorators 166 Horseshoers '. TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION — AUSTRIA. 559 APPRENTICES AND JOURNEYMEN MATRICULATING IN THE INDUSTRIAL CONTINUATION SCHOOLS OF VIENNA, BY OCCUPATIONS— Concluded. AKPKENTICES— Concluded. Occupations. Instrument makers. . Knitters Lacquerers Leather goods work- ers Lithographers Locksmiths Machinists Masons Metal workers Molders Molding cutters Needle makers Opticians Painters Painters, glass, por- celain, etc Painters, sign and letter Parasol and umbrel- la makers Pasteboard goods workers Pattern and embroid ery designers , Pavers Photographers Pipe cutters '.. Platers Printers and typeset- ters Ribbon makers Roofers Industrial continuation schools. 54 19 42 26 84 143 107 6 517 Gen- eral. 30 137 122 1,425 922 330 668 1 2 3 21 11 49 69 4 2 4 8 4 16 127 1 7 Pre- para- tory. 26 42 111 15 1, 322 107 608 223 Total. 140 19 114 273 221 2,890 1,067 938 891 2 4 6 64 135 57 65 20 14 10 14 9 4 28 666 4 17 Occupations. Industrial continuation schools. Trade. Rope makers Rulers Saddle, harness, and valise makers Sculptors Seamstresses '. Shearers, woolen cloth Shoemakers I Sieve and lattice makers Soap boilers Spur makers Stonecutters Stuoooworkers and plasterers Sword makers Tailors Tanners Tinsmiths Toy makers Trimming makers... Turners, wood, ivory, etc Type founders Upholsterers Wagon makers Weavers Wheelwrights Wire drawer Not reported Total . Gen- eral. 214 12 168 6 1 173 340 19 67 9 6 267 4 107 2 12 144 5 111 10 1 53 1 7 Pre- para- tory. 15 1 280 82 14 1 2, 388 6 6 36 20 2 2,063 29 228 3 10 516 34 165 Total. 13, 548 20 2 453 422 359 2 2,743 13 92 29 8 2,675 33 595 5 122 874 17 446 21 60 218 1 7 JOI7I8Tf E VMEN. Basket makers 3 3 1 6 1 10 1 2 5 44 1 13 8 1 1 8 3 Knitters 10 3 29 1 10 Blacksmith 1 2 1 7 i" Lithographers 1 12 1 1 2 i' 4 Bookbinders 4 42 Bronze worker Machinists 2 Cabinetmakers 2 1 1 5 44 Mason . . 1 Case and sheatli Metal workers 2 m.aker Opticians 3 3 Chasers 1 1 X Clock and watch Ribbon makers Sculptors S 3 makers 6 Q Commercial oecupa- Spur maker . 1 1 Stuccoworker and 1 1 Decorator 1 1 1 Draftsmen 12 8 Tinsmith 1 Engravers Trimmiug makers. . . Turners, wood, ivory, etc. 5 33 2 4 42 5 Founder . . 1 1 1 Gas and water pipe 33 1 3 Gold and. silver 7 3 Wagon makers Weavers 4 smiths 42 Total musical 226 44 2 272 The entire cost of the industrial continuation schools and courses, as far as it was met by the industrial school commission, in accordance with the provisions of the law of 1868, amounted to 32i,023 florins 560 EEPOBT OF THE COMMISSIONEK OE LABOB. (1131,553) during the year 1898. This amount was distributed as follows: General expenses ?6, 074 Preparatory continuation schools 36, 902 Industrial continuation schools 66, 934 Trade continuation schools 19, 547 Cost of an industrial exposition 924 Prizes awarded to pupils 1, 172 Total 131, 553 This does not include the expenditures privately incurred by the guilds for the special trade continuation schools in which they are inter- ested, the amount of which is not known. There were also special State subsidies amounting to 36,050 ilorins ($14,636), subsidies of 4,580 florins (fl,869) by the provincial board of commerce and industry, and of 8,800 florins ($3,573) by the city of Vienna for special trade contin- uation schools and courses. In addition to this the city of Vienna bore the cost of lig'hting the school rooms, which involved an average annual expenditure of about 10,000 florins ($4,060). ATTITUDE OF EDUCATOES, EMPLOYERS, AND GRADU- ATES OF TRADE AND TECHNICAL SCHOOLS TOWARD TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION. With regard to the opinions of educators, employers, and trade- school graduates toward trade and technical education in Austria the following information has been received by means of personal interviews: A prominent ofiicial of the imperial Austrian ministry of education stated that trade schools have been especially efl;ective in reviving the old cottage industries of lace working and basket making, and have improved the educational and industrial condition of the working classes. Trade unions have played practically no part either in creating or in opposing the creation of these schools. Trade education generally, in his opinion, has enabled pupils to improve their condition and to fit themselves for a higher class of work, either immediately or ultimately. With regard to the preference for trade-school graduates by employ- ers or superintendents, this ofiicial says that experience varies consid- erably. Trade-school pupils, on entering the shops, do not have the same manual dexterity as those who have been several years at practi- cal work. Some employers therefore prefer the latter as being more dexterous. Others, however, realize that ultimately the school-trained boys will become the more valuable workmen and therefore prefer to employ them. The trade schools have generally, in his opinion, proved satisfactory and have fully attained the end for which they were estab- lished. He believes that the best results in pure trade education are obtained through boys entering the shop and attending at the same TRACE AND TECHNICAL EDtJOATION — AUSTRIA. 561 time the evening and Sunday classiss, which give them the theory ana general instruction concerning the industries in which they are employed. The director of an establishment for the manufacture of electrical machinery and supplies in Vienna, employing 32 foremen and about 2,000 wage-workers, stated that all his foremen and about 20 per cent of his wage-workers had attended trade schools, especially the schools for foremen, the State industrial schools, and the Technological Indus- trial Museum. His establishment encourages in every way the attend- ance of evening continuation schools by its employees. The director states that persons educated in trade and continuation schools can more readily obtain employment, receive better positions and ivages, and advance more rapidly than persons not so educated. The attendance at trade schools by employees of this establishment has been of great value to the latter, especially in the case of machine and electrical fitters and mounters. The best training for a thoroughly skilled workman, in the opinion of this director, is a three or four 3' ears' apprenticeship in a well-regulated establishment, with a simultaneous attendance at an industrial continuation school; after the completion of the apprenticeship, several years' practical work as journej^man in different establishments, followed by an attendance at the evening courses of an industrial school. Those persons, however, who aspire to become foremen of workshops, foremen of fitters or mounters, etc. , ought to take a full course at a school for foremen, a day State indus- trial school, or the Technological Industrial Museum. Statements were received from an assistant foreman of machinists and from a number of machinists and other skilled metal workers in Vienna, some of whom attended the State industrial schools and others the Technological Industrial Museum at different times from 1894 to 1900. The assistant foreman attended both of these classes of insti- tutions. Nearl}' all of the men received employment immediately upon leaving school. They all agree in saying that the education received in a trade school facilitated their obtaining emjaloyment and insured the retention of their positions, and increased their chances for obtaining higher posts and better wages. They believe, however, that a trade-school education alone is insufficient, and that in order to be effective it must be preceded by several 3'ears' practical experience, otherwise the student will not have a proper understanding of the subjects taught. Information regarding the trade continuation schools of the hotel, restaurant, and cafe owners' guilds in Vienna was received from the principals of these schools and from one hotel proprietor. The principals of these schools stated that attendance is compulsory for all apprentices of members of the guild, and that the apprentices are usually graduated between the ages of 16 and 18 years. They are employed while attending the school, and if they choose to leave their 9267—02 36 562 EEPOET OF THE OOMMISSIONEK OF LABOB. employers after their apprenticeship term, and have been orderly and diligent, they can find immediate employment. Since the establishment of the schools from 26 to 40 per cent moi-e apprentices find employment in foreign countries. Persons who have not attended these schools have great difficultj^ in finding employment as waiters, hotel clerks, etc., in Vienna. Those who have been graduated with good records advance very rapidly, especially in foreign countries. These continu- ation schools have, in the opinion of the principals, proved very satis- factory, but regular day schools would be desirable for prospective owners or managers of hotels. A hotel manager employing from 40 to 50 persons reported that about 20 of these employees attended the trade continuation schools of the hotel, restaurant, and cafe owners' guilds. Attendance at the schools is compulsory for certain classes of hotel employees while serv- ing an apprenticeship. He considers it a duty to encourage the schools in every way, because persons graduated by them find employment more readily, secure better positions and higher wages, and advance more rapidly than others. One great advantage is that persons who served apprenticeships in other than first-class hotels are no longer barred from advancement as was formerly the case. The quality of the serv- ice rendered by graduates of these schools is greatly superior to what it was formerly. Before the establishment of these schools the higher posts, such as managers, hotel clerks, etc., were filled by foreigners, mostly Germans and Swiss, but now these positions are being filled by graduates of these schools. With regard to the trade continuation schools for female appren- tices of the linen goods manufacturers' guild, a statement was made by the president of the guild, who was also chairman of the administra- tive board of these schools. In his opinion, schools of his guild have the advantage that they teach all the different operations performed in the various branches of linen goods manufacture, and that the gradu- ates can therefore more readily adapt themselves to changes in styles or fashions. As apprentices in establishments, the girls acquire train- ing only in single branches, and are as a rule engaged on the same class of work fi'om 8 a. m. until 7 p. ra. ; but during the two hours per day on three week days, when they are compelled to attend the guild schools, they obtain instruction in all branches. It is surprising, he said, what is being accomplished by the trade continuation schools, as demonstrated by the exhibitions at the close of each school year. They unite theory and practice in beautiful harmony. He admits that some of the members of the guild do not like to see their apprentices spend that part of the time in school which would otherwise be sj^ent in the factory, but he said that this probably justifiable ambition of the individual should not deter the guild in its effort to afford the younger people an opportunity to become educated in the various branches of TEADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION — ATJ8TKIA. 563 work for their own benefit and usefulness, and later on also for the good of the guild, for, with competent labor, the manufacturer can advance more easily and can thus benefit himself and his industry. Two manufacturers of linen goods in Vienna who replied to the inquiries differ on almost every point with regard to the results of these schools. One of them encourages in every way he can the attendance of these schools. He believes that women educated therein can more readily find employment, are more apt to advance to higher positions, and can secure higher wages. The other employer can see no merit whatever in these schools, and considers the requirement which compels him to allow bis female apprentices certain hours dur- ing the day for school attendance a positive detriment both to himself and to the apprentices on account of the time lost. It may be said, however, that this employer has a collar and cuff factor}^, where all the work is specialized and is mostly done by machinery — conse- quently there is not much occasion in his establishment for school- trained employees. Two foremen of establishments for the manufacture of linen goods, one of whom is a member of the board of control of the continuation school of the linen manufacturers' guild, agree that the trade continu- ation schools for girls are advantageous in enabling the girls to obtain employment and in facilitating their advancement to higher pay and better positions. Such schools have a tendency to stimulate exactness and artistic taste and to awaken an interest in the work. CHAPTER IV. TRADE AND TECHMCAL EDUCATION IN BELGIUM. 565 CHAPTER IV. TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN BELGITIM. INTRODUCTION. In the general extension of the systems of inaustrial education in Europe, Belgium has not been behindhand. She has undoubtedly been influenced more or less by the movement in neighboring countries, and, within a few years, has laid the foundation of a fine system of schools for the technical training of her youth. This system presents some characteristic and peculiar features. There is no general law regulating trade and technical education in Belgium. The State has created no schools of its own. Complete liberty in the matter of originating movements for the formation of trade and technical schools has been left to the local authorities or to private individuals. The Government has taken the position that, as such schools should be organized with a view to meeting strictlj" local needs, there should be considered from a local point of view such questions as are presented by the character of the industries to be benefited, the degree of intelligence of prospective pupils, and numer- ous other elements peculiar to each locality. Under such circum- stances there has been no attempt to follow a uniform model. The preceding remarks relate only to the formation of schools. In suc- ceeding paragraphs it will be seen that the Government eventually exercises a supervision over these schools after it has once come to theil' financial aid. Such supervision as the State exercises is vested in the ministrj' of industry and labor. While there is no general law governing the formation of trade and technical schools, the Government has developed a system for subsidiz- ing such schools. Each year the Parliament places at the disposal of the ministry of industry and labor a sum to be distributed among the schools under consideration. Such schools, whether provincial, com- munal, or private, as desire to receive a portion of this appropriation must submit a formal application, accompanied by certain documents which will allow the ministry to judge if the school comes within the classification for which the subsidy is intended. These documents are the school's organic law, the detailed outline of studies or exercises, the programme of class hours, the account of receipts and expendi- tures, iind, if the school is already in operation, the list of pupils. In earlier days the subsidy was not usually granted until the school had proved its character and usefulness by its work. It now fre- quently happens, however, that the Government extends its aid to 567 568 EEPOBT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOK. schools from the date of their foundation. In return for subsidies granted the ministry requires that the schools shall each j^ear transmit for its approval their accounts and their estimates for the ensuing j'ear, and the changes which are to be made in the organic law and programmes; that they shall submit to governmental inspection, and that they shall adhere to the provisions of the organic law regarding the naming of members of the administrative commission and of the faculty. Thus it is seen the Government really does exercise a control over schools after they have been subsidized. This control is not usually of a direct, active nature, however. As a general rule, if, in the inspec- tion, a fault is discovered, no matter of what character, the ministry has but to indicate that a change is desirable and it is made. Other- wise the subsidy will probablj^ be withheld, leaving the school in a crippled financial condition. In granting aid the ministrjr of industrj' and labor has adopted the following general rules ; For schools where the instruction is theoret- ical onlj", as in the industrial schools, a subsidy is given equal to one- third the total expenses of the school, after deduction has been made of an}^ rent paid and the sum realized from tuition fees. For trade schools proper — that is, institutions teaching both the theorj^ and prac- tical manipulations of trades — the subsidy is equal to two-fifths of the total expenses, after deductions similar to the foregoing have been made. In the case of these schools, also, the Government pays half the expenditures for the equipment of the schools with the necessary tools and appliances. In the case of almost all the more important schools subsidies are also granted bj^ the provinces and communes in which the schools are situated. A certain amount is also realized from gifts of individuals and industrial organizations. As regards payments required of students, each school follows its own desires. In some instruction is gratuitous, in others a small entrance fee is required, while in still others a regular tuition fee is charged. With few exceptions, however, the payments required of students are very small and are well within the means of the laboring- classes, from whom the students are mainh' recruited. An interesting feature of the policy of the Government toward technical education is the system for the regular inspection of all sub- sidized schools by a corps of expert inspectors attached to the ministry of industry and labor. At the head of this service is an inspector-gen- eral of industrial and trade education. Each subsidized school of the Kingdom belonging to this class of institutions is visited at least once a year by this officer or one of his assistants and a report made of the result. Similar inspections are made by the provincial authorities when the province subsidizes schools. The inspectors render assistance in bringing to the attention of the administrative commissions the experiences and practices of other schools. Unfortunately for the TKADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION — BELGIUM. 569 purposes of the present investigation, these reports are not published. Only at consideralDle intervals of time are general reports regarding the conditions of industrial education in the Kingdom issued. The last report was published in 1897 and relates to the period 1884-85 to 1895-96. The two preceding reports were issued, one in 1886 and one in 1879. In consequence of this failure of the Grovernment to issue annual reports, information regarding many of the schools could not be obtained for a later date than the school year 1896-96. The system, however, had become firmly established by that date, and later infor- mation, though desirable, would, if obtained, throw little additional light on the real character and spirit of the sj^stem as it now exists in Belgium. Most of the information regarding individual schools has been obtained from the last report of the Belgian Government (1897), and in but a few cases from direct reports of the schools. Of the industrial schools much valuable information of a later date has been derived from the official reports of the inspector of the province of Hainaut. All schools described in the Government report are, or have been, subsidized. While there are some nonsubsidized schools in Belgium, they are neither numerous nor important. The Government reserves the right to refuse the subsidy if the school does not produce the desired results, or if the organic law or programmes are not adhered to or are not changed in accordance with the Government's desire, etc., but this right is not often exercised. In 1896 only three or four schools were refused the usual subsidy. Schools may be established by communes, by private individuals, or in some cases hy the provinces. Those under private direction are known as private schools {ecoles Iibres), those under communal author- ity are called communal schools {ecoles cominuTiales), and those estab- lished by the province are called provincial schools {ecoles provinciaZes). All have the privilege of receiving subsidies if they meet the require- ments imposed by the ministrj^ of industry and labor. Reference has been made to what is called the "organic law" of schools. This is an instrument which eveiy Belgian institution described in this report, even the apprenticeship shops and trade courses, possesses. It is promulgated on the foundation of the insti- tution and must be approved, along with other documents, before the ministry grants subsidies. It defines the nature and aims of the pro- posed school, provides for its government, defines the conditions upon which pupils will be received, provides for the nomination of an administrative commission, and defines its duties, etc. When the organic law is once approved by the Government it must )-emain in force until a change is officially sanctioned. Although receiving State aid and being subject to State supervision the schools are essentially local institutions. Each school is supervised by an administrative commission composed usually of persons of 570 REPOKT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. the neighborhood. Some of them, however, are appointed as repre- sentatives of the State and province. In this way the proper applica- tion of the subsidies is safeguarded. The mayor of the place where the school is located, or his representative, is in most cases the presid- ing officer by virtue of a provision of the organic law of the school. These commissions each year arrange the programmes, audit the accounts, and make estimates for the ensuing year, establish the rules of the school, propose changes, etc., and give advice as to the appoint- ment of the director and teachers. In the case of communal schools the commission is responsible to the communal council. The council is responsible to the provincial and State authorities after subsidies have been granted by the latter. CLASSES OF INSTITUTIONS. In a general way the great body of subsidized institutions described in the Government report may be divided into two broad classes — trade schools and industrial schools. There are a few institutions, however, which, although presenting features similar to tliose of trade schools, must be placed in a separate class, hence the classification adopted by the Belgian Government is used, with slight modifications, in this report. The classification follows: INSTITUTIONS FOB FEMALES. 1. Trade schools, including (a) trade schools proper; (b) trade and housekeeping schools; (c) housekeeping and trade schools. 2. Housekeeping schools and housekeeping classes. 3. Trade courses. 4. Apprenticeship shops. INSTITUTIONS FOR MALES. 1. Industrial schools. 2. Trade schools. 3. Superior trade and technical schools. 4. Saint Luke trade schools. .5. Apprenticeship shops (a) for stonecutting, (b) for weaving. 6. Trade' courses. In private schools the administrative commission is elected from the membership of the founding society, a society formed to look after the financial and other needs of the school. The commission in this case is directly responsible to the society. The number of persons composing the commission varies in the different schools, but it is usually six. A recent ministerial circular directs that as far as possible the members shall be chosen from among the heads of industrial enterprises, engineei-s, and the like. In communal schools the administrative commission is also expected to act as a committee of patronage to promote the welfare of graduates, recruit students for the various courses, interest employers in the TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION BELGIUM. 571 school, in order that they may encourage their employees to take the evening courses, and to induce parents to send their sons and cooperate in the effort to secure regular attendance, etc. It will be noticed that in this classification there is no mention of technological institutes. Belgium, of coui-se, possesses a number of such schools, but they are not considered as trade or industrial schools subject to the ministry of industry and labor, nor do they fall within the scope of the present report. No mention is therefore made of them. Each of the classes of institutions comprehended within the classification will be described in turn. As indicated by this designa- tion, these institutions differ essentially in character. There is not one, however, that does not keep strictly in view the idea of preparing students to be able to earn their living by working in the particular branches of industry taught In no case must the instruction given be mistaken for that known as manual training. To avoid repetition, it is well to observe the general conditions appertaining to these schools before passing to a consideration of each class. In the description of each class there will be mentioned whatever is interesting or peculiar in the methods of teaching, or in the organization, or whatever pertains particularly to the class which is being described. Great importance is attached to drawing in all trade and industrial schools. Even in the trade schools for females drawing forms one of the principal branches of instruction. This drawing is given for a prac- tical end and is taught with reference to its use in particular trades or industries. The report for 1897 says that it has been completely reorganized within a I'ecent period, and placed upon a uniform basis for both trade and industrial schools. Pupils no longer draw after lithographs, but directly from models and machinery, and the drawing is based upon the study of projections and perspective. Improvements have been introduced in other directions. The char- acter of the instruction in general has been elevated, programmes have been revised, and the instructors are better paid and more capable. Most schools have collected fairly good libraries, and many of the older ones have good collections of models and scientific apparatus for demonstrations; but with the larger number, especially among the recently organized industrial schools, there is much room for improve- ment in this feature. Some of the older schools have large numbers of models made by pupils, some of which are donated from time to time to new schools. As a means of developing the highest efforts of the students, nearly every trade or industrial school has a small museum in which is placed its best works. A public exposition of the work at the end of the year is a feature in most schools, especially in the trade schools. This is said to exercise a beaeficial influence over the pupils and to 572 KEPOET OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOB. bring forth their best efforts. Another means adopted by a consider- able number of schools with the same end in view is the granting of traveling scholarships to those who shbw the greatest ability in their work and examinations. These scholarships entitle the student to visit some industrial center for a short period of study in his special line- of work. Generally the recipient is required to send in a written report of his observations. The older schools are now established for the great part in com- fortable quarters, many having buildings specially constructed for their purposes. The more recent schools, however, especially those belonging to the class known as " industrial," do not fare so well. In a number of cases the accommodations are inadequate. Following is a description of each of the specified classes and their relationship to each other and to the system as a whole: TKADE SCHOOLS FOR FEMALES. • The first class, that of the trade schools, represents the most advanced form of trade education for girls in Belgium. Three subdivisions are made. The trade schools proper are those having the most complete pro- gramme, both in theoretical and practical work, the sole object being to teach the trades open to girls, at the same time carrying forward the ordinary school education begun in the primar}' schools. These schools have a general course which is obligatory for all pupils. This course generally includes such branches as French and Flem- ish, arithmetic, history, geography, hygiene, domestic economy, etc. Some schools include elements of the natural sciences, geometry, etc. The trades taught are necfissarily limited in number. They include dressmaking and cutting, millinery, artificial-flower making, indus- trial drawing and ornamentation, painting (on glass, china, textiles, etc.), linen work (lingerie), embroiderj^, etc. Usually the general reci- tations are heard in the forenoon and the practical part of the trade teaching is done in the afternoon. In these schools housekeeping is not taught, except incidentally. There is no effort to prepare the student for earning her living by housework. This fact constitutes the main distinction between this and the other subdivisions of the trade schools, in which housekeeping plays a prominent part. The trade and housekeeping schools have a less extended course, both in theoretical and in practical work, than do the trade schools proper, but considerably more time is given to instruction in housekeeping. This work includes mending, washing, ironing, cooking, etc. Instruc- tion is given in the morning and afternoon, as in the trade schools proper. The general course is about the same as in the trade schools, but there are not so many trades taught. The housekeeping and trade schools are not very important, there being but three of these institutions. In these schools the general TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION BELGIUM. 573 instruction is reduced to the minimum, only a few indispensable branches being taught, while the only thing taught in the way of trades is sewing and cutting of a simple character. The greater part of the time is devoted to household work, the principal aim of the schools being to prepare good housekeepers. Only to a slight extent is there an}' attempt made to enlarge the general knowledge of the students, accounting, hygiene, etc., being about the only branches taught. These schools form a sort of connecting link between the two preceding subdivisions and the housekeeping schools. The trade schools proper for girls were the first tra) Apprenticeship slrops for stone cut- ting 290 3,200 155 Apprenticeship shopsfor weaving. . . Total 104, 888 37,511 90,083 232,482 70, Oil 302,493 n Including Superior School of Textiles, Verviers. 6 Superior Textile School, Verviers, included in industrial .schools. Other institutions mentioned in the latest Belgian report as having received subsidies, but vhich are not considered in this report, are the language and commercial courses, the Superior Institute of Commerce, at Antwerp, and the Provincial School of Industry and Mines, at Mons. Their total cost was 211, 0i3 francs (^40,731), of which sum the State granted 68,211 francs (113,165), the provinces 35,512 francs (16,854), and the communes 33,828 francs ($6,528), leaving 73,492 francs (|14,184) to be made up in fees, gifts, etc. Besides the amount of subsidies mentioned above, the general Government spent 66,857 francs (S|12,903) for the purchase of books, etc., and for inspection, bringing the total expense to the State up to 678,528 francs ($130,956). I]SrDIVIDUAL SCHOO.LS. In the preceding pages each of the various classes of institutions has been considered. In the following pages individual institutions will be described under the name of the class to which they belong. The order followed is the same as in the classification heretofore used. TRADE SCHOOLS FOR FEMALES. According to the Belgian classification, these schools are considered under three heads, namelj^, trade schools proper, trade and house- keeping schools, and housekeeping and trade schools. Each of these subdivisions has already been described. Trade Schools Proper, trade school foe. girls, antwerp. The Antwerp trade school for girls was created in 1874 by private effort. In 1876, however, it was recognized by the commune as per- forming an important social work, and accordingly was placed on the TEADE A:S-D technical EDUCATION — BELGIUM. 605 list of institutions receiving aid from the city. In 1880 it was recog- nized by the State and given a share in the general appropriation for trade and technical education. The purpose of this school, which is now a communal institution, is to prepare girls for entering the different trades open to women, with- out the necessity on their part of serving an apprenticeship in the shops. The city has erected a new building for the accommodation of the school. The corps of teachers in 1896 numbered 23. Pupils are admitted to the school and into the shops from 12 years of age upward. They must know how to read and write and perform simple arithmetical operations. There is a general course of instruction, which must be taken by all the pupils. It relates to such subjects as the French and Flemish languages, arithmetic, the elements of natural history, physics, chem- istry, hygiene, domestic economy, drawing, geometry, singing, gym- nastics, etc. The special or trade instruction comprehends a number of distinct trade courses, on commerce, sewing and dressmaking, the making of artificial flowers, millinery, industrial drawing and orna- mentation for embroidexy, braid work, painting on china and textiles, and drawing after casts and from nature. The duration of the general course, including two preparatory years, is five years. The trade courses as a rule require three years of study, but the time may be extended. The general course is given in the morning and the special or trade courses in the afternoon. There is a tuition fee of 60 francs (^11.58) a j^ear, but great liberality exists in the matter of the remission or the grant of whole and part scholarships. In 1876 the number of pupils was 60; in 1885, 166; in 1896, 261, and in 1896, 279. During the period 1892 to 1896, 62 students completed the course in accounts, 62 that of dressmaking, 19 that in artificial- flower making, and 19 that in lingerie making, etc. Specimens of the best work of the pupils is purchased and placed in a museum attached to the school. The total annual expenditure for the school is between 45,000 and 50,000 francs (?8,685 and $9,660), of which some- thing over one-fourth is derived from tuition fees. It is stated in the Government report that this school is one of the best of its class in the country. TRADE SCHOOL FOS GIS.LS, 26 EUE DU POINQOST, BRUSSELS. The trade school for girls situated in 26 rue du Poin^on, Brussels, is one of the most important trade schools for girls in the country. It was created in 1873 by private initiative. In 1874 the city of Brussels began the grant of yearly subsidies to it and it is now a communal school. There has been a steady increase in attendance. The school started with 66 pupils. In 1878 this number had increased to 161, and 606 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OP LABOR. in 1896 to 295. The school is satisfactorily housed in a large building containing ten rooms and a drawing-room. There are also a covered court, a garden, and a building for the accommodation of the directress. As in most of the trade schools for girls, there are the two divis- ions — general studies and technical or trade studies. The general studies are similar to those of the school just described. The trade courses relate to commerce, dressmaking, drawing, lingerie making, embroidery, millinery, and corset making. The following table shows the number of students completing each of these courses during the years 1885 to 1896, inclusive: STUDENTS COMPLETINGT COURSES AT TRADE SCHOOL FOR GIRLS, BRUSSELS, 1885 TO 1896. 26 RUE DU POIXrON, Courses. 1885. 1886. 1887. 1888. 1889. 1890. 1891. 1892. 1893. 1894. 1895. 1896. Total. 8 3 1 9 5 '5 11 10 12 4 15 5 9 2 5 13 1 1 2 11 14 ...... 6 12 3 1 6 17 5 16 10 16 79 Dressmaking Drawing 143 7 1 1 1 1 4 ...... 4 1 1 4 1 Embroiderj' 1 1 3 Total . 8 15 17 22 21 16 22 28 22 28 28 33 260 The duration of studies is usually four years, but the time may be extended. Upon gi"aduation the students, according to reports, find no difficulty in securing employment. The expenditures in behalf of the school amount to about 40,000 francs (^7,720) a year, of which between one-third and one-half is obtained from the tuition fees. CO'SSMVNAl, TRADE SCHOOL FOE. GIRLS, MOWS. This school is one of the oldest institutions in the Kingdom for giving trade instruction to girls. It was created by the communal authorities in 1877 and opened its doors in 1878. The purpose of the school is to give to young girls both a superior primarj"- educa- tion and a practical ti'aining in various trades or professions. The general course is given in the morning, and includes ethical instruc- tion, French, arithmetic, elements of geometry, commercial accounts, bookkeeping, commercial correspondence, history, geography, natural sciences, drawing, singing, gymnastics, etc. The trade instruction is given in the afternoon. It includes a course in the making of lingerie, etc., one in garment cutting and making, one in industrial drawing and painting and ceramic painting, one in artificial-flower making, and, since 1896, courses in millinery work and embroidery. The duration of studies is three j-ears. There are 13 teachers in addition to the directress. For admission pupils must be at least 12 years of age and have had a primaiy education. The tuition fee is 21 francs ($4.63) a year. In 1896 there were 105 pupils in attendance. The cost of maintenance of the school during that year was 23,000 francs (14,439). TEAt)E A-HT) TEOHMIOAL EDUCATIOK — BELGIUM. 607 BISCHOFFSHEIM TRADE SCHOOL FOE. GIELS, BRUSSELS. This school was created in 1865. It is the pioneer trade school for girls in Belgium. A sketch of its early historj' has been given in connection with the general description of trade schools for girls. This school was first subsidized in 1868. It remains under the control of the Association for the Trade Education of Women, who founded it, and, this association delegates the immediate supervision to an administrative committee of 15, elected from its membership. The duration of studies is generally four j-ears. The courses are of two classes — the general course, which all pupils must follow, and the trade courses, which are elective. The minimum age for entrance is 12 years. Tuition was 36 francs (16.95) per year at fii'st, but it has been increased from time to time until in 1898 it amounted to 144 francs ($27.99). There are numerous scholarships. The general coarse includes the teaching of such branches as French and Flemish, arithmetic, history, geography, elements of the natural sciences, h5'giene, domestic economy, singing, etc. Cooking is also taught, as it has been thought that this art is a necessary adjunct to a girl's proper education. The trade courses are numerous, and, in this class of schools, assume a greater importance than does trade teaching in the other classes of schools for girls. The most important courses are drawing (including designing for lace, embroider}", etc.), paint- ing on porcelain and china, painting on fans and textiles, painting on glass, dressmaking, lingerie, artificial-flower making, and millinery. They are all of the most practical character. Drawing receives much attention, as it forms the ground work of instruction in many of the trade courses taught in the school. The dressmaking course attracts the largest number of students. Many pupils are enrolled in more than one course. Thus every pupil in the painting and embroiderj^ classes must at the same time take all or a part of the course in drawing. It is also customary for those in the millinery class to take the course in artificial-flower making, that work being a natural complement to their trade education. The outline of work done in 1898 in some of the most important courses follows. Taken in connection with a similar outline for the trade school for girls at Verviers, it ofl^ers a general view of the work done in this class of schools. The programme is arranged by the council of fifteen at a stated annual meeting and must be strictly adhered to until changed. DRAWING, INCLUDING DECORATIVE OOMPOSITIOX. (Course 4 years; lessons 3 times a week, 3 hours each.) First year: Exercises in freehand, outline, or shaded drawing from prints; draw- ing leaves, flowers, and common objects from nature; drawing solid objects, foliage, and ornaments in relief. 608 EEPOET OF THE COMMISSIONEE OF LABOE. Second year: Drawing ornaments, faces, and torsos from casta. Simple compo- sition — combinations of geometric lines and elementary flower forms. (Painting is done in connection with this year's work.) Third and fourth years: Drawing heads and faces from casts. Composition is further developed. Application of composition to selected forms, having especially in view the courses in painting on porcelain, china, and textiles, etc., and the coui'se in embroidery. Theoretical work — First year: Lineal drawing; geometric outlines, colored. Second year: Elementary instruction concerning projection and perspecti,ve. Third year: History of art; notes on the character of architecture, sculpture, painting, and the decorative arts, from ancient times to the present; sketches. PAINTING. (Course 4 years; lessons 3 times a week, 3 hours each. This outline includes work done in all three courses in painting. ) First year: Tracing — study of the principal tracings in use in ornamentation; simple and complex tracings done with instruments; exercises with charcoal. Colors — preparation and employment of colors; handling of brushes; stretching and placing of canvas, dry and oiled; various ornamentations in water colors; progressive work in color decorations v/ith pencil or brush; enlargement and arrangement of designs adapted to objects to be decorated. The sketches must be done in water colors. Second year: Stud}' of flowers and birds from colored lithographs; arrangements and compositions; shaded back-grounds and blended colors. The work for this year, comprising the study of the flower in its simple aspects, is made a part of the section devoted to ornament, that the professor may teach those graduated hues that occur in shaded ornamentation. Third and fourth years: Study of decoration for shaded ornamentation; use of gold leaf; enamel in relief and enamels superposed; illumination in gold; monograms and coats of arms. Studies from nature of plants, flowers, and birds. Sketches in water color or gouache for painting on china; decorative flowers (composition and work done from drawings or from nature) . Heads — study of the head in mono- chrome, or in black and white, from engravings or casts. Landscapes and animals in monochrome. Fans — pupils who take the course in fan painting are required to take that part of this course which relates to flowers. All pupils taking the course in painting must also take the course in drawing. DRESSMAKING. (Course, 4 years; work every week day from 9 a. m. to 12 m. and from 1.30 to 4 p. m., except Thursday. ) First year: Work on samples; practice in fancy stitches; cutting and making of the following articles — chemises; plain drawers; work aprons and fancy aprons; infants' aprons; underskirts with flounces, pleated or gathered; yokes for skirts; pockets; morning gowns, loose at neck or turned back; underwaists for infants; infants' robes, English style; plain sleeves; sailor collars. Second year: Cutting, fitting, altering, and making the following articles— turn- over collars, infants' robes, sailor suits for boys, underskirts with ruffles, long skirts (plain cut), girls' dresses, waists with straight pleats and two small side bodies, aprons, collars, and morning gowns. Third year: Continuation of the same operations on girls' dresses; waists with pleats running bias (fitting and altering); cutting, by different models, the various styles of cloth waists (various kinds of sleeves), dressing gowns, linings for skirts, fitted wraps, fitted coats, pelerines. TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION BELGIUM. 60^ Fourth year: Loose ■wraps, sacques, long coats, skirts with trains, waists for ball- dresses, evening wraps, boleros, and different kinds of collars; cutting, fitting to forms, and putting together waists, linings, boleros, skirts, etc. (Course, 4 years; hours same as for dressmaking course.) First year: Fancy stitches, scallops. Cutting and making the following articles — layettes, swaddling clothes, neckerchiefs, braces, small clothes, cap of three pieces, bibs, cloaks, English robes, underdresses, nightdresses, infants' aprons, collars,, shirts, drawers, fancy aprons, pillowcases, sheets. Second year: Work on underskirts (trimmed), shirts, drawers (different patterns),, flannel corset covers, morning gowns (fitted), dressing gowns (by patterns), shirt waists, waists with two side bodies, infants' dresses from various models, baptismal cloaks, pelerines, knit socks, embroidery, openwork, and table linen. Third and fourth years: Nightgowns for women (different patterns), morning- gowns, dressing gowns, shirt waists (trimmed, with different styles of sleeves and collars), waists with bias pleats, boleros, men's shirts, baptismal robes, trimmed caps, cloaks for infants, children's hats, table linen, openwork and various kinds of embroidery. Cutting, fitting, altering, and making of the articles mentioned. MILLINERY. (Course, 3 years; 3 half days a week, 3 hours each.) First year: Preliminary exercises — stitches used in millinery; drawing, cutting, and making (from given jneasurements) plain regular frames from lawn, etc.; cutting- and making wire frames; foundations for hats, made of wire; making hats; exercises- in simple and easy trimming; infants' caps and bonnets; fancy muffs; ornamenting- with jet, spangles, etc. Second year: Drawing, cutting, and making (from measurements) irregular and complicated frames in lawn, wire, etc. ; method of sketching and designing hat pat- terns; exercises in trimming; cutting and making hats of stiff material, by pattern;, round hats and turbans of straw, chenille, etc., according to models shown by fashion plates in journals; ornamenting with jet, spangles, etc. Third year: Enlarging and taking in frames to fit; making frames from models and from measurements of the head; cutting and making hats from models; devising new frames by taking certain portions from various models. Tests: Making sketches of the hat frame; making and trimming the hat. During the course in millinery the teacher gives instructions relat- ing to harmony of colors, and a general idea of the principal historical changes in feminine head gear. The following table shows for each year, since the organization of the school, the number of pupils enrolled and the number taking each, of the principal trade courses. Pupils frequently take more than one. course. 9257—02 39 610 KEPOET OP THE COMMISSIONEK OF LABOB. NUMBER OF PUPILS ENROLLED AND NUMBER TAKING KACH OP PRINCIPAL TRADE COURSES, BY SCHOOL YEARS, BISCHOPPSHEIM TRADE SCHOOL FOR GIRLS, BRUS- SELS, 1865-60 TO 1897-98. Number of pupils enrolled. Number of pupils taking course in— Si-liool year. Com- merce. Dress- making. Lingerie making. Artificial- flower making. Milli- nery. Drawing and painting. 1S65-66 137 163 191 200 210 200 270 259 280 260 288 329 320 321 344 320 300 347 314 324 S83 420 433 386 360 338 324 312 266 255 242 225 204 la\ fal (a) 98 . 90 '% <"'83 '"'89 85 87 82 80 96 129 127 117 119 105 101 93 132 116 118 89 87 84 86 78 67 %i W^ 72 93 C) 108 108 112 156 153 131 174 177 207 232 270 294 .269 255 246 210 225 194 163 136 137 130 (a) (al («) (a) 21 20 '"'24 <"'38 46 45 40 38 43 46 30 39 43 59 47 40 34 21 21 13 611 12 10 IS 11 1866-87 1867-68. 1868-69 1869-70... 20 1870-71 io' «23 '"'19 (<•) 20 24! 20 18 17 16 18 13 13 11. 17 19 24 20 21 28 24 23 19 17 24 15 8 1871-72 '">., 1872-73 1873-74 . . . «M 1874-75 1875-76 '"'50 1876-77 1877-78 46 1878-79 . 65 1879-80 48 1880-81 32 1881-82 59 1882-83 40 1883-84 45 1884-85 26 1886-86 ,.. 34 1886-87 33 1888-89 32 1889-90 1890-91 27 1892-93 16 13 14 13 18 15 38 31 1894-96 38 1896-97 24 a Not reported. b Including 2 pupils taking a course in corset making. It will be seen that the highest enrollment was for the school year 1887-88, the number of pupils being 433, since which year there has been a steady retrogression. At the latest period for which data are given, 1897-98, there were only 204, less than half the number of pupils shown for the earlier date. This is explained by the fact that many schools have been established in the city of Brussels and its suburbs during the last fifteen years, some of which are direct offshoots from this school. A large corps of competent instructors is employed. Their number is increased whenever the school population demands it, especially in the dressmaking and drawing courses. The school is regularly inspected by the council of fifteen and by the communal and State inspectors. Pupils are granted certificates of capability after having passed a rigid examination at the termination of their course of study. The following table shows by years for the principal courses the nimiber of such certificates delivered since the founding of the school. TRABE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION BELGIUM. 611 CERTIFICATES ISSUED IN THE MOST IMPORTANT COURSES, BISCHOFFSHEIM TRADE SCHOOL FOR GIRLS, BRUSSELS, 1809 TO 1897. Course. Year. Com- merce. Dress- making. Lingerie making. Artiflcial- flower making. Drawing. Painting. Total certifi- cates. 3 3 3 2 2 6 3 X871 3 i 4 3 X873 2 \ 4 5 1875 1 12 1876 1 2 1 2 3 5 1877 2 8 4 2 2 2 10 10 6 12 6 7 17 10 10 8 4 7 9 10 10 1 5 7 5 10 15 8 8 6 14 24 26 19 29 21 19 18 18 16 12 11 1 1 1 1 1 5 3 3 2 3 3 5 4 3 5 2 3 6 1878 15 1879 1 1 1- 4 4 ■3 4 16 1880 12 1381 17 1882 1 27 24 1884 25 1885 1 3 3 1 3 2 3 4 4 15 1886 2 4 3 3 6 7 2 5 5 2 34 1 1 41 1888 43 46 1890 60 46 1892 35 34 1894 30 3 4 4 1 31 1896 32 2 27 175 304 49 45 13 62 648 In former times prizes were given to the most meritorious pupils. These have been replaced by free excursions which are given during vacation. At the end of the school year an exhibition is held showing work done by the pupils. Receipts are derived from dues of members of the association, gifts from individuals, tuition fees, subsidies from the citj^ of Brussels and suburban communes, and subsidies from the State and province. Receipts for a number of years exceeded expenditures, but since 1893 the reverse has been true. The largest receipts for an^- year were for 1889, the amount being 77,493 francs ($14,966), and the largest expend- itures were for the same year, amounting to 63,799 francs ($12,313). This was at the time of the school's greatest prosperity. For 1896 receipts were 45,800 francs (|8,839) and expenditures were 68,643 francs ($11,318). This has been one of the most important schools in its class, and the reports say that nearly all its graduates have found lucrative posi- tions. The association has assisted in according them a patronage. TRADE SCHOOL FOB GIKLS, VEBVIEKS. This school was organized in 1886. It owes its origin to jjrivate effort. At first the instruction given was 'comprised in a number of more or less independent courses, but these are now thoroughly united so as to form a ver}'^ practical trade school. The object is the same 612 BEPOET OF THE COMMISSIONEK OF LABOR. as the other schools of this class; that is, to teach girls a useful and remunerative trade and at the same time prepare them for the duties of the household. The school has been very successful from the beginning. It was opened in January, 1887, with 72 pupils, and the next year there were 167. Since that time the figures have varied considerably. The management is delegated to a commission of 9 members selected from the membership of a society that was formed to promote the interests of the school. It is the duty of this commission to care for the financial interests, supervise the studies, nominate the professors for the various courses, make rules and regulations, audit accounts, etc. In 1^98 the faculty comprised a directress, 3 teachers for the general course, 3 for the cutting and dressmaking course, 2 for the painting course, and 2 for drawing. The directress, in addition to other duties, has charge of the course in lingerie and classes in the commercial course. The number of pupils enrolled for this year was 166. They are, of course, largely drawn from the commune in which the school is located, but a large number attend from neighboring communes, some of which share in its support. The qualifications required of candi- dates for admission are about the same as in other trade schools for girls. They must be at least 13 years of age and have a primary edu- cation. Tuition is 12 francs (|2.32) per quarter, but numerous scholar- ships are divided among the several communes which contribute toward the support of the school. Due attention is given to the general education of the pupils. The programme comprises the usual general course, including all the important subjects taught in the superior section of the primary schools, a commercial course, and trade courses in cutting and dress- making, lingerie, drawing, and painting. The trade courses are the only ones with which this investigation is concerned, and the complete outline of work done, in so far as it applies to these courses, will be found at the end of this description. It is proper in this connection to indicate the distribution of pupils among the trade courses. During the school year 1897-98, 95 pupils were in the second and third years of the cutting and dressmaking course, 21 were in the same years of the lingerie course, and 46 were in the preparatory year for these courses, the work being identical for both. As for the other courses, 27 pupils took shaded drawing, 135 were in the classes in outline draw- ing, and 16 were in the two sections in painting. The total enrollment for that year was 156. TKADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION BELGIUM. 613 The following statement shows the hours per week devoted to each study: HOURS PER WEEK DEVOTED TO EACH STUDY IN TRADE SCHOOL FOE GIRLS, VERVIERS. Subjects taught. First year. Second year. Third year. Subjects taught. First year. Second year. Third year. 3 4 2 1 2 1 1 3 3 2 3 2 1 2 2 2 3 1 1 t 6 2 3 10 6 i 3 French . 12 Lingerie making Drawing — outline Drawing — shaded 6 2 Natural science 4 Domestic economy and hygiene Painting — Section A . . . Painting— Section B. . . . 2 5 2 5 2 5 The general course is obligatory for all, but in the trade courses more or less freedom of selection is allowed. Expenditures for 1897-98 were 20,880 francs ($4,030). Subsidies are received from the State, the province, and the communes of Verviers, Hodimont, Dison, and Andrimont. The full programme in use in the trade courses for the school year 1897-98 is here reproduced. It serves as an illustration of what is actually done in nearly all the trade schools for girls. That part of the programme relating to the general and commercial courses is omitted. DRESSMAKING. First year: (The first year's work is called the preparatory course in cutting and dressmaking and in making of lingerie, etc.) Exercises in different stitches; various kinds of sewing, gathers, buttonholes, eyelets; mending, including patching, piecing, and darning; exercises in stamping and embroidery; preparatory exercises in dress- making, properly speaking; work on samples; application of knowledge of sewing to such ordinary work as towels, handkerchiefs, pillowcases, plain aprons, petticoats (plain and scalloped), and chemises. Second year: Use of sewing machine; making underskirts for women; infants' gowns (method of taking measurements, tracing the pattern, cutting and preparing, fitting and making) ; apron with sleeyes; tracing pattern, cutting pattern, then cut- ting and making morning gown; waist (how to measure, mark patterns, cut, prepare, fit, and make); making lined waist, plain waist, cloth skirt, dressing gown, skirts and sleeves (various models), and a plain costume. Third year: Students review work of first two years, then work on the following articles: Street dress; various styles of waists and sleeves; waist for ball dress; mak- ing buttonholes, lapels, pockets, etc. ; cutting and making jackets; patterns of wraps of all kinds — traveling wraps, visiting wraps, long cloaks, etc., and tailor-made gowns. Students learn to modify the waist pattern to fit any form. A notebook is kept by the pupils, with synopses of the lessons and sketches of the different gar- ments and lists of articles made. COURSE IN THE MAKING OF LINGERIE, ETC. First year: The work for this year is the same as for the dressmaking course. Second year: Students work on pillowcases, sheets, chemises for women and chil- dren, drawers, skirts, morning gowns, corset covers, infants' trousseaux. 614 KEPOKT OF THE OOMMISSIOKEE OF LABOE. Third year: Includes work on chemises, nightshirts, fine work on skirts and draw- ers, trimmed morning gowns, trousseaux for infants, and men's shirts. Pupils are drilled in tracing and modifying patterns in the same manner as in the dressmaking course. They keep a notebook for this course, in which they describe the methods studied and reproduce the sketches made. DRAWING IN OUTLINE. First year: Tracing lines; defining lines and surfaces that occur in drawing; com- bining straight lines in such manner as to form ornaments based on- geometrical figures taken from flower forms; combining straight and curved lines; combina- tions of polygons (with definitions); practice in geometric curves and various orna- mentation on systems becoming more and more simple, ending in two or three lines or a few points; theory of the principal laws of perspective, illustrated by models in plaster; demonstration of elementary projection in regular polyhedrons of two surfaces; application of perspective to the study of polyhedrons and round bodies; drawing polyhedrons and round bodies, singly at first, then grouped; simple orna- ment drawing, gradually progressing to higher forms. (For the benefit of the pupils the teacher criticises and corrects drawings sent in from the other trade classes. ) Second year: The exercises include a repetition of the first year's work; continua- tion of ornamentation; drawing from nature, plants, fruits, and associated objects; study of the face, including simple demonstration of the anatomy of the face and neck, given by the teacher, who makes constant reference to a model. Students draw the skeleton of a head. Correction of drawings done by the pupils of the trade classes. SHADED DRAWING. Third year: The instruction includes drawing of solids, singly and in groups, with charcoal shading; ornament work, gradually progressing; practice in quick sketching and shading with lead pencil; drawing of face and bust; demonstration of anatom- ical knowledge of the face; drawing of skeleton of the head; drawing of plants and objects from nature; designing of clothing (taken in connection with the cutting and dressmaking course). PAINTING — SECTION A. The complete work of this section includes: (1) Painting from models and nature, in water colors, and in oils, as applied to such stuffs as silk, cambric, gauze, muslin, velvet, tapestry, etc., and on terra cotta, wood, leather, marble, alabaster, ivory, rub- ber, glass, etc.; (2) coloring photographs in water color or oil; (3) practical instruc- tion in composition applied to painting from nature, special attention being given to the arrangement of the subject and to the harmony of colors. PAINTING SECTION B. First year: (1) Study of diagram, which is the geometric base of all ornamentation; geometric designs and conventional flower in geometrical forms, washed in on paper, making the diagram stand out; (2) ornamental composition based on certain dia- grams, as the rectangle, lozenge, and circle; (3) study of leaves from nature and their classification according to the diagram which harmonizes with their outline, at the same time having regard for their symmetrical arrangement; (4) the previous exer- cises in geometrical figures or conventional flowers are applied to monochrome or cameo painting on porcelain, faience, glass, or stuffs, combining the decoration and material in such manner as to give just importance to both. Second year: (1) Painting on porcelain; practice in designing, that is, the tracing in water color which precedes ceramic painting; (2) general study of harmony of TRADE AND TECH]SfIOAL EDUCATION BELGIUM. 615 colors and mixing of vitrifiable colors for porcelain and glass, students also receiving instruction concerning the alteration which colors undergo in baking, and the mix- tures to avoid; study of the texture of porcelain, faience, and glass; (3) ornamental compositions on given diagrams and their application on porcelain, clay, faience, glass, and rough glass. Third year: (1) Study from nature of flowers, foliage, and fruits, with reference to their ornamental arrangement and application to ceramics; (2) theory of ornamental composition after different methods; (3) various modes of composition for objects of designated form without diagram, Teade and Housekeeping Schools. TRADE AKD HOUSEKEEPING SCHOOL OF THE CLUB "LE PEOGE.i:S," SAINT-GIIiliES (BKUSSELS). This school was founded in 1891 by the club "Le Progrcs"' and has had a prosperous career. The object in view, as is the case with all other trade and housekeeping schools, is to train young girls so that thej^ may be able either to earn their living by some useful occupa- tion or become intelligent, painstaking, and economical housekeepers. To be admitted they must be at least 12 years of age and possess a primary education. The programme contains a general course intended to complete this kind of education. The trade courses include the following subjects: Dressmaking, lingerie, artificial flower making, millinery, drawing, painting, and commercial training. Considerable attention is paid to the housekeeping course. In the cooking course groups of pupils in rotation, and for one week at a time, are required to do the marketing, prepare the dinner, keep the accounts, wash the dishes and kitchen utensils, etc., under the direction of an instructress. The menu is changed every daj^. One afternoon each week a group of pupils is detailed for the wash room and to do the difl:erent opera- tions necessary in washing and ironing. The school year closes with an exhibition of work done by the pupils. Prizes were awarded in the past, but they have been super- seded by excursion trips. In 1895-96 there were 90 pupils, and 1 directress and 11 teachers were employed. Subsidies are allowed bj'^ the State, the province, and the commune. This is one of the most important schooJs of the class known as trade and housekeeping schools. TRADE AND HOUSEKEEPING SCHOOL, SCHAERBEEK. This school was organized by the commune in 1889 with the coop- eration of the State and province. The courses are of the same character as in the other schools of the trade and housekeeping class. The general course includes French and Flemish, arithmetic, his- toiy, geography, hygiene, domestic economy, maternal pedagogy, 616 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. natural science, ethics, penmanship, and geometric drawing. The trade courses include commercial science (bookkeeping, correspondence, etc.), drawing (such as is required in the trades taught), the making of lingerie, etc., dressmaking, embroidery, washing, bleaching, iron- ing, mending, and practical work in cooking, etc. The housekeeping course includes instruction and practice in buying and preparing food, the cleaning and proper care of the house and furniture, washing, mending, cutting, and making the ordinary wearing apparel necessary for the family, in fact, all the various occupations of the housewife. The programme covers three years of study and all courses are obligatory upon the pupils. More attention is given to the practical than to the theoretical side of the instruction. Pupils are admitted between the ages of 12 and 16 if they have a sufficient primary education. The expenditures for 1896-96 were 12,300 francs (12,374). There were 6 teachers and 60 pupils. TRADE AND HOUSEKEEPING SCHOOIi, IDS RUE TERRE-NEUVE, BRUSSELS. This school was created in July, 1888, by the Association for the Trade Education of Women, the same association that founded the Bischoifsheim school (trade school), rue du Marais, in 1865. Pupils are admitted at the age of 12. The tuition fee is 21 francs ($4.05) per quarter, and scholarships may be given. Girls who have attained the age of 16 and have entirely completed their primary school education may take single trade courses, paying 10 francs ($1.93) a month tuition for each course. The programme contains courses of study extending over a period of three years. The general course is of a very utilitarian character. Besides the ordinary school studies it includes such branches as hygiene, domestic economy, maternal pedagogy, accounting, and drawing. Such domestic duties as mending all kinds of clothing, washing and ironing linens and other wearing apparel, cleaning of the house and furniture, etc., are also taught in connection with this course. This course is obligatory on all regular pupils. The trade courses comprise: Dressmaking and the making of lin- gerie, etc.; millinery; artificial-flower making, jet work, and feather curling; a commercial course, and a cooking course. In the cooking course are taught the preparation of meals suitable for the laboring and bourgeoise classes and adapted to the season, the art of preserving, of provisioning the household, and of utilizing what is left over from meals. While taking this course the pupils do the marketing, prepare the dinner, wash the dishes, clean the kitchen and dining room, etc. They also do at intervals the various operations necessary in washing and ironing the linen. The school's working hours are from 8.30 to 11.30 in the morning, and from 1.30 to 4.16 TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION BELGIUM. 617 in the afternoon. Trade teaching occupies one half the day and the general and housekeeping courses the other half. This school opened in 1888 with 28 pupils, and in 1896 it had 110. Thus it may be seen that it has been one of the most successful schools of its class. The faculty comprises a directress, who,, in addition to her other duties, has charge of the maternal pedagogy class, and 10 or 11 other teachers. The institution is directed by an administrative committee, chosen from the membership of the association by which it was created. Expenditures during 1895-96 were 25,800 francs (|4,979), partly met by subsidies allowed by the State, the province, and the commune. TRADE AND HOUSEKEEPING SCHOOL, 10 RUE DE LA ROUE, BRUSSELS. This school was created by private initiative. When opened, November 15, 1894, it took over and improved the trade and general courses that had previously been attached to another school. The building is well situated as regards light and air. It contains kitchens, a laundry, drawing room, four class rooms with an average capacity for 20 pupils, and two smaller class rooms. The furnishings are not complete. The school is placed under the administration of a com- mittee of ladies. Both general and trade courses are given. The general course includes ethics, French, Flemish, arithmetic, geometry, elements of commerce, historjr, geography, calligraphy, music, gymnastics, elements of the natural sciences, hygiene, and domestic economy. The trade courses include the making of lingerie, etc., dressmaking, millinery, artificial-flower making, feather working, jet work, and drawing as applied to the subjects just mentioned. There is also a housekeeping course, the object of which is to give the pupils a practical knowl- edge of the duties appertaining to the household. The general course occupies the morning hours, and the trade and housekeeping courses the afternoon. Pupils must be at least 12 years of age, and must possess an average degree of primary education before they are qualified to enter this school. The tuition fee is 100 francs ($19.30) per year. Diplomas and certificates of capability are issued to pupils after passing a rigid examination before a board named by the administrative committee. In 1895 there were granted two diplomas and six certificates, and in 1896 three diplomas and three certificates. There were 75 pupils enrolled during the latter j^ear. The faculty comprises a directress, an assistant directress, and 11 teachers. Expenditures for the school year 1895-96 were 13,093 francs (|2,527), not including rent, taxes, repair of buildings, etc. These expenditures are met by subsidies, from the State and province, by tuition fees, and donations. A certain amount is contributed according to needs by a committee of patronage.. 618 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. TRADE ANB HOTJeEKEEPING SCHOOIj, HEVERI.:^. This school was established at Louvain in 1887 by private initiative. Its object is to give instruction in housekeeping and such trades as dressmaking and the making of lingerie, etc., to the children of the laVjoring and the poorer middle classes. An apprenticeship shop is maintained in connection with the school. Instruction in this school has been not only absolutely free, but for some time a small wage, varying in amount according to ability, has been paid to the pupils. Pupils are admitted at the age of 13 if they have finished their studies in the primary schools. The course is for three years, but those who have not thoroughljr learned their trade may attend for a longer period. Instruction is given in the forenoon from 8 to 11.30, and in the after- noon from 1.30 to 4.30 in winter, and from 1.30 to 6 in summer, every week day except Saturday. The pupils are divided into groups, and each group in turn receives instruction in housekeeping for one week at a time. One directress and 7 mistresses comprise the personnel of the faculty. There were 175 pupils in 1896, the last year for which data are acces- sible. The expenditures that year were 7,050 francs ($1,361). This was partly met by the government subsidy of 2,300 francs ($444), and the other expenses were met by private subscription and the sale of the products of the school. The increasing success of the school led to its enlargement and removal to Heverle, near Louvain, where for some time to come it will be able to meet all demands for admission. PIOUSEKEEPING AND TrADE ScHOOLS. HGirSElIEEPIirG AND TKADE SCHOOL, TOVKNAY. This school, which has been in existence since April 21, 1890, is annexed to another institution (I'institution Monnel, Monarre et Crombez). Its object is to give the young girls of the laboring and poorer middle classes a knowledge of housekeeeping, and to teach the work of garment cutting, dressmaking, repairing, washing, etc. The instruction is both theoretical and practical. The general course, including hygiene, domestic economy, com- merce, French, and arithmetic, is followed by all the pupils at the same time, but for the trade instruction the pupils are grouped according to the nature of the work, each group doing one kind of work for one week, then exchanging places with another. The older pupils sometimes act as monitors. The course is for two years, and pupils are admitted at the age of 14, after having finished their primary-school studies. The tuition fee is 8 francs ($1.54) per quarter, but there are some scholarships. Instruction is given every day of TEADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION BELGItTM. 61-9 the week from 8.15 a. m. to 12 m., and from 2 to 4.30 p. m. during the winter months, and from 2 to 5 p. m. in summer. The mornings are devoted to training in household work and the afternoons to the sewing and other classes. Theory is taught in the evening from 5 to 7 o'clock. There has not been a very rapid increase in the number of pupils attending this school, and at present 2 teachers for the practical part of the A7ork and 1 for the theoretical instruction are sufficient. The school is subsidized by the State, the province, and the commune. The expenditures were about 4,000 francs ($772) during the year 1895-96. TRADE COURSES FOR FEMALES. There are only three institutions in this class, one at Brussels and two at Josse-Ten-Noode. The former is a continuation coui'se for graduates of trade schools and is by far the most important. The courses in Josse-Ten-Noode are annexed, one to a primary and one to an intermediate school. They are intended to supply the place of trade schools. A short account of the courses follows: CONTINXTATION COURSES IN DRESS CUTTING AND MAKING FOR GRADUATES OE GIRLS' TRADE SCHOOLS, BRUSSELS. It was found that there v/ere a certain number of girls who were desirous of gaining a more thorough training in the trade of dress- making than could be obtained in the ordinarj-- trade schools. Espe- cially was it desired to receive instruction regarding fashions and costumes of different periods and countries in order that original designing of costumes might be undertaken. To meet this need the inspector-general of technical education proposed to the Govern- ment the creation of an advanced course in such matters at Brussels that should be open to graduates of the girls' trade schools. This recommendation was favorably received and such a course was formally opened in October, 1895. The course of instruction includes two years' attendance and comprehends a study of dress from the earliest times and in all countries. TRADE COURSES, JOSSE-TEN-NOODE. Rue de la Limite: In 1886 the commune of Josse-Ten-Noode added to one of its primary schools a system of technical instruction for young girls desiring to learn a trade. This includes the general course consisting of the same studies as apply to primary schools, and the trade courses of cutting and dressmaking (theory and practice), the making of lingerie, etc. , commerce (French and Flemish, accounts, commercial studies, commercial geography), and drawing are also taught. The course in dressmaking lasts four years, that in the mak- ing of lingerie, etc., three or two years according to the aptitude of the student, and that in commerce three j'ears. Instruction is given 620 EEPOBT OF THE C0MMI8SI0NEE OP LABOK. every week day. The hours per week for each course are: Cutting and dressmaking course, 13; lingerie course 13; commercial course, 10; general course, 17; drawing, 2. The number of students taking these courses has gradually increased during recent years, it being 82 in 1887 and 48 in 1896. Rue Musin: In 1887 the same commune annexed to its intermediate school a technical department in which is given a four years' course of instruction in sewing, cutting, and dressmaking; a four years' course in painting and drawing, and a three years' course in languages. In 1896, 72 students followed these courses, of whom 61 took that of dressmaking. Students in the school are free to choose whether they will follow the trade courses or not. The general course is that of the intermediate school. One half of each week day is given to trade teaching, the other half being taken up by the regular school studies. APPRENTICESHIP SHOPS FOR FEMALES. There are now four apprenticeship shops for girls in Belgium. They are the least important of all the classes of institutions for girls. Following is a description of the oldest of these institutions: APPRENTICESHIP WOKKSHOP AND HOUSEKEEPING SCHOOL, JEMELLE. An apprenticeship workshop for girls was created at Jemelle in 1877 through the joint action of the commune, the province, and the State. In 1890 a housekeeping school was annexed to it. In this school are taught hand and machine sewing, the making of ordinary garments, knitting, washing, mending, and ironing of linen goods, culinary operations, and all the accessory work which must be done by a good housekeeper or working woman in the country. The school occupies comfortable quarters and possesses a satisfactory equipment. Instruction is gratuitous. The course lasts two j^ears. Instruction is given every week day from 8 to 11.30 in the morning and from 1 to 4 in the afternoon during the winter, and from 4.30 to 6.30 in the summer. Stores and individuals furnish work to be done by the pupils. Dui'- ing the first three months the pupils are not paid for their work. Afterwards they are remunerated according to the value of the work they do. During one day in each week they can do work for them- selves. Five per cent of their earnings is retained b}' the school to pay for the expenses incurred in washing materials, loss of articles, etc. The school is administered by a commission composed of the mayor and two others, one appointed by the communal council and the other by the permanent deputation of the province. The school had an attendance of 83 pupils in 1896. Its cost was only 1,200 francs (1232) for the workshops and 1,425 francs ($275) for the housekeeping school. TEADE AND .TECHNICAL EDUCATION — BELGIUM. 621 INDUSTRIAL SCHOOLS. The term industrial school, as used in Belgium, has been defined as a school in which is taught a number of technical subjects relating to industrial operations. It has been seen that in Belgium all schools of this class hold either night or Sunday sessions, or both, there being no regular day schools in Belgihm bearing the title industrial. Hence, the}' are continuation schools and may be classed with the industrial continuation schools of other countries. Although these schools differ greatly in regard to their programmes, each school being organized with reference to purely local needs, there is no such variation from a general type as is to be found in the trade schools. For this reason a few representative industrial schools only have been selected for description. INDUSTRIAL SCHOOL, ANTWERP. This school was created in 1860 and was at first sup^forted by a society called the Flemish Vrienden. It was established for the pur- pose of giving to artisans and laborers useful knowledge pertaining to the theoretical part of their trades. At first instruction was mainlj^ in ornamental and architectural drawing. In 1866 the school became communal, since which date it has been subsidized by the city, the province, and the State. As at first organ- ized the school did not produce the results expected, so the communal council modified the programme in 1894, making it conform more nearly to the requirements of the trades represented in the city. The administrative commission of the school is composed of mem- bers named by the communal and provincial authorities and approved by the Government. The mayor or his representative (an alderman) presides at the meetings of the commission. A corps of 19 teachers is engaged in giving instruction. The programme comprehends five years of study. For the first three yeai's the studies are common to all, and comprise drawing, arithmetic, commercial arithmetic, algebra, geometry, bookkeeping, and physics. Specialization then occurs, and the student passes the next two years in one of the following departments: 1. Department of mechanics. In this department the student studies meahanics, physics, chemistry, and drawing and designing of machinery. 2. Department of civil constructions and architecture. This includes • the study of physics, architecture, drawing and designing applied to architecture, estimates, etc. 3. Department of naval construction. In this section are taught drawing (and designing) applied to naval construction, the theory of naval construction, physics, and chemistry. 4. Department of painting (imitation of marble and wood). Study of theory. 622 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 5. Department of marble cutting and setting. Study of theory. In all five departments are included the study of industrial legisla- tion, political economy, and hygiene. Drawing occupies a prominent place in the plan of instruction. During the first year all students are taught linear drawing and ornamentation, but for the second and third years the drawing done by the student conforms to the work in the department he intends to enter. The school year begins the first Monday after the 15th of September and ends the 30th of April. The class hours are from 6.30 to 8.30 p. m., but the department of painting in imitation of wood and marble receives instruction on Sunday from 9 a. m. to 12 m. Instruction is gratuitous, but a registration fee of 1 franc ($0.19) is charged. Boys 14 years old may be admitted if they understand the fundamental principles of arithmetic. Special students (those taking on\j studies of their own selection) may be admitted when there is room for them. Regular students are allowed to enter an examination at the end of five 3'ears. If they successfuUj^ pass it they are given a certificate of proficiency in the department in which they have specialized. Since 1891 the school has occupied a building form.erly used as a boys' orphanage. The accommodations had been insufficient and a number of applicants had been turned away during the last two years preceding the issuance of the report. The commune has built several additional rooms, however, and has installed a chemical labora- tory and renewed the furniture. The school librar}' contains 4,000 volumes, to which students have access. Since the reorganization in 1894 the school has made rapid prog- ress. There were 348 matriculants in 1896, of whom 317 were classified as laborers, artisans, etc., 19 were schoolboys, and 11 were clerks, etc. Only 1 had no occupation. The attendance at the end of the school year was about 80 per cent of the total enrollment. INDUSTRIAL AND COMMERCIAL SCHOOL, CHARLEROI. A school for mine bosses {po)'ion,s) was founded at Charleroi in 1845 by the provincial council of Hainaut and annexed to the communal college. This institution met with little success. In 1865 a reorgan- ization was effected and the school took the name of Industrial School of Charleroi. From that time rapid progress was made and the school 'became one of the most important in the kingdom. Chai'leroi was then, as at present, the center of large and diversified industrial interests, and was an ideal locality for an industrial school which should teach a variety of subjects bearing on industrial work. At that time industrial schools were not numerous and those in exist- ence were confined more or less closely to giving elementary instruc- tion relating to local industry. In view of these conditions the school at Charleroi was conducted TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION — BELGHUM. 623 under an organization unlike tliat of other industrial schools. It did not have a definite programme of studies systematically arranged, but a collection of independent branches or courses. There were no depart- ments with obligatory studies and no obligatory general courses, as in the case of schools which granted dii3lomas. The student was allowed to choose such separate branches or subjects as he pleased. After a time, varying from two to three years, according to the importance of the subject, the student was given a certificate of graduation in the branches chosen if he passed a satisfactory examination in them. This sj''stem met a real need for many years. It enabled the young men of the neighboring communes to complete the industrial education begun in smaller schools, affording them the opportunity to study special branches that were not then taught in most schools. Attend- ance increased rapidly. During the ten-year period preceding the date of the last Government report there was an average annual matricu- lation of 912. At one time this school was spoken of as the Industrial University of Belgium. In time the rapid increase in the number of industrial and trade schools and the higher and more perfect organization of their courses in accord with local needs diverted man}' students from the Charleroi school and otherwise interfered with its usefulness. The necessity of a more modern programme of definitel}' arranged departments for indus- trial instruction, including correlated branches of study, which should be obligatory, became more and more apparent. This necessity was mentioned in the Government repoi't of 1897, and steps were taken to bring about the change. In 1898 the reorganization was effected and the school took its present name. Under the present regime the school is more local in character, the departments being arranged with refer- ence to local industries. All branches of studj' in any department are obligatory if one aspires to a diploma. The exact arrangement of the departments and their number have not as 3'et been reported. The subjects taught include arithmetic, geometry, geometric drawing, projection, industrial drawing, artistic designing, physics, chemistry, mechanics, Flemish, topograph}'-, and industrial economy. There is also instruction in such specialties as fii-ing and the care of machinery, engineering, mining, leveling, building construction, shop technology, metallurgy, electricity, and commerce. Instruction is given four days a week, from 7 to 9 p. m. , an-, on Sunday morning from 8 to 12. The school term begins October 1 and closes at the end of July. An entrance fee of 6 francs (11.16) is charged, but this is returned to those students of the commune who attend regularly. Tuition is free. Students are admitted at 14 years of age. There has been a marked recession from the old-time attendance, there being but 640 students enrolled in 1899-1900. These were 624 EEPOET OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOE. grouped according to ages, as follows: From li to 16 years, 146; from 16 to 18 years, 161; from 18 to 20 years, 172; 20 years or over, 161, A great percentage of the students came from other communes, the number being 635. About 83 per cent of the 640 students were in attendance at the end of the year. In 1900 there were 34 diplomas delivered, of which 6 were in min- ing, 4 were in steam-engine firing, 1 was in building construction, 1 in shop technology, 1 in metallurgy, 7 in electricity, 3 in applied chemis- try, 9 in commerce, and 1 was for building foreman. One surveyor's certiiicate was granted by the provincial jury. A number of prizes, varying in value from 25 francs ($4.83) to 150 francs (|28.96), are placed at the disposal of the school each year by industrial associations, individuals, etc. Twenty-four teachers, the director included, are employed. The school is subsidized by the State, province of Hainaut, various communes, etc. INDtrSTKIAIi AND COMMEKCIAL SCHOOL, CHATELET. In point of attendance this is one of the largest industrial schools of Belgium. It was founded in 1869 by the city, with the aid of the State and the province of Hainaut. Since the Government report of 1897 was issued there has been a complete reorganization of the school. In that report it was remarked that too much latitude was allowed the student in the choice of studies and that the choice was not always judiciously made. It was suggested that there should be an increase in the number of special technical departments and that each department should carry its appropriate branches. It was to be obli- gatory upon students in any department to study all the branches per- taining to it. This suggestion was followed and the change has been accomplished. The duration of study is now five years, three of which are devoted to a general or preparatory course and two to the technical courses. This division of time applies to both Sunday and week-day students. The general or preparatory course includes the study of French, Flemish, commerce, mathematics, elements of mechanics, freehand drawing, projections, and perspective. After three years of prepara- tion there is a division of the industrial part of the instruction into the following departments, each requiring two years of study: 1. Department of mechanical drafting: This department requires trade drawing and study of physics, shop technology, and industrial economy. 2. Department of electricity: This includes drawing applicable to electricity and the study of physics (more especially that branch relat- ing to electricity) and industrial economy. TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION BELGIUM. 625 3. Department of mining: Here are taught the theory of the devel- opment of mines, industrial economy, and dialing or surveying of mines. 4. Department of metallurgy and chemistry': This includes trade drawing and visits to industrial establishments and the study of metal- lurgy, chemistry, and industrial economy. 5. Department for firemen, etc. : This includes drawing applicable to the subject and study of mechanics, industrial economy, and firing. 6. Department for building contractors: This includes building con- struction, drawing applicable to the building industry, and industrial econom3^ A course in practical electricity was organized in 1898. It forms part of the Sunday programme. There are two special courses. In one the object is to prepare stu- dents for the provincial examination for surveyors. It includes arith- metic, algebra, geometry, surveying, leveling, dialing, physics, and industrial economy. The second is a commercial course, in which stu- dents study banking, partnership, the industrial and commercial geog- raphy of Belgium, commercial law, freight rates, industrial economy, etc. In the scheme of instruction above presented drawing occupies a prominent position, as, in fact, it does in all trade and industrial schools. Ih this school drawing from prints was formerly the rule, but this custom has been entirelj' superseded by sltetching from wooden models or directly from the parts of machinery. Students are admitted at the age of 14, but in exceptional cases they may enter at 12 or 13. Tuition is free to residents of the citj^, but nonresidents pay 3 francs ($0.58) a year. The sum realized in this manner is applied to the purchase of books, etc., which are distributed as prizes at the end of the year. There are a Sundaj^ and an evening division. Recitation hours are from 7.30 to 9.30 p. m. ever}^ week-day evening and from 8 to 12 Sunday morning. The school population is increasing each j^ear. In 1895-96 it was 883. The short table which follows shows the increase in attendance for each year of the period 1896-97 to 1899-1900. It also shows the character of the employment of the students. The data are derived from the official report of the inspector of industrial schools for the province of Hainaut. 9257—02 40 626 REPOKT OP THE COMMISSIONEK OF LABOK. ENROLLMENT AND CHARACTER OF EMPLOYMENT OP STUDENTS, INDUSTRIAL AND COMMERCIAL SCHOOL AT CHATELET, 1896-97 TO 1899-1900. Character of employment. School year. 1898-99. 1899-1900. Mine employees Industrial employees (ouvriers d'industrie) Agriculture General trades, occupations, etc Profe,ssiQnal Clerks, office help, etc Schoolboys, students, etc Total C3 287 28 208 .12 132 198 928 65 812 32 215 60 135 167 976 59 341 28 255 78 138 159 60 404 21 275 82 142 168 It is seen that with the exception of a small percentage of school- boys, students, etc. , all were engaged in gainful occupations. The total enrollment during the school 3"ear 1899-1900 was 1 ,142, of which number 372 were enrolled in week-day classes only, 560 in Sunday classes only, and 210 in both Sunday and week-day classes. There were 705 students 16 years of age or over, 425 of 18 year.s or over, and 165 fWere above 20 years old. Of the 1,142 students enrolled about 22 per cent had dropped out of the clas.ses before the end of the year. This defection is less than the average for the ,schools of the province. Certificates of capacity are given in all cour.ses, except the special ■ course for surveying, to students who pass an examination with an average of 60 per cent at the end of the five years' course. Students , who take the survej'or's course must pass the examination before the examining board for the province of Hainaut. In 1900 there were 60 certificates of capacity awarded, and 18 students passed the surveyor's examination. There are 19 teachers, including the director, engaged in the various departments. This school occupies a building in common with the intermediate school. Subsidies are received from the State, the province of Hainaut, and the commune. INDTTSTRIAIi SCHOOL, GHENT. The Industrial School of Ghent dates from the j-ear 1828. As first organized but little was accomplished in the way of training working- men, as the instruction was too scientific or theoretical. In 1833 the school was reorganized in conformity with local needs, and was made a communal institution. In 1835 a special course in designing of, machinery was added. This was for foremen, directors, and drafts- men of the industrial establishments of Ghent, who had formerly been compelled to go to England and Germanj^ for such instruction. In 1886 the studies were divided into two departments — one in French for advanced students, and the other in Flemish for ordinary workmen. TRADE ATSTB TECHNICAL EDUCATION — BELGIUM. 627 In IS'5'Q a new course for firemen and engineers was created. An independent school of industrial di'awing and weaving was founded in 1'8S3 and in 1860 tlie two scliools were united under the name of Indus- trial School, the conrses of both being reorganized. In 1893 the school was again thoroughly reoiganized by a special commission consisting of delegates from the city, the province, and the central Government. Under its present organization the object of the school is stated to be to train firemen, engineers, electrical workers, building trades arti- sans, painters and decorators, mechanical draftsmen and draftsmen for building construction and the art industries, and foremen and heads of establishments in the textile, mechanical, and chemical industries. The teaching staff includes a director a-nd 23 instructors, among whom axe a number of eminent .specialists. The courses are so arranged that in two, three, or four years students may prejiare themselves for diplomas in anyone of the following specialties: Mechanical indus- tries (3 years); chemical industries (3 yeara); textile industries {3 years); as designers and industrial decorators (4 j-ears); as firemen (2 years); as firemen and enginemen (2 3rears); and as electrical workers (2 years). Instruction in some branches is in Flemish, but in others French is used. The branches taught are: In Flemish — arithmetic, algebra, geometi-y, descriptive geometry, chemistiy, mechanics, phj^sics, the- ory and practice of weaving, spinning, accounting, firing, steam engine tending, history of ornamentation, and electricity; in French — chem- i^ry, chemical manipulations, mechanics, physics, accounting, indus- trial econoTO}'', and steam engineering. English and German are also taught. In addition to the above branches and special subjects, drawing receives prominent notice. The drawing courses include elementary drawing of various degrees, mechanical drawing, drawing as applied to construction, and ornamental drawing and modeling. The lessons are given, for the most part, from 5 to 9 o'clock in the evening, though instruction in certain courses is given during the day and on Sunday morning. Following are the tuition fees paid by students: Ten francs ($1.93) a year for each independent registration in branches for which char^ges are made; 10 francs ($1.93) a year for regular students in the courses relating to the mechanical and chem- ical industries; 100 francs ($1§.80) for regular students in the textile industry course; 200 francs ($38.60) for special students attending only the practical exercises in the weaving shop; 30 francs ($6.79) for regular students in the decorative art course, and 50 francs ($9.65) for special students attending the decorative art eouree. The school is well equipped for its work. It has a librarj% a chem- ical laboratory, a physical laboratory, an electrical workshop, a weav- ing workshop, and eoUections of appliances and industrial materials. 628 BEPOKT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOB. The building is ample for its purposes. In 1896-96 there were 918 students following the various courses. These were classified accord- ing to ages and occupations as follows: Four hundred and forty-eight from 14 to 16 years of age, 256 from 16 to 20 years of age, and 215 20 years of age or over; 456 were workingmen, 218 were oiBce employees, 206 were students in various schools, and 38 were without occupation. INDTJSTIIIAL SCHOOL, JUMET. This institution, sometimes called the "School of industry and design," and sometimes the "Industrial and commercial school," was established the last day of December, 18Y0, and was reorganized in 1894. It is a mixed school, including industrial departments, a com- mercial department, and a department of artistic designing. The lat- ter does not alter its character as an industrial school, as the drawing is in reference to industry. Formerly there was a lack of unity in the instruction, the student being allowed too much liberty in selecting studies, to the detriment of himself and the school. Again, the proper degree of primary edu- cation was not always exacted of pupils. That condition of affairs has been changed by the new organic law, and the school may now be said to have a prosperous future before it. More attention is paid to the qualifications of matriculants, who are now required to follow regular series of studies in relation to their trade or occupation, and none are allowed to enter the specialized departments without being suitably prepared. The reforms caused a temporary decrease in attendance, but the loss has been more than recovered and the prestige of the school has increased. As the school is now organized the programme of instruction includes a preparatory course of two j^ears, common to all students, and two other years of study in one or more of the following special courses or departments: (1) A course for draftsmen; (2) a course for machinists; (3) a course for miners; (4) a course for constructors; (5) a course for clerks, office employees, etc. (commercial course). The various branches and specialties in which instruction is given are arithmetic, hygiene, French, geometry, drawing of various degrees (elementary, projections, etc.), drawing applied to industry, physics, chemistry, algebra, trigonometry, surveying, commerce, German, English, industrial economy, mechanics, steam firing and engine tend- ing, shop technology, exploitation of mines, and building construc- tion. A course in practical electricity was installed in 1898. Drawing has been reorganized by taking as a basis the teaching of geometric forms and projections. Industrial economy is an obligatory branch for all third-year students. The school year lasts from October 1 to July 10. Instruction is TRADE AMD TECHNICAL EDUCATION BELGIUM. 629 given evenings from 7 to 9 o'clock, and on Sunday moi'ning from 7.45 to 11.45. Four years of study are required of students in both Sunday and evening courses. The entrance fee is 3 francs (|0.58) for residents of the commune and 6 francs (fO.97) for nonresidents. Students on entering must be 14 years of age, as a general rule, and must have a knowledge of the fundamental rules of arithmetic. Including the director there are 15 instructors engaged in the various courses. The number of students enrolled in 1895-96 was 326. The following table shows the enrollment for each of the four school years following that date. The students are separated as to evening and Sunday attendance, and as to age groups. Another column shows the percent of decrease in attendance by the end of the year. The large decrease (29 per cent) shown during the last year of the period is partly attrib- utable to increased industrial activity, which took many from the school. NUMBER OF STUDENTS ENROLLED, BY AGE PERIODS, AND DECREASE IN ATTENDANCE, INDUSTRIAL SCHOOL AT JUlMET, 1896-97 TO 1899-1900. students enrolled in- Total stu- dents. Age of students. De- School year. Even- ing classes. Sunday classes. Even- ing and Sunday classes. 12 and under 14 years. 14 and under 16 years. 16 and under 18 years. 18 and under 20 years. 20 years or over. crease by end of year (per cent). 1896 9V 75 75 92 86 168 175 241 248 175 178 218 191 408 428 651 625 8- 120 114 129 114 102 116 163 126 76 71 99 123 110 127 160 154 24 1897 98 25 1898-99... 1899-1900 21 29 The follov/ing table shows in a general way the character of the employment of the students enrolled during each of the four years 1896-97 to 1899-1900: CHARACTER OF EMPLOYMENT OP STUDENTS, INDUSTRIAL SCHOOL AT JUMET, 1896-97 TO 1899-1900. Total students. Character of employment. School year. Mine em- ployees. 'Employ- ees in in- dustrial establish- ments, trades, etc. Agricul- ture. Clerks, office em- ployees. Various other em- ploy- ments. Students in other schools. 1896-97 408 428 551 525 15 20 27 24 183 193 266 238 6 3 2 4 86 113 139 152 66 60 66 55 52 1897-98 39 1898-99 51 1899-1900 52 A large number of prizes consisting of tools, instruments of pre- cision, text-books, and savings-bank accounts are awarded each year to the best students. Numerous prizes are offered by manufacturers and others who wish to encourage the students. 630 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OP LABOR. An association of the alumni has recently been formed. It numbers over 130 members and is active in devising means for the betterment of its members and for assisting the school. This institution ranks high among industrial schools, not only in attendance, but in the character of the instruction and the intelligence of the students. INDUSTRIAL SCHOOL, LA LOUVIifeHE. The school at La Louviere was established in 1888 by the commune, assisted by the province of Hainaut and the State, and was opened to students in October of the same year. Its object is explained to be the proper preparation of workmen for performing in a worthy manner the duties of foremen, overseers, etc., in frhe various industries of the neighborhood. While this school was compelled to begin in a verj' modest waj^, there being a lack of many essentials in the way of. furniture, apparatus, etc., it is now very well supplied with models and scientific objects for illustrative purposes, and has a modest library. It occupies the intermediate school buildings. The instruction is given in two divisions, one for evenings and the other for Sundaj's. Those departments in which Sunday instruction is given are: (1) The department of mining; (2) the department for firemen and enginemen; and (3) the department for artisans (masons, carpenters, and joiners). Instruction in these Sunday departments is given during the hours from 8.30 a. m. to 12.30 p. m. The evening departments are: (1) Department for accountants, tlerks, salaried employees, etc. (commercial department); (2) department for firemen and enginemen; (3) department of metallurgy; and (4) depart- ment for earthenware and glassware workers. In these departments instruction is given on four week days from 7 to 9 p. m. Besides these regular departments there are special courses which are optional. The subjects and specialties taught in the school are arith- metic, geometry, trigonometry and surveying, French, bookkeeping, commercial law, industrial geography, physics, chemistry, shop tech- nology, application of descriptive geometry, building and industrial construction, exploitation of mines, general and industrial drawing, ornamental drawing from casts, industrial economy, hygiene, German, English, and painting on china and porcelain. In 1897 the course in surveying was enlarged by adding instruction in the strength of matei'ials, the elements of leveling, and the con- struction of roads, sewers, etc., thus forming a new department entitled " Department for conductors of works." A course in practi- cal electricity was added in 1898 and a laboratory installed in connec- tion therewith. The age of admission is 11 years, but those having received a certificate from the primary schools maj^ be admitted before they reach the age of 11. Females arc admitted to the commercial classes TBABE ANB TECHNICAL EDUCATION BELGIUM. 631 and the painting courses. An admission fee of 3 francs (60.68) is charged the students living in the commune, but nonresidents must pay 6 fi-ancs (fO.97). No tuition fee proper is charged. The school year extends from October 1 to August 1. The duration of study is three years in all week-day courses. It is also the same for all Sunday courses except the commercial course for females and the German and English courses, in which it is two yeai'S. A large number of cash prizes are distributed every j^ear in sums ranging from 7.50 francs (fl.45) to 25 francs (f4.83). Several special prizes are offei'ed by societies, establishments, and individuals. Other prizes consisting of books and instruments are given in large numbers for assiduity' and ability shown. A feature of the school is the plan of offering a special reward to graduates who receive additional diplomas. The result maj'' be judged from the fact that in 1900 prizes were awai'ded to 33 students for obtaining a second diploma, to 19 for a third, to 5 for a fourth, to 2 for a fifth, and to 1 student for having obtained a sixth diploma. In the preceding year one student was rewarded for having obtained a seventh diploma. Visits to industrial establishments for the purpose of observation and study are made by the various departments. This custom, which is supposed to be followed in all industrial schools, is more closely observed in this than in many others. The La Louviere school is of growing importance. During the first j^ear of its existence there were 223 students enrolled, while during the school year 1899-1900 the number amounted to 801, of whom 84 were females. The students came from about 50 communes. The following table shows for each school year from 1896-97 to 1899-1900, the enrollment in the evening and Sunday divisions, and the total enrollment, the number of students, b3'^ age periods, the num- ber and per cent of decrease in attendance by the end of the year, and the number of diplomas gi-anted: NUMBER OF STUDENTS, BY AGE PERIODS, DECREASE IN ATTENDANCE, AND DIPLOMAS GRANTED, INDUSTRIAL SCHOOL AT LA LOUVlilKE, 1896-97 TO 1899-1900. Students en- rolled in — Total enroll- ment. Age of students. Decrea.se by end oi j'ear. Diplo- School year. Even- ing courses. Sunday courses. 12 and under 14 years. 14 and under 16 years. W6 and under 18 years. IS and under 20 years. 20 year.- or over. Num- ber. Per cent. mas grant- ed. 1896-97 1897-98 1898-99 1699-1900... 218 248 287 259 338 402 481 642 550 650 768 ■801 73 84 fl2 43 1S3 177 194 155 123 152 181 209 80 84 128 1-58 147 153 173 236 1J9 157 17fi (a) 21 24 23 23 59 107 114 124 a Not reported. The principal points to be illustrated bj^ this table are the steady increase in attendance and the ages of the students. As regards this latter point, it is surprising to note that nearly one-half the students enrolled in 1899-1900 were 18 years of age or over, while three-fourths 632 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. of them were 16 years or over. This is another proof that the actual workmen are most interested in the industrial schools. Of the 124: diplomas granted during the same year there were i in mining, 29 for firemen, enginemen, etc., 10 in building construction, 8 in shop tech- nology, 4 in metallurgy, 8 in electricity, 15 for conductors of works, 5 for painting in imitation of wood and marble, 19 in commerce, 17 in foreign languages, and 5 in painting. The following table shows for each year of the same period the number of students, subdivided as to sex and character of employment: NUMBER AND CHARACTER OP EMPLOYMENT OF STUDENTS, INDUSTRIAL SCHOOL AT LA LOUVlfcRE, 1896-97 TO 1899-1900. Students en- rolled. Total enroll- ment. Character of employment. School year. Males. Fe- males. Mine em- ployees. Employ- ees in in- dustrial establish- ments, trades, etc. Salaried officials and clerks. Agricul- tural oc- cupa- tions. Viirious other gainful occupa- tions. students in other schools. 1896-97 481 548 660 717 75 102 108 84 656 650 768 801 18 14 11 12 300 358 395 413 68 92 108 124 3 2 3 5 95 95 148 148 72 1897-98 89 1898-99 103 1899-1900 99 This table but emphasizes the fact that by far the greater propor- tion of students are those already engaged in industrial or other occu- pations, and hence have not the time to' attend schools except those of this character. INDUSTKIAL SCHOOL, MORLANWELZ. The ofEcial report on technical education in Belgium published in 1897 begins the account of the Morlanwelz school with the following paragraph: "The industrial school of Morlanwelz occupies, by its organization, its school population, its magnificent equipment, the excellence of its instruction, and its model corps of teachers, the fore- most rank among similar institutions of the countrj'." The origin of this school was found in the modest school of draw- ing established in 1866 under the auspices of M. Leon Warocque, administrator of the Mariemont and Bascoup collieries and mayor of Morlanwelz. Lessons were given on Sunday morning from 9 to 12 o'clock in the attic of the boys' primary school. In 1871 Mr. Arthur Warocqu^, who had succeeded his brother as director of the school, proposed that its scope be broadened by the addition of other courses. This proposition was favorably received by the communal council of Morlanwelz, and on May 26 of the same year the school was converted into an industrial school, and from that date it has steadily developed. The attendance so increased that it was necessary to use the recitation rooms of the primary school. This space in time became insufficient, TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION BELGIDM. 633 and a separate building, especially designed for the use of the indus- trial school, was erected in 1888. Additions became necessarj^ and were made in 1894. At first instruction was given on certain nights during the week. In 1873, however, a Sunday division was added for those who could not attend the evening classes. New courses have been added in both the evening and Sunday divisions as necessity demanded. Courses in hygiene and industrial economy, common to certain students of both divisions, were added in 1878; a course in commerce was added to the evening division in 1882, and one in free-hand industrial drawing was added to the Sunday division in 1883. The last course was tx'ans- formed into the department of shop technology in 1892. The depart- ment of building constructions was added in 1887 and that of industrial electricity was founded in 1893. Thus in its present organization the school consists of two divisions, the one embracing courses given on Sunday and the other courses given on week-day evenings. The Sunday division embraces five departments, relating to as many branches of industry. The duration of studies in the Sunday depart- ments is three years for some and four years for others. During the first two years the students of all the departments pursue the same studies: Arithmetic, practical geometry, drawing, projections, sketches, etc. Specialization takes place in the third jj^ear among the follow- ing five departments: Department of mining (in this the students study the exploitation of mines, dialing, and apparatus made use of in mining work); department of building construction (in this are given courses relating to materials that enter into buildings and their employment, the drawing of simple'constructions and their parts, and the maintenance of buildings) ; department for firemen and enginemen (this includes the study of the elements of physics and mechanics, boilers, steam engines, their care and maintenance, and the drawing of the parts of which they are composed); department of shop tech- nology (in this instruction is given in physics and mechanics so far as necessary in the study of metals, hand and machine tools, and the set- ting-up and care of machinery and metallic constructions; also the drawing of tools and machines and their parts); department of indus- trial electricity (in this are studied the principles of industrial elec- tricit}', the ordinary apparatus and methods employed in generating electrical currents, the utilization of these currents, and the drawing of all apparatus and their parts). To be admitted to the last depart- ment students must have a knowledge of physics and mechanics. In fact, physics and mechanics applicable to the particular subjects form the stepping-stone from the second year to the last three special- ties. The departments for mining and civil constructions require one year in addition to the preparatory course of two years. The depart- ments for firemen and enginemen and for shop technology require two 684 EEPOKT OF THE OOMMISSIOWEB OF LABOB, additional j-ears. The department for industrial eiectricit}' has here- tofore required but one extra year, but another j'ear is to be added, making the time four years. In all the Sunday departments the study of hygiene and industrial economj^ is obligatory, but only twelve hours during the year are devoted to these subjects. All of these Sunday courses are given in the morning from 7.15 to 10.16 during the summer months and from 8.15 to 11.15 during the winter months. The evening division embraces two departments, one of which is preparatory to the other. The complete course, including all the studies in both departments, is covered in five j'ears. The first three years are passed in a department for draftsmen, which carries the following studies: Arithmetic, algebra, elementary geometry, applied geometry, surveying, leveling, descriptive geometry, commerce, indus- trial economy, hj^giene, and industrial drawing. The next two years are passed in a department of mechanical engineering, which includes the study of physics (gravity, heat, light, electricity), physics applied to heating and steam generating, elementarj^ chemistry, mechanics, strength of materials, metallic constructions, workshop technolog}^, steam engines and boilers, the drawing of boilers, engines, and metallic constructions. In the evening division instruction is given oh Tuesday, Wednes- day, Friday, and Saturday from 7.16 to 9.30 o'clock, and it is much more complete than in the Sunday division. It is A'ery usual, how- ever, for students who have completed the studies in the evening division to follow one or more of the specialized departments of the Sunday division. They most frequently enter the departments of mining, building construction, and industrial electricity. It is pro- posed to reward such students in the future by gi\^ng them a higher diploma at the end of the course than is given to the ordinary student of the Sundaj^ division. At the same time they will be subjected to a more rigid examination, and the instruction will be on lines, to agree with their more advanced technical knowledge. The school j'ear begins October 1 and covers a period of 40 ^Vfeeks. The school term thus includes 130 hours of recitations for the Sunday courses and 360 hours for the evening courses. In 1900 the school possessed a corps of 18 teachers, the director included, many of whom were engineers by training or members of the technical force of large industrial establishments of the neighborhood. The minimum age of admission of students is 14 j'ears. Those who have completed their primary education, however, can enter regardless of their age. Since 1886 girls have l3een admitted to all the courses, but there Avere only 6 girl students in 1896 and in 1900 there were only 13. The students must furnish at their own expense all materials of which they have need. Instruction is gratuitous, with the exception TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION BELGIUM. 635 that residents of Morlanwelz pay an entrance fee of 3 francs ($0.58) and nonresidents 6 fi'ancs (fl.l6). Each student must be provided with a manual for each course. Elaborate note taking is discouraged. The principal industrial establishments of the surrounding districts arc visited by the students each year under the direction of a competent instructor. The students are required to make a great man^- drawings and plans each year, and, to a less extent, models. The growth in importance of the school can best be traced in the increase that has talien place in the number of students in attendance. Several months after the opening of the courses in 1871 there were but 50 students. By the end of the year the number had increased to 150. There were 200 in 1876 and 708 in 1893. In this latter year the admis- sion fee was raised and the number decreased somewhat, being but 647 in 1896, the last year included in the Government report. The school report for 1900 states that 776 students were enrolled during the school year 1899-1900. Of these 272 were students entering for the first time, or after an absence of several years, while 501- had attended during the previous year. The total number enrolled in 1900-01 was 811, of whom 627 were in attendance at the end of the year. Comparative figures showing the grouping of students by age peri- ods for the school years 1896-97 to 1899-1900 are here introduced in tabular form. The data for 1900-01 are not complete and can not be used in this comparison. NUMBER OF STUDENTS, BY AGE GROUPS, INDUSTRIAL SCHOOL AT MORLANWELZ, :S96-OT TO 1899-1900. students enrolled during year. Students in at- tendance at the end of the year. Ages of students enrolled. Year. Under 14 years. 14 and under 16 years. 16 and under IS years. 18 and under 20 years. 20 years or over. 1896-97 702 728 733 776 579 602 668 613 46 64 97 90 235 157 157 181 155 227 178 178 103 132 101 125 163 1897-98 158 1898-99 200 1899-1900 202 636 BEPOET OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOE. The occupations of those entering the school in 1899-1900 and the distribution of the pupils among the various sections are shown in the following table: NUMBER OP STUDENTS, BY OCCUPATIONS AND INDUSTRIES, INDUSTRIAL SCHOOL AT MORLANWELZ, 1899-1900. Total stu- dents. Sunday division. Evening divi- sion. Occupations and indus- tries. Students not specialized. Third-year students, in depart- ment for— Depart- ment tor drafts- men (first 3 years) . Depart- ment of First year. Sec'nd year. Min- ing. Fire- men and en- gine- men. Build- ing con- struc- tion. Shop tech- nol- ogy- Elec- tric- ity. me- chanic- al engi- neering (last 2 years). MINING. 133 14 13 7 5 41 12 14 19 46 53 39 30 18 4 6 14 2 8 8 43 3 1 2 20 3 1 2 2 3 3 8 1 2 14 31 69 21 77 61 3 4 2 2 18 3 4 11 10 10 11 13 5 1 3 6 1 2 2 11 2 34 4 4 25 i" 3' 2 2 10 2' 3 1 Lamp keepers 2 1 Taggers, markers, etc Other mine employees — FOUNDRIES, MACHINE SHOPS, ETC. Blacksmiths and helpers.. 1 2 2 14 4 4 4 3 14 13 12 2 1 1 X 3 1 2 1 6 8 2 1 5 i" i' 3 3 3 2 1 12 10 4 4 1 Pattern makers 2 2 10 6 5 2' 3 2 Sketchers 2 Fitters, setters-up, etc Turners and planers 2 2 3 2 2 i 3 Others 1 1 2 1 BUILDING TRADES. 1 Masons and marble work- 3 1 10 3 Carpenters and joiner^ 7 1 13 1 1 1 Other building employees. SALARIED EMPLOYEES AND MISCELLANEOUS OCCUPA- TIONS. 1 1 2 1 1 1 7 2 1 8 1 Inspectors of works Foremen overseers, etc 1 1 2 1 1 5 Gardeners 1 1 2 1 1 ....„ 6 7 5 35 Tailors 2 Photographic printers 1 3 12 6 2 10 1 1 6 1 4 5 21 12 29 2 2 2 2 6' 1 2 4 2 i' Miscellaneous 8 Pupils In other schools 776 251 160 32 46 39 44 23 155 26 The first of these tables shows the interesting fact that a large per- centage of those who attend this school are above the age at which the usual school studies are terminated, and the number of such students is increasing. Taking those above 18 years of age, for instance, it is TEADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION BELGIUM. 637 seen that an actual as well as a relative increase has been shown from year to year. In 1896-97 there were 266 students 18 years of age or over, or 37.9 per cent of the total enrollment; in 1897-98 the figures were 290, or 39.8 per cent; in 1898-99 they were 301, or 41.1 per cent; and in 1899-1900 they had risen to 327, or 42.1 per cent. The second table shows that with the exception of 98 all the stu- dents were engaged in gainful occupations, only 77 being reported as attqpding other schools. It is interesting to note the large number of students drawn from the mining, building, and foundry and ma- chine-shop industries, which are represented in the Sunday division of the instruction by the departments for mining, building construction, and shop technology. As usual in schools of this character, quite a large percentage of the students drop out before the end of the year. This defection amounted to 21.5 per cent for the school year ending July 30, 1901, 21 per cent in 1900, 22.6 per cent in 1899, 17.3 per cent in 1898, and 17.5 per cent in 1897. This is probably no greater than the average defection in industrial schools. Certificates of proficiency are awarded to those who pass a successful examination at the termination of their studies. Great value is placed upon them both by the student and his employer. The first certificates were delivered in 1874 to 13 students who had completed the work in the department for designing. From that date until 1901 a totai of 1,168 certificates had been granted. The number of individuals receiving them was not reported, but in the general report issued in 1896 by the Belgian Government it is stated that at that date 832 certificates had been issued to 492 students, thus indicating how fre- quently the same student follows the studies in more than one depart- ment. The following statement shows the distribution of the 1,168 certificates among the different departments: Sunday courses: Department of mining (since 1877) 228 Department for firemen and enginemen (since 1881) 263 Department of building construction (since 1888) 171 Department of shop technology (since 1893) 86 Department of industrial electricity (since 1894) 64 Week-day courses: Department for draftsmen (since 1874) 243 Department of mechanical engineering (since 1876) 113 Total for both courses 1, 168 658 KEPOET OF THE COMMISSIOSTEK OF LABOB. Of the 492 studemts who had received certificates at the end of 1896 tlie occupations on entering the school and those subsequently engaged in are shown in the folio-wing table: <0CCUPATI0NS OF STUDENTS ON ENTERING SCHOOL AND SUBSEQUENTLY, INDUSTRIAL SCHOOL AT JIORLANWELZ. Occupations. On en- tering school. Subse- quently. Occupations. On en- tering school. Subse- quently. Students 165 U 126 ?i Id 14 33 i 2 5 4 46 80 20 28 28 18 66 6 Chief eng-incerR 23' 6 * 4 121 Foremen of shops, drafts-,. men, and 'builders Engineer.s and heads of 63 Building workers : Firemen and enginemen Various trades Overseers 13 Total 492 492 Foremen, mines Chiel foremen, mines; di- This must be considered as in every respect a remarkably iavorable showing. It is noticeable that fewer pei'sojjs are engaged in the lowei" occupations after leaving than upon entering the school, while in the higher occupations the opposite result is seen. The class of miners shows the extent to which students have been enabled to improve their conditions as the result of the training received in the schools. The list shows that 126 miners entered the school, while but 46 are found in that occupation subsequently. On the other hand, there are .shown 56 mine foremen and 6 chief mine foremen against but 2 hold- ing those positions upon entering the school. In the same way while there were but 5 foremen of shops, draftsmen, and builders entering the school 63 attained this position in subsequent years. Similar com- parison could be made for other classes of the occupations shown. Excursions for observation are made, each department visiting such industrial establishments as present features of interest in line with their studies. Thirty-five such visits were made in 1899-1900. Some traveling scholarships are accorded the best students each jBar. Those receiving them are required to send a written report of their observations to the school. This school has become such an important institution that the provincial inspector, after suggesting ■numerous changes, in his report for 1900 recommended that the administrative commission solicit authority from the State and prov- ince to change its title to "superior school." Subsidies are received from the State, the province of Hainaut, and some of the neighboring communes. Expenditures are not high, con- sidering the importance of the school. The total cost for 1896 was 20,806 francs (|4,016). The cost for 1899 was 24,604 francs ($4,749). The school is governed by an administrative commission composed of 6 members, of whom 2 are named by the State, 2 by the province of Hainaut, and 2 by the communal authorities. The immediate con- trol is vested in a director. TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATIOW^BELGIUM. 639 INDtrSTKIAL SCHOOL, SERAING. Another school for which data of a later date than 1896 could not be obtained, but which should be mentioned because of its importance, is that of Seraing, This school was founded in 1858 by the commune and several heads of industrial establishments for the purpose of so enlarging the knowledge of workingmen as to enable them to exer- cise their vocations in a more intelligent manner. The school from its origin was subsidized by the Government, but was not regularly recognized as a subsidized institution until 1861. Several unimpor- tant changes were made in the organic law from time to time, but it was not until 1892 that the present organization was adopted. Pre- vious to that year regular students were requii'ed to attend four years and study all the branches then taught. Upon passing the prescribed examination they received a general diploma, in which no specialty was mentioned. Under that system special students were admitted and allowed to choose such studies as thej' pleased, which was more often a detriment than otherwise, for such students often chose with little wisdom and were after a time discouraged and became irregular in attendance or dropped out altogether. The reorganization of 1892, however, completely changed the old system, and with beneficial results. No special students are now admitted. The duration of studies is four yeai's, as before, but the scheme of instruction includes two distinct divisions, namely: (1) A preparatory department, in which all the bi'anches taught are obligatory and in which three ^years of study are required; (2) a special department, in which the student may devote his time to a specialt}'. In this department one j^ear's attendance is required. The preparatory department includes instruction in French, linear drawing, ornamental drawing, industrial drawing, arithmetic, alge- bra, geometry, plane trigonometry, descriptive geometry, physics, mechanics, chemistry, hygiene, industrial economy, ajid commerce. The special subjects taken up in the fourth year are (1) industrial chemistry and metallurgy, (2) applied mechanics, the construction of machinery, and firing of boilers, (3) building construction, (4) practical electrieit}'', (5) geometric drawing, sketches, and their application. A special Sunday course in linear drawing, ornamental drawing, and industrial drawing is annexed to the school. Diplomas are now issued in the first four specialties shown above instead of the general certifi- cates formerly awarded. During the fourth year the students visit industrial establishments under the guidance of their respective teachers. There they witness the various metallurgical operations, draw diagrams of machinery in motion, become better acquainted with the various parts of m,achiner3^, and learn a multitude of practical details which it would be difficult to explain in the class room. 640 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. The school year begins October 1 and ends the last o:^ June. The class hours are from 7 to 9 p. m. on week days and from 9 to 11 a. m. for the Sunday drawing course. To be admitted, students must be 14 years of age and submit to an examination in French and arithmetic. In the Sunday course, how- ever, students are admitted at 12 years of age. The latter course is free. Tuition is also free in the week-day courses for students living in Seraing, but nonresidents are required to pay 20 francs (f3.86) per year. This school occupies the building of the intermediate school. Dur- ing 1896-96 there were 375 students enrolled. During the same year 33 diplomas were delivered in the specialties mentioned above. The institution is said to be doing good work. Eighteen instructors, the director included, are employed. INDTJSTBIAIi SCHOOI., TOUBNAT. The industrial school at Tournay is one of the oldest and most important industrial schools in Belgium. In 1837 the communal council created a school of arts and trades. The civil hospitals, the bureau of charity, and two individuals contributed 52,000 francs ($10,036) toward the cost of installation, which amounted to 127,000 francs ($24,511). In 1860 the school was thoroughly reorganized, in order to bring it more in touch with actual industrial conditions, and it now has a scheme of operation that is possessed by no other industrial school in Belgium. Its work is divided between two distinct divisions: (1) The industrial school proper and (2) apprenticeship workshops, in which instruction is given during the day. There is also a boarding department under the supervision of the director of the school, which permits students from other districts to take advantage of the school. To be admitted to the boarding department students must be between the ages of 14 and 16 j^ears. Instruction is gratuitous for all stu- dents, but 450 francs (186.85) a j'-ear is charged for the privileges of the boarding department. This organization would seem to resemble that of the trade schools, but differs from them in some respects. Thus all students in the industrial school are not expected to serve in the shops, and for those in the shops (apprentices) attendance in the industrial school is only obligatory for the boarding students. Were it otherwise, this would be very properly considered a trade school. The school and workshops are governed by a commission of 9 mem- bers, of which 6 are appointed by the communal and 3 by the provin- cial authorities. The school grants 3 kinds of certificates: (1) Cer- tificates of theoretical studies given to students of the third year who have passed the prescribed examination successfully ; (2) certificates of practical studies to apprentices satisfactorily completing their appren- TEADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION BELGIUM. 641 ticeship in the shops, and (3) certificates of theoretical and practical studies to students who have completed both courses. The school is excellently housed in a large building and is fully equippe'd with the necessary tools, collections, models, books, etc., for its work. In the industrial school the instruction covers three years and includes the study of Fi'ench, arithmetic, geometry, mechanics, chem- istry, physics, calculations, theoretical and practical electricity, indus- trial economy, and drawing. The course in applied electricity was opened in 1896. The lessons are given from 7 to 9 in the evening during the winter months and from 6.30 to 8.30 in the morning during the summer months. The course in industrial and practical electricity is given on Mondays and Saturdays from 4.30 to 6 p. m. To be admitted students must be 12 j^ears of age or over and have completed their primarj'^ education. In 1899-1900 these courses were attended by 200 students, most of whom belonged to- the laboring classes. Much the most interesting and important feature of the school of Tournay, however, is the division of apprenticeship workshops. In 1900 the school had 6 classes of shops, in which wei'e emploj^ed a total of 121 apprentices, as follows: Machine shops, 37; iron-turning shops, 20; joinery shops, 18; pattern-making shops, 16; locksmithing shops, 26; molding shops, 5. The school has no shops of its own. It enters into contracts with local manufacturers, who undertake to direct the pupils' practical education under conditions set forth in the contracts. At present there are three such contracts in force. Some of the main features of these contracts are as follows: 1. The Tournay Construction Company undertakes to receive 80 apprentices into its shops, of whom 36 are to be placed in the machine shop, 16 in the iron-turning shop, U in the molding shop, and 14 in the pattern-making shop. The company furnishes shop room and machinery. It also furnishes tools for the machinists' and turners' apprentices, but the molders' and pattern-makers' apprentices furnish their own tools. These apprentices do not receive any remuneration, but the company must distribute 600 francs (196.60) a year as prizes to the most meritorious. One thousand francs (1193) was paid by the school for shop room and tools placed at the disposition of the appren- tices, and in addition the company receives 1,500 francs ($290) annually for the instruction given. 2. M. Henri Vanden Broeck, ironmonger, undertakes to admit 18 apprentices into his shops and to make them good locksmiths, sheet- iron workers, or wrought-iron workers. The apprentices are to be admitted on six months' probation, then definitely if they show apti- tude. They receive nothing for their work during the first two years, 9267—02 il 642 EEPOBT Of THE COMMISSIONEE OF LABOR. but during the next two years they are paid a daily wage of 0.50 franc (10.10) for the first 6 months, 0.60 franc ($0.12) for the second 6 months, 0.70 franc ($0.14) for the third 6 months, and 0.80 franc (10.15) for the fourth 6 months. The contractor furnishes ail tools, machinery, rooms, etc., for the apprentices and receives 1,000 francs (1193) a year if the number of apprentices is 9 or more and 500 francs (196.50) a year if the number falls below 9. 3. The third contract has essentiall}'- the same terms as the second. It is between the school and a firm of master joiners, who agree to receive 18 apprentices in joinery work. Those who contract to receive apprentices agree to observe proper rules as regards hours of labor, character of work given to the apprentices, etc. They also agree to give as much time as possible to the supervision of the apprentices and to employ competent foremen to give instruction during their absence. They agree to arbitrate disputes which may arise between themselves and the administrative commission of the school. They also agree to observe rules formulated by the school for the govern- ment of the shops. The apprentices work from 9 to 12 in the morn- ing and from 1 to 6 in the afternoon, with an intermission of 30 minutes at 4 o'clock. This system of the apprentices working under .contract for a manu- facturer is a unique method of combining technical instruction with the practical work of trades, and has given excellent results. Former contracts were much more liberal as regards remuneration of apprentices than the present ones. Those in force in 1896 specified that payment was to begin with the second j'ear and the amount was to be increased each quarter. All the apprentices then received pay- ments, beginning with 0.10 franc ($0.02) per day the second j-ear and increasing to 0.50 franc (fO.lO) at the beginning of the third; 0.85 franc (fO.16) at the beginning of the fourth, and 1.15 francs ($0.22) at the end of the fourth year. Those who served five years (all except the joiners' apprentices) received 1.50 francs ($0.29) at the end of the fifth year. Applications for admission to the shops are now more numerous than the places provided for in the contracts. The school is subsidized by the State, province, and commune. INDUSTRIAL AND TRADE SCHOOL, VERVIEBS. This school owes its origin to the union in 1862 of the school of workmen and artisans, founded in 1837, and the courses of weaving and designing, inaugurated in 1857. A new organic law was promul- gated in 1883 and modified in 1894. As at present constituted, the special aim of the school is to give a technical training to workmen in the numerous industries of Verviers. In the scheme of instruction there are two divisions: (1) A preparatory division, common to all the TEADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION — BELGIUM. 643 students, and (2) a superior division, subdivided into three depart- ments. These departments are: A department of mechanics and con- struction, a department of dyeing, and a department of weaving. One j'ear is required in the preparatory division and three years in each department of the superior division. The student chooses that department in wlaich the instruction is best adapted to the require- ments of his occupation. The subjects taught in the preparatory division are French, arith- metic, elements of geometry, and drawing. The branches and spe- cialties carried in the three sections of the superior division are geom- etry, commerce, physics, elementary mechanics, applied mechanics, elements of machinery construction, inorganic and organic chemistry, dj'eing (theoretical and practical), the technology of woolen mills, weaving (theoretical and practical), electro-technics, industrial archi- tecture, industrial economy, drawing, and hygiene. The school year begins October 1 and ends June 30. Instruction is given from 8 to 10 p. m. in all subjects except practical dyeing, which is given on Sunday from 9 a. m. to 12 m. A small fee of 2 francs (|0.39) is charged each year. Since the establishment, in 1894, of the superior school of textiles, this school has occupied a commodious structure in common with it separate rooms, however, being allotted to each. A large collection of materials, models, instruments, etc., has been made. This is especially true for the sections relating to the woolen industry and the branch relating to machinery. The age of admission is 14 years. Candidates for admission must pass an examination or otherwise give proof of their ability to profit by the instruction. The general level of studies has been recently raised by cutting off some courses which were too elementary in character. During 1895-96, 587 students were enrclled. Of this number 454 were broadly classed as workingmen, 98 were clerks, office employees, etc., and 17 were schoolboys or students. The remaining 18 were without occupation. In this school the departments relating to the textile industries fur- nish a preparatorj' training for workmen who desire to enter the superior textile school. While the latter school was more particularly intended for the sons of manufacturers — that is, for those who are to direct industrial enterprises — it also provides for the training of the more intelligent workmen who wish to qualify for positions of respon- sibility in textile manufactories. The work in the textile departments is both of a theoretical and practical nature. The graduates of the school are reported to be much sought after by manufacturers. 644 EEPOKT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. TRADE SCHOOLS FOK MALES. Under this general class of trade schools are included the day trade schools, the trade continuation schools, and the trade schools of fishing. Day Trade Schools. Trade schools as a class have already been described. There are certain so-called trade schools in which instruction is given onlj^ in the evening or in the evening and on Sunday. Such institutions are intended more particularly for apprentices to the trades taught, and are not meant to teach trades completely as do the day schools. Hence two divisions of the Belgian trade schools are made, one division con- taining da}' schools, or trade schools proper, the other containing the evening or evening and Sunday schools, or trade continuation schools. The fishing schools are so unlike the other trade schools that a general description of them is given sepai'ately. Day trade schools may be divided into two subclasses, namely, group schools, or schools for teaching a number of distinct trades, and schools organized for the purpose of teaching one specific trade each. In the H. Nicaise trade school of metal and woodworking at Ghent is found the best type of the group school, while the tailoring schools of Brussels are types of the schools intended for single trades. H. NICAISE TRADE SCHOOL OF METAL AND WOODWOBKING, GHENT. This school, which is one of the most important of the trade schools of the country, was established by the communal authorities of Ghent in 1887. Its purpose is the training of workmen capable of executing all the higher and finer classes of wood and metal work. It prepares persons for such trades as locksmithing and fine metal working, machine construction, cabinetmaking, joinery, pattern making, turning, etc. As the school seeks to train the higher class of workers, onlj' those students are received who have had a superior primary instruction or an education similar to that offered l)y the high schools in the United States. Their records in the schools are taken into account in selecting those who maj' attend this school. On being admitted, the parents of the students must sign a contract to pay a certain sum if they withdraw their sons before they have completed the third year of their studies. If, on the contrary, the students finish the course, their parents have nothing to pay for their instruction. As a preparation for the practice of any of the trades taught great attention is given to drawing. Attention is also given to the general cultivation of the students and particularly of their interest in the esthetic side of the handicraft work. The business side of the trades, such as the character and cost of the raw materials made use of, the TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION BELGIUM. 645 preparation of plans, the making of estimates, and the keeping of ac(!Ounts, is given prominence. Shopwork, however, occupies the major part of the time of the students, the number of hours devoted to this branch of the instruction being gradually increased as the stu- dent advances in his course. During the fii'st year the number of hours of shopwork per week is 32, which is increased to 3.3 in the second year, and to 35 in the third year. The following table shows the division of the students' time between the general branches and the manual exercises: HOURS PER WEEK DEVOTED EACH YEAR TO EACH STUDY, H. NICAISE TRADE SCHOOL OP METAL AND WOOD WORKING AT GHENT. Studies or exerei?-:eR. Hours per week. First year. ^t-t^^ Third year. French Flemish Arithmetic and geometry . Algebra Accounts Drawing Physics Mcoiianics Shopwork 32 Total . 49 1 H H 1 1 1 35 49 Since its organization the school has undergone considerable enlarge- ment. It now occupies 17,761 square feet of gi'ound. Here are installed its numerous workshops. These include (1) a shop for car- pentering, joinery, and cabinetmaking, 167 by 26 feet; (2) a shop for machine fitting and locksmithing, 26 by S-t feet; (3) a shop for metal turning, planing, and fraising, 26 by 54 feet; (4) a shop for forge work, 62 by 26 feet, and (5) a shop for foundry and molding work, 59 by 26 feet. There are also a machinery and motor room, a drawing room, 54 by 26 feet; two class rooms, each 27 by 26 feet, and oiSce rooms. All of the shops are adequately equipped with the necessarj' tools and appliances. The instruction is given by a director, 3 teachers for the scientific branches, and 5 foremen for the different workshops. The annual cost of maintenance of the school in 1896 was 28,760 francs ($5,551). Of this something over one-half is borne by the city, the remainder being met by subsidies from the province and State and from other sources. A committee of manufacturers and emploj'ers exercises a supervision over the workings of the school, and b}'- means of frequent visits assure that the practical aims of the instruction are never lost sight of. The following table presents data regarding the number of students each year since the opening of the school, their division into the two departments of iron and wood working, the number leaving the 646 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OP LABOR. school, the trades for which those leaving are prepared to enter, and the average daily wages they were able to earn immediately upon beginning work: NUMBER OF STUDENTS AND NUMBER LEAVING SCHOOL, WITH OCCUPATIONS FOR WHICH PREPARED AND WAGES EARNED IMMEDIATELY THEREAFTER, H. NICAISE TRADE SCHOOL OF METAL AND WOOD WORKING AT GHENT, 1887-88 TO 1896-97. Number of students. Num- ber of stu- dents leav- ingthe school Occupations prepared for. Average daily wages imme- Iron- work. Wood- work. Total. Ironwork. Woodwork. diately earned. Fit- ters. Turn- ers. Black- smiths Car- pen- ters. Pat^ tern mak- ers. Cabi- net- mak- ers. Iron- work. Wood- work. 1887 88 14 26 36 51 66 59 55 64 34 49 18 26 36 35 29 32 27 81 21 18 32 62 72 86 85 91 82 85 55 67 1888-89 , 1889 90 17 22 21 22 21 23 17 6 5 6 12 12 9 8 3' 2 1 2 3 2 1 2 5 3 1 3 1 ID 10 4 3 3 3 4 80.34 .34 .39 .39 .89 .41 .42 SO 29 1890-91 1891-92 1892-93 1893-94 1894-95 1895-96 1896-97 2 3 1 2 3 1 i" 2 1 2 1 .31 .31 .31 .31 .34 .34 NATIONAL SCHOOIi OF "WATCHMAKING, FINE ICEGHANICAL WOBK, AND ELECTBICITY, BBtTSSELS. This school is one of the earliest regular trade schools of the coun- tr};-. It was created in 1887 by the watchmakers' association of the city of Brussels. The municipality permitted certain rooms of the Palais du Midi to be occupied for this purpose. During the first few years the school barely maintained its existence, and it was not until 1891, when the Government actively intervened, that the school began its real work. The school is now administered by a committee consisting of tt dele- gates of the State, 1 of the province, 1 of the citj^, and 2 of the watch- makers' association. The cost of the school, exclusive of the quarters, for which no rent is paid, is about 15,000 francs ($2,895) a j-ear. The number of pupils is about 50. The programme includes four years of study. The limited funds of the school have prevented the creation of all the necessary special courses, and in order to obtain general industrial education the students must attend the courses of the indus- trial school of the city. Tuition fees are 250 francs ($18.25) a year. The purpose of this school is very limited. There is no idea of building up the industry of watchmaking in the city, the only effort made being to train workers who can serve as expert repairers in shops for watchmaking, jewelry, and instruments of precision. TRADE SCHOOL OF FIEEAKMS MAKING, LIEGE. Liege is one of the great centers of firearms making in Europe. The methods of production exclusively practiced in times past and extensively pursued at present are those of domestic manufacture. TKADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION BELGIUM. 647 The different parts of the firearms are to a great extent assembled and the guns finished by the workmen in their own homes. It is only under the stress of foreign competition that factory methods have been introduced to some extent. As a further means of meeting the com- petition of other lands, there was finally created, after the subject had been repeatedly broached, a trade school in which workmen could receive instruction in those branches which could not well be learned in the shops. For a number of years prior to 1895 the industrial school at Liege had offered a course on Sunday morning and Tuesday and Thursday evenings on the theory of gun making, or rather the science as applied to this industrjr. This course included study of the strength of mate- rials, the properties of wood and metal used in guns, the mechanical principles involved in gun making and their uses, etc. , and was recog- nized as performing a very useful service. It was felt, however, that there was need for an institution in which an apprenticeship in both the practice and theory of the trade could be sei-ved. The establish- ment of a school in which this could be done was accordingly decided upon and the cooperation of the Government was accorded in 1895. The instruction of the school was organized into four departments, corresponding to the difi'erent branches of the trade. While it was desirable from some points of view that students should learn all the operations of the trade, from the practical standpoint it was felt to be necessary that the students should specialize according to the branch they intended to enter. The school is well installed and equipped for its work. To be admitted to the school, candidates must be 14 years of age and have completed their primary studies. The school is gov- erned by an administrative commission, composed of nine gun manu- facturers, or former gun manufacturers. The hours of work or study are from 8 a. m. to 12 m. and 1 to 6 p. m. The purpose of this school is to turn out fully-trained workmen. The recent date at which it has been established and the fact that three years are required to complete the course makes it impossible at this time to determine accurately i-egarding the results that have been attained. TKADE SCHOOL or TAILOSIISTG, BRUSSELS. Like almost all trade schools of Belgium, the tailoring school of Brussels owes its establishment to private initiative, but its support has been in part assumed by the central and local governments. Owing to the apparent diminution in the number of skilled tailors, the union of master tailors of the city opened, in a building placed at their disposal by the city, a school for the training of apprentices in the tailoring trade. Operations began with 4 instructors and 15 students. The conditions of admission are that candidates shall be at least 14 648 EEPOET OF THE COMMISSIONEE OF LABOR. years of age, be in possession of a certiticate of primary education, and pay an entrance fee of 50 francs (Sg9.65), and a tuition fee of 12 francs (|2. 32) a year. On the other hand, the students are paid a small sum for the work done by them. This remuneration amounts to 1 franc (10.19) a week durinj^ the first year, 2 francs ($0.39) during the second, 3 francs (10.58) during the third, and 1 francs (10.77) during the fourth. These sums are paid into the state savings bank, and remain there in the name of the school until the student shall have completed his apprenticeship. If a student leaves the school before completing his term he loses all right to the sums deposited on his account. Students on entering must serve a probationary period of one month. If it is seen that they do not have the necessary inclination or apti- tude for the trade their entrance fee is returned and the}'- are dis- charged. If satisfactory, they enter into an engagement to pass four years of apprenticeship at the school. The courses relate to all branches of tailoring. The greatest advan- tage enjoj^ed by the school is the hearty cooperation of many of the important tailoring establishments of the city, which, in addition to contributing to its support, supply the school with work to be done by the students and look after securing positions for the graduates. The expenses of the school are about 12,000 francs ($2,316) a year. No expense is incurred for quarters, as the school is housed in several rooms of the Palais du Midi. The average attendance is about 80. The hours of instruction are tvow 7 a. m. to 12 m. and from 1.30 to 7 p. m., with intermission for recreation, meals, oral lessons, and gymnastics. There are 5 teachers and 1 attendant engaged in instructing the students. It is the attendant's duty to take charge of the new stu- dents. Each teacher has charge of a class of 5 students for work in the shops. He receives work from a regular patron, and the earnings from the labor of the students form part of his recompense. Students must draw the different parts of the clothing, and twice a week they receive instruction in the theory of tailoring. An outline of work done during the four years' course is here presented: First year: Needlework; different stitches; knowledge of j'arns, cloths, and lin- ings; straight, cross, and diagonal thread; various kinds of pockets (straight flaps, braided) ; when to use straight thread; binding edges; various forms of seams. Second year: Ironing work; shrinking and stretching cloth; sewing together of the different parts of a garment; rules governing smooth, hollow, and padded surfaces; fashions (origin, necessity, forms); sleeves (various forms, etc.)- Third and fourth years: Cutting of cloths, facings, and linings for various kinds of garments; rules for covering hollow and padded places in the linings; trimmings and their necessity; attachment of sleeves; linings for various kinds of coats; theory of collars; sketching or tracing all kinds of collars and their reverse pieces; the three lines of the collar — line of attachment, line of turning, and line of the free edge; covering face of collars with cloth and velvet, and the reverse side with silk; the final ironing, taking off luster, etc. TRADE AND TKCHNICAL EDTJ CATION — BELGIUM. 649 TKADE SCHOOL OF TAILOEING, LIEGE. In 1888 a trade school of tailoring was organized at Liege under the auspices of the central and communal governments and the mer- chant tailors of the cit}'. In character this school is similar to that in Brussels. The courses are given every day from 8 a. m. to 12 m. and from 1.30 to 6 p. m. Pupils must be at least 13 years of age and have an elementary education. They must pay an entrance fee of 50 francs (19.65) and dues of 3 francs ($0.68) quarterly. A committee chosen by the master tailors of the city supervise the work of the school. The workrooms are visited daily by one of the members of this committee. In this school the boys serve a regular apprenticeship of 3 years. The master tailors give work to the school to be done. There is an attendance of 40. The tailors of the city testify that the school ren- ders very valuable service to the trade. Trade Continuation Schools. This subdivision contains a number of institutions whose purpose is not to teach the trade in its entirety but to supplement shop work, which is always more or less specialized, by giving the student the opportunity to gain an insight into all branches of his trade. The instruction is given at night and on Sunday, so as not to interfere with the student's daily occupation. The instruction includes manual work, the same as in the day schools. Some of these night schools give excellent results. Following the description of certain continuation schools below, a short account is given of the class known as fishing trade schools. TKADE SCHOOL OF JEWELRY -WOBKING AND CHASING, BRUSSELS. In 1894 the trade association of working jewelers decided upon the creation of a trade school for training apprentices in the trade of jew- elry making and metal chasing. This determination was seconded by the city, which placed at the disposal of the association for this pur- pose one of the rooms of the old Palais du Midi, a building originally erected for exposition purposes. At the same time the Government promised to bear two-fifths of the expense. The school was accord- ingly opened in 1895, since which time it has been in successful oper- ation. The school is managed by a commission selected from among the most competent members of the jewelers' association. The courses are divided into two departments. In both the main purpose is to cul- tivate an ability on the part of the student to perform artistic work. In the first, or preparatory department, the student spends a great 650 EEPOET OF THE C0MMIS8I0NEB OF LABOB. deal of time in drawing and modeling. In every case each article must be drawn before it is modeled. In the second department the students do not have to draw after models, but may make their own designs. The entire course covei's a period of 4 years. Instruc- tion is given on Wednesday and Friday nights from 8 to 10 o'clock, and Sunday mornings from 9 to 11.30 o'clock. The outline of work for each of the i years is here given. First year: Linear drawing — exercises tending to develop the ideas of measure and proportion; geometric forms; geometric forma with perspective; drawing from mold- ings after nature (in geometric forms); copy of ornaments (moldings). Second year: Drawing from moldings after nature and ornamental subjects; reduc- tion of moldings and ornamental subjects, having in mind their application to trink- ets and jewelry; modeling (subjects for ornaments, flowers, etc.). Third year: Sketching and modeling from nature (flowers, insects, birds, etc.); composition with elements sketched and modeled. Fourth year: Creation of designs for jewelry and working out the objects designed in brass or lead; esthetics; talks and conferences on subjects relating to the pro- fession; finishing course in metal chasing. In order to gain admission to the school the boy must be at least 14 years of age, have a satisfactory primary education, and be a work- ing apprentice or workman in the trades of jewelry making, metal chasing, or precious-metal working. Instruction is gratuitous, but an entrance fee of 5 francs (fO.97) is charged. The average attendance has increased from 26 in 1896 to 85 in 189T-98. TRADE SCHOOL OF PRINTING, BRXJSSEIiS. In 1886 the Association of Printers of Brussels sent to the heads of all the printing establishments of Brussels and the surrounding sub- urbs an invitation to attend a meeting to consider the advisability of creating a printing trades school. At this meeting it was determined to seek the cooperation of the two employers' organizations of the city, the Printers and Publishers' Club, and the Trade Association of Printers. Another meeting was accordingly held, at which an agree- ment for common action on the part of the employers' and the employ- ees' associations was reached. A committee of 8 — 1 employers and 4 employees— was appointed to elaborate a definite project. This was done in 1887, and, the necessary preliminary steps having been taken, the school was opened in the fall of 1888. The above account of the manner in which this school came into existence is given as an interesting illustration of cooperation on the part of the employers and employees in a trade to create an institution intended for their mutual benefit. The object of this school is the training of workmen capable of executing all the finer branches of printing. The school possesses accommodations for about 75 pupils. The employers taking part in the maintenance of the school engage themselves to take into their TEADE AKD TECHNICAL EDUCATION — BELGIUM. 651 establishments as printers' apprentices only boys at least 14 years of age, and to limit the number of such in proportion to the number of journeymen employed. Thus those establishments with from 1 to 6 journeymen can have 3 apprentices, those with from 7 to 14, 3 appren- tices, and those with from 15 to 25, 4 apprentices. Such apprentices must attend the school regularly. In determining the number of apprentices to which an establishment is entitled, press hands are not counted in the personnel. Pupils must be at least 14 years of age, be residents of the Brussels district, be able to read and write readily, and be familiar with the fundamental rules of arithmetic. The programme of studies includes courses running for five years. The instruction given is both theo- retical and practical. The lessons are given in the evening from 8 to 9.30. There are three sessions per week for each year of studies. Two of these sessions are devoted to the technique of the trade and the third to French grammar. It is obligatory upon the students to attend the sessions in both. The cost of the school in 1896 was 7,600 francs ($1,467), which is met by the annual dues of the printers patronizing the school, and sub- sidies by the city, province, and State. The instruction is gratuitous. In order to prevent competition with the commercial establishments, the school is not allowed to execute work for pay. TKADE SCHOOL, OF UPHOIiSTEBIlTG, DRAPING, TBIMMING, FXrBNISHIN"G, ETC., BKTJSSELS. This school was established in 1894 through the efforts of members of the trade union of upholsterers and trimmers of the city of Brus- sels. It was created for the purpose of teaching the trades included in the general terms tapisserie (upholstering, paper hanging, draping, etc.) and garniture (trimming, furnishing, etc.). It is not the aim to produce finished workmen or foremen, but so to prepare the students that thej^ may perfect themselves very quickly as all-round workmen in the shops. The advantage claimed for the school over the old shop apprenticeship is the saving in time; for in the shops the work is more or less specialized, and several years would be required to learn all its branches, while in the school all operations are taught during the course, and considerable time is spent on theory and drawing with beneficial results. The school year lasts from September 16 to May 15. Instruction is given only in the evening. The hours are from 6 to 8 or from 8 to 10, according to the season. Students are admitted between the ages of 14 and 20, those who are already apprenticed to the trade being preferred. They must have finished their primary studies, must be of good conduct and moral character, and must be residents of the province of Brabant. There is no tuition fee, but a matriculation fee 652 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. of 10 francs ($1.93) is charged for each year. Students must furnish their own tools, but the school supplies the raw material used. The number of students is limited to about 60, in order to secure the best results with the means at hand, and each year there are more applica- tions for admission than can be accepted. Only the most promising ai'e selected. The number in regular attendance has ranged from 45 to 71, the latter figure representing the attendance during the second year, before the limitation was adopted. In 1901 there were .56 in regular attendance, and the year before there were 62. Although the school does not claim to produce skilled workmen, it is interesting to note that most of those who finish the courses actually do secure positions either as skilled vforkmen or foremen, while others become owners of establishments. Those who choose to become jour- neymen are eagerly sought by emploj^ers. Courses of study are arranged to cover four years. The instruction is divided into two classes — a general course, including theory, which is obligatory for all the students, and trade courses in tapisserie and garniture,, general terms which have been already defined. Less time is given to the general or theoretical than to the practical side of the instruction. Two hours per week are devoted each year to the general courses and two hours to drawing. The practical work in each of the two departments takes up four hours per week during the first 3'ear and two hours during the second, third, and fourth years. The general course includes such subjects as arithmetic, commercial accounts, designing and drawing applied to the trades, theory and harmony of colors, esthetics in furnishings, historj' of art, etc. The extended outline of work for each year is as follows: First year: Arithmetic (review of elements, proportion, interest and discount, partnersliip, and mental arithmetic), orthography and composition (trade corre- spondence and compositions on subjects relating to the trades), and commerce (so much commercial knowledge as is necessary for the workman or employer). Second year: Geometric forms, estimation of surfaces, geometric designs, projection, drawing of plans; exercises designed to prepare students for the cutting of stuffs. Third and fourth years: History of art relating to architecture, building, and furni- ture, comprehending a study of (1) art of antiquity (Egyptian, Greek, and Roman); (2) art of the Middle Ages (Byzantine and Arabian) ; art of the eleventh and twelfth centuries (Roman style); art of the thirteenth, fourteenth, and fifteenth centuries (ogival style); and (3) modern art, including the sixteenth century (Renaissance), the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries (Louis XIII, XIY, XV, and XYI), and the nineteenth century (style of the Empire); present style; esthetics in house furnish- ings, ideas concerning the harmony of colors that should exist in the furniture, drapery, carpets, curtains, paper, seats, etc. (the processes of manufacture and special destination of these articles are studied so that the students may observe certain rules concerning design, perspective, model, light, and color when making a choice of subjects); decoration and furnishing of the vestibule, antechamber, stairway, drawing-room, dining room, bedchamber, dressing room, etc. On Sundays all the students visit the museums, art collections, expositions, etc. TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION BELGIUM. 653 Two hours a week in each j'^ear of study is devoted to drawing relat- ing exclusively to the trades. The outline of work in the trade courses for the separate years follows: Tapisserie (upholstering, paper hanging, draping, etc. )• First year: (1) Tools (description and manner of using, value, production, quality, preservation, and repair); (2) raw materials (description, value, production, quality, and employment); (3) mattresses, bolsters, pillows, eider-down coverlets; (4) differ- ent stitches; (5) papers (manufacture, value, and quality); preparation of walls; papering ordinary walls, cloth-covered walls, partition walls, damp walls, cement walls; (6) the hinges on masked doors; (7) wool and hair (description, production, value, quality, employment, preservation, washing, and beating); (8) first lessons in hanging shades and draping curtains. Second year: (1) Window shades and blinds (different systems, hanging of shades and blinds) ; (2) curtains for windows (placing the cornice, irons, and rods; draping, washing, and repair of curtains); (3) hanging curtains (undraped) ; (4) carpetings (source, quality and value; repair, laying, beating, and preservation of); (5) placing of different cloths on walls and woodwork; (6) shopwork (canopies for beds, fancy- tables, cushions, etc.); (7) draping of cloths. Third year: All kinds of work pertaining to decoration and hanging; cutting of curtains, hangings, and draperies; styles (see work in general course); history of upholstery. Fourth year: Recapitulation of work done during the first three years; original work on the part of the students. Gaenituke (upholstering, trimming, furnishing, etc.). First year: Tools (description, use, value, quality, production, preservation, and repair) ; raw materials (their fabrication, production, use, price, quality, and pres- ervation); art of strapping or cording; springs (their description, manufacture, sources, fashion, and quality); the setting of springs; the cords and rods to be used in hangings around doors and windows; setting and cording down springs (sofas and backs of sofas, etc. ) ; ottomans and footstools. Second year: Laying heavy cloth; sewing it to springs; trimming packing cases; laying thin cloth; putting nap on cloth; quilting cushions and pads. Third year: Laying hair and covering it with white cloth; cutting materials; cov- ering furniture (with tapestry cloths, etc.) ; trimming with lace, etc. ; work on uphol- stered furniture; covering furniture with leather or tapestry; cutting and making covers for furniture; styles (see general course). Fourth year: See fourth year work for course in tapisserie. Each year the best students are sent on free excursions to places of interest from the trade point of view. The school is governed by a council composed of 7 members, of whom 2 are emploj^ers, 2 are workmen, and 1 each is delegated by the State, the province, and the city of Brussels. Subsidies are received from the State, the province, and from several suburban towns from which students are drawn, but the financial condition of the school has not been encouraging. There has been a deficit at the end of each of its seven years of existence, but the deficits have graduallj^ diminished. In 1901 it amounted to only 126 francs (124.32) for the year, as against over 4,000 francs (|772) in 1895. The deficits have been met by the founders. The original cost was about 4,000 francs (|772). This was for installation only, as the school rooms are furnished by the city. 654 KEPOET OF THE COMMISSION EK OF LABOB. The school, when first established, encountered consideralale opposi- tion and apathy among both employers and employees. None of the products of the students' labor are sold. The same mate- rial is used over and over. Trade Schools of Fishing. The institution of schools for giving instruction in fishing grew out of the desire to do something to improve conditions in the fishing indus- try, which gave everv evidence of losing its former prosperity. It was held that fishermen could pi}' their trade with greater advantage if they understood such matters as currents, the character of the sea bottom, the reading of marine and weather charts, and the manipula- tion of improved fishing devices. Much of this information could not be obtained by those who began their practical work at 10 years of age. To supply this want, a beginning was made in 1888 by the crea- tion of a fishing school at Ostend. As the result was satisfactory, sim- ilar schools were opened at Blankenberghe in 1890 and at Nieuport in 1893. Without attempting to enumerate the particular subjects taught, it maj' be said in a general way that the courses cover the elements of navigation, the management of boats, the making and repairing of nets, lines, and other fishing apparatus, the study of the sea, its cur- rents, bottom, and shores, sounding, operation of the donkey engines, etc., besides general instruction in reading, writing, arithmetic, etc. At the Ostend school there were 97 students in attendance in 1896', at the Blankenberghe school, 83 students, and at the Nieuport school 25, or a total of 205 students in the three schools. A fourth school has recentlj^ been created at Ostend. SUPERIOE TRADE AND TECHNICAL SCHOOLS. The purposes of these schools have been explained in the earlj' part of this chapter. In all these schools instruction is given during the day. Of the institutions of this class which properly, come within the scope of this report, three give instruction in the brewing industiy. The fourth is intended to teach all that pertains to the textile indus- tries. The most important brewing school is fully described in the following pages, while one of the others and the textile school are but briefly considered. SUPEBIOIl INSTITUTE OF BREWING, GHENT. This school was established in 1887 by the Society of Belgian Brewers. Its purpose is to enable brewers and their sons to keep abreast of the progress made in brewing; to afford those not connected with the trade, but who desire to engage therein, an opportunity to acquire the necessary theoretical and practical knowledge of brewing; to give a TBADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION BELGIUM. 655 course of instruction to brewery foremen and other brewery employees, and to facilitate research in the morphology and physiology of fer- ments and in other scientific subjects pertaining to the industry. It was at first merely a brewing school, but in 1895 there was added a department for the teaching of distilling, yeast making, etc. All the purposes of the school as outlined in the foregoing text apply equally to the different distilling iadustries at present. New branches have been added to the curriculum, and the courses ha.Y& been extended from time to time, until at present three years of study are required to obtain the highest degree. It is a day school, the lectures and laboratory work occupying two whole days a week in the case of first-year students and three days a week during the second and third year's. Instruction is given in two divisions — a free division and a division in which tuition is charged. The free division is designed for fore- men and employees and comprises theoretical instruction in the raw materials and their successive transformations in brewing, the study of brewery apparatus and of steam engines and boilers, and practical work under the supervision of competent instructors. In this division ■the theoretical instruction occupies only two hours each Sunday, and is given alternately in French and Flemish. This arrangement allows the brewery employees using either language to attend every other Sunday, or about forty hours each term. Visits to breweries are made from time to time and the various operations are explained. The course begins the secomd Sunday in October. Certificates of attendance are issued to those who attend regularly. The division in which tuition is charged is the more important. • It is intended for those who wish to obtain a thorough knowledge of the brewing and (^stilling industries, and its courses lead to degrees. There are two courses, known as the trade course, which requires 2 years, and the superior course, which requires 3 years of study. In each course the first yeai"'s work leads to the degree of master brewer or distiller and the second year to that of licentiate brewer or distiller. The third year in the superior course leads to the degree known as engineer of fermentation industries, to obtain which degree students must first secure that of licentiate brewer or distiller. The study required of the classes in brewing and distilling is so similar that much of the instruction in both industries is given in common. The differentiation occurs in the amount and character of the practical work done, and th'e special attention given to certain branches relating particularly either to the brewing or to the distill- ing business, that is, the technology of the different apparatus used, the legislation concerning each, the particular fermentation required in each, etc. This difference is true only in so far as the first 2 years' work is concerned, when the student is striving for the licentiate 656 EEPOET OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOK. degree in one particular industry. If he desires subsequently to become an engineer of fermentation industries he must perfect him- self in those branches relating to the other industry to which he gave less attention during the first 2 years. Students must be at least 16 years of age. No entrance examina- tion is required except in the case of those entering the superior course leading to the degree of engineer of fermentation industries. These latter students must obtain an average of 50 per cent in an examination in modern geography, ancient and modern history, arith- metic, algebra, geometry, trigonometry, and letter writing. They must also at the end of the second year obtain the degree of licentiate (either brewer or distiller) with a higher average grading than other licentiates, namely 650 points (65 per cent). In this course some special students are received. They take the instruction, etc., and receive certificates of attendance if they attend regular^. Such students can not enter the examinations for degrees. The school owns an experimental brewery and distillery in which the students spend a large proportion of the total school hours doing practical work. In addition to practical work in the experi- mental brewery all students taking the brewing courses leading to degrees must spend a certain time in a manufacturing brewery con- nected with the school. This period is called a "stage." It lasts 15 days during the first year and 30 days during the second year. This practical work is considered in the examinations and six-tenths of the total points allotted to the stage must be made before the work is considered satisfactory. Exemptions are made in the case of estab- lished brewers of Ghent, and established brewers outside of Ghent after they shall have conducted under given conditions a complete brewing operation at the experimental brewery. An arrangement is made in favor of nonresident students who can not reside continu- ously in Ghent during the 15 or 30 days whereby they may do the stage in a brewery in the neighborhood of their homes and furnish a certificate to that effect. In every case, under some condition, the student must have had practical work in an establishment before being graduated. The courses are arranged so that those students who are already established in the brewing or distilling business may attend the classes without serious derangement of their affairs. To the first-year classes instruction is given on Friday and Saturday of each week from Octo- ber 19 to January 11, and on Saturday of each week from January 18 to August 2. During the latter period one other day each week must be passed in the laboratory. For those first-year students who have not a sufficient knowledge of mathematics a supplemental course is arranged. From October 19 to January 16 they must spend 3^ hours per week in recitations, exercises, etc. TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION — BELGIUM. 657 Classes in the second year receive instruction on Thursday and Friday each week and must devote Saturdays entirely to practical work in the experimental brewery or distillery, and to drawing, designing, laboratory work, etc. During this year practical work occupies a very large proportion of time. From October 25 to March 15, 91 hours a week, 'or more than half the total class hours, are set aside for practical work. From March 20 to July 26, the end of the school term for this and the third year, 8i hours for the brewing classes and 7 hours for the distilling classes are thus used. These hours are increased for certain weeks during the course; certain subjects are completed before the end of the year, and the same hours formerly devoted to them are spent in doing practical work. The practical work here spoken of is distinct from that done in the manufacturing brewery. During the third year class exercises are held on Thursday, Friday, and Saturday of each week. Practical work occupies a large propor- tion of time, but not to such an extent as in the second year. The following tables show the hours per week allotted to each sub- ject or group of subjects during each year, according to the pro- gramme for 1901-02. Where two or more subjects are given on the same line, as, for instance, "Belgian brewing by top fermentation; bookkeeping," each subject occupies the hour shown for a part of the term. This fact accounts for the repetition of some of the courses in these tables. FIRST YEAR.— GRADE OF MASTER BREWER OR DISTILLER. Subjects taught. Raw materials and malting Boilers and managefiient of steam engines Industrial designing and drawing Fiscal law relating to brewing ' Chemistry (general) Chemistry of ferments Physics (general ) Physics; commercial law; supplementary lessons Agricultural distilling and technology of the distillery Agricultural distilling and technology of the distillery; fiscal law relating to distilling: bookkeeping Belgian brewing by top fermentation; bookkeeping Reviews, etc Total. Hours per week from- Oetober 19 to January 11. Brew- Distill- ers, ers. U 104 January 18 to August 2. a Brew- Distill- ers, ers. lOJ U 34 ii n One additional day during this period must be spent in the experimental brewery, the labora- tories, etc. The particular day had not been determined when the programme was printed. 9257—02- -42 658 REPOET OF THE OOMMISSIOJSEK OF LABOK. SECOND YEA.E.— GRADE OF LICENTIATE BREWER OR DISTILLER. Subjects taught. Analytic chemistry^ polarimetrs' Industrial construction; geneial mechanics; machinery General mechanics; machinery; practical work Chemistry of ferments Brewing by top fermentation (comparison of); brewing by bottom fermentation ■ Brewing by top fermentation (comparison of); practical work Utilization of by-products Industrial physics Industrial chemistry Designing, drawing, etc Industrial distilling and technology of the distillery Practical work (in experimental brewery or distillery, laboratories, etc.) Hoar.'; per week from— October 25 to March 15. Brew- Distill- ers, ers. Hi March 20 to July 26. Brew- Distill- ers. 191 li u THIRD YEAR.— GRADE OF ENGINEER OF FERMENTATION INDUSTRIES. Subjects taught. Agricultural distilling and technology of tb« distillery Analytic chemistry Organic chemistry; chemistry of ferments Stability of constructions; applied mechanics Applied mechanics Utilization of by-products Industrial economy Industrial physics; eleetrotechnics Designing and drawing Fiscal law relating to distilling Fiscal law relating to brewing; Belgian brewing by top fermentation Belgian brewing by top fermentation Brewing by top fermentation (comparison of); brewing by bottom fermentation Industrial distilling and technology of the distillery Practical work (in experimental brewery or distillery, laboratories, etc.) Total. Hours per week froni- October 24 to March 15. March 15 to July 26. Brew- era, 15} Distill- Brew- Distill- ers, ers. ers. 15} li U 1 14 3i al U 1 u 3i m a Until June 14. Excursions under the guidance of an instructor arc made to different breweries, distilleries, 3-east factories, hop plantations, glucose, mal- tose, and vinegar factories, machinery manufactories, machine shops, etc. Eegular students must attend at least three of these excursions during each year, and write detailed reports of their observations of the working of apparatus and accounts of the work in which they assisted. These reports are considered in the final examiimtions for degrees. Examinations for all classes are held at the end of each school year by an examining board composed of members of the administrative commission, the faculty, and delegates of the State, the province of East Flanders, the city of Ghent, and of the brewers' and distillers' TKABB AND TEGHNIOAL EBUCATION BELGIITM, 659 associations. In determining the standing of the student evei'}- thing, including examinations in technical and general branches, the practical work, quizzes during the course, reports on excursions of study to breweries and other industrial establishments, etc., is taken into account. The many subjects are grouped, each group being allotted a certain number of possible points and the minimum number of points that will be accepted. The standing required of the different classes is as follows: STANDING REQUIRED OF STUDENTS OF EACH' GRADE. Grade. Brewery foremen and employees (Xree course) . Master brewer or distiller Licentiate brewer or distiller; At end of first year At end.of second year Engineer of fermentation industries: At end of second year At end of third year Possible number. 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 1, 000 Number required. 500 637.6 625 585 650 677.5 A registration fee of 50 francs (|9.65) for each student, payable each year, is required. Tuition fees are 400 francs ($77.20) for the first, 250 francs (148.25) for the second, and 350 francs ($67.55) for the third year. Should any year's work be repeated, 200 francs ($38.60) is charged for the extra year. For laboratorj^ work in chem- istry and bacteriology and for the course in designing and drawing additional fees amounting to 50 francs ($9.65) per year, also paj^able by the special students, are exacted. All fees are payable in advance. Examination fees are charged in all classes. For the brewery fore- men and employees (free course) the fee is 5 francs ($0. 97) ; for the pay section it is 25 francs (14.83) at the end of the first, 30 francs (f5.79) at the end of the second, and 40 francs (17.72) at the end of the third year. Subsidies are received from the State, the province of East Flan- , ders, the city of Ghent, the general Association of Belgian Brewers, the Brewers' Association of Hainaut, and other associations. The school is governed by a director and a committee of the Brew- ers' Association. The total number of students enrolled from the foundation of the school in 1887 until 1900 was 887. About two- thirds of this number were sons of brewers. The other third have become directors, master brewers, etc. Quite a number come from France and Holland, and a few from other countries, to attend this institution. TECHBTICAL SCHOOL OF BREWING, GHENT. This school was established in 1894. It is not so important as the other Ghent brewing school. Its object is to educate students for the management of breweries of their own. Instruction includes both theoretical and practical work. It is given 3 days per week from 660 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 8 a. m. to 6 p. m. The school year lasts from the second Tuesday in October until the last Thursday in July. The duration of studies is 2 years. All courses are obligatory, and include English, commercial law and commerce, physics, mechanics, brewing, chemistry, study of steam engines, chemical and bacteriological manipulations, fiscal law, and designing. During 1895-96 there were but 19 students in attendance. The State granted a subsidy of 2,500 francs ($483) during the same year. The following statement shows the hours per week given to each branch or kind of work, according to the programme of 1896: HOURS FEE WEEK FOR EACH BRANCH OR KIND OP WORK. Subject. Brewing and malting Practical work in brewing . . OliemLstry : Inorganic Organic inalytie Chemical manipulations Hours per week during — First year. li nli Second year. i; 1-3 1 11 a 3 Subject. Hours per week during — Ptij'sics Commercial and fiscal law. Mechanics Steam engines Bacteriology Free-hand drawing Drawing plans, etc First year. Second year. C) il 1 1 1 1 1 n For one-half the school year. b Industrial physics. c First half, 1 hour; second half, 1 hour to theory and 3 hours to laboratory work. SUPEBIOS SCHOOL OF TEXTILES, VEKVIEBS. In 1894, after a discussion extending over several years, the city of Verviers opened a superior textile school. For its accommodation a special building had been constructed on land belonging to the city. It occupies a lot which originally contained 49,514 square feet, but to which 17,222 square feet have since been added by gift. The build- ings, inclosing a central court, are in the form of a quadrilateral. In these buildings are installed two schools — the industrial and trade school of the city and the superior textile school. The purpose of the superior textile school is the provision of the most advanced instruction in all matters relating to the manufacture of textiles. The course requires 4 years of study. The first year is reserved for the study of the pure sciences, the second to the applied sciences, and the third and fourth to the practice of the applied sci- ences. Taking the 4 years together, the greater part of the time of the students is devoted to the performance of practical work in the shops or laboratories. The latest information for this institution is for the year 1896. According to the programme then in force the studies and practical work for each year were as follows: First year: Physics (general); elements of mechanics;. chemistry (inorganic and organic); descriptive geometry, pure and applied; botany; German and English; graphics; chemical manipulations. TEADE AND TECHNICAL EDTJCATIOK— BELGIUM. 661 Second year: Applied mechanics; industrial physics; industrial chemistry; ele- ments of machinery; study of natural and artificial coloring matters; study of textiles; German and English; graphics; laboratory work, including chemical analyses, etc. Third year: Theory of dyeing; electro-technics; technology of textiles; weaving; industrial architecture; construction of machinery; bookkeeping; German and English; graphics; laboratory work, including experiments in dyeing; shopwork in spinning, weaving, and electro-technics. Fourth year: Theory of dyeing; electro-technics; technology of textiles; weaving; science of accounts; industrial geography; industrial economy; commercial law, German and English; graphics; plans; laboratory work, researches, etc.; shopwork in electro-technics, dyeing, spinning, weaving, and iinishing, and visits to establish- ments, etc. The school year begins in October and ends July 31. Instruction is given by day in this school, as it is in the other superior special schools. The qualifications necessary for admission are that a candidate must be at least 16 years of age, and he must produce a certificate of good conduct from the authorities of his commune, and a certificate of successful vaccination or revaccination within the previous 10 years. If over 20 yeai's old, he must prove that the military laws have been complied with. In addition to the foregoing general requirements it is insisted upon that a certificate or diploma of a high school {athenee royale) be presented, showing that he has successfully passed the first year of the scientific course. In lieu of such certificate or diploma he must pass an entrance examination. Special students may be enrolled for certain parts of the programme of studies. They do not receive diplomas, but may after examination receive a certificate stating they have studied the special branches. Tuition is 250 francs (^48.26) for native born or naturalized Belgians and 1,000 francs ($193) for foreigners, and is payable in advance. For special students who are citizens a charge of 20 francs ($8.86) a year for each hour per week of each course taken is made, while for- eigners must pay four times as much. In addition to the regular fees each student must deposit 60 francs (|9.65) each year as a guarantee agahist loss, breakage, and deterioration of material and instruments. Whole or part scholarships inay in certain cases be accorded. Those students who have no certificate of attendance on the high school, as required, must pass an examination in French, history and geographj", arithmetic, algebra, geometry (including descriptive and analytical geometry), trigonometry, and drawing. A fee of 25 francs ($4.83) is charged for this examination. Examinations for passage from one year to another, as well as for graduation, are held. A minimum of 60 per cent must be made in each examination. A fee of 50 francs ($9.65) is charged for the examination for passage to another year, and one of 75 francs ($14.48) for the examination for graduation. In each examination the practical exercises, graphics, shopwork, mechanics, electro-technics, manipulations, analyses, experiments in 662 REPOBT OE" THE COMMISSIOH'EK OP LABOR. dyeing, original plans, quizzes, etc., in which the student takes part, are taken into consideration in determining the results. In the industrial and trade school (evening) there is a trade depart- ment of textiles,, which carries the same courses as the superior school. The instruction there given is of an elementary character, and is intended to prepare students for entrance into the superior school. The government of this institution is Tested in an administrative commission of 6 members, of whom 2 represent the State,, 2 the prov- ince, and 2 the commune. For the support of the two schools in 1896 the Government appro^ priated 25,138 francs ($i,852), the province 12,569 francs (|2,426), and the commune 25,137 francs ($4,851). Various other receipts amounted to 4,968 francs (|959), raising the total to 6T,812 francs ($13,088). SAINT LUKE TEADE SCHOOLS. This is a special class of trade schools established under Catholic auspices. These schools present two types of organization. In the Tournay school the student receives his manual training in shops belonging to and under the direct supervision of the school; the other schools have no workshops,, the student's manual training being received in outside shops. In the latter case the shops are nominally under supervision of the school, but it can not be said they really come under the school organization.. Thej'' belong in most cases to graduates of the school who receive and train the students. The Tournay school resembles the trade school proper more than do the other three. The latter more properly come under the head of continuation schools. These schools make a specialty of the Crothic style of art^ but teach other styles also. SAINT LTTEE TSADE SCHOOIj, GHENT. The origin of the Ghent school has already been given. Starting as a simple drawing class in 1862,. it has developed until in 1896 it was giving trade instruction to over 620 students. Since 1888 it has enjoyed a subsidy from the Government. The purpose of the school in general terms may be said to be the training of artisans capable of turning out articles possessing artistic or original features. In its system of instruction it does not seek to replace the appren- ticeship training obtained in industrial shops, but does attempt to shorten its duration. It seeks especially to give that training and theoretic and artistic instruction which can not be obtained in the ordinary shop. The work is divided into four distinct departments. First, a preparatory course that must be taken by all the students before specializing; second, a department of building; third, a depart- ment of decoi-ation and ornamentation, and fourth, a department of industrial art. The curriculum comprehends seven years of instruction. TBADE AND TECHNICAL EI>tJOATION — BEL&IUM. 663 The school m installed in a building specially constructed for it. This building is well equipped for the work for which it is intended, but the increase in the number of pupils has crowded it and more room is urgently needed. The school has no workshop of its own. Instead it has the interesting system of making use of ordinary indus- trial shops. It had thus in 1896 arrangements with thirty-four em- ployers, according to which each takes a certain number of pupils. These shops are visited at regular intervals by the professors who care- fully supervise the pupils' work. To a considerable extent the employ- ers making such arrangements are former pupils. Of the 3i shops in which students are trained, the work in 10 relates to carpentering, in 10 to decorative work and painting on glass, in 6 to stone and wood carving, while 5 are builders' and architects' offices, and Bare designers' shops. The instruction is given in the evening from 6 to 8 during the winter and from 7 to 9 during the summer. There are also special Sunday classes between the hours of 8.30 and 10.45 a. m., for those who can not spare the time on week days. In these courses instruction is given in the following subjects: Drawing of various grades; the theory of projections and perspective; industrial drawing; algebra, geometry, trigonometry, surveying; building technology; strength of materials; the elements of construction; the history of architecture and the related arts — archseology, esthetics, symbolism, iconography; building regulations; heating, ventilation, and hygiene of buildings; social econ- omy; pattern making; carving; wood working, stone working, metal working; decorative painting, painting on glass, graphic work for miniature; engraving; embroidery; j.ewelry work, enameling, and wrought-iron work. The instruction in drawing runs throug'h all the seven years. In the first year is taught free-hand drawing of geometrical and ordinary objects; in the second, ornamentation, projection, and perspective; in the third and fourth, trade drawing, and in the fifth, sixth, and seventh, composition. SAIM^T LUKE TSADE SCHOOX,, LIEGE. The Saint Luke trade school of Liege was founded in 1880 by a group of public-spirited citizens. Its purpose is the teaching of art as applied to industry. The school year begins October 1 and ends July 31. Instruction is given both during the day and in the evening. The day courses are held on every day in the week from 9.30 a. m. to 12 m. The evening courses are held on every week day, from 6.30 to 8.30 in the winter and from 7 to 9 in the summer. There is a special Sunday morning course, from 8.30 to 11, for the benefit of those who can not attend during the week. Pupils are admitted at the age of 13. Instruc- tion is gratuitous. It includes a preparatory department for all the 664 BEPOET OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. beginners, a department of building construction and architecture, and a department of applied art and decoration. The preparatory course requires two years of studj'-. The trade courses proper require four j-ears of actual study and three years more devoted to composition. Including the two years of preparation the student must spend nine years under the school's instruction. In the prepai'atorj' department instruction is given in free-hand drawing (lines, geometric surfaces, leaves, flowers, and simple decora- tions) ; geometrj' and its applications, and elementary lessons in drawing from nature (first lessons in perspective, etc.). In the department of building construction and architecture pupils are taught the fundamental principles relating to the different building ti'ades or professions; restoration of monuments; knowledge of mate- rials used in building operations; bvxilding legislation; arcbasology; geometrj' and calculus; and building technologj\ Great importance is attached to such details as doors, windows, floors, stairs, chimneys, framework, etc. In the course of applied art and decoration the stu- dent is instructed in sketching from casts and from nature, and tTie development of the sketches and their application to such arts as deco- rative or artistic painting; painting on glass; engraving on wood, stone, and metals; artistic ironwork, embi'oidery, upholsterj-, etc.; the stud}^ of costumes and furniture (both civil and religious), and modeling and sculpture relating to furnitiire and statuar3^ In each course trade drawing receives proper attention. The department of building construction and architecture is intended for those pupils who wish to become carpenters, masons, stonecutters, blacksmiths, building contractors, or architects, etc., while the depart- ment of applied art and decoration is intended for the teaching of sculpture, cabinetmaking, gold and silver smithing, engraving, paint- ing of various kinds, etc. There are now 8 teachers giving instruction in the various branches. While the school has no workshop of its own, it has the use of cer- tain shops maintained by the former students. It has thus had the use since 1887, of a shop in carpentry and wood carving; since 1891, one in painting; since 1895, one in fine ironwork, and, since 1896, one in stone carving. During the early years of its history the school had to struggle against many disadvantages, the chief of which was an inadequate equipment due to lack of funds. Since 1S95, however, it has been upon a better financial footing. In 1901 there were 356 students in attendance, 46 of whom received instruction in day classes, 240 in night classes, and 70 in Sunday classes. There were 100 students in the preparatory department, 108 in the department of applied art and decoration, and 148 in the department of building construction and architecture. Among the graduates the school accounts for 30 ai'chitects, 16 building contract- TKADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION — BELGIUM. 665 ors, 5 artistic painters, 40 house painters, 39 sculptors in wood and stone, 60 draftsmen, 10 blacksmiths, 15 engravers, and about 100 car- penters and 60 cabinetmakers. SAINT liUEE TRADE SCHOOL OF SCHAEKBEEK, BRUSSELS. This school was created in 1884, after the model of the Ghent insti- tution. In 1888 it was transferred to its present more commodious location. The purpose of this school is strictly that of teaching the technical application of art to industrj^, with a view to the training of a class of laborers having higher aims and more artistic ability than those trained by industrial establishments alone. From the start this school has secured the confidence and approval of both employers and the parents of youths seeking a trade education. Instruction is given from 7 to 9 p. m. every day, with the exception of Sunday, during the months from October to July. In addition, there are lessons on Sunday mornings from 9 to 11.45 for the benefit of those unable to attend on the other clays of the week. The scheme of instruction comprehends the following four departments: A department of general studies preparing for the other departments and which must be followed by all the students; a department of industrial art, a department of decoration and ornamentation, and a department of building and construction "work. The subiects taught are elementary drawing, trade drawing, geom- etry, architecture, building technology, building legislation, strength of materials, hygiene, social economy, history of art, sculpture, deco- rative painting, jpainting on glass, furniture, fine ironwork, gold and silver work, embroidery, and engraving. Though great attention is paid to the practical instruction of the pupils the school has no shops of its own. Instead, use is made of shops run by former pupils of the school. It thus has the use of shops relating to the following five branches of industrj-: Cabinet- making, stone and wood carving, fine ironwork, decorative painting, and painting on glass. The complete programme in one of the courses covers a period of seven years. Instruction is gratuitous, although an admission fee of 3 francs ($0.58) is charged. Students must be at least 13 years of age and have completed their primary studies. The school started with 20 pupils. The foUovv'ing statement shows the number in attendance during more recent years: 1887-88, 165; 1888-89, 170; 1889-90, 300; 1890-91, 355; 1891-93, 425; 1892-98, 430; 1893-94, 448; 1894-95, 450; 1895-96, 450. SAINT LUKE TRADE SCHOOL, TOURNAY. The Saint Luke Trade School, of Tournay, was established in 1878 and placed under the direction of the Brothers of the Christian Schools. It began in a very modest way, with one teacher and a single class room. It has continued to develop, however, almost without inter- 666 EEPOBT OF THE COMKISSIOlSrEB OF LABOB, niption. Before the first year was finisked, the increasing number of pupils necessitated the appointment of a second teacher. In 1880 the school was moved to a larger building; in 1885. a third teacher was appointed and a new class organized; in 1886 a new wing for the school was constructed; in 1887 a workshop for woodworking and wood carving was added; in 1888 the school was again transferred to more commodious quarters, a workshop for stone carving and decora- tive painting was added, and financial aid was first obtained from the Government; in 1893 the shop for stone carving was transferred to another room, and in 1896 the whole school was again transferred into better quarters. The purpose of this school, like all of the Saint Luke institutions, is to train workmen in the more artistic or finer branches of the handi- craft trades. The studies are divided into four categories. The first consists of studies which all of the students are required to follow ; the second relates specially to building and architecture, the third to decoration and ornamentation, and the fourth to cabinetmaking. Seven years are required for the courses in drawing and theorj', three of which are devoted to composition. The lessons are given from 6.30 to 8.30 in the evening during the winter months and from 7.15 to 9.15 during the summer months. The subjects taught are drawing, trade drawing, geometry, the valuation of works and sketches, the technology of building, archae- ology; building construction from the theoretical, practical, and his- torical points of view; strength of materials, carpentry and joinery, stone and wood carving, modeling, statuary work, decorative painting, chromolithograph}^, engraving, and decoration and ornamentation in their various applications to the trades. The school now has four workshops, namely, a shop for woodwork- ing, a shop for stone and wood carving, a shop for decorative painting and statuary work, and a shop for-chromolithographj' and engraving. The report for 1896 mentioned that a workshop for gold working was in the process of organization, and it was hoped to establish one for painting on glass. As soon as the apprentices begin to master the essentials of their trades a small remuneration is given for the work_done. This remu- neration, however, is retained and distributed in the way of prizes. The products of the students' work are sold and the money realized is used for the purchase of the raw materials and tools that are required. Care is taken not to compete with the manufacturers of the cit3^ The students are employed in manual exercises in the shops every week day from 7.30 a. m. to 12 m. and from 1.15 to i.30 or 6 p. m., accord- ing to the season of the year. The following table shows the number of students and the number TRADE AND TECHKIOAL EDTJCATIOK — BELQ-IXTM. 667 of apprentices attending the shops during the school years 1884-85 to 1805-96: STUDENTS AND APPRENTICES ATTENDING THE SHOPS OF THE SAINT LUKE TRADE SCHOOL AT TOURNAY, 1884-85 TO 1895-96. Year. 1884r-85. 1885-86. 1886-87. 1887-88. 1888-89. 1889-90. Students. 105 120 132 134 142 150 Appren- tices at- tending sliops. Year. 1890-91 1891-92 1892-93 1893-94 1894-95 1895-96 Students. 157 170 176 176 180 194 Appren- tices at- tending 51 47 62 77 91 APPRENTICESHIP SHOPS FOR MALES. The a^Dprenticeship shops for weaving have been full}' considered as a class, and need not be separately described. The apprenticeship shops for stonecutting in the communes of Ecaussines-d'Enghien and Ecaussines-Lalaing, which are under one supervision, are fully described in the following pages. Other shops at Sprimont and Aywaille are of more recent origin. APPRENTICESHIP ■WORKSHOPS FOR STOISTECITXTING, ECAXTS- SINES-D'ENGHIEN AND ECAUSSINES-LALAING. In 1873 the communal council of Ecaussines-d'Enghien, upon the solicitation of the master quarrymen, decided to open a shop in which young boys could receive instruction in the trade of stonecutting. This action was taken because there was a distinct lack of workmen capable of doing other than the most ordinary work of stonecutting, and under such conditions but little opportunity existed for boys who entered the quarries as apprentices to learn the higher branches of the trade. The workshop was opened in a yard that belonged to the com- mune, and a methodical and progressive course in stonecutting was put in practice. The instruction was free, and from 25 to 40 students were constantly in attendance. The apprentices worked on stone brought in by the various master quarrymen who adhered to the shop idea. The master quarry-men also assisted the commune in many ways. They not only bore the expense of transportation of stone to and from the workshops and the loss from breakage and bad cutting, but paid the apprentices a regular schedule of prices for work done and also shared in the direct expenses of the shop. The work was done under the supervision and direction of a foreman employed for that purpose by the commune. This shop, though it accomplished good results, presented a number 668 EEPOKT OF THE COMMISSIONEE OP LABOR. of grave defects. Great diiBculty was found in securing continuous work for the apprentices. The work consisted principally in the making of staple articles, such, as door and window sills and rough- trimmed stone, for which there was a regular demand and which could be kept in stock. Only to a limited extent could the finer grades of work, which are made according to a special contract, be secured. In consequence a larger number of the ordinary articles was made than could be disposed of. The cost of the work, moreover, was much increased by the fact that the yard was not in the immediate vicinity of the quarries and the expense of hauling the stone to and from the yard was a considerable item. Matters gi'adually became worse instead of better, and a change of system became imperative. Until 1890 there was but one shop. In that year, however, a thor- ough reorganization was effected, and the multiple-shop system was adopted. Shops belonging to the employers were established in the 'quarries, and the time formerly lost in transporting the stone was jfhus saved. The apprentices were also brought into immediate touch with quarrying and cutting operations of all kinds. At the head of each of these shops was placed a foreman, chosen by the quarry owner with the approval of the adnainistrative commission, who devoted his entire time to the instruction of the apprentices under him. The maximu«i number of these apprentices in each shop was limited to 20, as experience had demonstrated that this was the greatest number that could be directed with efficiency by a foreman. For admission to the shops the boys must be at least 12 3'ears of age and give proof of a sufficient primary education. They must also sign an agreement to follow regularly the courses of the drawing school, an institution which was established in connection with the original shop. The apprenticeship is for three j^ears of three hundred days each. At the comjjletion of the term each apprentice who has satisfactorily fulfilled all the conditions is given a certificate, signed bj^ the mayor of the commune and the representative of the superior authorities, setting forth the personal merit of the recipient. The hours of labor are the same as those prevailing in the quarries in which the shops are located, due account being taken of the pro-vi- sions of the law of December 13, 1889, regarding the hours of labor of young persons. The apprentices in these shops enjoy the great advantage that" instead of paying for their instruction they receive a remuneration as soon as they are able to perform work of value. The work executed by them is paid for by the master quarr3'men accord- ing to the rate prevailing in the quarry, but deductions are made from their earnings to the amount of 20 per cent during the first year, 10 per cent during the second, and 5 per cent during the third. The TEADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION BELGIUM. 669 sums thus retained are paid into the shop fund, and to them are added certain sums mentioned in the budget and the receipts from gifts and fines. At the end of the year the monej'' thus accumulated is distrib- uted in the form of prizes. Those apprentices who leave the shops without the permission of the administrative commission, or who are dismissed on account of incapacity or misconduct, lose all right to share in this prize fund. The prizes consist of stonecutters' tools or accounts at the Govei'nment savings bank. The main reason advanced for the retention of wages is to make sure that the apprentice shall have a full supply of tools when he leaves the shops. If he has already supplied himself with tools he receives the prize in cash. On the 1st of January, 1900, the masters took a more decided step regarding payments to beginners. In order to encourage them for the first few months before their labor has become productive, the following system of premiums was adopted: (1) For the first three months of apprenticeship the sum of 0.50 franc (10.10) per day of attendance, above the amount earned, is paid; (2) for the second three months 50 per cent is added to the earnings; (3) for the third three months 25 per cent is added to the earnings. The shops are owned by the master quarrymen, but controlled by the communal administration through an administrative commission of 9 members, named, 3 by the commune, 3 by the province, and 3 by •the State. This commission exercises a general supervision in all mat- ters pertaining to the shops, the school of drawing, etc. The members visit the shops everj' month, examine accounts, take notice of the work and progress of the pupils, examine the notebooks, registers, etc. In 1890, 4 shops of the character described were opened at different quarries. At the end of sevei'al months these shops had 80 appren- tices. The results, the official report states, far exceeded the expecta- tions of the most optimistic. During the next year 2 more shops were opened. Since then all of the quarry owners have become enthusiastic partisans of the sj^stem and have solicited the opening of shops in con- nection with their works. The authorities have promised to grant their desires as soon as practicable. Apprenticeship shops for stonecutting have also been opened in a neighboring commune, Ecaussines-Lalaing. They are under the same administrative commission as those of Ecaussines-d'Enghien. The following table presents the most important data relating to the multiple-shop system since its establishment in 1890. It shows the steady increase in the number of apprenticeship shops and of apprentices working therein, with the total days worked, total earn- ings, average daily earnings, etc. The figures relate to both Ecaussines- d'Enghein and Ecaussines-Lalaing, and are derived from the printed report for 1900 on industrial schools of the province of Hainaut and 670 EEPOBT OF THE COSffMTSSIOWEE OP LABOR. from data for the working' year 1900-01 furnished by the director of the shops and secretary of the administrative commission: APPRENTICES, DAYS WORKED, EARNINGS, ETC., APPRENTICESHIP SHOPS AT ECAUSSINES. D'BNGKHIEN AND ECAUSSINES-EAIiAING, 1890-91 TO 1900-01. Year. Number of' shops. Number of ap- prentices in regular attend- ance. Total days worked. Total earnings of ap- prentices. Average dailj? earnings. Amount distrib- 1 uted as prizes, etc. Number who re- celTed prizes. Number of diplomas , granted. 1890-91 5 7 10 11 11. 12 n 13 18 14 (a) 109 148 218 254 26S 274 256 247 305 313 8,950 22,236 27, 822i 88,099 44, 132} 55,464i 52, 344J 47, 986i 32,2034 55,8964 61, 2683 $696 2,540 3,769 5,160 6,215 8,957 9,147 9,073 0,664 13,803 15,215 SO. 08 .11 .14 .14 .14 .16 .18 .19 .21 .25 .25 S156 379 423 673 794 ' 1,025 977 1,042 894 1,236 1,065 126 185 220 223; 232 207 218 262' 268 1891-92 1892-93 1898-94... 26 1894-95 1895-96 1896-97 31 42 1897-98 33 1898-99 J> 1899^1900 23 1900-1901 27 « Not reported. & A strike of &months' duration which occurred during the year accounts for the small totals shown in some of the columns. The number of shops has increased from the 4 originally founded in 1890 to 14 in 1900-01, and there are increases, more or less regu- lar, in every other item. One of the most interesting facts shown by this table is the steady increase in average earnings of the apprentices. During the first j^ear of the period the daily average was 0.40' francs (f0.08) and at the end of the period it had risen to 1.28 francs (f 0.25). The averages given are for all apprentices, those who are just begin- ning and who earn practically nothing, as well as those in the second and third years of apprenticeship. The average earnings necessarily increase as the apprentice becomes more proficient. It should be borne in mind, however, that the amount of wages the apprentices may be able to earn is of secondary importance to the founders of these shops. Their great aim is to produce good workmen, and apprentices are not encouraged to attempt to earn high wages at the expense of thoroughness of instruction. Many apprentices do not complete the three j^ears of service. Some become tired of the discipline of the shops and leave. After six months' absence such persons are considered deserters and are dropped from the rolls. Others consider themselves sufficiently proficient before their time is served and leave the shops to secure employment in other places. Nearly all apprentices eventually work at the trade. The cost of this system has been inconsiderable. The State and province share in the expenses. DRAWING SCHOOL. A school of drawing was established in connection with the orig-inal workshop in 1873 and, is still in existence. Although all the appren- tices must agree to attend this school many are excused for various TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATIOBT BELGUFM. 671 reasons. Instruction, which is practically free to all, is given fire Big-hte' a week and Sunday forenoons. The State and province assist with subsidies. Instruction is mainly industrial in character but is based upon a general course. The duration of studies, is from two to five years, according to the course followed. The courses are, preparatory, 2 years (for pupils having an insufficient primary education)", elementary and intermediate courses, 2 years each; course in modeling, 3 years, and superior course, 4 years. The subjects taught in each course are as follows: Preparatory course: Free-Rand outline dra"wing, arithmetic, elements of geometry, French, industrial economjr. Elementary course: Studies in tracings sketching geometrical figures, and projec- tion drawing with, instruments. Intermediate course: Study of shadows, continuation of, projection drawing, ele- mentary perspective, and geometric outlines of shadows with instruments. Course in modeling: Clay models of artistic moldings from plaster, from engrav- ings, from sketches by the pupil after the masterpieces of antiquity, the Middle Ages, and the Eenaissance. Superior course: Study of architecture, etc., tracing relating to mechanics, stone cutting, course in technology, and building;. In 1899-19G0, 198 students were enrolled, of wliom 137 were in attendance throughout the year. The school is not so popular as it might be with some of the apprentices, but it is interesting to note that a number of older persons attend its courses to perfect them- selves in their trades. Of these 198 students, 60 were from 12 to 14 years old, 68 from 14 to 16, 31- from 16 to 18, 20 from 18 to 20, and 16 were over 20 years of age. Their occupations are given as: Students, 39; stonecutters' apprentices, 70; stonecutters, 44; clerks, 14; machinists and oper- atives, 6; draftsmen, 3; carpenters, 7; various occupations, 16. TRADE COURSES FOR MALES. In order to give a complete account of trade instruction in Belgium some mention should be made of courses, specially intended for the laboring classes, which have been organized in a number of cities. The purpose of these courses is quite analogous to that of the continu- ation schools of Germany or the science and drawing classes of Great Britain. SAIKT LITKE COUESES IH" TBADE DKAWING, AKrTWEBP. Of the various courses the most important mention should be made of those in trade drawing which have been organized in Antwerp by the " Vrede " society for workingmen in the building trades. Instruc- tion is gratuitous and the pupils are supplied with the necessary implements and material as an encouragement to them to attend the 672 KEPOET OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. courses. For the most part the instruction is given by persons actu- ally employed in the trades, namely, carpenters, joiners, blacksmiths, painters and decorators, etc. The courses are given exclusively on Sunday mornings, so that no interference with the regular work of the students will result, and they run from the first Sunday in September to the last Sunday in July. One hour is devoted to theory and two hours to practical exercises. To complete the courses, from 3 to 4 years are required. The pupils are required each j-ear to make, in their own shops, some article or perform some work relating to their trade, in which the instruction obtained in the courses is put into practical execution. These articles become the property of the school. They are examined and arranged according to order of merit by a jury composed of persons not connected with the school. The courses are alwaj's attended by as many workmen as can be accommodated. Their number in 1896 was 126. TBADE COTJE,SES MJ DECOIIATIVE PAINTING AND DRAWING, ATJDENABDE. In 1896 there was organized by the commune of Audenarde a course in drawing and painting as applied to the profession of interior deco- ration of buildings. This course is given on Sunday mornings from 9 to 12 and on Saturday afternoons from 5 to 7. Three j'ears are required to complete the course. A tuition fee of 1 franc a month is charged. TRADE COURSES IN DRAWING, HERVE. A course in drawing as applied to the building trades was organized at Herve in 1893. The complete course extends over 3 years of 9 months each. The instruction is given on Sunday mornings from 9 to 12. An average of 25 students is in attendance. In addition to these trade courses there are a number of courses in different cities in which commercial instruction is given. These, however, do not fall within the scope of the present report. ATTITUDE OF EMPLOYERS, GRADUATES OF TRADE AND TECHNICAL SCHOOLS, AND LABOR UNIONS TOWARD TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION. The following statements contain in condensed form the opinions of emplo3'ers, graduates of trade and technical schools, and officers of labor unions in Belgium in reference to trade and technical education. The statements wci-e made in response to inquiries in person by agents of the Department. TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION BELGIUM. 673 ATTITUDE OF EMPIiOYESS. FIREARMS MANUFACTURE. . A statement was received from a firearms manufacturer of Liege, who employs 400 men and boys, 3 of whom were graduates of the firearms school of that city. The reason that so few graduates are employed is because of the fact that the school, which is the first of its kind in Belgium, had been in operation only 3 years when the establishment was visited. The creation of the school, however, was due to the initiative of the Firearms Manufacturers' Association. The employer stated that he would prefer graduates as workmen; that such a training as could be received at the school was most needed by fitters and finishers, yet no position in the establishment could be filled without some previous training, and the training obtained in the school, he thought, would be preferable to that of the shop. He stated that the trade school furnished a more rapid and rational apprenticeship. Graduates would more easily find positions, would command better wages, and would advance more rapidly than other young men. The gun manufacturers think they have found, in the trade school, a means of supplying a better class of workmen. C4ARMENT MAKING. A firm of merchant tailors in Brussels assisted in the foundation and has conti'ibuted liberally to the support of the trade school of tailor- ing of that city. It urges young men wishing to become workmen in this industry to attend the trade school. Of the 40 men employed by them 30 are graduates of this school, hence it can readily be seen that the firm believes in trade education, as far as it relates to their industry. They stated that a trade-school education is most needed by cutters and,fitters. In their opinion in all the occupations relating to the industry, except that of machine workers, the school training may replace that of the shop. They said that better work had been done since they began to employ graduates of the trade school; that, in their opinion, the most important advantage of the trade school was that boys really worked at and learned the whole trade there, while in the shops they did little more than run errands; and that graduates more readily found positions, received better wages, and advanced more rapidly than young men who had no trade-school training. The great trouble has been to keep boys in the trade school long enough. As soon as they become able to do work some tailors ofl'er them wages and many leave the school. To prevent such desertions the firm thinks that employers should enter into closer relations with the school, have the students do work directly for them, and pay them in order to keep them in the school. 9257—02 43 674 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. METAL TRADES. For this group of industries statements were received from four establishments, in all of which graduates of trade or industrial-continu- ation schools were employed. The number of such employees varied greatly among the different establishments. Two establishments employed a considerable number of graduates from a genuine trade school where the metal and wood working trades are taught. Another establishment employed a few gi-aduates of either trade or industrial schools, among whom were 4 foremen. The fourth establishment reported that 55 per cent of its 150 employees had either attended or had been graduated from an industrial school. Three of the employers stated unqualifiedly that graduates of trade or industrial schools were preferred to those who had no such training, while the foui'th stated that he preferred graduates for certain classes of work. All the employers agreed that emploj'ees in certain occupa- tions were' materially benefited by a trade or industrial school train- ing. Such training was stated to be most necessary for blacksmiths, molders, core makers, turners, tracers, planers, fitters, patternmakers, countersinkers, sheet-iron workers, mounters, electricians, and drafts- men. The general opinion was that in nearly all occupations the school could not entirely replace shop training, but did render it easier, more rapid, and beneficial. One employer stated that for tracers, draftsmen, and electricians the school could entirely supplant shop training. The four employers were unanimous in stating that a trade or indus- trial school graduate could more readily find employment than one who had no such training, and that as a general rule he was able to command higher wages and advance more rapidlj-. In reference to this question one employer said: '' Graduates find it easier to obtain employ- ment, because the diploma of the trade school [of Ghent] is a certificate as to their knowledge, morality, and trade capacity. Whether the wages of such graduates are higher depends upon their personal worth, but their school training gives a certain extra value to their services." As to the practical benefits arising from the employment of grad- uates, one employer stated that better work was done in the mounting shop. Another, whose employees were to a large extent graduates of the industrial school of Jumet, stated that the work of those having diplomas in industrial and art designing is finer, more delicate, more artistic, and, above all, more precise than that done bj" others. Another employer said his establishment was benefited by the employment of trade-school graduates, because it could demand and obtain greater precision in the work of such employees. In speaking of the most important advantages which the workman derives from a trade or industrial school training, allowance must be made for the character of the institution. One employer, referring TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION BELGIUM. 675 more particularly to the industrial (continuation) schools, stated that the chief advantage is the development of a young man's intelligence so that he more readily comprehends the work and the foreman's explanations. Two employers spoke more particularly in regard to trade education, such as is to be obtained at the Ghent trade school. Their testimony was to the effect that the combination of theoretical and practical instruction given in trade schools forms intelligent work- men who are able to produce better work in the end than merely shop- trained men can produce. One employer explained, however, that this result was not altogether due to the influence of the school. It was due as much to the fact that it was only the sons of the better class of workmen, those in easier circumstances, who were permitted to attend such schools, and that the schools required a certain degree of previous instruction of those admitted. All four employers encourage attendance in the trade or industrial schools. One establishment requires j'oung graduates of the local trade school who enter its employ to attend the evening classes, and I'eserves a series of lathes for their use. These pupils are supervised and instructed by a competent foreman. One establishment reported that it maintains a school for future foremen of the mounting shop, but nothing was said as to its working. In regard to the manner in which the work of the trade and indus- trial schools may be improved, one employer suggested the extension of the manual work in the trade schools. An employer, in speaking of the industrial schools, recommended their impi'ovement by joining apprenticeship shops to them. He also suggested joint action of employers to protect the students of such schools and to give them the preference over others ; also the organization of excursions of study to the best establishments of foreign countries. PRINTING AND PUBLISHING. A printer and publisher who employed from 40 to 50 persons, among whom were 2 or 3 who had been graduated from the trade continuation school of printing of Brussels, said that graduates seeking emploj'- ment will be given the preference over others. The two emploj-ers' associations of the city of Brussels have taken a prominent part in the foundation and support of the school just mentioned because they believe a trade school is necessary to train boys in the finer branches of the trade. The employer .stated that while a trade-school training could be made to supplant that of the shop in some occupations, especially in composition, the system in vogue compelled students in the school to undergo a shop training equal to an apprenticeship. He said boys can learn all branches of the work at the trade school, instead of a specialty, and that graduates will obtain employment more easily and earn better wages than shop-trained boys. He encourages attendance on trade schools. 676 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OP LABOR. ATTITUDE OF GKADTIATES OF TRADE AND TECHNICAL SCHOOIiS. In a statement signed by the president and secretary of the alumni association of the industrial school of Seraing the claim is made that students who are diligent in their studies are much benefited by attending the industrial school. Such study enables the students to learn their trade more rapidly and gain a higher wage than otherwise. Moreover, if a graduate from the industrial school wishes to change his place of employment he can more readily find a position and at better wages than one who has no school experience. BLACKSMITHS. A blacksmith employed in a machinery manufacturing establish- ment, and who is a graduate of the trade school of Ghent, said that his school preparation reduced the time of apprenticeship considerably, although he had to continue shopwork for some time in order to become an accomplished workman. He said his trade-school training enabled him to find employment more readily, to earn better wages, and to advance more rapidly than others. He thinks it preferable to attend the trade school rather than to begin work in the shop with a simultaneous attendance on the evening courses. His reasons for so believing are that in the school the students, while becoming skillful in the use of tools, receive instruction in the theory of the work which can not be given in an industrial establishment, and that employers express their appreciation of this form of education by giving trade- school graduates the preference over other's. CARPENTERS. A carpenter who was graduated from an industrial school stated that since that time he had been able more readily to find positions, to secure a better class of work and higher wages, and to advance more rapidly than if he had not attended such a school. DESIGNERS, METAL TRADES. A designer in the metal industries, who formerly worked as a boiler- maker, said that since ho had attended an industrial school he was able to earn a better salary, to advance more rapidly, to find work more easily, and to obtain a better position than before. ELECTRICAL WORKERS. Two graduates engaged in electrical work on railroads returned answers to the schedule of questions. Both attended the same indus- trial school and left it the same year, 1897. One had learned the practical work of his profession before entering the school, in which he studied mechanics and similar branches, that is, the theory of the work. The other graduate had simultaneously learned the practical TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION — BELGIUM. 677 work in the shop and the theory in the evening classes of the indus- trial school. Both are of the opinion that a school training materially shortens the time necessary to become a good workman. In regard to the practical benefits arising from their school experience, one graduate said it had enabled him to find employment readily; one had found a better place than he could have found without the school training, and both were earning better wages and had advanced more rapidly. They hold the opinion that it is more advantageous to com- bine shop training with attendance at an industrial (evening) school than to learn the whole trade at a trade school, because the former training is more practical. One graduate made the point that the student meets cases in construction and repair work in the shops that can never be illustrated in a trade school. FITTBES, MACHINE SHOPS. Statements were received from three machine fitters, two of whom are graduates from industi'ial schools and one from the trade school of Ghent. The latter said the trade-school training had replaced a shop apprenticeship, but that it was necessary for him to spend some time in shopwork before he was regarded as a finished workman. In the case of industrial-school graduates, the question as to the extent to which the school replaces apprenticeship is in no case strictly applica- ble, because, as explained in another connection, the courses of instruc- tion followed in such schools do not comprehend instruction in manual work. As regards the benefits derived from their trade or technical school training, all three fitters replied that it had enabled them to find positions more readily; one had found a better place and at a better salary; while two had advanced more rapidly. There is some differ- ence of opinion as to whether it is better to attend a trade school in the first place, or to begin work in an establishment and supplement the knowledge there gained by attendance atan evening school. The two who had attended industrial (continuation) schools consider one plan as good as the other, but the trade-school graduate thinks the trade-school method is better than the shop training for turning out capable workmen. FOEEMEN, FOUNDEY AND ilACHINE SHOPS. Three foremen in foundries and machine shops returned answers to the schedule of questions. One was trained in a trade school, but did not report in what trade. The others were graduated from industrial evening schools. The trade-school graduate finished his apprentice- ship in the school, but stated that considerable time was spent in an establishment before he became an accomplished workman. One of the industrial-school graduates said his school experience greatly facilitated his shop training and shortened the time necessary for him 678 EEPOET OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOB. to learn his trade. All three had been able to find places of employ- ment more easily because of their school experience. They also reported that they had found better positions. In this connection one stated that he had been advanced from the position of planer to that of foreman directly after leaving the industrial school. His salary was 2. 80 francs (|0. 54) a day as a planer, while at present he said he was eai'ning 6 francs ($1.16) a day. The others report better wages as a result of their school training. All three had advanced more rapidlj' than they otherwise could. They are in favor of the genuine trade school as a factor in the training of future workmen, but while two believe the trade-school experience should precede that of the shop, one thinks a boy should first receive a complete primary educa- tion, to be followed directly by shopwork in order to become familiar with the work, after which he should attend the trade school. In that way he thinks a boy will more easily become a good workman. FOREMEN, PATTERN MAKERS. A foreman of pattern makers, who was graduated from an industrial school, said his school training enabled him more readily to obtain a position, and that his present position as foreman was received after he had obtained a diploma. His wages were thus increased and his advancement had been more rapid because of his school experience. FOREMEN, PRINTERS. A foreman in a large printing establishment of Brussels, who also occupies a position as teacher in the trade continuation school of print- ing of which he is a graduate, stated that the instruction received in the school aided, developed, and completed his trade knowledge. Instruction in that school is given in the evening, hence it is not intended to supplant the apprenticeship. In fact, the students must work in printing establishments during the day as apprentices. At the end of 5 years if they successfully pass the required examina- tion they are entitled to journeymen's wages. He believes that his present occupation as foreman and his position as teacher are due to the school training. He thinks the best results are obtained from combining regular work in an establishment (apprenticeship) with night attendance at a trade school. FOREMEN, RAILROAD. A foreman in the workshops of the State railroad considers his advancement due to the course taken in an industrial school. When he entered the school he was working as a fitter on the same railroad, but was promoted on leaving the school in 1892. He believes the course in the industrial school helped to develop him into a finished workman. As to the financial benefit arising from his school experi- ence, he mentioned that his present salary is 180 francs (f34.74) a TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION — BELGIUM. 679 month, whereas if he had remained a fitter he would be able to earn only from 90 to 110 francs ($17.37 to $21.23) a month. GARMENT CUTTERS. Two cutters of tailor-made clothing had attended the trade school of tailoring at Brussels. One reported that the school had in his case taken the place of an apprenticeship, and that on leaving school he could cut clothing. The other stated that foj" certain reasons he had not wholly learned the trade in the school. Their testimony is to the effect that graduates from the school are better educated and more thor- oughlj^ instructed and are more competent workmen than others, and that they thus have an advantage over shop-trained workmen in respect to wages, position, etc. They believe the school method of learning the tailoring trade is much better than a shop apprenticeship. Regard- ing this one cutter said: "At the school one learns how to do the work and why it is necessary to do it according to a certain method in order to obtain good results." GUNSMITHS. An employee in an establishment engaged in the manufacture of firearms said the instruction he received in the firearms ti-ade school of Liege had taken the place of an apprenticeship. He had found employment immediately after leaving the school, and was gaining better wages and would be able to advance more rapidly by reason of his trade-school instruction. He said the school method is more advantageous and rapid than that of the shop, and that attendance in the trade school does not deter one from attending the technical courses of the industrial school at night. JOINERS. Two joiners, one of whom is a foreman, returned answers to the schedule of inquiries. The foreman had been graduated from the indus- trial school at Morlanwelz. He said the instruction there received had enabled him more readily to obtain employment, to gain better wages, and to advance more rapidly than if he had not taken the course. He stated that he had no knowledge of trade schools except that gained from graduates he had known, but be thought that the manner of learning the trade was no better than learning it under a master joiner of a village and then attending an industrial school. He believes the latter plan produces as good workmen as the trade school. The joiner had been graduated from the Ghent trade school, in which the instruction is intended to replace apprenticeship. He does not see that his trade-school education has given him much advantage over shop-trained workmen. The wages, positions, and chances for advancement are about the same for both classes. He thinks the trade (380 EEPOET OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. school offers better opportunities for acquiring a technical knowledge, especial]}^ in the metal trades, than does apprenticeship in the shops. MACHINISTS. Two machinists and a foreman of machinists i-eported that they were graduated from different industrial schools. While these schools do not attempt to replace the apprenticeship, one machinist stated that his time of apprenticeship had been shortened by his attendance at the school. Another stated that while he knew the practical part of his trade before entering the school, he was deficient in theoretical knowledge. One machinist had derived no benefit as far as wages, position, and advancement are concerned, but the other machinist and the foreman answered that they had been benefited in these matters because of their school training. All three believe it is advantageous to attend a trade school before entering an establishment. MECHANICAL DRAFTSMEN. Two draftsmen who had been graduated from industrial schools stated that while in their occupation the industrial school can not entirely replace shop training, it can more; nearly do so than in most others. They had both been enabled by the knowledge gained at the schools to find positions more readily, to secure better positions, to earn higher wages, and to advance more rapidly than otherwise. One believes it advantageous to attend a trade school before beginning work in an establishment, while the other thinks it preferable to begin work in an establishment and at the same time attend an indus- trial school. MINE BOSSES. Three mine bosses who had been graduated from industrial schools reported that they had been enabled, because of the instruction therein received, to find employment more easily, to obtain better positions, to gain better wages, and to advance more rapidly in position. Two reported that the technical instruction in the school had been benefi- cial, as it enabled them to gain a more thorough knowledge of their work. PAINTEES ON ENAMEL. A painter on enamel stated that while the technical instruction he received in an industrial school had helped him very much and had complemented his shop training, he did not think the industrial or trade schools indispensable institutions for the ordinary workman, because the employer usually cares more for the quantity than the quality of work. ' He added, however, that he had been benefited in position and wages and had advanced more rapidly by reason of such instruction. TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION BELGIUM. 681 SPINNERS, COTTON. A cotton spinner who was graduated from the Ghent industrial school stated that in general employers prefer those who have received a technical instruction, and that graduates are taken in preference to others for positions as overseer, etc. He further stated that in the weaving industry the industrial school is indispensable if one wishes to become an overseer, a director of an establishment, etc. TAILOES. Three graduates from the trade school of tailoring at Brussels returned answers to the schedule. One works as a journej^man and is also an instructor in the trade school from which he was graduated. The other two are owners of small merchant-tailoring establishments. None of them regards the trade-school training as a complete appren- ticeship, because after leaving the school some time in the shop is necessary to form a complete workman. One said it takes about ten years to produce a good journeyman tailor. In answer to a question whether the trade-school training had enabled them to find employ- ment more readily, to improve their position, to gain better wages, or to advance more rapidly, two answered affirmativelj^, and one said that he did not think the school training had helped him much. All three are in favor of beginning in a trade school. One thinks the student can do well enough in the school for two or three years, but should then go to work in a shop, as there the work is much different from that done in the school. The other two are more strongly in favor of the school. The journeyman, who is also a teacher, believes in the school because of the combination of theoretical instruction and prac- tical work to be found there. He adds that if theory is not learned in connection with practice the student will often fail to gain a sufficiently comprehensive knowledge. TURNERS, IRON. An iron turner who was graduated from the Ghent trade school stated that in his case the school training replaced the apprenticeship, but such was not the case with most of his fellow-students. By way of explanation he said that one who had not received a sufficient primary school education could not profitably follow the instruction given in the trade school. He had not secured a better position nor obtained emploj'^ment more readily because of his trade preparation. In regard to wages he stated that boys on being graduated receive less pay than other workmen who do the same work. He had been advanced more rapidly, however. He believes it is better to learn the trade in a trade school than to start directly in the shops and attend a night school. 682 KEPOET OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOB. ATTITUDE OF LABOR UNIONS. METAL ^VOEKERS. A statement was received from the secretar}^ of a metal workers' union of Ghent. Included in the membership of the union are 80 graduates from the metal-working branch of the trade school of that city. The secretary stated that it can not be denied that employers prefer workmen who have a trade-school education, and that some establishments make an effort to secure such workmen, but do not pay them according to their merits. He had no knowledge of any case where a formal apprenticeship is now requii'ed in the industry. Speaking more particularly with regard to the Ghent ti-ade school, he said that a school training can replace that of the establishment to a great extent, especially in forge work, although it can not do so completely because of the many systems of machinery and mechanical constructions produced in the city and about which the student learns nothing in the school. Pi'oof of any great difference between the results of employing the shop and the school trained workmen has not as j'et been produced, but there is less trouble in starting the ti-ade-school graduate to work than there is with the so-called apprentice. Relative to this, however, the secretary stated that as both classes receive practically the same wages at 17 or 18 j^ears of age, he concludes their capacity is about the same. He said that better foremen can be produced from the school gi-aduates, however, because of their superior knowledge of the technical part of the work. According to the secretary, the man who has a trade-school education can more readily obtain employment and advance more rapidly than one who has not. Regarding the principal advantages of a trade school, he said it enables boys to become good pattern makers, molders, metal turners, fitters, and blacksmiths; that in its workshops they learn the trade better and more easily than in the establishment; that a more complete knowledge of the trade is gained in the school, because it teaches all the operations; and that the continuation courses (evening and Sunday) are of great service in developing as planers, drillers, mortisers, etc. , persons employed as laborers and apprentices. The trade school is of great advantage to the employer because its stu- dents are further advanced according to the workmen's rules than are other young men of the same age. The union, the secretary staffed, encourages its members to educate themselves. It has a library containing works in reference to the trades. Each year new books are purchased for the use of the mem- bers. He suggested that the work of the trade schools could be much improved by adding another year or more (in the case of the Ghent TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION BELGIUM. 683 school) to the courses of instruction and by paying the students some- thing for their work, thereby satisfying the parents and arousing a proper spirit in the students. He believes the payment of a salarj' to the student for work done in the school would develop in him the idea of conserving the employer's interests and consequently his own. He thinks emplo3'ers should require their mechanics to attend trade schools. PRINTERS. A prominent member of the Compositors' and Pressmen's Associa- tion of Brussels, who holds an official position in this and a number of subsidiary organizations, considers the trade and industrial schools useful and necessary from the workmen's standpoint, because, he said, at this time when machine methods are invading all industries, when the large industries are constantl}^ developing and crowding out the small establishments, it is very difficult for a young man to become a good workman if he has not attended an industrial or trade school. Speaking of conditions in general, he said that in most trades not enough attention is given to the apprentice. His employer often does not endeavor to instruct him in the rules or the necessar}" details. It is generally in a spirit of speculation that the apprentice is engaged, and not with a view of teaching him the trade. Hence, he is usually kept on some special branch of the trade during most of his appren- ticeship, and when his time is served he is still an ignorant and unskill- ful workman so far as the other branches of the trade are concerned. This, he said, is particularly true in the printing industry, where one can see some unscrupulous employers filling their establishments with boys without having determined whether they possess the necessary aptitude and degree of instruction to become good workmen. Such bo~ys are kept on rudimentary work and are required to produce all that is possible. Their trade education is wholly neglected, and on reaching the age of manhood they are incompetent and shiftless and render the struggle for the betterment of conditions of labor more and more difficult. It is the aim of the trade and industrial schools to remedy such con- ditions. The association, the secretary said, took a prominent part in the foundation of the trade school of printing at Brussels for the purpose of bettering conditions in the printing industry. It entered into relations with the employers whereby both sides receive equal representation on the administrative commission and pay an equal sum in support of the school. The limitation of the apprenticeship is gov- erned by an agreement which is also a part of the organic law of the school. The agreement is to the effect that all apprentices admitted into the establishments of the employers who adhere to the school shall be at least 14 years of age and must regularly attend the school. The 684 KEPOKT OF THE COMMISSIONED OF LABOR. number of apprentices is limited so that establishments employing from 1 to 6 workmen are allowed 2 apprentices, those employing Y to 14 workmen may have 3, and those employing 15 to 25 workmen may employ 4 apprentices. One extra apprentice is allowed for every 10 workmen in excess of 25. In arriving at these figures press hands are not counted. CHAPTBll V. TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN CANADA. 685 CHAPTER V. TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN CANADA. In Canada not much has yet been done in the way of strictly trade education. The Ontario government has a flourishing agricultural college and experimental farm at Guelph, which has been in successful operation since 1874. In connection with this is a dairy school, and other dairy schools are conducted at Strothroj^ and at Kingston. Of schools of industrial art there are 7 in the province of Quebec and 6 in the Province of Ontario, all receiving government support. At Toronto is a free evening technical school supported by the citj', which has been very successful. A watch- repairing school under pri- vate auspices completes the list of Canadian industrial schools, the School of Practical Science of Toronto being of collegiate rank and above the scope of this report. A description of the foregoing individual schools follows: OITTAIIIO AGS,ICirL.TXrEAI, COLLEGE AND SXPEKIMENTAL FASM, GUELPH, OlSTTASIO. This institution was established in the year 1874, and is situated about one and one- fourth miles from the city of Guelph. It is a well- equipped agricultural college and offers instruction in all the subjects usual in such a school. Only the courses in dairying come within the scope of this inquiiy. This department is fully equipped for giving instruction in milk testing, butter making, cheese making, the running of cream separa.- tors, handling of milk, treatment of cream, pasteurization of milk, and feeding and management of dairy cows. In fact, nothing is lacking that is necessary to give the broadest and most thorough training in every branch of the dairy business on a large scale suited to factor}^ and creamery men, and on a small scale adapted to the circumstances of those who have to handle milk and cream and make butter on the farm. There is a special short course given during the month of December to meet the needs of pupils who expect to engage at once as butter makers. This course embraces instruction in the running of cream separators of different makes, the pasteurization of whole milk and cream, care and ripening of pasteurized and raw cream, use of acid test for cream, running of box churns, the combined churn and worker and the Mason worker, the preparation of butter for local and export markets, and other work of a practical character; also instruction in the testing of milk with the Babcock tester and the lactometer, in the 687 688 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. use of the oil-test churn, in composite sampling, and in the making up of factory accounts, so that the students may have a thorough knowl- edge of how to ran a creamery properly. There are no examinations, and no certilicates are given in this special course. There are two factory courses, one of three weeks and another of six weeks' duration. These courses provide theoretical and practical instruction in cheese making and the curing of cheese, butter making (both separator and cream-gathering plans), and the preparation of butter for market; milk testing with the Babcock tester, lactometer, and oil-test churn, and pasteurizing whole milk and cream. They also include fermentation tests, the use of starters, dairy bacteriology, agriculture in relation to dairying, the factory records and accounts, etc. Discussions on practical dairy topics, led by one of the instructors, are held four afternoons in each week. These discussions last for one hour, and are of much value to students. Experts are brought to the school from time to time to give lessons in the judging of cheese and butter. Special instruction is given in the care and running of boil- ers and engines. There is also practice in pipe fitting, repairing valves, etc. The Ontario government conducts dairy schools at Strothroy and Kingston, No information is at hand for these schools further than that it is stated that the courses are substantially the same as those at Guelph. SCHOOIiS OF ART AND MANTJFACTTJIIES, PROVINCE OF QUEBEC. The establishment of these schools was brought about by the manu- facturing interests of the Province. They were organized by act of legislature in 1872. Previous to this date no instruction in draw- iiig or industrial courses was provided. The seven schools are located in the following places: Montreal, Quebec, Levis, Sherbrooke, Sorel, Three Rivers, and St. Hyacinthe. The schools are under the management of the Council of Arts and Manufactures, composed of 17 members appointed by the lieutenant- governor. The commissioner of agriculture and colonization, the provincial secretary, and the superintendent of public instruction are ex ofiicio members of the council. The powers and duties of the council are as follows: To take measures to collect and establish at Montreal and elsewhere, for the instruction of practical mechanics and manufacturers, muse- ums of minerals and other materials, substances, and chemical compo- sitions susceptible of being used in mechanical arts and manufactures, with model rooms appropriately stocked and supplied with models of works of art, implements, mechanisms and machines of any kind (except those adapted to facilitate agricultural operations), and free libraries containing books of reference, plans, and drawings, calculated to impart useful information in connection with mechanical arts and TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION — CANADA. 689 tnanufactures; to take measures to obtain from foreign countries new or improved implements and machines, and test the quality, value, and usefulness of the same; to make rules and regulations for the establishment, management, administration, and carrying on of a system of instruction in drawing in all its branches in the schools under the control of school commissioners and trustees, etc., and generally to adopt every means in its power to promote improvement in the mechanical arts and manufactures in the Province. These schools are chiefly intended to afford instruction in drawing and its useful application in industrial pursuits, more especially for artisans and apprentices. The aim is to make the instruction as prac- tical as possible, that the pupils may profitably apply the knowledge gained to the various trades and branches of industry in which they are engaged. The following statement shows the number of classes, number of pupils, average attendance, and the number of teachers duiing the school year 1898-99: NUMBER OP PUPILS AND TEACHERS AND AVERAGE ATTENDANCE OP ART AND MANUFACTURES, 1898-99. OP SEVEN SCHOOLS School. Number of classes. Number of teachers. Number of pupils. Average at- tendance. 12 7 7 2 1 1 1 16 7 5 2 1 1 1 463 244 279 54 34 69 24 287 Quebec . . 126 126 Sherbrooke . 29 gorel 11 Three Rivers 24 3 Total 31 33 1,167 612 As will be seen by the above table, the Montreal school is by far the largest and most important. The schools are maintained by a government grant of f 13, 000. Of this amount the school at Montreal utilized $6,000, or nearly one-half of the total grant. The following table shows the classes taught in each of the seven schools during the year: SCHOOLS IN WHICH CLASSES IN EACH SPECIFIED SUB.JECT ARE TAUGHT. class. Schools having such class. Free-hand Free-hand, senior Decorative painting Architecture Mechanical Lithography Boot and shoe Modeling stair building Plumbing ■: Ladies' dress cutting and making Lectures Practical geometry Linear drawing Montreal, Quebec, Levis, Three Rivers, Sorel. Montreal, Quebec, Levis. Montreal. Montreal, Quebec, Levis, St. Hyacinthe. Montreal, Quebec, Levis, Sherbrooke, St. Hyacinthe. Montreal. Montreal, Quebec. Montreal, Quebec. Levis. Montreal, Quebec. Montreal, Quebec. Montreal. Levis. Levis, Sherbrooke. Three Rivers, Sorel. 9257—02- -44 690 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. The drawing classes are not intended to make expert draftsmen, but to provide mechanics with an opportunity of obtaining a knowledge of drawing which will be of assistance in their trades. The mechanical drawing classes are for those who.JoUow mechanical pursuits. Apprentices and others employed in the different depart- ments of machine building find the instruction offered in these classes of great value. The aiiia is to make the instruction of a thoroughly practical character and to enable the mechanic readily to make and read such drawings as generallj' come before him in his trade. Fig- ured sketches and blue prints of familiar details of machine designs are used. These the pupils are required to copy, enlarge, reduce, etc. , or, as progress is made, from a series of sketches of parts to assemble into general drawings the completed machines. The architectural drawing classes are intended for carpenters, plas- terers, tinsmiths, roofers, etc., and the insti'uction is adapted as far as possible to the requirements of the pupil. Exercises are given in geometry and projection, and pupils are taught the details of framing, plan, and elevations of buildings and the preparation of working drawings. The object of the class in stair building and building construction is to enable carpenters, builders, and others to make tracings and drawings of stairs and other work and to execute the same in the class rooms, special attention being given to stair building. Tools and materials are provided for this purpose. Lessons. and explanations are given in regard to matters relating to the construction of buildings. The classes in plumbing are arranged for apprentices, journeymen, and foremen engaged in any of the branches of plumbing. The class rooms are equipped for both class and individual work, each pupil having a gas furnace for melting solder and a drawer for holding tools. Instruction is given in lead bossing, pipe bending, soldering and wiping joints, lead burning, water-closets, preventor?, baths, lava- tories and sinks, traps, soil pipes and drains, sizes of pipes, etc., water supply, house cisterns, the use of tools, etc. The lithographic class is to afford apprentices and workmen in estab- lishments where lithographic and similar work is done an opportunity to gain instruction and to practice work which they are not permitted to do in the places where they are regularly employed. The instruction commences with the preparation of the lithographic stone for work and proceeds by regular steps till the pupil is able to finish a drawing on the stone ready for the press. The class is open to- all who are sufficiently advanced in drawing to enable them to pur- sue the work with advantage, the stones and other materials required being furnished free of cost to the student. The pattern-making classes for boot and shoe makers are for the purpose of giving practical training in the making of patterns of boots TKADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION- — CANADA. 691 and shoes of all descriptions and also to give instruction in regard to the materials used in making the same. The course is especially arranged for persons employed in the cutting departments in boot and shoe making establishments. Pupils are required to fit and adjust patterns to the last. Each pupil is supposed to have provided himself with necessary tools. In some of the schools a small entrance fee of |1 is required, but this is returned at the end of the session to those who have not been absent more than four times. Four of the schools, viz, those at Montreal, Quebec, Levis, and Sherbrooke, are in a very promising condition. They are well attended and are attaining the end for which they were established. But the remaining three — Sorel, Three Elvers, and St. Hyacinthe — are not progressing so rapidly and are in general not so satisfactory. This is largely due to a lack of interest manifested by the inhabitants of those cities. CENTRAL ONTARIO SCHOOL OF ART AND INDUSTRIAL DESIGN, TORONTO, ONTARIO. This institution was established in 1890, as the successor of the Toronto Art School, under which name it was founded in 1876. There are 6 instructors, and the course of instruction is as follows: Primary course: Free-hand drawing, perspective, model drawing, memory draw- ing, practical geometry. Advanced course: Shading from flat examples, drawing from natural objects, out- line drawing from the round, shading from the round, industrial design. Mechanical course: Projection and descriptive geometry, machine drawing, build- ing construction, architectural design, advanced perspective. Industrial art course: Wood carving, lithography, wood engraving, modeling in clay. Special subjects: Painting in oil and water colors, painting and drawing from life models, embossed leather ivork. The following occupations were represented in the student body last session: Photographers, 2; lithographers, 42; designers, 5; engrav- ers, 7; draftsmen, 6; clerks, 10; school teachers, 18; machinists, 4; printers, 2; bookkeepers, 4; wood carvers, 2; illustrators, 7; glass stainers, 2; bookbinders, 3; architects, 2; photo-engravers, 5; stone- cutters, 3; jewelers, 3; decorators, 5; students, 27; sign writers, 2. From the financial statement issued by the secretarj' M.Siy 15, 1900, it appears that the school received a grant from the government of $540, a citj"- grant of $750, and the income from tuition fees amounted to $1,816.50, making a total of $3,106.50 available for operating and maintaining expenses. It is said that the total amount of grants from the city and from the government during the first eight years averaged less than $1,000 per annum. As there were about 160 students reported the last year, this 692 EEPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OE LABOK. gives an average of about $6.25 of public money per pupil expended by the government per annum. There is hardly an engraver, lithographer, or artist in the city of Toronto who has not at some time attended classes connected with the school. The school year begins in October and closes in April, and is com- posed of three terms of ten weeks each. The attendance for the year covered by this report was as follows: The total number of students attending during the first term was 110; of these 43 were females and 67 males. During the second term the total number was 127, of which 53 were females and 74 males. During the third term there was a total of 133, of which 66 were females and 67 males. The cl&,ss rooms are open daily from 9.30 a. m. to 4.30 p. m. Besides the regular day classes there are evening classes which, though open to all, are particularly intended for those employed dur- ing the daJ^ The work in this school is especially adapted to those whose busi- ness requires a knowledge of art, as prominence is given to design for various industrial purposes. The wood-carving class is conducted on the same lines as the School of Art and Carving, South Kensington. Modeling in clay is given special attention. The school has made great progress and the attendance has steadily increased. Many of those who have attended the school are now occupying good positions in Canada and the United States, and many prominent artists and designers were at one time in attendance at these classes. SCHOOI.S OF ART, PSOVINCE OF ONTABIO. Besides the Central Ontario School of Art and Industrial Design, details relative to which have been given, there are five other art schools in the Province which are supported partlj^ by government grants. These schools are attended by representati^'es of various trades and professions, and are located at Hamilton, Kingston, London, Ottawa, and St. Thomas. Full information regarding these schools is not at hand, but some little idea as to their scope andl character may be gained from the following extracts taken from the report of the minister of education of Ontario for the year 1899: The i:eport of the Hamilton Art School for the year ending the 30th of April, 1899, shows that 198 students took the regular course of study during the year. The total number of attendance registered is 8,249. In addition to the instruction given in all grades to students resid- ing in the city of Hamilton, students from six other towns in the TEADB AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION — CANADA. 693 Province participated in the advantages derived from the Hamilton Art School. • As the fee of |3.50 for 20 lessons was thought to be more than apprentices and young people could afford to pay, the directors de- cided to reduce the amount to $1 for 20 lessons. The result was an increased attendance, and, although there was a slight decrease of income, the benefit derived by the students more than counterbalanced the pecuniary l:;ss. The equipment of the school has been increased to meet its require- ments during the j^ear. The receipts, including the government grant, were $2,958.72; expenditures, $2,953.72. The report of the Kingston Art School for the year ending April 30, 1899, shows that the school was removed, to a more commodious and central. position since the last report. The new rooms are furnished with modern appliances, which has been the means of increasing the attendance to 40 students in the day classes and 20 students in the evening classes. In addition to the four courses prescribed by the education depart- ment, painting in oil and water colors is taught. The receipts, including the government grant, were 1626.20; expend- itures, 1626.20. The report of the London Art School for the year ending April 30, 1899, shows a decrease in the number of students. The report shows 53 students in the primary course, 23 in the advanced course^ and 17 in the mechanical course. The receipts, including the government grant, were $972.14; expend- itures, $969.96. The report of the Ottawa Art School for the year ending April 30, 1899, shows that for the purpose of teaching decorative design the directors engaged, at considerable expense, a special instructor, certi- fied by the New York School of Applied Design for Women, whose work they say has been of a highly satisfactory character. The report shows 37 students in the primary course, 26 in the advanced course, 12 in the mechanical course, 3 in the industrial art course, and 18 in oil and water-color painting. The receipts, including the government grant, were $1,813.70; expenditures, $1,529.50. The report for the St. Thomas Art School for the year ending April 30, 1899, shows that 27 students attended the primary course, 29 the advanced coursej 30 the mechanical course, and 16 the industrial art course. TORONTO TECHNICAL SCHOOL, TORONTO, ONTARIO. This is a free evening technical school, the first of its kind estab- lished in the Dominion of Canada. Its purpose is to impart practical and scientific instruction to the artisan and working classes. The institution was opened January 25, 1892. The school is entirely free, there being no fee or charge of any kind. The session lasts about seven months, and the daily hours are from 7.45 to 10 p. m., five days in the week. 694 BEPOET OF THE COMMISSIONEK OF LABOR. All applicants for admission must be at least 15 j'ears of age and possess a working knowledge of reading, orthography, penmanship, and composition. At the beginning of the session all new pupils are examined and graded in mathematical subjects, and only such of them as are found capable of taking up the work advantageously to themselves are per- mitted to enter classes in the science departme_^nts. The curriculum, which embraces practical and theoretical instruc- tion in physics, mechanics, chemistry, domestic science, geology, mineralogy and metallurgy, machine construction and drawing, building construction and drawing, geometrical drawing of the vari- ous kinds, industrial art (including drawing, designing, and modeling), electricity, and steam and gas engines, is so arranged as to be -divided into five regular departments and four special courses. The departments comprise physical science, machine construction, architecture and building construction, chemistry, and industrial design. The special courses give instruction in domestic science; miner- s^ogy? geology, and metallurgy; electricity, steam and gas engines; claj' modeling and historical ornament. The work in each of the regular departments of study requires about three years for its completion, and all students are stronglj'^ advised to take up the full work of some one department and pursue it to completion. The course in industrial design is as follows: First year: Free-hand drawing — Drawing in outline from the flat, from groups of geometrical solids, from objects, memory drawing. Industrial design — Geometrical and free-hand designing in flat outline, historical ornament (ancient) . Mechanical drawing — Elementary perspective, practical geometry. Mathematics — Mensuration, (first year), Euclid, book 1 (one term only). Second year: Free-hand drawing — Drawing in light and shade from the flat and model, from groups of geometrical solids, from ornamental casts, from objects, memory drawing. Industrial design — Designing from plant forme in outline (flat), elementary color (flat), historical orna,ment (medieval). Third year: Free-hand drawing — Continuation of work of second year, drawing in monochrome, memory drawing. Industrial design — Plastic design, historical orna- ment (modern), history of design, clay modeling. Work in the special courses is intended largely to supplement the work done in the regular course, but it is of a much more practical nature. The aim of the course in clajj^ modeling and historical ornament is to give artistic training specially suited to the wants of artisans and designers in terra cotta, stone, wood, and those lines of manufactured goods where modern ornament is applicable. The student advances to the principles of form and proportion involved in designs of various kinds, and the adaptation of modeling designs to diilerent classes of TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION — CANADA. 695 work, and instruction and practice are given in the making of molds and the finishing of casts. The model room is capable of accommo- dating about 15 pupils at one time, and the storeroom is supplied with a large number of selected and appropriate models. An abundance of well-prepared material is always on hand and the modeling and cast making are done in separate rooms, both plaster and gelatin being employed in the processes. The modeling room is at all times open for either instruction or practice, but all casting, and mold making is required to be done under direct supervision- of the instructor. This course is especially suited to those who have completed the work either in architecture and building construction or industrial design, but it is open to those who take lectures in historical ornament of the first and second years in the department of industrial design. All drawings and models made by students while pursuing studies in either the regular or special courses are required to be handed in before the close of the session for examination and comparison, or for exhibition, should they prove worthy. These are afterwards returned to the student and become his personal property, the board reserving the right to retain one drawing and one model made by each pupil. The school is under the control of a board of management consisting of the mayor of the city of Toronto and representatives of the city council, Trades and Labor Council, Society of Stationary Engineers, Architects' Association of Ontario, manufacturers, and educationalists. The faculty is composed of 13 instructors, 5 of whom are graduates of Toronto University, 3 of the Toronto School of Practical Science, 1 of the University of Belfast, Ireland, and 1 of, the science and art department of Kensington Technical School, Southampton, England, while 3 are holders of certificates of proficiency from local schools. Besides being holders of degrees in science, 3 of the teachers hold degrees in medicine and are licensed practitioners. Regular courses of studj^ have been instituted during the last five years only, and it requires from three to five j^ears to complete one of the coui'ses, so there have as yet been but 9 graduates. The enroll- ment for a recent year reached more than 1,100. They were registered in the different departments as follows: Regular courses — Physical science 243 Maciiine construction. 171 Architecture and building construction 90 Chemistry 86 Free-hand drawing, design, etc .-. 148 Special courses — ■ Domestic science 3"5 Mineralogy, geology, and metallurgy 23 Electricity, and steam and gas engines - 51 696 KEPOET OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOK. Up to the present "time the school has occupied a building rented at $1,000 per annum, but a building of its own is just being completed which will, when completed, cost 175,000, including furniture and fixtures. The institution is equipped with scientific apparatus which cost about 16,500, -while the cost of maintaining the school, including rent, insur- ance, and annual expenditure for apparatus has ranged from $9,000 to $11,000 per annum. The combined salaries of the faculty are less than $7,000 per year. These funds are supplied wholly by the municipality of Toronto. The institution can not be said to have particularly benefited any one industry, but it has served to increase the intelligence and scien- tific skill of many hundreds of citizens, and has thus indirectly benefited all manufacturing industries. There have been a great many cases where wages of students attend- ing this school have been doubled as a consequence of increased e&- ciency, and, true to the object of its establishment, the institution is endeavoring to promote a knowledge of scientific facts and principles among artisans and working people, and is trying in every way to fur- ther the development of industrial pursuits. . The Trades and Labor Council has done a great deal toward advanc- ing the interests of the institution. Out of the 21 members of the board of management 15 are representatives of various labor organiza- tions, and the labor bodies of the community have in every possible way given the school moral support and endeavored to promote its wel- fare. Labor unions have in no way opposed the institution. Its graduates are preferred by employers over merely shop-trained apprentices, and it is felt that the institution has given general satis- faction to all pei'sons concerned, and is attaining the end for which it was established. CANADIAN HOBOLOGICAL INSTITUTE, TORONTO, ONTARIO. This institution is devoted exclusively to the study of watch repair- ing. It was established in 1890. The curriculum presents three courses of study — a full course, an intermediate course, and an improver's course. The full course is for those without experience. It includes con- struction of a limited number of small special tools, the thorough repair and alteration of all kinds of watches and clocks, and the construction from solid material, after the pupil's own design and calculation, of a high-grade watch with lever or chronometer escapement. It requires two years to complete this course, and persons without previous expe- rience are not permitted to enter it for a shorter period. TBADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION — CANADA. 697 The intermediate course is for young men who have had several years' experience at the trade. It covers a period of a full school year of eleven months, and includes the construction of a few small tools and repairing of watches. Where the ability, aptitude, and inclination of the student warrant it, the finishing up of a lever watch movement from the rough is added. In such cases the parts of the movement are made but are not fitted or finished. - This is next to maldng a watch and is so considered in a great many schools. But if, instead of finishing a watch as above described, the pupil should prefer, he may finish up an escapement model and a micrometer gauge from the rough. The improver's course is for workmen who have completed an apprenticeship. It embraces the construction of a fcAV special tools and the thorough repair of watches from barrel to balance. This course covers a period of six months. Besides an average of thirty-eight hours per week devoted to prac- tical work at the bench by each pupil, all pupils are required to devote three hours per week to lectures upon the naturar laws governing timekeeping mechanisms; their intelligent application in practice; the accurate calculations required for all kinds of gears and escapements; the calculations for the caliber of watches, chronometers, and clocks, and an average of four and one-half hours per week to the subject of drafting. The tuition fee for the full course is $165 per year where the student furnishes his own lathe, and $180 when the lathe is provided by the school. Tuition is the same for the intermediate course, but for the six months improver's course the fee is $100 where the student fur- nishes the lathe and $110 if it is furnished by the school. The institution is under the management of a dii'ector, who is the only instructor. He received his training as a jDractical workman in the shop, and is self-taught in the scientific branches. From 15 to 20 pupils are in attendance, and out of the 172 persons who have matriculated during the ten years or more of the school's existence but 16 have been graduated. The equipment of the building, which is rented at an annual rental of $400, cost about $8,000. The cost of maintaining is $2,600 per annum. These funds are derived from tuition fees and receipts from repair work. It is claimed that those who attend the school learn the trade in a shorter time than is required in the old-line apprenticeship system, and its graduates find greater pleasure in their work, their salaries are higher, and their advancement more rapid in every way. The gradu- ates are now preferred over merely shop-trained apprentices, though they were at first viewed with suspicion. 698 KEPOET OF THE C0MMI8S10NEK OF LABOB. ATTITUDE OF EMPIiOYEKS AND LABOH UNIONS TOWARD TRADE AND TECHNICAI. EDUCATION. Two statements have been received from Canadian establishments, one of which is from the manager of a cotton factory and the other from the manager of a carpet factory. While the report from the latter source is the only one answered in detail, j'et the statement furnished by the former, being based upon an experience of twenty- eight years in the textile industry, is worthy of consideration in this connection. The statement of the manager of the carpet factory is substantially as follows: We have three men in our designing room, two of whom are gradu- ates of the leading English schools of art and design, and one from the Central Ontario School of Industrial Art and Applied Design, at Toronto, Canada. The special education of these men nas undoubtedly helped to improve the general character and quality of our product. The remuneration they receive is equal to that of our foremen. Both design and good workmanship are essential to success in this business. While further provision for technical schools and schools of design would undoubtedly be a great benefit to our industry at large, still the lack of such provision would affect us only to the extent of the incon- venience incurred by being obliged to procure educated workmen from abroad. If we could have schools that would qualify pupils in textile skill, a very considerable advantage would be gained by all branches of the industry. We always give preference to graduates of technical schools. To be a successful weaver a knowledge of fibers and iilaments is necessary, as well as a knowledge of loom construction. In like manner a dyer must have a practical knowledge of physics and chemistry. It is the lack of this technical knowledge among factory employees that keeps them at the same occupation from one generation to another, and we have ourselves to blame for not advancing in the arts and sciences. The statement of the manager of the cotton factory is as follows: During the twenty-eight years that I have had the management of cotton factories I have never found any benefit from employing fore- men who had been educated in technical schools. A good foreman is improved by taking a course in a technical school, but he must be a good foreman first. The theoretical instruction given in such schools is beneficial in so far as it enlarges the scope of the student's knowledge. Textile schools are only of benefit when used for the purpose of improv- ing and not for making mechanics or foremen. The only technical school I know of in this section has been the subject of many unfa- vorable criticisms from manufacturers because of the foolish notion that the graduates have regarding their ability. After spending a few years in the school these young men imagine that thej' are competent engineers, although they have never worked a day in a shop, and con- sequently know nothing about the routine of shop work, or everyday practice. I am strongly of the opinion that no young man should be admitted into the mechanical department of a textile or technical school until he has first served an apprenticeship in some shop. In the manufacture of cotton goods the dyers and finishers are the workmen who would be most benefited by technical training. But in all large TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION CANADA. 699 concerns it is customary to employ a trained chemist, who usually sup- plies the technical knowledge required by the foreman, who in turn simply Cannes out his instructions. The attitude of the labor unions in the Dominion of Canada on the subject of industrial, trade, and technical education is shown by the following resolution, which was adopted in September, 1900, by the Trades and Labor Council of the city of Toronto and approved by the Trades and Labor Congress of Canada: "Whereas the Toronto Trades and Labor Council, composed of delegates representing 50 organizations of the various trades and call- ings of the city of Toronto, and the Trades and Labor Congress of Canada, representing the workers in general of the whole Dominion, have always supported and are in favor of technical schools, the pur- pose of which is the training and education of artisans, mechanics, and wage-workers generally in such subjects as will promote a technical knowledge of mechanical and manufacturing arts, and affording such instruction in those branches of science and applied art as is required by the various industrial pursuits of the masses of the people, and especially calculated to benefit those engaged in the manufacturing industries or artisan occupations: "^e it resolved, That the Toronto Trades and Labor Council and the Trades and Labor Congress of Canada have always been and are still opposed to the introduction into our public educational institutions of any system of industrial or manual training wherein is taught the use of tools used in the trades, or which embraces the imparting of practical knowledge of such trades to the pupils of such institutions, inasmuch as we regard such systems as a serious menace to the interests of the already underpaid and generally handicapped mechanic, and believe that such innovation would still further endanger the position at present occupied by the skilled worker in his efforts to better his condition. We believe that the partially -trained mechanics under the industrial or" manual training system would be used against the skilled workers at the pleasure of the emploj'er. We believe, also, that this "hothouse" training would be detrimental to the pupils themselves, inasmuch as the partial knowledge they would gain would prove a restraint to their ambition in some other direction, for which thej'- might, by nature, be better adapted. Furthermore, we believe that the time that the wage- earner can usually allow for his children to attend school is no more than sufficient for them to acquire an ordinary education, without devoting any of such time to the study of things which may not be of any use to them in after years in the battle of life. CHAPTER VI. TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN FRANCE. 701 CHAPTER VI. TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN FRANCE. INTRODUCTION. The practice of the handicraft trades in France was formerly regu- lated by the trade guilds, which were verj' exacting as regards the duties. and obligations of their members. Under the guild system each trade was divided into three classes — masters, journej^men, and apprentices. Each class was governed by definite regulations which were rigorously enforced. A journeyman could not become master unless he fulfilled certain requirements which called for great skill, long labor, and heavy outlay of money. Apprenticeship was severe and lasted for a long term of years, but the instruction given bj^ the master had to be thorough and to cover the trade in its entirety. The number of apprentices was limited, each master in most trades being allowed but one apprentice in addition to his own sons. The guilds enjoyed an absolute monopoly in nearlj- every branch of industry, but in return for the privileges they were allowed to exercise thej" gave a guaranty of perfect workmanship. This system remained in vo^ue for several centuries, but the power of the g'uilds was greath' restricted by royal order in 1776 because of abuses that had crept in. After a few months all the former privi- leges were regained, but in 1791 the guilds were definite^ abolished by the constituent assembly. Under the act of the assemblj' every person was given the liberty to applj- himself to whatever art or craft he desired provided he received a license and conformed to certain regulations. This act seriouslj' interfered with apprenticeship. The rigid discipline with which it had formerlj' been regulated could no longer be made effective and in consequence a deterioration was soon noticed in the work of artisans. About this time there began the great industrial changes which ter- minated in the introduction of machine methods and specialization of work. After the guilds were abolished a great number of independ- ent producers entered the markets, foreign competition became a fac- tor to be dealt with, and, finally, in order to retain custom, it became necessary to resort to the manufacture of cheap, salable articles. This 703 704 KEPOBT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. naturally brought about a change whereby instead of one man mak- ing a complete article he worked upon a particular part of it. After years of practice he became very rapid and proficient in his special line of work, but entirely lacked the knowledge and ability to produce the other parts. He was simply a specialized laborer. This change to machine methods is usually regarded as being the main cause of the final break-up of the old-time apprenticeship system. After the introduction of the new system the old artisans gradually disappeared, and to take their place there remained only those whose training was merely mechanical. The deterioration of the workmen eventually became so pronounced that many attempts were made either to restore the guild sj^stem or to substitute another that would serve the purpose. All such attempts, however, resulted in failure. New conditions had arisen, and they required new remedies. Private initiative first adopted the use of new palliative measures for the relief of the industrial disorders in France. Among the first to foresee the impending change and to realize the effect it would have upon the industrial affairs of the nation was the Duke de la Roche- foucauld, a colonel of cavalry, who during certain travels in Switzer- land learned of a school that had been founded by St. Francis de Sales, in 1599. The peculiar feature of this institution was that it had main- tained a section for industrial education. The Duke was so favorably impressed by this feature that he determined to establish a similar institution in France. Following up this determination he founded at his own expense an institution in which the sons of subofficers of his regiment could receive a general elementary instruction and also pursue an apprenticeship in certain ordinary trades. This was the first insti- tution for special trade instruction established in France. It was declared a national school by the first r^ublic in 1799, and at a later date was converted into a school for -the training of foremen. This institution was the forerunner of the schools of arts and trades. It was followed by other Government institutions of similar character, but in all the earlier Government schools the technical instruction was placed upon a plane above the requirements and abilities of the ordinary artisan. Although the Government began at this early date to provide facil- ities for higher technical instruction, it was not until the last third of the nineteenth century that it turned its attention seriously to the task of providing for the technical training of ordinary workmen. This had always been considered the province of the communes, departments, and private bodies. Local needs, it was thought, could be best realized and provided for by those more in touch with condi- tions existing in their respective localities. Various bodies, in time, took up the task each in its own way and for this reason the develop- TKADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION — FKANCE. 705 ment in France of institutions for giving trade and technical instruc- tion lias proceeded along a number of more or less independent lines. At present there is an elaborate system of trade and technical schools organized and controlled by the Government; of schools maintained by the departmental and municipal authorities; and of schools oper- ated under the auspices of private individuals and private bodies, such as trade organizations, employers' associations, stock companies, religious organizations, etc. As a general rule this development of institutions through so many independent initiatives has caused very little duplication. The institutions maintained by the Government are only to a limited extent special trade schools which prepare students for particular definite occupations. The main purpose in most of them is to pro- vide facilities for giving a broad industrial training which combines a thorough course of scientific and technical study with enough prac- tical work to render students expecting to enter the handicrafts or factory work familiar with the manual operations of the various trades. The schools are in most cases excellently equipped with shops for the practice of the principal metal and wood working trades. The task of founding special schools for education pui'ely of a trade character or instruction in respect to highly- specialized branches of industrial work has, as a rule, been left to local governments and private bodies or individuals, although the Government has encour- aged their efforts in various ways, and in many cases has assisted in the maintenance of their schools through the grant of annual sub- sidies. Great liberality has been exhibited by the Government in this respect. While there were but 48 institutions receiving financial aid from the ministry of commerce in 1880, their number in 1900 was 292t or over six times as great as in the former year. It would be interesting to trace the history of technical education along each of the different lines upon which it has been developed^ but this would be beyond the province of the present report. Perhaps the most interesting feature in the development of the com- plex system of technical schools in France is the direct and active part taken by the Government. It is, therefore, considered best to relate in some detail the most important steps that have been taken in the matter by the Government. Some of the most important facts con- nected with the establishment of schools by societies, organizations, municipalities, etc., will, however, be presented in the proper place by way of explanation. It has been seen that the Government began the work of providing- facilities for trade and technical education with the conversion of the private school of the Duke de la Rochefoucauld into a national institu- tion in 1799. It is said that this institution was used for a while as a 9257—02 45 706 EEPOBT OF THE COMMISSIONEB OF LABOK. military school, but its industrial character was soon restored. A similar institution was created by the Government in 1804, but despite this early beginning the definite rounding out of a logical system of State schools for trade and technical education was not accomplished until the year 1900. In France, as in most other countries, it was impracticable to outline in adranoe a comprehensive system. One school after another was established by the State when the need became particularly urgent. The result was that while adequate provision was made in some direc- tions other fields were wholly neglected. Schools were organized without any particular effort to establish a definite relationship between them. Even the matter of control and supervision was not on a logical basis. As these schools became more numerous, however, and the importance of technical education was better appreciated, the necessity'- for bringing the various institutions under a general system was recognized, and by a series of laws and administrative orders, the last of which bears the date of April 13, 1900, this was finally accomplished. France to-day possesses a remarkably complete system of trade and technical schools, operating under public auspices, for furnishing technical education in all grades, from the teaching of the simple operations of ordinary trades to the training of engineers for the most advanced scientific and technical work. It is of interest to trace briefly the different steps by which this result was accomplished. As the history of the state sj^stem of tech- nical 'schools is to a considerable extent intermingled with that of public instruction — at least in so far as regards legislation and decrees concerning particular grades of instruction^t is deemed advisable to present a few of the main facts relating to the development of the public-school system in France. Public-school education in France practically dates from the efforts of M. Guizot in its behalf in 1833. In that j^ear he secured the enact- ment of a law making it compulsorj^ upon every commune in Fi-ance to establish a public school. Primary education was at the same time divided into two grades — elementarj' and superior. The elementary primary schools corresponded approximately to the grade schools in the United States, and the superior primarj^ schools to the high schools. Pupils entered the latter after they had been graduated from the elementary schools at 13 years of age, and remained until the age of 16 or 17. In 1850 the superior primary schools wore abolished, as for various reasons thej had not been successful. In 1881, however, they were revived and have since undergone a great development and at pi'esent constitute a very important part of the public-school systenj of the country. An act passed June 16, 1881, made primary education absolutely free, and an act of March 28, 1882, made attendance at school com- TEADE AND TEOHNIOAL EDUCATION — ^fEANOE. 707 pulsory for children between the ages of 6 and 13 years, and public education was given a purely secular chai^cter. By a law of October 30, 1886, public primary education was definitely organized in its various grades and intrusted exclusively to the laity. It was not until a general system of public primary education had been definitely established that the French Government began seriously to concern itself with the subject of primary trade and tech- nical education. In 1862 M. Kouland, minister of public instruction, appointed a commission to make an investigation concerning commer- cial, industrial, and agricultural instruction in public and private educational institutions. His successor, M. Duruy, continued and enlarged the scope qf this inquiry. The commission visited institu- tions in Germany, Belgium, and England and made a very interest- ing report, which indicated the urgent necessity of devising some system of trade training to take the place of the apprenticeship sys- tem which was rapidly sinking into decay. No immediate action, however, resulted. A new impetus was given to the movement by the showing made at the Paris Exposition of 1878, and that year maj'^ be taken as the start- ing point of the modern movement to establish a system of public trade and technical schools of a primary grade in France. The country generallj^ became interested in the question, and various public bodies urged the Government to take action. After consider- ing and rejecting a proposition which provided for the establishment by the sta,te of a technical school in each department, a plan was accepted which made pro^'ision for grafting technical instruction upon existing primary schools. This plan was legally adopted in the law of December 11, 1880. This law was intended to facilitate the founding of special schools by minor public bodies and thus to lay the foundation of public tech- nical education of a primary grade. The result of the law was to give rise to a new order of institutions known as manual appren- ticeship schools, under which title were grouped (1) existing apprentice- ship schools founded by communes or departments, and (2) advanced primary schools which gave considerable attention to technical train- ing. The purpose of the new class of schools was to provide general technical instruction and to develop manual dexterity in youths destined for manual trades. Nothing like apprenticeship to any par- ticular trade was contemplated, however. Both the foregoing classes of schools were placed under the category of "primary schools," and the expenditures for their maintenance were made obligatory on the departments and communes. By this law the manual apprenticeship schools and advanced primary schools that fulfilled the requirements as to technical instruction were placed to a certain extent under the control of the ministry of public instruction and fine arts and the min- istry of agriculture and commerce. 708 EEPORT OF THE COMMISSIONEK OF LABOR. As a result of an administrative order of Jiily 30, 1881, which prac- tically nullified the law, not a single manual apprenticeship school was founded by a department or commane during the period from 1880 to 1888. The superior primary schools giving attention to industrial training, however, received a considerable development. One result of the law of December 11, 1880, was the establishment by the Government of the three national trade schools of Armentieres, Vierzon, and Voiron. These were intended to serve as models for the new institutions which it was hoped to call into existence. Another school of the same character was opened at Nantes at a later date. The unsatisfactory working of the law of 1880, in respect to its failure to induce the founding of manual apprenticeship schools, led to the appointment in 1886 of a commission to investigate the subject and propose reforms. The outcome of this inquiiy was the promulgation of an official order, dated March 17, 1888, which was intended to put an end to the existing confusion regarding the relative spheres of the two ministries in the management of the manual apprenticeship schools, that having been the main cause of the failure of the law of 1880. This order defined the form of government of these schools, their programme of studies, conditions of entrance, etc. It also placed them definitely under the joint control of the two ministries mentioned. The order remained in force until 1892, in so far as the manual apprenticeship schools were concerned. In the meantime, by law of July 21, 1891, the National Practical School for Workmen and Foremen was established at Cluny. The reason for the establishment of this institution, which occupies a unique place in the scheme of government schools, was the feeling that the national schools of arts and trades did not reach the workmen and were useful only for training managers and directors, and that provision should be made for preparing competent foremen and sub- directors. While the order of March 17, 1888, undoubtedlj^ accomplished some good, it but partialljr met the necessities of the situation. During the period from 1888 to 1892, 59 advanced primary schools had conformed to the provisions of the law of December 11, 1880, and the order of March 17, 1888. The development of technical instruction in advanced primary schools was the most important result of the law of December 11, 1880, for by that result the foundation was laid for the very important class of institutions known as practical schools of commerce and industry. During the four-year period referred to it was demon- strated that the scheme of organization, as provided for in the law of 1880 and the order of March 17, 1888, did not meet the requirements of the situation. In addition to the inconveniences arising from a joint control by two ministries with the attendant confusion of aims and purposes, it was TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION — FRANCE. 709 finally realized that the technical instruction as given in the manual apprenticeship and assimilated schools did not produce the results that were desired. Heretofore industrial education had been considered more in the nature of a complement of primary instruction than as a preparation for real work. It became evident that a change in control, as well as in the oi-ganization of schools for primary technical instruction, was necessary if any practical advantages were to be derived from them. This change was accomplished in 1892. By a section inserted in the financial law of January 26 of that j^ear, it was provided that hence- forth the advanced primary schools in which the instruction was largely of an industrial and commercial character should be exclu- sively under the authority of the ministry of commerce and industry, and that the class should take the general name of "practical schools of commerce and industry " {Scales pratiques de commerce et cPindmstrie). The ministry of commerce and industry was at the same time given the authority to sanction the transformation of ordinary superior pri- mary schools into practical schools of commerce and industiy, or to authorize the founding of new institutions of this class wherever neces- sary. In these schools the importance of technical instruction is fully realized, and it is given a relatively large share of the total time. One can hardly overstate the iiiiportance of the reform accom- plished by this law. For the first time France was given a system of primary trade and technical schools under Government auspices whose chief aim was industrial instruction, and whose work was supervised by the department having to do with trade and industrj' rather than education. This policy of intrusting to the ministry of commerce and industry all schools for the provision of commercial and industrial education was further carried out by the financial law of April 13, 1900, which placed under the supervision of this department the four national trade schools of Armentieres, Nantes, Vierzon, and Voiron. The same process of intrusting the direction and supervision of schools to the department having charge of those fields to which the instruction relates rather than to a single authority in the person of the minister of public instruction has been logically carried out in respect to all the other classes of scholastic institutions, so that each of the ministries now has exclusive control of schools that give special instruction in matters coming within the sphere of its activities. All those schools that come within the scope of the present report are under the jurisdiction of three ministries, that of commerce and indus- try, that of public instruction and fine arts, and that of public works. By far the largest number of the Government -schools and schools under Government supervision, with which this report is concerned, are under the supervision and direction of the ministry of commerce 710 REPOET OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. and industry. Under this ministry are included all the State technical and trad« schools proper, except those having to do with the teaching of mining and decorative or industrial art. In the following enumeration of schools, falling under the spheres of the several ministries, mention of a large number of institutions which belong to classes not considered in this report is avoided as far as possible, as such enumeration would sei^ve no useful purpose. Private, departmental, communal, and other institutions that receive State aid are also brought more or less under the influence of one or the other ministries. The schools under each ministry are as follows: Ministry of commerce and^industry: (1) National Conservatory of Arts and Trades, at Paris. (2) Central School of Arts and Manufac- tures, at Paris. (3) Four national schools of arts and trades, at Aix, Angers, ChSlons-sur-Marne, and Lisle, (i) National Practical School for Workmen and Foremen, at Cluny. (5) National Apprenticeship School, at Dellys (Algeria). (6) Two national schools of watch- making, at Cluses and Besan^on. (7) Four national trade schools, at Armentieres, Nantes, Vierzon, and Voiron. (8) Thirty-four practical schools of commerce and industry, which, although being depart- mental and communal institutions, are so thoroughly- under State control and supervision that they are included in this list. They are separable into three categories — (a) Sixteen practical schools of indus- try, located at Boulogne-sur-Mer, Brest, Firminy, Havre, Lisle, Mar- seille, Montbeliard, Morez, Pont-de-Beauvoisin, Rennes, Romans, Rouen, Saint-Chamond, Saint-Didier-la-Seauve, Saint-Etienne, and Vienne; (b) two practical schools of commerce (not considered in the present report), located at Boulogne-sur-Mer and Nar bonne; (c) six- teen practical schools of commerce and industry, of which ten are for males and six for females. The schools for males are located at Agen, Beziers, Cette, Fourmies, Grenoble, (") Limoges, Le Mans, Mazamet, Nimes, and Reims; those for females are located at Boulogne-sur-Mer, Havre, Marseille, Nantes, Rouen, and Saint-Etienne. Aside from the State schools, a ver);- large number of institutions, including municipal, communal, departmental," and private schbols for purely trade and technical instruction, are subsidized by the Govern- ment and placed under the supervision of this department. Ministry of public instruction and fine arts: The only State institu- tions under this ministry with which this report is^ concerned are those for teaching decorative or industrial art. They are: National School of Arts applied to Industry, at Bourges; four national schools of dec- orative art at Aubusson, Limoges, Nice, and Paris; National School of Industrial Arts, at Roubaix; and School of Ceramics attached to the National Manufactory, at Sevres. « This school also contains a division of agriculture. TEADE AND TECHNICAL EDtJCATIOK FBAKCE, ^ 711 Besides these State institutions a number of municipal, depart- mental, and communal schools of decorative and industrial art which receive subsidies from the State are placed under this ministry. Ministry of public works: Only a few schools have been placed under this ministry and they are: School of Roads and Bridges and School of Mines, at Paris, both of which are recruited from graduates of the polj'technic school; School of Mines, at Saint-Etienne; and schools for mine bosses and foremen, at Alais and Douai. The two latter are the only institutions under this ministrj- that properly come within the scope of this report. The National Government has, as alreadj^ stated, thought it advisa- ble to leave the establishment of schools for what is termed the primary grade of technical instruction to the minor public authorities and to private initiative. As a result there have arisen a large number of trade schools, continuation schools, trade courses, etc., which are maintained by local governments, by trade unions, by employers' associations, by religious orders, by societies, etc. These institutions in a large measure are meant to serve a more specific purpose as regards the preparation of students for particular trades, or their improvement therein, than are the national schools. The trade schools proper, for instance, in most cases aim to give the student a complete training in the manual operations of a trade — in other words, to ser^'e the purpose of an apprenticeship. They are, without exception, intended to fill certain definite needs of the locali- ties in which they are situated. Aside from the practical schools of commerce and industry the departments and communes maintain comparatively few trade or indus- trial schools. Neither do municipalities as a rule, but each class of local governments pays considerable attention to industrial drawing. Their schools are generally subsidized by the State, in which case a general supervision is exercised by the central Government. About forty superior primary schools that carry industrial courses have not as yet received sufficient development in a. technical direction to bring them within the jurisdiction of the ministry of commerce and industry under the new ai-rangement. The tendency, however, is toward the transformation of all such schools into "practical schools." The only system of municipal schools that requires special mention is that of Paris. For a number of years the municipal authorities have displayed great enei'gy in providing model institutions for trade and technical education. They have spared no expense in the matters of buildings, equipment, and teaching personnel, and as a result, Paris has at present the most progressive schools in France for the primary grade of trade instruction. The motives for the efforts of the municipality in this direction are the same as those which actuated the central Government. Nowhere in 712 ^ EEPOET OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. France was the breakdown of the apprenticeship system and the results of specialization due to the introduction of new methods more severely felt than in Paris. The authorities turned their attention at an early date to experiments for ameliorating conditions arising from the lack of technical training. Various plans were tried, but no real success was gained until, in pursuance of a vote of the municipal council on May 27, 1872, a model school of apprenticeship in the wood and metal working trades was established directly bj^^ the city authorities. This institution, now known as the Diderot school, pro- duced satisfactory results and it was followed by other municipal schools, for both males and females. At present the city has two schools for wood and metal working, a school of furniture making, a school of industrial drawing, a school of industrial art, a school of ph}- sics and chemistry as applied to indus- try, and a school for the printing trades, all of which are for boys. For girls there have been established six schools in which are taught a variety of the trades for which women are adapted. They are schools for dressmaking, millinery, artificial-flower making, corset making, trade drawing, painting, etc. Each of the Pai'isian schools has a supervisory committee appointed by the municipal council, composed of members of the council and a variable number of manufacturers or merchants who have a know- ledge of the trades taught. One representative of the ministrj- of commerce and one from the ministry of public instruction are also placed on each committee. The powers of these committees are not defined by regulation, but they exercise general supervision over the direction and finances of the schools, being subject only to the veto power of the municipal council. The number of institutions established hj labor unions and employ- ers' associations is very large and is rapidly increasing. The greater number of such institutions are evening technical, trade, and drawing schools. Most of them belong to the class known as continuation schools and courses, although there are a few genuine trade schools among them. They are found all over France, but are naturally more numerous in Paris than elsewhere. In this city they are usually limited to giving instruction in some particular trade or related group of trades pertaining to a single industry. Many of these institutions receive subsidies from the State, department, and municipality. Those that receive State subsidies must submit to the inspection established by the State. There are several private evening schools and classes, in and out of Paris, which have been founded by private societies (philomatic societies, philotechnic societies, etc.). Some societies maintain a very large number of courses for technical instruction in several industries. In any account of industrial education in France prominent atten- tion must be given to the work of various religious orders, particu- TRADE AND TECHKICAL EDUCATION FKANOE. 713 larly that of the orders known as the Brothers of the Christian Schools {Freres des Ecoles Ohretiennes) and the Salesian priests {Pretres Salesiens). The former of these orders was founded by Jean-Baptiste de la Salle (1661-1719). Its object, as the name implies, is educational. Until the early part of the nineteenth centurj^ the order concerned itself chiefly with the primary education of children of the working classes. At an early day, however, it recognized the need of commercial and industrial education, and began establishing schools for that purpose. Eo definite plan, however, in the organization of such schools is fol- lowed. Each school is provided with the programme that best meets the local needs. Among the schools directed by the brothers are found those in which theory predominates, others in which shopwork is given the larger share of the time, and still others which are merely preparatory to more advanced industrial schools. In the latter class of schools shopwork is almost entirely absent, merely enough time being devoted to it to enable students to discover their aptitudes and to facilitate their entrance into the higher schools. In 1900 the Brothers of Christian Schools conducted 36 institutions in France in which industrial education, was given a place. In only 7 of the 36 schools, however, are the aims and the character of the industrial instruction of such nature as to bring them within the lines of this report. The Salesian Priests is the name given to an order founded by Don Bosco in 1857. The order originated in Italy, but at present it directs educational institutions in various European countries. In 1875 the order established its first trade school in France, at Nice, and eight others have been established at various places since that date. Only five of these schools come within the scope of this report. The instruc- tion in the other four relates to agriculture, etc. These schools do not present the same diversity of organization as is shown in those directed by the Brothers of Christian Schools. Their purpose is gen- erally more specific. Those in which the instruction is of a trade character prepare students for entering directly upon industrial work upon leaving the schools, that is, they aim to px'oduce skilled workmen. Of three or four other orders, each maintains a regular trade school. A few congregational schools fulfill more or less completely the require- ments of an industrial school as the term is defined in this chapter. An elaborate system of administration and inspection of the State and subsidized schools has been provided in numerous laws and decrees. The principal features of the general system of administration and inspection of those schools which come under the direction or super- vision of the ministry of commerce and industry are as follows: At the head of the entire system is the minister of commerce and indus- try, who is the final authority in all matters relating to the schools. He is assisted by two bodies whose functions are of a genei-al nature. 714 EEPOET OF THE GOMMISSIONEE OF LABOB. Thej^ are the superior council on technical education and the commit- tee of inspection. The superior council on technical education was established b}' an imperial decree of March 19, 1870, but has been repeatedly reorganized since that date. At the present time it consists of i senators and 6 deputies; 8 divisional inspectors of technical instruction; 2 depart- mental inspectors of technical instruction; 6 representatives of cham- bers of commerce; 2 representatives of trade unions which have organized trade schools or courses; 2 representatives of employers' associations which have organized such schools or courses; 2 women representing the trade education of girls; 10 manufacturers, merchants, or publicists occupjnng themselves with the matter of trade educa- tion; 1 director of a national school of arts and trades; 1 director of a practical school of industry; 1 director of a practical school of com- merce; and 2 directors of superior schools of commerce. The selec- tion of these members is made by the minister of commerce and industry, and the term of office is four years. In addition to these members, who are appointed, the following persons are ex-officio mem- bers: The director of the teaching staff and accounts of technical instruction; the director of labor and industry; the director of the national conservatory of arts and trades; the director of the central school of arts and manufactures; the assistant director of technical education; the inspector-general of technical education; the inspector of the outside service of architecture; and the chief of the bureau of commercial education. Within this council there is constituted a permanent council con- sisting of the ex-officio members and ten others designated by minis- terial order. The superior council is required to give its advice and opinion in all general questions pertaining to technical education which the minister may submit to it. In some cases its particular functions are defined in special regulations. The committee of inspection is composed of the director of technical education, who acts as president; the inspector-general of technical education; the assistant director of technical education; the inspectors of practical schools of commerce and industry; the divisional inspect- ors, who have within the past two j^ears been charged with special missions in relation to practical schools; and a chief of a bureau of the central administration, who acts as secretary. The functions of this committee are pureh' advisorj^ and consultative. The actual inspection service of technical education is vested in the following officials: The inspector-general; divisional inspectors; de- partmental inspectors; and inspectors of practical schools of commerce, and industry. The inspector-general is the administrative head of the inspection service. His authority extends over all the technical schools under TKADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION- — FEANCE. 715 the ministry of commerce and industr3\ He is, however, specially charged with the inspection of the National Conservatory of Arts and iTi-ades, the Central School of Arts and Manufactures, the national schools of arts and trades, the National Practical School for Workmen and Foremen at Cluny, and the national watchmaking schools at Cluses and Besan^on. Under the inspector-general ai'e the divisional inspectors. These officers were first provided for in 1888, their functions then being to inspect the manual apprenticeship schools called forth under the law of December 11, 1880. At the present time their chief duties are to inspect the practical schools of commerce and industry and the supe- rior commercial schools recognized by the Government, as well as private institutions receiving State aid. They also undertake special studies or inquiries. The departmental inspectors assume the frequent inspection of the practical schools of industry and commerce in their department and the private technical schools and courses receiving encouragement from the department. These inspectors are selected from among the chief manufacturers of each district, and serve without remuneration. The inspectors of the practical schools of commerce and industry devote their attention to that class of schools and also have charge of the organization of post-graduate work. A similar system of supervision and inspection is provided for the schools which are under the jurisdiction of the ministrj^ of public instruction and fine arts. CLASSES OF INSTITUTIONS. There is no general classification of all the schools of public or pri- vate character in anjr of the later French reports. An examination of individual schools, however, shows that a general classification is feasible. The classification is necessarily incomplete in some respects and in some instances is rather arbitrarily made. It was not possible to secure direct information from every institution in a field so large; hence, recourse has been had to the descriptions contained in recent reports issued by the French Government for much of the informa- tion upon which this classification is based. In a few instances there has been considerable doubt as to what disposition to make of the school, especially when its character is mixed, as in the case of schools in which the instruction is partly industrial and partly in relation to art. Each institution has been placed, however, with as much accuracy as the information at hand would allow. Each class into which the schools have been separated is briefly defined, so that the reasons for placing particular schools in one or another class may be seen. The general distinctions drawn between classes are well marked. Although some institutions have been classed 716 KEPOKT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. as schools for advanced industrial education, the classification is not, as a rule, based upon the grades of general instruction to which that given in these schools corresponds, but rather upon the schemes of organization presented by and the purposes to be subserved in the individual schools. Thus a pi-imary and a somewhat more advanced grade of schools may occasionally be found in the same class. The foHowing tj^pes of institutions for trade and technical instruc: tion are to be found in France: 1. Schools for advanced industrial education. 2. Schools for decorative and industrial art. 3. Practical schools of commerce and industry. 4. National trade schools. 5. Trade schools for several trades. 6. Trade schools for single trades. 7. General industrial schools. 8. Trade and technical continuation schools and courses. 9. Industrial drawing schools. This classification will be found to include, under one head or another, every French institution which properly deserves consideration in this report. In some classes, especially those containing the trade schools proper, there will be found considerable variety of organiza- tion as regards the amount of practical work required and the degree to which the technical instruction is carried. In the pages following the principal characteristics of each class of institutions will be briefly mentioned. SCHOOLS FOR ADVANCED INDUSTKIAL EDUCATION. This class includes a number of institutions in which the instruction corresponds to the secondary and superior grades obtaining in other educational institutions. The following institutions are included in the class: National institutions: Consei'vatory of Arts and Trades, at Paris; Central School of Arts and Manufactures, at Paris; national schools of mines, at Paris and Saint-Etienne; National School of Roads and Bridges, at Paris; four national schools of arts and trades, at Aix, Angers, Chalons-sur-Marne, and Lisle; National Practical School for Workmen and Foremen, at Cluny. Other public schools: Electro-technic Institute, annexed to the Uni- versity, at Nancy; Industrial Institute of Northern France (depart- mental), at Lisle. Private schools: Central School (maintained by a stock company), at Lyon; Catholic School of Higher Industrial Studies, at Lisle; Tech- nical Institute (Catholic; maintained by a stock company), at Roubaix; Catholic Institute of Arts and Trades, at Lisle. TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION — FBANCE. 717 Many of these institutions are beyond the limits of this report, but most of them are, however, briefly mentioned in the general state- ments which follow. The Conservatory of Arts and Trades, at Paris, is an institution originally intended as a repository of machinery, models, designs, descriptions of machinery and mechanical appliances, technical vol- umes, etc. , but its field has been enlarged by the provision of facilities for advanced scientific study in connection with various lines of indus- try. It possesses laboratories for original research in mechanics, physics, and chemistry applied to various industries, electricity, etc., and offers a series of free lecture courses. It has no definite curricu- lum, but rather constitutes an institution that offers advantages .to students making special investigations in matters connected with some line of industrial or agricultural work, etc. The Central School of Arts and Manufactures, at Paris, has a more definite organization than that of the Conservatory. Its purpose is to form engineers of the highest grades in all branches of industry. It is at present installed in quarters which were built for it at a total expense of 10,788,860 francs (12,082,250). The professions specially prepared for are -civil and mechanical engineering, metallurgy, and industrial chemistry. About 21:0 new students are admitted each year. Entrance is secured through competitive examination. The duration of the courses is three years. French students who are recognized as specially qualified for the rriilitary service are given a complete mili- tary instruction. On the theory that no matter what profession stu- dents intend to follow they have need of certain general scientific training, all the students follow the same courses during the first two years. Specialization begins only with the third year. Since the organization of the school in 1829, through the school year 1898-99, a total of 7,950 students were granted diplomas or certificates of capacity. The national schools of arts and trades form a class immediately below that of the Central School of Arts and Manufactures. This class of institutions originated from the conversion of the Duke de la Rochefoucauld's private school into a national institution, which became the first school of arts and trades, and after several removals was finally located at Chalons-sur-Marne. In 1803 a second school, fash- ioned after the model of the first, was founded at Beaupreau, and was afterwards removed to Angers. In 1813 a third school was opened at Aix, and in 1881 it was decided to establish a fourth at Lisle. The last-named school, however, was not formally opened until October, 1900. These four schools are organized according to the same general plan. They cover the same ground and are governed by the same rules, etc. The school at Lisle, however, has a division devoted to spinning and T18 EEPOy-T 0¥ THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOB. weaving, in wfiich students who have completed their term of studies in &BJ of the national schools of arts and trades may devote an extra year to this one branch of industry. The school at ChSlons-sur-Marne is described in detail in another place. The description of that school will apph' to all, with the exception noted in i-egard to the weaving division of the school at Lisle. These institutions have outgrown their original pua'pose. The char- acter of the theoretical instruction has become much broader and more highly developed during recent years, so that instead of ti-aining pupils for entering actual, definite trades a;S workmen who may be developed into foremen, the present level of the theoretical instruction is jnuch superior to that required, or that which is particularly to be desired, for artisans and foremen. It is intended for a higher class of workmen, such as future managers, directors, and even manufacturers. This result has been brought about in part by the effoii; to keep pace with industrial progress, and in part from the fact that pressure for appointments has made it necessary to raise the entrance qualifications and therefore the character of the instruction. On the other hand, while the practical work is present in such nature and amount as to almost serve as an apprenticeship, it is not really intended to do so. The aim is to devote enough attention to practical work to make the future directors of industrial eiiterjirise thoroughly familiar with all the operations they may be called upon to superintend. Graduates are advised, however, to complete their practical training l>y serving a certain time in an industrial establishment in the capacity of ordinary workmen. Their school training is said to be sufficient to enable them to earn journeymen's wages after a little shop-practice. The Government encourages this practice by granting premiums of 500 francs ($96. 50) each to a certain class of graduates who, within two years after graduation (time for military service omitted), can prove that they have served one entire year in an industrial establishment. Accommodations are provided for about 1,200 students in the four schools. This allows about 400 appointments each year, provided each pupil remains the full term of three years. To show the great competition for appointment it is stated that for 300 vacancies existing in three schools in 1899 there Avere 1,348 candidates. The National Practical School for "Workmen and Foremen at Cluny occupies a position subordinate to the schools of arts and trades. Its mission is to produce highlj'- skilled workmen who maj^ become fore- men in the wood and metal industries. It occupies a place similar to that formerly held by the schools of arts and trades. The school is fully described in another place. The Electro-technic Institute, at Nancy, is a school for training the highest class of electrical workers. The course of studj^ covers three years, two of which are devoted to general studies of a theoretical TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION FKANCE. 719 and practical nature. The third year is devoted entirely to technical instruction. The Industrial Institute of Northern France, situated at Lisle, is intended to educate mechanical engineers, electricians, and chemists. It is briefly described in the account of individual schools. The Central School of Lyon is an institution modeled after the Central School of Arts and Manufactures of Paris. It is owned by a stock company, but receives a small subsidy from the department of the RhSne. The institution is not nearly so important as its proto- tj'pe. Only about 80 students were in attendance in 1900. The regu- lar course of study covers three years. There is no specialization. The School of Higher Industrial Studies, annexed to the Catholic University at Lisle, is an institution bearing some resemblance in many points to the Central School of Arts and Manufactures, but the tech- nical instruction is not of such a high character. It is solely concerned in the education of manufacturers' sons, those who in the future are to assume the responsibility of managing industrial establishments. The diploma of civil engineer is awarded to pupils who remain at the school three years and pass the required examinations. Students who remain but two years are awarded certificates if they pass the examination. There is no specialization in the school. The Technical Institute at Roubaix is a private school under Cath- olic direction, arid is intended to develop managers of the various departments in the textile manufactories. A full description of this institution is to be found in the section devoted to the description of individual schools. The Catholic Institute of Arts and Trades was created in 1898 at Lisle. It follows in a general way the model of the national .schools of arts and trades. SCHOOLS FOB, DECOaATIVE AND INDUSTEIAI, ART. In addition to schools of fine arts, France possesses several schools for the teaching of decorative or industrial art. As previously stated, such schools come under the authority of the ministry of public instruction when maintained or subsidized by the State. In 1897 M. Marius Vaehon made a report {") on the art industries and schools of industrial art in France. He found very few schools that fulfilled expectations in regard to the teaching of art from the stand- point of its industrial application. In most instances the tendency seemed to be in the direction of pure art, the pupils being more con- cerned in preparing for the great art schools of Paris or other cities than in the study of art as applied to industry. The organization of the instruction in matiy schools favored this tendency. Lea Industries d' Art, Les Ecoles et les Miasees d' Art Industriel en France ( DSparte- ments). 720 BEPORT OF THE COMMISSIONEE OE LABOR. The State schools of industrial or decorative art are: The National School of Arts applied to Industry, at Boarges; the national schools of decorative art, at Paris, Limoges, Aubusson, and Nice; the National School of Industrial Arts, at Roubaix, and the School of Ceramics attached to the national manufactory at Sevres. Several schools have been established by minor public authorities (municipalities, communes, etc.). The most important are: The Ber- nard-Palissy School of Industrial Art (municipal), at Paris; the art departments of the Municipal Academic School, at Douai; the Muni- cipal and District School of Fine Arts, at Nancy; the District School of Industrial Art, at Saint-Etienne; the School of Industrial Art, at Calais; the art department of the School of Fine Arts and the Indus- trial Sciences, at Toulouse; the District School of Fine Arts, at Rennes; the School of Fine Arts, at Marseille; the School of Fine and Deco- rative Arts, at Bordeaux; and the School of Fine Arts, at Lisle. A few of these schools are described in the proper place. PBACTICAIi SCHOOLS OF COMMEKCK AND INDTTSTRY. By far the most important class of institutions for the provision of practical industrial training coming under governmental control are those known under the collective designation of practical schools of commerce and industry. The history of the building up of this sys- tem of schools has been given in the introductory pages. As these schools are all subject to the same general regulations, and the char- acter of their instruction, in spite of individual differences, is so largely the same, a general account of the class as a whole will be of interest. In a circular addressed to the prefects of the departments, under date of June 20, 1893, the minister took occasion to define accurately the character it was desired to give to the new schools. Some of the more important passages of the circular are here reproduced. Their purpose is to prepare commercial employees and artisans who can be immediately utilized in the counting room and in the shop. The advantages of a general education are not for a moment to be denied. It constitutes the solid base which increases the value of the man and renders more proiitable the trade knowledge which he has acquired. Such instruction, therefore, must not be proscribed in the practical schools. The students will necessarily there receive a com- plementary primary instruction, and they will not moreover be admitted unless they have fulfilled the obligation imposed by the law of March 28, 1882. [Compulsory attendance at school between the ages of 6 and 13.] * * * Industry has undergone a profound transformation. Everything is sacrificed to the end to be attained, which is to produce quickly and cheaply; and iij consequence of the division of labor and the employment of machinery, apprenticeship in the shops exists to-day only in exceptional cases. Never, however, in consequence of the frequent changes which must be introduced in the TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION ^FRANCE. 721 equipment of plants, has the necessity for men possessing sufficient theoretical knowledge, and accustomed to the practice of the shop, been more clearly demonstrated. * * * It has become absolutely, essential to place at the disposal of our merchants well-prepared assistants, and of our manufacturers high-class workmen. It is to the practical school that falls the duty of meeting this obligation. Practical schools of commerce and industry may be established either by a department or a commune, or by several departments or communes acting together. It is not necessary that the school shall be a new organization. It may result from the transformation of an existing superior primary' school. These schools may differ in respect to whether they are for boys or for girls, or whether they prepare primarily for commerce or for industry or for both. On January 1, 1901, there were in existence a total of Si practical schools of com- merce and industry. Of these, 6 are for girls and 28 for boys. Of the boys' schools, 16 are for industry only, 9 have departments for both industry and commerce, 2 are for commerce only, and 1 — that of Grenoble — departments for industry, commerce, and agriculture. Of the girls' schools, all are for both industry and commerce. It will be seen from the list of schools that has been given on page, 710 that nearly every important city of the Republic has its school of industry or of commerce and industry. In a number of cities, namely, at Havre, Saint-Etienne, Rouen, and Marseille, there are two schools, one for boys and one for girls. One city, Boulogne-sur-Mer, has three schools. The general system of State supervision of these schools has already been explained. A few words should be said regarding the method of their local administration, as in spite of the Government control the. schools are departmental or communal institutions. For each practical school of commerce and industry there must be an improvement council {conseil de perfectionnemenf), the duty of which is to exercise a general oversight of the school. This council consists of the prefect or mayor, according to whether the school is a departmental or communal one, the inspector of commercial or of industrial instruction, a member designated by the minister of com- merce, and i niembers appointed by the general [departmental] coun- cil or the communal council, 2 of whom must exercise, or have exercised, an industrial or commercial calling, according to whether the school is an industrial or commercial school. If it is both commercial and industrial, both the inspector of commercial and the inspector of indus- trial instruction must be members. In this case also the minister designates 2 persons, and 6 others are elected by the council. If the school is one for girls, 2 of the elected members must be women. The director of the school must take part at all the meetings of the council. The council has as its particular functions to assist at the 9257—02 46 722 KEPOET OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOB. entrance examination, to visit the school at least once a month, to pass upon the annual report of the director, to look after the securing of j)ositions for the graduates, to give its advice when requested by the administration, and to make such suggestions as it deems proper. Tuition in these schools is free. The expenses of the schools are borne partly by the departments and communes, and partly by the central Government. The problem of finding suitable instructors in the purel}^ technical courses of these schools was met in the case of the practical schools of industry or industrial departments by organizing a normal course in the National School of Arts and Trades at Chalons- sur-Marne. This course, indeed, antedates the formal establishment of the practical schools of industry and commerce, having been organ- ized in 1891 for the preparation of teachers for the superior primary schools, giving special attention to industrial education. It has pre- pared 37 teachers during the period 1891 to 1899. Teachers far the commercial courses have been trained in normal courses in the higher commercial schools at Paris and Lyon. The normal coiirse at Lyon was discontinued in 1899, and one in the prac- tical school at Havre will in future serve for the preparation of teachers for both departments of the practical schools for girls. A total of 52 teachers have been prepared in the normal courses attached to the superior commercial schools and the practical school at Havre. The conditions of admission to the practical schools are the same for all the institutions. Candidates must be at least 12 jears of age. If they are under 13 j^ears they must be provided with a certificate of primary instruction; if over that age they must pass an examination when not provided with such a certificate. If there are more candi- dates than there are places, a selection is made through a competitive examination. In principle the schools are intended for day pupils, though in a few cases where the practical school has resulted from the transformation of a primary boarding school it has been allowed to retain the boarding-school feature after the transformation. In some cases also a boarding department has been speciallj' organized to acommodate pupils from a distance. The course of studies is in general three years, with the exception that in some of the schools, notably in those of Saint-Etienne and Grenoble, a fourth year has been added. In some cases, also, a pre- paratory course has been organized. In general, the scheme of instruction for each school is worked out by the supervisory council of the school, though certain lines have to be adhered to. The minister of commerce has prepared schemes of studj^ which are believed to show the most desirable apportionment of the time of the students. These model programmes are repro- duced below. It is to be understood that their adoption is not obliga- TRADE AND TECHNIOAL EDUCATION— FEANOE. 723 tory upon the schools, but are merely types or models which are to serve as a guide to the officers of the schools in organizing their courses and are presented here as giving the best general idea of the character of the schools as a whole. MODEL PROGRAMME OF STUDIES AND HOURS PER WEEK DEVOTED TO EACH, PRACTICAL SCHOOLS OF COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY. PKACXICAI. SCHOOLS OF INDUSTRY: BOYS. Studies. INDUSTRIAL INSTKUCTION. Shopwork Drawing Geometry Meclianics Industrial economy . Total GENERAL INSTEUCTION. French language History Geography Natural history and hygiene . Physics chemistry .- Arithmetic Accounts Total Total hours of instruction . Hour.s of study '. Number of hours per week. First year. Second year. 80 6 IS 49i Third year. 33 6 It i; 43i li U 51 9 PRACXICAI, SCHOOIiS OF COMMERCE: BOVS. Studies. Number of hours per week. First year. Second year. Third year. COMMERCIAL INSTEUCTION. Commerce, accounts, and bookkeeping. Foreign languages Arithmetic and algebra Geography Writing, etc Chemistry and study of commodities — Legislation Commercial economy Total . GENERAL INSTEUCTION. French language Drawing. . History Natural history and hygiene . Geometry Elements of physics Total Total hours of instruction . Hours of study 21 3 3 U- 'ij 6 "33" 724 EEPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. MODEL PROGRAMME OF STUDIES AND HOURS PER WEEK DEVOTED TO EACH, PRACTICAL SCHOOLS OF COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY— Concluded. PKACXICAL SCIIOOL.S OF INDUSTRY: GIRI.S. Studies. INDUSTRIAL INSTRUCTION. Shopwork . Drawing... Total . GENERAL INSTRUCTION. French language History Geography Natural history and hygiene Domestic economy Physics Chemistry Arithmetic Geometry Accounts Morals Writing Plain sewing and cutting Total. Total hours of instruction. Hours of study Number of hours per week. First year. 30 13 Second year. 30 li Third year. 80 3 . 33 li IJ li IJ li lOi PRACTICAL. SCH001.S OF COMMERCE: GIRI.S. Studies. Number of hours per week. First year. Second year. Third year. COMMERCIAL INSTRUCTION. Commerce, accounts, and bookkeeping. Foreign languages Arithmetic and algebra Geography Writing, etc Chemistry and study of commodities . . . Legislation Commercial economy Total . GENERAL INSTRUCTION. Morals French language Drawing History Natural history and hygiene. Geometry Elements of physics Domestic economy Plain sewing and cutting — Total Total hours of instruction. Hours of study 16J 28i a 18 4i 4i 3 8 li li 3 li 22J li 3 li li li 'ii 13i 36 It has become apparent that to develop manual dexterity, at least twenty-five to thirty hours per week must be passed in the shop. The programme, however, as will be seen in the descriptions of schools, has been modified to suit the requirements of particular localities. TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION — FBAKCE. 725 Such modification was expected and was intended; nevertheless, this group probably presents a greater uniformity of organization than any other for what has been termed the primary grade of industrial education. The following table presents for the year 1900 the principal statis- tical features in relation to 30 practical schools of commerce and industry: SUBSIDIES RECEIVED BY PRACTICAL SCHOOLS OF COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY, AND NUMBER OF TEACHERS, PUPILS, AND GRADUATES, 1900. Subsidies received from— Teachers. SchooJs. The State. Tlie de- part- ment. Tlie com- mune. other sources. Total. Indus- trial section. Commer- cial section. Commerce and industry: $4,594 4,803 1,177 4,266 11, 487 5,462 4,370 3,648 7,076 7,363 3,188 1,467 4,695 4,603 $193 82,084 4,721 1,872 1,365 9,637 5,136 5,173 973 7,920 12,090 2,046 2,468 5,723 6,018 9,457 4,613 4,367 2,648 2,963 8,337 5,887 1,414 662 3,175 5,927 2,928 477 11, 708 1,536 2,248 S19 96 $6, 890 9,620 8,049 6,586 23,749 10,665 10,006 4,912 15,961 19, 742 6,604 3,935 11,576 10, 013 10,808 8.671 5,371 4,762 5,631 12,545 5,887 6,412 3,765 5,283 8,832 6,045 3,324 21,631 4,663 5,370 4 10 4 5 4 965 695 71 18 8 10 9 12 10 10 8 11 11 23 13 8 9 7 11 10 11 7 8 13 10 8 19 52 1,930 67 347 12 6 116 231 4 6 Nimes 965 289 174 9 e 96 193 965 392 5 Saint-Etienne 5 1,351 4,068 1,004 2,007 2,630 4,169 - Rouen 2 Industry: Brest .... 97 109 39 89 Lisle 4,998 2, 567 2,108 2,905 3,117 2,654 9,604 3,030 8,122 Morez 482 164 Rouen . . 193 259 97 Commerce: 6 3 Total 116, 022 6,429 134, 463 4,184 261,098 846 134 Pupils n October 1, 1900. Graduates. Bo ys. Girls. Total. Indus- trial section. Commer- cial section. Indus- trial section. Commer- cial section. Indus- trial section. Commer- cial section. Commerce and industry: 66 74 32 148 148 106 118 83 131 142 74 64 68 29 66 187 103 33 91 139 33 130 142 61 214 336 209 161 174 270 175 74 118 261 206 304 213 117 8 10 6 7 Cette 6 6 10 8 4 Grenoble 13 TiimngpH 10 5 13 24 6 8 6 118 158 137 304 102 104 93 69 11 10 13 Saint-Etienne . . 9 Nantes 111 13 6 11 6 Rouen 3 726 REPOET OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. SUBSIDIES RECEIVED BY PRACTICAL SCHOOLS OP COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY, AND NUMBER OF TEACHERS, PUPILS, AND GRADUATES, 1900— Concluded. Pupils on October 1, 1900. Graduates.. Boys. Girls. Total. Indn.s- trial section. Commer- cial section. Indus- trial section. Commer- cial section. Indus- trial section. Commer- cial section. Industry: 114 110 252 50 118 44 60 177 87 36 345 114 110 252 50 118 44 60 177 87 86 345 97 31 16 24 13 Havre . . Lille 15 Morez 12 27 7 4 33 Rouen . . Saint-Didier-la-S6auve Commerce: 97 31 10 Narbonne Total 2,516 941 923 286 4,665 280 NATIONAL TRADE SCHOOLS. The four national trade schools at Armentieres, Nantes, Vierzon, and Voiron occupy a peculiar position in the system of State insti- tutions for industrial education, and must be placed in a class bj'' themselves. These schools, in a measure, did not serve the purpose for which they were intended. When the Government attempted, by virtue of the law of December 11, 1880, to establish an organized sys- tem of primarj" industrial instruction it decided to establish a school which was to serve as a model for the departmental, communal, and other institutions contemplated in the law. The school at Vierzon was therefore opened in 1881. It was followed by those at Armentieres and Voiron in 1882. These schools did not begin active operations, however, until several years after those dates. That at Voiron was f ormallj^ opened in 1886, while those at Armentieres and Vierzon were not opened until 1887. The difficulties which arose in respect to the aj^plication of the law of 1880, and its failure to cause the founding of special apprenticeship schools, have been fully considered heretofore. It has also been shown that, even after having been modified by the decree of March 17, 1888, the principal effect of the law was merely to cause the extension of the programmes in a number of superior primary schools in order that they might give attention to industrial education. Very few new manual apprenticeship schools were ever formed under the law. During the period of inactivity after the passage of the law of 1880 a sentiment developed in favor of a type of school in which the indus- trial should predominate over the general instruction. This sentiment led to the creation of the practical schools of commerce and industry TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION FRANCE. 727 which are much more practical in character than tlie institutions origi- nally contemplated in the law. The latter schools have consequently- occupied the field which the "manual apprenticeship" schools were intended to cover, and the national trade schools have not been imitated. In 1898 a fourth school was created at Nantes by the transformation of a private institution into a national tx'ade school. These four schools remained, according to the provisions of the law of 1880 (as subsequently modified), under the joint control of the minis- try of public instruction and the ministry of commerce and industry until the year 1900, when they were placed under the exclusive con- trol of the latter ministrj-. The schools at Armentieres, Vierzon, and Voiron have the same general organization. Each has three departments — a kindergarten ificole viaterneUe)^ an elementary primary school, and a superior pri- mary school. The trade education proper is not begun until the pupil has entered the superior primary school. The departments are prac- tically independent schools. The school at Nantes differs from the general plan in that the first two departments are absent. The technical instruction in the four schools relates chiefly to the wood and metal-working trades. The programme of each school, however, includes special courses relating to industries most developed in the region in which the school is located. Thus special attention is given to weaving at Armentieres and Voiron, and to the making of agricultural tools at Vierzon. An agricultural department has been added at Vierzon and Voiron. The students may be boarders, half boardei-s, or daj- scholars. The price for the full boarders is 500 francs ($96.50) a j^ear. Scholarships are given hj the State, and by departments, communes, and pi'ivate persons. TRADE SCHOOLS FOE, SEVERAL TRADES. A certain number of schools, some of which present characteristics similar to those of the practical schools, are placed in this class. They are genuine trade schools that have been established \>j the National Government, by municipalities or departments, private bodies, reli- gious organizations, etc., for giving instruction in several trades. Some of them were the result of the law of December 11, 1880, in regard to manual apprenticeship schools. Others, however, were in existence before that law went into effect. The latter are mostly private institutions, but one or two municipal schools had also been established before that date. Only those schools in which instruction is given during the day, and in which both theorj^ and practice are combined, have been placed in this class. Institutions for both sexes are included and the tech- 728 BEEOET OF THE COMMISSIONER OF I/ABOR. nical instruction given in them is that known as the primary grade. Their chief object is to fit students to enter the trades or industrial occupations as workmen with at least a fair theoretical and practical knowledge of them. Some even aim to take the place of a complete apprenticeship and a few are apprenticeship shops or schools in which the theoretical instruction is reduced to the minimum. The relative proportion of time allotted to theoretical and practical instruction in this class of schools varies. It depends upon the impor- tance attached to each branch of instruction by the founders of the individual schools. In some institutions the theoretical part is reduced to the minimum, while in others it occupies a large part of the time, and includes a rather complete course of genei-al instruction. Institu- tions in which the general and theoretical instruction have been given the principal share of time and the practical work limited to a few hours each week have been excluded from the class. Some of the latter institutions have been placed in a distinct class under the term "general industrial schools." Other schools, in which the shopwork occupies but a very few hours per week, have been omitted from all classes. Such schools are generally those which prepare students for higher technical institu- tions that demand a certain amount of shop training as a condition of entrance. Hence, they devote no more time to shopwork than is sufficient to demonstrate the students' aptitudes and to meet the requirement mentioned. The shopwork is merely manual training. Religious organizations have established a number of this latter class of schools finder the name of preparatory schools. They devote but four or five to seven or eight hours a week to shopwork and can not be considered trade schools, although the general and theoretical instruction often has a direct bearing toward industrial work. A few of these congregational schools, which fulfill certain requirements, have been placed in the class of "general industrial schools." Students enter the trade schools at about the age of 13 and remain in them for three or four years. A complete list of the institutions that fill all the requirements of this classification can not be presented. Those which have the most complete organization of studies and practical work and the most defi- nite aims with reference to the preparation of students for entering trades or industrial work are as follows, the group schools for males being first enumerated: Public schools: National Apprenticeship School, Dellys, Algeria; Alembert Departmental School of Typography and Woodworking, Monte vrain ; Municipal School of Weaving and Embroidery, Lyon; Boulle Municipal School of Furniture Making, Paris; Municipal School of Physics and Industrial Chemistry, Paris; Estienne Municipal School TBADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION— FEANCE. '729 of Printing and Publishing, Paris; Diderot School of Wood and Metal Working, Paris; Dorian Municipal School of Wood and Metal Work- ing, Paris. Private schools: School of Apprenticeship for the Wood and Metal Working Trades, maintained by tlie Amiens Industrial Society, Amiens; School of Apprenticeship for the Metal Working Trades, maintained by the firm of Simon Freres, Cherbourg; School for Machinists' Apprentices in the Merchant Marine, Havre; Trade School of the Eastern Railroad Company, Mohon; Institute for Deaf Mutes, Saint-Etienne; Wood and Metal Working School, maintained by the St. Quentin Industrial Society, Saint-Quentin. Congregational schools: Lewarde School, Douai; St. Gabriel Orphanage, Lisle; apprentice shops founded by the Abbe Boisard, Lyon; St. Leon School, Marseille; St. Peter School, Nice; School of Jesus Adolescent, Oran, Algeria; St. Nicholas School, Paris; Sts. Peter and Paul School, Paris; CEuvre d'Auteuil (apprenticeship shops for abandoned boys), Paris; St. Michel Primary and Trade School, Priziac; trade school at the Orphanage of the Immaculate Conception, Toulouse. The trades taught in the municipal and private schools have been partially indicated in the titles of the schools as given above. In the Catholic schools the greatest variety of trades are taught. Aside from the ordinary wood and metal working trades, some schools teach the various printing trades, fine mechanical work, shoemaking, tailor- ing, certain of the building trades, wood carving, etc. As this class, next to that of the practical schools, forms the most important means of providing trade instruction designed to take the place of appren- ticeship, several representative institutions will be fully described under individual schools. Group schools for females are also included in this class. They have been established by both public and private effort. Seven schools for females are public in character. Of these, 6 were founded by the municipalitjr of Paris and 1 by the departmental and communal authorities at Yzeure. Eight schools are the result of private initia- tive — 3 at Paris, 1 at Levallois-Perret, 1 at Loges, 1 at Chaumont, 1 at Nancy, and 1 at Lyon. There is no need to name the very large number of institutions for girls conducted by various religious organizations. While they are important they are not very well known, being largely, if not alto- gether, conducted by organizations that maintain a strict seclusion. In the great majority of such institutions the instruction relates only to the ordinary trades adopted by women, as sewing, dressmaking, millinery, etc., or to the ordinary work necessary in the proper care of the household. 730 EEPOBT OF THE COMMISSIOWEK OF LABOB. TRADE SCHOOLS FOE. SINGLE TRADES. A number of excellent schools for single trades exist in France. As in the case of the preceding group only those schools that hold day sessions, and in which both the theory and practice of the trades are taught, are included in this classification. By far the greater num- ber of them aim to give the student a complete training in the partic- ular trade taught, at least as complete as can be obtained in a school. Much time is spent in shopwork. In some schools shopwork is the principal feature of the instruction, while in others the time is about equally divided between shopwoi'k on the one hand and theoretical and general instruction on the other. A few schools in which the instruction is somewhat higher than that comprehended under the term primary are included in this class. This is made necessary to avoid a multiplication of classes, as the instruction in such schools is not sufficiently advanced to warrant placing them in the class of schools for advanced industrial education. Nearly all the schools for single ti'ades are maintained by private bodies, associations, etc. No attempt is made to present a complete list of those that properly come within this class. From the various reports at hand the follow- ing have been selected as fulfilling all the requirements of a genuine trade school: Public schools: School of Industrial Chemistry (annexed to univer- sity^), Lyon; National School for Mine Bosses and Foremen, Alais; National School for Mine Bosses and Foremen, Douai; Communal Spinning and Weaving School, Flers; National School of Watchmak- ing, Besanfon; National School of Watchmaking, Cluses; Municipal Weaving School, Sedan. Private schools: Apprenticeship School of the Association of Car- riage Workers, Paris; School of Electricity {Institut Ampere)^ Saint- Germain; Apprenticeship School of Furniture Making and Joiner j^, Cherbourg; French School of Hosiery, Troyes; Lace-Making School for Girls, Bailleul; Lace-Making School for Girls, Cherbourg; Trade School for Shoemakers, Paris; School of the Apprentice Tailors Patronal Committee, Paris; Textile School {^eole Mintufaettirierc), Elbeuf ; Industrial School of Textiles, Tourcoing; Guttenberg Typo- graphical School, Paris; Practical School of Watchmaking, Anet; Trade School of Watchmaking, Paris. A number of these institutions are described in detail under indi- vidual schools. GENERAL INDUSTRIAL SCHOOLS. This class has been added for the purpose of distinguishing a certain number of schools that, regardless of designation, can not properlj' be placed among the trade schools as above defined. It inchides those schools that have regular dfij sessions and a well-organized programme of study comprising both theoretical and practical (manual) work but TEADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION FRANCE. 731 in which the former either occupies a predominant place or the latter shows very little or no tendency toward specialization in a given trade. Several of these institutions take the name of "trade school," but, with the explanation given above, it is safe to place them in this class. A few belong to the public advanced primary grade of schools which devote a larger portion of time than usual to industrial instruction. In some of them the work is in a measure preparatory to the higher industrial schools of the State, but where that is made the chief or only aim the school has been omitted from the list below. The object of the instruction given in these institutions is not spe- cialization in particular trades, but to give an all-round industrial edu- cation in which scientiiic theory occupies an important place. The grade of the instruction, however, shows considerable variation when individual schools are compared. This depends, of course, upon the object sought, whether it be to form pupils for the higher or less important industrial careers. Following is a list of the schools that have been placed in this class: Public schools, maintained by departments or communes: Superior Trade School, annexed to the Normal School, Angouleme; Industrial School of the Vosges, Epinal; Martin School for Boys, Lyon; Manual Apprenticeship School, Montherm^; Departmental School for Deaf- mutes and the Blind, Nantes; Industrial Section annexed to the col- lege, Saint Nazaire; Industrial Section of the Eouviere Advanced PHmary School, Toulon; Industrial Section of the School of Fine Arts and of Industrial Sciences, Toulouse. Private schools: Hanlej'^ Trade School, Choisy-le-Roi (Seine); Durzj' Trade School, Montargis; Eastern Trade School, Nancy; Trade School of the Northern Eailway Companj^, Paris; Special School of Public Works, Paris; Bertrand Industrial, Trade, and Commercial School, Versailles. In addition to these, there is a number of schools conducted by Catholic organizations in which the instruction is to a certain extent industrial and which do not necessarily' belong to the class of prepara- tory schools with shops for manual training previously mentioned. The most important of these are: La Salle School, Lyon; J. B. de la Salle School, Reims; Mixed Trade and Preparatory School, Rive de Gier; St. Joseph Boarding School, Saint Omer; School of Mines, Commentry; St. Joseph School, Landerneau. A few of the mdustrial schools are described in detail under indi- vidual schools. TRADE AND TECHNICAI. CONTINUATION SCHOOLS AND COURSES. Under this comprehensive head are placed a very large number of institutions that owe their existence to various forms of initiative, both public and private. With but two or three exceptions, the instruction 732 KEPOKT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOE. is given in these institutions only in the evening or on Sunday. There are very few that operate on Sunday, however, so it may be said that nearly all of them are evening schools or courses. The exceptions to. this general rule will be mentioned later. These are essentially institutions for the instruction of workmen and apprentices. They are intended to supplement the shop training with technical (theoretical) instruction, or theoretical instruction plus a certain amount of practical application directed toward specific trades or lines of industrial work. This class of institutions constitutes practically the only means of reaching those actually engaged in industry, and for that reason and because of the great number and wide distribution of the schools and courses it contains it is really a most important one. The institutions herein contained present every variety of organization and arrange- ment of programme. Two general types of institutions are to be found in the class — one in which practical work finds a place in the course of study, and one in which the manual work is absent, the instruction being purely of a technical (theoretical) nature. It is not considered advisable to treat each type separately, although in the list presented below the institu- tions have been separated on the foregoing basis. These institutions have been established and are maintained by the minor public authorities, bj'^ trade unions, employers' associations, labor exchanges {bourses du tramaiV), workingmen's clubs, friendly soci- eties of workingmen in particular industries {imions conipagnonniques), individuals, etc. The great and increasing interest shown by the workmen themselves in the propagation of this species of education is worthy of note. Two or three day schools which are intended to give a theoretical and practical course in some particular trade to persons alreadj' engaged in the trade, but in which instruction is given only a few months or a year at most, have been placed in this class. Such institutions can not be called trade schools, as they are intended merely to further extend the knowledge gained by experience. No extended consideration of these institutions is necessary, but a few of their principal characteristics will be mentioned. As a general rule they are open for from three to six evenings a week. The total time per week devoted to any given trade ranges from 2 to 6 or more hours and in some cases up to 10 or 12 hours a week. The technical studies included in their curriculi naturally depend upon the nature of the trades to which the instruction relates, but drawing is always one of the essentials. Tuition in these schools and courses is free as a rule, although in exceptional cases a small fee is charged. Practical work, when present, is frequently done on a reduced scale, TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION — FRANCE. 733 although in some schools, as in those for weaving, for instance, shops are fitted up with looms and material for giving regular practical courses the same as in day schools. This is true in a few cases in schools for the wood and metal working trades. When the opportu- nities for practical work under natural conditions are lacking, various expedients are in many cases adopted. For instance, in the case of a continuation school for roofers, a sort of rack is arranged on which the tiles are placed, and afterwards removed. In several joinery con- tinuation schools articles are made on a reduced scale, while in one or two schools or courses for stonecutters blocks of imitation stone (or plaster) are used. Other examples need not be mentioned. Wher- ever possible, however, practical work in those schools that require it is done under conditions approaching those to be met in actual indus- try. In a few cases a little productive work is done which is disposed of in the market. The duration of studies in a given trade is from one to four years. The length of the school term is variable and depends much upon the nature of the trade taught. Many of these institutions receive subsidies from the State, depart- ment, or commune. When they receive State subsidies they are placed under the State inspection system as previously stated. These schools and courses are as a rule well attended by apprentices and young workmen. Several institutions in this class are intended for girls. In a few institutions the instruction relates to a single trade, but in the majority of them it relates to two or more trades. The latter cor- respond to the group schools of the class giving instruction through the daj^. An idea of the large number of trades to which the instruction in this class of institutions relates may be gained from a perusal of the following enumeration of schools and courses. The first part of the list contains those schools and courses in which practical work forms part of the course of study: PUBLIC SCHOOLS AND COURSES MAINTAINED BY MUNICIPALITIES OR COMMUNES. Courses in wood and metal--working and other trades, annexed to the municipal school of drawing, Laval. Courses in spinning and weaving, under the patronage of the Industrial Society of the North, Lisle. School of brewing (three months' day course for workmen, foremen, etc.), annexed to the University, Nancy. School of hand weaving, called "Ecole defabrique," Nimes. School of industrial chemistry and dyeing, Saint-Etienne. School for joinery, carpentry, stonecutting, and mechanics, Troyes. Courses in theory and practice of weaving, Vienne. 734 KEPORT OF THE COMMISSIONEE OF LABOK. PEIVATE SCHOOLS AND COURSES MAINTAINED BT TRADE UNIONS, employees' associations, trade and other societies, LABOK EXCHANGES, INDIVIDUALS, ETC. (") Courses in weaving, dyeing, etc., maintained by the Industrial Society, Amiens. Courses in the metal-working trades, joinery, stonecutting, and painting, Angou- leme. Courses in industrial drawing, painting, carpentry, roofing, and stonecutting, Blois. Courses in tailoring, tin and zinc working, typography, and paper hanging, Bor- deaux. School for barbers and hairdressers, Bordeaux. School of stereotomy, Bordeaux. Courses in upholstering (cutting), wood carving, and cabinetmaking, Bordeaux. School for the wood and metal working trades, known as "Emulation Dieppoise," Dieppe. Courses in weaving, fine drawing, etc. , maintained by the Industrial Society, Elbeuf . Courses in carpentry, cabinetmaking, stonecutting, ceramic painting, tailoring, shoemaking (cutting), hairdressing, etc., maintained by the Labor Exchange, Elbeuf. Courses in wool spinning and weaving, etc., Fourmies. Courses in wood and metal working, Fumel. Courses in plastering, painting, tailoring, and stonecutting, Lyon. Courses in modeling, molding, etc., in relation to stone carving (sculpture), Lyon. Courses in tailoring (cutting), Lyon. Jean-de-Tournes school for printers, lithographers, bookbinders, and gilders, Lyon. Trade school for hairdressers, Lyon. Courses in shoemaking, Montpellier. School for barbers and hairdressers, Montpellier. Courses in the principal building and other trades, Nantes. School for hairdressing, Nantes. Courses in painting, shoemaking, cai-pentry, joinery, houseamithing, zinc work- ing, roofing, and saddle and harness making, Nantes. Courses in stereotomy, carpentry, joinery, etc., Nevers. Trade school of baking, Paris. Parisian school for barbers and hairdressers, Paris. Improvement courses for journeymen bookbinders and gilders, Paris. Trade school for journeymen carpenters, Paris. Schools of carpentry (2 schools) maintained by Employers' Association,- Paris. Courses for carriage workers (body makers and carriage builders), maintained by the Wagon Makers' Union of the Seine, Paris. Courses for carriage workers (wood and iron work), maintained by Carriage Workers' Union, Paris. Courses for carriage workers, maintained by the Society of Journeymen Cart- wrights, Paris. Central school of industrial designing in relation to metal chasing, engraving, jew- elry working, etc., Paris. School of drawing, modeling, and bronze chasing, Paris. Trade courses for chimney builders and repairers, etc., Paris. «The particular form of direction under which private schools or courses (or groups of courses) operate has not usually been mentioned except where necessary to distinguish between two or more similar institutions in the same city. TRADE AND TECHKIOAL EDUCATION— FRANCE. 735 Trade courses of the Union of Journeymen Housesmiths, Paris. Trade school for drawing and modeling of the Union of Jewelers, G-oldsiniths, etc., Paris. Trade school of design for imitation jewelry manufacture and allied industries, Paris. Trade school for joiners, Paris. Trade school of the Paper and Paper Goods Makers' Union, Paris. Courses in pattern designing, etc., for bar-loom passementerie work, Paris. Trade school of the Union of Bar-Loom Passementerie Weavers, Paris. Courses in roofing, plumbing, gas fitting, etc. , maintained by the Association of Master Eoofers and Plumbers, Paris. Courses in typography (presswork and branches relating to composition), Paris. Courses for upholsterers, decorators, etc. , Paris. Courses in various building trades, P^rigueux. Courses in relation to textile manufactures, chemistry, physics, steam firing and engineering, maintained by industrial society, Reims. Practical courses in carpentry and stair building, Eomanfiche-Thorins. Courses (evening) for firemen, given under private direction at the Practical School, Saint-Etienne. School for mine bosses (one year's day course), Saint-Etienne. School for apprentice masons and stonecutters, Samoens. Courses in shoemaking, tailoring, joinery, carpentry, plumbing, etc., Toulouse. Courses in stonecutting, various wood and metal working trades, shoemaking, plastering, hat making, coach making, etc. , Villeneuve-sur-Lot. The continuation schools and courses in which the instruction is purely theoretical are the following: PUBLIC SCHOOLS AND COURSES MAINTAINED BY MUNICIPALITIES OR COMMUNES. School of stereotomy and drawing for stonecutters, Chateau-Landon. Courses in applied sciences (industrial) for adults, Dieppe. Technical course in cloth manufacture, Lavelanet. Advanced courses (evening) for adults, given at the Practical School, Nimes. PRIVATE SCHOOLS AND COURSES MAINTAINTED BT EMPLOYERS' ASSO- CIATIONS, TRADE UNIONS, LABOR EXCHANGES, INDUSTRIAL SOCIETIES, INDIVIDUALS, ETC. Courses of technical instruction in relation to various trades, Brest. Courses in joinery, shoemaking, stonecutting, and cooperage. Cognac. Course in drawing and modeling in relation to masonry, Grenoble. Technical courses in steam engineering, Marseille. Technical (including trade) courses maintained by various trades under the general supervision of the labor exchange {bourse du travail), Marseille. The principal trades are those of carriage makers, firemen and engineers, hairdressers, cooks, shoemakers, tailors, machinists, blacksmiths, marble-cutters, house painters, locksmiths and artistic iron workers, stonecutters, and carpenters and joiners. Apprenticeship school (various trades) maintained by the Industrial Society, Nantes. Course for firemen and engineers (members of organization), Nantes. Courses in tailoring, joinery, stonecutting, and shoemaking, Nimes. Technical courses (school) for apprentices in the wood and metal working, etc., trades, Oran, Algeria. 73^6 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. School of cabinetmaking, maintained by the Association for the Protection of Apprentices, Paris. Technical courses in relation to the carriage-making trades, Paris. Technical courses maintained by the Central Union of Firemen, Engineers, etc., for members of the corporation, Paris. Courses maintained by the Central Federation of Firemen, Engineers, and Auto- mobile Drivers, for members, Paris and suburbs. The correspondence school of flour milling, Paris. Trade school of horseshoeing, Paris. School for apprentices and journeymen in the house-furnishing trades, maintained by trade unions, Paris. Courses in relation to joinery (4 schools), maintained by the Master Carpenters' Association, Paris. Technical courses in relation to joinery, Paris. The modern school of joinery of M. Jeannin, Paris. Technical courses in relation to locksmithing (2 schools), maintained by the Master Locksmiths, etc.. Association, Paris. Technical courses maintained by the General Federation of Locomotive and Stationary Engineers and Firemen, Paris and other places. Technical courses for machinists, Paris. Technical courses relating to masonry, maintained by Employers' Association, Paris. Technical courses for masons and stonecutters, maintained by a private club, Paris. Technical courses in stonecutting (3 schools or courses), maintained by the Stone- Cutters' Union, Paris. Technical courses in cutting, maintained by Union of Master Tailors, Paris. Courses in relation to various building trades, metal working, weaving, tailoring, carriage making, dressmaking, etc., Saint-Etienne. Technical courses in various trades, maintained by the labor exchange {bourse du travail), Toulouse. Technical courses for stone masons, cutters, and sawyers, Versailles. A number of representative institutions of this class are described under individual schools. , In connection with these institutions particular mention should be made of a very important influence that is actively engaged in extend- ing and popularizing industrial education in France. Reference is had to certain oi'ganizations existing under the names philotechnic, polytechnic, and philomathic associations, societies for popular educa- tion, etc. These are rather numerous in France, nearly every impor- tant city either having its own association or a branch of one of the larger ones. Most of the earlier associations were formed for the purpose of extending popular education. When the movement for industrial education became active, many societies added trade and technical courses to their programmes, and in recent years this has become the most prominent feature of the work of many organizations. The industrial instruction given under their auspices usually takes the form of free courses which are either entirely theoretical in character or theoretical with the addition of manual work, according to the nature of the trade taught, or the views of the founding societj\ The courses of instruction properly belong to the lists presented above, but have not been included there for various reasons. In addition to TEADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION FRANCE. 737 'maintaining- courses for trade and technical education some of these societies provide courses -for commercial instruction (including com- mercial law, geography, languages, bookkeeping, typewriting, and stenography), courses relating to agriculture, to horticulture, art, etc. Many societies maintain courses in weaving, cutting and dressmaking, artificial-flower making, millinery, etc., for women and girls. The work of some societies does not end with the provision of facilities for trade, commercial, and art education. It often includes free lecture- courses on subjects of interest, as hygiene, medicine, natural sciences, courses of general instruction for those who have been deprived of the opportunity to attend school for a sufliciently long period, etc. Following are some of the most important societies and other organi- zations engaged in providing facilities for industrial education: The Philotechnic Association, the Polj^technic Association, and the Soci- ety for Trade and Technical Instruction Relating to Marine Fishing, Paris; the Polytechnic Association, Levallois-Perret; the Philomathic Association, Bordeaux; the Rhone Society for Trade Education, Lyon; the Polytechnic Association, Marseille; the Industrial Society, Saint- Quentin and Aisne; the Dyonisian Group, Saint-Denis, and others which need not be enumerated. Several societies receive subsidies from the State, departments, municipalities, etc. While the instruction given under the auspices of these societies more frequently partakes of the nature of continuation courses, in a few instances regular daj' schools have been instituted. The Indus- trial Society of Saint-Quentin, for instance, maintains a regular group school of wood and metal working in addition to courses of from one to two years' duration in theoretical and practical weaving, mechanical weaving, mechanical embroidery, lingerie making, decorative drawing, card designing (or maldng) for curtains, etc., and designing and card making for embroideries. The number of hours per week devoted to these courses ranges from 18 to GO. These courses and the school are all sheltered in the same building and constitute an unusual form of institution for industrial education in France. The institution is really a large group school and has been so listed. The work of a number of individual societies is described in detail in another part of this report. INDUSTKIAL DRAWING SCHOOLS. As previously stated, although the municipalities as a rule have not been active in establishing trade schools, they haA'e devoted consider- able attention to drawing applicable to various kinds of industrial work. Many of them have founded schools in which the main object is to teach drawing applicable to certain specific occupations. In other instances courses in industrial drawing have been annexed to 9267—02 i7 738 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. other institutions — to art schools, etc. A few schools of industrial drawing owe their existence to private effort. The programmes followed depend upon the local industries which those schools are intended to benefit. In many cases the school oper- ates only during the evening. Schools in which industrial drawing is the chief aim or in which workmen may take courses in drawing in relation to their trades are maintained by minor public bodies at Angers (in connection with Regional School of Fine Arts), Annonaj", Aubenas, Bar-le-Duc, Belfort, Cambrai, Charleville, Epinal, Gerard- mer, Grenoble (a school of drawing and decorative cement molding, etc.), Havre, Langres, La Eochelle, Lyon, Nevers (at School of Arts), Nogent-sur-Seine, Poitiers (at Regional School of Fine Arts), Rambervillei's,- Rochef ort, Saint-Chamond, Saint-Die, Sedan, Troyes, and other places outside Paris. In Paris there are several schools in which industrial drawing constitutes an important part of the pro- grammes. The best known institution for boys is the Germain-Piion School, which is owned by the municipality. In addition several private drawing schools for girls in which industrial drawing forms an important pai't of the programme, are subsidized by that city. There are also several private schools of this class. The most important are at Privas, Nantes (drawing courses in relation to joinery and cabinetmaking), and Paris (drawing course in relation to car- pentry work). A few of this class are described under individual schools. In the general account of French schools institutions for girls have not been separately considered. This has not been thought necessary, because of their I'elative unimportance and for the reason that there is nothing particularly characteristic in relation to them. They have been mentioned occasionally in connection with the con- sideration of the classes of schools for males to which they correspond. Those classes are the practical schools of commerce and industry, the two classes of trade schools proper, the continuation schools and courses, and the industrial drawing schools. Schools for girls main- tained by Roman Catholic organizations have received no consideration, for reasons already stated. There are a few — perhaps six or eight- courses or schools for women and girls that do not enter into any of the general classes heretofore enumerated. These are institutions that have as their principal aim instruction in relation to the proper per- formance of household duties. They are similar to the housekeep- ing schools and classes of Belgium, which are fully described in the introductory pages of the chapter on trade and technical education in that country. There are no general statistics available for any other than the practical schools of commerce and industry and the slate schools under the rhinistry of commerce. The statistics in relation to the former TRABiE ANB TECHNICAL EDUCATION yRAWCE. 739 have already been shown. Those for the State schools under the min- istry of commerce are summarized in the following table: RECEIPTS AND- EXPENDITURES OF NATIONAL TRADE AND INDUSTRIAL SCHOOLS AND NUMBER OF TEACHERS, PUPILS, AND GRADUATES FOR THE YEAR 1900. RECEIPTS. School. Subsidies. Board and tuition. Pro- ceeds from sale of prod- ucts.a Total. National Conservatory of Arts and Trades, Paris S93, 890 $93,890 143,665 97,891 98, 446 108, 304 6,119 72,116 10,776 7,107 33, 606 36 728 Central Scliool ol Arts and Manufactures, Paris 8143,665 17,471 14, 181 18,465 National School of Arts and Trades, Aix 79, 663 82,232 82,808 6,119 64, 539 10,289 4, 522 15, 980 22, 541 39, 307 15, 556 $757 2,033 2,041 National School of Arts and Trades, Angers National Schoolof Arts and Trades, Chaions-sur-Mame National School of Arts and Trades, Lisle National Practical School for Workmen and Foie- men, Cluny . 7,237 340 487 2,585 103 National Watchmaking School, Cluses National Trade School, Armentidres 17, 523 14, 187 22, 842 16,796 National Trade School, Vierzon 822 181 62,971 32,533 National Trade School, Voiron Total 517,446 272, 357 9,349 799,152 EXPENHMTTIIKES.. School. Salaries of teachers, etc. Cost of sup- plies. Total. National Conservatory of Arts and Trades, Paris- Central School of Arts and Manufactures, Paris National School of Arts and Trades, Aix $58,991 112,217 37,307 37,205 38,207 1,156 24,704 6,865 5, 080 14, 265 17,064 14, 653 15,475 $34, 740 31,254 42, 356 45, 0'2H 44, 601 4,963 39,825 3,434 2,027 20, 071 7,579 23,199 19,268 $93,731 143, 501 79, 663 National School of Art« and Trades, Angers 82, 233 82,808 6,119 64 529 National School of Arts and Trades, Chaions-sur-Marne National School of Arts and-Trades, Liale National Practical School for. Workmen and Fore- National Watchjnaking School, Cluses 10, 289 7,107 National Trade School, Armenti^ces . .-. National Trade School, Nantes. .'. 34, 336 24, 643 National Trade Scliool, Vierzon 37, 852 National Trade School, Voiron 34, 743 Total 383, 209 318,345 701, 554 TEACHEKS, I»UifHI,S, AND GKABUATES. School. Number of— Teachers. Pupils. Graduates. National Conservatory of Arts and Trades, Paris Central School of Arts and Manufactures, Paris National School of Arts and Trades, Aix 18 o28 23 22 21 m 7 13 10 29 34 8 27 696 305 281 266 272 111 70 235 340 29! 249 210 lit National School of- Arts and Trades, Angers 93 National School of Arts and Trades, Chaiona-sur-Marne 78 National Practical School for Workmen and Fore- men, Giun-y 75 46 1 National Trade School Arracntiiires 25 ('') 24 Total d240 e 3, 146 /728 "The proceeds from sale of prodiicts in the national schools are, with the exception of those of the schoel atBesancon, turacd into the public treasury. I) Not reported. Not including 38 instructors of shopwork. dNot including 38 instructors of shopwork and teachers of 1 school not reported. « Not including pupils of 2 schools not reported. /Not includinp- eradnatps of 3 siihnnls not rennrted. 740 EEPOKT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. I^«nDIVTDUAL SCHOOLS. A general description of the French .systena of trade and industrial education has been presented in the foregoing pages of this chapter. In the following pages a certain number of schools in each class have been selected and described as fully as their importance would justify. In addition to data collected by the department there was available the exhaustive report, {") in five volumes, made by the minister of com- merce and industry for the Paris Exposition of 1900. This report relates to schools under the jurisdiction of the ministry of commerce and industry. The municipal trade schools of Paris are fully described in a report (*) published in 1900. The Catholic schools are described in a volume ('') published by Emile Cail for the Exposition during the same year (1900). SCHOOLS FOR ADVANCED INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. A few important schools belonging to this class are described in the. following pages. Brief statements in reference to other schools of the class have already been made. NATIOirAIi SCHOOL OP ARTS AND TEADES, ChAlONS-STjS- MARNE. In 1788 the Duke de la Rochefoucauld-Liancourt conceived the idea of creating special establishments in which children could receive gen- eral instruction and at the same time serve an apprenticeship in certain trades. With this end in view he founded a school of such character at his own expense on his farm near Liancourt (Oise). At first only the sons of noncommissioned oJfficers of his regiment were a'dmitted to this school. In 1799 the Government of the first republic, struck by the merits of the institution, made it a national school and transferred it to Compiegne under the name of the French Prytaneum. Bonaparte took a great interest in the school. During the course of a tour of the industrial cities of the north he visited the school at Compiegne. He had previously been impressed with the necessity for trade train- ing, for he said, "I have everywhere found foremen distinguished in their trade and possessing great skill in execution, but almost no one a L' Enseignement techni que en France. Etude publi^e a 1' occasion de 1' Exposition de 1900. Ministere du Commerce, de 1' Industrie, des Postes et des T^legraphes. 5 volumes, 1900. ''Les ifecoles et les Oeuvres Municipales d' Enseignement 1871-1900. Par P. Lavergne, Chef du Secr<5tariat de la Direction de 1' Enseignement, Ville de Paris. cL' Enseignement Industriel et Commercial dans les Institutions libres Catholiques, rapport pr6sent6 a 1' Exposition universelle Internationale de 1900. Emile Cail. TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION FRANCE. 741 who is able to make a plan or the simplest calculation of a machine or express his ideas in a sketch or statement. This is a great lack in French industry. I wish to provide for it here. There shall be no more Latin — that can be learned in lyceums that will be organized — but the trades, with the theorj^ necessary to progress, will be taught. Here excellent foremen will be formed for our manufacturing estab- lishments." On February 25, 1803, Bonaparte, in conformity with the ideas he had expressed, reorganized the school of Compiegne. In 1806 the school, on account of the increasing number of students, was trans- ferred to ChS,lons-sur-]V[arne, where it was installed in the buildings of an old convent. The work of this school has undergone important modifications which it will be of interest to trace. In the beginning children were admitted at the early age of 8 years, and, after receiving a general education, were placed in the classes for technical instruction. The duration of studies was indeterminate and the pupils sometimes remained 10 years in the school. There were at first five principal shops in which instruction was given in difl'erent trades, as follows: First shop — The trades- of blacksmith, filer, fitter, and metal turner; second shop — the trade of molder; third shop — the trades of carpen- ter, joiner, and cabinetmaker; fourth shop — the trade of wood turner; fifth shop — the trade of wagon maker. After the Restoration schools of this class were somewhat neglected, their true aim was lost sight of, and they came to be regarded as institutions for general instruction. In 182Y a reorganization was effected in order to bring them back to their true purpose. Matric- ulants were required to be 13 years of age. The duration of studies was fixed at 4 j^ears. The time devoted to practical instruction was increased and that given to theory reduced. In 1832 another change was effected. The entrance age was raised to 15 years, and for the first time candidates were required to pass a competitive examination and also show that they had served at least one year's apprenticeship in a trade similar to one of those taught in the school. The duration of the courses was also reduced to 3 years. Other changes were made in 1848, 1865, and 1873. The year 1886 was one of great significance for the schools of arts and trades, as on April 4 of that year a decree was issued com- pletely reorganizing them, both in regard to the conditions of admis- sion and the programme of studies. Industry had, in the preceding years, passed through important changes and the purpose of the decree was to modify the character of the schools so that they would corre- spond to the new conditions and needs. The work accomplished by this decree has been supplemented by the decree of October 11, 1899. The first paragraph of the latter decree states that the purpose of 742 REPOBT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. the schools is to train workmen capable of becoming heads of indus- trial establishments, and manufacturers skilled in the practice of the mechanical arts. The most important changes introduced through the recent reorganization are the increased importance given to shop- work and a general raising of the standard of instruction. Of the instruction given, the official report on trade education in France says: "That which characterizes this instruction is the manual work, the shop practice, to which not less than 6 hours' time each day is devoted. * * * Thanks to this practice of 3 years' duration, there is not a student who receives a certificate from one of these schools as fitter, molder, founder, or blacksmith who can not boldly enter a shop and after a very short time earn there his day's wage. The best advised of the young men, moreover, do not fail to enter the shops and com- plete, by living some time the real life of an artisan, the practical knowledge acquired in the shops of the school. The administration encourages this practice with all its power." This and the other three national schools of arts and trades receiva only boarding students. The experiment of admitting day students was made for a time, but the results not being satisfactory, the plan was abandoned. The number of students is limited to 300 (for each school). The tuition fee, including board and lodging, is 600 francs ($116) a year, the cost of uniforms and equipment is 300 francs (157.90), and a further sum of 75 francs (114.48) must be deposited to meet other expenses. Scholarships or partial scholarships, both with and without the wardrobe outfit, are granted by the State, the depart- ments, and the communes to those students whose parents are not able to pay their expenses. About 75 per cent of the students are in receipt of such aid. Admittance is obtained through competitive examination. Candi- dates must be between the ages of 15 and 17 years. After 1903 every candidate will be required to possess a certificate of practical industrial studies (given by the practical schools of industry) or a certificate of superior primary studies. The maximum age limit will at the same time be raised 9 months. The entrance examination includes the following written tests: A page of writing, a dictation exercise, a French composition, an exercise in mechanical drawing, an exercise in ornamentation with pen, problems in arithmetic, algebra, and geometrj', problems in physics and chemistry, and a test which sen-es to demon- strate the candidate's experience in manual exercises. Candidates who pass this examination with a sufficient grade are entitled to take the oral examination which relates to grammar, history, geography, arith- metic, algebra, and geometry. The complete course of instruction covers a period of 3 years. The theoretical instruction, which is always of such a character as to have a direct bearing upon industrial operations, includes the fol- lowing studies: Algebra, from equations of the second degree to New- TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION FRANCE. 743 ton's theorum and its applications; plane trigonometi'y, elements of cosmography, surveying, and leveling; elements of analytical geom- etry; descriptive geometry; shadows; drawings with dimensions marked, as well as notions of ordinary perspective, of stonecuttmg and carpentry; theoretical and apjilied kinematics; pure and applied mechanics; physics; electricity and its principal applications, chem- istry and its principal applications, especially with reference to metal- lurgy; drawing* and especially industrial drawing; technology, studied principally in its application to the construction of machines; the French language; history, from Louis XI to the constitution of 1875; geography of France and her colonies; accounts, principles of indus- trial, commercial, and customs legislation, and principles of social economy; industrial hygiene; moral and civic education. Though some instruction in electricity had long been given, a special course in this subject was organized by the decree of October 11, 1899. A new chair of applied electricit}" was created, new electrical work- shops were opened, and electrical apparatus provided out of an appro- priation for this purpose of 211,150 francs (?40,752). The practical instruction is given in four workshops, devoted, respec- tively, to machine mounting or fitting, blacksmithing and boiler making, carpentry and model making, and foundry work. On entering the school, students arc distributed among the different shops according to their aptitude and preference. Those obtaining the highest grades in the examinations have the first choice of shops. About 70 per cent enter the machine shop. The course selected is adhered to thi-oughout the 3 years. At the end of the third year, however, each student is required to pass a certain length of time in the other shops in which the work is related to that which the student has been fol- lowing. The duration of manual labor in the shops is about 6 hours a day, divided into two sessions. The character of this practical instruction has changed completely. Formerly the students made only small models. At the present time the work performed b}' the students, especially toward the end of their courses, consists in the construc- tion of machines and other articles similar to those made in ordinary industrial establishments. The following statement shows the way in which the students are employed during each Aveek day: 5.30 a. m. , reveille; 5.50 to 6 a. m., recreation; 6 to 7.30 a. m., study; 7.30 to 7.45 a. m., breakfast; 7.45 to 8 a. m., recreation; 8 to 9.30 a. m , recitation; 9.30 a. m. to 12 m., shopwork; 12 m. to 12.20 p. m., din- ner; 12.20 to 1.30 p. m., recreation; 1.30 to 3.15 p. m., drawing; 3.15 to 7 p. m., shopwork; 7 to 7.20 p. m., supper; 7.i^0 to 7.30 p. m., recreation; 7.30 to 8.45 p. m., study; 8.45 to 9 p. m., recreation; 9 p. m., retirement. The schools are in all cases excellently housed, and the shops leave nothing to be desired in respect to accommodations and equipment. 744 BEPOKT OP THE COMMISSIOWEK OF LABOR NATIONAL PRACTICAL SCHOOL FOB WORKMEN AND FOREMEN, CLUNY. The National School for Workmen and Foremen, at Cluny, has the distinction of being the only one of its kind in France. It was created by the law of July 21, 1891, for the purpose of supplying in a certain measure the place in the system of trade education left vacant by the gradual raising of the character of instruction in the national schools of arts and trades until they no longer corresponded to the needs of persons expecting to enter the lower ranks of industry. The minister of commerce explained the situation at some length during the debate on the bill which provided for the establishment of this school. The trend of his remarks was directed in the main toward pointing out the gap that existed between the schools of arts and trades on the one hand and the superior primary and trade and the manual apprenticeship schools on the other, and the necessity for a grade of institutions that should occupy an intermediate position between these two grades of schools. He also indicated the desire of the Govern- ment to provide for candidates for entrance into the schools of arts and trades who could not be admitted to them because of lack of room, and for still another class who, after having been admitted into those schools, were found to be insufficiently prepared to continue their studies in them, and who were therefore turned away. It happened that just at this time there was vacant the large build- ing of the old convent of Cluny, which had been occupied by a special normal school and the college of Cluny, which had been abolished the preceding year. The village of Cluny owned this building, and it hastened to place it at the disposal of the Government. Three hun- dred thousand francs ($57,900) were spent in making the necessary alterations and in equipping it for its new purpose. The present organization and work of the school is regulated bj the decree of December 6, 1899, which, however, only introduced minor changes in the scheme at first outlined. Following is a reproduction of the most important provisions of this decree, which sets forth in great detail the conditions of administration, the employment of the time, the character of the instruction to be given, etc. The object of the school is stated to be the training of a superior class of workmen competent to hold the position of foreman in the metal and wood working industries. It is under the authority of the minister of commerce. The duration of studies is 3 years. A fourth year is permitted only when a student has been unable to do the regular work through sick- ness or for other good reason. Certificates of graduation are given to those satisfactorily completing the courses. Those failing to reach the required standard can take a new examination at the end of another TKADEAND TECHNICAL EDUCATIOK FKANCE. 745 year. A special certificate and a silver medal are given to those pass- ing above a certain grade. The school receives only boarders, no day students being admitted. The maximum number of students must not exceed 300. The tuition fee is 600 francs ($96.50) a year. The student must also pay 300 francs (f 5Y-90) for his uniform and equipment, and 75 francs ($14.48) the first year and 50 franes ($9.65) each of the other two years for liis general expenses. Scholarships and partial scholarships may be granted when the students show that they are without sufficient resources. These arc granted for a year only, but are renewable. Admittance to the school is obtained by competitive examination. The examination is held concurrently in all the chief cities of the departments, and is both written and manual. It includes writing, French composition from the point of view of stjde and orthography, linear drawing, arithmetic and geometry, physics and chemistry, and the execution, under the eyes of the examiners, of a work in wood or iron. Candidates must be of French nationality and be between the ages of 15 and 17 years. The instruction given in the school is both theoretical and practical. The theoretical part in all cases is such as has a direct bearing upon iron and wood working, and includes arithmetic, progression, loga- rithms, and rules of calculation; elementary geometrj^, including a study of the ellipse, hyperbola, parabola, the development of the cir- cle, the cycloide, and the epicycloide; the elements of rectilinear trig- onometry; descriptive geometry; the study of the laws of motion; the various transformations of motion through mechanical devices, and applied kinematics; elements of industrial mechanics — the description of the principal parts of machines and of apparatus and machines employed in metal and wood working; the detailed and complete description of steam engines and hydraulic motors, with explanation of working formulas and notions concerning the strength of materials; physics; electricit}^ and its industrial applications; chemistry; indus- trial drawing; writing and keeping of accounts; Fi-ench language; history and geography of France and her colonies; industrial hygiene; moral and civic instruction. The practical instruction is given in special workshops, and relates to (1) locksmithing or fine ironworking and fitting, with a section for making instruments of precision; (2) joinery and pattern making (two distinct secitions) ; (8) foundry — the execution by all the student molders of articles in iron and copper and of artistic objects, and (4) blacksmithing, boiler making (work in iron and copper). All articles executed by pupils belong to the State. The teaching personnel includes a director, a subdirector, a shop fore- man performing the functions of an engineer, instructors in mechanics, mathematics, physics and chemistry, drawing, French language, his- 746 BEPORT OF THE COMMISSIONEE OF LABOR. tory and geography — and assistants. All receive their appointments from the minister of commerce. There are other officers haying administrative duties. Provision is made for a council, composed of the instructors, to act as an advisory board. Reports showing the standing and work of the students are prepared and sent to their parents each semester. The school must be inspected at least once a year by the inspector-general of technical education. Upon entering the school the students are definitely distributed among the different shops according to their rank and their particular aptitude. The general principle is to place them in the shop where the work corresponds to the piece of manual work they have executed in the examination. During the last year of study the student pattern makers pass 6 months in the foundry and the student molders execute models under the supervision of the shop foreman and are exercised in taking models to pieces. The student joiners pass 3 months in the fitters' shop and the student fitters 3 months in the joiners' shop. The character of the daily life of the students — their amusements, expenditures, etc., is very carefully regulated and a rigid oversight is exercised over them at all times. Following is the division of the time of the students during work days: 5.16 a. m., reveille; 5.35 to 5.45 a. m., recitation; 5.45 to 7 a. m., study; 7 to 7.10 a. m., breakfast; 7.10 to 7.30 a. m., recreation; 7.30 to 9 a. m., drawing; 9 a. m. to 12 m., shop work; 12 m. to 12.20 p. m., lunch; 12.20 to 1.30 p. m., recreation; 1.30 to5.30p. m. ,shopwork; 5.30 to7p. m. , recitation ; 7to 7.20 p.m., dinner; 7.20 to 7.30 p. m., recreation; 7.30 to 8.45 p. m., study; 8.45 to 9 p. m., recreation; 9 p. m., retirement. The shops of the school ai"e modern in all respects and cover an area of 2,550 square meters (27,448 square feet). The fitting shop has 150 pupils. Aside from its equipment of smaller tools it contains 43 lathes, 4 fraising machines, a machine for sharpening fraising tools, a drilling machine, a mortising machine, a machine for polishing the interior of tubes, a screw-cutting machine, a machine for rectifying lathe work, and a traveling crane having 3,000 kilograms (6,614 pounds) lifting power and 16 meters (52 feet) carrying space. The section for work of precision has 18 pupils. It contains ^ drill- ing machines, a small fraising machine, and 4 thread-cutting lathes. The foundry, which accommodates 28 pupils, has a traveling crane with a lifting power of 5,000 kilograms (11,023 pounds), a cupola fur- nace of 1,600 kilograms (3,307 pounds) capacity and another of 1,000 kilograms (2,205 pounds), also a ventilator, a drying stove, a bronze furnace, and a sand- working machine. The forge shop, accommodating 28 pupils, contains a traveling crane of 1,500 kilograms (3,307 pounds) lifting power, a steam hammer with a drop weight of 1,200 kilograms (2,646 pounds), a steam hammer with TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION FBANCE. 747 a drop weight of 300 kilograms (661 pounds), and a machine for saw- ing metals. .The machinery and fitting apparatus in the forge shop and foundry are driven by a steam engine of 30 horse power. The pattern-making shop, which has 30 pupils, is in a separate build- ing. The motive power is derived from 2 turbine water wheels of 10 horse power each. The turbines also run the dynamo which lights the building. A storage battery completes this equipment. A gas engine of 20 horse power is held in reserve, to be used in case of a drought. The shop has 7 lathes for woodwork, a rough-dressing machine, a planing machine, a mortising machine, a band saw, a scroll saw, and a molding machine. At the boiler-making shop the 15 pupils have at their disposal a pair of shears, a machine for bending sheet iron, and a hole-punching machine. The motive power is supplied by a small horizontal engine of 6 horse power, which also works the apparatus in the laundry. The budget of the school for the year 1899-1900 was 334,000 francs (164,462). INDUSTKIAL INSTITUTE OF WOKTHESN FRABTCE, LISLE. This institution was founded in 1873, to take the place of a school of industrial art which had existed at Lisle for some years prior to that time. It was originally designated the ' ' Industrial, Commercial, and Ag-ricultural Institute of the North of France," but the commercial and agricultural sections were abolished and since 1884 the institution has been purely industrial in character. Prior to 1895 it comprised two divisions — technology and mechanical engineering — but in that year the division of technology was discontinued, the first year's course only being retained as preparatory to the work in the remain- ing division. The object of the school is to educate young men as mechanical and electrical engineers and factory superintendents for the industries of northern France. The regular course of study covers 3 years, except where pupils devote a year to preparatory work in mechanical and electrical engi- neering. ■ The pupils are divided into three departments — that of mechanical engineering, that of electrical engineering, and that of chemistry. The plan of studies is common to all the pupils in the first year; specialization begins in the second year and is greatly aug- mented in the third year. The instruction in the department of mechanical engineering is intended especially to prepare pupils for positions as superintendents of machine construction and of public works. It consists mainly of exercises in drawing, adjusting or fitting, joinery work, surveying and leveling, mechanical experiments, and drawing of plans. 748 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. The pupils in the department of electrical engineering pursue during the first and second years the regular theoretical coux'se in mechanical engineering, and in the second and third years take up the practical work. Thej' study the \'arious kinds of machines, their construction and their uses. Practical Avork in electro-technics is begun during the second 3'ear and is fully amplified during the third j^ear. The pupils in the department of chemistry begin the study of ana- lytical and industrial chemistrj' with the second year. After this they take up the applications of chemistry to the principal chemical industries and are taught to perform experiments and conduct original researches. During the third year the greater part of their time is devoted to work of a practical nature. Weekly tests are held which stimulate the pupils and show their degree of progress. At the end of the third year diplomas and cer- tificates are conferred on the pupils by the prefect of the department, upon recommendation of the administrative council of the school and the director. The following table shows th^ course of instruction and the number of lessons per quarter in each subject: COURSES OF STUDY IN INDUSTRIAL INSTITUTE OF NORTHERN FRANCE, LISLE. Lessons per quarter. Subjei'ts. First quar- ter. Second quar- ter. Third quar- ter. Fourth quar- ter. rREPARATORY YEAR. Oral courses: Elementary mathematics 40 SO 30 Elements of mechanics 20 General physics 20 20 10 10 20 10 10 10 10 30 10 10 10 10 20 10 10 20 10 20 10 30 Exercises in mathematics Practical exorcises: Arflt.heTTintips Physics Fitting and pattern making 30 Chemical experiments 30 Drawing 30 30 20 FIRST YEAR. Oral courses: Elementary mathematics 20 10 10 20 20 30 ■ 30 10 10 20 20 15 Descriptive geometry Surveying and leveling General physics 20 20 Theory oi electricity General chemistry 30 Industrial geography 10 10 Industrial bookkeeping 10 20 10 30 Practical exercises; 10 10 46' 10 30 Sketching 40 80 30 Chemical experiments SECOND Y'EAR. Oral courses: 20 10 20 10 10 20 10 Descriptive geometry Rational mechanics 10 10 Applied kinematics Construction of parts of machines 10 10 TKADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION FEANCE. 749 COURSES OF STUDY IN INDUSTRIAL INSTITUTE OF NORTHERN FRANCE, LISLE— Concl'd. Subjects. Lessons per quarter. First quar- ter. Second quar- ter. Third quar- ter. Fourtli quar- ter. SECOND YE.\K— concluded. Oral courses— Concluded. Spinning, weaving, and textile materials (mechanical and electrical engineers) Industrial physics Theory o£ electricity Practical electricity (mechanical and electrical engineers) Analytic chemistry General industrial chemistry Mineralogy and geology Common law Hygiene Practical exercises; Drawing f mechanical engineers) Drawing (chemists) Drawing (electricians ) Free-band sketching (mechanical and electrical engineers) Free-hand sketching (chemists) Fitting and pattern making Chemical experiments (mechanical engineers) Chemical experiments (electricians) Chemical experiments (chemists) Electrical measurements (electricians) Electro-technical practice and work (electricians) THIP.D YEAK. Oral courses; Applied mechanics „ -' Stereotomy Applied resistance Study ol machines Study ol hand and machine tools Industrial construction Railroads Practical electricity (mechanical and electrical engineers) Telegraphy and telephony (mechanical and electrical engi- neers) Special industrial chemistry ( chemists) Sugar refining and distilling (mechanical engineers and chem- ists) Bleaching, dyeing, and dressing (chemists) Metallurgy Practical exercises: * Drawing and designing (mechanical engineers) Drawing and designing (electricians) Drawing and designing (chemists) Chemical experiments (chemists) Operations in dyeing (chemists) Electro-technical practice and work (electricians) 20 40 20 20 10 20 10 10 10 50 10 30 10 50 10 10 20 20 CO 30 20 30 10 30 The affairs of the school are administered by a council composed of the prefect of the Department of the North and 15 associates, one of whom is the director of the institution. On January 1, 1899, the attendance was as follows: Preparatory year, 69; first year, 87; second year, 61; third year, 58; total attend- ance, 275. The number of graduates in 1898 was 43. The revenues of the school are derived chiefly from tuition fees, departmental subsidies, and from State and communal appropriations. The total expenditures for the scholastic year 1898-99 were 242,479 francs ($46,798), of which 90,577 francs (117,481) were paid as salaries to the instructors, etc. Eeceipts were 242,786 francs (|46,858). Of receipts the principal items were a subsidy of 20,000 francs (|3,860) from the department, 750 EEPOKT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOE. tuition fees amounting to 150,760 francs (129,095), and scholarships granted by the State, the department, municipality, etc., to the amount of 50,700 francs (19,785). TECHNICAL INSTITUTE, KOXTBAIX. The founding of this institution was due to the initiative of a Catholic priest, the Abbe Vassart, who conceived the idea of establishing a technical institute "for the rational teaching of all the operations connected with the textile industry from the carding and spinning of the raw materials to the dressing of the finished product." In 1895 a stock company was formed to carry out this idea. Two classes of instruction are given in the school. The fii'st or superior trade instruction is aimed to develop men capa- ble of directing operations in all the different branches of the textile industry, and, through a recently added department of mechanics and electricitj', to teach a few pupils the art of engineering. This grade of the instruction, which is both theoretical and practical, is given during the daj', and, constituting as it does the principal aim of the school, it gives the institution the character of a higher trade school. The second class or grade of instruction is intended for mill oper- atives and foremen in the textile industries. It is giv^en only at night. This part of the instruction was free at first, but there is now an annual charge of 5 francs (fO.97) for each course taken. To be admitted into the day school, candidates must have reached the age of 16, must present testimonials of moral character satisfactory to a Catholic directorship, and show by diplomas or examinations that thoy have completed the general French or Latin courses of the gram- mar schools, and have sufiicient education to enable them to compre- hend the instruction given in one of the departments of the institute. Students specialize in four departments, in each of which 3 j^ears of study are required in order to obtain a diploma. Each day the pupils pass 3 hours in class exercises and 3 hours in practical work. They must prepare their lessons and exercises outside these hours. The scheme of instruction presents a somewhat peculiar arrangement, in that a general course common to all the students is given, and con- currently with this a specific programme of instruction is used in each of the four departments. The general course of instruction admits of several subdivisions. The first includes a study of the Catholic religion and the principles of social and political economy, etc. A second subdivision includes courses of instruction relative to the general operation of factories. It comprises a consideration of the qualities of the waters used in the textile industries and the treatment to be given them in different cases, with analyses of waters from different sources; the heating, dampening, and ventilation of factories, as required by the nature of TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION FKAWCE. 751 the products; the production of steam and the different systems of boilers; steam engines and gas motors; general consideration of elec- tricity, its u.se for lighting and for power, together with the means of generating it, the instruments for measuring it, and apparatus for transforming and applying its energy. A general course in applied mechanics forms another subdivision of the general instruction. In this branch the student is given an idea of the elements of kinematics, supplemented by the elements of general mechanics applied to parts of machinery — rods, shafts, gearings and pulleys, connecting rods, cranks, eccentrics, gear engagements, i*atchet wheels, regulators, governors, etc., and elements of strength of materials. A fourth subdivision of the general course of instruction comprises commercial and industrial accounting and the English and German languages; also industrial and art drawing, which is taken by all the pupils independently of the special work in drawing taken up in each department. For practical work in relation to the general course each special department takes its regular turn at operating the equipment pertain- ing to the general service of the shops. This general equipment comprises a semitubular boiler of 200 horse power, a steam engine of 40 horse pov/er, a gas engine of 25 horse power, two dynamos having a joint capacity of 36 kilowatts, two accumulators, and six motors for operating the machinery of the several shops. Of the four departments of special instruction, three relate specific- ally to the textile industries and are (1) the department of spinning; (2) the department of weaving, and (3) the department of dyeing. The fourth department relates to mechanics and electricitj^. The follow- ing synopsis, based on the programmes in use in each of these depart- ments, shows the scope and character of the technical instruction. Spinning department: This embraces the combing and carding of wool, the spinning of wool and cotton, and the study of mechanics and mechanical dra\\'ing. The worls of this department is divided into three parts — the chemical, the commer- cial, and the mechanical. Each part includes its appropriate technology and its prac- tical exercises. The instruction relative to the chemical side of spinning embraces the consideration of the various waters used and the different methods of purifying them; the oils, their souTces and properties, with analyses of mixtures of oils; pot- ashes and sodas, their manufacture and uses; soaps; lubricating oils and oils used on carded and combed wool; the scouring and washing of wool; the chemical prop- erties of the fibers, the removal of burrs, etc. In the laboratory the pupils are trained in supplying and analyzing the waters; in the use of disincrustants, oils, and potaalies; in the mixing of fibers in the yarn, and in making soap used in factories. On the commercial side the work of the pupils in the spinning department includes the study of textile materials of animal and vegetable origin and those of artifi- cial production; studies in relation to the state or condition and the testing of the fibers, and to the numbering of yams produced from the fibers of different materials from various countries. The practical exercises consist more especially in the prep- aration of fibers for microscopic examination; testing for hygrometric condition and freedom from natural oil, etc., and the determination of the strength and degree of twisting of a yarn, and of its size and number. 752 BEPORT OF THE C0MMI8SI0NEE OF LABOE. The instruction which is given concerning the purely mechanical part of spinning relates more particularly to the combing and spinning of wool and to cotton spin- ning. The materials and processes used in the operations of sorting, scouring, wash- ing, carding, combing, spinning, and doubling of wool are considered, as well as are the principles and calculations relative to drawing and twisting and to the installa- tion of the various kinds of spinning frames. Analogous operations in reference to cotton spinning are fully considered. A very complete equipment is provided for the practical exercises in connection with this part of the spinning department. In this department there is more need than in any other that the student shall be famil- iar with mechanical drawing. For that reason its programme of studies includes a review of those elements of geometry necessary to a comprehension of the plans, cuts, and diagrams of machines, and many exercises in drafting machinery and in drawing to a scale parts of machinery that may call for reproduction in the foundry or woodworking shops. These practical exercises in drawing relale particularly to certain machines or machine parts used in this branch of the industry. Weaving department: Weaving is studied from the threefold aspect of style, of art in weaving, and the purely industrial or commercial point of view. Relative to the first of these divisions, a general consideration is given to style in decorative composition, to the distinctive characteristics and the most notable works connected with each style, and to decorative composition as related to the genius of different peoples at various epochs. Styles from the period of antiquity to modern times are studied. The ancient styles considered are the Egyptian, Assyrian, Greek, Etruscan, Graeco-Eoman, Chinese, Japanese, Arabic, Indian, Moorish, and Persian. Those which are chosen to represent the middle ages are the Byzantine, Boman, and Gothic. For the Eenaissance period, the styles from the time of Francis I to that of Louis XIII are studied; and for the more modern times, the styles from Louis XIV to the Empire are taken as examples. The practical work in relation to styles con- sists of exercises in decorative composition; copying at sight of a model designed by the professor as typical of a style; invention and execution of a theme in decorative composition under imposed conditions of style, destination, and dimensions; the identification and description of a style from plates; of the tints in the composition, and of the conditions a design must fulfill in order that it may be executed in weaving. The technological part of the course in artistic weaving comprises a study of the classification of fabrics and the different kinds of looms. The studies in connec- tion with hand weaving relate to the making of double cloths, double-faced cloths, twilled stuffs, fancy fabrics, quilted goods for garments and furniture, piques, etc. In connection with Jacquard weaving, the students are instructed in making and preparing pattern cards, in producing figured goods and the textures which are made by the use of the drop-box device. A consideration of the different styles of Lyonese beaming, of velvets, gauzes, and tapestries (Gobelin, Beauvais, Aubusson, etc.) complete the technological part of this course. The practical work in the course in artistic weaving includes graduated practical exercises in analysis of the different kinds of fabrics— plain, fancy, figured, and artistic; exercises in making cards after decorative compositions, or after designs obtained by analyzing fabrics, followed by the setting of the loom and the execution of the design. The study of styles and of art weaving is said to constitute a complete preparation for the artisans' examination for the 2 years' exemption from military service provided for by law. From the commercial or industrial point of view the work in the weaving depart- ment comprises the study of the raw materials (wool, cotton, silk, flax, hemp, jute, and ramie) , of their application in the manufacture of fabrics, and the operations neces- sary in such manufacture (twisting, reeling, warping, sizing, tieing, and weaving). Greater attention is given, however, to the details of the construction and the man- agement of the different machines employed. A thorough study is given of all kinds TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDXTCATION FEANCE. 753 of looms; of analyses of their motions; of the speed, of power looms; of calculation of the output of looms, and of the diagrammatic representation of the action of looms. This course is completed by a consideration of the relations of the manufacturer with the dealers in the raw or spun material, with the combers, spinners, twisters, and dyers of yarns and fabrics, and by some lessons in the proper care to be given yarns, fabrics, etc. The practical work done in connection with this part of the study of weaving consists in exercises in the analysis of fabrics; the production of patterns, including the making of cards, the setting of the loom, the arrangement of the colors, and the weaving of the pattern; and calculations of net cost of weaving. Department of dyeing: The instruction in this department is divided into three courses, relating respectively to dyeing, to printing, and to the manufacture of dye- stuffs. The course in dyeing is in turn divided into several parts. It includes the study of bleaching, of dyeing (as used in the restricted sense), and of finishing. Relative to bleaching a preliminary consideration is given to waters, soaps, alkalies, acids, chlorine, vegetable and animal fibers, and to the effects of the application of different quantities of these substances. Then follows a study of classic and of all the modern processes of bleaching — by ozone, by oxygenated water, chlorozone, barium dioxide, permanganate of potassium, and electricity. The study of dyeing (as the term is used in the restricted sense) includes the his- tory and description of the processes and materials used; thorough study of mordant- ing and of the mordants and of dyestuffs of every kind and their application to the various fibers. The study given to finishing includes a consideration of the materials employed for that purpose; of their nature and of the part they play, from a chemical and mechanical point of view; of the tools used, and of the rules of practice to be fol- lowed for the different methods of treatment. Special questions considered in this course relate to certain special processes of dyeing simple or mixed goods, either in the raw state or in various stages of manufacture; the effects of dyeing on the firm- ness of materials, and accidents in the processes. The course in printing, after treating generally of the subject of dyeing and of the thickening and coloring materials, takes up the processes of printing on spun yarns (clouding), on combed material, and all processes of printing on the woven fabrics. It treats of the permanency of colors when exposed to physical or chemical agents, and of the wearing quality of the fibers before and after printing. It includes also special lessons in designing and styles for engraving on printing plates and cylinders, as well as in the harmony of colors and taste in decorative composition. The course in the manufacture of dyestuffs includes lessons relating to the organic chemistry of the fundamental groups of dyes, and to the production, classification, and immediate and elementary analysis of artificial dyes; the study of the prepara- tion of raw materials arising from the distillation of organic matters (coal and coal tar); the study of the manufacture of dyes (extracts of the derivatives of benzine, phenic acid, naphthalene, anthracene, the azoic derivatives, and of certain colorants not derived from coal) ; the synthesis of the natural colorants; the study of the materials used in the various operations; experiments in devising new processes for making artificial dyes, and analytical methods for investigating the nature and the compara- tive value of colorants, and for identifying the dyes used on a given pattern. Practical work in this section includes many exercises in dyeing different materials in all the shades, simple or composite; reproductions of scales of colors; the preparation of fabrics for dyeing, and investigations into and analyses of fibers, colorants, etc., employed. All the manipulations involved in printing on yarns, on combed mate- rial, and on woven fabrics are performed according to the various methods and styles in use. Students pass over the various operations involved in the distillation of tar for the benzines, naphthalene, phenol, anthracene, etc. They also manufacture chemical products that are used as sources of primary dye materials (anilines, naph- 9257—02 48 754 EEPOET OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. thols, etc.), make artificial colorants, and make a practical study of th-e properties and comparative values of the industrial colorants. The school is -well supplied Avith apparatus for carrjdng on all the operations of dyeing and finishing. Bepartment of mechanics and electricity: This department was established more recently than the others for the purpose of allowing certain pupils to specialize in the theory and practice of engineering. The theoretical courses in this department are as follows: Fundamental principles of mechanics in its several branches (kine- matics, hydraulics, dynamics, applied mechanics, and strength of materials); com- prehensive study of steam engines of all systems, and in particular of expansion gears and their applications. In electricity the studies relate to currents, meters, and sources of electrical energy (piles, dynamos and accumulators), continuous currents, polyphase currents and transformers, electric lighting, power transmission, and electrolysis. For practical "work this department has the use of a special shop equipped with -s-ises, lathes, a filing machine, planisher, drill, corrugator, forge and its accessories, and a complete equipment for the construction of electrical apparatus. A complemental department, in which tlie instruction relates more particularly to the commercial side of the industry, has recently been added to the school. The instruction comprises special courses in accounting, the study of commercial operations, and of the centers of production and commerce in Franco and throughout the world, the English, Spanish, and German languages, etc. Diplomas are awarded to those who satisfy all requirements. They are based upon written compositions made during the course and upon the result of the annual examinations. These latter cover the work of the particular department to which the student belongs and the work of the general course which is common to all students. Tuition in the day school is 600 francs (1116) a j-ear. A reduction is made to inhabitants of Koubaix. The attendance in 1899 was 60. A boarding department has lately been added for the benefit of students from a distance. The price of board is placed at 1,000 francs (fl93) a year, exclusive of tuition. The evening courses were organized at the beginning of the school's history. They are intended for those workmen and foremen who desire supplemental technical instruction. To be admitted to these courses the applicant must bo not less than 16 years of age and have a sufficient degree of primary education to enake him to follow them with profit and take the necessary notes. The courses extend from October 1 to the end of May. The instruction is given in four depart- ments, as in the day school, and covers a period of two years. Tho pupils in each department are required to write three compo- sitions the first year. Those students whose work has been satisfac- tory receive an honorable mention, which entitles them to jmss into the second year. In the second year the compositions are followed by an oral examination at the end of the year. Those who are suc- cessful receive a "certificate of aptitude." The evening courses were free in the beginning, but there is now an annual charge of 5 francs ($0.97) for each course. This charge has TRADE AND TEOHNICAL EDUCATION FRANCE. 755 the effect of keeping away the idle. In 1899 there were about 200 enrolled in the different evening courses. Except for private donations of machinerj', etc., the stock company- has relied upon its own resources for the maintenance of the school. No subsidy has l^een received either from the State or the city. The institute has frequently been asked to judge of the merits, or to make trials, of new apparatus, to the profit of the • students and of the local industries. SCHOOLS FOR DECORATIVE AND INDUSTRIAL ART. A few schools belonging to this class are described in the following pages. It was somewhat difficult to select representative schools for reasons partly explained in the introduction. MUNICIPAL ACADEMIC SCHOOL, DOTJAI. This institution began its existence Januarj' 1, 1770. It was first designated the free school of drawing. In 1808 were added courses in modeling, architecture, penmanship, and botany and anatomy. The courses as they now exist were established in 1881. The instruction is given in the evening, and is both artistic and industrial in character. The artistic instruction comprises courses in architecture; figural, plant, and flower drawing; painting, modeling, ornamental drawing, elementary drawing, history of art, and anatomy. The industrial instruction comprises courses in machine drawing, stone and wood carving, decorative compositions for painting and sculpturing, wood and iron "working, penmanship, and bookkeeping. The period of instruction is not limited, the pupils remaining at the school until they are fitted to take a position. The following table shows the programme of instruction, the number of hours per week devoted to each course, and the attendance in each on January' 1, 1899: COURSE OF INSTRUCTION AND ATTENDANCE IN THE MUNICIPAL ACADEMIC SCHOOL, DOUAI, JANUARY 1, 1899. Subjects. Hours per week. Attend- Artistic instruction: ArcIiLtecture, sliading', perspective Figural and flower diawixae^ and artistic painting Ornamental drawing, anatomy, and modeling History o£ art Elementary drawing Industrial instruction: Machine drawing and applied meclianice Joinery and carpentry , Decorative -composition {senlpturing ) Decorative composition (;painting) . _ Sciences, physics, and chemistry Wood and stone carving Technical trade instruction Fitting, locksmithing, metal turning CaTpentry, joinery, wood turning BooKkeeping (2 hours for -boys, i hour forrgirls) . . Penmanship , l:i 191 13i 14 6 6 15 a 6i 2 10 10 47 U 58 7 31 27 32 3 12 3 IS 23 28 14 756 BEPOET OF THE COMMISSIONEE OF LABOB. The programme of instruction in each course is elaborated by the instructor of that course and the commission charged with the general supervision of the school. The number of pupils graduating each year varies from 50 to 70. The graduates obtain positions as decorative painters, sculptors, orna- menters, industrial draftsmen, pattern makers, molders, machine fitters, artistic iron woi'kers, metal turners, joiners, carpenters, stone carvers, blacksmiths, masons, foremen of workshops, employees of commercial houses, banks, etc. The teaching personnel consists of 14 instructors. The expense of maintenance during the school year 1898-99 amounted to 28,680 francs (|5,536). This expenditure was met by the State subsidy of 9,000 francs ($1,737), and the balance was paid directly by the city. BERNABD-PAIilSSY SCHOOL OF INDUSTBIAL ART, PARIS. In 1882 the municipal council of Paris decided to convert a private drawing school that had been receiving a subsidy from the city into a public school of industrial art. It was named after a celebrated French clay potter of the sixteenth century. Its aim is to turn out skiUed artisans for certain art industries — ceramics, wood carving, marble and other stone carving, cloth-pattern designing, and decora- tive painting. To secure admission, pupils must take an entrance examination, they must be at least 13 years of age, of French nationality, and residents of Paris or of the Department of the Seine. The courses are given in the morning and in the afternoon. There are also evening sessions. Tuition is free. The course of study, including a prepai-atory year, covers four j^ears. During the pre- paratory year the pupils' aptitudes are discovered, and beginning with the next — that is, the first year of the regular curriculum — their work is special Ized. There are separate departments for decorative paintei's, cloth-pattern designers, carvers, and ceramic artists. The aiTange- ment of the programme is as follows: Preparatory year: Modeling from plaster casta and from plants; linear drawing; drawing plants and flowers from plaster casts; ornament drawing. First, second, and third years (the curriculum proper): Department of decora- tive painting — perspective; theory and applications; history of art and analysis of styles; composition; drawing from large plaster casts; figures and ornaments; study of anatomy; modeling; designing; shopwork. Department of cloth-pattern design- ing—drawing; history of art; composition; shopwork. Department of carving — perspective; history of art and composition; drawing; study of anatomy; modeling; shopwork. Department of ceramics — perspective; history of art; composition; drawing; study of anatomy; modeling; shopwork. The total number of students enrolled on January 1, 1899, was 120 of which number 45 were in the preparatory year. The 75 students TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION FRANCE. 757 in tihe ti'ade years proper were distributed among the departments and years as follows: STUDENTS IN EACH DEPARTMENT OP THE BERNARD-PALISSY SCHOOL OF INDUSTRIAL ART, PARIS, JANUARY 1, 1899. Departments. Decorative painting Cloth-pattern designing Carving Ceramics Total First year. 10 7 10 Second year. 25 Third year. Total. 19 23 16 17 75 At this school, as in other municipal schools of Paris, the city has adopted the plan of according aid to certain pupils. The amount of such gratuities depends upon the merit of the pupil and the circum- stances of his family. As showing the value of the instruction here received, it is stated that of the 24 pupils who left the school in 1899, 19 found immediate emplo}*mentatgood wages in industrial establishments. Included in this number were 7 decorators, 4 cloth-pattern designers, 7 sculptors, and 1 ceramic artist. Some of the graduates received a wage of li francs (29 cents) an hour. None received less than 40 centimes (8 cents) per hour. Much the larger proportion of pupils enter the trades for which they are trained in the school. In 1899 the Society for the Encouragement of Art and Industry organized a competition among graduates of various schools. Prizes amouHting to 2,400 francs ($463) were distributed, of which sum two prizes of 500 francs (i96.50) each and two of 50 francs ($9.65) each were awarded to graduates of this school. The total expenditures of the school for the year ending in 1899 were 75,919 francs ($14,652). Of this amount 58,506 francs ($11,291) represents the amount paid in salaries. The total appropriation of the city was 74,575 francs ($14,393). Departmental and communal appropriations amounted to 1,344 francs ($259). DISTRICT SCEOOL OF IBTDTTSTRIAIi ARTS, SAINT-ETIENIO;. The origin of this school dates from the year 1766, when a course in drawing and carving was established by Jean Olagnier, a talented sculptor of Saint-Etienne. This undertaking develo]Ded in 1804 into a municipal drawing school, which in 1886 was transformed into the school as it exists to-day. This transformation was brought about by an arrangement made with the minister of public instruction, by which the school was made a district school of industrial arts and placed under his supervision, therebj^ receiving an annual subsidy from the central Government. It properly belongs, however, to the municipality of Saint-Etienne and the greater pai't of its revenues are derived from that source. 758 EEPORT OP THE OOMMISSIOWER OF LABOR. Two courses of instruction are offered — one given in the evening and the other during the day. The evening course is general in its character, the instruction relating to the general principles of draw- ing, anatomy, geometry, and to the history of art, though soifle instruction is also given in both the theory and practice of weaving and card making. The day coui'ses arc intended for young men who intend to enter the trades of decorators, designers, or card makers for the ribbon industry, carvers in building and furniture work, engrav- ers, chasers, etc., and to prepare pupils for the art schools of Paris or for positions as teachers of drawing. The programmes of instruction for the two divisions, evening and day, are as follows: EVENING DIVISION. Elementary geometry: Plane geometry and dependent constructions; solid geom- .try, ]neasurement of surfaces and volumes. Descriptive geometry and linear perspective: Demonstrations, diagrams, perspect- ive of simple objects. Mechanics: Theoretical study of forces and of elements of machinery, and drav,'- ings in outline. Geometrical drawing: Geometrical constructions, outline drawings, sketches, side elevations, principles of wash drawing applied to mechanics, to joinery, to carpentry, and to stonecutting. Pupils pursuing this study must take in addition one of the above-mentioned subjects. Higher course in weaving: Study of looms and of ribbon weaving in all its aspects, as a whole and in detail. Course in card making: Study of patterns and of their preparation. Elementary weaving course: Preparatory work for the two preceding courses. DAY DIVISION. Elementary drawing course (first year) : Study of geometrical figures and the orna- mental combinations derived from them, perspective drawing from observation of the geometrical solids, simple objects and ornamental plaster casts. Elementary drawing course (second year): Study of architectural fragments, foli- age forms, flowers, fruits, and ornaments, from plaster casts. Intermediate drawing course (first year) : Study of ornaments in groups and of the human head, posturing of the body and of the extremities. Intermediate drawing course (second year) : Continuation of the preceding studies, posturing of academic figures. Higher drawiug course: Study of the antique and of the living model, sketching of postures, attitudes, and gestures; ornaments and animals; reductions (the last two subjects 'being intended chiefly for engravers). Preparatory course in flower drawing: Elementary study of flowers and plants in charcoal, crayon, and India ink. Course in flower drawing and decorative composition: Study of groups of flowers and plants, of foliage and fruits, in aquarelle, gouache, and oil; study of decorative elements; general composition — decorative panels, subjects in furniture ornamenting, architecture, etc.; particular composition — ornamentation of sporting and of fire- arms, special decoration on ribbons and cloths; birds and insects (natural and conventionalized ) . Course in modeling and sculpture (two divisions — a morning course from 9 to 12 o'clock for pupils taking the evening drawing course, and an evening course from 8 to 10 o'clock for specialists) : Study of ornaments, flowers, plants, figures— from the TEABE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION FEANCE. 759 elementary to the academic forms; decorative compositions, such as friezes, capitals, consoles, panels, door tops, etc. Course in architectural drawing: Study of moldings and frames, plans, sections, aiid elevations; geometrical elevations and diagrams. Course in engraving, chasing, inlaying, and repousse work: In this course the chief aim is to inculcate the traditional methods of the artists who have rendered famous the Saint-Etienne industry of firearms decoration, and to teach the processes and the use of the various tools hy having the pupils practice engraving with use of the hammer, the scauper, etching with acids, chasing, flat and relief inlaid work chased and engraved. The subjects studied are: Ornaments, letters, figure monograms, emblems, heraldic figures, and the blazonry decorations most generally used, subjects of the chase, and the human figure. The studies are first engraved on fiat sheets of steel, then on pieces having the proper contour, such as hammers, trigger guards, locks, levers, barrels, etc. Course in anatomy: Study of osteology and mj'ology, of proportions, of the "model, of expressions and movements; comparative anatomy; drawing in black and in colored crayon. Course in the history of art: This course covers two years, comprising in the first year a study of the monuments, sculpture, paintings, and decorative arts of Egypt, Assyria, Greece, and Rome, and of the Byzantine, Arabic, and Russian arts; and in the second year study of the Romanesque and Gothic styles, of the Renaissance in Italy and France, and of the period from Louis XIII to the present. The hours per week occupied by the several courses are as follows: Flowers and decorative composition 15 Modeling and sculpture 28 Engraving, chasing, inlaid and repouss6 work 15 Elementary geometry 4J Descriptive geometry ,. 3 Mechanics 6 Geometrical drawing 12 Higher course in weaving 6 Card-making course 6 Elementary weaving 8 All instruction in the school is free. The school year extenas from October 10 to July 14. There is no boarding department, only day pupils being- received. Pupils must be not less than 12 years of age, and must be provided with the certificate of primary education. An entrance examination must also be taken. The number of pupils in attendance on January 1, 1899, was 402, of whom 199 were taking more than one course, making the total attend- ance On all the courses 601. The distribution of this attendance, shown for the two sections separateh', is as follows: Evening division: Elementary drawing 45 Descriptive geometry 17 Mechanics 14 Geometrical drawing 70 Higher weaving course - 31 Card making 13 Elementary weaving course 51 Total 241 760 BEPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. Day division: Elementary drawing (first year) 60 Elementary drawing (second year) 44 Intermediate drawing (first year) 36 Intermediate drawing (second year) 22 Higher drawing 20 Drawing preparatory to decoration - 20 Flowers and decorative composition 12 Modeling and sculpture 24 Architectui-al drawing 12 Engraving, carving, inlaying 22 Anatomy 44 History of art 44 Total 360 At least one-half of the pupils of this school are employed in the gun shops or ribbon factories of Saint-Etienne, or with sculptors and architects of the city. The I'eceipts and expenditures for the school year ending in 1899 are as follows: Eeceipts: Subsidies from the State 11,544.00 Subsidies from the department 386. 00 Subsidies from the city of Saint-Etienne 5, 404. 00 Subsidies from the chamber of commerce 386. 00 Total receipts : 7, 720. 00 Expenditures: Personnel 6,880.45 Office expenses 77. 20 Course expenses 173. 70 Conservatory .ind flowers 77. 20 Furniture and repairs 154. 40 Library and prizes 260. 55 Living model 57. 90 Collection of plasters 38. 60 Total expenditures 7, 720. 00 Besides its general subsidy to the school, as stated above, the city has established two scholarships, one for a designer and the other for an engraver. It also grants scholarships to pupils of the school going to Paris or Lj^on to take the courses of the school of decorative arts. PKACTICAL SCHOOLS OF COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY. Several representative institutions belonging to this class are described in the following pages. A full description of these institu- tions, taken collectively, has been presented in the introductory pages of this chapter. TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION — FRANCE. 761 PRACTICAL SCHOOL OP IBTDUSTUY, HAVRE. Among the practical schools of commerce and industry that at Havre takes first rank and is often considered as a model for institu- tions of its class. This school owes its origin to an appropriation of 4,300 francs (1830), made by the municipal council in 1859, for the purchase of tools with which to give manual instruction in locksmith- ing and carpentering to the pupils of the advanced primary school of the city. Two foremen — a locksmith and a joiner — were employed to take charge of the instruction. This manual training department began operations in October of the following year, 1860. A scheme of instruction was prepared which provided for a three j'ears' course of two hours shopwork per daj' the first j'ear, three hours the second, and four hours the third year. This instruction was at first but in the nature of complementary manual training. After several years of experimenting it was decided to convert the manual-training department into an actual trade or apprenticeship school. This was done on January 1, 1868, the new school being installed in a separate building. At first only a modest beginning was made. A director who had charge of the theoretical instruction and two foremen charged with the practical workshop instruction were appointed. The school opened with 46 students. This number continued steadily to increase, from 74 in 1869 to 153 in 1878. The school had at the latter date reached the limit of its capacitjr and it had become necessarj^ to turn awaj' applicants for admission. In the meantime it had I'eceived considerable elaboration as regards the A^ariety of subjects taught. To the original branches of locksmith- ing and joinery there had been added courses in drawing, mechanics, blacksmithing, machine fitting, etc. New equipments had been obtained and the number of teachers augmented. The expenditures of the city for the school, which had been 9,270 francs (|1,7S9) in 1869, rose to 17,480 francs (^3,374) in 1879. The central Government had also contributed liberally to its support. The great want of the school was now adequate housing accommoda- tions, hence in 1879 a new building was constructed especially for the school. The school in its new quarters was now adequately equipped. Over 217,000 francs (|41,881) had been spent on the building, besides 30,000 francs ($5,790) in addition for the purchase of new machines and tools. Three additional workshops were constructed. One of these was for copper, tin, and zinc smithing, and small sheet iron working, another for molding and brass founding, and a third for blacksmith- ing. In 1887 an institution called the school for marine machinists' 762 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OP LABOR. apprentices {Vecole (T apjyrentis micaniciens de la marhie), capable of accommodating 50 pupils, was annexed to the trade school. From 1888 to 1892 this school was classed as a manual apprentice- ship school, subject to the law of December 11, 1880, and the regula- tion of March 17, 1888. Since 1892 it has been classified as a practical school of industry, as provided by the law of January 26, 1892, and the decree of February 22, 1893. The school at the present time is housed in a group of four contigu- ous buildings. One of these is used for the dwelling of the director. The second, or main building, is a structure 33 feet by 197 feet. On the ground floor are located the shops for machine fitting, for turning, and for locksmithing or fine metal working. The machine- fitting shop occupies about half the space. This shop has 81 vises. The lathes are placed lengthwise along the walls. The locksmithing shop, like that for machine fitting, occupies nearly half of the central part of the ground floor. It has 44 vises. The shops also contain drilling machines, small planing machines, etc. The three shops can accom- modate 125 pupils. On the second floor are two carpenter shops, each in charge of a foreman. Each shop has 36 benches with full sets of tools, a lathe, a grindstone, a circular saw (each operated by a motor), two cutting saws, a foot lathe, etc. These two shops can accommodate 80 pupils. The third floor is used for class and study rooms. Here are a library and reading I'oom, two drawing and four class rooms. A third building is used as a blacksmith shop. It contains 16 forges arranged in paii's, each pair having a chimney in common, and each forge having an anvil and a complete set of blacksmith's tools. Three vises complete the furnishings. Thirtj^-two pupils can be admitted to this shop. Adjoining the blacksmith shop is a shop for copper, tin, zinc, and sheet-iron working, around the sides of which are benches of masonry provided with 21 vises. Two double forges are so placed that they can be reached from all sides, and are used for soldering and for heating the sheet metal. Two ventilators furnish the necessary draft for the forges and for the foundry. This shop has accommodations for 30 pupils. The building also contains a foundry provided with a cupola smelting furnace of 1,000 kilograms (2,205 pounds) capacity, two crucible furnaces for copper and brass founding, benches along the wall for molding, two cranes, and two vises used in filing the castings. The shop also has a drying stove mounted on wheels and moved on rails, and a traveling crane of 4,000 kilograms (8,819 pounds) capacity for carrying moldings and other heavy articles from one part of the shop to another. This shop can accommodate 30 pupils. A storehouse near the foundry is used for storing coke, sand, patterns, etc. It also contains a sand mill operated by a motor. A building constructed in 1887 is used for marine machinists' appren- tices. The first floor is used for storage purposes. The second floor TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION FRANCE. 763 contains a chemical laboratory, an amphitheater for lectures, etc., a library, and a museum containing a collection of the best specimens of the pupils' work. The third floor has a mechanical laboratory fur- nished with 1.5 desks, and containing a gas motor of i horse power for working a dynamo which lights the three rooms on this floor; a steam engine of 20 horse power; a cylindrical marine boiler, and other detached parts of machinery. All these articles are used for demon- sti'ations by the instructors in the course of the lessons. Two class rooms, accommodating 15 to 20 pupils, are also on this floor. The fourth floor contains a drawing room for 50 pupils, used hy the machin- ists' apprentices and by the third-year pupils of the practical industrial school. Since the school has been located on its present site it has never ceased to increase and to improve its instruction materials, tools, machinery, etc. The expenses incurred by these improvements were borne out of the city budget. The State, however, has also done its part. During the period 1880-1900 the Government granted 50,000 francs (|9,650) in subsidies to the school. The usual amount given annually has been 2,000 francs ($386), but in 1887 it was 4,000 francs ($772); in 1891, 6,000 francs ($1,158), and in 1893, 4,000 francs ($772). The budget of the practical school for 1900 is as follows: Expendi- tures borne by the municipal budget, 41,320 francs (^7,975); annual State subsidy, 2,000 francs ($386); department subsidy, 200 francs ($38.60); receipts from the products of the pupils, 10,605 francs ($2,047); total, 54,125 francs ($10,446.60). This amount does not include the salaries of the teaching personnel, which are paid by the ministry of commerce and industry. For tlie past 3'ear they amounted to 19,000 francs ($3,667). The running expenses of the school for machinists' apprentices amount to 11,000 francs ($2,123). Thej' are borne as follows: State subsidy (ministry of commerce and industry), 5,000 francs (1965); subsidy of the Havre Chamber of Commerce, 4,000 francs (772); subsidy of the department, 2,000 francs ($386). The city of Havre bears the expense of maintaining the buildings, providing the tools, fuel, lighting, etc. The director has the entire management of the school, under the supervision of the departmental inspector, the improvement council {conseil de perfectionnement), and the mayor's deputy, Avho represents the municipal administration in matters concerning public education. The teaching personnel comprises 3 teachers and 3 assistants for the classes; 8 foremen, who are under the orders of a superintendent, for the workshops. Each summer a physician of the town gives ten lessons on hygiene to the pupils of the third year. The schedule of hours differs somewhat from that of the model programme shown on page 723. In the first place, the time of attend- ance is shorter, namely, 46 hours per week for the first year instead of 764 EEPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. 55i hours; 46 hours per week for the second year instead of 58i hours; 52 hours per week for the third year instead of 60 houi's. It is impossible at the Havre school, which is not a boarding school, to maintain the time schedule prescribed in the model programme. Most of the pupils li^'e some distance away, often several kilometers, and can not, therefore, be at the school at 7 a. m., especially during the winter. The classes are dismissed at 6 p. m., except the third-year pupils, who remain until 7 p. m. The hours of work per week at the shops are as follows: First and second years, 24 hours; third year, 28 hours. In ironwork pupils are specialized either as fitters or as turners. In the third year the turners do some work in chiseling and filing. Blacksmiths are also specialized. The fitters, locksmiths, and metal turners each have three months' practice at forge work. In the wood- working shop the joiners all have a turn at lathe work and at the fret- working machine. The school does not train specialists in wood turning or fret working. Instruction in natural history has been dispensed with, but not in hj''giene. It has also been deemed advisable to substitute in place of industrial economy an entirely different branch under the name of technolog}'. This consists of the description of machinery, practical pi'ocesses employed in industry for the execution of all sorts of work relating to the trades of blacksmiths, fitters, turners, joiners, cabinet- makers, locksmiths, and structural-iron workers. For molders, it includes the composition of metals to be fused, the preparation of the smelting furnace, the crucibles, the sand, etc. Instruction is also given regarding the proper conduct of foremen toward the workers placed under them, the reciprocal duties of employers and emplo}^ees, the orderly arrangement of Avell-conducted shops, etc. Special instruction in electricity is given one hour per week for third-3'ear pupils of the superior course. It is optional with pupils of the elementary course. The following table shows the average immber of pupils each jenv since 1890, in each trade: AVERAGE ATTENDANCE AT PRACTICAL SCHOOL OF INDUSTRY, HAVRE, 1890 TO 1900. Trades. 1890. 1891. 1892. 1893. 1894. 1895. 1896. 1897. 1898. 1899. 1900. 60 27 13 64 8 19 12 69 43 11 66 S 17 11 03 38 11 67 8 18 16 72 38 12 68 9 14 14 73 4.3 16 62 9 20 17 70 41 17 74 10 28 20 66 35 16 60 10 25 12 67 35 18 67 11 26 10 70 44 20 65 11 22 75 40 22 61 10 35 17 81 45 19 49 11 29 19 CariK'jiteis Boilermakers Total 193 222 211 217 240 260 224 234 a 259 a 254 253 aThia total does not agree with the sum of the items; the figures given, however, are according to the original. TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION — ^FRANCE. 765 Rega,rding the subsequent careers of the students, the official report of the school says : ' ' During the course of thp 3rear a certain num- ber of students leave the school in order to enter as apprentices the trades which they have adopted. They are led to do this bj- the temptation of the small earnings to be gained in productive work. Almost all, however, continue in the trades that they had adopted at the school, or at least enter nearly related occupations. The 40 stu- dents, on an average, who finish their studies .each year are without exception admitted to the construction workshops of Havre or the surrounding district." In order to obtain these positions, for the most part, the recommendation of the director is sufficient. The following table shows for each year since 1890, the number of students entering the trade prepared for the School for Machinists and other trades after leaving this school. The figures relate only to those who informed the director of the school of their subsequent move- ments. They embrace all but a few cases, however. NUMBER or STUDENTS ENTERING THE TRADE PREPARED FOR, THE SCHOOL FOR MACHINISTS, AND OTHER COURSES AFTER LEAVING THE PRACTICAL SCHOOL OF INDUSTRY, HAVRE, 1890 TO 1899. Number entering— ' Year. Trade pre- pared for. School for Machinists. Other trades. 1890 94 126 112 104 110 121 106 104 118 97 6 6 3 6 5 2 2 3 1 3 12 1891 13 1892 11 1893 10 1894 12 1895 13 1896 10 1897 11 1893 10 1899 16 PRACTICAL SCHOOL OF INDUSTBY, SAINT-ETIENNE. Saint-Etienne, as is well known, in one of the important manufac- turing centers of France. As might be expected, therefore, its prac- tical school of industry has become one of the most important of this class of schools, being scarcely second to that at Havre. The school was opened as a lower-grade school, one for the training of skilled workmen — that is, a trade school proper — in November, 1882, with 54 students. An appropriation of 130,000 francs (|25,090) was made, and a large building owned by the city converted into a schoolhouse. Several months after a beginning was made in the practical equip- ment of the workshops. Four foremen were appointed to direct practical instruction in weaving, modeling, machine fitting, and joinery. It soon became evident that the building selected did not furnish suffi- cient room, so the construction of a new building, on a large tract of 766 EEPOET OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOE. ground belong-ing to. the city, was begun in 1884 and completed in 1885. In the construction of this building the students of the school were actively employed to a considerable extent. After its occupa- tion the students continued to make additions and to work upon the interior fittings. To a large extent, also, the students assisted in making and setting up the machinery that was used to equip the new school. The value of the work done by them was estimated to have been not less than 35,000 francs ($6,T55). Since that date the school has secured an extension through the construction in 1893 of shops for weaving and gun maldng. At its creation the school bore the title of superior primar}- and trade school. It afterwards became a manual apprenticeship school, under the law of December 11, 1880, and still later, under the law of January 26, 1892, it was changed into a practical school of industry. The school now occupies two large buildings. The first is de^-oted to general instruction, and contains 6 study rooms, each accommo- dating 60 students; 5 recitation rooms, with desks; 1 chemical lecture room, with 150 seats; 1 chemical laboratory'; 1 physical lecture room, 1 physical laboratory; 1 room for electrical experiments; 1 large drawing-room, with storeroom for models; 1 library, and 1 museum. The second building with its dependencies covers l,-400 square meters (15,070 square feet) of ground and contains the workshops. These are on a very' elaborate scale and are fully equipped with the necessary mechanical appliances. They comprise a shop for blacksmithing, two shops for machine fitting and building (one for the first j-ear students and one for those of the second and third years), a gun-making and pattern-making shop, a weaving shop, a dyeing and bleaching shop, and a shop for modeling and sculpturing. A 35-horsepower engine furnishes power for driving the machinery. This engine also operates a 20-kilowatt dynamo, which supplies 270 lamps and does other work. The school possesses important collections of apparatus of various kinds. Altogether about 673,000 francs ($129,889) have been spent in the building and equipment of the school, exclusive of the value of the ground. Practically all of this sum was furnished by the city. The only assistance received was a donation of 8,725 francs (§1,684), made by the State, one of 13,000 francs ($2,509) by the Chamber of Com- merce on account of the shops for gun maldng and weaving, and other donations to the amount of 8,000 francs ($1,544). The cost of main- taining the school during the year 1899 amounted to 106,777 francs (120,608), of which 43,790 francs ($8,451) were borne by the State and 62,987 francs ($12,157) by the city. The conti-ibution of the State, according to the system of dividing the burden of expense in France, is chiefly for the payment of the teachers and other TKADJE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION — FRANCE. 767 employees, all but 2,600 francs ($483), which is for the support of the gun making shop, going for that purpose. The school is also the beneficiary of various sums for the support of scholarships. Thus in 1889 a sum producing an annual scholarship of 100 francs ($19.30) was left by one person, and in 1890 a sum of 40,000 frany its own plant, and possesses an excellent system of baths. TEADE SCHOOLS FOE SEVEEAL TEADES. A practically complete list of trade schools fof several trades (group schools) has been presented. This class, as previously stated, has been made to include day schools whose primary aim is theoretical and practical instruction in relation to definite trades or occupations. There is considerable difference shown in the organization of studies in these schools with regard to the relative importance attached to the theo- retical and the practical instruction. The character of the instruction has depended entirely upon the views of the different public or private bodies that founded the individual schools, but it is to be noted that 776 "REPOKT OP THE COMMTSSIONEB OE LABOK. in all of them practical work is given a prominent place. In the fol- lowing pages seveial representative schools are described: MtrSflCIPAL SCHOOTi OF WEAVING AND EMBKOIDERY, LYON. In lS8i the municipal council of Lyon decided to establish a school of weaving. The beginning was made in 1885 when an evening theo- retical course and a Sunday practical course were organized. In 1887 the school was reorganized and another year added to the evening theoretical course. In 1888 a practical course for day and evening- instruction was opened. In 1889 a third year was added to the even- ing theoretical course and workshops were established. In 1890 a course in drawing and pattern card making was created, followed in 1892 by a practical and theoretical course in St. Gall embroidery. The object of the school is to give young men practical and theoretical training for the silk-weaving industry of Lyon. The instruction is divided into the following courses: Day courses in theory and practice of vf caving and St. Gall embroidery, an evening- theoretical and practical course, a Sunday course in power-loom weav- ing, and a course in drawing and card making. The programme of instruction is as follows: Day course of practical instruction: Clotli weaving and cording; installation of various systems of looms; Jacquard, Verdol, etc., weaving; study of power looms; a course in St. Gall embroidery. The practical work in these courses is supplemented by a certain amount of theoretical instruction. Evening theoretical course: First }'ear — description of preliminary operations, com- position and analysis of woven and corded fabrics. Second year — description of Jacquard looms, card making, ferruling, composition and analysis of figured fabrics, etc. Third year — analysis of figm-ed fabrics. Sunday course in theory -and practice of power-loom weaving: Setting up and tak- ing apart different kinds of looms, practical demonstration on power loom.s, descrip- tion of the constituent parts of looms and their relations to each other. Course in drawing and designing: Copying from models, making sketches, aiid blending the cording in them, preparing cards. The municipal council has direct supervision over the affairs of this school. The teaching personnel is made up of 12 instructors. The attendance on January 1, 1899, was 27 pupils in the day course, 192 in the evening course, 47 in the drawing course, 23 in the Sunday course, and 5 in the embroidery course, making a total attendance of 291. The number of graduates during the past live school years is as follows: 1891, 302; 1895, 303; 1896, 289; 1897, 276, and 1898, 292. The school's receipts for the year 1898-99 were 35,900 francs ($6,929), derived principally from the contributions of the city, and, in a small measure, from tuition fees and the sale of products of the school. The total expenditures were 33,800 francs (1|6,523). TBADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION FEANOE. 777 EOUIilcE SCHOOL OF FURSriTUBE MAKIHTG, PARIS. On June 30, 1882, the municipal council of Paris voted to purchase, for 400,000 francs (5p77,200), two houses in the Rue cle Reuillj^ (Nos. 25 and 27), with the view of establishing a school of apprenticeship in furniture making. It was not, however, until 1886 that the school was foriDall}' opened at the place indicated under the name of Trade School of Furniture Making {Ecole Professionnelle cP AnieiMement). Owing to the limited accommodations of the original school build- ing, the municipal council decided in 1889 that a new building should be constructed on a plot of ground in the Eue de Reuilly, Nos. 57 and 59, the estimated value of which was 530,000 francs (|102,290). This ground, with an area of 4,000 square meters (43,055 square feet), answered all the requirements of the projected institution. The work of construction was begun in 1891 and the school was installed in the new building in 1895. The total cost of the building and equipments amounted to the sum of 1,341,635 francs (1258,936). In 1891 this institution received the name of the "BouUe" school in honor of a famous engraver and wood carver. By a ministerial decree of February 4, 1891, it was put in the class of manual apprenticeship schools governed hy the law of December 11, 1880. The school is governed directly by the city, through a commission composed of members of the municipal council and a delegate from the ministry of commerce. Each year 96 pupils are admitted, 60 to the department of furniture making and 36 to the department of artistic metal working, the latter having been founded within the last few years. Pupils must be of French nationality, residents of the Department of the Seine, and not less than 13 nor more than 16 years of age. The tests given relate to the subjects eml^raced in the certificate of pri- mary education. Great weight is given to the mark in drawing. Breakfast is served from 11.45 to 12.15 o'clock, and is free to pupils who are residents of Paris. Its price to others is 55 centimes (11 cents). The city assists many of the students whose families are in poor financial circumstances. To such students money for their main- tenance is allowed in sums amounting to as much as 50 francs ($9.66) a month. Were it not for this financial aid many youths would find it utterly impossible to attend the school. The personnel consists of a director, a general overseer, an account- ant, a subacoountant, a storekeeper, five overseers, and two superin- tendents, one for furniture and one for metal (bronze) work, with instructors, attendants, cooks, and a janitor. Each of the two main departments— furniture and metal working — comprises a number of subdivisions. 778 EEPOET OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOK. arithmetic, history, and geography sumes three forms — scientific, technical art, and manual The programme was greatly modified for the school year 1899-1900, particularly as regards the primary instruction. The supervisory committee deemed it expedient to increase the proportion of time allotted to the technical instruction. The primary instruction includes . The technical instruction as- The scien- tific course includes industrial economj', technology, linear drawing, and geometry. Under the head of "technical art instruction" are included: The history of art, art designing, modeling, water-color painting, anatomy, and industrial drawing. Lastly, the manual in- struction embraces molding in plaster, molding in sand, inlaying, smoothing, blacksmithing, turning, and the trades proper. In the furniture making department the chief trades taught are cab- inetmaking, upholstering, and wood carving. In the metal-working department the principal trades taught are: Metal chasing, with its application to furniture; art bronze work; goldsmiths' work; jewelry work; mounting and engraving applicable to various purposes, but not including the printing industry. The following table shows the hours per week devoted by the pupils in the various general trades to each course of the technical instruc- tion : HOUR SCHEDULE FOE TECHNICAL INSTRUCTION IN THE BOULLE SCHOOL OF FURNI- TURE MAKING, PARIS. Courses and general trades. Hours per week. First year. Second year. Third year. Fourth year. Scientific course: Cabinet work . . . Wood carving . . Joinery Upholstery Engraving Metal chasing... Mounting Turning (metal) Technical art course Cabinet work — Wood carving Joinery Upholstery Engraving Metal chasing . . . Mounting Turning (metal) . Manual course: Cabinet work Wood carving Joinery Upholstery Engraving Metal chasing... Mounting Turnings (metal) , 6 6 6 6 6 15 15 15 16 15 15 15 15 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 5i a 55 5 3 3 5i 5i 12i 15 13i 16 16i 16 i 13 i m 33 31 1 32 30 31J 31 ; 32 S2 13 14i 13 15i 14 12i m m 32 32 32 30 32 SV, 31J 31i 5 2J 5 34 4 4 4 4 14 17 14i 174 154 15 154 144 32 314 314 30 314 32 314 324 During the first year, eleven hours pei' week are devoted to primary instruction in each department. The courses are supplemented in the case of the best pupils by excursions, in which they profit by observations calculated to develop TEADE AND TECHKICAL EDUCATION FRANCE. 779 their technical training. These visits are, in general, to manufactur- ing establishments and other works. This reward for the year's work is greatl}' coveted hy the pupils and appreciated by their families. The number of pupils January 1, 1899, was 248. They were divided as follows: Furniture department: First year, 45; second year, 48; third year, 45; fourth year, 30; total, 168. Metal-working (bronze) department: First year, 22; second j^ear, 17; third year, 23; fourth yea]-, 18; total, 80. Occasional competitive examinations are given in decorative work, or in the industrial applications of drawing and modeling, and in order to arouse the ambition and zeal of the pupils prizes are distributed in the form of photographs of articles of furniture and works treating of subjects taught in the school. Upon leaving the school, the pupils completing their courses are allowed to take their tools, which facil- itates their entrance into shops, since for the most part they would be unable to bear the expense of a new outfit. Pupils of the Boulle school, like those of similar schools, are favored by the law providing that young men who, before entering the mili- tary service succeed in a certain competition mav, after 1 year's service, r&sume their artisan's calling. From 1892 to 1898, 17 pupils were thus relieved from two years of military service. A diploma from this school is very highly regarded by heads of manufsicturing establishments. Manj^ prizes and other honors were carried off in various competitions by the pupils of this school from 1890 to 1899. Its success is further emphasized by an examination into the destination and pay of the pupils after leaving the school. Of 59 pupils leaving in 1898, 50 entered industrial workshops and 1 is an architect. The pupils obtain work at from 3 to 8 fi'ancs ($0.68 to $1.54) a d&y, none receiving less than 3 francs (f0.5S). The initial wage is soon increased when the apprentice becomes familiar with the particular requirements of the work in the shop. The cost of maintaining the school in 1899 was 282,670 francs (154,655). Of this amount 164,570 francs (131,762) were paid in salaries. MUJTICIPAX, SCHOOL OF INDXTSTEIAI, PHYSICS AISTD CHEMISTBY, PAEIS. This school was founded in 1882, after an agitation which lasted two years. During this period a commission was appointed to investi- gate the subject of the advisability of establishing such an institution, and upon its recommendation a credit of 412,000 francs ($79,516) was voted by the municipal council on July 21, 1882, for fitting up a build- ing and purchasing the necessary appai'atus and supplies. The school was formally opened the following October. 780 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. The object of the school is to give scientific and practical instruction, and therebj' to fit the pupils for practical work in establishments where chemical or physical knowledge is required. Admission to the school is obtained through a competitive examina- tion, held about the month of July. Candidates must be at least 16 3'ears of age, and not over 19, on October 1 following the examination. The number admitted each year is 30. Pupils not resident in Paris are received, but only in small numbers. These folloAV the regular courses and may obtain certificates and diplomas of graduation, but are excluded from the benefit of the monthly allowance of 50 francs (!?9.65) generally accorded to Paris pupils. The daily session is from 8.30 a. m. to 6 p. m., with 1 hour's inter- mission at noon. The school is provided with a lunch room for the convenience of the pupils. The instruction relates mainly to physics and chemistry, but it has been necessary to introduce mathematics, as the candidates when admitted usually do not have sufiicient knowledge of that branch of study. Mathematical studies, however, are treated as auxiliaries merely. The subjects in which candidates for admission are examined include arithmetic, elementary algebra; plane, solid, and descriptive geometry; physics in its several divisions; general principles of mechanics, grav- ity, hydrostatics, pneumatics, heat, and electricity; chemistry; and natural history, which, however, has been optional since 1898. It is on these same subjects that the final examinations occur at the close of the course. The pedagogical organization is well devised and skillfully adapted to the purposes of the school. The first three semesters are occupied in the general and scientific studies and manipulations in class. After the third semester all pupils continue in common the courses in phj^s- ics and chemistry, as well as the manipulations in electro-chemisti-y ; but with respect to the other experimental work a division is made, the physicists taking their places in the physical laboratories and the chemists in the chemical laboratories. The work of the daily session, excepting the time reserved for lunch and recreation, is constant, con- sisting of lectures, study, recitations, and laboratory exercises and experiments. Practical work in the laboratories takes up all time not devoted to recitations, etc. During the last three semesters attention is especially directed to technical applications. By vote of the municipal council on Noveuiljcr 3, 1893, there was added to this school a laboratory for study and research. This was equivalent to the establishment of a fourth year. Pupils who bold either the diploma or the certificate of completed studies, which latter testimonial is given to all who ha^'e passed the final examinations in a satisfactory manner, are entitled to continue their practical training in this laboratory, or even to undertake private researches. • TRABE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION FRANCE. 781 The equipment is complete, and the 3^oung chemists find everything that is necessary in the way of material for experiment. They can also avail themselves of the advice of the special director and of the fore- man of practical exercises attached to this laboratory. The number of students January 1, 1899, was 91. Of the 30 pupils graduating in that year, 25 engaged in industrial work. During the 5 years from 1895 to 1899, 143 students left the school, of whom 111 engaged in careers for which their school training had prepare^l them. From the character and value of its instruction, this school is said to hold the first rank among the trade schools of Paris. The pupils AY horn it sends out from either branch soon obtain lucrative situations in private establishments or in administrative offices, as, for instance, in the railway or the customs service. Their salaries at the beginning are never less than 150 francs ($28.95) a month. The number of candidates for admission is always considerable, being usually about three times as great as the number of vacancies. The municipal council has recently voted a credit of 1,300,000 francs ($250,900) for the construction of a new building for the school upon ground Vjelonging to the city. ESTIEHTSTE mUKICIPAL SCHOOL, OF PEINTIlirG AHD PUBLISHING, PARIS. This school was opened in November, 1889. Temporary accommo- dations were secured in certain outbuildings of the Rollin College and were utilized until a building especially constructed for the use of the institution was completed. Since 1896 it has occupied the new struct- ure, which is situated at Boulevard d'ltalie and the Rue de Gentilly. The building occupies a plot of 5,600 square meters (60,278 square feet), of which 3,256 square meters (35,048 square feet) are covered by constructions having a total floor surface of 8,750 square meters (94,185 square feet). The total value of the ground and building is estimated at 1,727,830 francs ($333,471). The special aim of the school is to revive the industry of printing and publishing, in which the city formerly stood preeminent. Printing- presses first appeared in Paris in 1470, and after considerable opposi- tion from the "copyists," whose occupation was threatened, the printing industry became firmly established. During the sixteenth, seventeenth, and eighteenth centuries it was in a very flourishing condition and for a long period the printers and publishers of Paris had no rivals. This superioritj'^ was due to the wise regulations of the guild, to the proofs of knowledge and skill required of the printers, the workmen, and the apprentices, and also to the way the apprentice- ship was conducted. In the nineteenth century a retrograde move- ment occurred, and the commanding position occupied by the Parisian printers and publishers was threatened. The causes of this situation 782 REPOBT OJ? THE OOMMISSIONEE OF LABOR. • wt'i-e said to be the disappearance of apprenticeship and the special- ization in the various branches of the industr}'. For this reason the creation of an apprenticeship school became desirable, especially as it came within the general scheme of trade education adopted by the municipal council. On July 20, 1887, in an official report, the end to be reached by such a school was defined in these words: *' Your apprenticeship school of printing and pul^lishing should turn out artistic workmen, who will be sldlled not only in typography, but also in the arts related thereto." Two days later, by a -s'ote of the muni- cipal council, it was decided to create such a school. The institution was named after a famous family of Parisian publishers. Admission to the school is obtained by examination, which consists of a dictation exercise, two problems in arithmetic, and a drawing made at sight from plaster. In order to compete, the applicant must be not less than 13 nor more than 16 years of age on the 1st of Sep- tember of the current year. Candidates must furnish a certificate of primary studies, and must be of French nationality and residents of Paris. Boys living in the suburbs are admitted to the entrance com- petition upon the condition that their respective communes engage to pay 200 francs ($38.60), which represents the cost of maintenance of a pupil during the first year. The number of admissions varies, but it has not exceeded 90 for any j^ear. The pupils are not placed in the various trades until three or four months after their admission to the school. In the meantime they are grouped, and each group passes a trial period in all the shops. During this period the work of the pupils is carefully watched with a view to their assignment among the trades. This period of trial does not retard the apprenticeship. The rc^'erse, indeed, is true, since, as a result of it, the pupils are classified according to their special apti- tudes and make better progress because of the fact. The courses of study are of four years' duration. Pupils in engrav- ing, lithography, and photo-engraving may extend their work through a fifth year. The instruction given is both general or theoretical and practical. The general or theoretical instruction occupies the morning hours from 8 to 12 o'clock. The subjects taught include the French lan- guage, history, and geography, the reading of Greek, elements of mathematics and geometry, the physical and natural sciences involved in the arts and trades connected with the publishing industry, history of art and of printing and publishing, modeling, drawing, composi- ti^n, industrial drawing, gymnastics, and military drill. The general studies as arranged for the first two years are common to all students. For the third and fourth years, however, the studies are arranged in such manner as to form three special courses each of which carries branches especially applicable to a certain number of TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION FRANCE. 783 the various trades represented in tlie printing and publishing industry. Thus under one course, in which drawing constitutes the principal branch, are grouped those students who intend to become engravers, lithographers, and gilders; in another course, in which French, history, and the elements of the sciences are the principal branches studied, are placed the future compositors, stereotypers, photo -engravers, and binders; while the third course, which cai'ries chemistiy and mechan- ics lis the principal studies, is intended for students of type founding and of the "serious divisions of the presswork — typographic, litho- graphic, and copperplate. Students in the third and fourth year classes receive this general or theoretical instruction but four mornings each week. The other two forenoons are devoted to practical work. The total houi-s per week given to each branch of general instruction during each of the four 3'ears are shown in the following table: HOUES PER WEEK DEVOTED TO EACH BEANCH OF GENERAL INSTEUCTION IN THE ESTIENNE MUNICIPAL SCHOOL OF FEINTING AND PUBLISHING, PARIS. Branches. Hours per week. First year. Second year. Third and fourth years. Engrav- ers, lith- ogra- phers, and gilders. Compos- itors, stereo- typers, photo-en- gravers, and binders. Type founders and press- men. French History and geography History ol art and of printing and publishing. . . Mathematics Physical and natural sciences Industrial drawing and decorative composition. Art designing Modeling Penmanship Gymnastics Total . 12J Pi'actical instruction is given in all the arts embraced in typogra- phy, bookbinding, engraving, lithography, photograph}', etc. it is arranged in such a manner that the apprentice covers one trade in its entirety. It is said to be apprenticeship in its largest and most com- plete sense. The time given to practical work amounts, during the first year, to 2i hours per week, during the second year to 30 hours per week, and during the third and fourth years to 36 hours. For the t^-pographic trades the practical instruction includes type founding, composition and correction, presswork (both hand and machine), and .stereotyping and electrotyping. For the bookbinding trades it includes bookbinding and leather gilding, in addition to which special teachers give instruction in edge gilding, marbling, etc. 784 BEPORT Oir THE COMIHSSIONEE OF X,ABOE. In the engraving trades the practical work includes wood, copper, and steel engraving and copperplate printing. In the lithographic trades it includes lithography, chromo-lithography, lithographic writ- ing, lithographic designing, and presswork (hand and machine). In the photographic trades it includes photography and the processes derived from it (photo-engraving, plioto-t}'pography). All the pupils breakfast at the school. Those living in Paris are entitled to gratuitous breakfast and lunch; those living outside pay a small charge, though the gratuity is provided for some of them out of departmental funds. In addition to the regular day classes evening courses arc given from October 15 to June 15. At first the evening programme was the same as that of the day school, but it has been much shortened, only those courses attended by a sufficient number having been retained. For admission to these courses the applicant must be at least 13 years of a,ge, or 12 if he holds the certificate of primary studies. The total number of students enrolled on January 1, 1899, was 228. Of this number 78 were first-year students, 61 were second-j-ear students, 52 were in the third j^ear, and 37 were in the fourth year. In the five-year period, 1895 to 1899, 406 students had left the school, 205 having been gi'aduated with a certificate of apprenticeship and 201 having left before terminating the apprenticeship. All of those who received the certificate were placed as journeymen in the trades learned in the school. Of the 201 who left before graduating, 138 did so to enter the shops at less than journejmien's wages and the other 63 left to find more suitable emplo3rment. The expenses of the school have been heavy and are increasing each year. In 1900 the cost was 253,205 francs ($-18,869), distributed as foUovy-s: For salaries, daj^ courses, 161,000 francs ($31,073); for sup- plies, day courses, 85,455 francs (|16,493); for salaries and supplies, evening courses, 6,760 francs (|1,303). The city does its best to attract students to the school and to induce them to remain. Scholarships, premiums, and every sort of rewards are accorded them. Every year an excursion for study and observa. tion is arranged for the better students. In 1899 the 12 pupils of the fourth 3'ear standing highest in the class were taken to Belgium, wh«re they visited Bruges, Ghent, Antwerp, and Brussels. Pupils of this school have on numerous occasions distinguished themselves in competitive examinations arranged bj- the city, the State, or organizations, etc. Some of the brightest students have obtained verj' high prizes, but it is less by achievements of this nature than by the total and average results that the services of the school are properly to be judged. The average wages received on leaving the school form a better basis for estimating the results of the instruction. The first class was gradu- TKADE AND TECHWIOAL EDTJCATIOW^ — FBANOE. 785- ated in 1893. In a report for that year it was stated that the average • wages of the 57 members of the graduating class were 4 francs (10.77)- a day. The average age was 17 years and 7 months. In 1894 the aver- age wages earned by the class of that year rose to 4.26 francs (10.82).. In 1895 the average wages again rose to 4.76 francs ($0.92), but the ■ average age of the graduates fell to 17 years. For the class of 1899 the average wages were reported as 4.90 francs (10.95), the lowest ani highest wage being 3 and 9 francs ($0.58 and $1.74), respectively. The city governs the institution through a commission composed of municipal councilors and delegates of the ministries and interested, associations. DIDEROT SCHOOL OF WOOD AND METAL WOESilNG, PARIS. This school was founded by resolution of the municipal council on May 27, 1872, as an apprenticeship school for the wood and metal' working trades. It was located at 60 Boulevard de la Villette, in a, district inhabited chiefly by working people, and where conditions^ were such as to reduce the cost of operation to the lowest figure. The- school was formally opened January 6, 1873, with two departments,., one for ironworking and the other for woodworking. On November- 4, 1873, there was an attendance of 121 pupils. As early as 1879 the-.- reputation of the school was such that graduates experienced no difii- culty in securing good positions in establishments of the first rank- By reason of the increase in attendance the capacity of the schools soon became inadequate, and for the purpose of enlarging it there was placed at the disposal of the administration in 1877 a supplementary^ credit of 273,000 francs ($52,689). The course of study is of three years' duration. Admission is by~ competitive examination. Competitors must not be less than 13 nor- more than 16 years of age, must furnish certificates of primary instruc- tion and proof of nationality and of residence in Paris or in the Depart- ment of the Seine. Pupils from the suburbs who pass the examination, are not finally admitted unless the communes in which they live wilL undertake to pay the charge of 200 francs (|38.60) per pupil for th& first year. The same is true of the other municipal schools of Paris> The examination consists of a dictation exercise, a composition on a, technical subject, two problems in arithmetic, a problem in plane geometry, and free-hand drawing. This examination is held at the school in the month of July. The number of candidates in 1899 vv'as 501. The shops are nine in number, as follows: Blacksmithing, metal turning, machine and electrical fitting, making instruments of precisiouy pattern making, coppersmithing, joinerj'^, locksmithing, and sanitary plumbing. Each shop constitutes a single department, with the excep- tion of the shop for machine and electrical fitting, which is divided into three departments. Each department is in chargeof a foreman. The technical instructors or foremen are under the supervision of the director of the shops. 9267—02 60 786 KEPOBT OF THE COMMISSIONEK OF LABOR. Practical instruction occupies the larger portion of the time. Con- siderable time, however, is given to technology and drawing. An important change was introduced some years ago in the operation of the school in regard to the conditions of apprenticeship. First- year students were, on entering, put through a preliminary trial, pass- ing from shop to shop in rotation. It was hoped by this process to ascertain their aptitudes and guide them better in the selection of a trade. In the practice of this i-otation, however, there were some quite serious inconveniences, the chief of which was the loss to the boj' of about four months' time without any gain in his technical in- struction. That trial has been replaced bj' a restricted rotation, applied only within the limits of a definite industry. Work in the departments is ingeniouslj^ combined. A first-year student is stationed between one of the second and one of the third 3^ear students, thus profiting from the experience of his two compan- ions. The learner produces from the start. He turns out a finished article to be supplied to outside order. Thus the apprenticeship is so conducted as to be the least possible tax on the city. The application and willingness of the student are encouraged. Tv/ice during the year the boys make the same kind of article, with- out advice or preliminary explanations. A commission of manufac- turers and workmen examines and marks the work. Money prizes are awarded to the students whose work is adjudged of highest rank. The supervisory committee of the school arranges visits to large fac- tories, under the conduct of the shop foremen. These visits have an excellent efi^ect and permit a comparison with the work at the school. On completing their courses the students arc not left to themselves. The management of the school concerns itself with securing places for them. It communicates with the heads of establishments, soliciting positions when necessary. Wages are generally low the first few months, and this is to be expected, taking into consideration the hoys' ages. The following table shows the occupations of the pupils leaving the school in 1805 and 1899, respectiveh', and the average wages received by all pupils in each trade: OCCUPATIONS AND AVERAGE WAGES OF PUPILS LEAVING THE DIDEEOT SCHOOL OF WOOD AND METAL WORKING, PARIS, IN 1S95 AND 1899. Occupations, Blacksmith.^ Coppersmitlis Fitters Joiners Locksmiths Makers of instruments of precision. Pattern makers Plumbers Turners 189.5. Average Number. I wages per day. SO. 82 .09 .67 .63 .63 .74 ..■55 .56 1899. Number. Average wages per day. 80.97 .70 .74 .72 .02 .70 .58 1.01 .71 TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATTOK FRANCE. 787 TItADE SCHOOL AND TBADE COUItSES OF THE SOCIETY OF SAINT-QtTENTIN. IBTDUSTRIAI, This society was formed in 1868, for the encouragement of com- merce and of the agricultural and manufacturing industries of the locality, and to improve the condition of the workingman. For the education of the laboring classes the society maintains a trade school of iron and wood working, which fits pupils for positions as skilled workmen and factory superintendents in the local industries, and an apprenticeship course for weaving, an industrial museum, and a large number of separate trade courses. The duration of instruction varies from a few months to several years, according to the nature and importance of the subjects taught. In the trade school of iron and wood working the course of study covers three years and comprises machine fitting, forge work, pattern making and joinery, lathe work, industrial drawing, a course of general instruction, and exercises in gymnastics. The daily session lasts from 1 a. m. in summer, and from 8 a. m. in winter, till 8 p. m., the day's work generalijr comprising six hours of practical and four hours of theoretical work. All instiiiction is gratuitous. Candidates for admission must be not more than 16 nor less than 12 jears of age, except in case of those holding certificates of primary education who are admitted regardless of age. Accommodations for 100 pupils are provided in the workshops. The following table shows the subjects taught, the number of hours per week devoted to each, and the attendance on January 1, 1899, in the several schools and courses maintained bj^ the society: HOURS PER WEEK DEVOTED TO EACH SUBJECT AT THE TRADE SCHOOL AND TRADE COURSES OF THE INDUSTRIAL SOCIETY OF SAINT-QUENTIN, ALSO ATTENDANCE JANUARY 1, 1899. Subjects. Hours per week. First year. Second Third year. year. Attend- ance. Theory and practice of weaving Maclmie weaving Machine embroidery Linen needle work , Practical mechanics Physics and chemistry Sugar refining Firing and boiler tending Decorative designing (ornaments and flowers) Card making Jor curtains, etc Card making lor embroidery Industrial drawing and applied geometry Stereotomy Carving and modeling Wood and iron working {trade school) Weaving (at Bohain) Dra^ving (at Bohain) Booltkeepmg English mngnagt^ German language 21 42 60 48 1\ 24 U IJ 18 24 24 6 4 4 CO 1 1 li 3 8 21 60 1 li 112 12 le 1,109 21 23 21 26 67 4.5 48 119 12 21 75 63 07 19 48 77 The teaching personnel consists of the director of the trade school and 28 instructors distributed among the different courses. ^00 KEPOET OF THE OOMMISSIONEE OF LABOB. Upon their graduation, pupi].s who pass a satisfactory examination receive certilicates which usuallj"- enable them to obtain good employ- ment in the local industries. The society receives annual subsidies from the central Government,, the department of Aisne, the city of Saint-Quentin, and the local chamber of commerce. Its total receipts for the year ending in 1899 were 74,918 francs (^14,459), of which -±1,700 francs ($8,048), were received from the above-mentioned sources. DE LEWAKDE SCHOOL, DOUAI. At Douai the Brothers of Christian Schools {Frires den iLcoles Chrutl- ennes) direct a trade department which was annexed in 1878 to a pri- vate primarjr school endowed by M. Deforest de Lewarde in the early part of the centurj^. This institution was intended to furnish a Chris- tian education to poor children not on the list of indigents. It is conducted by a self-perpetuating council of four. It was originall}' designed to accommodate 150 pupils, but the attendance in 1899 was 250. The trade courses are intended to form for the wood and metal working industries intelligent workmen who will be able to take places in the shops of the locality, not necessarily as finished workmen, 3^et capable of developing into chiefs of sections, foremen, and even small proprietors. Upon their organization the trade courses were attended \)j only 12 pupils; now they are attended by 42 pupils, 25 in iron- working and 17 in woodworking. The duration of the regular course of instruction is 3 years, but some leave at the end of 2 years to begin earning wages. The school day includes 8 hours' shopwork and \\ hours of class instruction. In addition to the technical lessons in relation to their shopwork, the apprentices have a course in drawing of 1 hour a daj% and a daily lesson of a half hour in ethics and religion. The school equipment comprises: In the fitting shop, 5 lathe3 for thread cutting, 5 ordinary lathes for beginners, 3 boring machines, 1 planer, 20 vises, and a forge; in the joiners' shop, 3 wood lathes, a band saw, a cutting machine, and 14 workbenches, etc. The machinery is driven bj' a 5-horsepower steam engine. The raw material is pro- vided by the institution, which keeps the proceeds from the sale of the pupils' work. ST. NICHOLAS SCHOOL, PARIS. This school is one of a group of institutions known under the col- lective term ^'"PQiJeuvre de Sahi.t-JS^wolas.''^ It is directed by the Brothers of Christian Schools, and is one of the oldest and most im- portant of their institutions. It owes its origin, in 1827, to the efforts of the Abb^ Martin de Bervanger, who used his personal means in furthering the project. A short while after the school was founded it suffered from a lack of money and the work very nearly resulted TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION — FRANCE. 789 in failure. At this juncture the Count Victor de Noailles became acquainted with the aims and purposes of the institution and gave it his financial aid. He became one of its administrators and for a few years following the revolution of 1830 was its active director. The school was moved in 1833 to what is now No. 92 Rue de Vaugirard, the location it occupies at present. The original idea of establishing apprenticeship shops in the school was now carried out. Six shops were organized, one each for shoemaking, tailoring, tj'pesetting, cop- perplate printing, pocketbook making, and label and shipping tag making. It is said that this was the first school for manual appren- ticeship to be established in Paris. The Count do Noailles died in 1837 and the direction again devolved upon Mgr. de Bervanger, who, in order to obtain a satisfactory teaching personnel, instituted an order of lay brothers named for St. Nicholas. In 1858 the direction of the institution was assumed by the cardinal archbishop of Paris and the administration was intrusted to a council whose members were chosen from the nobility, the judiciary, the French Academy, the bar, commerce, and industry. In 1859 the archbishop requested the superior general of the Institute of the Brothers of Christian Schools to furnish teachers to take charge of the studies. In the latter year the Government recognized the public utility of ''''V (Euvre de Saint- Nicolas." Of the several institutions at present comprising this group the St. Nicholas school is the only one that is of special interest in connection with this report. The institution is capable of accommodating a large number of pupils. Boys are admitted at 9 years of age, and until the age of apprenticeship is reached they are given a primary instruction. Apprenticeship usually begins at 1-1 years of age. After the primary studies are finished the pupil may, if his parents or guardians request it, enter the industrial section in which he serves an apprenticeship to some trade. At the same time he receives a general or theoretical training in accord with the nature of the trade. The attendance of the school in 1900 was something over 1,000. Most of this number were in the primary classes, about 260 apprentices being at work in the various shops. There are 12 shops now in operation. They are as follows: A double shop for iron and copper turning and machine fitting; an elec- trical-working shop; a printing shop; abookbindery; a shop for map engraving and lithography; one for cabinetmaking; one for wood carv- ing; one for fine mechanical work (instruments of precision); one for metal carving and bronze mounting; one for optical instrument mak- ing, and one for trunk making. The manner in which these shops are operated constitutes the char- acteristic feature of the St. Nicholas school. The council of adminis- tration deals directly with skillful and honest proprietors, to whom it 790 EEPOET OF THE COMMISSIOWEB OF LABOR. furnishes the workroom free of cost. The proprietors furnish their own material, their equipment of which they retain possession, and meet all the expenses of lighting, heating, and maintenance, and dispose of the finished product at their own profit and risk. In return the diiler- ent proprietors engage to teach the apprentices placed under their care all the processes of a trade and to form them into good workmen at the end of three or four years, according to the nature of the trade. The proprietors must be present all the time during working hours, or leave responsible and acceptable foremen in charge during their absence. They are bound to observe the public regulations as well as those prescribed by the direction of the school. They are held respon- sible for accidents. Supervision is also exercised by the Brothers, one being stationed on each floor to observe the conduct of the work and of the appren- tices. Each apprentice is generally required to furnish his own kit of small tools. From his entrance into the shop the apprentice does useful work. It is the aim of the management to make conditions as nearly as pos- sible like those found in regular industrial establishments, without, however, the loss of time to the apprentice from running errands, etc. He must be given work proportioned to his strength and degree of advancement. The propiietor is required to tell him the piece price for making the object which is given him to do, and how long- it would take a good workman to do it, thus enabling him to know his degree of advancement. Proper safeguards are provided to prevent the too fi-equent repetition of the same work, that is, specialization. The most profitable work is that which can be done only by pupils who have advanced farthest in the trade; hence it is to the proprie- tor's advantage to make the instruction thorough. The aim is to fit the apprentice so that when he begins work in the manufacturing- establishments, etc., he will be prepared to go ahead as if he had served his apprenticeship there, but with a more complete knowledge of his trade. Strict discipline is maintained, but there are, properly speaking, no punishments. If certain requirements are not met the apprentice is refused his monthly leave of absence. This and the threat of dismis- sal are the only forms of restraint in use. By way of encouragement the proprietors generally allow a small money gratuity, which, as the apprentice becomes proficient, amounts to i or 5 francs (10.77 or §0.97) a week. Eight hours constitute a day's work in the shops. Besides shopwork under the proprietors the pupils receive instruction in gen- eral or technical subjects, drawing, etc., which is given by the Brothers. Two hours a day is devoted to this general instruction. The institution is conducted on the boarding-school principle. The fees are 50 francs (f9.65) for entrance and a monthly payment of 35 TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION —FBANCE. 791 francs (f6.76), the latter covering the cost of lodging, board, clothing, washing, books, medicine, and medical attendance. If the pupil con- tracts a contagious or chronic disease, however, he is sent home. The principle of contracting with employers to furnish a trade education to apprentices is very similar to the system followed in the industrial school at Tournay, Belgium. In the present case, however, with two exceptions, the workshops are located in the school building and the apprentices are under a closer supervision by the school authorities. Each shop, which may be said to constitute a separate institution, will be examined in detail. The machine shop occupies a space of about -±00 scjuare meters (i,306 square feet) on the ground floor, but two gas engines each of 15 horse power and the gas generators are placed in the basement. The shop is divided into two parts by a partition wall. One division is used chiefly for work in copper and its alloys, the other for iron- working, etc. They are well equipped with the necessary machinery, etc. Both divisions are under the direction of one firm. Their man- agement, and that of the engine rooms, is in charge of a competent overseer. The proprietors themselves are frequentlj^ on the ground and keep in close touch with the work. The apprentices in the machine shop are separated into three classes — copper turners, iron turners, and fitters. In 1900 there were 11 apprentice turners — 6 in copper work and 8 in ironwork — each class having its own foreman. The fitters numbered 38 or 40. These work alternately in copper and iron, and 'are under two foremen, one for each specialty. Apprenticeship in these shops is of four years' duration. The apprentice proceeds by easy stages from the most ordinary labor to that requiring a high degree of skill. This gradual develop- ment of the apprentice is well outlined by M. Emile Gail in his report, previousl}' mentioned, on the private Catholic institutions. Speaking of the apprentice fitters, he says: At first the apprentice is required to take the rough edges off machine pieces, parti}' with a mortising chisel or a graving tool, partly with a file. Thus he becomes acquainted with the forms of the parts and, aided by explanations, with the processes of their manufacture, whether cast or forged. Next he will dress some surfaces which do not require a very fine adjustment. Thus he gradually acquires pre- cision in the use of the file. Meanwhile he becomes acquainted with the use of the drilling machine and the polisher and with the processes of screw-cutting, etc. At the end of his first year he will have a thorough knowledge of his tools and the ability to do simple fitting. In his second year the apprentice undertakes the fitting of somewhat complicated pai'ts; spends more time in making tracings of parts after plans and side sketches, and extends his knowledge of the machinery, operating, when necessar}', the planer, mortiser, filing ma.chine, and corrugator. In regular industr}" these machines are generally placed 792 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. in the hands of a particular class of workmen, while the fitters have only to finish the parts by hand, assemble them, and set them up in place. In the third year more precision and finish is required in the appren- tice's work, as he has to (it parts that are to move one upon the other. He begins to assemble the different parts of a machine in such man- ner as to secure the greatest possible regularity in their combined operation. Finally', in the fourth year he undertakes the fitting of the most diffi- cult parts and the most complicated machinery and acts as guide to his less advanced fellows, thus proving and perfecting his knowledge by teaching. The stages in the apprenticeship of the turnei's in iron and copper are analogous to those of the fitters. In each division of the machine shop the apprentices are taught the processes of forging, tempering, and annealing and sharpening their tools. The making of automatic lubricators, steam gauges, etc., con- stitutes the principal manufacturing enterprise that is undertaken in this shop, but the establishment is also able to produce machine tools for various uses. A part of the equipment of the shop is the work of the apprentices; thus a large drilling machine and three lathes were entirely built by them and turned out with accuracy and finish. They also constructed the two gas engines in use. Repair work for outside parties is done in this shop and constitutes a means of increasing the students' knowledge. Such work is intrueted only to the most advanced pupils. The electrical shop was organized by the proprietors of the machine shop in 1898. It is well equipped with modern machinery. In 1900 12 apprentices were at work, under a special foreman, making various parts of electric-lighting apparatus. Apprenticeships last four years. The printing shop is organized and operated exactly like an ordinary printing establishment and is equipped for executing every class of work. Its chief product, however, consists of bookwork. All the work is executed by the apprentices under the direction of 2 foremen, 1 pressman, and 1 proof reader. The apprentice is instriTcted in all that pertains to composition and presswork. The beginner sets type from printed copy until he has acquired rapidity. After one or two years he is allowed to enter upon the work of making up, and later of imposing the whole form. After each set of proof sheets has been read and corrected b}^ the proof reader and author the apprentice is required to make the indicated changes on the galleys or pages. Successive revisions are made until the author signifies that the work is in condition for the press. For the actual work of printing the equipment includes several presses of modern type, among which are three perfecting presses. They are operated by a gas engine which is installed in the basement. The apprentices acquire a knowledge of all the details of operating TBADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION FEANCE. 793 these machines — preparing the form and making ready for the press, etc. When a large number of copies are to bo printed, electrotj'pe plates are used. The plates are prepared by outside establishments, but the opei-atious are explained to the apprentices. In 1900 there were 36 apprentices in the printing shop, 23 of whom were engaged more particularlj' in composition, 10 in presswork, and i (selected from among the most skillful pupils) in making up and imposing. In both divisions (composition and presswork) the appren- ticeship covers three years. Apprenticeship in the bookbindery covers three yeai's. Although the sewing of the signatures is generally done outside the establishment, the apprentice is, nevertheless, instructed in this oper- ation. He may begin the apprenticeship by working either on new work or b}^ rebinding old volumes. He is gradually taught the differ- ent steps in the process — the rolling, pressing, sawing, sewing of the volumes, etc. B}^ the end of the first year he is v/orking on ordinary editions. During the second j-ear he learns to round, shape, and glue the backs, etc. He is then given work of a higher grade and is taught something about gilding on leather and gilding the edges of books. While the apprentice will rarely find occasion to perform these latter operations in Paris, where thej' constitute a special trade, his knowl- edge of them will be an advantage should he go to the provinces. In the third and last 3'ear the apprentice perfects himself in the several parts of the trade of bookbinding. He begins to bind editions de luxe in the different styles, the principles of which are explained to him in full detail before he proceeds to apply them. The graduates easily find employment, either in Paris or in the prov- inces. Some have become foremen in large establishments and some have become proprietors. The number of apprentices in this shop in 1900 was li. In the map-engraving and lithographing shop the apprentices work under the .same direction. They employ in great measure the same principles, notwithstanding the different application of them. Both groups begin in the same manner, at first copying samples of penman- ship and guiding themselves by the use of a mirror. They learn the properties of the stone on which they are to operate. The stones are prepared sometimes by the ordinary engraving process, while at other times the design is raised on the surface of the stone by tracing over it with a special kind of ink or ink crayon, then washing in a preparation which fixes and renders the ink insoluble in water. The latter is a much cheaper process. The distinction between the two trades is based, not on the method of operation, but on the kind of drawing to be traced. The map engravers are given exercises in reproducing to a different scale, in the conventional forms of and variations in letters, and in representing monnfcnna o+n 794 KEPOKT OF THE OOMMISSIONEK OF' LABOE. The lithographers, in preparing for commercial work, learn the different styles of handwriting in current use; the make-up of the vignette, both by engraving and the other process above mentioned; the arrangement of letter heads and billheads, and stippling for chro mo-lithography. The apprentices learn by practice how properly to manipulate the sheet at each successive impression when more than one color is used. Apprenticeship in each trade is of four j^ears' duration. In 1900 there were 16 apprentices in this shop — 5 in map engraving, and 11 in lithography. The map engravers generally find employment in Paris or in some other large center. The force in the cartographic office of the ministry of war is composed largelj'' of former St. Nicholas ap- prentices. They generally begin work at a wage of 4^ or 6 francs ($0.87 or $0.97) a day, but soon afterwards obtain from 8 to 10 francs ($1.54 to $1.93), according to individual skill. The lithographers, it is said, receive about the same wages, but they find employment much more readily, as their knowledge qualifies them for service in a greater number of establishments. The shop for joinery and cabinetwork is one of the two shops not located in the school. The apprentices are placed with a firm that manufactures furniture, carved chairs, etc. The length of the appren- ticeship is three years. It is the director's duty, besides giving the technical instruction and correcting the pupils' work, to train them in reading plans and to cultivate in them the appreciation of the forms adopted in the diilerent stj'les of furniture. The programme is as follows: During the first year the apprentice becomes familiar with the tools, and is exercised in sawing and rough planing wood and in making joints. During the second year he passes to plain scarfing or jointing, working on chairs, frames, drawers, small tables, etc. In the third J' ear he does work requiring greater skill, such as the mounting and finishing of furniture, tables, sideboards, credences, beds, cupboards, wainscoting, etc. The number of apprentices in this shop in 1900 was 20. On termi- nating their apprenticeship they very easily obtain employment in Paris at a wage of 60 centimes (12 cents) an hour. The wood-carving shop is also located outside the school biiilding and is managed by the same proprietors that train the apprentice cabi- netmakers, but a special foreman is placed in charge of the carvers. The programme of apprenticeship, the full term of which is four years, is as follows: The first six months are occupied in acquiring a knowledge of the general principles of the trade, and in learning to handle the tools, waste pieces of wood being used for the purpose. During the next six months the pupils begin productive work on plain moldings deco- TEADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION FBANCE. 795 rated with heart-sbaped leaves, beads, or ribbons, and also attempt simple corbels in rose work. In the second year they undertake more complex moldings, such as godroons, shellwork, and leaves of acan- thus, laurel, or oak; then rose work, plain work on chairs, etc. In the third year they begin on the more difficult parts of chairs — arms, curved back pieces, and crooked feet; then openwork gallery trim- mings and elaborate consoles, passing finally to the execution of more advanced work, outlined by the pupils of the fourth year. In the fourth year the work is principally on friezes, plasters, panels, wainscoting, columns, and capitals. Ornamental design constitutes an important part of the instruction. In the workshop the apprentices are surrounded bj^ numerous well- selected models which serve as a means in the development of taste. Most apprentices remain in the trade of wood-carving. Some, how- ever, take up carving on stone and after a little practice become pro- ficient in the art. The graduates readily find employment. The wages received on leaving the shop are never less than 60 centimes (12 cents) an hour. Those apprentices, howcA^er, who have an artistic gift in addition to their technical knowledge soon obtain better remuneration. Some of the more gifted graduates have become, when quite young, foremen in large establishments. The number of apprentice carvers in 1900 was 25. In the metal-chasing and bronze-mounting shop the apprentices are divided into three classes — metal chasers, bronze mounters, and lathe workers. The metal-chaser's work, briefly stated, consists in finishing castings of bronze or brass in the form intended by the designer. It requires the removal of the seams, tap holes, air holes, etc., from the casting and the finishing of every part and detail in an artistic manner. The bronze-mounter's work consists in assembling the separate casts or pieces of which an object is composed. During the apprenticeship the boys learn to trace out and prepare the surfaces which are to be joined; the method of heating the parts and the care to be taken to guard against deforming them; the proper method of applying the solder, and the filing down, tempering, and flushing of joints neces- sary to secure a perfect finish. In this work a thorough knowledge of linear drawing is a great aid to the apprentice. Some of the mounters engage in electrical and automobile work after terminating their apprenticeship. A three years' apprenticeship is required in each division. It is said the apprentices, although often far from being accomplished workmen, are so well prepared when they leave the shop that they I'eadily become good workmen. The metal chasers are able to earn 4 to 5 francs (10.77 to $0.97) per day, while the bronze mounters are said to earn 4 to 6 francs ($0.77 to $1.16) per day on leaving the shop. 796 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. In 1900 there were 18 metal chasers, 8 bronze mounters, and 3 lathe workers serving an apprenticeship in this shop. The shop for instruments of precision or fine mechanics is directed by a firm that manufactures and perfects scientific instruments and instruments of precision which, by reason of the delicacy of their parts and the accuracy required of them in their operation, call for perfect and careful adjustment. In 1900 the shop contained 22 apprentices. Aside from the equip- ment of large tools with which the shop is supplied by the contractors, each apprentice has an individual kit of tools for which he is held responsible. Part of these hand tools are made in the shop by the apprentices. The processes of instruction are much the same as those mentioned in connection with the description of the machine shop. An important difi'erence is that whereas in the machine shop the fitters and the turners form two distinct classes, in this shop the apprentice learns both the fitting and the turning. He is also taught to polish, to nickel plate, and to varnish the parts that he makes. The apprenticeship is of four j'ears' duration. Upon its completion the graduate knows the trade well enough to practice it in any branch, which makes it easy for him to obtain emplojanent. He is qualified to enter an establishment for the manufacture of telegraphic, electrical, or optical apparatus, telephones, water, gas, or electrical meters, registers, or recorders, photographic apparatus, cinemato- graphs and phonographs, and laboratory instruments, such as sac- charimeters, spectroscopes, microscopes, or instruments used in astronomical work and navigation — sextants, compasses, etc. The wages obtained by the graduates immediately after leaving the school are rather lov/, being genei'ally only 40 centimes (8 cents) an hour, but they are rapidly increased, and often reach from 75 cen- times to 1 franc (14 to 19 cents) per hour. Apprentices in this shop are included in the class of artisans who may compete for exemption from two years of militarj' service. It has been seen that apprentices in this shop do all the opera- tions necessary in the production of a completed instrument. While they do not specialize in the school as do the apprentices in the ordinaiy machine shop, specialization is often required in actual busi- ness. This is particularly true of the turning required in the manufac- ture of optical instruments; hence the need of a shop for the special training of optical turners who become specialized in this particular b]'anch of fine mechanics. Apprenticeship in the optical instrument turning shop lasts four years, and the apprentice is developed in the same manner as in the other shops. He begins by making the springs, then the screws, eyepieces, parts for receiving the lenses, etc. He is also instructed TKADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION FRANCE. 797 in making his own tools. He begins with the bar of steel, forging it in the form of the tool desired, ^^'hic■h he then tempers, anneals and sharpens. In his last _year he is intrusted with putting together the separate parts of an article. Although especially trained for one class of work, the graduates can do various kinds of work outside their specialty. The processes being identical, they can make the separate parts in many sorts of appa- ratus used in physical laboratories, in telephone work, telegraphy, pho- tography, electrical installation, the utilization or measuring of gas, etc., or they can apply their special skill in an instrument manufactory. On leaving the school, they can obtain 6 or 6 francs ($0.97 or $1.16) a day. If they haA'^e aptitude, however, this wage is gradually raised to 9 or 10 francs ($1.74 or $1.93). This shop has been nearh^ thirty years under the direction of one firm. It contained 12 apprentices in 1900. The trunk-making shop was established previous to 18.59. It was reorganized in 1899, and is occupied exclusively in the finishing of trunks and valises. The valise frames and trunk boxes are bought ready made and are trimmed and finished in the shop. The apprentice begins his course by sewing leather handles. Then he pastes and makes up the cheapest sort of valises, then jointed valises with iron or leather corners, then successively leather hat- boxes, cloth valises, leather valises, etc. In the second j^ear he takes up all kinds of fine valise work, as trimmings of pigskin, sheepskin, or parchment, and the making of ordinary leather trunks. In his third and last year he works on fine leather trunks and various fancy articles belonging to the industry. Wages in this trade are not verj^ high; yet it is not difficult for graduates to obtain a wage of from 40 to 55 centimes (8 to 11 cents) an hour on leaving the school. In 1900 the number of apprentices in this shop was 20. Aside from the regular eight hours' shopwork, the apprentices are required to spend two hours a da}' in class exercises. These exercises are arranged in such manner as to afford as nearly as possible a suit- able complcmentarjr instruction to the apprentices of each shop. The instruction is chiefly in drawing applicable to the various industries or groups of industries represented in the shops, but other subjects are touched upon. The apprentice has previously been more or less prepared for the apprenticeship, in so far as the theory is concerned; hence it is only necessary to emphasize during the first year of appren- ticeship some elementary principles that are particularly involved in the practice of the trades taught. There are three drawing courses, each covering three years. They are — (1) a course in mechanical drawing for the apprentice machinists, 798 BEPOBT OF THE COMMISSIONKE OF LABOR. instrument makers, optical turners, and electrical workers; (2) indus- trial draAving intended more .particularly for the apprentice cabinet- makers; and (3) a course in decorative and art desigaing- for the apprentice lithographers, map engravers, wood carvers, metal chasers, and broBze mounters. The apprentice compositors, printers, binders, and trunk makers each join the course best suited to theii' individual aptitudes. There is also a more elementary course for those who can not take one of the courses above enumerated. The detailed programmes of these courses are as follows: Mechanical drawiBg: First year — Sketches and ou1:luies taken directly from machine parts. Elements of kinematics. Exact drawing to scale from, sketches. Second year — Kinematics continued. Plana- and drawings of working parts o-£ machinery. Strength of materials. Third year — Outlines of engines. Steam engines, gas engines. Machine tools. Industrial design for woodworking: First year — Object drawing, using customary wooden objects. Simple groupings [assemblages). Exact drawings to scale from sketches. Second year — Descriptive stereotomy. Studies of furniture. Sketches of furniture. Third year — Stereotomy applied to carpentry. Sketches fronx nature and from drawings (furniture, staircases, etc.). Composition according to specifi- cations. Art and decorative design: First year — Drawing from copy, plaster casts, and engravings. Elements of decorative composition. Second year — Drawing from busts. History. of ornamentation. Elements of decorative composition. Third year — Study of the human form and of decoraiive figures. Study of the classification of styles. Ornamental composition with reference to modern house furnishing and to the decorative arts. While there are no i-egular courses in theory, special lessons in the technology of their trade are given the apprentices at different times, as required in the development of their work. MAKTIBT SCfHOOL FOE GIKLS, X,YON. The institution known as TEcole la Martiniere desjilles Avas founded in 1879 in accordance Avith the testament of Major Martin, who left a legacy for the establishment of an institution for educating children of the city of Lyon. Its object is to give a supei-ior primary and trade education to girls graduating from the primarj' school. The school term lasts from October 1 to JuIa' 13. The regular course of study covers a period of three A"ears and is pursued uniformly by all the pupils, the forenoons being devoted to general and the afternoons to technical instruction. Pupils who com- plete the three years' course may spend a fourth year at the school, devoting the entire day to the practical work. The branches of general instruction are reading, grammar, French language, history, geography, drawing, mathematics, physics, chem- istry, and domestic economy. The special courses are commerce, stenography and typewriting, industrial drawing, embroidery, and dressmaking. TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION FEANCE. 799 The following table shows the number of hours per week devoted to Gaeh trade course: HOUES- DEVOTED TO EACH TRADE CODTISE IN THE MAETIN SCHOOL FOK GIRIS, LYON. Trade coircse. Industrial drawing Emteoiderr: Pattern drawing... Embroidery woiii., Dr.essmaking Hours per week. First year. m m lOJ 174 Second year. 10^ lOJ- 17-J Third year. 17J lOi lOJ 17i Fourtli year ■(op- tional). 21 21 35 The hours per week devoted to the other special courses are — to commerce, 17i to 19i hours; to stenography and typewriting, lli hours. The school possesses a very complete equipment of materials for instruction and an excellent library. The board of administration of this school is composed of the mayor of Lyon and four associates. The teaching personnel consists of nine instructors. At the end of the third year examinations are held before a board made up of professors and persons engaged in business and industry in Lyon, and diplomas are given the pupils who obtain a good general average. Prizes and bank accounts are awarded at the end of each year. The attendance figures for the five years ending January 1, 1899, do not show much variation. On that date the total attendance was 18i2. Of these pupils 106 were in the commercial and 76 in the industrial courses. The expenditures of the school for 1899, amounting to 40,000 francs (f7,720), were entire!}" covered by the legacy of its founder. miTKriCIPAL TRADE SCHOOL FOR GIULS, RUE FONDAEY, PARIS. This school was established in 1881. Its object is to teach young girls certain trades suitable to their sex, and at the same time to instruct them in the duties of housewives. The regular programme of instruction covers three years and com- prises courses in dressmaking, linen needlework, millinery, embroidery, corset making., artificial-flower making, garment making for children, and ironing, the last-namedcourse being of two instead of three years' duration. The number of hours per week devoted to each of these courses is 30 for the first year, 35 for the second year, and 41 for the third year. The course in ironing consumes 30 hours per week during the first and 41 hours per week during the seeon-d year. There are besides special, coui'ses in cutting and fitting, embroidery work for under-garments, and shirt making. In addition to these special 800 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. trade courses there is a general course Avhich all pupils must take and vrhich comprises advanced primarj' instruction, bookkeeping, draw- ing and water-color painting, and cooking and practical instruction in domestic economy. The school possesses a full equipment of all materials needed for instruction. Its affairs are administered by a commission composed of members of the municipal council, persons engaged in industry, and a representative from each of the ministries of commerce and of public instruction. Pupils must be not less than 13 nor more than 15 years of age, except in the case of those holding certificates of primary education, who are received at 12 years of age. An entrance examination is taken by all. Tuition is free to residents of Paris of French nationality. The attend- ance upon the various trade courses of the school on January 1, 1-899, is shown in the following table: PUPILS ATTENDING EACH TRADE COURSE IN MUNICIPAL TRADE SCHOOL FOE GIRLS, RUE FONDARY, PARIS, JANpAEY 1, 1899. Trade course. Dressmaking Linen needlework Embroidery Artiflcial-iiower making Corset making Ironing Millinery Garment making for children Total First Second Third year. year. year. [ 43 37 30 11 4 3 5 8 3 3 4 4 4 6 5 2 3 2 8 11 f> 10 10 7 86 82 69 Total. 110 18 16 11 14 7 24 27 The number of pupils graduated in 1898 was 62. The revenues of the school are derived from subsidies granted by the city of Paris, from departmental and communal appropriations, and from the sale of articles made by the pupils. In 1899 the receipts were 102,155 francs (^19,716) from the city, 208 francs ($40) from the department, 6,048 francs ($974) from other communes, and 10,063 francs (11,942) from work of pupils, making a total of 117,474 francs ($22,672). THE iSlISA LEMONNIEB, TRADE SCHOOLS FOB GIBLS, PAEIS. The Society for the Maternal Protection of Girls was organized in 1856, with Mme. Elisa Lemonnier as president. Its aim was to secure homes for young girls in indigent circumstances and to teach them a trade by which they might make a living. It placed several children in Paris and others in Germany, but, having nowhere found homes that fully met their views, the members of the society determined in 1862 to open special training institutions. At that time the society enlarged its sphere of activity and took its present title of Society for the Trade Education of Women. It founded in the Rue de la Perle the first trade school for women in France. This school had great success, and others, modeled exactly after it in programme and details of organiza- tion, were opened one after another. Later the society adopted the TEADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION — FEANCB.. 801 plan of developing especially two of its schools and giving these an equipment and programmes which would make them model schools. The first of these was founded in 1864 and is located in the Rue Duperre; the other, founded in 1870, is in the Rue des Boulets. The society owns the buildings in which both schools are installed. In these schools the courses open on the first Monday in October and close August 2. In addition to the industrial and commercial courses proper, each school gives general courses, covering the follow- ing subjects: French, arithmetic, geometry, history, geography, sci- ences, writing, and sewing. The direction of each school is intrusted to a woman, and most of the teachers are women. The curriculum of trade education covers four years, the commercial three j'ears. Fol- lowing is a list of the branches taught in the industrial department of each school and the number of hours per Aveek devoted to each: HOURS PER WEEK DEVOTED TO EACH SUBJECT IN THE INDUSTRIAL DEPARTMENT OF THE ELISA LEMONNIER TRADE SCHOOLS FOR GIRLS, PARIS. Subjects. Hours per weeJi. Rue Duperrii SchooL First Second Third Fourth year. year. year. year. Rue des Boulets School. First Second Third year. year. year. Fourth year. Drawing Perspective Geometry Descriptive geometry Anatomy Decorative composition History of art Engraving * Small figure work Fan decoration Miniature work Water-color work Enamel and ceramic decoration. Artistic leather work Painting on glass Embroidery Sewing Cutting Pattern making Embroidery pattern making Arithmetic and geometry Physical and natural science 18 14 1 18 4 27 The attendance on January 1, 1899, was 422 pupils, distributed as follows: Industrial course, 266 pupils; commercial course, 92 pupils; preparatory course, 64 pupils. The general studies are taken by all the pupils alike. The Society's receipts for the year 1898-99 are reported as follows: Subsidies: From the State 52,026.50 From the city of Paris 4,632.00 From trade unions 19. 30 From various associations 376. 35 From individuals 4, 059. 76 9257—02 51 802 KEPOET OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOE. Gifts for particular ends ^ $659. 87 Assessments of the 368 active members 1,980.47 Pupils' fees ' 4,95?2. 17 Sales 5,487.74 Scholarship funds: Departmental 234.50 Communal 911.92 Miscellaneous 244. 68 Total 25,485.26 The expenditures exceeded the total receipts by 2,993 francs ($678). Each year general competitions are held, open to the pupils of the two schools. They enter other contests also, such as those of the Central Union of the Decorative Arts, those held under the ministry of fine arts for the different degrees of professor of design, and art or industrial expositions, etc. TKADE SCHOOLS FOR SINGLE TRADES. There are comparatively few genuine trade schools in France in which the instruction is limited to a single trade. A list of them has already been, given. It is undoubtedly true that the instruction in some of these schools relates to a,n industry in which, in actual prac- tice, the work is specialized, but this specialization does not exist in the instruction given at the schools. It is considered better to have a wide general knowledge of the trade to which the instruction relates than a specialized training in some particular branch of it. Several representative schools belonging to this class are described in the following pages in the alphabetical order of the occupations taught: APPRENTICESHIP SCHOOL OF THE ASSOCIATION OF CAKRIAGE WORKERS, PARIS. This school was established in 1888. Its aim is to take boys finish- ing their school education and give them an apprenticeship which will make of them skilled workmen in the carriage-making industry. The instruction comprises five distinct departments — joinery, wheelwrights' work, fitting and blacksmithing, carriage upholstering and trimming, and painting. Instruction is given each day in all these branches by five teachers, each having one department. Apprentices devote two hours per day to theoretical and practical work in each department, or a total of sixty hours per week. The term of apprenticeship is three years, and for the services they are able to perform during this period the young men receive a remuneration of from 1.60 to 3 francs (29 to 58 cents) a day. On January 1, 1899, the total number of apprentices at the school was 16. Since 1896 employment has been found for an average of 5 apprentices each year. TEADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION — FEANCE. 803 The receipts for 1899 consisted of a subsidj^ of 3,000 francs (1579) from the city of Paris and assessments of members of the association amounting to 1,692 francs (1327), to make up the balance of a total expenditure of 4,692 francs ($906). FSESrCH SCHOOL OF HOSIERY, TSOYES. This school was founded in 1888 by the local chamber of commerce and the association of hosiery manufacturers and employers in related industries. It receives aid from and is under the control of the National Government and the general council of the Department of Aube. At first the school was subsidized by the municipal council of Troyes, but since 1896 it has received no support from the city. By means, however, of the subsidies from other sources this school renders important service to the local industry by educating persons for positions such as overseers and superintendents of mills. It does not aim to train operatives. The administrative board is composed of members of the chamber of commerce and of hosiery manufacturers of Troyes. The school term opens at the beginning of October and closes at the beginning of August. The curriculum covers two years. The pro- gi'amme of studies and hours per week are as follows: First }-ear: Elementary study of textiles, first principles of spinning, of ■weaving, and of the technology of hosiery mannfaeture, 2 to 3 hours; mathematics — elemen- tary geometry, arithmetic, including progressions and logarithms, 4 hours; dra\ying — geometrical drawing, sketches and drawings of machine parts, 6 hours; practical work in hosiery manufacture, 20 hours; practical work in machine fitting, 10 hours; history and geography, 1 hour. Second year: Technology of spinning, weaving, and hosiery manufacture, 2 to 3 hours; mathematics applied to industry, 11 hours; industrial drawing, 6 hours; prac- tical work in machine fitting, 10 hours; shopwork in hosiery manufacture, 14 hours. The programme of most of this second year's work is given in fuller detail, as fol- lows: Technology: Elementary principles of cotton and \yool spinning; visits to shops in connection with technology of hosiery manufacture. Mathematics and physics: Summary of elementarj' algebra, including equations of the second degree and their discussion; elementary geometry; elementary descriptive geometry and its applications; kinematics, a? complete as possible; general precautions to be taken in operating machinery; principles of industrial mechanics, mechanical work, levers, strength of materials; general principles of industrial physics; elementary principles of the industrial applications of electricity; steam generators and engines, gas engines, gasoline engines, hydraulic engines. Industrial drawing: Drawing from outlines made by the pupils, or following specifications given. Attached to the school is a knitting mill with a complete equipment for instruction in hosiery manufacture, a machine shop containing vises, a forge, a foot lathe, and a hand boring machine, besides numerous smaller tools, and a library. Examinations are held at the close of each semester covering all 804 BEPOUT OF THE COMMISSIONER OP LABOB. the subjects taught. A pupil whose work is unsatisfactory at the end of the first year is not admitted to the higher division. Those who pass the final examinations receive diplomas. The number of pupils attending the school varies from 14 to 18. Young men without means arc received gratuitously, and the four obtaining the highest averages on a competitive examination receive an. allowance of 200 francs (138.60) the first year and 250 francs ($48.25) the second. These allowances are called residence scholar- ships (bourses de sejour), and are intended to assist the families of the holders to supply their needs during their attendance at the school. They also partially compensate the young men for the loss of wages they might earn during that period. The total receipts of the school for the year 1899 were 14,022 fi'ancs ($2,706). Of this amount, the principal items were 3,000 francs ($579) from the State, 2,000 francs ($386) from the Department of Aube, 2,500 francs ($483) from the chamber of commerce, and 4,730 francs ($913) from the association of hosiery manufacturers. SCHOOL FOB, MINE BOSSES AND FOREMEN, ALAIS. The idea of a school for the training of mine bosses originated with the mayor of Alais, who laid before the common council of the city a proposition to establish a school of such character. The subject was afterwards taken up by the general council of the Department of Gard, and the creation of the school was finally authorized by a royal ordinance issued September 22, 1843. On July 26, 1845, the minister of public works promulgated the regulations that should govern the school, and in November of the same year the first students, 13 in number, were admitted. The organization of this school has received but unimportant modi- fications since its creation. The idea of preparing men who should engage in the actual operations of mining as bosses rather than engi- neers or directors has never been lost sight of, and the instruction given has consequently always been thoroughly practical. The school is now governed in accordance with the decree of July 18, 1890. The most important changes introduced by this decree over the provisions of the ordinance of 1843 relates to the coijiposition of the teaching staff and the minimum age of admission. Under the regulations now in force the director of the school must be a chief engineer of mines. He has under him two special teachers, a master overseer (inattre sxir- veillant) and a steward {econonn). All four of these assistants must be selected from the class of mine controllers (coniroleurs des mines) and be appointed by the minister of public works. There is also a teacher of French, who is appointed by the prefect of Gard. The school is supported in part by the State, the Department of Gard, and the city of Alais, as the tuition fees received are wholly TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDTJOATION FRANCE. 805 inadequate. The tuition fee, including board and lodging, is 400 francs (177.20) a year. Most of the students, however, are in receipt of scholarships. The minister of public works has five at his disposal, and the Department of Gard has eight. Others are given by different departments and mining companies. The students of the school are recruited mainly from among the mining population of the district in which the school is situated and to a less extent the other mining districts of France. Their ages at entering vary from 18 to 25 years, and they must have had at least 18 months' actual work in coal mines. As the number of students is lim- ited to about 45, and not more than from 20 to 25 students can be admitted each year, a selection of the persons to be received is made by means of a competitive examination. During the month of July all candidates are first examined in the arrondissement in which they reside. Those who are successful in this examination can take the final examination for admission, which is held at Alais. This latter examination includes a test of the candi- dates' ability in reading, writing, and arithmetic, but particularly relates to their practical knowledge of mining operations. Candidates can also request to be examined concerning their knowledge of algebra, geometry, trigonometry, physics, and chemistry. Preponderating weight, however, is given to their knowledge of practical mining oper- ations. Usually about 66 to 65 persons take the preliminary exami- nation. Of these, from 40 to 45 are permitted to take the Alais examination, and from 20 to 25 are admitted as students. The official reports note that during the past ten years there has been a distinct rise in the level of the intellectual attainments of the candidates. The course of instruction lasts two years. Its most significant fea- ture is that the students are not taken entirely out of the mines during this time, as it is believed to be very desirable that they should con- tinue in the closest touch with mining work. The students thus pass but 6i months of each of the years at the school. During the remain- ing 6i months they are sent as ordinary laborers or mine measurers. The instruction given consists of the French language; the elements of algebra, arithmetic, and geometry, as far as these studies are neces- sary for an understanding of practical mine operations; special courses in topography, physics, and chemistry; mechanics, mineralogy and geology, and the exploitation of mines; linear drawing, as well as a certain number of practical exercises relating to topography, geology, and industrial drawing. In addition to these regular courses, there is a special course open to the ten students passing highest in the examinations. This course is given by a mine controller residing at Alais, and consists of one lecture a week upon the law of mines, quarries, steam boilers, etc. 80(5 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. The purpose of this course is to fit the student for the duties of mine controller, though the information imparted is of use to all classes of mine workers. The Qi months of each year devoted to studies are broken up into two periods, one of 4^ months during the winter and the other of 2 months during the summer. During these months the students hoard at the school. They rise at 5 o'clock in the morning and retire at 9 in the evening. Each da_y they have two sessions, one of 3 hours and the other of 1-^ hours, in addition to three lessons in French of an hour each during the week. The remainder of the time is passed in study, recreation, and meals. Following is a more detailed statement of the character of the tech- nical courses: The course in surface and underground topography consists of 20 lessons. The study is pursued entirely with reference to its applica- tion to mining. Twice a week, during the summer months, the students go into neighboring mines, where they pass through all operations relating to underground sui've3dng. Once a week they have practical work in surface topography. Reports of plans are subsequently considered in the chiss-room exercises. Physics and chemistry are taught entirely by the experimental method. The course includes 16 lessons in physics and 20 lessons in chemistry. In physics especial attention is given to natural forces and to principles made use of in mines. In chemistry the study is restricted to a rapid survey of the principal properties of the metals and metalloids and the description of the methods of anal3'sis of com- bustibles, of fii-e damp, and of the principal metals. The study of each metal is accompanied by instruction regarding metallurgical operations involved in its transformation from the raw ore to the fin- ished product. The course in mechanics and machinerj- embraces 21) lessons. The first few lessons consist of a study of the theoretical elements of statics, kinematics, and dynamics necessary to understand simple machines and steam engines. The subsequent exercises relate to the description of machines and engines. Two lessons are devoted to the strength of materials. Once a week the scholars go to industrial establishments of the neighborhood where they study and make sketches of machines or parts of machines. They also make drawings of mine machinery, etc. Instruction in geology and mineralogy is given in 28 lessons, numer- ous examinations of the collections ordered by the school, and eight days spent in field work. The course is divided into four parts. The first includes the indispensable general ideas of geology ; the second, the study of rocks and minei-als; the third, an elementary study of strata; finally, the foui'th, a studj^ of the principal coal basins of France TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION — FRANCE. 807 and of the different kinds of coal deposits. iTse is made of numerous photographs in this course. Thirty-eight lessons are devoted to the subject of the exploitation of mines. This course is purely descriptive. Only practical mining operations are considered, and work being carried on in the neighboring mines is constantly referred to by vray of illustration. During the months that the students are working in the mines thej' are given different classes of duties to perform. On returning to the school the}' are required to make a report gn what they have done. By means of frequent examinations and other tests the relative standings of the students are carefully recorded. Four-fifths of the graduates highest in I'ank are exempted from two j^ears of military service. A decree dated January 2, 1883, permits the three students standing the highest to be appointed mine controllers without passing any other examination. There can be no doubt that the school has admirably fulfilled the purposes of its establishment. Ouring the period from the date of its foundation to the close of 1899 it has prepared 852 students. Of these, 116 are dead, and no information is obtainable concerning 193. The careers of 543 are definitely known. Of these, 197, or 36.3 per cent, occupy the post of boss miners or directors of i:)articular services; 98, or 18 per cent, are mine measurers; 165, or 30.4 per cent, occupy various positions of responsibility — assistant engineers, directors of small works, etc. ; 40, or 7.4 per cent, are engineers or directors of important works; 41, or 7.5 per cent, are controllers of mines or superintendents of roads and bridges; 2, or 0.4 per cent, are officers in the regular army. Fourteen per cent of these persons reside in foreign countries, of whom one-thiid are in Algeria and Tunis, one-third in Spain, and the remaining third scattered throughout the world. SCHOOI, FOB, BOKTE BOSSES AND FOREMEX, DOUAI. The school for mine bosses and foremen at Douai was created l^y decree of March 27, 1878, in response to the request, and promise of financial aid, of the two great mining departments of the Nord and Pas- de-Calais. The purpose of this school is strictly analogous to that of the school at Alais that has been described. To carrj- out that purpose almost the same scheme of organization and programme of studies has been adopted. The following description of this school is taken from the very interesting account prepared for the Paris Exposition of 1900, and published in the Journal Officiel of July 30, 1900. It shows not oulj the organization of the school but the intensely prac- tical spirit in which it is administered and the happj' results that have been obtained. The purpose of the school is to take young men who already have an acquaintance with the practical features of mining and give to 808 BEPOET OF THE COMMISSIONEK OF LABOK. them the training fitting them to occupy the positions of mine bosses, mine measurers, etc. A few .of the more intelligent students continue their studies after graduation and lise to higher posts in the state service or private industry, but the great majority have no other expectation than to become subordinate officers in mines. Candidates for entrance must be at least 18 years of age, have had eighteen months' experience in coal mines, and be in possession of a satisfactory primary education. The school receives only boarders, the cost of tuition, including board and lodging, being 500 francs (196.60) a j^ear. The school is directed by a chief engineer of mines, and instruction is given by three teachers who must each have the grade of controller of mines. The duration of studies is two years, and, as at the school at Alais, about half this time must be spent in practical work in the mines. The greater part of the theoretical instruction is given during the first four and a half months, from October 16 to March 1 . The students then perform mine work iov two months, returning to the school May 1. Here they remain for two months reviewing their pre- vious work and studying the results of their mine experiences. They then return to the mines for the three and a half months, from July 1 to October 16. Of this union of theory and practice the director of the school says: "The practical instruction that the mines in active operation give to students of the school of Douai has this immense advantage, that it is constantly iii touch with the progress of the art of mining. It is extremely profitable to the students without costing anj'thing to the school. The rule according to which the companies employ them, which is that they are paid according to the work done and not according to the wage scale in vogue, ^renders their employment easy. It has this additional advantage, that it does not permit the students to have any illusions concerning the real services which they are capable of rendering." The programme of studies is practically identical with that of Alais which has already been given, and need not therefore be repeated. The school accommodates about 45 students. During the last nine- teen years, or from 1880 to 1898, 248 students have completed the course. The situation of these students in 1899 was as follows: 14 had died, the occupations of 7 were unknown, 13 occupied various positions on tramways, railroads, etc., while 214 were engaged in actual mining operations. Of these 214, 12 were controllers of mines in the Government service, 117 were bosses, foremen, assistant engineers, engineers, or directors in mining companies, and 47 were mine meas- urers, chief mine measurers, or office employees. With rare exceptions the students upon graduation enter the mines as ordinary miners or laborers and work their way up. This, however, on account of their training, usually requires but two or three years at the most. TRADE AND TECHTSTICAL EDUCATION — EBANCE. 809 TBADE SCHOOL FOK. SHOEMAKERS, PARIS. This school was founded in 1891 by private initiative. Its object is to give to j'^oung men desiring to devote themselves to shoemaking a practical training in that occupation and to offer to young workmen from the provinces instruction that will better fit them for the class of work required in the city. Two courses of study are provided— a practical course in shoe- making, extending over the entire year and lasting from 8 a. m. to 7 p. m. each day, and a general evening course in cutting from Decem- ber 1 to August 20, which consumes two hours per week. Appren- tices of the shoemaking school also receive general instruction at night in a communal school. A limited number of these are day pupils, some of them being boarders. On January 1, 1899, the attendance upon the school was 30 pupils, of whom 18 were regular apprentices and the remaining 12 special students. The school receives subsidies from the State, the city, trade unions, etc. Tuition fees and the proceeds from the sale of work executed by the pupils also go to swell the receipts of the school. The expendi- tures for 1899 were 6,147 francs ($993); the receipts for the same year were 4,477 francs ($864), leaving a deficit of 670 francs (1129). SCHOOL OE THE APPRENTICE TAILORS' PATRONAL COMMITTEE, PARIS. This school was founded in 1893 by a committee of the Employers' Association and of the Benevolent Society of Master Tailors of Paris. The object of its founders was to give to the class of emploj^ees called pieceworkers such practical instruction as would better fit them for their work, thus proving of mutual benefit to employers and emploj^ed. The practical course in garment making covers three j-ears and con- sumes 60 hours per week. In addition, the committee has established courses in cutting and technics, which occupy 2 hours on Monday and Frida}' of each week. In these the young men receive technical lessons in measuring, cutting, trying-on, fitting, lining, etc. These courses open at the beginning of November and close at the end of April. The programme in detail comprises the preparation, lining, padding, etc., of garments; needle- work and stitching; lining, joining,, and modifications in work depend- ing upon the kind of cloth used; geometrical relations in the cutting and making-up of garments; study of methods of making alterations, etc. The teaching personnel consists of 2 teachers in the workshops, 2 in the technical course, and 2 in the course in cutting. The school is equipped with all the necessary tools and has a permanent exhibition of work done by the pupils, which serves for models, etc. 810 EEPOET OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOB. Each year the apprentices are examined by a jury of tailors. The number of pupils attending this school in 1899 was 25. The receipts and expenditures for that jiear were as follows: RECEIPTS AND BXPENDITUEES OP THE SCHOOL OF THE APPEENTICE TAILOfiS' PATRONAL COMMITTEE, PARIS, 1899. Receipts. Amount. Expenditures. Amount. So7.90 96.50 189. 14 161.40 67.90 $185.28 Subsidy from trade organizations Compensation to teachers, supplies, lighting, examinations, and presents. 276.69 Proceeds accruing to school from sale 93.87 Miscellaneous Total 555. 84 555.84 IBTBUSTBIAi SCHOOL OF TEXTILES, TOtTEOOIK'G. This school was founded in 1889, to meet the requirements of the local spinning and weaving industry. It undertakes to give young workmen and employees such theoretical and practical instruction as will fit them to become overseers, master workmen in spinning and weaving, bookkeepers, heads of offices, etc., in textile establishments, and to give to the sons of textile manufacturers and merchants such complete technical instruction as will enable them to assume the man- agement of their fathers' establishments. The instruction comprises two divisions — a day school and evening courses. The latter are for persons who are employed during the day and hence have only the evenings for stud3^ The day courses are for the sons of manufacturers and merchants who can devote their entire time to their studies. Each of the evening courses covers a period of from one to three years, according to its importance. The studies in each of the day courses cover one year, but the weeklj^ hours are arranged so as to permit pupils to take branches in more than one course, and thus complete the programme of instruction in two years. The school year begins October 1, and ends July 15th or 20th. The programme of instruction for the day as well as for the even- ing courses comprises spinning, weaving, mechanics, and commerce. The number of hours per week devoted to the work of each course is as follows: HOURS PER WEEK IN EACH COURSE OP THE INDUSTRIAL SCHOOL OP TEXTILES, TOURCOING. Hours per week. Courses. Evening classes. Day classes. First year. Second year. Third year. 8 a 4 4 6 8 a 4i 7 5 20 7 4 6 TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION FEANCE. 811 Pupils of the day courses generallj- enter the school for the purpose of taking certain studies which they can finish in one year, after which they enter upon the occupations of their jjarents. About one- half the pupils who matriculate in the evening courses do not fmi.-jh them on account of bad health, change of employment or residence, military service, etc. Those who complete the courses generally remain in their present occupation and often obtain advancement on account of work done at this school. The board of administration of the school consists of the president of the chamber of commerce and three associates. The teaching personnel consists of a director, 7 instructors, 3 assistant instructors, and 3 foremen. The attendance on January 1, 1899, was as follows: ATTENDANCE IN EACH COURSE OF THE INDUSTRIAL SCHOOL OP TEXTILES, TOURCOING, JANUARY 1, 1899. Courses. Evening classes. Day classes. 41 89 78 48 6 Mechanics 9 4 Total 256 23 The number of graduates during the past five j'ears is as follows: GRADUATES OF THE INDUSTRIAL SCHOOL OF TEXTILES, TOURCOIXG, 1894-9.5 TO 1898-99. Year. Evening courses. Day courses. 1894 95 70 88 89 121 132 1895-96 8 1896 97 9 1897-98 9 1898-99 12 The receipts and expenditures for 1898-99 were as follows: Receipts: Contributiou from the chamber or commerce $714. 10 Contributions from individuals.. 3,088. 00 Tuition fees from the day coui-ses. - 955. 35 Tuition lees from the evening courses 104. 22 Total 4,861.67 Expenditures: Salaries 2,702.00 Materials and other exr enditures 1, 447. 50 Surplus from receipts 712. 17 Total .- 4,861.67 812 KEPOBT OF THE COMMISSIONEK OF LABOR. GTrTTESTBERG TYPOGSAPHICAI, SCHOOL, PARIS. This school was founded in 1886 under the patronage of the Master Printers' Association. It is governed by a board composed of the executive officers of that organization. At first the pupils were recruited from among the apprentices of the various printing estab- lishments, who came twice a week to attend the courses. This arrangement was inconvenient, and the association decided that the apprenti(;eship should be served entirely at the school and should last three years. To be received in this school boys must be at least 13 years of age and be provided with a certificate of primary education. The courses of instruction are free. The instruction given is in two divisions: (1) Technical and practi- cal; (2) supplemental instruction designed to improve the general education of the pupil, with particular reference to his trade. The technical instruction comprises: (1) Ordinary typesetting; tables; job work; Greek characters and algebraic notation; paging and impos- ing; geometrical rule cutting; proof reading and correction. (2) Presswork in black and in colors. (3) Stereotyping; making the molds and setting the plates. (4) Electrotj^ping; its applications to typography. (5) Making of estimates; accounting and general man- agement of a printing establishment. The supplemental instruction comprises: (1) French language; (2) history and geography; (3) history of book manufacture and printing; (4) arithmetic, geometry, algebra; (5) elements of mechanics, physics, and chemistry api)lied to the typographic arts; geometrical and object drawing. The time devoted to typographical work (composing and printing) is 37 hours per week; to stereotyping and mold making, 4; to supple- mentary instruction, 11; a total of 52 hours. The school possesses a complete equipment of the most improved apparatus and materials for instruction, and the kind of training imparted to pupils is of a most practical and substantial character. The attendance at this school on January 1, 1899, was 18 ]Dupils, distributed over the three years' course provided by the curriculum. The courses are common to all, and are so arranged that during his attendance each pupil completes the whole series. NATIONAL SCHOOL OF WATCHMAKING, BESANgON. The National School of Watchmaking, of Besanfon, was founded in 1861 as a municipal institution. At first it was a day school intended for students living in the city. Shortly after a boarding department was added, in which students are boarded and lodged for a payment of 67.60 francs ($13.05) a month. These students, however, pay a tuition fee of 200 francs ($38. 60) a year. In 1891 the school was made a State institution and consequently is now under the control of the ministry of commerce. TRADE AND TECHTS^ICAL EDUCATION FRANCE. 813 The purpose of this school is analogous to that at Cluses, hereafter described. Pupils must be at least 13 years of age and have com- pleted their primary studies or equivalent instruction. Persons who are over 20 years of age and have exercised the trade of watchmak- ing are exempt from this examination. The duration of study is 3 years. The theoretical instruction embraces the study of algebra to equations of the first degree, elements of plane geometry and plane trigonometry, elements of mechanics, the applica- tion of mechanics to watchmaking, drawing as applied to this trade, the elements of physics, chemistry, and cosmography, accounts, and the general principles of industrial economy. The practical instruc- tion is given in the shops belonging to the school, and relates to all the operations of watchmaking and the general branches of fine mechanics or the making of instruments of precision. In the division of the time, 10 hours a week are given to theoretical, and 45 hours to prac- tical workshop instruction. In addition to the regular course there is a special department in which students who are recognized as being specially apt in their studies can receive more advanced instruction. In this department are given courses in mathematics, analytical geometry and difFerential and integral calculus, the application of higher mathematics to general mechanics, and especially to watchmaking, etc. In 1900 the school had 55 students. Concerning this school the Journal Officiel, in 1900, said: '"No matter how satisfactory the results obtained by this school maj^ be, it is generall}' agreed that its organization to-day no longer responds, either from the point of view of its programme of studies or from that of its administration, to the needs of an industrial region as important as that of Besanfon and the Doubs department." A proj- ect for its reorganization is therefore now under consideration. It is proposed that the present courses shall be maintained, but that they shall be supplemented by (1) a shop in which all the operations of watchmaking can be performed, (2) a shop for the making of small metal objects or instruments of precision emploj^ed in the construc- tion of watches and other articles, and (8) a shop for the making of electrical apparatus. NATIONAL SCHOOL OF WATCHMAKING, CLUSES. The national watchmaking school of Cluses is of especial interest from the standpoint of the study of the practical influences of a trade school upon the industry'' and locality for which it is created, for this school was founded for the especial purpose of aiding an industry which was rapidly declining. At the end of the eighteenth century two-thirds of the population of this town was occupied in the watch and clock industry. In 1815, for various reasons, and especially on account of foreign competition, 814 EETOET OY THE COMMISSIONEB OF LABOR. a decline set in which continued during the next three decades. The municipality of Cluses, to revive the declining industry, demanded of the Sardinian Government the foundation of a special school of v^atch- making. The Government willingly acceded to this demand, and called in the director of the royal manufactory of Versailles, to prepare the plans for such an institution. These plans took the form of a proposal for a factory in which all the branches of watchmaking could be conducted, and of a school for the training of skilled artisans. Only the latter half of the proposition was adopted, and a royal school of watchmaking was authorized by decree of March 31, 1848. The school opened in 1849 with 24 students, 12 boys and 12 girls. The pupils were divided into two classes. One class included pupils who desired to take a complete course in both the theory and practice of watchmaking, while the other included those who merely desired to serve an apprenticeship in a particular branch of the industry, and preferably one not then followed in the locality. Girls were admitted to the latter class only. The age of admission varied between 14 and 16 years. The knowledge required of pupils on entering was read- ing and writing for the second course, and reading, writing, and the four fundamental rules of arithmetic for the first. Candidates for the first course must also have commenced their apprenticeship in a watch factory. During the years from the founding of the school to the annexation of Savoy to France, in 1860, the school continued its course, fully meet- ing expectations in its influence upon the restoration of the watch- making industrj^ in its locality. From 1848 to 1860, 295 students, among whom were a considerable number of persons distinguished in the trade, were trained. Of those so trained, 45, or about 15 per cent, were females. In 1863 the Government ordered the assistant director of the Con- servatory of Arts and Trades to make an examination of the school, with a view to determining what modification could be intvoduced with advantage into the school. It was especially desired to make its organization conform more to that of the schools of arts and trades. In accordance with his report, decrees were issued November 30 and December 7, 1863, reorganizing the school. Girls were no longer admitted, entrance being restricted to boys over 12 years of age. Tuition became free. The duration of studios was fixed at two years, with a third year optional. After being closed a short time for repairs, the school was reopened in 1864 with 18 students, of whom 4 were from departments of France other than upper Savoy. The school, in fact, was now a national institution. From this date the school has continued to advance in importance. The annual expenditure, which under the Sardinian Gov- TKADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION PBANCE. 815 ernment had been 8,300 francs ($1,602), was increased, first to 20,000 ($3,860) and then to 25,000 francs ($4,825). In 1878 the number of students was 80, and the old buildings were entirely inadequate for the proper accommodation of that number. Plans for a new building, to be specially constructed so as to meet all requirements, were made. This new building was formally inaugurated June 21, 1SS6, and is a model edifice for its purpose. It covers nearly 10,000 square feet of ground and has a verj- attract- iye architecture. On the ground floor are three large rooms used for recitations and drawing courses, and on the two upper flooi's four large shops, besides lavatories, dressing rooms, etc. The new quarters permitted an increase in the number of students until in 1900 it stood at 140, coming from 60 different departments. In 1890 a new decree was issued, which determined the present organization and programme of the school. The purposes of the school were stated to be: (1) The formation of skillful and trained workmen capable of executing, in whole or in part, the apparatus destined for the measurement of time, or any other instruments of mechanical precision made use of in the sciences and arts; (2) to give to young men the instruction fitting them to become in these indus- tries foremen or directors of establishments. The school is administered by a director appointed bj' the minister of commerce, who has as assistants, instructoz's, shop foremen, and a council composed of the teaching staff and not more than four other members selected preferably from among the manufacturers of the district. Admission is decided by the prefect of the department. A certain number of places are reserved for workmen who desire to perfect themselves in special branches of the watch-making trade. Such work- men can not remai?n more than six months in the school. Instruc- tion is fi-ee, but the students must provide themselves with the tools required in the shopwork, books, etc. Whole or part scholarships for the payment of board and lodging are granted. More than 20,000 francs (|3,860) are expended annualty for this purpose by the central Government, the department, and the commune. In 1899-1900, 105 students were receiving such assistance. The cost of board and lodg- ing is about 600 francs ($116) a j'ear, the administration of the school undertaking to find accommodations at this figure. Pupils must be at least 14 j-ears of age, and have received a cer- tificate o'f primary studies, or give evidence that they have received equivalent instruction. The duration of studies is three years. The theoretical studies embrace the French language, the elements of arithmetic, algebra, geometry and trigonometry, and mechanics, with special attention to electricity and drawing. The practical instruction is given in four 816 EEPOET OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. shops. In order to accommodate the students in the shops the school is organized in two divisions, but the apportionment of the time devoted to the different subjects is the same. Following is the programme for the first division. This relates to the winter months, or from November 3 to April 1. The programme for the remaining six months is slightly different, work beginning at 7 instead of 8 a. m. and ceasing at 6.30 instead of 7 p. m. The additional half hour is chiefly devoted to shopwork. TIME SCHEDULE, WINTER TERM, NATIONAL SCHOOL OF WATCHMAKING, CLUSES. Hours. First year. Second year. Third year. MONDAY, TUESDAY, WEDNES DAY, THURSDAY. 8 to 9 a. m 9 to 10 a. m 10.10 to 10.16 a. m 10.15 a. m. to 12 m 12 m. to 1.30 p. m 1.30 to 2.30 p. m 2.30 to 3.30 p. m 3.30 to 3.45 p. m 3.45 to 7 p. m FRIDAY. 8 to 10 a. m 10 to 10.16 a. m 10.15 a. m. to 12 m 12 m. to 1.30 p. m 1.30 to 3.30 p. m 3.30 to 3.-46 p. m 3.46 to 7p. m SATURDAY. 8 to 10 a. m 10 to 10.15 a. m 10.15 a. m. to 12 m 12 m. to 1.30 p. m 1.30 to 3.30 p. m 3.30 to 3.45 p. m 3.45 to 7 p. m Theory Shopwork Recreation shopwork Lunch and recreation Theory Shopwork Recreation Shopwork Drawing Recreation Drawing Lunch and recreation Shopwork Recreation Shopwork Shopwork Recreation Shopwork Lunch and recreation Shopwork t Recreation Shopwork Theory Shopwork Recreation Shopwork Lunch and recreation Theory ; Shopwork Recreation Shopwork Shopwork Recreation Shopwork Lunch and recreation Drawing Recreation Drawing Shopwork Recreation Shopwork Lunch and recreation Shopwork Recreation Shopwork Theory. Shopworlc. Recreation. Shopwork. Lunch and recreation. Theory. Shopwork. Recreation. Shopwork. Drawing. Recreation. Drawing. Lunch and recreation. Shopwork. Recreation. Shopwork. Shopwork. Recreation. Shopwork. Lunch and recreation. Shopwork. Recreation. Shopwork. An inspection of this statement of hours shows' how large a part of the time of the students is devoted to shopwork. Since 1886 the school has been in possession of a small ,shop for fine mechanical and electrical work, in which instruction is given by two special teachers. The courses of this department are attended by (1) young persons who have completed their studies in watch making and are desirous of making a further study of electricity as applied to watch and clock making, a branch of the trade which is becoming of greater importance, and (2) by young men who intend to enter the industry of the manufacture of instruments of precision, the construc- tion of electrical apparatus, and, in particular, telephone and telegraph apparatus. The number of students in this section is constantly increasing. The school reports that these students on graduation find little difficulty in securing positions. Since the annexation of Savoy to France, in 1860, this school has turned out 1,218 graduates. The following statement of occupations TEADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION FRANCE. 817 of graduates will show that as far as information is obtainable the oTeat majority have entered the trade in which they received instruction : Teachers in various schools 8 Manufacturers or directors of establishments 46 Factory workers, watchmaking, 121 Watch repairers 285 Watch dealers 418 Telegraph mechanics in State service 15 Mechanics in private establishments 33 Have abandoned watch trade from dislike of the work, lack of aptitude, or for other reasons 80 Deceased 131 Persons from whom no information was obtained (including 26 foreigners) 81 Commenting upon these figures, an official report of the school says: "The figures given above show that even considering the 81 persons from whom no information was obtained as lost to the trade, the pro- portion of those who have remained in the watch-making trade is over 85 per cent." The present total expenditures of the school are 58,900 francs ($11,368), of which 56,900 francs (110,982) are paid by the State and the remaining 2,000 francs ($386) by the Department of Upper Savoy. TRADE SCHOOr, OF "WATCHMAKING, PARIS. This school was founded in July, 1880. Its aim is to provide the clock and watch making industry in France with skilled workmen in all its specialties. It is a private institution, whose affairs are adminis- tered by a board which comprises a president, 2 vice-presidents, 2 secretaries, a treasurer, a librarian, and a directing committee. The term opens September 1 and closes July 15. The programme covers 4 years and comprises practical and theoretical courses. The former are: First year, tools; second year, regulators; third j^ear, chro- nometers; fourth year, simple and complicated watches, miscellaneous work. The time per week given to these courses is uniformly 48 hours. The theoretical instruction, occupying 8 hours a week through- out the 4 years, comprises: Geometrical drawing, drafting of tools, technical drawing in reference to watchmaking, arithmetic and geom- etry, elements of mechanics, technologjr, French language, elements of chemistry and physics, and theory of watchmaking. The instruction is given by 4 teachers of practical work and 2 of theoretical branches. " The school contains 4 workshops. A great quantity of apparatus and drawings is used in both the practical and the theoretical instruction. The library, museum, and collections are at the service of the pupils. Each year, some weeks before the vacation, general examinations are held for the graduating class. The jury is composed of watch- makers and scientists. Diplomas are awarded to those who have 9257—02 52 818 KEPOET OF THE COMMISSIOlsrER OF LABOR. obtained satisfactory marks and have completed the practical and theo- retical courses. In July prizes are awarded to the best pupils. A prize of 870 francs ($168) in specie (the Duprey legacy) is bestowed on the graduate making the highest average. Medals from the min- istry of commerce, and tools, books, and instruments, are distributed. The number of pupils on January 1, 1895, 1896, 1897, 1898, and 1899 was, respectively, 64, 52, 44, 45, and 44. The receipts and expenditures for 1899 were as follows: RECEIPTS AND EXPENDITURES OF THE TRADE SCHOOL OF WATCHMAKING, PARIS, 1899. Receipts. Amount. Expenditures. Amount. $1,399.25 1,544.00 420. 74 166.95 3,556.99 784.54 965. 00 83, 565. 10 Subsidies from the city of Paris Subsidies from trade associations i^nbsiflipR frnm inrbyidiialp Rent, interest, cost of boarding de- , partment and scholarship pupils, repairs, supplies, and general ex- Tuition fees 7,141.00 Scholarships; National Total other .. Total 8,837.47 10, 706. 10 GENERAL INDUSTRIAL SCHOOLS. The reasons for classifying certain schools under this title have been fully explained, and a list of the schools so classified has been given. A few representative schools of this class are described in the follow- ing pages. MARTIN SCHOOL FOB, BOYS, LYOJJ. The institution for boys known as VEcole de la Martin iere was founded in 1833 with a legacy left to the city of Lyon by Major Martin, who wished to "establish an institution for the public welfare of this city." Its object is to prepare young men, not for any distinct trade, but for commercial and industrial careers in general, by giving them the advantages of a practical education, a habit of scientific reasoning, and, above all, by creating an enthusiasm for v/ork. The complete programme of instruction covers a period of four years and consists of a preparatory course of one j^ear's duration and a three years' course in the work of the school proper. This work is divided into three general departments, viz, commerce and weaving, industrial chemistrjr, and civil engineering and electricity. During the first year all pupils pursue practically the same course of studies. Upon reach- ing the second year they arc allowed to choose the particular course which they desire to enter and specialization begins, while in the third year the work is entirely specialized. Following is the programme of instruction and the hours per week devoted to each subject in the departments of industrial chemistry and civil engineering and elec- tricity: TBADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION ^EBANCE. 819 HOURS PER WEEK DEVOTED TO EACH SUBJECT IN THE DEPARTMENTS OP INDUSTRIAL CHEMISTRY AND CIVIL ENGINEERING AND ELECTRICITY IN THE MARTIN SCHOOL FOR ROYS, LYON. Hours per week. Prepara- tory year. FiTPt year. Second year, Third year. Subjects. Civil en- gineering and elec- tricity. Indus- trial chemis- try. 2 3 5 2 '8 Penmanship 3 5 2 2 2 8J- i 4 k 1 e 8i 2 History and geography. Mathematics and mechanics , 10 7 2 Physics and electricity 27 "iDTa'wi'Bg 84 10 3 Elements of calculus . 6i 3 6 9 Shopwork . . . 1 3 14 1 1 Building construction The school possesses a very complete equipment of materials for instruction. Its affairs are administered t)y a board of seven members, named by the municipal council of Lj^on and approved bj' the minister of commerce. The teaching personnel consists of a director, 36 instructors of scientific branches, and 10 master workmen for the shop work. The attendance on January 1, 18'99, was as follows: Preparatory year, 171; first j' ear, 154; second year, 127; third year, S3; making a total attendance of 535 pupils. The 83 pupils of the third year were apportioned among the departments as follows: Commerce and weav- ing, 20; industrial chemistry, 12; civil engineering and electricity, 51. The number of graduates in 1898 was 69. SCHOOL, OF FINE AKTS AND INDITSTKIAL SCIENCES, TOtTLOUSE. Th« department of industrial sciences has existed in this school since 1857. In this department pupils are trained for positions as overseers of bridges and highways, and prospective candidates are prepared for the schools of arts and trades. The school also gives instruction to worlcmeu in stonecutting and timberwork, and to artisans, such as machinists, electricians, plasterers, carpenters, masons, and joiners; it gives a knowledge that they can utilize in the prosecution of their trades. The operation of the school is controlled by a supervisory and improvement council, composed of persons best qualified for the posi- tion, and which is charged with the dutj' of introducing any needed improvements into the school. The organization of the courses is as follows: The general course in industrial drawing (the oldest in the school) covers 3 years and con- sists of: (1) Interpretation of groups of solids with plane surfaces; (2) interpretation of groups of solids with curved surfaces; (3) drawing of machines. This course occupies 12 hours a week. 820 KEPOET OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. The theoretical and praetical course in industrial drawing, which is distinct from the above course, is given in 2 divisions — elementary and superior — and covers 3 years. Lectures on theory are given at the same time to both divisions. This course in applied drawing occupies 10 hours a week. The course in mechanics is taken by many pupils of the drawing courses. Its duration is, on an average, 2 years and 2 hours a week are devoted to it. The course in stereotomy and descriptive geometry- covers 2 years. First year, descriptive geometry, 2 hours a week; second 3' ear, descriptive geometry and stereotomy, 2 hours a week. The course in physics consumes 2 hours a weelc; the course in chem- istry 3 hours a week; the course in arithmetic i hours a week; in alge- bra, 2 hours a week; in elementary geometry and elevation drawing, 4 hours a week; in trigonometry, 2 hours a week. In the chemistry class the pupils practice industrial processes, such as making soaps, wax candles, perfumes, drugs, etc. In physics the studies are specially directed toward industrial applications, as of electricit}^ optics, etc. Many of the graduates secure employment in the industries of the region, or as road overseers, architects' clerks, and employees or sub- agents of the bridges and highways administration. The institution receives a small subsidy from the State and a large one from the city of Toulouse. These are almost its entire revenues, tuition being free. EASTERN TRADE SCHOOL, NANCY. This school was founded in 1844, under the name "Loritz Trade School. " In 1877 it was given a new impetus by the organization of a joint stock company with a capital of 760,000 francs ($144,750), which took charge of and definitely established it under its present name. The object of this school is to prepare young men for admission to the schools of arts and trades, or other institutions of a higher industrial character, as well as to fit them for positions either in pub- lic or private enterprise in which a considerable degree of technical knowledge and skill is required. A certain number of young men complete their education at this school, and upon graduating secure employment in industrial establishments as foremen or skilled work- men, and sometimes as managers of workshops. They also receive sufficient commercial knowledge to enable them to work in offices as employees — salesmen or bookkeepers. The school is provided with very complete materials for instruction. The regular programmes of instruction comprise a five years' indus- trial course and a three years' commercial course, the latter being subsidized by the ministry of commerce and industry. In addition there are special courses for pupils who wish to pursue certain lines TKADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION- — FRANCE. 821 of work, and an elementary course for beginners. In the two regular courses the pupils follow the same studies during the first 3^ear, but beginning with the second year they are classified according to the occupation chosen by them, either industrial or commercial. In addi- tion to these two parallel courses, special courses are given for the purpose of preparing pupils for the schools of arts and trades, for the higher commercial school of Nancy, and for the normal schools for teachers of industrial and commercial branches. A free appren- ticeship course has been given since 1893. The industrial instruction includes, among other things, decorative art work, industrial drawing for construction work, masonry, and car- pentry; drafting boilers and machines, study of tools and machinery, practical mechanics, electricity; calculations and study of scales of prices; mathematics and industrial technology, physics and chemistry. The following table shows the hours per week devoted to each sub- ject in the regular industrial course: HOURS PER WEEK DEVOTED TO EACH SUBJECT IN THE ISDUSTRIAL COURSE EASTERN TRADE SCHOOL, NANCY. Hours per week. Subjects. First year. Second year. Third year. Fourth year. Fifth year. Rhetoric and composition 12 9 3 4 1 12 10 4 4 1 11 11 4 7 1 6 16 4 8 1 Languages Drawing 12 10 Industrial bookkeeping and correspondence 3 Sliopwork 8 9 9 16 The government of the school is intrusted to a board of ten mem- bers selected from persons engaged in business and from among the faculty of the University of Nancy. A director has immediate super- vision of the school. The entire teaching personnel comprises 40 instructors. On January 1, 1899, 126 pupils were attending the com- mercial courses, 177 the industrial courses, and 112 the special courses. The number of graduates of this school during the past five years and the character of employment they engaged in is as follows: NUMBER AND PRESENT EMPLOYJUENT OF GRADUATES OP THE EASTERN TRADE SCHOOL NANCY, 1893-94 TO 1897-98. Total gradu- ates. Graduates employed in — Year. Indus- trial occupa- tions. Commer- cial occupa- tions. Various other occupa- tiofls. 1893-94 55 66 65 76 69 16 22 28 34 35 29 81 29 33 26 10 1894-95 13 1895-96 1896-97 8 1897-98 9 822 REPOET OF THE COMMISSIOJSTEK OF LABOR. The total expenditures of the school for 1899 were 195,815 francs (137,792). The receipts for the year included 1,500 francs ($290) from the ministry of commerce, 3,375 francs (1651) from the State, 1,125 francs ($217) from the department, 169,161 francs (132,648) from tuition fees, and 16,160 francs ($3,119) from other sources, leaving a deficit of 4,494 francs (|867) to be supplied by the stock company. TSADE SCHOOIi OF THE NORTHERN RAILWAY COMPANY, PARIS. This school is annexed to the machine shop of Paris la Chapelle, belonging to the company. Its object is to furnish sons of employees of the company, who alone are admitted to it, a thorough technical training and to make of them skilled and well-informed workmen. Upon graduating the apprentices can either enter the railway service or engage in private industry. The school is placed under the supervision of the administrative council of the company, and is superintended more directly by the engineer in charge of supplies and rolling stock, the chief engineer of the machine shops, and the superintendent of the train personnel. In general, candidates for admission must be over 13 and under 15 years of age, but boys of 12 may present themselves for the entrance- examination, provided they hold a certificate of primary education and a certificate of physical qualifications. This examination is taken in the presence of the instructors and a delegate from the directing committee of the railway company. It consists of: Written tests comprising an ordinary dictation for orthography and problems in arithmetic, including the metric system; an oral examination in geog- raphy, history, grammar, arithmetic, the metric system, and elemen- tary geometry. The course of study covers three years, the school year beginning in the middle of September and closing at the end of August. The morning hours from 7 to 11 o'clock are devoted to theoretical instruc- tion; the afternoons from 12 to 5 o'clock to shopwork. The evenings are spent in reviewing the theoretical work of the day or doing exer- cises based upon it. The theoretical work is apportioned as follows: HOURS PER WEEK DEVOTED TO THEORETICAL WORK, TRADE SCHOOL OF THE NORTH- ERN RAILWAY COMPANY, PARIS. Subjects. French langnage . Geography Arithmetic Geometry Physica Algebra Mechanics Chemistry Technology Drawing Hours per week. First year. 6 2 6 4 Second year. 2 2 2 4 2 Third year. 4 4 2 2 4 12 TEADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION — FRANCE. 823 The programme of practicalinstruction comprises two main divisions. The elemen- tary division covers the following ten operations, and in the order named: (1) Dress- ing with the file a parallelopiped having a square base; (2) executing with the file two rules of the same length, width, and thickness; (3) executing a parallelepiped having an octagonal base from one having a square base by cutting the edges with a graver; (4) turning with the hand tenter for ten days, to learn to execute a cyhnder; (5) transforming the cylinder into a parallelopiped having a hexagonal base; (6) mating tenons and mortises of 10 millimeters (0.39 inch) diameter; (7) making tenons and mortises of 4 millimeters (0.157 inch) diameter, with chamfers and olive moldings at the edges; (8) work with compass; (9) work with calipers; (10) work with the sector compass. The other division, comprehending the intermediate and higher operations, covers exercises and work executed with the following 8 kinds of tools: Hand vise, wrench Vv-ith central gap, wrench with two gaps, ratchet stock, squares, draw plates, pump puppet, machine lathe. The second year ends with blacksmithing operations — striking, managing the fire, beating over and forging the gravers, drills, and other tools. The pupils are like- wise instructed in tempering and annealing. They are required to execute on the lathe the pieces needed for the exercises above mentioned. Those who are to make a specialtj' of turning execute the following lathe work: Pointed axle washers, artic- ulation rings and axles, screws for machine lathes and other machine tools, brake screws and nuts, switch screws and nuts. Theoretical instruction is given by three teachers — one for each year's course — and a teacher of drawing. The shopwork is directed by a fitter, a turner, and a blacksmith, under the supervision of the foreman of each shop and of the engineer in chief. At the close of each term the railway company distributes among the pupils in each division who have done good work and behaved well, money prizes, the size of which is based on the recipient's efforts and progress. In the year 1897-98 the highest prize was 130 francs ($25.09), the lowest, 28 francs (f5.40), and the aggregate sum received by all the pupils was 1,800 francs (|347). Certificates are awarded those who pass the graduating examinations. The graduates who have obtained the highest marks and shown the greatest aptitude are taken into the company's shops as regular employees. Thus the vacant places are filled in the order of merit of the candidates. Those who can not be given emploj^ment at once are admitted in preference to outsiders as vacancies occur. At the start the minimum wage received by graduates is 2.25 francs (10.43) a day; as the}' gain experience in their work mounters receive an average daily wage of 2.65 francs ($0.51); fitters, 4 francs ($0.77); and turners, 2.90 francs ($0.56). Further increases are made at the rate of 25 centimes (5 cents) a day, according to the dexterity and capability of the workman. The graduates of the school are under no obliga- tion to enter the service of the company, but are entirely free to take employment in private industrial establishments if they find better situations than the company could make for them. The number of pupils attending this school on January 1, 1899, was 45. The cost of maintaining this school amounts to about 11,000 francs ($2,123) annually, and is borne entirely bj"^ the railway company. 824 EEPOET OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOE. THE J. B. DE LA SALLE SCHOOL, REIMS. This school was established by the Brothers of Christian Schools {Freres den Scales chretiennes) in 1896, with the cooperation of a num- ber of manufacturers and merchants of the city. Its primary aim was limited to the training of intelligent workmen, capable of becom- ing foremen after longer or shorter terms of shop service. Under a reorganization recently perfected, the school comprises two distinct departments: (1) A preparatory department to which the pupil is admitted at 13 years of age, if he possesses the degree of education required to obtain the certificate of primary studies. (2) A technical department of arts and trades. Admission to the latter department is determined by competitive examination, but candidates for entrance must be not less than 16 nor more than 17 years of age. In each department the technical instruction is directed by an engi- neer who is responsible to a commission composed of manufacturers and engineers. The instruction is classified in each department under three heads: Religious, theoretical, and practical. The superior department is known as the "trade school of arts and trades." Stu- dents from other schools are admitted to the competitive examinations by which entrance into this school is obtained. In the preparator}^ department the programme of theoretical studies corresponds to that used in the advanced primary public schools. Practical instruction is given in shops for fitting, joinerj'^, modeling, carving, and weaving. During the first year 7 to 8 hours a day are devoted to class work, and but 2 to 2^ hours to shopwork. This is in reality a trial year, during which the theoretical studies are pushed rapidly, while the trade inclinations of the pupils are tested in the various shops. During the second year 4 to 5 hours a day ai'e spent in shop- work. At the end of this j'ear the student will either enter the competi- tive examination for admission to the newl}' created superior department or school, or, if ho should not desire or has not the ability to enter that examination, he may conclude his trade-school training by remain- ing another year in the preparatory department. The instruction during the extra year includes industrial drawing, technology, prac- tical applications of mathematics, and a continuation of the shopwork. The student, thus prepared, may become an intelligent and skillful workman. The number of students in the prej^aratory department in 1899 was 76. At pi-esent the institution admits boarding pupils, part boarders, and day pupils to the preparatory courses. In 1899 about half of those enrolled were day pupils; the rest were boarding pupils, at 600 francs ($116) a year, and part boarders, at 300 francs (167.90) a year. The superior department, or the "school of arts and trades," was not opened until October, 1900. In this department the theoi'etical instruction embraces advanced algebra, plane trigonometry, elemen TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION — FRANCE. 825 tary principles of analj'tical geometry, descriptive geometry (drawings to be shaded and the dimensions written in), the elements of perspec- tive and stereotomy, kinematics, mechanics (pure and applied), physics and chemistry with their industrial applications, industrial drawing and technology, the French language, history, geography, bookkeep- ing, and industrial economy. It is the intention to give the students a practical training in special worlcshops for machine fitting, joinery and pattern making, founding, blacksmithing, and coppersmithing, but in 1900 equipment had been provided only for the shops pertaining to-the preparatory courses. The intention then was for both departments to make use of those shops until the special equipment for the superior department could be provided. The conditions of admission to this advanced department are anal- ogous to those for the national schools of arts and trades. The cur- riculum covers 3 years. None but boarding pupils are admitted. The charges are 700 francs (1136) a year. MIXED TRADE AND PBEPABATOKY SCHOOL, RIVE DE GIES. In 1894 a technical division was added to the primary school directed by the Brothers of Christian Schools {Freres des Ecoles chretiemies) at Kive de Gier. Those students who successfully terminate the primary studies at this school are allowed to enter the technical division, in which the courses are of three years' duration. The object of the instruction in this division is, first, to prepare some of the students for entrance into the national schools of arts and trades, and secondly, to give the others at least a partial industrial education. During the first and second years the studies are the same for both classes, the principal object being to give the students a thorough superior pri- mary education. Only four hours per week during the first and seven hours per week during the second year are allowed for shopwork. At the end of the second year the students are examined as to their fitness to receive the certificate of the superior primary studies. Those who are successful are placed in a special class to prepare for the national schools of arts and trades, while those who fail to obtain the certificate pass the third year in a " section for apprentices." For these latter students the shopwork is very much extended. With the e.Kception of three hours, two of which are devoted to drawing and one to spelling, arithmetic, and religious instruction, all the day is spent in practical work. For this three shops are provided — one for fitting, one for joineiy, and one for blacksmithing. The shop for machine fitting is more completely equipped than the others. While the blacksmithing and joinery shops are provided with all the necessary tools, they are not intended to receive as many students as the fitting shop. Those students who pass the third year in the 826 KEPOET OF THE COMMISSIOWEE OF LABOE. "section for apprentices" ai'e awarded a " workman's diploma" upon passing a satisfactory examination at the end of the course. In 1899 the number of pupils attending the school was 77. Of these, 38 were in the first j^ear, 25 in the second 3'ear, and 14 in the third year classes. As showing the satisfactory character of the instruction received, it is stated that of the 9 -pupils who took the entrance examinations of the national schools of arts and trades, at the end of the school j'ear 1898-99, 8 were admitted. Of 8 pupils in the apprentice section, 7 obtained the ' ' workman's diploma " and at once secured places in manufactories of the neighborhood. The tuition is free. TRADE AND TECHNICAL CONTINUATION SCHOOLS AND COURSES. These institutions have been considered at some length and their principal characteristics noted. They represent the chief form which the efforts in the direction of providing for the trade and technical education of persons already employed have taken. A number of schools and courses are described in the following pages. These institutions do not by any means fully represent the class to which they belong, but have been introduced merely by way of illustration. An idea of the large number of trades and the variety of industries to which the instruction in this group of institutions relates may be obtained by referring to the list on pages 733 to 736. The descriptions of schools and courses belonging to this group are followed by two or three short articles in regard to the work of par- ticular associations in the direction of trade and technical education. Institutions in which the jirogrammes include both theoretical instruction and practical work are first described. TKABE SCHOOI, FOB HAIR DKESSING, LYON. This school was founded in 1890 by the Journejanen Hair-Dressers' Union. The instruction is essentially practical, and is given on living models. The following subjects are included: Headdresses of ladies of. different epochs, men's headdress, curling and puffing, false haij, management of a barber shop, and hygiene of the headdress. The course begins October 1 and closes January 15. The attendance on January 1 of the past five j^ears was as follows: 1895, 9; 1896, 110; 1897, 95; 1898, 125; 1899, 120. The receipts of the school for 1899 were 150 francs (f28.95) from the State, 300 francs (157.90) from the city of Lyon, 590 francs (|114) from the Hair-Dressers' Union, and 163.75 francs (131.60) from various other sources. TKADB AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION FKANCE. "827 SCHOOLS OF CASPENTBY MAIIiTTAIlsrED BY EMPLOYEES' ASSOCIATION, PABIS. ■ These schools, hvo in number, were established in October, 1893, with the object of giving a technical training, both theoretical and practical, to apprentices and workmen. Instruction is gratuitous, and is restricted to pupils of French nationality who are over li years of age. Each school is governed by a separate director, who is also a master carpenter. The courses begin on October 25 and end Feb- ruary 28. Linear trade drawing is taught in lessons of 2 hours each on four days of the week. This instruction comprises: (1) Working drawings on paper of square pavilions, slants, fore parts of buildings {avant-corps), mansard roofing, St. Andrew's crosses, trestles, gutters, different foiTQS of vaulting, etc.; (2) sections of parts of buildings, and the fitting of the pieces drawn and studied. On one day of each week two hours are devoted to geometry, mensuration, and practice in carpentry work. The total attendance upon the two schools for the year 1898 was 110. The total receipts of the schools for 1899 were 2,542 francs (^4:91), of which 200 francs ($39) were received as a subsidy from the chamber of commerce, 852 francs (1164) from the employers' associa- tion, and the balance, 1,490 francs ($288) from individual members. TKADE COTJKSES FOB CAKRIAGE MAKEBS, PABIS. The Wagon Makers' Union of the Department of the Seine founded, in 1881, trade courses for apprentices and young workingmen desiring to improve their kn&wledge of carriage building. An additional school of the same class was opened in 1891 at the request of working- men of the twelfth arrondissement; in 1893 a third was founded in the fifteenth arrondissement; in 1898 new schools were founded at Clichy and Saint Denis, making 5 schools having identical courses in Paris and its suburbs. The courses begin October 1 and close at the end of March. They are held from 8 to 10 p. m. on Tuesdays, Wednesdays, Thursday's, Fridays, and Saturdays of each week. Workingmen taking these courses pay a fee of 2 francs ($0.39 ) a month. The instruction comprises two divisions: Joinery, or the construction of the bodies of carriages, and mounting, which includes the assem- bling and fitting of the different parts constituting the running gear, etc. The instruction comprises oral lessons, practical exercises, and drawing and outlining. On January 1, 1899, there were 146 men attending these courses. The receipts for 1899 consisted of subsidies from the State, 1,000 francs ($193); from the city of Paris, 4,500 francs ($869); from the Wagon Makers' Union, 1,369 francs ($264), and tuition fees, 165 francs ($32); making a total of 7,034 francs ($1,358.) 828 REPOET OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOB. TRADE COUBSES FOB CHIMNEY BUILDEBS AND BEPAIBEBS, ETC., PARIS. Those courses were established in November, 1886, by the Journey- men Clrimney-Builders' Union for the purpose of bettering the condi- tion of workmen of this body, bj^ giving them the necessary technical knowledge and practice. The theoretical course consumes tM'o hours on Friday of each week, and includes general calculations required in installation of heating apparatus, determining the amount of heat absorbed by the walls, calculating the dimensions of a hot-air furnace, the heating surface, the consumption of fuel, the surface of the fire grate; calculations con- cerning intersections, flues, air inlets, horizontal and vertical heat and smoke pipes, temperature and velocity of the hot air on leaving the pipes; equivalence of sui'faces of different forms, principles of con- struction, resisting power of the iron parts, etc. The practical course comprises construction of chimneys and stoves in faience ware, furnace construction, ceramic linings; installation of the heater of the Michel Ferret system; and brickwork. Instruction in free-hand and geometrical drawing is also included. These courses arc taken, on an average, by 40 pupils. The receipts for 1899 included a subsidy of 1,000 francs ($193) from the commune. Expenditures were 3,183 francs ($614). The balance of the money necessar}'' to meet the total expenditures was derived from trade unions. TRADE COURSES OF THE UNION OF JOURNEYMEN HOUSESMITHS, ETC., PARIS. This union was formed in 1873, and its courses of technical instruc- tion date from 1880. At first it instituted practical courses in black- smithing and fitting, with the view of improving workmen in the locksmith's art and giving apprentices and .young workmen a better knowledge of their craft. In 1882 a drawing course applied to lock- smithing (plans, sketches, diagrams, etc.), was added, and, in 1896, a course in repousse and relief work with the mallet (artistic leaf work of the French and Hungarian schools). Xlie latter course is designed to preserve the housesmith's art, as it appears in the styles of the period of Louis XV, Louis XVI, and Jean Lamour, at the same time introducing the improvements made possible by progress in the methods and means of execution. These courses are followed assiduously by man}^ pupils who desire to acquire the practice in the housesmith's art which the metal-work- ing factories, with their machine processes and division of labor, tend to abolish. The courses open October 1 and close the beginning of August. The full programme comprises everything in the line of locksmithing, blacksmithing, fitting, job work, bell hanging and tele- TEADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION FRANCE. 829 phone installation, artistic housesmithing, relief work with the mallet, leaf work, and the drawing of plans and diagrams. The attendance on January 1, 1899, was 72 pupils. The only receipts shown in the budget for that year consist of the subsidy of 1,000 francs (1193) from the city of Paris. The total expenditures for the year were 2,111 francs (|407). TKADE SCHOOL FOR DRAWING AND MODELING OF THE XTNION OF JEWELERS, GOLDSMITHS, ETC., PARIS. After the expositions of 1855, at Paris, and 1862, at London, the jewelers and goldsmiths' guilds, saw the need of a drawing school for workmen and apprentices. Nothing of the sort, except two evening drawing schools, existed at that time. To meet this need this school was established'in 1867. The courses are opened in October and closed at the end of the fol- lowing Jul}'. The curriculum covers four years, and in addition to the regular work it provides for annual competitions in drawing, which are open to the workmen of the entire country, annual competitions in technical execution among apprentices and workmen, and technical trade lectures. Following are the subjects taught, with the number of hours per week devoted to each: HOURS PER WEEK DEVOTED TO EACH SUBJECT IN THE TKADE SCHOOL FOR DRAWING AND MODELING OF THE UNION OP JEWELERS, GOLDSMITHS, ETC., PARIS. Hours per week. Subjects. First year. Second year. Third year. Fourth year. Elements of geometry, linear drawing, elements oJ architec- 4 6 4 6 4 6 10 Bas-relief work 10 The composition work includes copying from past stj4es and from plant forms. Courses in chasing and enameling occupy 4 hours a month each. Two hours a month each are devoted to industrial application, metal- lography, practice in metallurgy, founding, and patent law. Ten teachers are employed in the various departments of the school. The school is equipped with drawing apparatus, screens, a dark room, a mmeralogical collection, drawings representative of different periods, articles in gold and silver made in the technical competitions, an art and technical library, plaster casts and other models, a fur- nace for enameling, lathes, rollers, wire-drawing benches, engraving machines, etc., and workrooms for jewelers, goldsmiths, chasers, and engravers. SSO REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OE LABOR. The number of pupils in attendance on these courses on the 1st of January, 1899, was 167. The school receives subsidies from the State, the city of Paris, and various associations. In 1899 the amount received from the State was 3,500 francs (1676), and from the city 5,000 francs ($9^5). The total receipts for the year were 18,586 francs ($3,587), including 1,886 francs ($36tt) received in tuition fees. The expenditures were 22,524 francs ($4,317), leaving a deficit of 3,938 francs ($760). While its work is under no direct State authority, some of the pupils of this institution have as artisans been excused from military service. Its governing board consists of the director, the president of the trade union {chamlre synMcale), and the president of the improvement committee. SCHOOL OF DESIGN FOR IMITATION-JEWELRY MANUFACTURE AND ALLIED INDU^STRIES. The school of design for imitation jewelry was founded in 1873 for the purpose of raising the artistic level of this distinctively Parisian industr}'. The school occupied different locations successively until 1887, when the city, in view of the service rendered, fitted up rooms for it in a primary school in the Rue Chapon. One room is devoted to instruction in drawing generally,.onc to drawing from plaster casts, and a third to shopwork. The courses begin September 20 and close July 16. Each course covers a period of 4 j^ears. The instruction comprises dravring from plaster casts, modeling, study of geometrical principles as applied to jewelry work, studj^ of the flower and composition, study of styles, And practical courses in goldsmithing and enga-aving. The attendance on January 1 of each year fromi 1895 to 1899 was as follows: 1895, 162; 1896, 189; 1897, 177; 1898, 181; 1899, 187. The school is supported by subsidies from the State, from the city of Paris, from individuals, and from the association of jewelers. In 1890 the receipts from the State were 2,500 francs (1483); from the city, 5,500 francs ($1,062); from individuals^ 4,121 francs ($795), and from the association of jewelers, 1,245 francs ($240) — a total of 13,366 fi'ancs ($2,580). This last amount also Tepresents the cost of mainten- ance of the institution for the year. TRADE SCHOOL FOR JOINERS, PARIS. This school was founded in 1885 and was formally opened May 1, 1886, under the name of " Trade courses in drawing and modeling for building joiners of the Department of the Seine." It is conducted by an independent group, belonging to no union, the council of which, on January 1, 1896, changed the name to "Trade School of Joinery." The courses, which are free, are organized in a practical way. Each pupil is handled according to his ability and aptitude, and led method- TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATIOK FRANCE. 831 ically to the completion of his work. A uniform plan of instruction is rendered impossible on account of the absence of pupils sometimes for a week, a fortnight, or even a month at a time. The courses begin September 1 and close July 15. They are divided into three sections or grades, each requiring a year's work and consuming 6 hours per week. The first year is given to an elementary and intermediate course, comprising introductoi-y principles, definition of geometrical figures, demonstration of solids, plane geometry, geometrical figures, ordinary cuiTes, etc. The second year, or superior course, comprises descriptive geometry and its direct application to joinery, study of staircases and of arches, architectural principles applied to joinery, complete study of working plans, wood modeling. The third year's work consists of the practical application of prin- ciples learned during the second year in construction work and in the execution of models. On January 1, 1899, 62 pupils were attending the school. The total receipts for the year 1898-99 were 4,-208 francs ($812), of which amount 500 francs (196.60) was received as subsidy from the State and 3,500 francs (|6T6) from the department. TRADE SCKOOIi OF THE PAPER AND PAPER GOODS MAKERS' ASSOCIATION, PARIS. This institution was founded in 1868 for the instruction of appi'en- tices and young workers in both commercial and industrial pursuits in the paper and paper-goods industries. It is managed by a committee consisting of representatives of the union and of the subscribers and donors. Its objects are: (1) "To encourage among apprentices and other young employees of both sexes a fondness for work, application, and good behavior in the facto rj^, the store, and the home; (2) to raise the level of trade knowledge while completing the general education; (3) to arouse emulation and develop manual skill in order to train apprentices to become high-class workers." The school is in session on Mondays, Tuesdays, Wednesdays, and Thursdays from 8 to 10 p. m., and on Sundays from 8.30 to 11.30 a. m., from October 1 to April 30. No tuition fee is charged. The entire course covers 1 j^ears. Instruction is gi^'en in the gen- eral primary branches, trade subjects generallj^, and in special tech- nical work for apprentices. The first comprises arithmetic, accounting, commercial correspond- ence, and French language and composition. Under general trade subjects are included the history of the paper industry and the part played by France in its development, the sources of ra^s' material, the centers of production, the qualities of foreign 832 EEPOET OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. products, and the leading commercial routes; a study of raw materials, chemical processes inA'olvcd in the manufacture of paper, and of machines used; also industrial drawing, embracing, geometrical, per- spective, linear, and decorative drawing, and special geometrical draw- ing applied to the manufacture of pasteboard goods. The special apprenticeship instruction includes theoretical and prac- tical work in blank-book manufacturing, ruling, and manufacturing various kinds of pasteboard goods. The last subject does not merely include such work as is executed in shops, but the pupils, who are mostly girls, also learn tracing, cutting out, and putting together all sorts of pasteboard work. The hours per week devoted to each study are as follows: History, geography, and French, 1; general trade studies, 1; industrial draw- ing, 2; special geometrical drawing, 1^^; blank-book manufacturing, 2; cardboard goods manufacturing, 1^; cutting', ruling, folding, etc., of blank books, 2^. At the close of each school year awards are distributed among the pupils for meritorious work. These consist of savings-bank accounts, memberships in the retirement fund, silver and bronze medals, books, etc. The school has four rooms. One of these is devoted to technical and theoretical instruction and industrial drawing; another is used for theoretical and practical work, paper cutting, sewing blank books, numbering, folding, etc. ; the third is devoted to the theoretical and practical work of blank-book and pasteboard-goods manufacturing, and the fourth is used for the class in special geometrical drawing. The school is well equipped with machinery, tools and materials used in the paper-goods industries, collections of paper products and samples of raw materials, various kinds of paper, books, etc. The attendance on January 1 of each year of the five-3'ear period ending 1899 was as follows: 1896, 175; 1896, 158; 1897, isf; 1898, 172; 1899, 162. The following, statement shows the receipts and expenditures of this school during the school term 1898-99: Receipts: Subsidies — From the State $694. 80 From the department 193. 00 From the city of Paris '. 579. 00 From the cliamber of commerce 48. 25 From trade unions 250. 90 From individuals 1, 691. 17 3, 457. 12 Deficit made up by members of the administrative committee 172. 96 Total 3, 630. 08 TEADE AWD TECHNICAL EDUCATION — FRANCE. 833 Expenditures: Salaries of professors and assistants $694. 80 Salaries of secretary and overseers 270. 20 Materials and supplies 392. 98 Rewards to pupils 1, 058. 13 Expenses of stated functions, exhibitions, excursions, etc 629. 46 Other expenditures 584. 51 Total 3, 630. 08 COURSES IN PATTERN DESIGNING, ETC., FOR BAR-LOOM PASSE- MENTERIE WORK, PARIS. These courses are maintained bj;- the Association of Bar-Loom Passe- menterie Designers, which was founded April 7, 1889, for the purpose of representing and defending the general interests of the trade, of guaranteeing a supply of samples, of providing apprentices with the necessary instruction in their trade, and of furnishing the country with skillful and educated Avorkmen. Trade courses are given during the period from October 15 to the end of Maj'. A course is com- pleted in 10 weeks. The programme of instruction includes: Analysis of fabrics of all kinds and placing of designs on cards; composition of new patterns; pricking designs on cards; study of raw materials used in passe- menterie manufacture; study of fashions in ladies' wear; furniture trimmings; bar-loom and handloom working; high warps; low warps. Instruction in these various courses is given, in part without remu- neration, by 4 teachers. About 35 pupils were in regular attendance in 1899. Small subsidies are received from the State and from the city of Paris. The total expenditures in 1899 were 1,964 francs ($379). The total receipts were 1,070 francs (|206), leaving a deficit of 894 francs ($173). TRADE SCHOOL OE THE tTNION OP BAB-LOOM PASSEMENTERIE WEAVERS, PARIS. In 1881 this trade body organized courses for the general instruc- tion of 3'oung apprentices in the trade, and particularly to inform them respecting certain changes and improvements to be introduced into the art of passementerie weaving. These courses extend from October 15 to June 16. The programme embraces three divisions of instruction, viz: Fabric designing and pat- tern making; demonstrations on the loom; demonstrations in the manu- facture of chenille. The duration of the course in each of these three divisions is 4 years. Instruction occupies 8 hours per week, and is given by a teacher of fabric designing, and one each of silk and of woolen passementerie weaving. 9257—02 63 834 EEPOET OF THE COMMISSIONEB OF LABOK. The equipment for instruction consists of 1 Jacquard loom, 1 high- warp handloom, 1 bar loom for plain weaving, 1 handloom for demon- stration, 1 chenille machine. The institution possesses a technical librai-y and a collection of patterns and designs. A collection of samples produced by members of the union may be mentioned as a part of the teaching material. The total attendance on January 1, 1899, was 24. Attendance during the four previous years was from 15 to 20. The expenditures for 1899 amounted to 2,446 francs (1472), of which 1,126 francs (|217) went for salaries and 500 francs (196.50) for rent. The receipts for the same year were 2,480 francs ($478.64), comprising subsidies of 500 francs ($96.50) from the State, 1,500 francs (1289.50) from the citj' of Paris, and 480 francs ($92.64) from membership pay- ments. COTJS.SES IN EOOFING, PLUMBING, GAS FITTING, ETC., PAKIS. This school was opened April 22, 1887, and is maintained by the association of master roofers, plumbers, etc., of Paris. Its purpose is to provide gratuitous continuation courses for young workmen and employees of this trade body, and to furnish them information they can not acquire in the work yards. In 1891 a special course in men- suration was added. The school buildings comprise a secretary's office, three lecture halls, and a large workshop. The courses begin on October 25 and end on March 25 of the following year. The programme of practical instruction comprises all that relates to the operations of roofing, plumbing, gas fitting, sanitation work, etc. This work occupies 2 hours per week. The theoi'etical instruction includes a complete course in roofing and plumbing mensuration and occupies li hours per week. Special lectures are also given on roof- ing in general, hot-water circulation, electricitj', industrial metals and acids, and geometrical drawings. From two to six lectures are given on each of the following subjects during the year: Hygiene, sanita- tion, gas, chemistry, physics and electricity, plumbing, spigot work, and geometry. The school has a full equipment of all the various tools and supplies used in roofing and plumbing work. At the close of each school year an examination, in which all the pupils of the school participate, is held before a committee from the association. In this examination pupils receive credit for work executed during the year. Every two years prizes of books and of money, provided by members of the associ- ation, are awarded to the most deserving pupils. On January 1 of the years 1897, 1898, and 1899, there were, respectively, 108, 132, and 124 pupils attending these courses. The total receipts for 1899 was 6,421 francs ($1,239), including a subsidy of 1,000 francs ($193) from the State and 200 francs ($38.60) TRADE AND TEOHNICAL EDUCATION — FRANCE. 835 from the chamber of commerce. The total expenditures were 6,421 francs (|1,239), of which 2,011 francs (|388) went for salaries, and 1,227 francs ($237) for rewards to the pupils. SCHOOIi FOB MINE BOSSES, SAINT-ETIENNE. This school was opened November 15, 1892. It is a private continua- tion school, founded and maintained by an organization of coal oper- ators known as the CoTiiite des Ilouilleres de la Loire. Its aim is to train pupils for positions as mine bosses and overseers in the employ of the various coal-mining companies of the Loire basin. The affairs of the school are administered by a directing committee chosen annually by the Oomite des Ilouilleres from among its member- ship, and which consists of the president and two members of that organization, and the director of the State School of Mines of Saint- Etienne. The programme of instruction comprises two main divisions, viz, mining operations and general education. In the former the theoret- ical instruction is somewhat more elementary than that given in the schools for mine bosses, etc. , at Alais and Douai. The practical experi- ence is acquired in the mines, the pupils taking their places as work- men and changing work at certain periods. This instruction is sup- plemented by visits to mines made under the guidance of an instructor. The general course of instruction is of an elementary and practical character, comprising arithmetic, geometry, elements of mine engineer- ing, mechanics, physics, chemistry, care of the injured, hygiene, and a detailed study of the laws, decrees, and regulations pertaining to mines. The curriculum covers only one year, but under special circum- stances pupils may repeat their year's studies. The course in mining operations occupies 9 hours a week, and in the general course the six studies — arithmetic, geometry, mechanics, plan drawing, physics, and chemistry — together consume 9 hours a week. The equipment includes a chemical laboratory and models for teaching the mining operations. Diplomas are awarded the pupils who on completing their studies have attained the required proficiency. The number of pupils in attendance in 1899 was about li. The following table gives the attendance, average age of pupils, and diplomas awarded during the period 1892-98 to 1896-97. NUMBEE AND AVERAGE AGE OP PUPILS AND DIPLOMAS AWARDED AT SCHOOL FOR MINE BOSSES, SAINT-ETIENNE, 1892-1893 TO 1896-1897. Items. School years. 189a-93. 1893-94. 1894-95. 1895-96. 1895-97. Number of pupils 20 29 8 17 17 16 26 11 15 Average age of pupils 31 28 10 14 27 Nuniber of diplomas awarded 13 836 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. Eleven graduates of this school occup3^ places as mine bosses (gou- vcnit'urs), 39 as under-bosses or gang foremen, and 5 as fire-damp inspectors in the mines of the Loire basin. The entire cost of main- taining the school is borne by the organization which founded it. The continuation schools next considered are those in which the instruction is purely theoretical or technical. APPKENTICESHIP SCHOOL, OF THE INDUSTRIAL SOCIETY, NANTES. The Industrial Society of Nantes is composed of persons of various trades organized for the purpose of educating apprentices. The school is open to all young persons whose occupations require special and technical knowledge. The school is in session two hours ever^^ morning so that apprentices may attend before their regular working hours. The practical work is all done in the shops where the apprentices are employed. The studies are both technical and general. The subjects taught are free-hand, linear, and ornamental drawing, French language, arithmetic, algebra, geometry, descriptive geometrj^, bookkeeping, physics and chemistrj^ and mechanics. The society possesses a library of several hundred volumes relating to industrial and economic subjects, apparatus for physical and chemical demonstrations, and a collection of designs and models for the use of the pupils. Pecuniary rewards are given to pupils whose work and conduct have been satisfactory, and at the end of the third year medals are distributed for practical work executed in the shops where they are apprenticed. Upon graduating, pupils whose work dui'ing the several years has been satisfactory receive diplomas. Medals and prizes are given by the associations of master builders and mechanics. Two prizes, each consisting of a bank account of 150 francs ($28.95), are given from a fund founded by a master locksmith, who was formerly a pupil of this school. In 1899 there were 116 pupils in attendance at the school. The following statement shows the receipts and expenditures of the society for the year 1899: Receipts: Contributions — From the State $193. 00 From the department 289. 50 From the city 482. 50 From the chamber of commerce 193. 00 From trade unions 19. 30 From private individuals 358. 98 Various receipts 93. 16 TEADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION — EKANCE. 837 Receipts — Concluded. Revemies of the society $829. 73 Donations 289. 50 Total 2,748.67 Expenditures: Teachers' salaries 699. 54 Administxative personnel (miscellaneous expenses) 46. 32 Rewards and stipends to pupils 1, 053. 24 Books and furniture 196. 21 Heat and light 91. 83 Contribution to the mutal relief fund 96. 50 Repairs 167. 81 Taxes and insurance 88. 84 Prizes, library 190. 82 Surplus 117.56 Total 2, 748. 67 SCHOOIi FOE, CABINETMAKING MAINTAIBTBD BY THE ASSOCIA- TION FOS THE PKOTECTION OF APPKENTICES, FABIS. In 1867 this association, known as the ^^ Patronage inditstrid des enfants de Vehenisterie^'' organized manual competitions intended for the instruction and imiDrovement of apprentice marquetrj^ workers, block cutters, turners, wood carvers, chair joiners, and cabinet- makers. These competitions have been continued every year since. In 1873 a drawing school was established in which the instruction given relates specially to the furniture-making industries. The present aim of the association is to give to the apprentices a theo- retical training which they do not obtain in the shops; to further the progress of the industr}' by creating, through manual competitions, a rivalry among apprentices and j'oung workmen, and also to stimulate designers, through competitions, to the development of new ideas in decoration, by means of exhibitions of the works executed in these competitions and of works of art in decorative furniture, such as carved work, inlaid work, trimmings, artistic ironwork, etc. It also seeks to put workmen and artists in pattern drawing in touch with manufacturers who may wish to employ them. The courses are open for 10 months each j^ear. Tuition is free. The programme of theoretical work comprises drawing from relief, technical drawing, elementary geometry, descriptive and applied geometry, perspective, and modeling. The manual competitions occur everj- Sunday during the months of October, November, and December. From 120 to 125 pupils are enrolled each year, the number in actual attendance averaging from 90 to 100. Rewards are granted to pupils who complete the different courses, to apprentices entering the manual competitions, and to draftsmen in 888 REPORT OF THE OOMMISSIONEK OF LABOK. the designers' competition. These rewards consist of savings-bank accounts, tools, drawing instruments, books, engravings, medals, and diplomas. The manual competitions are decided by juries composed of workmen and proprietors appointed by the patrons' association. The designers' competition is decided by a jnvy of four members named by the contestants and four bj' the association, who in turn select a presiding juror. The total receipts of the school for 1899 were 11,309 francs ($2,183), of which amount 1,000 francs (1193) were received as a subsidy from, the department of commerce, 6,500 francs (11,255) from the city of Paris, 1,590 francs (|307) from membership fees, and the remainder from various sources, including 1,225 francs (1236) subscribed by indi- viduals. The expenditures were 12,453 francs ($2,404:) divided as follows: Salaries of teachers, 1,926 francs ($372); administration, 1,280 francs ($247); rent, 2,000 francs ($386); other expenditures, 7,247 francs ($1,399). COBaESPONDESrCE SCHOOL OF FLOUB. MIIililSTG, ETC., PASIS. The establishment of this school was decided on at a conference of leading representatives of the milling industry and of the grain and flour trade of Paris, held on March 12, 1891. A committee of patron- age and a council of administration and instruction were appointed and the school was opened on the first day of April following. The school has received the active support and enccTuragement of a num- ber of organizations belonging to the grain and flour trade and kindred industries. It has also received the moral support of the chamber of commerce, the municipal council of Paris, and the ministries of public instruction, of commerce and industry, and of agriculture. The plan of instruction pursued consists in publishing a series of questions on milling operations in the Milling Journal {Journal de la meune)'ie), the official organ of the school, which is sent to each pupil. Once a month the pupil mails answers to these questions to the admin- istrative council of the school. The pupil's replies to the questions are graded in five degrees. The council prepares and publishes the correct answers from month to month, which the pupil maj' compare with his own work. The design of this instruction is to combine the elements essential to regular trade courses, and to propagate in a practical way the idea of technical instruction for millers. The course is completed by written and oral examinations at Paris in September of each year, on which is based the conferring of a diploma, or a certificate of capacity or of aptitude, as the ease may be. The holding of the annual exami- nation at Paris enables the council to assemble in one place a number of the pupils, to give them lectures and demonstrations on milling apparatus, and to take them on visits to large modern mills m Paris TKADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION EEANOE. 839 and its suburbs. At this examination prizes are awarded on the basis of the pupils' several returns on the questions. The annual cost of instruction to pupil subscribers is 10 fi-ancs ($1.93), no charge being made for the copies of the Milling Journal. The course opens November 1 and closes September 15. The pro- gramme is in seven divisions, the subjects embraced in each division and the details being as follows: First division: Eaw materials and mill products — A. Wheat: Varieties of native and foreign wheat; physical structure of wheat; chemical composition of the wheat grain; varieties of wheat commonly used in French mills; their nature and charac- teristic properties; impurities in wheat; diseases of wheat; parasites of wheat; transportation and warehousing; mixtures of wheat for milling. B. Flour: Kinds and comparative values of the flour admitted to the French markets; the testing of various kinds of flour, (1) for whiteness and purity, (2) for the quantity of gluten it contains, (3) as to the hygrometric conditions, and (4) for adulterants; warehousing of flour; chemical composition of flour. C. Brans: Chemical composition of brans; comparative qualities of the brans resulting from the different methods of grinding. Second division: Cleaning — The apparatus necessary for cleaning; theory of clean- ing; work and results obtained with each piece and with the combined apparatus; qualities which well-cleaned wheat must retain; washing; moistening of wheat; its utility according to the nature of the wheat; preparation of the grains for grinding; splitting degermers; rollers. Third division: Grinding, etc. — A. Grinding with stones: Forms, dimensions, and arrangement of stones; velocity of stones; fitting the shafts (irons) of the stones; dressing and preparation of stones; embedding of the rynds; setting and balancing stones; cutting of the radial grooves and of the handles; mending; airing of the stones. B. Crushing with rollers: Outline structure of a roller apparatus and the details of its construction; theory of operation of rollers; gradual reduction (tech- nically so called); materials of which rollers are made; importance of the choice of these materials; different methods of operating and controlling roller apparatus; blowing into such apparatus; ratio of the production of rollers to their dimensions and to the power employed; distribution of the crushing power; comparative product of each passing according to the method and system employed. C. Grinding by special machinery — Disintegrators and granulators: Technical description of each of these machines; operation and principles of grinding. D. Scourers: Sj^stems, oper- ation, and utility of scourers. Fourth division: Reducing — Theory of reducing; apparatus for reducing grits to flour; reduction by millstones; reduction by porcelain or by smooth-cast rollers; reduction by disintegrators. Fifth division: Bolting and sifting — Theory of these processes; the different systems; ordinary bolters; cylindrical bolters; centrifugal bolters; horizontal con- duits; the fabrics for bolters and sieves — gauze wire cloths, French and foreign silks; installation of metallic tissue screens; repair and cleaning of bolter surfaces; instal- lation of bolters in certain special systems of milling; theory of cleaning grits and semolina; finishers, bran brushes; flour mixers, baggers, elevators, automatic scales, etc. Sixth division: Motive powers — Physical and mechanical principles; natural and artificial motive power; hydraulic motors; wheels with plane floats (undershot); wheels with curved floats (undershot) ; side wheels; bucket wheels (overshot) ; hanging wheels; turbines; determination of the motive power of streams; low water; high water; sluices; calculation of delivery of streams; direct fall; converti- ble fall; windmills; steam engines; gas and petroleum engines; electric motors; theory of speeds to be given transmitting elements (shafts, pulleys, and gearings) . 840 EEPORT OF THE COMMISSIONKK OF LABOB. Seventh division: General principles of the baker's trade— Operations of bread making; theory of bread making; preparation of the dough; practical and rapid ways of appraising flours. Leavens and yeasts— Their preparation; different states of the leaven; applying the leaven for kneading; dough working; preparing fresh leaven; saving over leaven; yeasts; beer yeast; grain yeast; working on yeasts; keeping of yeasts and leavens. Water in bread making: Temperature; quantity necessary; hydration of bread; bran water— its object and its inconveniences; use of salt; kneading; doughs; preparation of the dough; weighing; shape of loaf, etc.; setting the loaves in pans; various processes of bread making; kneading troughs — ordinary troughs and machine kneaders. Ovens — their construction; firing; baking of the bread; placing in oven; length of the baking; ways of keeping the oven steam; removing from the oven; distinctive quality of a good baking; steaming apparatus; pyrometers; different kinds of breads; keeping of bread; the various utensils used in the baking business. The school numbers among its jjupils not only apprentices and j'oung workmen, but even foremen and superintendents of mills. The number of pupils on January 1, 1899, was 67. This shows a distinct loss from previous years. In 1896 the number was 119. The annual cost of maintaining this school amounts to only a small sum, the prin- cipal expense being for printing and cost of correspondence. SCHOOl, OF HORSESHOEING, PABIS. This school was established in 1893 by the Journeymen Farriers' Union of the Department of the Seine. Its beginnings were difficult, owing to the lack of means, but a better organization was secured after it had received financial aid from the municipal council. Its aim is to impart theoretical instruction on every subject pertaining to the farriers' trade, and to supplement this instruction with some general ideas on the treatment to be given to animals while awaiting a veteri- narj-'s aid, in case either of accident or of disease. The courses are given at the headquarters of the union and in sub- ordinate sections in different quarters of Paris. They are given by three instructors under the supervision of the union's oiEcers, and occupj' an average of six hours a week. The programme comprises the fitting of all ordinary kinds of iron shoes, the modification of the shoe to suit anj' diseased condition of the foot, and first care of the horse in case of disease or accident. The total attendance upon the main school and the different sections is about 350. In 1899 the receipts of the school were 1,120 francs (^216), of which amount 500 francs ($96.50) were received as subsid}'^ from the city of Paris. The expenditures were equal to the total receipts. SCHOOL FOB APPRENTICES AND JOUBNEYSIEN IN THE HOUSB- FXTSNTSHING TRADES, PARIS. This school was founded in 1874 for the technical training of appren- tices and workmen in the house-furnishing industry as cabinetmakers, TBADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION — FRANCE. 841 carvers, chair makers, joiners, wood turners, marquetry makers, upholsterers, pattern makers, sculptors on plaster, chasers, molders, billiard workers, molding makers, etc. The governing board is composed of 15 members, of whom 5 are from the cabinetworkers' union, 5 from the wood sculptors' union, and 5 from the union of billiard workers of the Seine. Only mem- bers of the furniture trades unions are eligible for admission to the school. The courses begin September 15 and close July 15. The programme comprises linear drawing, sketching and drafting of plans, architecture and perspective in relation to furniture making, decorative and orna- mental carving, modeling, study of styles, and history of art — 10 hours per week; molding, pattern making, and plaster sculpturing as applied to furniture making — 4 hours per week; study of wood carving and assembling — 2 hours per week. Five instructors are employed in the various departments. Tuition is free. The receipts of this school consist of subsidies from the State, from the city of Paris, and from various trades unions. In the budget for the year 1899 these items are reported as follows: From the State, 800 francs ($154); from the city of Paris, 8,000 francs (|1,544); from the trades unions, 460 francs (f 87). The total expenditures were 10,225 francs (11,973), leaving a deficit of 975 francs ($188). The total attendance on January 1, 1899, was 128 pupils. TECHNICAL COURSES RELATING TO MASONRY MAINTAINED BY EMPLOYERS' ASSOCIATION, PARIS. These courses were organized in 1890 for the purpose of giving to young men a thorough training in the theoretical branches pertaining to masonry and stonecutting. At first there were but 2 courses — one in linear drawing and geometry, and one for the study of construc- tion in all its details. A course in stereotomy was added in 1892, and one in mensuration in 1897. These courses begin October 15 and end April 1. The programme allots 4 hours a week to each of the four following courses: Elementary geometry and linear drawing; science of con- struction, with study of materials and building laws; measurements of work done (weekly visits to work j^ards); stereotomy (stonecutting), and drawing of diagrams. The instruction equipment includes tables, benches, drawing boards, squares, T-squares, paper, patterns, collec- tions of plans, facades, models, etc. The total attendance January 1, 1899, was 420. The budget for 1899 shows a subsidy of 600 francs (196.50) from the State and 200 francs ($38.60) from the chamber of commerce. A bal- ance of 4,871.15 francs ($940.13) was contributed by the association. The total expenditures were 5,671.16 francs ($1,075.23). 842 BEPOBT OF THE COMMISSIONEE OF LABOB. TECHNICAL COURSES IN CUTTING MAINTAINED BY UNION OF MASTEB, TAILORS, PARIS. These courses were organized in 1890 for the purpose of teaching cutting and finishing to young men who are without the means of paying for instruction. One of the chief aims of the school is to teach new methods. The courses are directed by the council of the union, mainly through its president and general secretary. The sessions are held in the assembly room of the union on Wednesday eveni'ngs, beginning at 8.30 o'clock. The programme covers particularly the following features: Cutting of garments for men, women, and children, and of military clothes, by the ordinary process of proportion; explanation and use of the more scientific systems of "integral measurement" and "tri- angulation;" studies in finishing and in the difiicult parts of the trade; reciprocal instruction; demonstration of the different tools and appli- ances used in cutting; ordinary business principles. The sessions are supplemented each evening by lectures on points suggested in the evening's work. The instruction equipment com- prises tables covered with black cloth for marking out, several mani- kins and busts of normal and abnormal forms, squares, rules, and other instruments, and a technical library containing works on all the methods of cutting taught by the instructors. The attendance varies from 80 to 100. All the pupils adopt the tailors' trade, beginning as journeymen cutters. Some of them event- ually become foremen of shops. COURSES OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION, PARIS. This association for popular instruction was founded in 1830. Its purpose was "to spread among the laboring classes the instruction which forms the basis of our modern society. " Beginning with 14 courses in 1830, it grew steadily until during the school j^ear 1898-99 there were 678 courses. The association has 24 branches in Paris and several in the suburban communes. It has, in addition, organized various other societies in Paris, in the departments, and in the colonies. The courses of study are free and are given in the evening. They cover a wide range of subjects and are intended for all classes of indus- trial and commercial employees who desire to continue their education. The teachers are recruited from the various professions, nameh', civil and mechanical engineers, lawyers, physicians, authors, artists, account- ants, publicists, officials, etc. The subjects taught may be grouped into six general divisions, namely, industrial, commercial, art, agricultural, physical culture, and general courses. The following table shows the total number of hours per week dur- ing which classes are held in each of the industrial or trade branches; TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDTJCATIOIT FRANCE. 843 HOURS rUE WEEK DEVOTED TO EACH SUBJECT IN THE INDUSTRIAL AND TRADE COURSES OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION, PARIS. Subjects taught. Total lessons per week. Total hours per week--all ela.sses. Firat Second Third Fourth year. year. year. year. Architecture Artiflcial-Howei making Automobile construction Boiler and steam-engine tending Chemistry Garment cutting and sewing Industrial electricity Industrial drawing, styles oJ furniture Machine fitting Mechanics - Modeling ■ Painting on porcelain and on fans Photography Physics Stonecutting 9 4 4 6 24 4 10 15 2 10 12 80 24 14 2 The association possesses a library of about 1,000 volumes, apparatus for demonstrations, and a collection of models, views, etc. At the close of each school year a prize competition is held for each branch of studj^ In order to enter the competition pupils must have attended at least two years. The prize winners receive medals and books, together with certificates specifying the nature of the prizes won. The following table shows the number of pupils in attendance on January 1 of each year from 1895 to 1899: ATTENDANCE ON ALL COURSES OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION, PARIS, 1895 TO 1,899. Nature of Instruction. Total attend- ance. Indus- trial courses. Commer- cial courses. General courses. Art courses. Agricul- tural courses. Physical culture. 1895 2,420 2,600 2,750 3,062 8,U5 5,200 5,510 5,990 6,120 6,175 1,770 1,980 2,100 2,023 2,040 1,200 1,500 1,950 2, 005 2,023 120 115 127 135 137 90 95 103 105 110 10, 800 1896 11,800 1897 13,020 1898 13,450 1S99 13,600 The total receipts and expenditures during 1899 were as follows: RECEIPTS AND EXPENDITURES OF THE POLYTECHNIC ASSOCIATION, PARIS, 1899. Eeeeipts. Amount. Expenditures. Amount. Subsidies: 81,544.00 2, 895. 00 164.05 540.64 345. 90 Compensation of general agent 8165.93 127. 77 Furniture and materials 191. 65 From various associations Printing, advertising, publications. 1,301.80 Medals prizes, and books 95G. 83 2,139.27 239.42 366. 92 1 Total Total 5,489.59 5,489.59 8J:4 KEPOET OF THE COMMISSIONEB OF LABOR. SOCIETY FOB. TBADE AND TECHKriCAL INSTKTJCTION' EELATING TO MARINE FISHING, PAEIS. This society was organized in 1895 for the purpose of diHusing among- sea fishermen the Icnowledge needed for lessening the dangers of their trade and for drawing from its practice the greatest benefit possible. No previous effort to provide such instruction had been made in France. To accomplish its purpose the society has procured the creation of special fishing schools in a number of maritime towns. The most important schools of this class are those at Les Sables and Marseille, which are nmnicipal; one at BouIogne-sur-Mer, which is attached to the agricultural station at that place; one at Dieppe, which was created by the local board of trade; and schools at Le Croisic, Arcachon, and Philippeville, which are maintained bj' local associa- tions. Schools are still directed by the society at Groix, La Rochelle, and Le Treport. These three schools receive subsidies from the min- istry of marine, the central Government having decided that a portion of the money annuallj^ granted to encourage the deep sea fisheries should be devoted to such schools. These various schools are under the patronage of the boards of trade of their respective localities. Instruction is, as a general rule, given in buildings provided free of cost by the municipalities or boards of trade. At Marseille and Bou- logne-sur-Mer the schools are installed on old war vessels donated for their use by the ministry of marine and fitted up for the purpose of instruction. At Marseille the pupils holding scholarships are lodged on board. The instruction varies according to the needs of the fishermen in the different localities. Thus, at Boulogne-sur-Mer, where steam fishing boats are used the programme is more extensive than at Groix, where only sailboats are employed. At Marseille the programme of instruction is more comprehensive than in the other schools. Two years are required to complete the coui'se. Complete instruction is given in all that relates to the fishing industry, the making, repairing, and placing of nets, the habits of fish and other soa animals useful as food, the management of vessels, the elements of medicine and care of the injured, sea currents, geography, elements of geographj^, etc. In all the schools courses are given in navigation, handling of nets, social economy', and first care of the injured. The theoretical instruction is supplemented by practical exercises on the sea. A resume of the apparatus used will give an idea of the practical character of the instruction imparted. This comprises the instruments needed for taking bearings (sextants and octants), mariner's compass, log, charts, emergency medicine chests, models of various fishing machines, tools and apparatus for exercises in hand- ling sail rigging, and in taking up and repairing fishing gear; also a technical library, etc. TRADE AKD TECHNICAL EDUCATION — FRANCE. 845 The society completes its work b}' organizing competitions, confer- ences, and exhibitions, and by publishing works intended to popularize knowledge in its field. It proposes to give the diploma of fishing master to pupils acquiring the requisite knowledge. The total receipts of the society for the year 1899 amounted to 16,817 francs (|3,246), of which 6,500 francs (|1,255) represented the subsidy from the National Government. COURSES OF THE PHILOMATIC SOCIETY, BORDEAUX. This society was founded in 1808, and is thus one of the oldest private associations for the advancement of popular and technical knowledge in France. It is the successor of the Museum of Public Instruction, founded in 1783. Its first energies were devoted to a course of general education. As its activities became more widespread it began, in 1839, to devote itself to the organization of courses of instruction for adults. Later it gave to these courses an almost exclusively industrial and technical character. Since 1874 it has been charged with the administration of the Superior School of Industry, at Bordeaux. One of its means of encouraging industry is the holding of industrial and art exhibitions. Eight school buildings are utilized by the society for its classes, which open on October 16 and close June 15. Pupils must be at least 15 years of age, must pass an entrance examination, and pay a matriculation fee. The courses of instruction include reading, penmanship, arithmetic, geometry, algebra, accounting, grammar, physical and commercial geography, stenography and typewriting, English, German, and Spanish languages, geometrical and industrial drawing, ornamental drawing, art applied to industrjr, mechanical drawing, architectural drawing, drawing for the coach-making industrj^, physics and chem- istry applied to industry, modeling and wood carving, stonecutting, wood joinery, carpentry, cabinetmaking, upholstery, shoemaking, tailoring, boiler making and forge work, machine fitting, locksmith- ing and wrought-iron work, boiler and engine tending, wine making, commercial law, cooking, garment cutting, embroidery, dressmaking, and weaving. Instruments, apparatus, and tools are provided for practical demon- strations. The society also possesses a commercial and industrial museum and a library. 846 EEPOET OF THE COMMISSIOJnTEE OF LABOE. The following table shows the attendance on January 1, of each year from 1895 to 1899, on the various courses maintained by the society: ATTENDANCE ON THE VARIOUS COURSES MAINTAINED BY THE PHILOMATIC SOCIETY, BORDEAUX, 1895 TO 1S99. Year. Industrial courses. Commer- cial courses. Total. 1895 1,350 1,801 1,893 2,092 1,998 1,074 1,435 1,398 1,614 1,777 2,424 3,286 3,291 3,706 1896 1897 1898 1899 3,775 Following is a statement of the receipts and expenditures of the society: Eeceipts: Contributions — From the State 82,123.00 From the department 386. 00 From the city of Bordeaux 1, 930. 00 From the chamber of commerce - - S26. 40 Assessments of members. 6, 500. 24 Tuition fees - , 734. 37 Other receipts 5,515.57 Total- 18,115.58 Expenditures: Salaries of teachers, etc 7,631.11 Materials and other expenses 10, 172.98 Surplus receipts 311.49 Total 18,115.58 COURSES OF THE KH6NE SOCIETY FOE TRADE EDTTCATIOU, LYON. This societj' was organized at L3^on in 1864 for the purpose of estab- lishing courses of instruction for adults, especially trade arid technical courses for Avorkmen, apprentices, and clerks. It was intended to fill a void, tlie importance of which has been demonstrated by the subse- quent progress of the society's work. The organization resembles those of Paris, except that the pupils pay matriculation fees of from 3 to 6 francs (?0.58 to $1.16), according to the nature of the course. Since its foundation no changes have been made in the plan of organ- ization, but the number of courses has greatly increased. The classes maintained by the society are in scs.sion on week days from 8 to 10 p. m. from. October 1 to March 31. Sundaj^ morning sessions are also held during this period. Sessions are held in different parts of the city. The instruction comprises industrial, commercial, and general branches, separate courses being given for male and female pupils. TEABE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION — FRANCE. 847 Tile following statements show the subjects taught in the industrial department and the hours per week devoted to each: HOURS PER WEEK DEVOTEI> TO EACH SUBJECT IN THE INDUSTRIAL DEPARTMENT, RHONE SOCIETY FOR TRADE EDUCATION, LYON. INSTJSTRIAI. COVRSJBS FOK HSAIiES. Subjects. Hours per week. First year. Second year. Third year. Fourth year. Applied matliematlcs strength of materials Descriptive geometry and stonecutttng Physics and chemistry Electricity Theory ol manufacturing Study of spun threads Practical weaving Trade drawing for joiners ' Drawing with cord (diagramming) Trade drawing for locksmiths Omaanental liammexed work Trade drawing for tinsmiths Trade drawing and cutting for upholsterers Trade drawing for machinists and coppersmiths Trade drawing for coach makers Cutting for tailors Crrttrng for shoemakers Practical work for shoemakers Linear drawing Trade drawing for carpenters Industrial drawing _ Photography Perspective Administrative law INBUS'ffli.IAX COCKSES FOK FEI?IAL,ES. Subjects. Sewing, cutting, dressma,king, and linen goods embroidery Drawing for embroidery work Embroidery Millinery and novelties Physics and chemistry - _ Photography Industrial drawing. Perspective Perspective drawing Painting Hours per week. First Second Third Fourth year. year. year. year. All of the special technical courses, such as those for carpentry, locksmithing, tinsmithing, upholsterj', jewelry making, wagon mak- ing, machinery, tailoring, shoemaking, etc., are installed, with proper appliances for each trade, in the building that the society has had speciallj^ constructed It is of interest to get the exact point of view of the society in respect to its efforts for technical education. This it has very clearly stated in the following quotation from a pamphlet which it prepared for the Paris Exposition of 1889: It is useful to explain what the society means by trade education [enseignement professionnel). For a great many persons trade 'educa- tion means manual exercises or an apprenticeship, more or less com- 848 EEPOET OF THE COMMISSIOITEE OF LABOR. plete, in a trade. The society gives no such meaning to the expression. It offers no apprenticeship system, nor manual worlf , or at least_ no manual work other than that necessary for showing the direct applica- tion of the theoretical instruction given in its courses. Thus, carpen- ters make models in wood as an application of their courses in drawing; the locksmiths make wrought-iron ornaments as a complement of their work in drawing; the stonecutters and builders make plaster casts in execution of their sketches in class. But apprenticeship, properly speaking, nowhere exists in our courses. We speak of trade educa- tion and not apprenticeship in a trade. The instruction given ineach trade is only the theoretical knowledge necessary in the intelligent exercise of the trade. As to apprenticeshij) itself, the society believes that it should be given in the shop and not in the class room. These ideas are the same as those which underlie the system of industrial schools of Belgium. The educational department is managed by a board consisting of five members, one of whom is the director of the society. The teach- ing personnel consists of 30 instructors in the industrial course, 13 in the courses for females, and 18 in the commercial courses. The following table shows the attendance on the 1st of January of each year from 1895 to 1898: ATTENDANCE IN INDUSTRIAL AND COMMERCIAL COURSES OF THE FOR TRADE EDUCATION, LYON, 1895 TO 1898. RHONE SOCIETY Year. Industrial courses. Commercial courses. Average' per course. Total. -Average per course. Total. 1895 35 35 37 40 1.939 2,072 2,268 2,545 H 43 43 45 1,379 1896 1,377 1897 1,376 l.-',9,s 1,541 The work done by the pupils is examined at the end of each year by the administrative board and the director of the societ3^ The work done in some of the courses, such as ornamental and figural drawing, modern languages, etc. , is passed upon bj^ a board consisting of com- petent persons who are not members of the society. Awards are given to pupils. They consist of honorable mention, gold, bronze, and silver medals, books, and bank accounts, these last mentioned being offered by various associations. Following is the budget of this school for 1899: Eeoeipts: Contributions — From the State $2, 509. 00 From tlie department 1^ 158. 00 From tlie city of Lyon 3, 474. 00 From the chamber of commerce 1, 158. 00 From trade unions 112. 91 From various associations 326. 17 From individuals 945. 70 TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION — FBANCE. 849 Receipts — Concluded. Assessments — From active members $786. 86 From honorary members 567. 42 Tuition fees 4,519.29 Receipts from other sources 415. 07 Total receipts 15,972.42 Deficit 304. 35 Total '. 16,276.77 Expenditures: Teaching personnel 8, 641. 39 Director and administrative personnel 1, 930. 00 Rent, insurance, heat 3, 276. 14 General expenses 810. 71 Materials, library 256. 14 Distribution of prizes 512. 08 Printing 258.62 Miscellaneous expenditures 591. 69 Total 16,276.77 INDUSTRIAL DRAWING SCHOOLS. The object of these schools is perhaps iodicated with sufficient clearness in the above title. They are institutions in which drawing is taught in view of its application to particular classes of industrial work. In some schools modeling is an important part of the work. A list of cities which contain the best examples of these schools has been given in the introduction. Descriptions of a few schools follow. MTTSriOIPAL DKAlRTIIirG SCHOOL, CAMBRAI. This school was created in 1868, its object being to teach pupils the application of drawing to the arts and manufactures. The course of instruction covers three years and comprises the study and applications of geometrical principles, free-hand di-awing, and drawing from nature and from sketches. It is divided into three sec- tions, viz, construction, mechanics, and general di'awing. Six hours per week are devoted to each of the following subjects: Geometrical outlines, side-view sketching, pen drawing, scale drawing, study of sections or cuts, mechanics, carpentry, general studies. Supervision over the school is exercised by a board consisting of the mayor of Cambrai and 11 associates. Two instructors constitute the teaching personnel. The attendance on January 1, 1899, was as follows: First-year class, 46; second-year class, 19; third-year class, 10; making a total of 75. The number of graduates during the five preceding years was as fol- 9257—02 54 850 KEPOET OF THE COMMISSIOKEK OF LABOR. lows: 1894, 29; 1895, 36; 1896, 33; 1897, 40; 1898, 25. The expenses of the school are met by subsidies of 1,000 francs (1193) from the city of Cambrai and 3,000 francs ($579) from the State. THE GEKMAIN-PILON SCHOOL OF HTDtTSTKIAIi DRAWING, PARIS. This institution was acquired by the city in 1882 at the same time that the Bernard-Palissy school of industrial art (which has been described) was made a municipal institution. It was formerlj"- a pri- vate school receiving a municipal subsidy. Candidates for admission to this school must be of French nationality and at least 14 j'^ears of age, or 13 if provided with the certificate of primary education. Can- didates are required to pass a preliminary examination consisting of an exercise in geometrical drawing and perspective of an object of very simple form and a written composition. The examination furnishes a means of excluding applicants who do not possess a sufficient primary instruction or who show no aptitude for drawing. In this school the pupil is taught drawing in general. The only aim is to prepare him for entering the art industries; that is, he is taught drawing simply with a view to its industrial application. The regular course of studies is of three years' duration. Tuition is free. The principal instruction is given during the day, both morning and after- noon. There are also evening courses. The programme is as follows: First year: Geometry, decoration and arcliitecture wash and water color work; history of art; drawing and modeling. Second j^ear: Persx^eetive, anatomy, geometrical drawing in wash color, lace work, lurniture ornamentation, history of modem art, practical exercises in molding. Third year: Perspective, with application to buildings and furniture, the study of styles and of decorative composition, furniture ornamentation, etc. The number of pupils enrolled on January 1, 1899, was 101. Of this number 03 were in their first year, 23 in their second year, and 15 in their third year. The number of graduates in 1899 was 19. On completing their studies the pupils readily find employment in private establishments on account of the knowledge they have gained. Their income at the beginning is rarely less than 100 francs ($19.30) per month; often it is more, and in all cases it is soon increased. An association of the alumni, recently formed, will eventually assist in procuring desirable situations for the graduates. The Lace Trade Exchange has undertaken to secure places for 5 pupils each year. The municipal council has assisted many pupils to remain in school during the full three years' course. This aid has been accomplished by the establishment of a system of premiums, to be accorded to pupils whose parents are financially embarrassed. The amount of the gratuity varies according to the application, work, and -progress of the pupils receiving it. It averages 150 francs' ($28. 95) for the second year and 250 francs (148.25) for the third year. In special instances TRADE AND TECHliriCAL EDUCATION — KKANCE, 851 the city has allowed sums of 300 to 600 francs ($57.90 to f 115. 80) to maintain pupils in the school. General competitions are arranged at the close of the school year. Pupils can not pass from one year to the next unless they are recog- nized as apt to profit by the instruction during the following 3'ear. The cost of maintaining the institution in 1899 was 5'!, 775 francs (fl0,572), of which amount 46,975 francs ($9,066) were required for salaries. GIBLS' DRAWING SCHOOIi OF THE SECOND ARRONDISSBBIENT, PARIS. This school consisted, until 1895, of a special coui'se in drawing arranged to conform to the programmes for the drawing schools of the city. In January of that year the new directress added to this industrial instruction designed to assist young girls to a means of earning their own livelihood. The course of instruction covers 4 years, the number of hours per week devoted to each subject being the same for all years. The programme embraces: Drawing, 9 hours per week; decorative composition, 2 hours per week; history of art, one-half hour per week; perspective, 1^- hours per week; anatomy, 1 hour per week; painting (aquarelle, gouache, oil) porcelain, fans, miniatures, and imitation of tapestry, and plant and flower drawing from nature — 6 hours per week. On January 1, 1899, the school had 61 pupils. The following table shows the occupations entered by the graduates of the school during the period, 1896 to 1899: OCCUPATIONS OF GRADUATES OP THE GIELS' DRAWING SCHOOL OF THE SECOND ARRONDISSBMENT, PARIS, 1896 TO 1899. Fan mak- ers. mnia- ture painters. Pattern designers— Teachers. Commer- Year. For em- broidery. For fur- nitnre. cial occu- pations. 1896 3 4 2 2 1 3 1897 3 1898 2 1 2 1899 . . 3 1 The subsidy received from the city of Paris in 1899 was 2,000 francs ($386). GIRLS' DRAWING SCHOOL OF THE TENTH ABRONDISSEMENT, PARIS. This school was opened in October, 1895, at No. 40 Rue du Fau; bourg Saint Martin. After a year's operation the attendance became so large that the school was moved to its present location (No. 69) in the same street. The aim of the school is to prepare women for occu- pations which afford an honorable means of subsistence and which are 852 KEPOET OF THE COMMISSIONEE OF LABOR. also elevating in character. It ia a day school, but evening courses have been organized for the benefit of girls occupied during the day. The instruction in drawing covers three grades, viz, object drawing, scientific drawing, and inventive drawing, the latter exercising the pupils in industrial composition and enabling them to apply the skill and knowledge acquired. The day courses are arranged in three divi- sions: Oral courses, object drawing, and industrial painting. The evening courses embrace the same divisions, except that of painting. Two years' attendance, at least, is regarded as necessary to complete the courses, particularly that of object drawing; there is no fixed limit of time. The pupils of the school are distributed in three sections, according to their skill. There is a fourth section for the small number who are preparing to teach drawing and are studying chiefly the examina- tion programmes. The work in the several sections and the hours per week devoted to each subject are as follows: Oral courses: First section — Perspective and geometry, 1 hour. Second section — Decorative composition, 2 liours; perspective, 1 liour; liistory of art, 1 hour. Third section — Decorative composition, 2 hours; perspective, 1 hour; anatomy, 1 hour; his- tory of art, 1 liour. Object drawing: First section— Ordinary objects, plant elements, simple plaster casts, 13 hours. Second section— Study of plant forms, ornaments, and heads from plaster, 13 hours. Third section— Living models, academic figures, 13 hours. Fourth section — Same as for third section, 1 hour. Industrial painting: Second section— Aquarelle, gouache, and porcelain work, 6 hours. Third section— Oil painting, pastel work, 12 hours; aquarelle, gouache, and porcelain, 9 hours. Most of the graduates of this school make practical use of their education, becoming miniature and fan makers, porcelain painters, pattern drawers in embroidery and lace worls, designers for publishers, fashion-plate engravers, and embroiderers. The total receipts of the school for 1899 were 3,3G9 francs (1650), of which 1,500 francs (|289) were received from the city and 1,869 francs (i?361) from tuition fees. On Januarjr 1, 1899, the number of pupils was 117, of whom 66 were free scholars. The attendance was thus distributed: First sec- tion, 32; second section, 54; third section, 31. GIB.LS' DRAWING SCHOOL OF THE EIGHTEENTH AURONDISSE- MENT, PAKIS. This school, located at 7 Eue Flocon, was founded in October, 1885, to prepare young girls for places as teachers in the drawing schools of the city. Since then there have been added special courses in decora- tive composition, in water color applied to the industrial arts, and in miniature work, so that the school now prepares pupils either to teach drawing in the State and municipal schools or to practice the trades in which drawing and painting are the chief factors. TBADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION — FKANCE. 853 All the pupils here follow the same course of studies, the programme of which, comprising 3 sessions a week, is as follows: Sunday, draw- ing from life and miniature work, 8 a. m. to 12 m. ; Mondaj^, water color (flowers), still life, and decorations, 7.30 to 10 p. m. ; Friday, studies from plaster casts and from ordinary objects, elements and application of decorative composition, 7.30 to 10 p. m. The subsidy from the city for the year 189.9 was 2,000 francs (|386). The number of pupils in attendance on January 1 of that year was 76. ATTITUDE OF EMPLOYERS AND GRADUATES OF TRADE AND TECHNICAL SCHOOLS TOWARD TRADE AND TECH- NICAL EDU(]ATION. Before entering upon a consideration of the attitude of employers and graduates of trade and technical schools toward trade and tech- nical education, it is of interest to present the statements of M. Isidore Finance, an official of the French labor bureau of the ministry of commerce and industry, concerning the results of a trade-school edu- cation to the graduate and the attitude of labor organizations toward trade schools. This gentleman occupies a position Avhicli brings him directly in touch with trade unions and affords a basis for his views. His statement in regard to the effects, as he sees them, of a trade- school education on the graduate is substantially as follows: On entering the workshop the graduate is inevitably obliged to devote himself to one of the special branches of his trade. He has to encounter ^''oung men of his own age who do not have the general knowledge of the trade that he possesses, -but who, having spent in the workshop the same number of years in the exercise of that special branch that he has passed in the school, have acquired exceptional skill and earn wages in proportion to their skill. The graduate does just as good, or even better, work than the shop-trained youth, but he has not been taught to calculate the value of time, because in the school more attention is paid to the quality than to the quantltj" of work done. On entering the shop or factor}^, then, the graduate worlds ■^'ery slowly and, moreover, as he has never worked on articles that are to be disposed of in the market, he does not know that the finish to be given to articles of equal stability, etc., may be greatly varied according to their destination or use. The employer can, under the circumstances, offer him only a wage much inferior to that earned by shop-trained boys of his own age, which is a cause of much humiliation to him. He is proud to have been among the minority admitted, after competitive examination, into a trade school. He thinks he should be permitted to enter directly into the aristocracy of the trade, and does not care to recognize the necessity of serving a new apprenticeship in the shop. The disadvantage at which he finds himself and the jibes of his fellow-workmen cause him eventually to 854 EEPOBT OF THE OOMMISSIOlirEB OF LABOR. leave nis first place of employment for another, where the same dis- appointments await him. It is true, if the graduate is able to overcome the wounds given to his pride and to resign himself for some time to the false situation in which he finds himself as compared with the shop- ti-ained apprentices, there is no doubt that he will become a finished workman and will eventually rise above his fellows, but few j^oung men are capable of making the moral sacrifices entailed by such a course and many quit the trade forever after the first few disappoint- ments. With regard to the present attitude of trade unions toward trade schools and trade education he said that the trade unions were at first absorbed in the difficulties incident to their organization and appeared to neglect trade education, but to-day they are endeavoring to regain the time lost, and, whether created by local unions, federations, or labor exchanges, there is noticeable a rapidly increasing number of trade courses, open during the evening or on Sunday morning, for apprentices and, above all, for young workmen. The apprentice does not always recognize the utility of these courses and, being fatigued by the day's work, is with difficulty induced to attend them. The young workman, however, after his apprenticeship is terminated, feels the need of enlarging his technical knowledge in order to obtain a higher wage and greater steadiness of employment. He is also more capable of understanding the lessons than the apprentice. He readily enters into the spirit of the unions which aim to make the trade instruction serve their propaganda. The unions rightly count upon the adherence of those who shall have profited by the courses, and they know that their claims will be heard more favorably by the employers when labor is well organized. Above these special consid- erations, however, must be placed a more general sentiment — that pride of profession which makes its advancement and practical supe- riority to be desired. M. Finance further states that information derived from numerous sources enables him to affirm that the administrators of the principal ti'ade unions who have caused their sons to learn trades have placed them directly in the shops. They have kept them away from the trade school in order to avoid the consequences already spoken of. He believes that shop apprenticeship, combined with the evening school, will produce more satisfactory workmen than the genuine trade school, and that such a system should be resorted to unless the principal aim is to produce clerks, designers, or overseers. ATTITUDE or EMPLOYERS. AUTOMOBILE MANUFACTURE. An incomplete statement was received from an automobile manufac- turing concern at Audincourt (Doubs). This firm employed about TOO TKADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION FRANCE. 855 hands, of whom one-thirtieth were said to have attended a trade school. The proprietors stated that workmen having a trade-school education are preferred over others; that the trades in that industry requiring a formal apprenticeship are those of fitters, tux-ners, joiners, painters, and leather workers; and that the trade schools can replace the shop apprenticeship in all of those trades. BAEBEEING AND HAIE DEESSING. A statement was received from a master barber and hairdresser of Marseille who employs three workmen, all of whom have attended evening trade schools. He prefers employees with a trade-school training. Such training is most necessary in respect to ladies' hair- dressing, and, in fact, it would be impossible, he says, for young men to learn this branch and do work on false hair (wigs, etc.) without the trade-school training. This employer encourages the work of the schools and sends his sons to them. He further states that school training leads to better work, more delicate finish, etc., than shop training, and that employees who have had the benefit of trade-school instruction more readily secure places and at better wages than others. He paj's more for school-trained workmen than for those who have had no school training. BEONZE GOODS. A statement was received from a bronze-goods manufacturer of Paris who occupied the position of secretary to the association of manu- facturers of bronze goods and similar articles. He briefly stated that for the artistic work, such as bronze chasing, for instance, a trade-school training is desirable, and that graduates of such schools are preferred; but that for the more practical or produc- tive work, as mounting, etc., the graduates are not so satisfactory', for the reason that there is not enough practical work done in the schools to fit them properly for shop work. The principal institution in Paris in which these trades are taught is the Boulle Municipal School of Furniture Making. It is hoped, he adds, that an arrange- ment will be made whereby the requisite amount of practical training may be provided bj^ allowing students to spend their afternoons in the shops of manufacturers during their last two school years. By such an arrangement students would become familiar with rapid methods of production. The only trade in which the school training can at present i-eplace shop apprenticeship is that of chasing. With the improvement suggested above, however, mounting may also be prop- erly taught in the school. JOINEEY. A master joiner at Paris, having four workmen in his employ, two of whom have received some trade-school instruction, stated that he 856 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. prefers to employ those having a school training because they possess the advantage of being able to prepare plans and work by drawings, etc. All joiners, he says, have need of a knowledge of drawing. While the trade school proper can not replace the shop apprentice- ship, the evening schools are of great use, and employees should be urged to attend them. He believes that these schools should be estab- lished in every trade center and attendance on them l)y apprentices made obligatory. PAPER AND PAPER GOODS MANUFACTURE. Statements were received from two Parisian firms engaged in the manufacture of paper. Each employs from 50 to 60 persons, but no definite answer was returned as to the number of employees who have been to a trade school. Both, however, require their apprentices to attend the evening school for paper and paper goods making estab- lished by the employers' association. The full title of this school is ^^VEcoleprofessionndle de la Cliamljiv syndicale dii papier et les indus- ifi&s qui le transform ent." There is not much specialization in the paper industry and there is no part of the work that requires a trade- school education more than another. Both employers (firms) report that to become a paper maker {ouvrier jvipetiej) a shop apprenticeship is necessar3^ The evening school mentioned above, although relating entirely to the industries of paper and paper goods making, is not intended to take the place of shop apprenticeship, but to furnish mereljr a complementary instruction. As one employer expressed it, the school is intended onlj^ to facilitate the learning of a trade by the apprentice and to complete the trade knowledge of the shop-trained workman. The coui'ses are intended to teach pupils to work intelli- gently by leading them to discover the reasons for doing things. One employer, speaking more generally of trade schools, said they hardly ever develop the skill in pupils that is brought out in factories, although their graduates have a broader knowledge of the trade. In his (the firm's) opinion the trade school proper is more suited to the needs of employers' sons than to those of workmen. One employer stated that the trade school has been of advantage to the firm in enabling it to secure better workmen, foremen, ofiice employees, etc., and that graduates can more readily' find positions, earn better wages, and advance more rapidlj^ than other workmen. Both employers agree that the trade school raises the level of trade knowledge and produces better workmen. They believe that for most industries the combination of shop apprenticeship with the evening school produces better results than does the trade school proper. One employer, however, excepts trade schools for art workers. Both afiirm that graduates do not usually desire to remain at their places in thfi. mill. They wish promotion to the warehouse and office force, etc. TEADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION — FBANOE. 857 One, in speaking of changes that should be introduced into the present methods of training in trades, remarks that the apprenticeship law should be modified so as to allow the employer more authority, and that parents and apprentices should be held more closely to the terms of the contract. On the other hand, he adds, the employer should allow the necessarj^ time for the apprentice to attend the supplementary courses. PRINTING AND PUBLISHING. In 1863 the Chaix Printing and Publishing Company, of Paris, established a trade school in their establishment in order to provide competent workmen for the different branches of their industry. M. Alban Ohaix, the administrator-director of the company, stated that of the 1,200 persons employed in the establishment 250 were graduates of the company's school. In this school the instruction is given during the day and is intended both to complete the primary education of apprentices and to provide them with the necessary tech- nical training. Workmen are prepared for all the printing trades, but more particularly for that of compositor, which is the only trade in which M. Chaix believes school training can entirely replace shop apprenticeship. For some trades, as those of designer, lithographer, stereotyper, paper maker {paj>etu'r), and ^bookbinder, a special shop training in addition to that received at the school is required. He states that in general the trade-school graduate possesses a better knowledge of his trade than others, hence he is more useful and can more readily find employment, gain higher wages, and advance more rapidlj'. Most of the company's foremen and all of their clerks are graduates of their trade school, as are many of the chief workmen and others occupying the best-paying positions. He says that work done by the better workmen who have been graduated from the school is more artistic and serves as an aid to the progress of the industry; also that trade schools in which the practical work is well directed afford a better means of educating workmen than does the shop training. He believes, furthermore, that the most important improvement that could be introduced into the system of apprenticeship and trade-school education would be to combine the theoretical and practical instruction of both in such manner as to produce woi'kmen able to earn journej^- men's wages upon the expiration of their term of apprenticeship. This he would accomplish by means of a school established, when pos- sible, in the shop for which it is destined to supply workmen. In conclusion he adds: " Limit the number of pupils to the needs of the industry and endeavor to form good workmen of them." RAILROAD SERVICE. The director of the State railroads stated that no distinction is made between men trained in industrial establishments and those who have 858 EEPOBT OF THE COMMI8SIONEK OF LABOR. been to trade schools when new employees are to be taken into the service. Those of the latter class, however, rise more easily to the position of foremen, etc., in the management or more rapidly pass by the grades of fireman and engineer to that of chief engineer, sub- chief of station, etc., in the traction service. He stated that all the emploj^ments of the shops — machine erection and fitting, boiler making, blacksmithing, molding, joinery, etc. — require a previous training or apprenticeship on the part of the person employed and that, in gen- eral, a trade-school education may replace a shop apprenticeship. The advantages of a trade-school education are, he says, to give instruction to workmen which ^all enable them to comprehend more readily the operation of the machinerj? they employ, the reasons for the processes they apply, the conditions to be fulfilled in the work they do, to read the plans they must follow or to make sketches them- selves if necessary, and to conceive of improvements to be applied to machinery or to processes, etc. He adds that it also permits the recruitment of the personnel of the management from among work- men who know thoroughly the theory and practice of the trades. Very few graduates remain in the lower grades of service, most of them quickly becoming designers, gang bosses, foremen, or machinists. RAILWAY CAR AND ENGINE BUILDING AND REPAIRING. A statement was received from an official of the Eastern Eailroad Company relative to the employment of trade-school graduates in the locomotive construction and repair shop at Epernay and the car con- struction and repair shops at La Villette (Paris), Mohon, and Komilly- sur-Seine. In the four shops 3,714 persons were employed and of these 522 were graduates of trade schools. This official states that graduates of trade schools are prefeiTed over others seeking employ- ment in the shops. A trade-school training, he said, is useful in all trades in which a ready knowledge of plans and drawings and an abil- ity to read them are useful or necessary. Trade schools have, in a general waj% contributed to the forming of better workmen, as a result of Tv'hich better work is done and at less cost. In none of these four shops, he states, can apprenticeship be wholly replaced by the instruction given in the trade school, because the graduate on leaving school can not have acquired suificient special practice in the trade he expects to follow, but the period of shop apprenticeship may be much shortened, according to the special nature of the trade and the instruc- tion received in the school. The railroad company makes special efforts to instruct young work- men. A trade school for apprentices has been created in each shop, and at Epernay the company subsidizes the evening courses which are outside the shop. Pupils leaving the trade schools, he says, have had at the same time TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION — FEANCE. 859 both theoretical and practical instruction and are nearly always supe- rior to those who have completed only the purely manual apprentice- ship. The former can do better work and reduce the net cost. It is among them that it is possible to recruit directing agents, gang bosses, foremen, etc. STAINED-GLASS MANUFACTURE. Statements were received from the director of a Parisian firm that manufactures stained window glass, etc. The firm employed 38 men, of whom 4 were graduates of a trade school and occupied posi- tions as designers. The director stated that, with the exception of designers, the industry draws but few employees from among trade- school graduates. All the occupations require a special apprentice- ship, but designers can obtain a useful preparation in the trade schools. He thinks the trade school can serve only to shorten apprenticeship in the industry and not to replace it. He added that many of their young men attend evening schools to learn drawing. Speaking gen- erally of the advantages to be derived from trade-school education, he said it develops in young men a taste for studj' and helps them to comprehend the various parts of their work. In regard to the improvements that should be made in the trade-school system, he believes that after the elements of theory involved in the trade are taught the practical part should be brought more and more to the front. STRUCTURAL IRONWORK. The director of a firm of structural ironworkers of Paris stated that while there were no trade-school graduates in his employ when this investigation was made, he prefers such graduates if. they have previously served one or two years in a manufactory. All specialties are better understood and consequently better and more rapidly executed by workmen who understand sketches and plans. The most important benefit derived from trade schools, he thinks, is the raising of the professional, moral, and social level of the workman and the higher opinion of the trade which is developed in him. In regard to the changes that should be made in the system of apprenticeship and the training of workmen, he suggested that it would be well to require of all contractors or chiefs of industry that the apprentices in their establishments be methodically instructed and that quarterly examinations be held for the purpose of acquainting the employer with the amount of progress made hy the apprentices and the measures needed to improve their general condition, etc. WATCHMAKING. A watch manufacturer of Cluses stated that about one-half of his 60 employees are graduates from trade schools and that graduates are 860 REPOET OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. much to be preferred over shop-trained apprentices. A school train- ing, he said, is most needed in work on the escapements, the setting or planting {plantage), and in finishing and regulating. One of the national schools of watchmaking is located at Cluses. The manufacturer said that all his foremen and many of his workmen had attended this school. He had also placed his sons there. He believes it would be a long and tedious task to train in the shop workmen having the same general knowledge as the graduates of that school. He regrets that there is no evening school in the neighborhood, as he thinks even the better woi'kmen could derive benefit from an evening course. The chief advantage of trade schools, he thinks, is the general, sub- stantial, and extensive instruction thej^ give to young men. Practical instruction in them is given in a more scientific manner than in facto- ries and shops. In the schools j^oung men receive an all-round training in their trades, and can afterwards specialize to suit their tastes. He believes in the extension of trade schools and that they should be of two classes, corresponding to the secondary and superior grades of instruction in France. The foi'mer grade should give a very practical instruction and turn out practical workmen. The latter grade should be for the brighter pupils, and should train them as foremen, designers, and engineers. ATTITUDE OF GKADTJATES OF TRADE AND TECHKriCAL SCHOOLS. BAEBERS AND HAIRDRESSERS. Eight barbers and hairdressers stated that they had been to con- tinuation .schools. One had attended the school at Montpellier, and the other seven had attended the evening courses maintained by the barbers' union, under the general direction of the labor exchange at Marseille. At the latter school great attention is paid to teaching- ladies' hairdressing. This branch of the trade, it was stated, is at present hardly ever taught to apprentices in the shops, for the reason that customers will not consent to be served by apprentices if they can avoid it. Several stated that if it were not for the school there would be no ladies' hairdressers. All employees who had been to the Marseille continuation school claimed that in this branch of the trade the school training had replaced apprenticeship in the shop. Several claim that the school training altogether replaced shop apprenticeship in their cases. It is the unanimous opinion of the eight employees that their school training has made it easier for them to find employ- ment, and that they occupy better positions as a result of it. They also earn more wages than if they had not been to the schools. One man worded his statement as follows: "A graduate who has any equipment whatever is more easily placed than another would be. TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUOATIOK — FBANOE. 861 The diploma gives the workman a value in the eyes of the employer, and it permits him to advance more rapidly." It is the general opinion that a trade-school training is a better method than shop apprenticeship. This statement must, however, be taken to refer more particularly to ladies' hairdressing in the case of the graduates of the school at Marseille. The employee who had attended the Montpellier school believes it is better to learn the trade in a day school than in a shop, but the next best plan is to combine work in a shop with the evening courses. This is virtually what is done by nearly all students in so far as most branches of the trade are concerned. BLACKSMITHS. Two blacksmiths, both of whom are graduates of the Municipal Diderot School at Paris, stated that their school training had enabled them to secure emplo3rment more readily and to obtain better positions than if thej^ had not possessed that training. One said the school training replaced a shop apprenticeship in his case. The other believes that a person in order to become a good workman needs much more practice than can be given in a school. On leaving school he lacked the practical training and quickness that are necessary in a shop. Neither had found any difference in the wages paid to shop-trained men and graduates of trade schools. Both believe it is more advanta- geous to attend a genuine trade school than to combine shopwork and attendance in an evening school. As a reason for so believing one stated that in the trade school proper the foremen are selected from the highest class of workmen, and teach the pupils better and easier methods of doing their work; also that in the school the theory which is to be so useful in the future is indelibly stamped on the pupil's memory. CABINETMAKERS. Statements were received from two cabinetmakers who were trained in the Eastern Railway Company's apprenticeship school at Mohon. In their opinion it is more advantageous to go to the trade school than to enter directly into the shops and attend a night school. In the school at Mohon the apprentices receive three j^ears of theoretical and practical instruction, after which they are distributed among their I'espective shops as "helpers." 'One cabinetmaker stated that he remained a helper for four years before he was considered a finished workman. The other said it required several years to perfect himself in the work after leaving the school. CLERKS, PAPER AND PAPER GOODS. Ten persons who occupy positions as clerks in paper manufactories, etc. , returned statements. These employees were graduated from the S62 EEPOKT OF THE OOMMISBIOITEK OP LABOE. school for paper and paper goods making at Paris. This is a continu- ation school; hence the instruction it gives can not take the place of an apprenticeship, although it may go hand in hand with it. The school may be attended by those who have completed the usual term of workshop apprenticeship, but who wish supplementary instruc- tion. Several who attended the school during their term of apprentice- ship said the instruction there given reduced the time required to lea¥n the trade. One stated that a four years' course in the school is equivalent to two years of shop apprenticeship. They all claim that the school training has made it easier to obtain employment, and better places, etc. This latter statement is partly borne out by one of the proprietors, who states that most apprentices wish to become office clerks, etc. , rather than paper makers after being graduated from the school. Seven clerks say they receive a higher wage as a result of the school training than they would otherwise receive. There is con- siderable difference of opinion among the employees as to the best method of learning a trade. Three persons believe a combination of shop apprenticeship and attendance on an evening school is the best plan. Two others favor such combination, but think the shop appren- ticeship should precede the attendance on the school. Two clerks believe that where possible the student should first attend a trade school. One of these adds, however, that as soon as the student shall have obtained a fair idea of the trade he should enter a factory and attend the evening courses. One clerk claims that the student will spend twice as much time in unraveling difficulties in the shop as he will in the trade school. Attendance on the evening school, one clerk states, is sometimes very inconvenient to the apprentices, who, fatigued after the day's work, can not follow the courses with attention. DRAFTSMAN, RAILWAY CAR SHOPS. A draftsman who was graduated from the national trade school at Armentieres said the school training had replaced an apprenticeship in his case. He found employment as a fitter in a construction com- pany's shops at Belf ort immediatel}' after being graduated. He believes this was a better position with a higher salar}^ than he could have secured except for the school training, but he had remained too short a time in the employ of that company, as well as in his present posi- tion, to form anj' opinion as to whether advancement is more rapid for a trade-school graduate. He believes it is better for a youth to learn his trade in a school proper than to work in the shop and attend an evening or continuation school, for the reason that he does not believe an evening school can carry programmes that compare with those of the daj' schools of France. TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION — FEANCE. 863 ENGRAVEES. Two engravers, of whom one is a graduate of the Estienne school of Paris and the other a graduate of the Germain-Pilon school of Paris, stated that their school training had not entirely replaced a shop apprenticeship, and that it had been necessary to work for some time in the shops to become finished workmen. One man said it is impos- sible to learn the trade in any establishment or school in four yeai's. One said his school training has enabled him more easily to find posi- tions, to find better positions, and to earn more wages than would have been the case under other cii'cumstances. Both are agreed that their advancement has been more rapid because of their school train- ing, and that the genuine trade school is better for the beginner than the combination of shop apprenticeship and evening courses. FITTEE, AUTOMOBILE FACTORY. A fitter working in an automobile factory stated that the trade course he had taken in the Montbeliard practical school had taken the place of a shop apprenticeship. He believes it has enabled him to obtain better wages and to advance more rapidly than if he had received only a workshop training. It has also enabled him more readily to obtain employment. Instruction in a trade school proper is better, he said, than a shop apprenticeship combined with evening courses. FITTEES, CAE BUILDING AKD EEPAIR SHOPS. Statements were received from eight fitters employed in the car building and repair shops of the Eastern Railway Company. Five of these men are graduates of the Diderot School at Paris. The other three are gi'aduates of the above-named company's apprenticeship school at Mohon. In answer to the question whether trade-school training has replaced apprenticeship in the shop, the general reply was "Yes," although several explained that it requires some time longer to become an ex- perienced workman. Nearly all the qualified answers came from graduates of the Diderot School, one of whom stated that three months' shop work are necessary to complete the practical training of the graduate, while another placed the time at two years. A third man said that after graduation ii is necessary to spend considerable time in shop work in order to become a good workman. It should be stated that the railwaj'' comp'any does not regard the apprentice as- a finished workman upon his leaving the apprenticeship school, for he must afterwards serve a term in the shop as a helpeu. None of the three graduates of the company's school made any state- ment in regard to the effectof a trade-school education, but all the gradu- ates from the Diderot School said it had been of assistance to them in 864 KEPOBT OF THE COMMISSIONEK OF LABOK. securing a position. Three of them stated that it had enabled them to secure higher wages and to advance more rapidly than would other- wise have been the case, while one said he had noticed no appreciable difference as between himself and the shop-trained men in these respects. There was some difference of opinion in regard to the question whether it is better to go to a trade school proper or to combine apprenticeship in the workshops with attendance on the evening schools and courses. Six answered in favor of the trade school, one in favor of the shop training and evening school, while one stated that for theor^f, drawing, and technical demonstrations the school has the advantage, but for practical experience the shop is better. Some of those who favor the trade school over the shop apprenticeship gave their reasons for their preference as follows: (1) In the workshop the apprentice loses valuable time running errands, and he does not learn the theoretical part of the trade which is so rationally combined with the practical in the school. (2) The apprentice is usually too tired to attend the evening school after the daj-'s work in the shop. (3) Apprenticeship in the workshop entails specialization, so that when the workman leaves one employer it is difficult to find vrork such as he has been trained to do. One man stated, however, that graduates from the schools can not work fast enough when they enter industrial establishments, and that it requires several months for them to become accustomed to shop methods. FITTERS, RAILWAY SHOPS. A fitter in the railway shops at Nantes stated that he had been grad- uated from the school for apprentices maintained by the industrial society of that city. This is a continuation school which appi'entices to members of the society' are required to attend while serving their four years' apprenticeship. He said that as a result of his combined shop and Kchool training he earned 45 centimes (9 cents) an hour at the age of 19, but, having accepted a position in the railT\'ay service, he had not advanced. Most of his comrades at the school occupy posi- tions as foremen and shop superintendents in pi-ivate establishments, where there are greater opportunities. He thinks the instruction given in the trade schools at Nantes is too classic. The shop foremen attached to the schools give excellent instruction in principles, but the practical work done in the schools, with the little time devoted to it, does not suffice to prepare pupils for entering industrial establish- ments as workmen. FOREMEN, ASSISTANT, CAR BUILDING AND REPAIR SHOPS. In this occupation reports were received from four persons, three of whom are graduates from the Diderot School at Paris, and one from TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION FRANCE. 865 the School of Arts and Trades at Aix. Three of these employees stated that their trade-school education had replaced a shop apprenticeship, but the fourth said that several years of shop practice are necessary in order to acquire the practical skill which is lacking in a graduate of a trade school. Another stated that the graduate is a Uttle awk- ward when he first enters an industrial establishment, but in a short period of time he is farther advanced than the shop-trained youth. All four stated unqualifiedly that as a result of their school training they had found positions more easily, secured better positions, gained higher wages, and had advanced more rapidly than had those not hav- ing such an education.- All four said it is better to learn a trade in a genuine trade school than to undergo a shop apprenticeship in com- bination with attendance on an evening school. FOREMAN, CAR BUILDING AND REPAIR SHOPS. A foreman in the car building and repair shops of the Eastern Eail- way Company stated that his experience in the National School of Arts and Trades at Chalons-sur-Marne had been of such character as- to replace a shop apprenticeship. As a result of the industrial educa- tion he received in the school, he had moye readily obtained a position, had earned a higher salary, and had advanced more rapidly than if he had not been graduated from a trade school. He prefers the trade school to the shop apprenticeship combined with evening courses. FOREMEN, FITTERS, CAR BUILDING AND REPAIR SHOPS. Two foremen of fitters, employed in the car building and repair shops of the Eastern Railway Company, made very similar statements. One received his trade education in the National School of Arts and Trades at Aix. The other is a graduate of the Diderot School at Paris. Both foremen stated that the school education had replaced a- shop apprenticeship. Both occupy better positions, receive higher salaries, and have advanced more rapidly than would have been the- case had the trade-school education been absent, although one stated that he had to give proof of his ability before he was employed. Both prefer the genuine trade school to the combination of shop train- ing and attendance on evening courses. FOREMEN, JOINERS. Statements were received from two foremen of joiners. One foreman- was graduated from the Pans Diderot School. The other was a shop- trained man who had attended the continuation trade school of joinery at No. 5 Rue Girardon, Paris. The former said that the three years' course in a trade school is too short a time in which to produce a prac- tical workman, but experience in an establishment quickly sets mat- ters right. Both foremen stated that they had been benefited in 9257—02 55 866 EEPOKT OF THE COMMISSIONEE OF LABOB. position, wages, and advancement as a result of the school ti-aining they had received. The foreman who was trained in the workshop and the continuation school stated that he prefers that method of learning a trade because the pupil never feels out of place as does a graduate when he first enters the workshop and is compelled to work by the side of the shop-trained men who are not so intelligent as he, but who, nevertheless, have acquired much greater dexterity. FOREMAN, PAPER MAKERS. A foreman in a paper making establishment stated that a course in the Continuation Trade School of Paper and Paper Goods Manufacture of Paris had enabled him to better his position and obtain higher wages. He had advanced more i"apidly than if he had not attended the school. He believes it is better for a young man to go into a shop to learn a trade, and supplement the practical knowledge there gained by a course in the evening or continuation trade schools. In these schools the apprentice will obtain a more modern and thorough theo- retical and practical instruction than workmen can give him in the workshops. FRAISERS, CAR SHOPS. A f raiser had attended a trade school at Saumur. At the school he was trained as a turner, but he had to perfect his practical education in a foundry. As a result of his trade-school experience, he had been able to secure a better position and higher wages and had advanced more rapidlj^ than he could otherwise have done. He believes the trade school offers a better instruction than the workshop combined with the evening school. The teachers in the school devote more time to students and teach them the theorj'^ as well as the practice of a trade. JOIXERS. Statements were received from four joiners. Of these, two were graduated from, and one was still attending, the Continuation Trade School of Joinery at Paris. The continuation school is not intended to teach the trade, but only to improve the knowledge of workmen by teaching them drawing, modeling, etc., and some theory of the trade. All three were of the opinion that the combination of shopwork and evening school is the best way to learn a trade. One joiner was graduated as a joiner's helper from the apprentice- ship school of the Eastern Railway Company, at Mohon. After serv- ing in the army he did not return to the company, but found a position as joiner at good wages. He believes a trade-school training is preferable to a shop apprenticeship. TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION FRANCE. 867 MACHINE BUILDERS' HELPERS. A machine builders' helper, who is a f^raduate of the National Trade School at Vierzon, said his trade-school training had replaced an apprenticeship in the shop, but that it had not enabled him to find a position any more easilj^, to earn any higher wages, or to advance more rapidly than if he had not been to the school. He stated that trade-school education is, nevertheless, better than a shop apprentice- ship combined with an evening course. MACHINE FITTER. A machine fitter stated that it took some time for him to become a finished workman in the trade of fitter after 'he was graduated from the Diderot School at Paris. He had not, as a result of trade-school education, been enabled more readily to obtain employment or a bet- ter position. Neither had he received higher wages nor had he advanced more i-apidlj"- because of his school training. He said that, theoretically, the school is preferable to the shop apprenticeship, but. on leaving the school the graduate should place himself in a good shop for improvement in the practical work. PAPER MAKERS. Statements were received from three paper makers, who had attended the Continuation Trade School for Paper and Paper Goods Manufac- ture, located at Paris. From the nature of this school it is evident that it can not replace an apprenticeship, but is intended to complement the trade knowledge of those employed in the paper industries and to render easier the learning of the trades by apprentices. One paper maker expressed himself, in regard to the instruction given in the school, as follows: "The school gives the apprentice the theory which he can not acquire in the factory. His shop training makes him only an ordinary workman, but by the help of the knowledge acquired in the continuation school he may later on become a foreman. He may even be able to outline and superintend new classes of work." All three paper makers stated they had received practical benefits in the matter of emploj^ment and wages as a result of the instructions received in the school, PATTERNMAKERS, CAR BUILDING. AND REPAIR SHOPS. Statements were received from three patternmakers, who had been graduated as joiners from the Diderot School at Paris. They returned indirect answers to the question whether the school training had replaced an apprenticeship, but the trend of their replies indicates that they believe a further apprenticeship in the workshop is neces- sar}^ before a graduate joiner can be considered a good workman. 868 EEPOET OF THE COMMISSIOWEE OF LABOR. One man, in fact, stated that about two years spent in shopwork are absolutely necessary to form a good workman of a trade-school graduate. They were unanimously of the opinion, however, that a genuine trade school presents greater advantages to one who wishes to learn a trade than does a shop apprenticeship combined with even- ing courses. One man said that as a result of the theoretical knowl- edge acquired in the school he had, beside his original trade of joiner, been able to fill positions as patternmaker, designer, chemist, and cabinetmaker. Another had been emploj'^ed as joiner, patternmaker, accountant, designer, and machinist. WATCHMAKERS AND REPAIRERS. I Statements were received from six watchmakers, who had been graduated from the National Watchmaking School of Cluses, and from one who is a graduate of the watchmaking school of Paris. The gen- eral opinion of these workmen is that the trade-school training can replace a shop apprenticeship. Five watchmakers said that they had, as a result of their trade-school training, found positions more readily, had found better positions, and had been able to gain better wages and advance more rapidly than would otherwise have been the case. The sixth man had not profited in any of those respects, but he believes that because of the theory and , principles there taught it is better to learn the trade in a school than to go directly into the workshop as an apprentice. The five employees of the Cluses district united in saying that most of the foremen and ' ' first workmen " are graduates of trade schools. The factories, they said, generally specialize their appren- tices from the beginning. Workmen thus trained suffer from lack of general knowledge, which fact often limits their ability to do original work. CHAPTER VII. TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN GERMANY. 869 CHAPTER VII. TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN GERMANY. INTRODUCTION. To determine the progress of trade education in Europe during the last two or three decades one turns to Germany rather tlian to any other country, because of the great impetus that trade education has there received, and because its development has corresponded with a 'most remarkable advance of pure scientific knowledge on the one hand and of industry on the other. It is inevitable that some causal connection should be seen between these two conditions. Germany seemed to typify the application of science to industry, and in tech- nical education was found the medium through which this union was consummated. - There are branches of industrial education and particular classes of schools in which Germany is believed to be surpassed by other nations, but no other nation has more fully realized the complexity of the prob- lem of trade education, the varying needs of the different classes of industrial workers, and consequently the great need for a variety of schools and systems of training for meeting these varying demands. This specialization of industrial or technical schools in Germany is the most characteristic feature of the system that has there been devel- oped. In Germany it is always presumed that the young man has determined pretty definitely the career into which he expects to enter and will shape his education accordingly. By this is meant that a selection is made not merely of the industry or trade but also of the grade of employment, whether as a skilled artisan, a foreman or superintendent, or as a general manager or employer. This selection is made for the double reason that the economic cir- cumstances of the young men will not permit them all to devote the same time to scholastic training, and because the character of the instruction necessary as a preparation for these different positions is radically diverse. The problem in Germany is that of training all classes of industrial workers, from the lowest artisan to the director or owner of the great industrial establishments. There are special schools for the training of employers and managers, for the training of foremen and bosses, and for the trade education of artisans. 871 872 BEPOET OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. In the present report an effort has been made to describe in detail some of the most important or typical schools for the training of foremen and artisans. In addition a brief description of the general scheme of trade and technical education is given in order to show the relation and importance of the part devoted to such instruction. In the account that follows no attempt has been made to take up all of the German States and describe the systems of trade and technical education existing in each. The type of school has been taken as the _unit of classification rather than the State. At the same time care has been taken to point out the particular State or States in which each type finds its best or fullest expression. It should be distinctly understood, however, that there are important differences between the States, both as regards the extent to which provision has been made for trade and technical education and the lines that such action has followed. Founders of the trade and technical schools are often the com- munes, guilds, and industrial associations. Especially is this the case in Saxony, Hesse, and Nassau. Where the means of the locality are insufficient, or where, as in the case of the building-trades schools and the industrial-art schools, a national need exists, State schools have been established. Of 251 industrial schools participating in an educational exposition held in 1898 at Dresden, 88 were founded by societies, 48 by the State, and 47 by private individuals. The trade and the industrial continuation schools of Baden are exclusively com- munal institutions, assisted by the State. Industrial schools of a lower grade are established or maintained by the State only in excep- tional cases. The participation of manufacturers in the conduct of an industrial school is of great value, but difficult to secure unless the school obtains financial assistance from them*. It has been found that a demand for assistance from the guilds and others interested incites them to greater efforts in behalf of the schools. Where industrial schools are established and maintained without any sacrifice on the part of the manufacturers, the latter fail to participate properljr, and as a result lack confidence in the school. Prussia usually requires that the community or other bodies or individuals interested in the trade schools shall provide and maintain the quarters and furnishings. In the case of industrial continuation schools they must also furnish heat and light. The State ordinarily furnishes the school supplies upon the estab- lishment of a trade school. The amount of the State contribution depends mostly upon the capability of the community. It is higher where attendance is compulsory than where it is not. According to a memorial of the ministry of commerce, issued in 1896, 60 trade schools in Prussia obtained 1,428,784 marks ($340,051) from the State TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION — QEEMANY. 873 during the school year 1896-97, and 744,797 marks ($177,262) from the communities. Even in the case of the State institutions (schools for the building trades, industrial art, machine construction, etc.) the community either furnishes and maintains the building, besides con- tributing a fixed amount, or pays a portion of the cost of maintain- ing the school that is not covered by the State appropriation and other receipts. Of the total cost of the industrial schools of Berlin in 1896-97, with an attendance of 19,120 pupils, the State paid 86,089 marks ($20,489), the city 329,363 marks ($78,389), the guilds 9,115 marks ($2,169), and societies, etc., 12,520 marks ($2,980), making a total of 437,087 marks ($104,027). In Bavaria the industrial continuation schools are communal insti- tutions, receiving subsidies from the districts and from the State. The trade schools are in part State schools and in part communal or district schools with State subsidies. In Saxony no regular scheme is followed, but whenever the amount of assistance rendered by communities or interested parties is insuffi- cient the State usually grants subsidies. In Saxony the princijjle of active participation in the industrial school system on the part of interested parties has reached its highest form. In "Wurttemberg a tuition fee is charged in the industrial continua- tion schools. The community must furnish the quarters, but when- ever new buildings are constructed a contribution is obtained from the State. One-half of the remaining expense of maintenance must be borne by the community, and the other half is paid by the State. In Baden, since 1892, a division of the expenses has been made among the State, the community, aind the institutions. In all trade and technical and industrial continuation schools the community furnishes the quarters, heat, light, and school supplies, and pays a part of the sal- aries of the teachers. The remainder of the teachers' salaries and the traveling expenses of the teachers are borne by the State. Teachers not on the regular lists are paid solely by the community. In 1899 the communities paid 247,000 marks ($68,786), the State 143,000 marks ($34,034), and other institutions 20,000 marks ($4,760) for the support of industrial schools. In addition the State contributed about 16,000 marks ($3,808) for special practical courses at the larger industrial schools. The government of Baden paid toward the cost of maintain- ing the industrial continuation schools at least 400 marks ($96.20) per year for each community, or a total of about 40,000 marks ($9,520), and furnished the instruction material prescribed by the industrial school council {Gewerbesohulrat). In Mecklenburg-Schwerin the grand duke decreed in 1836 that industrial continuation schools should be created in all of the (40) cities. The State subsidy for these communal institutions varied from 60 to 150 thalers, according to the population. The industrial 874 BEPOKT 0¥ THE OOMMISSIONEB OF 'LABOR. continuation school at Schwerin, on account of its transformation into a model school {Musteranstalt) in 1898, was transferred to the juris- diction of the ministry of the interior. In Brunswick, in 1896, the three existing commercial continuation schools were converted into institutions of the chamber of commerce, and seven additional schools were established by the latter bodj'. The annual cost of the ten schools was 41,800 marks ($9,948) in 1899. According to the law of June 28, 1851, which is still in force in Bruns- wick, the State government determines where industrial schools are to be established, what tuitions are to be required, and what assistance the communitj' is to furnish in the form of quarters, heat, light, and furnishings. The balance is paid by the State. The following is a comparative summary of State expenditures for trado and technical industrial education in recent years: (") Prussia, 142,000 marks ($33,796) in 1874; 476,000 marks ($113,050) in 1885; 4,672,000 marks ($1,111,936) in 1899. Saxony, 253,000 marks ($60,214) in 1873; 570,000 marks ($135,660) in 1885; 1,138,000 marks ($270,844) in 1898. Wurttemberg industrial continuation schools, 68,000 marks ($13,804) in 1869; 129,000 marks ($30,702) in 1879; 164,000 marks ($39,032) in 1889; 208,000 marks ($49,504) in 1897. The cost to the State per capita of the population of these expendi- tures was as follows: Prussia, 15 pfennigs (3i cents) in 1899; Saxony, 29 pfennigs (7 cents) in 1898; and Hesse, 22 pfennigs (5 cents) in 1898. The cost per 1,000 marks ($238) of the entire State expenditures was 2.27 marks (54 cents) in Prussia in 1899, and 5.88 marks ($1.40) in Saxony in 1898. As regards the control and administration of trade and technical schools the most marked tendency in Germany in recent years has been toward centralizing authoritj^ in the State governments. Origi- nally the idea was that the establishment and maintenance were duties devolving upon private organizations and the local governments. More and more, however, the State has given its financial aid to the schools. The necessary conditions accompanjdng such aid were that the State should exercise a voice in determining the programme and conduct of the schools. The result has been that the State is now thoroughly committed to the policy of supporting industrial schools, and has consequently had to provide for governmental machinery for exercising the necessary supervision. In Prussia there have been frequent changes in the higher adminis- tration. In 1879 most of the trade and technical schools were placed under the ministry of education, and in 1885 they were restored to the ministry of commerce and industry. At the request of the a These figures, as well as those preceding, were obtained from an article on " Gewerblicher Unterricht" in Conrad's ITandworterbuch der StaatswisscTischaften, Se Auflage, 1900. TEADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION GERMANY. 875 Prassian Chamber of Deputies a "Permanent Commission for Tech- nical Education" was appointed in 1879, consisting of members of the House of Lords {Hen-enhaus) and of the Chamber of Deputies, heads of industrial establishments, handicraftsmen, directors of industrial schools, and officials. Up to the year 1900 this commission had met but five times, namely, in 1880, 1881, 1883, 1891, and 1896, on occa- sions when the Government contemplated importiint altei'ations in the industrial educational system. In Bavaria, since 1872, the entire educational system has 1)cen under the ministry of public worship and education. In Saxony the industrial, mercantile, and agricultural schools have alwaj's been under the ministry of the interior. In Wurttemberg there is (since 1863) a royal commission for the industrial contiiiuation schools under the authority of the ministry of education, consisting of members of the central industrial and qovh- m.QVcSal'bvivea.VL {Oeiitralstelle fur Oewerbe und Handel), whose presi- dent is the head of the commission, three higher school officials ( Oher- schulhehorden), and the director of the industrial art school. The weaving and other trade {FacJi) schools in Wurttemberg are under the ministry of the interior and under the immediate supervision of the above-mentioned central bureau; the building trades school, the indus- trial art school, and the higher commercial schools are under the min- istry of public worship and education. In Baden there exists (since Julj' 1, 1892) a grand ducal industrial sciool council {Q-eimrbeschulrat)^ consisting of four regular and six special members under the immediate jurisdiction of the ministry of education. This council is presided over by a member of the minis- trj' of the interior, and is the central authority over all industrial and commercial schools. Formerly part of the industrial schools were under the ministry of education and part under the ministry of the interior. The Baden industrial educational system is well centralized. The programme for all industrial schools is prescribed by the central authority. The school supplies are largely furnished by the industrial school council, and the books, patterns, and models which are secured by the school authorities at communal expense must be approved by this council. In Hesse the trade and technical and industrial art schools are under the grand ducal central industrial bureau {Centralstelle fiir die Oewerbe), which is supported by the handicraft school commission {Handwer-kerschul-Kommission), consisting of eight members of the State industrial society {Landesgeiuerbeverein). In Prussia the industrial continuation schools in most administra- tive districts were formerly either not supervised at all or only in a perfunctory manner. A beginning in the waj^ of thorough supervis- ion has been made in some provinces. Several of the administrative 876 BEPOET OF THE COMMISSIONEB OF LABOR. presidents have, since 1899, appointed technical advisers for the indus^ trial schools. In the city of Breslau the supervision of the entire trade and continuation school system was placed under a single director in 1899. Saxony has had, since 188-i, a professional industrial school inspector. He visits annually about 100 schools. The 28 lace-making schools of Saxony have had a special inspector since 1858. The cost of super- vision of the industrial schools of Saxony in 1899 was 18,000 marks ($4,284). A government building official has been intrusted since 1894 with the supervision of the building-trades schools. The inspec- tion service since 1894 has been improved in the trade schools for weaving by securing the services of teachers of the higher weaving schools and in the case of other trade schools by making use of pro- fessors of State technical institutions. In Baden since 1892 a special industrial school inspector has been employed, who in 1892 had under his supervision 45 trade and tech- nical and 73 industrial continuation schools. He reports the results of his inspections to the grand ducal industrial school council, and the latter gives the decisions and the necessary orders to the local super- visorj- authorities. In 1898 the industrial school inspector visited 35 trade and technical and 61 industrial continuation schools. In Bavaria the industrial continuation schools are under the uni- formly organized supervision of the district governments. For the supervision of trade schools in the technical sense, the ministry of public worship and education utilizes the teachers of the technical high school, the industrial art schools, etc. In Wurttemberg the supervision of the scientific instruction at the industrial continuation schools is in charge of prominent directors and teachers of such schools. The itinerant teacher ( Wanderlehrer) employed in 1899 is also required to visit these schools and to report to the commission regarding the same. The supervision of instruc- tion in drawing is in the hands of experienced drawing teachers. In Hesse the handicraft schools {Handioer'kerschuleii) are supervised by the handicraft school commission. In Germany the fact is realized that the best school organization and the most complete equipment of the trade and technical schools avail nothing if the proper teachers are lacking. In the selection of trade instructors preference is therefore given to skilled and experi- enced practical men over those whose practical work has been only of a secondary character. Teachers of trade and continuation schools are expected to keep in close touch with the industrial enterprises in their vicinity. In Wurttemberg, for example, candidates for positions as trade and art instructors in industral continuation schools are required to have a long previous experience as actual wage-workers. Practicing architects, superintendents of workshops, and mechanical TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION — GERMANY. 877 engineers, especially those who have had experience abroad, are mostly sought after as instructors in trade drawing and in indus- trial art. Special examinations for teachers of industrial schools exist in but a few of the German States. In Bavaria such examinations are held for teachers of languages, mathematics and physics, chemistry and natural history, drawing, machinery and building, commercial science, and agriculture. Nevertheless, preference is often given to persons having had practical experience, regardless of their rank in the examinations. In Baden, since 1892, teachers in industrial schools are no longer trained in the technical high school, but in a special division for such teachers at the Building Trades School at Carlsruhe. The students in this division are required to work in shops, factories, or at construc- tion plants during the eight weeks' annual vacation. After three aiid one-half years of theoretical instruction, and upon presenting a certifi- cate showing that they have worked in at least three different trades, - they become eligible for the industrial teachers' examination. When appointed as teachers they become State officers and receive a graded salary. The education of these teachers must be supplemented from time to time by attendance at continuation courses, and excursions for study and observation, which are partly paid for by the State. Written reports must be made by the teachers to the State authorities giving the results of their study and observations. Public school teachers who give instruction in the industrial continuation schools must attend courses of from four to five weeks in technical drawing, correspond- ence, arithmetic, and bookkeeping. The expenses of these courses are borne by the State. In Prussia, teachers in industrial continuation schools take courses of from four to six weeks in drawing and in commercial branches, the expenses of which are usually borne by the State. . In Hesse, optional courses lasting from two to three months per year are given for teachers of industrial schools. No tuition fees are charged, the expenses being borne by the State industrial society. CLASSES OF INSTITUTIONS. In order that a comprehensive idea may be obtained of all the means for trade training in the Empire, and especially that the relations of the groups of institutions with one another may be clearly seen, it is imperative that an attempt be made to classify them in some way. This is a diflScult task, as it is often impossible to determine the exact character of an institution, and the same institution may carrj^ on dif- ferent lines of work, which would seem to entitle it to mention, in more than one ckss. Any scheme of classification will therefore be defective 0<0 KEPOBT OF THE OOMMISSIOWEE OK LABOK. and the one here presented (") can not claim to be an exception to the rule. It is believed, however, that it gives an accurate representa- tion of the different kinds of trade and technical schools to be found in the German Empire, and, taken in connection with the accompany- ing description of the different classes, will probably give a true idea of the character of industrial education as it exists in that country to-day. Following is the classijfication: 1. Technical colleges. 2. Secondary or intermediate technical schools, 3. Schools and museums of industrial art. ■i. Schools for foremen. 5. Schools for the building trades. 6. Schools for the textile trades. 7. Trade and industrial continuation schools. 8. Industrial drawing courses. 9. Other institutions for industrial education. TECHNICAL COIiLiEGES. At the head of the system of technical and industrial education in Germany stand the great universities of science, or the technical colleges (Tschnische Hochachulen). The purpose of these institutions is to give not only the highest possible instruction in the sciences, a task which equalty belongs to the universities, but the application of this knowledge to the operations of industry. The schools are in reality engineering schools, and confer the degree of doctor of engi- neering {I)6ktor-InINa TRADES AlTD CIVIL ENGINEEKIETG, ZITTAXJ, SAXONY. This institution {K Bdchsische Baugewerken- und Tiefbauschide) was established by the Government in 1840 and is under the immediate control and supervision of the Government of Saxonj', receiving its 932 EEPOET OF THE COMMISSIONER OP LABOE. main support from annual State appropriations. It comprises two departments — the schQol for the building trades and the school for civil engineering, each providing for a two j'ears' course of four half- year terms. The school for the building trades is intended to provide a systematic course of instruction for the theoretical training of master masons and builders. The school for civil engineering, which was opened October 3, 1898, provides an intermediate grade of instruction for students in the technical features of road construction, waterworks, and railroad building, to supply competent men not only for the State and munici- palities, but also for industrial firms, such as road masters, superintend- ents of waterworks, superintendents of dikes, railway superintendents, office experts, officials for office and other work of such character, railway managers, etc. The summer term begins on the second Monday after .Easter and continues until the latter part of September, with an intermission from the middle of July to the middle of August. The winter term begins in the second week of October and continues until the latter part of March, with an intermission from December 28 to January 6. The tuition fee for each department is 30 marks (17.14) per term, payable in advance, but students in needy circumstances who are resi- dents of Saxony may have their tuition fee remitted in whole or in part. During the school year 1898-99 tuition fees were thus remitted to 14 students to the amount of 420 marks ($99.96). During the same year the total sum expended for the maintenance of the school amounted to 42,263 marks (flO,059) and the sum appropriated by the State amounted to 38,672 marks ($9,204). Each applicant for admission must have a common-school education and at least one year's practical experience in the trade which he intends to follow. In the case of the school for the building trades he must have attained the age of 15 years, and in the school for civil engineering the age of 16 years. The conditions, however, may be modified in so far that an applicant who has received a high-school education may be admitted with a half-year's practical experience. During the school year 1900-01 the faculty of the school consisted of the director and 16 instructors. The following is a programme of the courses of study, with the number of hours per week devoted to each: SCHOOL FOE THE BUILDING TEADES. First half-year term: General architecture, 4; architectural drawing, 6; free-hand drawing, 6; mathematics, 10; physics, 2; projections, 8; German, 4. Second half-year term: General architecture, 2; masonry work, 5; carpentrv work, 5; business law, 1; architectural drawing, 4; designing, 5; free-hand drawing, 4; mathematics, 4; physics, 2; mechanics, 2; perspective, 2; German, 4. TKADB AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION — GEEMANY. 933 Third half-year term: Building materials, 2; masonry work, 3; carpentry work, 3; business law, 1; heating and ventilating, 3; designing, 12; free-hand drawing, 3; mathematics, 4; physics, 2; mechanics 4; surveying, leveling, and field sketching, 3; German, 2. Fourth half-year term: Iron construction work, 4; building plans, 3; building esti- mates, 4; history of architecture, 2; designing, 16; free-hand drawing, 3; mechanics, 4; perspective, 2; bookkeeping, 2. Following is a synopsis of the foregoing subjects which pertain to the building trades: General architecture: Discussion of the separate parts of buildings in general; location, preparatory work, and arrangement of buildings according to their various purposes; dwelling houses, buildings for agricultural purposes, and industrial estab- lishments; foundation work. Architectural drawing: Lectures and exercises in drawing moldings and casings, windows and doors, the various orders, etc. Free-hand drawing: Exercises in the training of the hand and eye in outline draw- ing of plane and relief ornaments from copies and from models; exercises in sketch- ing and drawing from memory; exercises in shadows; designing of ornaments. Masonry work : Bondings for brick and stone work, walls, pillars, door and window casings, fastening rods, etc.; construction of vaults, including simple bridges; the cut of stones; stairs of stone, brick, and cement; stone and cement floors. Carpentry work: Materials; framework; floors; framed partitions; joists, rafters, sleepers, supporters, girders, truss frames, etc. ; form and construction of roofs, stairs, doors, and windows; scaffolds. Iron construction work: Materials; connection of constructive parts; simple and compound supporters; construction of ceilings; columns and stanchions; roofs and stairs. Business law: Discussion and explanation of municipal building regulations; regu- lations governing fire insurance; sick benefit and accident insurance. Designing: Preliminary studies in designing by finishing given sketches; plans for dwelling houses, agricultural buildings, and industrial establishments; exercises in working drawings. SCHOOL FOE CIVIL ENGINEERING. First half-year term: General architecture, 4; free-hand drawing, 6; mathematics, 10; physics, 2; projections, 8; surveying, 8; German, 4. Second half-year term: General architecture, 2; masonry work, 4; carpentry work, 4; building regulations, 1; construction of roads, waterworks, and railroads, 4; trade drawing, 6; architectural drawing, 4; free-hand drawing, 4; mathematics, 4; physics, 2; mechanics, 2; German, 4. Third half-year term: Building materials, 2; iron construction work, 2; business law, 1; elements of machinery, 2; construction of roads, waterworks, and railroads, 4; municipal engineering, 2; bridge building, 2; electro-technics, 2; designing, 10; mathematics, 4; mechanics, 4; surveying, 8; German, 2. Fourth half-year term: Iron construction work, 2; building estimates, 4; elements of machinery, 2; construction of roads, waterworks, and railroads, 8; municipal engineering, 1; bridge building, 2; electro-technics, 2; designing, 16; mechanics, 4; bookkeeping, 2. The general studies in the school for civil engineering are identical with those in the school for the building trades. Surveying: The students are made familiar with the use of the most important apparatus and instruments for horizontal measurements, with practice in testing and correcting these instruments, laying out arcs, methods of surveying plots, methods 934 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. of surface computations, vertical measurements, leveling apparatus and instruments, testing and correcting them, and their use; methods of leveling; simple and complex leveling; surveying of plane surfaces, small complex areas, longitudinal and cross profiles; marking out segments; computation of entire areas; representing charac- teristic features in black and in color; computation and graphic representation of various elevations. Construction of roads, waterworks, and railroads: A general discussion of the con- struction of country roads, including proper drainage; construction and maintenance of dams, dikes, and embankments; water supplies for small communities; construc- tion of railroads, the roadbed, breadth, elevation, ditches, grades, blasting, fencing, protective measures against snow, crossing bridges; general remarks on track con- struction, material, ties, rails, fastenings, bedding; construction of switches and crossings, simple and complex positions, turntables, sliding platforms, cranes, plat- form scales, location and arrangement of stations in general, buildings, platforms, etc.; signal systems, block stations, central stations, railroad regulations, etc. Trade drawing and designing: Measuring scales; profiles of locks, street and steam railroads; wooden, stone, and iron bridges; culverts; locks and dams; railroad build- ings; street crossings; freight stations; small railroad depots; plain warehouses and factory buildings. Architectural drawing: Moldings and casings, doors and windows; drawing piers, breastworks, portals, and other objects discussed in the lectures on building con- structions. Mechanics: Composition and resolution of forces; gravity; computation of wood, stone, and iron construction work; mechanical powers; solution of problems; review of the most important sections of statics; determining the strength of truss and strut frames, framework for roofs, bridges, vaults, retaining walls, and pillars. Municipal engineering: Location of streets and squares, platting longitudinal and cross profiles; grading and paving of streets and sidewalks, draining and cleaning; sewerage; conduits for gas, water, and electricity; street railways. Electro-technics: The essentials of frictional electricity; the phenomena and laws of galvanic electricity; electric currents, with special reference to municipal engi- neering. The following table shows the number of students in attendance during the school year 1900-01: NUMBER OF ^T^DENTS ATTENDING SCHOOLS FOE THE BUILDING TR.^DES AXD CIVIL ENGINEERING, ZITTAU, 1900-01. Classes. Beginning of winter half year, 1900-01. Close of winter half year, 1900-01. Beginning of summer half year, 1900-01. Close of summer half year, 1901. SCHOOL FOR THE BttlLDI.N'O TRADES. "26 29 22 18 25 28 22 18 11 10 21 7 Second-term class 9 Total 95 93 49 45 SCHOOL FOR CIVIL ENGINEERING. First-term class 24 19 14 6 24 18 14 6 5 11 11 6 4 Second-term class 11 11 Fourth-term class 6 Total 63 62 33 32 TEADE AST) TECHNICAL EDUCATION — GEKMANY. 935 SCHOOLS FOR THE TEXTILE TRADES. These schools, like those for the building trades, have been con- sidered separately in the classification of German industrial schools. Of the textile schools, some are of a higher, others of a lower grade; some relate only to weaving, while others include one or more other branches of the textile industr3^ In the selection of the schools for detailed description, those have been taken which ofFer the widest range in their courses of instruction, that is, schools which give both the higher and lower grades of instruction in weaving, spinning, dye- ing, and other textile branches. The schools selected are the textile schools in Aix-la-Chapelle, Berlin, and Crefeld, Prussia, and Reut- lingen, Wurttemberg. SCHOOL FOB, THE TEXTILE TRADES, AIX-LA-CHAPELLE, PRUSSIA. The origin of the Aix-la-Chapelle school was due to private initia- tive. It was established in 1883 by a number of persons for the pur- pose of advancing the textile industry of the city. For the first eight years of its history no aid was received from the Government. As the school increased in importance a change in location became necessary. In making this change the city gave the ground for a new building, and the Association for the Advancement of Industry of Aix-la-Chapelle gave in the neighborhood of $75,000 toward the construction of the building. Since then the association has continued its contributions, and the school also profits from other benefactions. Both the city and the State contribute to the support of the school in addition to having paid a large sum for its equipment. The school is intended to give instruction in all the branches of the textile industry. From a technical standpoint the school is of interest for the reason that, more than in almost any other institution, the effort is made to carry on actual productive operations in the shops belonging to the school. The shops in fact are run much as an ordinary commercial enterprise. Orders for weaving are executed, and products sold when possible. The instraction given is thus thoroughly practical. The foremen who give the instruction in the school shops also have under them ordinary workmen who are paid wages in order that the commercial orders may be promptly and properly executed. The dyeing shops were formerly run on the same plan, but as the financial results were unsatisfactory the system was abandoned. The same difficulty is found in the case of the weaving shops, but as the sj^stem is believed to be advantageous to the pupils it is maintained notwith- standing the financial loss. As regards equipment the school is provided with all the necessary workrooms, laboratories, machines, etc. The scheme of instruction includes five courses, two of which relate to weaving and spinning, 936 REPOBT OF THE COMMISSIONEE OF LABOR. one to dyeing, one to finishing, and one to darning. All the opera- tions of the woolen industry are thus covered. The darning course is the only one of its kind in Germany. It is organized on an elaborate scale and executes important orders from private parties. The students of this course are women and girls over 14 years of age. They can remain at the school as long as they desire and are paid wages according to the value of the work done by them. It is thus a true apprenticeship shop. The other courses are attended by young men only. The day weav- ing course covers two terms. In general, the courses are shorter than elsewhere in superior textile schools. The evening weaving course which is intended for foremen and workmen is of longer duration, namely four terms, as not more than 10 hours a week can be devoted to education by the workingmen, while 4A hours a week are given in the day course for employers and directors. The course in dyeing is two years and that in finishing is one term. These courses are often followed by students who have finished the weaving course. The tuition fee is from 200 marks ($47.60) to 800 marks ($190) a year according to whether the student is a Prussian, a native of another German State, or a foreigner. For the evening course in weaving the fee is 30 marks ($7.14) a year. The number of students enrolled during the year 1895-96 was as follows: Weaving (day course) 47 Weaving (night course) 124 Dyeing 7 Finishing ^ 11 Darning (renlrayage) 72 There were 9 professors and 9 assistants. SCHOOL rOK THE TEXTILE TRADES, BEEIilN, PHTJSSIA. This school was established in 1875 by the union of trade guilds and employers of the city. These bodies still continue to contribute to its support, although the school is now practically a State institution. Originally only primary instruction was imparted, but the standard has been gradually raised, until at present the highest technical train- ing in weaving is given. The instruction is specialized in the direction of wool weaving, especially of cloths for wearing apparel, tapestry, etc. The school has four large shops; the first, for handlooms, is the best equipped; the others are for ordinary power looms, passementerie making, and embroidery. The instruction is divided into two divis- ions which are almost separate schools, though use is made of the same workshops by classes in both, and certain special courses are given for persons intending to become teachers or designers. TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION — GERMANY. 937 The two divisions consist of day courses, which are intended for persQns expecting to become employers or directors of textile estab- lishments and designers, and of evening and Sunday courses for fore- men, workmen, and apprentices. To be admitted to either division, students must be 16 years of age and must have already been actually engaged in the textile industry. It is also the general rule that candidates for the day courses shall have completed their second- ary education. The school does not aim to replace the practical train- ing required in the shop, but rather to supplement such training. The courses of studies vary in length from one to two years. Thus in the day classes the course in weaving is either a year or a year and a half according as it relates to the manufacture of cloth or of uphol- stery goods. The course in designing is two years; the courses in knitting, passementerie making, and dyeing, are one year each; the course for embroidery is one quarter of a year. Each year includes instruction for 42 weeks of M hours each. In the courses given in the evenings and on Sunday mornings the mercantile course is one year of 6 hours per week, that for dyeing, two years of 6 hours per week, and that for weaving, passementerie making, and knitting, 8 hoursper week for several years, according to the time the pupils can devote to their education. Most of the students register for all the courses of their division. They can, however, take only a single course or as many as they have time for. The length of instruction is reduced as far as possible, and the greatest possible freedom is given to the students to take little or much, as they are able, in order that all classes of workingmen may be appealed to. In addition to the two regular courses special courses are arranged for those persons who desire to become teachers or practical designers. For the first of these two classes special attention is given to drawing. The courses for the second class aref intended for students who have attended the school of industrial arts and, having obtained a general training there, desire to specialize still further in the trade in which they expect to exercise their abilities. Following are the subjects taught and the hours per week devoted to each in the day division: SUBJECTS TAUGHT AND HOURS PEE WEEK DEVOTED TO EACH, COURSE FOR MANUFAC- TURERS AND FACTORY SUPERINTENDENTS, SCHOOL FOR THE TEXTILE TRADES, BERLIN. Subjects. Honrs per week. First lialf year. Second half year. Third half year.a 6 12 2 6 12 Design transferrins 14 Materials « The third half year is intended only for students preparing for the cover, furniture tapestry, and carpet making industries. 938 KEPOKT OF THE COMMISSIONEK OF LABOE. SUBJECTS TAUGHT AND HOURS PER WEEK DEVOTED TO EACH, COURSE FOR MANUFAC- TURERS AND FACTORY SUPERINTENDENTS, ETC.— Concluded. Hours per week. Subjects. First half year. Second half year. Third half year.a Machinery: 2 Motors 2 2 4 8 2 Power looms : 2 9 2 3 3 2 1 X Drawing: Free-hand i O ' Id 3 2 2 1 Quiz classes 2 Total 44 44 "The third half year is intended only for students preparing for the cover, furniture tapestry, and carpet making industries. Following i.s a synopsis of the subjects taught: Theory of weaving: Definition and clasHification of weaving; weaving ^-ith one chain and one shot; other classes of weaving; influence of the color and twist of the yarn on the appearance of the woven fabric; application of the various kinds of weaving processes to different classes of tissues. Design transferring: Characteristics of warp and weft; specification of the weaving process, of the order of colors, of the treadle arrangement, of the fixing and arrange- ment of the loom; determining the nature of the woven materials and the size of the yarn; calculations. Materials: Origin, production, and properties of the raw materials; main sources and markets; commercial usages concerning purchase and sale; working the raw materials as far as the finished }'arn; utilizing yarns; determining the strength, elas- ticity, twist, dampness, etc. Machinery: Handloom weaving — preparing the yarn for weaving and the appara- tus pertaining thereto; general construction and arrangement of a loom and disposi- tion of the various parts; card looms, and punching the cards for the same; Jacquard looms and cards; other features of looms. Motors — Definition of power, work, capac- ity, friction, resultant of forces, lever, rollers, wheel and axle, screw, parts of machines, transmission, wheels, cranks, etc.; water wheels, turbines, steam engines, hot-air engines, explosion engines, electric motors. Apparatus for preparing material- Apparatus for preparing the warp and the weft; apparatus for warping, spooling, cutting, sizing, etc. ; twisting machines. Power looms — Description of a typical loom used in the manufacture of i\oolen and part woolen goods; general review of the mechanism of the various looms; productive capacity, power required, and size of the various looms. Finishing apparatus— Finishing apparatus and processes of flnishhig used in the various branches of the industry, especially those taught at the school. Practical exercises- Preliminary work; setting up a hand and a power loom; weaving of samples; repair work; motors. Drawing: Drawing from wood and plaster models in outline and with shading; drawing from sketches and materials; exercises in combining colors, designing of simple patterns from a given motive. Mechanical drawing: Work with drawing instruments, ruler, triangle, etc.; ele- ments of projection, sketches of parts of machines, working plans. TEADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION GEKMANY. 939 Technical arithmetic and bookkeeping: Review of arithmetic, brief commercial arithmetic; warp and weft calculations for tissues with one and with several colors and with various sizes of yarns; calculations for the various processes with Jacquard looms; cost of goods; fixing of prices; arrangement and keeping of books of an estab- lishment, such as yarn and stock books, design books, order books, etc. ; mercantile bookkeeping is also taught according to the needs of the students. Dyeing: Dyeing raw materials, skeins, pieces; the most important dyestuffa; testing colors (whether they are fast); brief description of the dyeing and printing processes; discussion of the most important machines used in dyeing and printing. Jurisprudence: Important features of the hidustrialcode; relations of factory work- ers, Sunday work, factory inspection, industrial courts, workingmen's insurance; patent system; trade-mark regulations; tariff laws, etc. S0BJECTS TAUGHT AND HOURS PER WEEK DEVOTED TO EACH, COURSE FOR DESIGNERS IN SCHOOL FOR THE TEXTILE TRADES, BERLIN. Hours per week. Subjects. First halt year. Second half year. Third half year. Fourth half year. 22 6 6 6 2 2 22 6 6 6 24 24 Design transferring a 12 o6 a 12 n8 Materials Machinery (hand and power looms) . . 4 2 U 44 44 41 a These hours may also be devoted to sketching and other drawing. The course in technical drawings is as follows: Drawing from models in outline and in colors; drawing and painting from samples of materials ; combining and preparing new designs ; drawing and painting from plastic models, combining and designing new samples from plastic motives; drawing and painting from nature. In addition several of the designs are blocked out and worked up for actual use. The instruction in the theor}^ of weaving, design transferring, prac- tical exercises, materials, and machinery is the same as in the weaving section. SUBJECTS TAUGHT AND HOURS PER WEEK DEVOTED TO EACH, COURSE FOR KNITTERS IN SCHOOL FOR THE TEXTILE TRADES, BERLIN. Subjects. Analysis and production of knit goods Practical exercises on the knitting: machine . Theoretical lectures on knitting Theory of weaving; Design transferring M&teilala Machinery Practical exercises at the loom' Arithmetic and bookkeeping Drawing Dyeing Jurisprudence Total. Hours per week. First half year. Second half year. 4 16 2 940 KEPOET OF ^THE COMMISSIONED OF LABOB. Following is a synopsis of the courses in two of the above subjects: Analysis and production of knit goods: Method of producing smooth and pattern mesh goods, tricots, plushes, etc. ; practical exercises on the knitting machine; work- ing at and preparing knitting machines and accessory apparatus. Theoretical lectures on knitting: Description of the various systems of hand and power machines. The remaining subjects are the same as those in the weaving section. SUBJECTS TAUGHT AND HOURS PER WEEK DEVOTED TO EACH, COURSE IN PASSE- MENTERIE MAKING IN SCHOOL FOR THE TEXTILE TRADES, BERLIN. Hours per week. Sutjects. Theory of weaving Design transferring Materials Machinery Practical exercises Arithmetic and bookiieeping Drawing Dyeing Jurisprudence Total As will be seen from the foregoing table, the instruction in this course is similar to that given in the weaving section. The practical exercises, however, are devoted to the usual manual work, such as making cords, knots, tassels, etc., and work on passementerie, lace, crocheting, braiding, and chenille machines, etc. SUBJECTS TAUGHT AND HOURS PER WEEK DEVOTED TO EACH, COURSE FOR DYERS IN SCHOOL FOR THE TEXTILE TRADES, BERLIN. Hours per week. Subjects. Chemistry and physics Chemistry of fibers Dyeing and chemical work in the laboratory Elements of weaving Machinery Jurisprudence Total Following is a synopsis of the courses: Chemistry and physics: Inorganic chemistry, with special reference to dyestuffs; brief sketch of organic and analytic chemistry; heat, light, and electricity. Chemistry of fibers: Fibers, their chemical and physical properties; washing, bleaching, coloring matters, mordants, etc. ; dyeing machinery. Dyeing and chemical work in the laboratory : Study of dyeing materials by means of experiments; testing the durability of colors in fabrics, etc. Spinning and weaving: Study of fibers and yarns and simple textures; their identi- fication when dyed; work at the loom, etc' Machinery and jurisprudence, the same as in the weaving section. TKADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION — GERMANY. 941 The subjects taught in the mercantile course of the evening and Sunday division include, for each of the two half-year terms, descrip- tion of goods, instruction being given on Sundays from 9 to 11 a. m. ; pattern designing, given on Sundays from 11 a. m. to 1 p. m. ; and practical exercises in weaving, given on Mondays and Thursdays from 8 to 10 p. m. Lectures are given on the following subjects: ~ Description of materials: Raw materials; description of the various fibers used in spinning, their source and processes of production; separating and cleansing; wash- ing, bleaching, carbonizing; artificial wool; principal markets for raw materials; prices. Manufacture: Spinning of the raw material; spinning processes; characteristics of yams and their numbering; strength of yarns; making a sample book of yarns; weaving; distinction between woven and other, such as knitted, goods; principal parts of hand and power looms; purpose of the Jacquard and similar looms; dyeing of raw materials, of skeins, and of woven pieces; the important dyestuffs; testing colors; dyeing and printing processes; finishing, its processes and machines. Finished products: Preparing a sample book of finished products, including all kinds of woven goods; description of materials according to their colors; density of the warp and weft; study of the various classes of woven fabrics; defects, tests, and calculations; location of establishments for the manufacture of various classes of Pattern designing: This study is used in connection with the description of mate- rials, and is given with the view of enabling the students to recognize the various classes of woven goods and to estimate the materials consumed in their manufacture and the prices of the same. Practical exercises in weaving: These are given with the purpose of making the students familiar with the processes of weaving, and of enabling them to recognize imperfections in weaving. SUBJECTS TAUGHT AND HODES PEE WEEK DEVOTED TO EACH, COUESE FOE DYERS IN SCHOOL FOR THE TEXTILE TRADES, BEELIN. Subjects. Hours per week. First year. Second year. Chemistry and physics Chemistry of fibers ; . . Dyeing and chemical worli in the laboratory. Total These hours are given on Thursday evenings and Sunday mornings. The courses for weavers, designers, knitters, lace workers, and embroi- derers include practical exercises at the handloom; analysis and pro- duction of knit goods; theoretical and practical instruction on knitting machines, power looms, hand and power lace-making machines, and 942 KEPOKT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOK. embroidery machines. The classes are held on Monday and Thursday evenings and Sunday' mornings. NUMBER OF STUDENTS IN ATTENDANCE AT SCHOOL FOR THE TEXTILE TRADES, BERLIN, 1900-01. Summer term, 1900. Winter term, 1900-01. Day division: Weaving Designing Knitting Passementerie making . Embroidery Dyeing 25 Total. 45 Evening and Sunday division: Mercantile Dyeing Weaving, designing, etc . . . 26 17 105 Total. 12 23 1 3 13 3 55 52 20 95 There were, in addition, in the daj'' division, 1 special student in the designing section, 1 in the dyeing section, and 3 in the weaving section. The latest year for which reports of the expenses of the school are available is 1897-98. In this year the total cost of running the scho'ol, with the exception of the expenses for heating, lighting, and repairs to building, was 70,533 marks ($16,787). The income, including 8,053 marks ($1,917) for tuition fees, was 13,730 marks (|3,268), leaving a deficit of 66,803 marks (113,519), which was paid bj^ the city and the State. The Chamber of Commerce and the Textile Association each contributed 4,000 marks ($952), while the Loom Workers' Association contributed 380 marks (f90.44) toward the city's share of the expense. YEARLY TUITION FEES IN THE DAY DIVISION OF SCHOOL FOR THE TEXTILE TRADES, BERLIN. Courses. For Prus- sians. For other For for- Germans, eigners. Weaving, knitting, passementerie making, dyeing Designing Special students (yearly tuition for each hour per week) S47.60 14.28 7.14 $71. 40 14.28 U.90 8190. 40 190. 40 23.80 In the evening and Sunday division the fee is 30 marks ($7.14) per term for each course of 6 hours per week for those taking class work in weaving, the mercantile course, and dyeing. For designers, embroi- derers, and others who take class work the fee is 6 marks (11.43) per term for each weekly hour. For journeymen and apprentices in weaving, knitting, and passementerie making who are residents of Berlin or who work in the city, tuition is free. In the case of needy students of good character the fees are either wholly or partly remitted. TKADE ANt) TECHNICAL EDUCATION — aEEMANY. 943 SCHOOIi FOR TSE TEXTILE TEADES, CREEELD, PRUSSIA. The Crefeld weaving school, with its school for dyeing and finishing, is one of the most important in Germany or on the continent of Europe. The weaving school was erected in 1883, at a cost of 1225,000. Since then it has been almost doubled in size by the erec- tion of a new building for the dyeing and finishing departments, at an expense of 176,000. The rooms in the original building were thus set free to be used for the spinning and knitting operations. The school as now organized gives instruction in all the operations embraced in the textile industrj^, though, according to the general policy of each school specializing in respect to a particular branch of the industry, attention is chiefly given to the making of silk, satin, and velvet goods. As regards the general equipment of this school, no better descrip- tion can be given than that by the English Technical Instruction com- missioners who visited this school in 1896. (") After mentioning the fact that they had inspected the several designing rooms, class rooms, and studios and lecture theaters, rooms for the analysis of patterns and the collections of raw materials, and that they found nothing wanting to make the equipment of the school thoroughly up to date, they said: In the spacious quadrangle the large top-lighted weaving shed con- tains 88 diilerent kinds of power looms, several of which are run by separate electric motors, besides 41 handlooms. We were informed that in no factory in the world, and certainly in no other school, are found so many varieties of looms for woven fabrics. The new dyeing and finishing school consists of a lofty three-story building, containing a series of top-lighted sheds for the machinery and workrooms. The laboratories for the analj'sis of colors and for private research are very extensive, and the dyeing school contains every essential that is found in the most complete dyehouses. The finishing department is equally well equipped, no expense having been spared either in the provision of the largest machines or of the smallest details. We were told that no commercial establishments were better equipped than this school, and that consequently every student passing through it had the advantage of starting on his busi- ness career with a full knowledge of the newest facts and methods. The school at Crefeld, with its department for the application of art and science to the designing and d3'eing of silk fabrics, must be regarded as afl:ording another instance of the belief of German manu- facturers in the value of the best artistic and technical instruction. They recognize that it is the design and finish that sell the fabrics, and they have therefore spared no expense in the equipment of their schools and in the provision of the best instruction. By the president of the chamber of commerce and by other leading citizens the school was represented as the center of inspiration for the manufacturers of the whole district. The designers who have passed through it are kept in touch with all that it can teach by attending the aBeport on the Recent Progress of Technical Education ia Germany, 1896. 944 KEPOBT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOE. conferences and lectures. If they wish for the adaptation of old forms and ideas in making their patterns they can go back to the best designs of every period. In the dyeing and finishing departments all new processes and colors are tested and analyzed, so that nothing is left to chance. * * * It was pointed out, moreover, that, owing to the many directions in which the school had fostered practical teaching, it had become possible, when the silk trade was depressed, to initiate new textile industries in Crefeld which might serve to occupy her machinery and find employment for her artisans. One of the most important features of the school's equipment is the magnificent textile museum which it possesses. It contains over 8,000 numbers, and is said to be the finest collection of textile patterns in the world. Here are found fabrics which are of extreme historical as well as of technical value. The collection includes articles from the tombs of the Egyptians down to the fashionable designs of the present day, those of the fifteenth, sixteenth, and seventeenth centuries being especially well represented. There is also an oriental section with manj' fine examples of textile art. The collection is kept up to date, and receives constant additions by means of purchases from the pro- ceeds of a fund devoted to that purpose. Some of the specimens have cost as much as $50 per square foot. Designers are in constant attend- ance copying the patterns. As a result of the display of Persian and Turkish carpet patterns an industry for the making of Smyrna wor- sted rugs has been started which gives employment to several hun- dred employees. As showing the importance attached to this feature, it may be remarked that the decorations alone of the museum galleries cost 130,000. The school is also in possession of an excellent technical library, which contains an exceptionally complete collection of trade publica- tions and technical literature. The institution is strictly for advanced instruction, and is intended for the preparation of chemical specialists, dyers, bleachers, makers of print goods, finishers, etc. The courses are given only during the day. The only course for foremen is one on Sunday, treating of the analysis of samples. Students to be admitted must be at least 16 years of age, and it is desired that they should have had some practical expe- rience in the trade. Very few of the students come directly from institutions of secondary instruction, the great majority of them hav- ing had some shop experience. A certain number come from the universities or polytechnical institutes, for the purpose of acquiring the more special training to be obtained in this school. The school year consists of 42 weeks of 48 hours each. There are 7 regular courses, of which 2 are for wool and 5 for silk and other tex- tiles. Great attention is paid to practical work in the shops and labo- ratories, the products of which are sold. The employers of the neighborhood often have recourse to this school for information, tests, TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION — GEEMANY. 945 etc. Sometimes work of an elaborate chai'acter is undertaken for them by the school. The students make excursions of observation to industrial establishments. The attendance in 1895-96 was 149, of which 117 were regular stu- dents, 18 special students, and 14 student designers. The Sunday course in the analysis of samples was followed by 116 students. The tuition fees are 300 marks ($71.40) for Prussians, 462 marks ($108) for other Germans, and 1,200 marks ($286) for foreigners. A con- siderable number of students, however, hold scholarships or receive aid in one way or another. The employers in Cref eld and the surrounding district are favorably disposed toward the school. Not a few of the machines in possession of the school have been presented to it by them. They also contributed liberally to the expense of its erection, and have continued to aid it in many ways. SCHOOL FOB THE TEXTILE TKADES, KEtTTLINGEN, WTTItTTEIff- BEBG. This school was founded in 1855 by the city of Reutlingen, with the assistance of an association of citizens interested in the movement. The scope of the school was gradually increased from the weaving school with which it started until in 1898 it comprised courses for hand and power loom weaving, knitting, spinning, designing, and dyeing. The courses offered are to prepare young men as manufac- turers, factory directors, designers, and master spinners, weavers, and knitters. Commercial courses for dealers in textiles are also offered. The courses of instruction comprise the following subjects: Spinning course: Raw materials — cotton, sheep's wool, hemp, flax, jute, and silk. Spinning processes — their object; drawing and doubling; specifying the yarn num- bers. Ginning — the various gins and their characteristics; mixing. Opening — description of the openers of Creighton, Piatt, Lord, Raylor-Land. Carding — theory and description of the various roller and other cards, their advantages and practical uses. Combing — the various systems of combing of Heilmann, Hubner, the Alsace Machine Company, etc. Drawing — general principles; relative speeds of the cylin- ders, etc. Roving, spinning, self-actors, throstles, water frames; steaming, reeling, and packing; twisting; worsted yarns; general construction and arrangement of spinning mills; preparing plans and estimates of cost; numbers of workmen and wage cost. Weaving course: The first half of this course is mainly theoretical, while the sec- ond half is principally practical work at the machines. The work requires one year. The subjects taken up are; Principles of weaving— recognizing weaving materials, wool, cotton, linen, silk, muslins, jute, etc. Study of the arrangements and acces- sories for preparing yarns for weaving; lectures on the formation of fabrics; design perforating. Investigation of fabrics made of various materials. Reckoning the quantities of yarn consumed and other factory costs in weaving. Decomposing and stenciling tissues with figures, etc. Jacquard weaving— analyzing various stuffs woven on Jacquard looms. Introduction to designing new forms 8f weaving, and samples of fabrics from suggestions of the instructor and from original ideas. Hand 9257—02 60 946 BEPOET OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOE. weaving — practical weaving on the hand loom. Power-loom weaving — working on the preparatory machines, spooling, twisting, warping, sizing, etc. ; weaving on looms of various kinds; weaving various kinds of fabrics; setting up power looms and acces- sory machines; tending and otherwise managing steam boilers, engines, and dynamos. The theoretical instruction includes explanations of motors of various types, design perforating, warping, sizing; construction and running of looms and other machinery, sketching and drawing looms, etc. Knitting course: This course is similar to those given above, in that it prepares pupils for the positions of factory managers, foremen, and master knitters. The follo\\ing subjects are taught: Technology — study of knit fabrics, crocheted, netted, hand and machine knit goods; explanation of mesh and chain fabrics and their pro- duction; explanation of the machines on which they are made; examination and analysis of fabrics; calculating the quantity and ascertaining the value of material to be used on the knitting machines. Practical work — preparing materials and appa- ratus; practical work on the knitting machines; production of knit goods. The second half year is devoted to explanations of the mesh machines, French and English circular machines, and the accessory apparatus. The other varieties of knitting machines are then taken up, and after the explanations actual work on each machine is done by the student. Pattern designing course; This course covers two years, and is intended as a thor- ough preparation for those desiring to fill positions as pattern designers. The pos- session of some facility in drawing is required of candidates for admission. The work consists of drawing and painting of ornaments from plaster models and from nature, especially of plants; projections, shading, and perspective; theory of style and training in original designing; transferring designs on the perforated cards, and finally executing them on the loom. Dyeing course: The work of this course includes general chemistry, the elements, and their combinations; the important raw materials used in dyeing; dyestuffs and mordants; sizing and finishing materials; technology of fibers, their action under the influence of chemicals; microscopic work; testing raw and other materials used in dyeing. Practical work in the laboratory with reference to the more important colors and the most improved methods of dyeing wool, silk, and cotton yams and fabrics. Calculation of the cost of dyeing. In the weaving- course, after the pupil has had a sufScient general training he is allowed to specialize in the weaving of those fabrics to which he intends to devote himself on leaving the school. The school possesses 40 hand and 20 power looms, with the proper accessory machines, so that ample opportunitv is given the student for practical work. All candidates for admission to the school must be at least 16 yeare of age and have a good education. The courses are for one year, except in the school of pattern designing, where two years are required. The tuition fees for Germans are as follows: Spinning course, 300 marks (171.40); weaving course, 250 marks ($59.50); knitting course, 210 marks ($49.98); designing (per year), 60 marks ($14.28); dyeing (per year), 60 marks ($14.28). The fees for foreigners are 50 per cent higher, except for the pattern designing course, where it is double that for Germans. The regula'r teaching staff in 1902 consisted of a director, 7 teachers, and 3 shop foremen. There were 109 pupils in attendance. The State subsidy in 1902 amounted to 33,800 marks ($8,044). TEADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION — eEEMAJSTT. 947 TRADE AND INDUSTRIAL CONTINUATION SCHOOLS. As previously stated there are two classes of schools in Germany which may be considered under the head of trade and industrial con- tinuation schools,, namelj% industrial continuation schools and trade continuation and trade schools. As the instruction given in the industrial continuation schools is more or less of a general character, the programmes of subjects taught are usually about the same, and in most cases they are prescribed, or their limitations are defined, by the State governments. For this reasoB, and because these schools,, though very numerous, are mostly small, a detailed description of any individual industrial continuation school is unnecessary. As already mentioned, the instruction usually consists of German, including business forms, correspondence, etc., arithmetic, bookkeeping, free-hand drawing, and such technical or trade drawing as will best prepare the pupils for their particular vocations. In some cases other branches, such as foreign languages, geometry, physics, chemistry, etc., are also taught. The industrial continuation schools for girls usually teach German, arithmetic, draw- ing, and such manual work as is peculiar to the sex, namely, sewing, embroidery, cooking, mending, etc. In the larger cities of Germany, and wherever the attendance will justify, the work of the industrial continuation schools is so specialized for individual trades that they become trade continuation schools for single trades or for groups of trades, and are therefore considered under that head in the description of individual schools. Such, for instance, are the guild schools, the two artisans' schools, and the Lidustrial Hall of Berlin", which are described in detail. In describing the individual schools, therefore, only the trade con- tinuation and trade schools need be considered. The trade schools proper and the trade continuation schools are separately arranged for description. TkAI>E SCHOOILS FOB SofGLE TeADES. The schools considered in detail under this head are only such as relate to single trades, and in which all-day instruction is given in both theoretical and practical work. While there are many of these schools in the German Empire, they are mostly small institutions which need not be described in this report. A selection has been made of a few of the most important tj^pes of trade schools, arranged alphabeti- cally according to the trades. SCHOOI^ OF BASKET MAEING, WICKESWOBKIBTG, ABTD STEAW PliAIXIKG, HEIWSBEBG, PHITSSIA. A peculiar interest attaches to the schools which have been founded in different parts of Germany for giving instruction in basket making, 948 BEPOKT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOE. wickerworking, straw plaiting, etc., as here successful efforts have been made to create new industries or support declining ones for classes of the population greatly in need of remunerative work suitable to their abilities. With the constant development of the factory system large classes of the population dwelling in the villages and rural districts have seen this means of subsistence gradually taken away. It is a serious prob- lem in Germany, where the system of household production has grown to large proportions, to make some provision by which this class can be kept on a self-supporting basis. For a solution of this difficulty recourse has been had to the industry of wickerworking generally and basket making particularly. In Germany, as indeed in Europe generally, an enormous use is made of baskets for the transportation of certain products. Almost all the vegetables and fruits of the farm, which in America are packed in boxes, barrels, and other receptacles made of wood, are in Germany transported in wicker baskets. Reeds and wicker are much used in the manufacture of furniture and other articles. The wicker industry is therefore one of great importance. From the standpoint of the decay of domestic work, the significance of this industry lies in the fact that the work can be done in small shops, or even in households. The Government has therefore sought to provide a means for gaining a livelihood to the people in need of work in the rural communities through the development of this industrj^, and in the accomplishment of this purpose main reliance has been placed on special schools giving the necessary instruction. The best, as well as the oldest, of the basket-making schools is that at Heinsberg, a village not far from Aix-la-Chapelle. It not only has done excellent work in its own locality, but has trained most of the instructors in the other schools which have been erected on its model. This school was founded in 1876 by a group of public-spirited men who constituted themselves into a company for the purpose ' ' of intro- ducing and extending fine basket working in the Heinsberg region and giving to industrious families the opportunity to earn remunera- tive wages without leaving their homes." Owing to the decline in the hand- weaving industry the need for such instruction was then particu- larly urgent. The school is in character an apprenticesnip shop, as a great part of the students' time is given over to practical work. All the operations of basket and wicker work, including the making of cane furniture, the making and repairing of baskets, trunks, carriage bodies, etc. , are taught. The theoretical studies include drawing, the elements of geometry, and writing. The student remains at the school two years if the full course is taken, the hours being from 8 a. m. to noon and from 2 to 7 p. m. Especial attention is paid to the finer branches of the trade. Lessons are also given in the cultivation of osiers. TEADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION — GEEMANY. 949 The school has from 30 to 40 students in attendance. Their ages vary from 16 to 20 years. A contract of apprenticeship is made with each student. This contract provides for a penalty in case the stadent remains less than the full term of his service. A small remuneration is paid the students for the work done by them. This work is exposed for sale as in an ordiuarj^ commercial house. The school is now supported partly by private benefaction and partly by subsidies from the State, province, and commune. A build- ing has been erected especially for its accommodation. The school has had a great influence in developing the trade of wickerworking in its locality. The success of the Heinsberg school speedily led to the establishment of similar schools in other parts of the countr3^ Among the older of such schools are those located at Gehland, Schurgast, Thann, Grawen- wiesbach, Ruppertshofen, Orsoy, Daun, and Bettingen. Similar efforts for the establishment of wickerworking schools have been made in Saxony, and there are now five schools located at Pirna, Wehlen, Schandau, Hohenstein, and Hinterhermsdorf . In addition to these Saxony has four schools for straw plaiting which are maintained hj the communes. They are the school at Dippoldiswalde, founded in 1836; that at Giissing, founded in 1878; that at Altenberg, founded in 1878, and that at Barenstein, founded in 1886. SCHOOL OF AKTISTIC CAaPENTKY AND CABINETBIAKING, FLEMSEXJIIG, PBUSSIA. The Flensburg school is an interesting example of a school main- taining cl6se relations with practical shops. It was founded by a carpenter and joiner who was much impressed with the advantages of trade schools. After a number of years of existence it secured the recognition of the Government, and now receives a subsidy of 20,000 marks ($4,760) annuall}'. It is in consequence subject to the supervision of the Prussian ministry of commerce. The distinctive characteristic of the school is the effort made to give instruction in the artistic branches of woodworking and to employ the students in the making of articles intended for sale. The school thus belongs to the class of industrial schools operating according to the apprenticeship workshop method. , The purpose of this school is thus to produce something more than skilled carpenters and joiners. It rather seeks to train a class of artis- tic woodworkers. Candidates for admission are subjected to more rigid requirements than is usual in guild schools. They must be at least 16 years of age, and pass a severe examination in drawing and other subjects. The school is attended hj three classes of students: (,i.) Wood carvers. These are received after having entered into a formal apprenticeship 950 EEPOBT OF THE COMMISSIOa"EK OF LABOR. contract for a term of four years. They receive a remuneration for work performed by them as agreed upon in the contract. (2) Carpen- ters. Students in this section must have had five or six years' actual practice in the trade. They work in the school shops as ordinary workmen, receiving the usual wages of the district. Evenings and Sunday mornings they devote to theoretical studies. For these privi- leges they pay a fee of 80 marks ($19.04:) a year. (3) Joiners and artistic woodworkers. In this group the students devote their entire time, or 5i hours a week, to the study of their trade. The dues required of them are 150 marks ($35.70). All the work of the students is performed in the private workshops of the director of the school. The city of Flensburg possesses a museum of industrial art which is of great service to the school. The students can there find samples of all the leading types of furniture and familiarize themselves with the character of each. Great attention is paid to drawing, both free-hand and mechanical, and to the theory and practice of designing and ornamentation. The method pursued is for the director to assign a given task to the pupils, such, for example, as the execution of a specified piece of furniture of certain materials that must cost not more than a given sum. The stu- dents are then required to make rough and detailed working drawings and devise the form and ornamentation. A comparison of the differ- ent plans is then made, and a selection of the best taken for execution. At each step the faults and the errors of judgment or taste are care- fully pointed out to the pupil. Mr. Omer Buyse in his report to the Belgian Government (") con- cludes his account of this school with the following remarks: The experiment tried at Flensburg has been crowned with success. This school furnishes the proof that employers are more fitted than anyone else to create and direct trade schools. * « * The school at Flensburg finds itself in the most favorable condition to form per- fect workmen. Practical work constitutes the field of experience where all the knowledge required finds its application and where the workman acquires the moral qualities resulting from personal effort. Under the direction of competent professors who have both practical knowledge and artistic taste he becomes initiated into the secrets of the trade, a result more quickly arrived at as he cooperates in the produc- tion of useful articles. Before taking up a specialty he acquires a general knowledge of all the branches of his trade. His artistic train- ing keeps pace with his technical knowlege. In the treasures of the museum he learns the wholesome traditions of his trade; bo familiarizes himself with the processes made use of bj^ his predecessors and which cheap production has forced them to abandon. He acquires taste, ingenuity, the sense of proportion, logic, and sincerity. "Etude sur les Ecoles Techniques, etc, en AUemagne, par Omer Buyi^e, 1898. TEADE AISTD TECHNICAL EDUCATION GERMANY. 951 SCHOOL OF CABPENTSY AND GABINETMAKIKG, MAGDEBUKG, PRtrSSIA. The Magdeburg trade school for carpenters and cabinetmakers is a good example of the character of apprentice schools that have been organized in various trades by the guilds of Germanj*. This school was established by the carpenters' guild of the city as the 'result of the exertions of a successful master cabinetmaker. All the members of the guild agreed to give over to the school the time of each apprentice for one morning of a workday in each week and also to take turns in assisting in the work of instruction. All of the apprentices of coui'se are not sent to the school on the same day, an apportionment being made so that the number attending each day will be about the same throughout the week. Thus each day from 30 to 40 apprentices are in attendance, ^^hile the total number receiving instruction is in the neighborhood of 200. In order that the practical instruction of the apprentices may not be interfered with by their attendance upon the school, the apprentices agree to prolong their apprenticeship by three months, but this is not insisted vipon where sufficient capabilitj' is shown. The teaching staff is composed of a director, 4 teachers of carpentrj^, and 1 of wood turning. These teachers are trained by the guild itself, there being special courses and exercises for those persons desiring to fill these positions, either in the Magdeburg or in similar schools. The experience of the school is that a great advantage is obtained by seciiring teachers in this waj', because the teachers, being themselves actively engaged in the trade, not only have knowledge of the charac- ter of the instruction needed, but are able to impart this knowledge in a wa}- that can be readily comprehended by the apprentices. The following description of the school by Mr. Diederich, United States consul at Bremen, lays special emphasis on what can be done bj' a school without an elaborate equipment. (") He says : I recently discovered at Magdeburg a school that aroused my inter- est to an unusual degree. Though somewhat familiar with educational work done in this country, and also with its technical schools, I had never j^et seen such an institution. It seemed admirable — so much so that I deem it my duty to call attention to it, as it may interest others. There is no imposing architecture of any kind; no lecture halls, no chapel, no museum, no gymnasium, no campus; there are only half a dozen rooms on the top floor of a four-story building in a narrow side street. It has no faculty of brilliant scholars, but only a few devoted men. There is no liberal endowment by millionaire philanthropists, but a scant support from the Government, hardly sufficient, 1 was told, to keep body and soul of the institution together. The school was founded by a Mr. Kief haber, a citizen of Magdeburg — a plain mechanic, a cabinetmaker, but a genius at his trade. After "United States Consular Report, Xo. 238, July, 1900. 952 EEPOET OF THE COMMISSIONER OE LABOR. having been prosperous in business, he wished to aid young men apprenticed to the trade of furniture making and carving in his native town. Under Prussian laws youths who, after having passed through the public schools, intend to learn a trade, are required to continue attending some school for some nights during the week and for two hours on Sunday. Such schools are called Foribildungsschiilen, a sig- nificant but untranslatable term signifying a school where the educa- tion is to be continued. Mr. Kiefhaber had, through his own long experience, become convinced that such schools could not accomplish this purpose satisfactorily, because boj^s at the age of from 14 to 17, after having been hard at work all day long, can not be in a condition, either physically oi; mentally, to attend school for hours with any benefit to themselves. He therefore conceived the idea of establishing the school above referred to. To accomplish his object, however, he needed the assistance of the Magdeburg union in the line of cabinet- making, sculpturing, and carving. Their cooperatior^ was granted him to the fullest extent. All the boss mechanics of the cabinetmakers, though most of them are men without any means, and therefore can ill afford to lose even time, agreed to send each of their appentices to this school for a whole forenoon in every week, and also to take turns in assisting in the work of teaching. As these lessons are given every day from 8 to 12 o'clock, each apprentice in Magdeburg gets four lessons a week, all bearing directly upon his future work. I believe it is impossible to conceive of anything more practical than the teaokfag in these classes. * * * No question is put, no fact explained, no definition given, and no drawing made but has some bearing upon either the materials or the tools or the purposes of the combined trades mentioned above. No step forward is taken until the why and wherefore of the preceding step has been fully understood by everyone in the class. And, as in all schools of like character, great stress is laid upon free-hand drawing. This is to give the young men not only all the technical knowledge needed, but also to train the eye and the mind in designing every part of the various styles of furniture, as well as artistic decorations in wood carding and inlaid woodwoi'k. * * * There are only a few salaried teachers employed, while there are alwaj's several boss mechanics pi'esent, as already stated, assisting in various ways. The following outline of the course of study has been obtained from the report of Mr. Omer Buyse to the Belgian Government: (") First year: The studies are based on principles of rational construction. Each arti- cle of furniture has a definite role to fill, and the dimensions, the form, and the con- struction must be adapted to this end. In order to give a proper understanding of the connection between the function and the form of an object, the instructor takes up for examination and discussion the ordinary articles of furniture with which the pupils are familiar, such as a chair, table, closet, bed, picture frame, door, stairway, etc. Thus, in connection with the chair, the pupils study the legs, the seat, the back, etc., and, in a general way, the conditions of its construction, solidity, the nature of the wood, the joints, placing of the legs, comfort resulting from the dimensions of the seat, the placing and the form of the back, the artistic appearance, the unity and ai;tude sur les Ecoles Techniques, etc., en AUemagne, par Omer Buyse, 1898. TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION GERMANY. 953 variety in its shajie, etc. Lessons in drawing accompanj' these studies. The instructoi- sketches the article under consideration on the hlaclsboard, with front and side vie\\-,«. It is said that this part of the instruction always arouses a lively interest on the part of the pupils, because it gives them the reasons for the work which they are doing in the shop every day. Second year: After the introductory work of the first year the pupils take up the details of construction. The study of joints is made a special feature of this year's work; joints used in carpentry and cabinetmaking; their function, strength, and con- struction are carefully gone over; they are also drawn in projection and in per.-ipective. Then the elements of furniture are taken up; the supports, the crosspieces, the pan- els, the bottom, the moldings, etc.; these parts are then combined to form. the framework. This concludes the purely constructive work. The pupil has been shown the forms of pieces of furniture and how these forms are adapted to the uses for which the pieces are intended; he has thus been grounded in the elements of function, form, and dimensions of details — the first requisite of a good mechanic. Third year: The actual needs of the woodworking industries, especially that of cabinetmaking, require more of a workman than a purely technical education. However simple a piece of furniture may be, it must still conform to certain sesthetic requirements. Severe rules impose on the workman the necessity of using forms in moldings, for instance, which must shoAV that he is master of his opportunities. Since the decoration of furniture must be rigorously dominated by its function and the material of which it is built nothing advances the education of the workman more than a careful study of forms applied to the objects of his trade. The study of moldings is one of the most important parts of this education. They give to furni- ture its style and show the personality of the maker. Under the tv,'o heads of func- tion and form, the instructor examines the different types of moldings and decora- tions and points out the manner in which they should be made to bo the outward expression of the function of the object under discussion. Fourth year: The last year is devoted to a study of ornament applied to wood- work, together with perspective drawing of the articles studied. The course is de^'oted to the stud}' of complete sets of furniture, their construction and decoration. SCHOOL OF HOBSESHOEING, DRESDEN, SAXONY. The industrial law of Saxony requires that onlj- persons possessing a certificate granted by the Government authorizing them to do so can practice the trade of horseshoeing in the Kingdom. This certi- ficate is granted only after candidates have passed the examination set by the State. To prepare candidates for this examination there is a special course at the State veterinarj' school at Dresden. Following is the description of this course as given in United States Consular Eeport 174, March, 1895: The period of study required in the department of farriery is five months. After the student has been through the course of anatomy, and has attained a perfect knowledge of the action of the muscles of the horse, and understands the wonderful harmony of the animal's construction, his mind is ready for the intricate art of shoeing. In five months he will have grasped all the knowledge that is required respecting the manner of making and fitting shoes. The student, while in the shops, has the advantage of seeing num- bers of horses and all kinds of hoofs on which he must operate, always under the eye and directing influence of trained instructors. Not only has he these, but, in the museum, 'he has a collection of papier- mache hoofs, plaster casts, diagrams, etc. , representing every possible 954 EEPOET Oil' THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOK. condition of hoof disease known; he has, also, for his guidance, a col- lection of shoes gathered from all parts of the world, from the first to the last invention. The uses of the muscles in connection with the hoof are clearly demonstrated by illustrations and drawings. All this the student has learned in his study of anatomj'; the more direct instructions as to how a horse should be shod are given in part second of the instructions on shoeing. COURSES OF INSTRUCTION. Part 1: To judge how a horse should be shod; how to hold a horse while shoeing; how to take off the old shoe; how to prepare the hoof for shoeing; preparing the hoof to go barefooted; making shoes of all kinds; measuring and judging thickness and weight of shoe for certain horses' hoofs; driving nails. Shoeing horses that interfere and scrape their toes. Shoes for winter; sharpening by means of ice nails; sharpening by means of steel tips; inserting calks with screws; arrangement of various kinds of calks. Care of the shod hoof; care of the unshod hoof; smearing, band- aging, etc. Part 2: General instructions regarding the shoeing of deformed hoofs, lameness, and division of hoof diseases. Hoof covering — Inflammation to which it is subject; bad nailing; stepping on nails; stepping on coronet; stern galls and stone bruises; injuries from dirt and snow balling under shoe; foundered hoofs; rotten hoof and horn, or hoof swelling. Change of hoof form — Flat and full hoof; buck and goat hoof; round hoofs; slanting or crooked hoofs; too sloping hoofs; ossified hoofs; split or cracked hoofs and treatment; horn break; loose hoofs; hollow hoofs; thrush, etc. The above are some of the subjects that a student must know and -know perfectly, in order to become a master farrier. To enable persons to study farriery, and become masters in the art, under the laws governing the subject, the State has established in various parts of the Kingdom schools of farriery, the Dresden school being the central or parent for the local schools, sending them instruct- ors, etc. On May 1, 1900, 52 pupils attended the Dresden horseshoeing school. The school is in charge of an instructor, an assistant instructor of veterinarj' surgery, and two master horseshoers. SCHOOIi FOB, IffAELKTE MACHINISTS, FLENSBTJRG, PHTTSSIA. The purpose of the Flensburg school for marine machinists is the training of marine engineers and machinists for the commercial fleets of the country. Following is a condensed statement regarding this school, taken from the United States Consular Report No. 174, March, 1896: There are four classes corresponding with the four classes enumer- ated under the imperial law of July 26, 1891, regulating the examina- tions and diplomas of machinists for sea or ocean steamers. The first and second class have annually two terms of twenty-two weeks each. TRADE AKD TECHNICAL EDUCATION — GEEMANY. 955 and the fourth class, two terms of eight weeks each. Besides these, the first and second classes have annually two preliminary courses of six weeks each. The expenses for first class are 50 marks ($11.90); second class, 40 marks (!i?9.52); third class, 30 marks (^57.14); fourth class, 20 marks (14.76). Plan of studies: Class IV — German, mathematics, and mechanics, 9, 3, and 22 hours per week, respectiyely. Class III — German and penmanship, 10; mathematics, 4; and mechanics, 22 hours per week. Class II — German, 4; English, 4; mathematics, 10; mechanics, 3; physics, 4; regulation of machines, 7; and drawing, 12 hours per week. Class I — German, 3; English, 6; planometry, 7; stereometry, 7; arith- metic, 1; trigonometry, 7; mechanics, 5; physics, 6; chemistry, 1; work on machines, 7; and drawing, 12 hours per week. In the preliminary classes, they ha.\e English, 2; mathematics, 8; mechanics, 4; drawing, 8; and German, with special reference to technical terms, 10 hours per week. Entrance: To enter the third and fourth classes, scholars must have passed through an elementary school. Directions are given in the school prospectus that boys who wish to begin with the second class should commence by attending Foriblldungs schools and taking up drawing, German, and arithmetic. The second class prepares boys who take examinations to enter the imperial marine. The preparatory course is for those who lack knowledge necessary to enter or keep up with the classes they enter, or want to enter. Inasmuch as the impe- rial examinations are exceedingly strict and impartial, the students desiring to take such are urged to come only after having passed through the very best possible preparatory course. How severe even the examinations for the various classes of machinists are, appears from the following extract from the law of July 26, 1891: Class IV. — To enter this class, machinists must have passed either five years among the machinists of an ocean steamer, or part of "five years among such and the remainder in a machine shop; two years, at least, must be on board ship. Class III. — The young man must first have served two years as a fourth-class machinist, and two years either before or after obtaining a diploma as a fourth-class machinist. Class II. — ^The applicant must have served, after his fifteenth year, five years in a machine shop or on board an ocean steamer. Two years must have been served on board ship, and two years in the shop, at the very least. Class I. — Applicants must have served at least two years on board ship as machinists of the second class. One may be examined for the second class without having entered the third or fourth classes, but to enter the third class one must have passed the examination and have served in the fourth class; to enter the first class, the candidate must have passed for and served in the second class. Only such time in a machine shop as has been employed in assisting, in shipbuilding or repairing counts. Service as a fireman (feeding the boilers) counts only for the fourth class. To obtain a fundamental, practical training, it is I'ecommended to candidates to serve at least twelve months in a first-class machine shop, and, when possible, in a shipbuilder's machine shop; or with a lock- smith and afterwards with a shipbuilding machinist. Apprentices are advised to put in their time of learning on small steamships, for the reason that they thus learn a great deal more and a great deal better. They are also urged to serve as stokers or firemen, to the end that they may be better able to judge later, when they advance, in regard to the fires and work thereon. 956 EEPOBT OF THE COMMISSIONER OP LABOK. SCHOOL OF POTTERY, LANDSHUT, BAVARIA. The object of this school is to train young persons in the pottery trade, and those who desire to enter that trade, to become skilled journeymen, foremen, and masters. To this end the pupils -receive theoretical and practical instruction, the former being given in the continuation school and the latter in the pottery school proper. The practical instruction embraces a study of the clays used, of the mate- rials used for glazing, the processes of mixing a,nd working cla}', and molding, drj^ing, glazing, and burning earthenware, in which special attention is given to improvement in form. The instruction in model- ing also develops the assthetic taste in pupils. In accordance with a decree of August 15, 1896, pupils of the third year receive instrjirtion in stove setting, enabling them to set up ordinarj^ tile stoves. Only such apprentices are admitted to this school as have the necessary practical preparation for this work, and have had sufficient prelimi- nary education to enable them to enter the continuation school. In exceptional cases, however, pupils may be admitted Avho have had no practical preparation in the pottery trade. Apprentices who have had experience receive wages according to their woi'k and the usefulness of their products. Those who have had no practical training receive wages after they have advanced and shown their usefulness. Pupils of the latter class receive board and lodging at the school, upon application. Instruction is gratuitous, but a monthly charge of i marks (95 cents) is made for lodging, heat, and light. Needy pupils from lower Bavaria are provided with these accommodations free of charge. The regular course of instruction in the potterjr school proper covers three years. Deduction is made from this period in the case of pupils who have been apprenticed to a potter. Thej' must, however, attend the school at least one j^ear. In accordance with a decree of the ministry of the interior for church and school affairs, yearly prizes are distributed to the pupils. A prize of 10 marks ($2.38) is given to each pupil who has done meri- torious work in drawing and modeling, and whose conduct throughout the year has been good. Competitive prizes of 25 marks ($6.95) and 15 marks (f3.57), respectively, are awarded pupils who at the close of the year satisfactorily execute a given piece of work, from one to two days being allowed them for the same. The programme of instruction is as follows: First division: Drawing— pupils who have had no instruction in drawing must take a systematic course in drawing, such as is given in the Sealschule. It includes the drawing of straight and curved lines, plane geometrical figures, and leaf forms. Modeling: Making the simplest ornaments for leaf forms in clay, in various styles. Second division: Drawing of antique vases, vessels, urns; exercises in simple color painting; drawing of ornamental and architectural forms in various styles for use in TBADE ATSTD TECHNICAL EDTJCATION — GEBMANY. 957 stove decorations; fundamental principles of linear drawing; sketches and plans of stoves and fireplaces; modeling of animals' heads and feet, figures for stoves in the style of the Eenaissance; ornaments in clay from antique models in Italian renaissance and Gothic forms, to be used on stoves. SCHOOL OF TOY MAKIIT&, SOWNEBEBa, SAXE-MEININGEN. This school makes a specialty of the toy and doll making industry, for which this locality is famous. The school was founded in 1879 and has had a steady growth. There are three classes with 5 in- structors. The subjects in which instruction is given are: German, arithmetic, geography, drawing, painting in water colors, modeling, preparing models and plans for toys, wood carving, wood turning, anatomy, drawing of projections, perspective, history of art. A new btiilding, for which the Government, assisted by private donations, bore the expense, was opened in 1901. The United States Consular Report No. 249, June, 1901, gives the following description of the institution : The massive stone building in which the school is located is 45 meters (147.6 feet) long and 15 meters (49.2 feet) deep and stands quite isolated, so that light and fresh air are freely admitted to the large rooms in which drawing and molding lessons are given; turning, wood carving, modeling of gypsum figures, and the preparation of the various kinds of clay for molding purposes are also taught. Space is provided for the exhibition of gypsum models, drawing patterns, etc. One room is principally used for modeling animals in life size, this being a specialty of the town of Sonneberg. Deserving of particular mention is the practical arrangement of the rooms in which the models and patterns are exhibited. They are separated from the large cor- ridors only by glass and wood partitions instead of by heavy walls, so that not only plenty of light is admitted into the passages, but the vis- itor is shown at a glance the extent of the work in which the pupils are engaged. The building contains two rooms for the Handelsfachschule (a school in which commercial apprentices, in addition to the work they learn in the respective ofiices, are taught foreign languages, the theory of bookkeeping, commercial geography, etc.). The office of the Sonneberg chamber of commerceis also located here. The exhibition of Sonneberg toys at the World's Fair in Chicago was the subject of genei'al admiration, and at the Paris exposition it was awarded the grand prize. This remarkable success, it is generally admitted, is to a great extent due to the work of the industrial school, although this has had quarters entirely inadequate for the purpose. 958 REPOET OF THE COMMISSIONEB OF LABOE. The following table shows the number of pupils during the last ten years: NUMBER OF PUPILS ATTENDING THE SCHOOL OE TOY MAKING, SONNEBEEG, 1889-90 TO 1899-1900. Pupils from— Year. Son-ne- hevg and its nci'g-h- boiliood. Other part.s of German Empire. TotaL 1889-90 .. . - 34 Si 88 39 S3 32 35 47 47 43 46 5 8 4 4 8 9 8 10 9 8 8 39 1890 91 42 1^9192 42 1892 93 43 1893-94 . . 41 189-1 95 41 1895-96 ■ 43 1896 97 " — - 57 1897 98 66 J898_g9 , 61 1899 1900 54 Better accommodations being offered in the new home, the number of pupils is expected to increase considerably. SCHOOL OF ■WATCH AND CLOCK MAKIBTG, PXTItTWANGEU', BADEW. This school was founded in 187T. It is a State in,stitution, being under the immediate superyision of the State industrial school council. Its object is to advance the interests of the watch, clock, and instrument making industries of the Black Forest. It seeks to accomplish this abject by training skilled }ourneym&n, master work- men, and manufacturers in the various branches of these industries bj means of a course of theoretical and practical insti'uction, and by offering advice and suggestions to. persons engaged in the mechanical technical industries, especially on the subject of new constructions and patterns,, testing of motors, working machines, etc. The affairs of the school aire managed by a board consisting of th« mayor of Furtwangen and 7 associates. The teaching personnel comprises the director and & assistant instructors. The school year opens May 1' and continues in session until about the middle of April, with an intermission from August 15 to Septem- ber 15, and the usual Christmas and other holidaj^ vacations. Applicants for admission to the school must have attained the age of 14 years, and must have satisfied the common school requirements. Provision is also made for special students who desire to take either the practical or the theoretical course onl}^, as far as the attendance of regular students, especially in the workshop, will admit, and provided that the general conditions for admission to the school are complied with, as in the case of regular students. Tuition is 25 marks (|5.95) per year, payable in semiannual install- ments. Students of limited means may have their tuition fee remitted, either in whole or in part. Scholarships are provided for worthy, Indus- TRADE AND TBCHTJOeAI; EDUCATION GEEMAWY. 9^9 trioins, and capable students who are residents of Baden. During the school year 1900-01 the amount of 3,013 marks (|717) was thus dis^ tributed of which 2,288 marks ($645). was appropriated by the State board of industrial education, and the balance by the districts of BE- lingen, Freiburg, and Baden. All requisites for §tudy ai'e fiirnished by the school with the exception of writing books, drawing- instru- ments, and fragile tools. The regular course covers three years. At the close of the school year public examinations and exhibitions are held, and prizes are awarded to pupils who- have executed the best work. The work executed by the pupils belongs to the school, but it may be acquired by the pupils upon the payment of a price fixed by the school board. During the summer months the hours of instruction are from 7 a. ni. to 12 m. and from- 1.30- to 7 p. m:. ; during the winter months from & a. m. tO' 12 HQ., and from 1.30 to 7 p. m. The school is divided into two departments — the department for watch and clock makers and the department for makers of instruments ©f precision and electrical appai'atus. The following programme shows the subjects pursued in each department and the number of hours per week devoted to ea«h: DEPAETMEKT FOE WATCH AND CT^OCK MAKERS. Firat year: Arithmetio, 1 in suiam«r;, algebra, 2;, geometry, stereometry, trigo- nometry, 2; experimental physics, 1; technology, 1; geometrical drawing, 4 in summer; projections, 4 in winter; free-hand drawing, 2; business forms ann in the line of trade instruction under the act if the word "practice" be emphasized in the sentence— "It shall not TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION — GEEAT BRITAIN. 993 include the teaching of the practice of any trade," etc. — since any school might truly hold that it was not so much the practice it was teaching (the shop of course giving the practice) as it was the trade itself with just enough practice to fix the methods and principles of the trade. The fees at these technical institutions have been little more than nominal. In London they are usually from $1 to $3 for the entire year's session of about 8 months. No school, so far as learned, except Bradford has undertaken to derive Jiny income from the sale of articles made by the students. Donations in most cases have been in moderate amounts from many people and not in lavish sums from a few. The expensive laboratories and workshops have been a heavy financial burden. On top of this has come (what all in England seem to consider essential) the scheme of stimulating attendance and interest in educational work by a great number of prizes and extensive scholar- ships and fellowships, known abroad as scholarships and exhibitions. According to the regulations governing scholarships and exhibitions awarded by the Lancashire County Council, the chief distinction seems to consist in the fact that the former are valued at about £60 ($292) per annum and are good for a term not exceeding three years; while the latter are valued at £5 ($24.33) each, if for evening classes, and as high as £15 ($73) if for day classes, and are good for one year. In other words, exhibitions are a sort of short-term scholarship. A surprisingly large portion of every English catalogue is taken up with announcements of prizes offered for the next year and of prizes won during the year just past. This need of all the funds possible, and this eagerness for prizes, not only financially valuable, but widely honored throughout Great Britain, has furnished a peculiar oppor- tunity to influence technical education in case any organization should come forward able to give prizes and grants for attending workshop classes. Such an organization has been the City and Guilds of London Institute, previously referred to. It has so shaped its examina- tions and its influence as to have been decidedly the most potent factor during the last twenty years in the promotion of more strictly workshop trade classes than was apparently contemplated by the technical instruction act of 1889 or than the British board of educa- tion was naturally inclined to indorse. The institute in 1899 and 1900 distributed 103 silver and 166 bronze medals and gave money prizes of £477 10s. ($2,323.75) distributed over 59 subjects and over a large number of technical classes throughout Great Britain. The original donations by the Livery Companies of London to the institute amounted to £65,610 ($319,291), and it has an annual income from subscriptions of about £20,000 ($97,330). A large portion of this is 9257—02 63 994 EEPOET OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOE. spent in supporting advanced technological and art work in its three London colleges, but in 1899-1900 it spent upon these technological examinations a gross suna of £7,272 (135,389), and after deducting fees, a net amount of £5,508 (|26,805). The technological examinations began in 23 centers in 1879. Of the 202 candidates' papers in 7 .'lab- jects at these examinations, 151 passed. In 1890, out of 12,022 stu- dents at 219 centers, 6,667 took the examinations in 49 sul^jects and 3,507 passed. In 1900, out of 34,189 in 390 centers, 14,551 took the examinations in 64. technical subjects and 8,114 passed. The examinations are offered yearly in the following subjects. The first list shows the subjects where practical tests are required in the examinations; the second list those subjects wherein candidates for examination are required to present specimens of work, and the third list the remaining subjects. The subjects in which practical tests are required are as follows: Goldsmiths' -work. («) Masonry. Mine surveying. Photography. («) Plumbers' -work. Typography. Watch and clock making. Following are the subjects in which specimens of work are required: Basket work.(a) Bookbinding. (") Boot and shoe manufacture. Bread making and flour confectionery. Brickwork. Carpentry and joinery. («) Electric lighting and power transmission. Basket work. (!<) Bookbinding. ('') • Cabinetmaking. Carpentry and joinery. (6) Cotton weaving. Goldsmiths' work. (&) Jute weaving. Linen weaving. Mechanical engineering. Metal plate work. Painters' and decorators' wort. Photography, (b) The remaining subjects are as follow.s Alkali manufacture. Brewing. Builders' quantities. Calico and linen printing. Coal-tar products. Cotton and linen bleaching. Cotton dyeing. Cotton spinning. Dressing of skins. Electroplating and deposition. Plasterers' w'Ork. Bail-carriage building. Eoad-carriage building. Ship carpentry. Ship joinery. Silk weaving. Silversmiths' work. Wheelwrights' work and van and cart building. Wool and ^\r,rsteil weaving and design- ing. Flax spinning. Framework knitting and hosiery. Gas manufacture. Glass manufacture. Hat manufacture. Iron and steel manufacture. Jute spinning. Lace manufacture. Leather tanning. Lithography. "Specimens also required. ''Practical tests alj-o required. TRADE AND TECHNICAL ED0OATIOT!f GEEAT BRITAIN. 995 Milling (flour manufacture). Oils and fats, in(:luding candle manufac- ture. Painters' oils, colors, and varnishes. Paper manufacture. Pottery and porcelain. Raising and preparation of ores. Salt manufacture. Silk dyeing. Silk throwing and spinning. Slate quarrying. Soap manufacture. Spirit manufacture. Sugar manufacture. Telegraphy and telephony. Wool and worsted spinning. "Wool dyeing. In the spring of 1900 the classes in which the largest number of students passed examinations were as follows: OL.i-SSES OP THE CITY AND GUILDS OF LONDON INSTITUTE IN WHICH THE LARGEST NUMBER or STUDENTS PASSED EXAMINATIONS IN 1900. Classes. Students. Classes. Students. Cotton spinning Carpentry and loinery Telegraphy and telephony Mechanical engineering Brickwork Cotton weaving Dressmaking Plumbing AVool and worsted weaving Masonry Typography Electric lignting Boot and shoe manufacture. . . Plain cooking Metal plate work Builders' quantities Painting and decorating Millinery Cotton dyeing Raising and preparation ol ore Iron and steel manufacture. . . Road-carriage building 689 597 553 498 484 474 464 410 285 273 270 183 141 141 122 121 119 113 73 - 72 71 71 Mine surveying Cabinetmaking Wool and worsted spinning Rail-car building Gas manufacture Cotton and linen bleaching Photography Bookbinding Wool dyeing Flour manufacture Lithography Brewing Plain needlework Goldsmiths' trade Linen weaving Plasterers' work Bread making Jute weaving Calico and linen printing Framework knitting and hosiery Jute spinning Watch and clock making 68 66 .64 61 63 69 54 BO 45 40 36 34 33 30 29 28 28 26 26 23 20 The following schools had the largest number of students that passed the examinations: Manchester Technical School 665 Regent Street Polytechnic 332 Technical School, Bolton 298 North Hampton Institute, London 227 Royal Technical Institute, Salford 180 West of Scotland Technical College, Glasgow 177 School of Science, Liverpool 176 Borough Polytechnic, London 173 Northern Polytechnic, London 169 The Institute publishes every year the examination questions of the previous spring, with comments of the exajniners upon the results and with a syllabus of each one of the subjects to be covered by the next examination. This syllabus specifies the important subdivisions of the subject and gives references to a large number of the best books and articles in magazines and trade journals or reports bearing upon the subject. Classes may be registered by the Institute, no matter 996 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. where situated, if they have been taught by a teacher whose qualifica- tions have been approved by the Institute and are under the direction of a proper committee, which must make certain statistical returns to the institution. If a teacher is without certain certificates of practical work and teaching, but is recommended by the local committee as pos- sessing special qualifications, the Institute may approve the teacher. Students may take the examinations, although they have not been studying in a registered class, but the certificate is supposed to have more weight if it mentions the attendance upon such a class. The examinations are usually held between April 20 and July 10 at the local centers and at the same hour for all the country in a given sub- ject. They are usually in the evening, from 7 to 10, although in some cases from 2.30 to 6.30, or even until 7.30 p. m. The annual report of the Institute gives a list of all the teachers that it has registered as meeting its approval in the various technical subjects. The Technical Educational Board of the London County Council pub- lishes a monthly journal, known as the London Technical Education Gazette, which gives valuable data about the London institutes. The number. of evening classes of the more strictly technical and trade tj^pe conducted in connection with the board in the winter of 1900-1901 were: Building trades 371 Art industries, including wood carving, chasing, engraving, etc 312 Mechanical engineering, telegraph)', telephony, electroplating, electric wiring and fitting, and other electrical industries ^. 129 Lithography 76 House-furnishing trades 31 Boot and shoe and clothing trades 23 Carriage and van building 16 Leather tanning and dyeing trades 15 The total of the above and other technical trade classes is 1,246. The great majority of the above are in 11 polytechnic and technical institutes. The estimated expenditure of this technical education board in the year ending March 30, 1901, was £194,717 ($947,590), of which the technical schools and the technical departments of the poty- technics absorbed £85,600 ($416,086). OBSTACLES OF TECHNICAL INSTKUCTION. The devotion of the English to sports and the excitement occasioned by the Boer war have somewhat retarded interest m education and serious preparation for work in life. All English teachers deplore the lack of enthusiasm for education among all classes, and in tech- nical education they regret that the theoretical classes dealing with the application of science to any special trade are not as popular as the practical workshop classes, although the 'success of the latter is closely associated with the knowledge of theory. TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION GREAT BRITAIN. 997 Ciass distinctions also are a serious drawback. There seems to be a great difficulty in mixing the Avage-earners of the various occupations or the wage-earner and the clerk and foreman. Hence, in the tech- nical classes care has to be taken lest the artisans imagine that they are being crowded out by a higher social stratum of so-ealled middle- class students. The hours of labor, while fewer in England than on the Continent, usually begin so early in the morning — that is, about 6, with an intermission for breakfast — that the apprentices and other younger workmen are too sleepy when the time for evening school arrives to give close application to the mathematical and some other branches. The attempt has been made in many places to get employers to let off the students of the evening school, if under 21, at an earlier hour, or let them begin work later in the day. This has been done in a few cases, but not to as large an extent throughout the country as is desired. A serious obstacle to the progress of technical education is the indifference of employers. Thete is little marked opposition to the schools by the employers, and there are many large firms in every citj^ that indorse the work heartily. Some give prizes for excellence in the technical classes, and also pay, in whole or in part, the fees of their workmen at the trade. Among the mass of employers, however, there is comparative indifference to the work of the institutes. If employers were more interested, it is thought that the}"^ might encour- age a far larger attendance of their employees not only by shorten- ing the daily time of work of their apprentices and other young men attending the institute, but also by advancing those more rapidly who could show, through attendance at the technical classes or otherwise, that they had especially fitted themselves for such advancement. Teachers of trade classes and the principals of the institutes are con- stantly asserting that there is more need of educating the employers than the men with regard to the advantages of technical instruction. Another very serious obstacle — in fact, the most serious of all — is the poor general education of the English workman. Nearly all of the artisan class leave school at 12 or 13, and after earning small amounts in doing odd jobs about the streets or in factories, settle down at 15 or 16 as general laborers or factory operati^'es, or enter upon the learning of a trade. When they go to the evening technical classes at 15 or 16, they have forgotten much of what they knew upon leaving the elemen- tary school. To bridge over this gap from 12 or 13 to 16 j^earsof age is now the aim of all English educators. The trend of opinion seems to be in favor of extending the compulsory education from 12 to 14, as in Germany and in some other parts of the Continent. A further suggestion is to develop day continuation schools like our high scHools, where as many as can possibly afford it can have a chance to continue their general education of a marked scientific and manual traming 998 KEPORT OF THE COMMISSIONEK OF LABOR. character till 16 years of age. Then the student could begin wosk at 14 to 10 in his chosen occupation, and be able to take advantage far better than now of the evening technical classes. The following recommendations to the school subcommittee of the London building trades will serve to show the difficulties now con- fronting these schools, and the proposed methods of meeting them: RECOMMENDATIONS. Finally, we wish to make the following distinct recommendations: 1. That every effort be made to lengthen, with Parliamentary sanc- tion, the present term of school life, including a raising of the legal age for leaving school, and that between 13 and 16 opportunity should be afforded for special instruction in manual training and drawing. 2. That no restriction whatever should be placed upon the persons attending theoretical classes in technical subjects apart from the gen- eral requirements that the members of the class should be capable of profiting by the instruction afforded. 3. That, with a view to enabling artisans to become qualified as gen- eral foremen, mechanics belonging to any branch of the building trades be permitted to attend both the theoretical and practical classes in other branches of the building trades. 4. That the learners under 19 years of age and improvers should be permitted to attend practical classes, provided that they show sufficient familiarity with the trade to render their efficient training possible without undue interference with the progress of the class. 5. That subcommittees should be appointed to visit and report upon the classes in each trade and discharge the other duties indicated in the report. 6. That, in the teaching of the purely trade classes (evening), and in the examinations connected with them, more stress should be laid on methods which secure mechanical skill and quickness of workmanship, as well as on theoretical knowledge, and students should not be encour- aged to expend an undue amount of time and labor upon elaborate models of no practical use. 7. That, as far as possible, the teachers should be actually engaged in the trade in which instruction is given by them. In" order to secure this, special classes should be instituted to qualify competent mechanics to be teachers, and for this pui"pose the polytechnics should be used as centers of normal training. A further insight into the situation is gathered from the following conclusions arrived at by a letterpress and lithograph printing crafts conference of teachers, trade-union leaders, and employers from all over England, held in London January 25, 1901, which met to con- sider what changes should be made in the syllabus and examinations of the City and Gruilds of London Institute, and in the general tech- nical education of printers and allied crafts: 1. That no candidate over 18 years of age should be allowed to sit for the preliminary examination. 2. That the function of a technical institute is to teach that which can not be learned in the works, in addition to thoroughly teaching all underlying principles. TRADE AND TECHKIOAL EDUCATION GREAT BRITAIN. 999 3. That there might be some slight reduction in the syllabus of the preliminary grade, so that young pupils might be intellectually capa- ble of mastering the whole of it. 4. That "composing and machine" students should be taught a suf- ficient amount of each other's craft, where they overlap, particularly, to prevent one branch suffering from the want of knowledge of the other. 5. That employers, managers, overseers, and even the public should receive some amount of instruction, to give a clear idea as to what good printing is, and how it can be secured. 6. That employers, managers, overseers, and trade societies should throw more zeal into the necessary training of apprentices. 7. That apprentices should attend technical classes for a longer period than they now do. 8. That pupils should attend the preliminary class for two years, ordinary for two years, and the honors until they secure a first-class certificate. 9. That employers should hold out some inducement, as is done in the postal-telegraph department and the National Telephone. Com- pany, by an increase of wages to those who pass the examinations, or money prizes for each stage. 10. That pupils should attend a continuation school for two j^ears (or up to 16 years of age), then one year for the preliminary, and two year's each for the ordinary and honors grades. 11. That all firms should have a clause in the apprentices' indentures providing that the apprentices should make certain attendances at technical schools. 12. That, as before, no certificate' be given for the preliminary grade. 13. That the London School Board be approached to provide classes in their continuation schools suitable for technical printing students and others. 14. That the instruction should be so broad and general in its scope as to allow for any employee becoming a master printer, and should aim at giving all the necessary information for such eventuality. 15. That greater care should be exercised in selecting apprentices. 16. That, having regard to the absolute necessity of sound elemen- tary education to the future advancement of a printer in his trade, the compulsory school age should be raised to 14. 17. That it is undesirable that apprentices should be admitted to technical classes until they can satisfy the principal of the institute that their general education is such that they are able to benefit by the instruction. 18. That elementary principles and practice of drawing be included in the syllabus. That for lithographic printers and machine minders such drawing should be of a mechanical nature, in addition to the broad principles of art. For the compositor it should be expected that in a rough way he should be able to sketch out designs. 19. That a circular be sent to all county councils accentuating the irfiportance of providing ample appliances for practical demonstration in the printing crafts. 20. That for practical tests all candidates should go to one center, where all will be under similar conditions. 1000 EEPOET OF THE COMMISSIOWEB OJF LABOK. 21. That the practical tests should consist of some five or six exami- nations, upon different classes of work, conducted during the session. 22. That the aim of technical instruction should not be wholly for examinations, but should be to secure thorough practical education in the craft. 23. That machinery for class instruction might be hired for each session, and county councils might get it hired at a lower rate than by the institutes, such a matter being dealt with by each locality. 24. That an advisory committee be appointed to assist in revising the syllabus, in limiting the scope of the questions in the grades, m the appointment of examiners, and in other ways. THE SELECTION OF TEACHERS. Teachers of the workshop classes are found to require three quali- fications: First, practical familiarity with the work taught, such as can best be acquired by holding a position as foreman in some first- class establishment; second, most of the scientific and art principles applicable to the work taught, and such as can be acquired in tlie best teclinical institutes; third, natural ability as teachers. In many cases it has been found very difficult to combine these qualities, but it is becoming less so with the age of the institutes. Some of the teachers in the evening classes continue to practice their trade by day. Where that is not done, special care must be exercised by "the teacher to keep in touch with the latest progress of workshop practice. In some cases the experiment has been tried of having one teacher of the scientific principles of the. trade and another of the workshop principles, but this was considered only a makeshift, and does not always work satis- factorily. Neither knows exactly how to fit his teaching to that of the other, and the students can much better be persuaded to take up the scientific lectures when they are given by the practical foreman who instructs them in the workshop. BENEFITS OF TECHNICAL EDUCATION. The benefits of this technical instruction are xevy largely brought out in other portions of this report. The student is benefited as a man by securing a better education. Where trade-union restrictions are strong, or where the apprenticeship system prevails, he may not earn full journeyman's wages until 21, no matter how competent he may be at an early age through natural ability or work in the technical classes, but after 21 he may advance rapidly to high industrial posi- tion, and in the large number of industries where these restrictions do not prevail the student will find his financial position improved through proficiency obtained in technical classes. Aside from improvement of the workman, two other benefits are widely noted. One is the greater appreciation by the purchasing pub- lic of the good quality of goods and of the artistic side of house fur- nishing — mediaeval castings, ornamental brickwork, enameling, etc. TKADK AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION — GEEAT BKITAIN. 1001 The other adv'antage most widely noted is that of the trade itself. This may take the form of developing from the ranks of the work- men a superior class of foremen and of skilled workmen, or it may take the form of revealing and developing to untold usefulness the small minority, estimated by one distinguished principal as 3 per cent of his pupils, who are naturally observant, and who, under the train- ing of these technical instructors, are likely to become the great invent- ors and masters of industries. Huxley is often quoted as saying: "It is worth spending a million to discover a Faraday." Mr. Bonnikson, inventor of a rotary escapement or karrusel lever, which has revolu- tionized the watch manufacture in England and even elsewhere, attrib- utes much of his success to the training he obtained in the British Horological Institute. The silk trade of Coventry is said to have been saved from decline by reason of instruction imparted to the sons of emploj^ers and workers in the trade. Other evidences of the value of the schools are given in their proper place in this ireport, but the greatest evidence of all is their growing popularitjr, as shown by the number of pupils in attendance and the disposition of the business interests in control of English city gov- ernments to increase the expenditure for these institutions. England is learning much from American superiority in secondary education and in the magnitude of our advanced engineering schools, while America may learn much from the large beginning England has made in scpplementing the fast-dying apprenticeship system by technical evening classes, for artisans. IIN^DIVIDUAL SCHPOLS. Detailed accounts of individual schools ai'e set forth in the following pages. The schools of England are first considered, and afterwards those of Scotland and Ireland. ENGLAND. MUNICIPAL TECHNICAIi SCHOOL, BIRMINGHAM. This school was organized in 1891 and had as its basis the science classes of the Birmingham and Midland Institute which were taken over by the new school. The first session was held September li, 1891. The governing committee of the school was instructed by the city council to establish a central technical school with both day and evening classes; to provide branch technical schools "in buildings adequately equipped for the purpose;" to appoint a principal to have charge of both day and evening schools; to arrange a scale of fees no higher than had formerly been charged in the institute, and to provide for free students— not to exceed one-fourth of those admitted, and to 1002 EEPOBT OF THE COMMISSIONEK OF LABOE. arrange a course of study suited to the varied special requirements of students, but not to limit it to the requirements of the Government department of science and art. In arranging the courses of study the design was to provide oppor- tunity for men to learn the scientific laws which guide the operations on which they are engaged, and the properties of the materials they use, and thus enable the artisan to become a better workman, and at the same time a better man, through widening his mental vision. Accordingly a number of trade courses were arranged and the curricu- lum has been extended from time to time until its present scope has been reached. The teaching is required to be as practical and thorough as possible, and considerable time is therefore devoted to the labora- tories and mechanical departments. The day school was opened in September, 1897. Its object is to give boys, at the lowest possible fee, a general modern education, specially fitting them to take part in developing the industries of the town. -The course of study is more scientific than that of the grammar schools, and the standard of instruction is more advanced than that of the higher grade board schools. Great prominence is given to scientific and workshop training, and general education is not neglected. Pupils who have passed through the day school are well fitted to engage in the local industries, and to rise to positions of responsibility. In most cases a youth should enter works at the age of 16, and continue his education at evening classes, such a« are offered at the technical school. Boys may enter the day school at the age of 12, in which case the work of the first two years is of a preparatory character, and is regarded as a basis of future studies in science. It consists- lai'gely of ti'aining in exact methods of work in the laboratories, in the wood and iron workshops, in the drawing oflices, and in following the studies con- nected therewith. After the first two years the boys are allowed gradually to specialize on those subjects which are likely to be of most use to them. The students in this school have the advantage of in- struction not only by the full daj^ school staff, but also by the special- ists engaged to instruct the evening classes in technical subjects.' The school is divided into three sections, the preparatory, the school of science, and the technical course. The three main divisions of the last course are mechanical engineering, electrical engineering, and applied chemistry. The evening school, in which is found a \'er3' large proportion of all the students enrolled in the institution, was established for the pur- pose of carrying out the liberal scheme of technical education rendered possible by the technical instruction act of 1889. The endeavor of the committee was to provide practical instruction on broad lines, so as to make the school of the greatest possible service to all the local TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION GL. JIAT BRITAIN. 1003 trades. The school does not undertake to teach trades, recognizing that manual skill can come only from long practice in the shop; but it was also recognized that in order to give the most effective technical instruction the student must have opportunity of handling the tools, and learning the processes employed in his trade. The methods of instruction adopted are such as will meet these requirements, thus enabling the student to acquire a knowledge of the scientific principles on which local industries are based, and preparing him to take an intelligent interest in his daily work. The trade courses are two years in length, and are so graded that the student at the end of this time should ha^'e a good knowledge of the technique of his trade. The curriculum of the evening school covers a wide field of instruc- tion. Besides the trade courses previously mentioned there are a number of departments embracing a long list of scientific subjects. The chemical department is designed for those who wish to apply their knowledge to a business or trade in which chemical processes are carried on, for those who desire to become teachers of chemistry or analytical chemists, and for those who wish to obtain some insight into the science as a help in other subjects. There are elementary and advanced courses in inorganic chemistry, first and second stages in organic chemistry, special courses for chemists and druggists, senior courses in chemical philosophy and quantitative analysis, special work in chemistry covering crystallography and mineralogy, and chemistry for bakers. This last course is designed to furnish laboratory and practical work for bakers, and also to apply to students requiring a scientific knowledge of brewing. METALLURGICAL DEPARTMENT. The metallurgy department provides a four years' course for students who wish to make a special study of metals. For the benefit of those who only require a knowledge of certain metals, classes are arranged to suit trade requirements. For engineers and those engaged in hardware trades a special course is given in iron and steel. A course is arranged to give instruction in the metallurgy of copper, zinc, tin, nickel, brass, bronze, and German silver; and a similar course is devoted to gold and silver. There is an advanced course for classes who wish to study the nature of ores and other bodies in metallurgical processes. These courses cover the various subjects in such a general scientific manner as to prepare the students for a posi- tion of more than ordinary responsibility. In this department are also special courses in electro-plating and deposition, and an element- ary course in meta;l coloring and bronzing, which provide ample instruction to enable the students to leave the school equipped for trades. Following are the metallurgical courses in full: 1004 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. Electroplating and deposition. Special course for elect roplaters and gilders: Arrangement of plant in the work- shop; preparation and testing of solutions; arrangement of apparatus for electro- deposition; use of ammeter and voltmeter; means of controlling current; preparation of work for electro-deposition; electro-deposition of copper, silver, and gold; strip- ping processes; finishing processes; recovery of silver and gold from old solutions; simple electrotyping processes. Special course for brass workers and nickel platers: Arrangement of plant in the workshop; preparation and testing of solutions; arrangement of apparatus for electro- deposition; use of ammeter and voltmeter; means of controlling current; prepara- tion of work for electro-deposition; electro-deposition of copper, brass, nickel, tin, andiron; stripping prgcesses; finishing processes; simple electrotyping processes. Advanced course: In addition to the subjects treated in the first year's course the following subjects are also taught: Theories of electrolysis, specific resistance, polarization of electrodes, thermochemistry in relation to electro-motive force, electrochemical equivalents, miscellaneous processes, deposition of zinc and alloys, deposition of cobalt, bright silver plating, galvanoplastic processes, recovery of tin from scrap tinned iron, grouping of cells, applications of Ohm's law, estimation of potassium cyanide, estimation of silver and gold in plating and gilding solutions, estimation of copper and of free sulphuric acid in the ordinary electrotyping solution. The advanced class is divided into two sections — one for second-year students and the other for third-year students. Metal coloring and bronzing. Elementary and advanced courses: The metals in common use, their chemical and physical properties; the atmosphere, its composition, and the action of its constitu- ents upon different metals; formation and properties of certain metallic oxides, chlorides, sulphides, carbonates, and acetates; classification and properties of the various reagents employed in chemical metal coloring; electro-metallurgy in relation to this subject; management of depositing solutions and correction of their defects; electrotype processes ; electrochemical metal coloring ; metallochromes; metals deposited by immersion; principles involved; effects of light; iridescent films and sensitive color compounds; metal coloring in relation to photography. Cleaning copper, brass, zinc, iron, etc. ; bright and dead dipping, scratch brushing, polishing; coloring by dry and wet methods; producing various colors upon copper, brass, and other copper alloys; antique colors; deposition of arsenic, antimony, tin, and copper by immersion processes; deposition of copper upon brass bj^ coloring, and subse- quently heating the metal; preparation of acid coppering solution and deposition of copper upon brass; stopping off and parcel coppering; coloring parcel-coppered work; parcel bronzing; preparation of cyanide coppering and brassing solutions, and deposi- tion of copper and brass upon iron, zinc, and other metals; mechanical metal color- ing; use of varnishes, bronze powders, etc., including French bronzing processes. The advanced class is divided into two sections — one for second-year students and the other for third-year students. PHYSICAL DEPARTMENT. The i^hysical department is devoted largely to electricity in its varied applications. Two special courses in mathematics are provided as a foundation for the main subjects taught in this department. There is a coui'se in theoretical mechanics and one in physics, embracing heat, geometrical optics, hydrostatics, sound, and general physics. The couise in clectricit)' covers the broad field of electrical engineering as it TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION GREAT BRITAIN. 1005 applies to telegraphy, telephony, electric lighting and the distribution of power, and electrical jointing and fitting. Students taking the last subject are given such exercises in practical work as will qualify them for an electrical occupation. The course in detail is as follows: Electrical jointing and fitting. Stage I: Use and manipulation of tools; joints in copper strip and wire for over- head conductors; the various methods of jointing 7-strand cable, and jointing by means of ' ' sleeves " or " couplings. ' ' Insulating j oints. A lesson is given each e ven- ing on practical electrical work. All necessary material and a complete set of tools are provided for each student. Students are advised to attend classes in arithmetic and mensuration and the lectures on preliminary electrical engineering. Stage II: Methods of jointing 19-strand conductors; lead-covered cables; twin cables; insulating joints; brazed joints. A lesson is given each evening on some sub- ject connected with wiring, cable laying, care of electrical plant, etc. All necessary material and a complete set of tools are provided for each student. Students are advised to attend the classes in arithmetic and mensuration. Stage III: Jointing concentric cables; joints in armored cables; vulcanized joints; jointing gutta-percha-covered wires. Lessons are given (so far as time allows) on various systems of overhead and underground distribution, the localization of faults, etc. Practical instruction is given in measuring "insulation." All necessary mate,- rial and a complete set of tools are provided for each student. Students are advised to attend the classes in mathematics. The work in this class is of an advanced character, and intending students must either have taken the City and Guilds of London Institute certificate in the subject or obtain the sanction of the principal before joining. ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT. In the engineering department there are courses in practical geom- _etry, mechanical drawing, machine construction and drawing, machine construction and design, applied mechanics, steam, mechanical engi- neering, graphical statics, structural design, hydraulic engineering, gas and oil engines, pattern making, and fitting and turning. All of these courses, except pattern making and fitting and turning, are designed for mechanical engineers and are not intended particularly for artisans except to allow them to acquire a better theoretical knowledge of their trades. The courses in pattern making and fitting and turning are designed to teach the technique and handiwork of trades. Following ■are the courses in detail: Pattern making. First division: This course comprises study of the various kinds of materials used in pattern making; the use of standard and contraction rules; tools, their names and uses; the setting and sharpening of various tools; marking and sawing; simple face and edge planing; edge shooting; boring with chisels and gouges; plain halving and dovetail halving; glued joints, plain and tongued; peg doweled and screwed joints; wood angling, plain and curved; the use of the turning lathe, and tools employed with it; simple wood turning; core prints,, their various shapes and uses; round and square bosses and facings used on patterns; round and square core boxes; simple patterns (various) ; simple molding and founding. A course of practical demonstrations of the methods of molding, core making, and casting in iron and steel is given in the molding shop during the session. 1006 EEPOKT OF THE COMMISSIONER OP LABOR. Students must attend regularly a class m mechanical drawing or machine con- struction. Second division: In addition to the subjects taught in the first division, this course includes the nature and properties of various woods used in pattern making; the jointing, shrinkage, and -warping of wood; the use of the circular saw; the center- ing, fixing, and chucking of patterns in lathe; the doweling of patterns and core boxes in halves; the making of circular work in segments; small wheels and pulleys; arm core boxes and sweeps for fly wheels; making cylinder patterns, pipe patterns, bends, etc.; loam boards for pipe and column cores; core templets for pipe flanges; core plates and strickles for bend pipe cores; simple odd-side molding; general molding and foundry work; loam molding. A course of practical demonstrations of the methods of molding, core making, and casting in iron and steel is given in the molding shop during the session. Students must attend regularly a class in mechanical drawing or machine con- struction. Filling and turniny. First and second divisions: Vise — Chipping and filing; use of square, calipers, rules, hexagonal and angle gauges. Lathe — Use of hand lathe, turning to templet and measurement; examples in simple screw cutting. Shaping machine — Shaping flat surfaces; gauge and angle work. Drilling machine — Drilling holes for clear- ance, tapping and templet, etc. Forging — Tools used in turning, planing, shaping, boring. Drills and chisels — Hardening and tempering. Instruction is given regard- ing the cutting tools used on various machines, forms of files, chisels, etc. Students are required to take both vise and lathe work, and must attend regularly a class in mechanical drawing or machine construction. Third division: The course includes, in addition to the work stated in the first and second divisions: Vise — Samples of machine parts for fitting together, scraping and surfacing; getting out samples of work for planing, shaping," and drilling. Lathe — General turning and screw cutting; V thread, square and rifle pitches; bor- ing and face-plate work. Planing machine — Preparation of test pieces; planing machine parts. Milling machine— Wheel cutting, square and hexagonal pieces. All work in this class will have to be done to standard and micrometer gauges. Practical instruction is given in the calculation of change wheels for screw cutting, forms of testing and test pieces, and other workshop details. Short lectures are given each evening on the use of various kinds of hand and machine cutting tools. A course of practical lessons on tool making and tempering is given in the smithy during- the session. Students are required to take both vise and lathe work and must attend regularly a class in mechanical drawing or machine construction. BUILDING TRADES CLASSES. The building trades classes cover building construction, sanitary science, carpentry and joinery, masonry, and plumbing. Building- construction covers drawing practice applicable to building in general, and the course in sanitary science consists in lectures on hygiene, infectious and zymotic diseases, water, air, sanitary ijlumbing, etc. The courses in carpentry and joinery, masonry, and plumbing are to equip students foi- advanced apprenticeship in these trades. Follow- ing are the building trades courses in detail: Carpentry and joinery. Preparatory course: Tools and their action in use; timber, different kinds and where obtained, simple exercises for use of various tools and simple joints; drawing of same to scale and isometric. TEADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION GREAT BRITAIN. 1007 Students must regularly attend a drawing class in building construction. Elementary course: In addition to more advanced detail of the preparatory syl- labus, this course includes the nature and properties of the various kinds of wood used in carpentry and joinery and methods of seasoning timber; setting out work- ing drawings, etc.; general knowledge of the construction of ledged, framed and braced, and framed and paneled doors, door frames and door jambs; ordinary sashes and frames. Joints in mortise and tenon, tusk tenon, fish tenon, scarfing, halving, simple dovetailing and notching, etc., and also joints in construction of various roof trusses, with drawings of same, etc. Advanced course: In addition to the work on the elementary course, the advanced course consists of the following: Setting out working drawings in joinery work on boards; general knowledge of construction of half-glass doors with diminished stiles, with various kinds of panels, French casements, boxing shutters, circular sashes and frames and circular work generally; skylights and lanterns, bevels to same, and oblique work, finding bevels of hip rafters, jack rafters, purlins; splayed hninga, etc. ; intersection of moldings at different angles; method of strengthening beams and girders; principles required in framing roof trustees, partitions, bracing gates and doors, hinging and modes of applying them to obtain clearance, etc.; methods of throating, weathering, etc. ; bending boards, gluing-up work, etc. ; taking sizes and setting straight and geometrical stairs, hand railings, etc. Senior course: Students who wish to try the honors examination in this subject are recommended to attend the advanced practical class, where special work is pro- vided for them. They should also attend the drawing class in honors building con- struction and the course of lectures on the materials of engineering and processes of construction. Masonry. This course includes practical instruction in masonry, under the guidance of the , instructor, and in addition each student is taught to draw to scale, set out and cut the molds, and prepare the various parts described in the following syllabus: Nature and use of the various kinds of stone in building arches of brick and stone; methods of striking and jointing; definition of arches; raking and stretching moldings; columns, their proportion, entasis, twist, etc. ; circular work, development of curves, ramp and twist; arches circular on plan; skew arches, niches, etc. Staircases, defi- nition of steps, proportion of tread and rise, curtail step, spandrel step, spiral stair, stair with quarter space and winders, development of winders, etc. Mold cutting, copying drawing, etc.; proportions of cement, lime, sand, ashes, gravel, etc., in con- crete and mortar for various purposes. Practical exercise in setting out and working the more intricate problems. A special feature is instruction in working to scale. Students taking this course are also advised to attend a, class in practical geometry. Plumbing. Elementary courses: Workshop practice — Marking off and cutting out sheet lead; simple exercises in lead bossing; bending pipes up to 2 inches in diameter. Lecture class — Simple geometrical problems as applied to plumbing, with reference to roof work; simple mensuration; solders and soldering, their composition, prepa- ration, and uses; fluxes, their action and uses; special advantages of lead burning; workshop appliances, etc. ; construction and action of valves used in plumbing; venti- lation of pipes; principle and construction of various traps, their uses and relative advantages; tools used in plumbing, their forms and uses; fitting up a workshop; varieties of pipes used in plumbing; capacities of pipes of various sizes. The classes in geometry for sheet-metal v,-orkers and plumbers and the lectures in sanitary science are specially adapted to students in these classes. 1008 REPORT OF THE C0MMT8SI0WEE OF LABOR. Advanced courses: Workshop practice — The properties of lead and tin, white and red lead, cements, etc. ; solders and soldering; autogenous soldering or lead burning; fluxes, etc.; tools employed by plumbers; cutting out sheet lead; setting out work from working drawings; roofing; drainage, external work; varieties of traps; soil pipes; ventilation; drains; water supply for houses; cisterns, cocks, and valves; brass work used by plumbers; water-closets, their fittings and supply; baths, lavatories, and urinals, their service, traps, and wastes; hot water and steam circulation; meters, valves, reflectors, etc. Lectures— The lectures deal with the following subjects: Geometry as applied to plumbing; mensuration; properties of lead and tin, white and red lead, oxides, and cement; autogenous soldering, solders, and ordinary soldering; drainage; roof work; water supply; soil, vent, and waste pipes, their arrangement and construc- tion; principles and construction of hot- water supply; principles and action of siphon; principles and action of hydraulic ram; pump work; sanitary arrangements in houses and buildings; brass work used by plumbers. METAL TRADES CLASSES. There are metal trades courses in brass founding, gas fitting, and sheet-metal vrork; and there are courses in typography and farriery. The metal trades classes are as follows: Brass founding. Workshop practice: The course in brass work consists of molding, casting, modeling, reversing in lead and wax, filing, turning, hammering, screwing, casting, hard and soft soldering, pattern making, saw piercing, construction of blocks to produce bends and scrolls, chasing, dipping, and burnishing, filing including sur- face dressing (such as scrolls), with filing of flat and rounded surfaces to drawings; physical and chemical properties of iron, steel, brass, and other alloys; turning ' with hand tools to pattern or drawing, the students making their own turning tools, drills, etc.; screwing with chaser; making metal and wood chucks; molding and casting, including making the odd side; use of the oval turning chucks; ham- mered work in brass and copper; hardening and tempering steel springs used in the brass-foundry trades. Those students who are sufficiently advanced are allowed to make their own patterns, core bearings, and core stocks. The course also includes hard and soft soldering; use of the hammer, rule, compass, gauge, and circular saw; finishing processes. Lectures: The lectures deal with the principles involved in the work, and the prop- erties of the metals and alloys used. False coring. The course consists of practical instruction in the making of cores from the molds without core stocks, the drying of the molds, the placing of patterns in the molds, pouring processes, etc. Students are taught the special nature of the sand needed for various kinds of work. Gas fitting. The workshop course includes practical instruction in jointing lead and compo pipes, in meter fixing, and in the use of the pressure gauge. The theoretical work includes the making of full-sized working drawings of meter connections neces- sary for fixing meters in various positions, and in making both full-size and reduced sections of various fittings and pressure gauges. TBADE AND- TECHNICAL EDUCATION GREAT BRITAIN. 1009 Sheet-metal .work. The course in sheet-raetal work consists of cutting patterns on geometrical lines from tin plate, sheet iron, zinc, brass, or copper, and testing their accuracy as to size and shape by making up models; various methods of jointing sheet metal by soldering, grooving, riveting, double seaming (or knocking up), and dovetailing, etc. ; planishing, wheeling, hollowing, setting, stretching, and wiring; explaining the use of the press, stamp, lathe, wheeling, and other machines and tools used for the manufacturing of sheet-metal goods; the physical and chemical properties of iron, tin, lead, zinc, copper, brass, galvanized iron, and tin plate; the manufacturing or refining of the same; solders and their fluxfis; fuels, their composition and mode of application. Short lectures are given each evening, of a practical and scientific character, upon matters useful to sheet-metal workers. The classes in geometry for sheet- rnetal workers are arranged for students in connection with these classes. There is a comprehensive lecture course in typography, and those taking it receive instruction in the use of the linotype machine. Lectures on farriery are provided for shoeing smiths who may wish to become informed in the principles of their work. Besides this long list of subjects for boys and men there are women's classes in cookery and dressmaking in both the day and evening schools. The day-school courses give general elementary instruction in these subjects, such as is required by the ordinary housekeeper. The evening courses are more extensive and thorough. The cooking course covers plain cooking and the dressmaking course fits its students to earn a living at that trade. ^The conditions of entry to the day school are as follows: No pupil will be admitted from another school unless he can produce a satisfactory certificate of conduct from his former head master. To enter the school of science a boy must have a good knowledge of English composition, geography, history, and arithmetic, including decimals. For admission to the preparatory course a somewhat lower standard is accepted. No boy is admitted unless he lives with his parents, guardian, or near relations, except with the special permis- sion of the school committee. Boj^s are admitted at the age of 12 and upward, but may not commence a new session's work after reach- ing the age of 16. The school fee is £3 (|14.60) per annum, and the student must provide his own books and stationery. There are twelve entrance scholarships offered annually for competition among the pupils in the Birmingham elementary schools. Six of these scholar- ships give free admission to the school for four years and provide a grant for maintenance of £5 (124.33) for the second year and £10 ($48.67) each for the third and fourth years. The committee awards two scholarships annually which entitle the holders to free admission and maintenance to the amount of £5 ($24.33) per year during the term of the scholarship. Besides these the Priestly scholarship is 9257—02 64 1010 EEPOB.T OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOE. awarded every two years to the candidate under 20 years of age who stands highest in the prescribed examination. The management of the school is under a technical school committee of 16 members, besides the lord mayor. The teaching staff consists of 1 principal for the entire institution; for the day school, l.head master, 8 assistant masters, 3 workshop instructors, and 2 assistants; for the evening school there are 4 heads of departments, 36 lecturers, 17 demonstrators, 11 workshop instructors, and 9 assistants, making in all 92 members of the teaching, staff. Besides this there is a secre- tarial staff of 6 members, and an establishment staff' of 13 members. The attendance varies according to the season of the year, being greatest in the fall and least toward spring. The average attendance in October, 1899, was 3,739, while in February following it had fallen to 2,.520. For the corresponding months of the previous year the attendance was 3,869 and 2,880, respectively. The 2,520 students of February, 1900, were distributed among the departments as follows: Chemical, 305; metallurgical, 294:; physical, 1:97; engineering, 681; building trades, 282; metal trades, 132; miscellaneous, 160; women's classes, 166. The building is constructed of pressed brick, with terra-cotta trim- mings. The main wings reach a height of eight stories. It was erected at a contract price of £17,489 ($231,105). During the first few years of the school it occupied temporary quarters, and the new building was not occupied until 1896. The equipment of apparatus, machinery, etc., is first-class in all respects, and cost, approximately, £12,000 ($58,398). The annual cost of maintenance, including small additions to apparatus, for the fiscal year ending March 31, 1900, was £18,411 (189,597). Of this amount, £8,013 (138,995) was for salaries and wages and the remainder for interest, sinking-fund account, and general incidental expenses. The income of the school for the same period was slightly more than £20,000 (197,330). Public funds con- tributed the greater portion of this income, nearly £18,000 ($87,597) being derived from such sources. The city of Birmingham was the chief contributor. The Brass Workers' Union pays part of the fees of many of their members or apprentices; the Gun Makers' Union does the same thing, although there is not yet any special training provided for their craft, and the master bakers pay half the fees of many pupils. Students go from the school into shops as apprentices, but they com- mand higher wages and earn promotion more rapidly than those who have not had school advantages. Employers prefer the school-trained apprentices, and in one instance a prominent manufacturer of high- speed engines allows his apprentices to go to their work one hour later than usual ii they attend the evening school. The schools have led to improvejnent in shop training. TRADE ANB TECHNICAL EDUCATION — GREAT BRITAIN. 1011 The work of the school has been satisfactor}-. The attendance upon the day school, which was not opened until 1897, is not as large as is desired. It is the opinion of some connected with the school that large results can not be expected from the day school unless more money is spent upon it. It is suggested that the city can not easily raise suffi- cient money to teach trades to day scholars, and that to do this each trade should raise its own money for this purpose. The evening school is open three evenings a week to those who work during the day, and a large number of workmen avail themselves of this oppor- tunity. Rather more than half of these are under 21 years of age. MUNICIPAL TECHNICAL SCHOOL, BLACKBITKN. This school was founded in 1887, by subscription. In 1889 it became a public institution, in part, and in 1891, at the completion of the Jubilee Memorial Building it became wholly public. It was designed to give instruction in general science and art, and technical and trade instruction in textiles, building, and electricitj^ Its main object is to develop theoretical knowledge and practical skill among the artisans employed in the industries of this immediate community. Pupils in the night school must work during the day along the lines of their study. Admission is by examination, and these examinations are arranged to suit the requirements of the applicant. The courses of instruction are divided into departments and these are subdivided into subjects. A number of the subjects are literary or scientific, and are not here referred to except as they are required for a basis in technical work. The departments of instruction are art, physics, chemistry, building trades, engineering, textiles, manual training, and one for commercial and domestic subjects. In the art department instruction is given in fine or applied art. During the first year students devote their time to elementaiy work in free-hand, model, and geometrical drawing, and to the theory of perspective, light, shade^ and color. In the second year the work in decorative and textile design is the same, but in the third year stu- dents begin to specialize according to the course they intend to com- plete. Third, fourth, and fifth year students in decorative design take up the various phases of the art, with a view to some definite purpose. Students desiring to do so can pursue their studies through the sixth year or longer. These advanced students do practical work in design and clay modeling, and also give much time to study from life and to painting. In the study of textile design the free-hand copies used at the begin- ning are patterns of actual fabrics, so that ideas of design and taste are formed while the student is learning the use of pencil and charcoal. Next, he takes brush and color exercises, and is encouraged to attempt original work. The third year includes actual work in fabrics in the 1012 REPOBT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LA.BOE. weaving department. In the fourth year the student is advised to enter the weaving department and take the regular course there. When he can produce a good design he is encouraged to take up advanced subjects. In the weaving school he is afforded every facility for the reproduction of his designs, so that his instruction is practical and complete. The instruction in wood carving is designed primarily to be of serv- ice in local industries. It begins with the necessary drawing exercises, and continues through the higher theoretical grades and practical shopwork. The embroiderj'^ class has for its object, first, to assist in the development of taste and good workmanship, by the use only of the best designs obtainable and by teaching the technique of high- class needlework; and, second, to afford students of design a means of seeing their working drawings applied to the actual materials for which the designs were made. The object of the instruction in this class is to make the articles produced both artistic and useful. In the physics department electrical technology occupies a prominent place. The courses in this subject are arranged for those who are engaged in or are preparing to enter electrical trades, and for those who desire a better acquaintance with this branch of engineering on account of the important part it plays in other trades. The work begins in elementary magnetism and electricity and advances through the various branches of electrical study until the course in electrical engineering is complete. The theoretical work is comprehensive, and there is sufficient practical work to equip the student to take up his selected line of work. The instruction in building-trades subjects covers building construc- tion, brickwork, masonry, and carpentry and joinery. The foundation for all these subjects is geometry and graphic statics. The syllabus of examinations indicates that much time is given to the theory and technique of the subjects. Every phase of each subject is taken up and thoroughly discussed, after which each student is subjected to a rigid examination. The textile department provides thorough courses in practical weav- ing, cotton spinning, and textile chemistry. The weaving course embraces ordinary and advanced theory, practical cloth construction and analysis, and practical weaving, besides textile design. The theo- retical course covers the general principles of fabric structure, twill- ing, spotting, color, warping, sizing, warping and sizing machinery, the loom in all its parts, principles of tappet structure, dobbies (their use and construction), picking mechanism, pick and pick arrangements, the Jacquard machine and its use, classification of fabrics, damasks, double cloths, tapestries, gauze, and many other subjects relating to the production of cloths. There is an additional course of lectures on the details of construction of various kinds of plain and fancy cloths TEADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION — GBEAT BRITAIN. 1013 and the use of design paper. In this course the student is supplied with pieces of the various kinds of cloth discussed and is required to analyze them. During these theoretical studies and lectures the stu- dent is assigned to practical work in the weaving shed two evenings a week, and is there afforded an opportunity to acquire an intimate knowledge of branches of work and classes of -machinery other than he is able to get in his daily emplo^^ment. The weaving shed is lib- erally equipped with both hand and power looms in great variety, and the student can exercise his skill in producing all kinds of cotton cloths, from plain weaves to Jacquard lenos and tapestries, brocades, and pile. He makes and executes his own designs, and is thoroughly trained in all that is necessary to make him a successful weaver. The complete course in spinning is designed to cover three years. In the first year are taken up the geographical position of the cotton fields, the cultivation, harvesting, and preparation of cotton for the market, the physical properties of cotton, the objects of mixing, and the principles of cleaning and carding cotton, and the construction and operation of cleaning and carding machinery. The second year is devoted to the construction and operation of drawing machines and the principle of drawing slivers; the construction and operation of combing machines; the construction and action of roving machines in all their variety, and accessory appliances; the essential features of good yarn; the construction and action of the mules and the methods of driving them, together with the effect of each opera- tion on the material; the construction and operation of ring-flyer spinning frames, and the bobbins used; and calculations of speed, draft, twist, etc., in connection with all the above-mentioned machines. The third year's or honors course can not begin until the student has a certificate in the first and second year courses. This year is devoted to character and quantity of waste produced and its utilization, the preparation of waste for spinning, what machinery is necessary, and the character of yarns produced; the production of doubled yarns for various purposes; testing yarns for strength, elasticity, twist, and moisture; the selection of raw cotton and its manipulation by various machines, noting defects in machines and remedying them; the con- struction and planning of spinning and doubling mills; selection of machinery; schemes of drafts and speeds, lighting, heating, ventila- tion, and protection against fire; arrangement of power and its trans- mission to machinery; and cost of production, wages, insurance, and other charges. From the above it will be seen that the instruction offered in this department prepares the student to enter upon advanced work in the mill. The course in textile chemistry is arranged so that third-year stu- dents in the textile department may have the opportunity of becom- ing acquainted with the scientific principles underlying the textile 1014 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. industry. It is also suitable for weaving managers and overseers. The course of instruction covers the composition of air with refer- ence to humidity and carbonic acid; water composition with refer- ence to boiler-feed waters, boiler scale, and antiincrustators; bleach- ing agents, disinfectants, and antiseptics; acids and alkalis, and the commoner metals, such as iron, zinc, copper, tin, etc. ; the microscopic appearance of fibers, and the action of common reagents upon fibers; tlie classification of sizing substances; properties of glycerin, fats, oils, waxes, soap, starch, sugar, gluten, dextrin, etc.; cotton dyeing, and mordants and theories of dj'^eing. In response to a request from the Blackburn Master Painters' Asso- ciation, a course in practical painting has been arranged for appren- tices who may desire advanced instruction in work belonging to their trade. This work has been conducted through one session only, but has been found to be very useful. Many apprentices made great prog- ress in their work, and it is believed the usefulness of this instruction will increase. A class in theoretical and practical photography is pro- vided for and it is expected to begin work at the session of 1901-02. The teaching staff consists of 21 instructors. The attendance in the day school is about 55, and of these 10 are in the weaving class; the attendance of the evening school is 1,800 in all grades, of which 300 are engaged in practical shopwork, 100 are electrical students, and 200 are in the weaving classes. The school has been the means of increasing the intelligence and efiiciency of the working classes generally, and general benefits have come to local industries. The attitude of trade unions toward the school is very friendly. Eleven years ago the management explained the work of the school to the unions, and disarmed criticism by refusing to admit pupils to the practical classes except those working in the same line. Four unions nov,' give nearly 100 scholarships, varying in annual value from 10s. to £1 (12.4:3 to U.S7). Employers prefer school-trained apprentices, and as an evidence of their high appreciation of the work done in the school several employers pay half the fees of students from their shops. A few firms paid for a time all the fees of students who went from their establishments, but this liberality tended to produce a rush of ignorant boys into the school, and the principal now requires all to pay half fees, and later, if the pupil is deserving, the half fee is returned. The school has led to improvement in shop training, and its work has been entirely satisfactory in every way. It does not attempt to turn out finished workmen, but aids the apprentice to attain the high- est perfection in his trade. TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDTTCATION^ — GEEAT BKITAIN. 1015 TECHNICAL SCHOOL, BOLTON. The idea of a technical school in this borough was conceived in 1887, being part of the scheme adopted for commemorating the Queen's Jubilee. The Mechanics' Institute offered their building — a gift equiv- alent to £5,000 (|M,333); the subscriptions received amounted to £6,000 (129,199); and a grant of £1,000 ($1,867) was obtained from the borough corporation. It, was not until 1891, however, that the school was started, and not until 1892 that the well equipped building in Maudsley street was opened. It was thought that this building would serve the town for many years, but it was not long before more spacious premises had to be sought. The attendance has increased in the evening school from 338 at the first session, beginning in 1891, to 2,400 at the eighth session, ending in 1900. The rules and regulations provide that persons shall not enter any of the classes unless they have sufficient preliminary knowledge to profit thereby.. No class is continued unless twelve or more students enter during the first month of the session. No student is admitted to a class in technology unless for at least one of the qualifying science or art subjects adapted thereto. Students admitted to classes in prac- tical work in the evening school must be employed in the same line during the day. The fees in the evening school range from 5s. to 10s. (11.23 to $2.43) per year, and in the day school the fees range from 6 to 12 guineas ($30.66 to $61.32) per year. The courses of instruction are arranged primarily to meet the needs of the commtmity, and as cotton manufacture occupies the most prominent place in the industrial life of the town, subjects pei'taining to it have prominence in the school. Other industries are not neg- lected, however, and thorough instruction is provided along many practical lines. In the technical day school the subjects of instruction covered are: Theory of cotton spinning, cotton spinning machine work, and spin- ning calculations; theory of weaving, fabric structure, designing of fabrics, drawing design, cloth analj^sis, weaving-machine work, and weaving-machine calculations; mechanical engineering, practical mathematics, practical work at vise and with chief engineering machine tools, sketching, coloring and machine designing, wood and metal turning, engineering model drawing, and engineering geometry. These subjects are distributed under the three general divisions of cotton spinning, weaving and designing, and practical engineering. Besides the above-mentioned subjects there is also a department in the day school devoted to manual instruction in wood, metal, and wood turn- ing, which is carried on in conjunction with the elementary and higher grade schools of the town. The purpose of the course is to give boys a thorough training in the application of drawing and in the use of tools. 1016 EEPOET OF THE COMMISSIOITEB OH" LABOR. The evening school courses cover more comprehensively all the sub- jects mentioned under the day school and a large number of other subjects. Students in the practical classes of the evening school are required to work in shop or factory during the day along the lines of their studies in school. The courses in cotton spinning, weaving, and designing, and cotton dyeing, bleaching, and printing are very thor- ough. The details of these courses are as follows: COTTON SPINNIKG. Preliminary stage: The preliminary class in cotton spinning is held on Tuesday evening during the session, and is designed to give such students as desire it a brief general training in the rudiments of cotton spinning prior to taking the usual City Guilds' courses. The lessons include very brief notes on cottons and on all the machines and processes of cotton spinning, and also simple calculations. First-year course: Geographical position of the world's cotton fields, with suitable soils and climates; planting and picking of cottons; the chemical, physical, and com- mercial properties of cotton fibers; special features of Sea Islands, Egyptian, Brazilian, Peruvian, American, Indian, and other cottons; seed cotton; use of ginning; foot- roller gin; churkagin; bow gin; saw gin; Macarthy and knife-roller gins; defects in cottons; various notes on cotton; mixing of cotton; bale breakers; mixing lattices; hopper feed arrangements; objects of opening; single openers; cages and fan draft; double openers; exhaust feed and delivery trunks to openers and scutchers; calcu- lations; objects of scutching; single and double scutchers; piano-fed regulator; improvements in regulators; two and three blade beaters; construction and setting of beater grate bars; cage bars; lap end of scutcher; suitable speeds; productions; various notes; calculations; objects of carding; different kinds of cards; action of parts common to all cards; coiler motion; Wellman card; roller and clearer card; undercasings; revolving flat card; cover plates; various methods of setting flats; stripping and grinding; clothing and setting a card ; calculations; various notes. Second-year lectures: Silver lap machine; ribbon lap machine. Comber — General action of parts; duties of machine; nipper and top comb mechanism ; timing and set- ting; detaching mechanism; -various details; calculations. Drawing frame — Duties of machine; general action of parts; coiler and roller mechanism; stop motions; vari- ous details; calculations. Bobbin and fly frames — Uses of machine; general descrip- tion; swing; spindles and rollers; building motion; how winding is done; bobbin and flyer leading; differential motions; calculations; various details. Self-actor mule — Motions and processes connected with drawing-out; arrestation of parts; twist motions; backing-off and faller locking; drawing-up and faller unlocking; quadrant; nosing motions; copping motion; flne-spinning motions; various details; calculations. King spinning — General description; rollers;, spindles; winding-on; mule versus ring spinning. Flyer throstle. Honors lectures: Selection and blending of cottons; testing and commerce of cot- tons; methods of main driving; doubling; the twiner mule; ring and flyer throstle doubling; doubling and winding; calculations; reeling; bundling; gassing; thread making; practical manipulation of scutchers, cards, combers, and draw frames, bob- bin and fly frames, mules, and ring frames; mill buildings; arrangement and pro- portions of machinery for coarse counts, medium counts, and flne counts; waste made at each process; spinning and fancy yarns; cost of production; wages; other calcula- tions; roller covering; lighting; heating; ventilating; humidifying; insurance; test- ing, uses, and commerce of cotton yarns; various notes; calculations. Ordinary grade, second year: This course comprises a lecture course on weaving mechanism and courses of lessons on textile calculations, fabric structure and analysis, and designing. The lecture course on weaving mechanism considers the following TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION — GREAT BRITAIN. 1017 subjects: Construction and fixing of negative and positive acting shedding tappets; shedding by means of oscillating tappets; dobby shedding; also negative and positive acting dobbies; the Blackburn dobby; the Keighley dobby; the Burnley dobby; the Knowles or American dobby; Jacquard shedding, single-acting machines; also double-acting one-cylinder machines; double-acting two-cylinder machines; motions to stop the loom when a wrong card is presented; Jacquards of special construction, open-shed and cross-border machines; devices for increasing the scope of a machine, thereby effecting a saving of cards, the Bannister or double-scale harness, the com- pound pressure harness for damask weaving; damask or twilling machines, the Bess- brook Jacquard ; also Tshorner and Wein' s Jacquard ; building and dressing a Jacquard harness; common arrangements of tie ups for Jacquard harnesses; card-cutting, lacing, and wiring; card-rfepeating machinery; essential features of lappet and swivel looms; picking motions, lever pick, Yates's pick, swivel pick, carpet pick, scroll pick, Jackson's pick, pick-and-pick motions; motion to impart two beats of the slay for one revolution of the crank shaft; also terry-pile motion; letting-off motions; also taking-up motions of a special character, Pickles's motion; Whittaker's motion; con- tinuous-acting motions; box-motions for check looms. Biggie's chain, "Wright Shaw's motion; Cowburn and Peck's motion; Whitesmith's principle as exemplified in Hacking & Co.'s motion; Hodgson's motion; the Knowles motion; circular-box motion; center weft-stop motions; various makes of loom temples and their suitability for different fabrics; devices of a special character, as the Northrop device for auto- matically renewing weft without changing shuttles or stopping the loom ; Boss's device for automatically changing shuttles without stopping the loom; the Seaton device for inserting picks without carrying a cop or bobbin through the shed. The course of lessons on textile calculations is in detail as follows: Calculations relating to speeds of tappets; calculations relating to taking-up motions of a special character, Pickles's motion; Whittaker's motion; continuous-acting motions; methods of dropping or casting out hooks of a Jacquard machine ■when it is required to use the mounting for a coarser reed than that for which it was built; to find average counts of yarn when several counts are used in the same fabric; to find average price per pound of yarn in a cloth composed of various colors or counts of yarn; to find weight and cost of material of each color in a striped fabric; to find weight and cost of mate- rial of each count of yarn in a striped fabric made from various counts of warp; to find weight and cost of material in a piece of cloth with crammed stripes; to find weight and cost of material in a piece of cloth figured with an extra warp; to find weight and cost of material of each color in a checked fabric; to find weight and cost of material in a piece of terry cloth; estimation of wages for winding; warping; beam- ing; sizing; drawing-in; twisting and weaving; from given data, to find total cost of production throughout of a colored checked fabric. The course of lessons on fabric structure and analysis, and designing, considers the following subjects: Principles of fabric structure embodied in the following types, namely, brocade, damask gauze or leno, velveteen, Bedford cord; corduroy, terry, lappet, and swivel fabrics; practical analysis of these; designing for small-figured effects t» be woven by means of tappets, dobbies, and Jacquards; designing for fancy leno effects to be woven by means of tappets and dobbies; analysis of more difficult examples of lenos; designing and coloring for stripes and checks suitable for shirtings, .skirtings, and dress materials; practical analysis of these; designing for striped effects for bed ticks, awnings, and window blinds; employment of extra warp to form stripes, and of extra warp and weft to form spots, checks, and all-over patterns; practical analysis of these; backed cloths, their construction; items to be considered before preparing a sketch for a Jacquard design; also, method of transferring it to design paper. Overlookers' class: This class is restricted to men actually engaged as managers, overlookers, carders, fully qualified outfitters, and first-class honors students. There are no examinations in connection with this class, and any students wishing to sit at 1018 KEPOET.OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOB. the examinations of the City and Guilds must attend the usual classes. The lessons are made to suit the special requirements of the class members, and consist of calcu- lations, lectures, cotton and yarn testing, and practical work. Vr^BAYING AND DESIGNING. Ordinary grade, first year's course: This course comprises instruction in the prepa- ration of yam for the loom and in weaving mechanism, a course of lessons on tex- tile calculations, and a course of lessons on fabric structure and analysis and design- ing. The following subjects are treated under preparation of yarn for the loom and weaving mechanism: The different forms in which yarn is received by the manu- facturer and its subsequent treatment for gray and colored goods; winding frames for warp yarn, cop winding, and drum winding frames, winding frames for weft yarn, pirn-cop winding frame to wind w'eft upon bobbins; machine to wind yarn from ball warps on to pirn bobbins; quick-traverse pirn winding frames to wind weft upon bare spindles; also winding upon pirn bobbins by means of conical bowls and beveled disks. Warping and warping machinery : Mill warping, chain warping, beam warping, sectional warping; the theory and purpose of sizing yarn; ingredi- ents employed in the manufacture of "size" and their object; manufacture of "size," mixing, fermentation, and boiling of ingredients; application of "size" to yarn by means of "dresser" sizing, "ball" sizing, "slasher" sizing, and "hank" sizing; also comparative merits of each system; description of "slasher" sizing frame; methods of beaming or winding-on; relative advantages of dyeing yam in the cop, hank, and warp; also of dyeing raw cotton and sliver; hand-loom shedding by means of long and short lams; principal parts and motions of an ordinary power loom, their object, and the mechanical principle governing each; shedding by means of under and side tappets; under and over roller motions to act in conjunc- tion with tappets, to convert the negative action of the latter into a positive one; picking, cone or Blackburn picking motion; beating-up motion; methods of con- trolling the delivery of warp in the loom; taking up motion. Automatic stop motions: "Weft work, loose reed, and stop rod; loom brakes; temples; setting and timing the parts and motions to act in unison. The course of lessons in textile calculations comprises the following subjects: Bases of the systems employed to indicate the counts of cotton, silk, worsted, woolen, and linen yarns; the tables of weights and measures employed when ascer- taining the counts of yam; also various methods of ascertaining the counts of short lengths of yarn: to ascertain the counts of folded yarn produced by twisting together two or more threads of the same, or of different counts; from given data, to find length, weight, and counts of yam; to ascertain the quantity of material to produce a cloth according to specification; to ascertain counts of warp and weft to produce a cloth of required weight per yard, or piece of known dimensions; various systems of naming reeds as adopted in the principal manufacturing districts; calculations relat- ing to heald knitting; also casting out when using a set of healds for a coarser reed than that for which they were knitted; calculations relating to marking motion of slasher-sizing frame; calculations relating to driving of tappets; calculations relating to taking-up motion; to ascertain the speeds of looms and sizes of pulleys to give required speeds; wage calculations for various operations. The course in fabric stracture and analysis and designing treats of the following* subjects: The structure of fabrics and methods of distinguishing warp yarn and weft yam; use of design paper and method of indicating designs upon it; the plain, or calico weave, and its derivatives, as ribs and simple dice effects; practical analysis of these; twill weaves and their derivatives, as fancy regular twills and patterns developed by combining either ends or picks, from two or more twills, in some defi- nite order; practical analysis of these; construction of satin weaves; development of simple weaves on a satin basis; wave and diamond effects; also patterns based upon TRADE AND TECHNICAL EBTJCATION GREAT BRITAIN. 1019 the diamond, as honeycomb, Brighton, and other simple weaves; practical analysis of these; huck-a-back canvas, mock lenos, sponge cloth, fancy dice patterns, and diapers; practical analysis of these; analysis of more difficult samples; development of color effects in the plain and other simple weaves by means of colored threads of warp and weft. Honors grade, third-year course: This grade comprises three sections, namely: (1) General Section, (2) Section A, and (3) Section B. A separate examination is held and certificates awarded in both Section A and Section B, which may be com- peted for in either the same year or in separate years. All students must, however, present themselves for examination in the General Section, as well as in either Section A or Section B, otherwise no certificate is awarded. Section A is devoted to the study of the principles of ornament and the theory of color, especially as regards their application to textile decorative design. Section B is devoted to the study of subjects pertaining to mill management. The General Section comprises the following lecture course: Characteristics of the principal textile fibers and threads; also methods of distinguishing them ; character- istics of yarn spun on the throstle frame, ring frame, and mule; also, the influence of twist upon yarn; treatment of cotton yarn whereby it is made to resemble «ilk, e. g., polishing and mercerizing (students have an opportunity of examining actual fibers and threads under the microscope); calculations relating to diameters of threads and their practical application-to fabric structure; to ascertain threads per inch required to maintain a cloth of similar character when altering the weave; to ascertain counts of yam required to maintain a cloth of similar character when altering threads per inch; to ascertain counts of yarn and threads per inch required to maintain a cloth of similar character when altering the weight; data affecting the selection of picks per inch, counts of warp, and weft, and weave, suitable for fabrics for specific pur- poses; also the characteristics of warp and weft yarn most suitable for various classes of fabrics; common defects in fabrics caused by faulty preparation of the warp, faulty construction, and unequal balancing of warp and weft; structure and analysis of — also designing and cai-d cutting for — and methods of gaiting looms to weave the fol- lowing types of fabrics, namely: Alhambra and honeycomb quilting; also piques or toilet welts; matelasses for cotton vesting; toilet quilting with two picks to a card, three picks to a card, four picks to a card — (1) loose back and (2) half-fast or stock- ing back — five picks to a card, fast back; improved Mitcheline, otherwise known as patent satin quilting; Kidderminster or Scotch carpet; tapestries with one warp and two wefts, two warps and one weft, two warps and two wefts, two warps and three wefts; figured terry-pile fabrics with three picks to a card, five picks to a card; plain and figured velvets and plushes; pile carpets — tapestry, Brussels, and Wilton; figured leno brocade; combination lappet and gauze figuring; swivel and gauze; also com- bination pile and brocade figuring; construction of Jacquard lifting cams; Bolton and district standard list of prices for weaving toilet, honeycomb, Alhambra, and tapestry quilts; uniform list, also Eadcliffe and district list of prices for weaving; calculations involved in determining the departmental and total cost of producing a piece of cloth when values of material and labor are given. Section A comprises a course in textile decorative design and may be taken by second-year students also. The examinations for this section are both written and 'practical. Each candidate is required to prepare at least two original designs occu- pying not less than 192 ends and 168 picks, and to weave a specimen of cloth embody- ing either of the two designs. The designs and woven specimens must be vouched for as being the candidate's own work. The course of study comprises a course of lectures on decorative art principles of both form and color and the prepara- tion of sketches and designs for Jacquard looms. These are illustrated by a set of lithographic reproductions of fabrics in the South Kensington Museum; also by the Grammar of Ornament, by Owen Jones, and by many other works of art; and also by a large collection of textile fabrics and diagrams. 1020 KEPOBT OF THE C0MMIS8I0NEK OF LABOR. The lecture course treats of the following subjects: The function of ornament and the various means bywhich textile fabrics are decorated; the principles of ornament as deduced from natural forms, and examples of good ornament; classes of ornament, namely: mnemonic, symbolic, and aesthetic; styles of ornament, namely, realistic or natural, conventional or abstracted, and naturalistic. The use of animal figures in textile ornament. The study of plant forms; also their utility and application in textile ornament; characteristic of growth in plant forms; stem and branch junc- tions, leaves, and flowers; construction of useful elementary geometric forms; vari- ous bases or plannings for an all-over design, and the faults to be chiefly guarded against; methods of preparing sketches for Jacquard designs; color — its purpose; also its value for decorative purposes; light — the source of color (demonstrated); tran- sient or ethereal color as exemplified in the rainbow and in other spectra; also mate- rial or pigment color, as paint; classes of colors — primaries, and their combination to produce secondaries and tertiaries; theory of harmony and contrast of color accord- ing to M. Chevreul; attributes of colors; application of color to textiles, and the modification it undergoes according to the nature of fiber and character of fabric to which it is applied; character and style of ornament and coloring most suitable for various fabrics; characteristic features of form and coloring as exemplified in the more notable historic styles of textile ornament. The course in sketching and designing Jacquard patterns is devoted to the practical application of the knowledge obtained from the preceding lectures and will include the preparation of sketches and their execution into designs suitable for various types of fabrics as enumerated in the syllabus of the General Section. Also honors students intending to sit for examination in Section A will prepare their sketches and designs under the supervision of the teacher. Section B furnishes a lecture course on mill management, as follows: Comparative merits of various systems of preparing warps for gray, colored, and mixed goods; selection of machinery plant for manufacturing goods in which cotton predominates; also the relative capacity of each machine; the most desirable situation for a weaving mill, as regards soil, winds, climate, and also proximity to a market town; most important considerations to be observed in planning a weaving mill; arrangement of various departments with regard to economical working and oversight; natural and artificial lighting; comparative merits of coal gas, acetylene gas, and electricity for weaving sheds; ventilation, humidification, heating, and sanitation of a weav- ing mill; insurance of buildings, plant, and stock; common causes of mill fires and precautions to adopt in order to prevent their origin and spread; fire appliances — both hand and automatic; transmission of motive power by means of toothed wheels, belts, and ropes, looms driven by electricity; speed of main shafting, size of pulleys, and most suitable speed for various kinds of looms; the construction and most important features relating to the manufacture of the following specialties, namely: Two separate and distinct cloths woven one above the other at the same time and in the same loom; cloth woven double width; pillowslips woven without seam; hose piping; lamp wick, flat and circular; cotton and other woven belting for driving; ribbons, tapes, trousers suspenders, skirt belting (straight and shaped), and ladder tape for Venetian blinds. There is a practical weaving course for second and third year students which all students who enter for section A are advised to take. This course comprises pirn winding, drum winding, mill warping, Yorkshire dressing or beaming, and drawing- in; designing; card cutting and lacing; weaving on handlooms with treadles, dob- bies, and Jacquard machines; also on power looms with tappets, various types of dobbies, single and double acting Jacquard machines, rising and falling shuttle-box motions, and circular or revolving shuttle-box motions. These looms are principally equipped for the production of such fabrics as best represent the types of Bolton and district manufactures, and are therefore of special value to those engaged in, or TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION — GEE AT BRITAIN. 1021 desirous of- acquiring a knowledge of, their manufacture. Each student receives sam- ples of cloth woven, with full particulars of their manufacture. COTTON DYEING, BLEACHING, AND PRINTING. The course in cotton dyeing is as follows: Cotton and other vegetable fibers: Origin; physical structure; chemical composition; action of chemical agents, etc. ; general characters of flax, jute, hemp, and China grass fibers. Processes preliminary to dyeing: Boiling, bleaching (yarn cloth), methods, and machinery employed. Water: Impurities and their influence; methods of detec- tion, correction, and purification. Mordants: Theories of dyeing; role of mordants in general; pigments and coloring principles. The natural coloring matters: Indigo, logwood, brazilwood, peachwood, old fustic, Persian berries, quercitron bark, cetechu, tannin matters; their origin, general characters, methods of application, coloring priu- • ciples, commercial preparations, etc. The mineral coloring matters: Methods of dye- ing chrome yellow, iron buff, manganese brown, Prussian blue. The special treat- ment required in the dyeing and finishing of yarn and cloth made from cotton, linen, jute, or other vegetable fibers; calculation of the cost of dyeing. Methods of making dyeing experiments. The course in bleaching comprises the following subjects: Vegetable fibers: Cotton, linen, China grass, etc.; origin and mode of separating the fibers from the plants; retting; physical and chemical structure and properties; action of chemical agents upon the fibers; detection of the different fibers; their nat- ural impurities, and such as are contracted during spinning and weaving. Theory of bleaching: Mode of using, and action of the various agents employed in bleaching, e. g., acids, alkalies, lime, hypochlorites, rosin, soap, antichlores, et<;. Theory of bleaching; chemicals used in bleaching and finishing; method of ascertaining their com- mercial value, detecting impurities, etc. Machinery, construction and use of: Singe- ing and shearing machines; high and low pressure boiling pots or "kiers;" Mather's steamer kier; limeing, scouring, chemicking, and vv'ashing machines; rubbing boards; squeezers, hydro-extractors; scutchers and openers; drying machines; water, starch, and dry mangles; back-starching machines; stentering machines; stretching and damping machines; calendars, beetling machines, etc. Water, with special reference to bleaching and finishing: Mode of determining the presence of impurities by chem- ical analysis or otherwise; methods of purification by mechanical and chemical means; purification of waste liquors. Practical operations: Pull details of the processes employed in the bleaching and finishing of cotton yarn, thread, and cops; calico (market bleach, Turkey-red bleach, madder bleach); muslins, lace curtains, etc.; linen yarn, thread, and cloth. New processes and machinery proposed for or adopted in bleaching and finishing. The course in cotton printing includes vegetable fibers; bleaching of cotton and linen cloth; general theories of dyeing; mordants; coloring matter — natural color- ing matter, artificial coloring matter; color mixing; styles of printing; water, with special reference to bleaching and printing; practical operations of the dyeing, print- ing, finishing, and other departments; mechanism of printing — hand or block print- ing — its defects and advantages; fastness of colors — actions of acids, alkalies, oxidizing and reducing agents, soap solution at various temperatures, light, etc., upon dyed and printed colors; mode of making experiments in color mixing, dyeing, printing, ^tc. The courses in electrical and mechanical engineering cover the usual subjects taught in such courses. The course in plumbing and sanitary engineering embraces thorough instruction in the technology of the trade and the necessary practical shopwork. 1022 REPOET OF THE COMMISSIOJSTER OF EABOK. There is a course in carpentry and joinery, covering broadly the theory of the trade. In the preliminary grade the simpler principles of the trade are taken up and the student is led gradually into the more difficult problems of the ordinary grade. This latter grade takes up properties of different kinds of building woods, the uses of tools, applied mechanical drawings, the proportions of the parts of a house, moldings, bevels, stairs, joints, hinges, trussings, casements, and sky- lights, also plumbing and slating. These studies in theory are supple- mented with shop practice covering twenty exercises designed to develop skilled workmen. A course in building construction covers the technology of brick- work, masonry, carpentry, founders and smiths' work, slating, joinery, and plumbers' Avork. After this are studied the nature, characteristics, quality, and defects of the materials in general use by builders; the strength of uiaterials — resistance to tension and compression, safe working stress, limit of elasticity, dead and live loads, stresses in sim- ple frames, etc. ; scaffolding, appliances for hoisting blocks and falls, derrick, etc., and general construction details, such as excavations and foundations, drains and sewers, the various kinds of walls, fiu«s, and chimney shafts, floors and roofs (iron, concrete, and wood), prepara- tions for plastering and plumbing, inside furnishings and finishings, and general specifications of labor and materials required in the various branches of the building trade. Those taking this course are admitted to the practical courses in painters' and decorators' work and wood turning. The course in wood carving is intended to benefit apprentices and others engaged in architectural decoration, cabinetmaking, pattern- making, joinery, coach building, and wheelwright work. The instruc- tion covers the suitableness of different kinds of woods for various purposes; the different kinds of tools, how to keep them in order, and methods of using them, and thorough practical work. The school offers instruction in typography, covering quite fully the prime essentials of the printer's art. The course covers tools and appliances, sizes and relations of types, general principles of compo- sition, hand and linotype composition, news, job, and book work, ornament and display, hand, platen, and machine presses; roller com- position, sizes and qualities of paper, estimates, printers' accounts, and general office management. All information given is thoroughly practical in character, and students are passed upon an examination in practical tests. There are other courses for men and boys which appear to be rather too advanced to apply to strictly t^ade or technical callings. Among these are theoretical, experimental, and applied mechanics; magnetism and electricity; chemistry; mining and mine surveying; theoretical and practical metallurgy, and steam and steam engines. This last course. TRADE AJSD TECHNICAL EDUCATION — GEEAT BEITAIN. 1023 Avliile technical in great degree, seems to go beyond the requirements of ordinary steam engineers. The school provides a course of cookery lectures and demonstra- tions, but it seems to be designed rather to assist housewives than to prepare women to take up cooking as a means of earning a living. In addition to the various industrial courses there has recently been added a commercial course. The object of the instruction in this course is to train men to handle and dispose of the manufactured products of the town. The school is taking the broad position that the people of a community not only should be "able to produce articles of trade in the most skillful and economical manner, but should be educated in the science and practical applications of commerce so as to place those articles in successful competition with those produced in other communities. The school is controBed by a technical instruction committee, con- ^sisting of the mayor and 26 other members, of whom 15 are councilmen. The total registration in the evening school for the year ending in 1900 was 2,4:00. Of this number 938 were in the technological depart- ment, 168 took practical work in spinning, and 199 took theoretical courses in the same line. The registration in the day school was 200. Labor unions have always been friendly. Both engineering instruct- ors are unionists. The vice chairman of the technical committee is a pi'ominent officer of the trade council, and there are also on the com- mittee representatives of the spinners and of the cooperative society. The cooperative society has an arrangement by v/hich it pays half of the fees of those whose average attendance is at least 80 per cent. About 1,000- students attend under this arrangement. Employers prefer school-trained workmen, and a number of firms pay tuition for those of their apprentices who can pass the entrance examination, and give them books and instruments. The results of this action have been highly gratifying, and some 400 or 500 youths are" now enjoying the advantages of these scholarships. It is possible for former pupils to enter upon some trades without serving an apprenticeship, but the management does not consider it wise for apprentices to obtain all their training in the school. Fully 90 per cent of the evening school students are apprentices in shops and factories. BBADFOBD MUNICIPAL TECHNICAL COLLEGE, BBADFOBD. In March, 1878, this school was opened with nearly -±00 students. The urgent demand for a suitable building led the mayor to call a meeting of those interested, and the result of this meeting was sub- scriptions to the amount of £11,000 ($53,532), which was soon increased to £17,000 ($82,781). The new building, which, with its equipment, cost nearly £40,000 ($194,660), was opened in 1882. Subsequent addi- tions swelled this amount to £50,000 ($248,325). The question of 1024 EEPOET OF THE OOMMISSIONEB OF lABOB. maintenance was at first a serious and important consideration, the deficits from 1883 to 1887 amounting to nearly £9,000 ($4:3,799), but these were cleared off by local subscriptions to the jubilee fund. It was not until 1890 that the college received any substantial aid from public funds. The urgent need of further assistance raised the question of the desirability of transferring the management, and in 1899 the college became vested in the corporation of the city. A new scheme of management was adopted and is proving the wisdom of its projectors. As defined by this scheme, "the general object of the foundation shall be the maintenance of a technical col- lege under the technical instruction acts for persons above 14 years of age, subject to the provision that no secondary day school or school of science shall be carried on in the college, but that day and evening classes may be held in the subjects of art,- and of manual, scientific, or technical instruction connected with the trades and manu- factures of Bradford and the neighborhood, to which none shall be admitted under the age of 15 years except on the recommendation of the governing body of the school in which they have been taught, and in no case under the age of 14 years; also in advanced commercial subjects at day and evening classes, to which none shall be admitted under the age of 16 years." The work of the college is divided into four departments, textile industries, chemistry and dyeing, engineering, and applied art. In the textile industries department the idea that a satisfactory knowledge of the subjects taught can be obtained in evening classes has been abandoned, and the regular course of instruction is now given in the day school only. There are evening classes for specialized advanced work, designed for those already engaged in textile trades, and there are free elementary evening classes conducted in the board schools (elementary public schools) under the joint supervision of the technical school committee, the Bradford school board, and the head of the textile department of the college. These elementary classes are an essential part of the work of the college, and the students are taken to the college twice during each term (six times a year), that they may have the benefit of special lectures. The full regular course of instruction includes the consideration of the following subjects: Textile course: Nature and properties of raw materials, such as wool, cotton, silk, juto, and miscellaneous fibers; the various stages of preparation of these mate- rials, from carding and combing to twisting, along with the practical use of the neces- sary machinery; the building of cloths, with abundant practical exercises in experi- mental weaving on hand and power looms designed to produce fancy dress fabrics, linings, mantle cloths, coatings, shawls, rugs, and every description of woven fabrics; structural and color ornamentation, including practical application of color theories, color and weave effects, color blending, the selection of color ranges, simple spot and swivel coloring, and the coloring of elaborate figures for tapestries, plushes, brocades, TEADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION — GEE AT BEITAIN. 1025- etc. ; designing for plain, fancy, and i5gured textiles, including classification of woven textures, development of figures by means of weave, methods of utilizing extra weft or warp for additional weight or figuring or both in combination, the various types of intricate figured textiles, and the preparation of these various designs for the loom; pattern analysis and calculations; embroideries and embroidery machines, embrac- ing designing, ordinary embroidery and lace work, and the necessary practical work on machines, and a course of lectures in dyeing. The special evening classes for those already engaged in textile trades cover advanced instruction in dress goods designing and coloring; advanced figure design- ing; worsted coating, designing and coloring; pattern analysis and calculations; advanced cloth construction and testing; experimental and advanced weaving; prac- tical loom tuning; textile mechanics, and preparing, combing, and spinning. The fees and charges for materials for the full regular course amount to £3 10s. ($17.03) per term the first year and £3 15s. ($18.25) per term for the second and third years. The fees for the special advanced courses range from 7s. 6d. to £2 2s. (11.83 to $10.22) for the course. The department is equipped with every mechanical appliance neces- sary to enable students to have the same practical advantages that they would have in a factory. The general course of instruction in the chemistrj' and dyeing depart- ment extends over three years. The first year is devoted largely to chemical laboratorj'^ work and experimental dyeing, no less than 20^ hours out of 35i being devoted to these subjects. The remaining 15 hours are given to physics, mechanics, mathematics, and lectures. The second year covers practically the same subjects in the same man- ner, with the addition of structure of yarns and fabrics. The third j'^ear takes up color matching, chemical philosophj^, fuels, microscopy and crystallographv, but most of the time (28 hours j^er week out of 35) is spent in the chemical laboratory or dyehouse. A portion of the dj'ehouse work is done in the dyehouses of firms in the city. The A'arious subjects are treated very thoroughly. The dyeing lectures cover the origin, character, and methods of bleaching the chief vari- eties of cotton, linen, wool, silk, and other fibers; water suitable for dyeing and methods of testing and connecting natural waters; the origin, varieties, and coloring principles of such natural coloring matter as logwood, brazilwood, camwood, madder, cochineal, lacdye, orchil, safflower, quercitron, Persian berries, fustic, etc., and their application to different fibers, the shades produced by different mor- dants, stability of colors, etc., indigo dyeing in all its phases; the origin of coal-tar dyes; classification and chemistry of dyes; and the application and fastness of dyes. As has been suggested, great stress is laid on practical dyehouse work. No detail of practical work is omitted or neglected. The evening school provides special short courses in advanced woik for those who can not take, or do not need to take, the full regular day course. 9257—02 65 1026 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. The department is equipped with a dyehouse fitted up with modern machinery and implements, and an equipment of finishing machiner3'. The fees for the general course are £13 (|63.26) per year. The work of the engineering department is divided into four sec- tions, namely, (1) civil engineering, (2) mechanical engineering, (3) electrical engineei-ing, and (i) building trades and architecture, the last named being in conjunction with the art department. The depart- ment is supplied with suitable mechanical appliances for practical manual instruction in each section. The strictly engineering courses cover the usual ground in such courses in both theoretical and pi-actical shopwork. The course in building construction seems to be designed for practical builders and not for mere mechanics. General shop practice is provided in pattern-making, turning, and fitting and erect- ing, but this practice appears to be limited to the needs of the A'arious engineering courses. There is a theoiy and practice course in pho- tography, but it is not claimed that it prepares students to engage in the photograph business as a means of making a living. A plumbing course is provided for apprentices and young journeymen, which embraces the theory and practice of the trade in a very thorough manner. The full course prepares the student for examination for the certificate of the Vv'orshipful Company of Plumbers. The princi- ples and practice of horseshoeing are taught by a course of 10 lectures and 10 demonstrations in practice. The applied art department includes a system of instruction which is intended primarily to train students in becoming more expert in the artistic side of the industries of the citj". There are courses and lec- tures in design, painting, architecture, modeling, and drawing. The chief difficulty in the way of this kind of education has been the inability of those who need it most to pay for it. The college over- comes this by providing a scheme of free classes, catering to painters, decorators, and v/ood carvers. These classes are open to apprentices and intending apprentices. The first year the students work all day at the college; the second year they work half the day at the college and half the da}^ in a shop as apprentices to a master, and they are paid on the same basis as if they worked full time with the master. After the second year students are expected to attend evening classes during their apprenticeship. The wood-carving class differs from the above in that the students are apprenticed to the college. When suf- ficiently advanced they as.sist the head master-carver and are paid for their work. The term of apprenticeship is four j-ears, but it is expected that students will remain two years longer. The college teaching staff' consists of iO instructors. Many-of them have been workers at the trade the}' now teach, but as good lecturers are difficult to find among such men the heads of departments are not all practical workers, though they have a thorough knowledge of the subjects taught. TEADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION GBEAT BBITAIN. 1027 In 1900 thei'e were 800 evening pupils in textiles, dyeing, engi- neering, and building, and 200 in general culture. There were 200 day students in the technological department from 14 to 18 years old taking the three years' course either in dyeing, weaving, engineering, or applied art. In the year 1898-99 there was an enrollment of 1,317. The college occupies a handsome and commodious building, well equipped and adapted to its purpose. The staple industry of Bradford is textiles. A depression in this industrj' led to the establishment of the school, and good judges state that there has since been created a wider range and a higher order of products. Manufacturers declare that these beneficial results are largely due to the college. Employers are so eager to get students that it is difBcult to keep third-year men in the school. These stu- dents soon rise to responsible positions at good paying wages. They begin work as apprentices, but their superior training makes them more valuable than mere shop-trained apprentices. So successful and satisfactory have been the efforts of the manage- ment that another £50,000 (1243,325) building is necessary and will be built at. once. The income of the college for the year 1898 was £8,302 (?40,402). Of this amount the Bradford and West Riding county councils supplied £3,333 (116,220) and the science and art department £1,838 ($8,945); students' fees amounted to £1,552 ($7,553), and the remainder came principally from donations and subscriptions. MERCHANT VENTUREKS' TECHNICAL COLLEGE, BRISTOL. The object of this school is to provide complete preparation for an industrial career. Both day and evening classes are conducted. The day classes consist of a boys' school and college day classes. The boys' school admits boys not under 9 years of age to its lower classes. These classes are designed to give preliminary training as an essential basis for the more advanced courses of study in the upper forms of the school, and thej^ include the common school branches and French, drawing, simple designing, and elementary science. Advanc- ing from these lower grades, the pupils take up either the commercial course of the Bristol School of Commerce or a course in applied science preparatory to becoming skilled artisans, chemists, electricians, engi- neers, architects, contractors, medical men, etc. , or to entering the royal navy or the merchant service. The instruction continues on the foun- dation laid in the lower classes, and also includes manvial training in carpentry and forge work. German is taken up and French continued. The college day classes are open to both boys and girls over 15 years of age. These classes provide courses in mathematics, civil and mechanical engineering, electrical engineering and applied physics, building construction, chemistry and metallurgy, sanitary engineering, 1028 KEPOKT OF THE COMMISSIONEK OF LABOR. navigation, and University of London courses, besides courses cover- ing all compulsory subjects in civil-service examination for clerks of the second division. These courses appear to be very compi-ehensive and practical; but only the course in navigation, a carpenters' course in the department of building construction, and a plumbers' course in the department of sanitary engineering, come within the scope of this inquiry. These latter courses are somevyhat less practical than similar courses in the evening classes. The course in navigation prepares mariners for board of trade certificates as mate and master in the home trade; second mate, first mate, ordinarj'^ and extra master in the foreign trade, and second or chief engineer. The Bristol School of Commerce constitutes the commercial depart- ment of the college and offers thorough courses in the usual commer- cial subjects, including shorthand. The evening classes provide special courses in applied science, commercial courses similar to those of the commercial day classes, University of London matriculation classes, and technological courses in a number of trade subjects. Technological students are urged to attend the college classes in those science subjects which relate to their trades. The technical or trade courses are systematically arranged to cover a sufiicient period to make them thorough and complete, and to encourage students to take these systematic courses in their entirety. Fees for an entire course are fixed at a lower rate than the combined fees for the separate portions of the same. The composition fee is 2s. 6d. (61 cents) per session. Technological examinations are conducted by the Qitj and Guilds of London Institute, and all students are expected to enter for these examinations. The fees for the examinations are paid bj^ the governors. The evening technical courses comprise the following subjects: Bookbinding, boot and shoe manufacture, bread making, brickwork, carpentry and joinery, dressmaking, electric lighting and power dis- tribution, practical electro-technics, electric-light wiring, masonrj', mechanical engineering, metal-plate work, millinerj^, painters' and decoi'ators' work, pattern making, plasterers' work, plumbers' work, road-carriage building, telegraphy and telephony, typography, and wood carving. Of the detailed courses, some corresponding to similar courses described in connection with other schools are here omitted. The following are given in full: Bread making: Ordinary grade — Chemistry and heat as applied to baking; chem- ical composition of wheat and iiour; composition and properties of fat, starch, dex- trin, glucose, maltose, and albuminous matters of wheat; action of moisture, heat, and albuminoids on starch; fermentation; the microscope, as applied to the exami- nation of flour and yeast; practical bakehouse work; making patent yeast and Scotch flour barm; preparation of ferments, sponging and doughing; scaling, molding, and TEADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION — GREAT BEITAIN. 1029 proving of loaves; cleaning, firing, manipulating, and firing of oven; changes pro- duced during baking; cooling and storing of bread; bakehouse utensils. Honors grade — Flour — Leading characteristics; relative merits; flour testing and valuation; detection of adulteration, bakehouse testing routine; constituents of flour; constitu- tion of starch, saccharification, and fermentation; composition of gluten; diastases. Yeasts — Detection of adulteration; determination of gas-evolving power; patent yeasts; ferments and leavens. Various bread-making methods — Quantities, times, and temperatures; special breads and bread-making processes; fancy breads; aerat- ing bread. Bread-making machilnery — Steam, gas, and oil engines, hov/ to start, work, and keep in order. Baking — Ovens. Practical bakehouse management — The bakery, its ventilation, drainage, and sanitary arrangements, etc., factory acts in their relation to bakers. Candidates for honors are required to present themselves for a practical examina- tion on flour testing. Brickwork: Bricks; excavations; laying drainpipes; lime; cement; sand; mortar; concrete; foundations; damp courses; air bricks; dry areas; bond in brickwork; stone facing; hollow walls; fireplaces, coppers, and ovens; chimney shafts; arches; paving; pointing; black mortar, etc.; tiling; measuring brickwork, tiling, paving, concrete, etc. Candidates who have passed the written examination in brickwork may present themselves for a practical examination in that subject. Candidates who pass the practical examination receive a special certificate to that effect. The practical examination includes the following work: (1) Bricklaying — (a) Set- ting out work from architectural drawings. (6) Building and properly finishing, either with struck, or raked and pointed joint, as desired, any given piece of work. (2) Brickcutting — (a) Setting out work in detail from architectural drawings, and obtaining the templates, molds, etc. (6) Cutting and finishing any required piece of gauged work from templates and molds supplied. Dressmaking: Instruction is given in the theory and practice of dressmaking in preparation for the examinations of the City and Guilds of London Institute. The six classes are limited in number and students are expected to attend regularly and to sit for examinations. The advanced class is restricted to students who have already attended a dressmaking class in this college, or who possess suflicient elemen- tary knowledge of the subject. The courses include lectures on drafting patterns, and cutting out, making, and fitting dresses; also on materials, linings, quantities, cost, modes of fastening, uses of whalebone, various stitches used in dressmaking, etc. Each student is required to make up a body to fit herself properly, and to do such other work as the teachers may require. Electric lighting and power distribution: Preliminary course — General notions con- cerning current, resistance, and E. M. F. ; primary and secondary batteries; principles of magneto machines, dynamos, and alternators; the induction coil; principles of direct-current motors; electro-magnets; electric bells; systems of house wiring; meth- ods of jointing; materials used in installation work; wiring tubes; calculation of drop in mains, etc. Ordinary grade— Development of magneto-mechanical, E. M. F.; alternators; magnetic induction; hysteresis; calculation of windings for field magnets, transformers, etc. ; self-inductance; tractive power of magnets; choking coils; shunt, series, and compound wound dynamos; differential winding; drum and ring arma^ ture windings; direct-current motors; electric traction; efficiency of motors; starting switches; commercial instruments for measuring current; E. M. F., resistance, and power; the Euhmkorff coil; transformers; lightning guards; secondary batteries; arc and incandescent lamps, etc. Students attending the ordinary grade course ought to have passed in the elemen- tary stage of the board of education's examination in magnetism and electricity; or they should show that they have a sufficient knowledge of this subject. To obtain 1030 EEPORT Ol' THE C0M3I1SSIONEE OF LABOE. satisfactory results from the study of electro-technology, it is of the greatest advan- tage to possess a sound knowledge of the underlying principles of mathematics, elec- tricity and magnetism, and machine construction and drawing. Honors grade — This course is taken under one of the three heads, namely: (a) Electric instruments, etc.; (6) dynamos, and arc and incandescent lamps; (c) elec- trical power distribution. The work includes: The predetermination of characteristics; the theory of alter- nating current generators, motors, and transformers; polyphase generators, motors and transformers; power transmission; the measurement of alternating currents, volt- ages, and power, etc. In order to attend the honors course, students must have previously passed in the ordinary grade examination of the City and Guilds of London Institute. A fair knowledge of plane trigonometry is also necessary to follow parts of this course. The dynamo and testing room is open one evening in the week, when students have opportunities to experiment with the college dynamos, transformers, etc. Electric-light wiring class: Toward the end of the session a practical class is held for instruction in jointing electric-bell wires, house-lighting leads, and cables. No student is permitted to join this class unless he comes under one of the following heads: (1) Students who have made at least sixteen attendances at a class in mag- netism and electricity, or in electrical engineering, held in this college during the earlier portion of the same session; (2) students specially recommended by the pro- fessor of electrical engineering. Millinery: Instruction in this subject is in preparation for the examination of the City and Guilds of London Institute. The examination is practical and written, and is so arranged as to test the candidate's skill in millinery as well as her knowledge of the nature of the materials commonly worn. To obtain a certificate, candidates are required to pass in each of the parts 1, 2, and 3. 1. Practical examination: Each candidate is required to cut out, put together, and line a hat or bonnet or covered shape from a given measurement and copied from a given model. The candidate may also be required to make a straw shape, to make up bows, to execute an order from given instructions, and to do such other work connected with millinery as may be indicated at the time of the examination. The material required will be supplied by the institute. 2. The written examination: This includes questions on the following subjects: Parts of a hat or bonnet; how put together and how finished off; materials used for shape making; preparing the shape; covering shapes; quantity of material required for a hat or bonnet and cost when completed; stitches used in millinery; drawing a diagram of a plain hat; millinery trimmings and how they should be util- ized; measurements for headgear and mode of fitting shapes; methods of renovating materials and cleaning straw and felt; making and trimming of hats to match cos- tumes, and estimates of cost; methods of teaching millinery. 3. Specimen work: Each candidate is required in the six months preceding the examination to prepare the work described in the programme of the City and Guilds of London Institute. Painters' and decorators' work: Ordinary grade— Tools and brushes, etc.; pig- ments, oils, and varnishes; painting; distemper; paper hanging; gilding; bronzing; writing; graining and marbling; staining; decorating. Honors grade— The preceding subjects carried further, and also stippling, badger- ing, scumbling, glazing, and stenciling; sign writing; hanging ceiling paper, friezes, borders, dados, Anaglypta, Lincrusta, Cordelova, etc. Telegraphy and telephony: Ordinary grade— The fundamental principles of elec- tricity, units ot measurements, galvanometers, sliunts, resistance coils, condensers, the electrical testing room'; detection and removal of faults; telegraph and telephone TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDTJOATIOK &KEAT BRITAIN. 1031 lines, submarine cables; systems of telegrapby and telephony, faults, earth currents and electric disturbances; testing materials, etc. Honors grade: Telephony— Transmitters and receivers; reduction coils; telephone and telegraph instruments worked simultaneously; distance limits; metallic loop system; call bells; exchange systems; switches; automatic call boxes; Hughes's induc- tion balance. Typography: Ordinary grade— The examination consists of a paper of questions, and of a practical examination for compositors, held in a printing office. Candidates ■who are compositors, must pass in both parts of the examination to obtain a certifi- cate. The written examination is divided into two parts for (a) compositors, and (&) pressmen or machine managers. Candidates, according to their occupation, may select their questions from Sections I and II, or from Sections I and IH. The sections showing courses of instruction are as follows: I. General: Papers; the damping down of paper; counting; packing and keeping stock; the harmony of colors; sizes of jobs; folding, stitching, stabbing, and sewing. II. Composing: Lays of Greek, Hebrew, and German cases; casting up value of composition; margin; title-pages; notes, appendixes and indexes; mechanical quoins; paging; the point system of type bodies; working in companionships; type music; type founding. Classification of job work; color work; display work; curves and circles; rule bend- ing and twisting; ornament in display; borders; printing in colors. III. Press and machine work: Hand-press, platen, and single-cylinder machines; making register; use of points; rollers; inks; underlaying and overlaying; woodcuts and process blocks; stereotype plates; mounting blocks; printing with bronzes and leaf metals; the causes of slurring. The practical examination consists mainly of composition from manuscript or printed copy supplied to the candidate. Honors grade — The examination includes more diiBcult questions on the subjects required for the ordinary grade, and also on perfecting and rotary printing machines; it includes stereotyping, electrotyping, process blocks, accounts necessary for printers, etc. Wood carving: The course of instruction meets the requirements of carvers and apprentices desiring to obtain a better knowledge of their craft, and more particu- larly meets the needs of architectural and cabinet carvers. Amateurs who wish to gain a knowledge of carving are admitted to the class. Besides these full courses there are provided special courses in nearly all the subjects to meet the individual needs of those who for any reason do not desire a full course. There are two college buildings, erected and equipped at a cost of over £55,000. The departments are liberally furnished with the latest appliances for teaching the various subjects, and the laboratories and workshops are fitted with modern apparatus, machinery, and tools. The number of 'former students who are employed by prominent firms throughout the Kingdom shows the popularity of the work done in the college. MiruicrPAL TECHKICAL INSTITUTE AND SCHOOL OF AST, COVENTRY The origin of the technical education movement in this community was distinctly voluntary in character. In 1883, a substantial amount was subscribed for a capital fund and maintenance for five years. 1032 KEPOKT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOE. Numerous difBculties arose, and among the most troublesome was that of procuring a site. In March, 1887, this was relieved by the donation of a site with the buildings thereon, and in 1894: the school was opened. The buildings, while not imposing in appearance, cover a block in area and are well adapted to the requirements of the school. This school aims to teach science mainly in its application to trades and industries. It provides instruction and shop practice for appren- tices, journejniien, and foremen, and brings to their knowledge nevdy- discovered processes and methods for the purpose l)i improving any special trade -or of introducing new branches of industry. All departments are open to students of either sex not under fifteen years of age. Members of the institute are of two classes, student members and club members. The latter belong to societies or clubs permitted to hold their meetings at the institute and pay an annual fee of 2s. (49 cents) to the funds of the institute. Student members are such as pay class fees. Pupils need not work in the same line dur- ing the day, but preference is given to such and to sons of citizens. All must take theoretical as well as practical work, attending two and one-half hours twice a week for two years. The courses of instruction include horology, textiles, trades and handicrafts, commercial and domestic subjects, and practical science courses. Horological department: Complete instruction is given in the scientific principles of horology and all that relates to the making of a keyless watch movement, with full adjustment for compensation, isochronism, and position; practical work in the use of modern measuring instruments; use of tools; turning, filing, etc. ; gauges; train pivoting and planting, escapement making, handing, examining, springing, tinning, and the practical making of tools and gauges. The year's work is divided into three terms of ten weeks each. The first term is designed for junior apprentices, the second for senior apprentices, and the third is still more advanced. Besides the regu- lar course there is one in advanced theory designed to prepare students for the city guilds' honors grade. This class meets only in alternate sessions, the other session being given to the class in electricity as applied to horology. There are also special classes in the application of the Breguet spring and escapement making, and also one in practical electricity as applied to horology, and instrument and gauge making. In all the practical work sound workmanship is insisted upon. Textile school: This course covers three years and includes the preparation and manufacture of silk, the theory and practice of the art of weaving, designing, draft- ing, and card stamping. The first year's course embraces th'e construction of hand and power looms, the consideration of harness, sleys, reeds, and the parts of Jacquard and plain looms as used for making both plain and figured fabrics; the various methods of weighting warp beams and taking down work; winding, warping, and filling, and the machinery employed; counts of cotton and various sizes of silks; the "picking" mechanism of power looms, and the various methods of propelling shut- tles in ribbon looms; ties of simple fabrics, and designing and drafting. The second year advances on the subjects treated during the first year, and takes up card stamp- ing and analysis of simple fabrics. In this year are emphasized the reasons for the important place the handloom occupies in silk manufacture. The construction of satins, ottomans, terrys, and single and double faced twills is also thoroughly taught. TBABE AND TECHNICAL EDCCATIOK GBEAT BRITAIN. 1033 The third, year advances the student still farther along the lines covered during the first and second years and takes up the following new subjects: The nature and properties of the various European and Asiatic silks and the selection of the most suitable to employ in the manufacture of various articles, the amount of spin and throw calculated to give the best results in the production of different fabrics, counts of yarns and calculations of necessary amount of materials for a certain fabric, the various kinds of charging or weighting silks in dyeing, the manufacture of various kinds of silk fabrics, suitability of designs, perfection of cloth and harmony of colors, and finishing of fabrics. Students are required to prepare and execute a design of not less than 200 ends and 200 picks in each pattern or comber, and also a pattern of ijlain fabric, and forward the same to London before taking the course examina- tions of the City and Guilds of London Institute. Every student completing his course of instruction to the satisfaction of the committee is furnished with a certifi- cate which is intended to guarantee that he has a thorough knowledge of the art of weaving. The management of the school urges the attendance of women because of the inviting field ofiered them in silk manufacture. The trades and handicrafts department furnishes courses in plumb- ing, typography, pattern malting, and practical carpentry and joinery. There are both theoretical and practical classes in plumbing, but stu- dents can not take the practical course alone. The practical class is limited to 12. A two years' course is recommended, but not compul- sory. The instruction given embraces theorjr and practice according to the syllabus of the City and Guilds of London Institute. Since the class is limited to 12 students, boys must compete for admittance. As a consequence this is one of the most successful classes of the school. The instruction in typography follows the line of examination of the City and Guilds of London Institute. Students who complete the regular course are admitted for instruction on the linotype machine. The course of instruction in pattern making is thoroughly practical, and embraces the nature and properties of woods used in pattern ma,k- ing; tools, their names and uses; setting and sharpening tools, edge planing, halving, core prints, core boxes, foundry practice, and the relative shrinkage of metals. Students are strongly recommended to take the course in machine construction. The course in practical carpentry and joinery covers 1 year, and embraces the nature and properties of woods, tools (their names, shapes, uses, etc.), joints used in carpentry and joinery, application of joints to construction, and practical shop work. The number in each class is restricted to 10, so that each student may have a bench and a complete set of tools. The domestic department includes courses in dress cutting and mak- ing and in cookery. The object of the instruction in the dress cut- ting and making class is not so much to teach the trade of dressmaking as it is to prepare members to cut and fit dresses for themselves. The system taught is that of tailors' measurement, and the instruction is sound, practical, and complete. The cookery course covers plain household cookery, and does not seem to be designed to prepare stu- dents for the vocation of cooks as a means of earning a livelihood. 1034 KEPOET OF THE COMMISSIONER OE LABOE. The practical science courses embrace the usual subjects, some of which appear to have been ari-anged specially as auxiliary to the trade courses. The school is governed by a technical instruction committee consist- ing of 38 members, selected annually by the city council. Twelve members of the committee are members of the council. The teaching staff consists of 20 instructors. The enrollment for 1899-1900 was 620. The number of those taking practical instruction was 28 in horology, 37 in silk and ribbon weaving, and ,46 in the trades and handicrafts, besides a considerable number taking practical electrical courses. The school has proved of great practical benefit to the community, in that it saved silk manufacture from a great decline as a possible consequence of the French act of parliament on the export of raw silk. Labor unions have always been friendlj' to the school. The typo- graphical union requested that typography be taught in the school. There are no apprenticeship restrictions in Coventrj^ but former stu- dents always enter the shops as apprentices or else serve apprentice- ships while attending the evening classes. Students get good wages, and advance rapidly. The work of the school has been very satisfac- tory in al] respects, and is recognized by manufacturers and business men as an essential factor in the industrial and commercial life of the city. MUNICIPAL TECHNICAL SCHOOL, HOPWOOD LANE, HALIFAX. The building occupied by this school is about eight jears old, but the municipal corporation did not take over the school until 1898. The chief object is to provide instruction in the principles of those sciences which bear directly or indirectly upon trades and industries, and to show by experiment how those principles may be applied to their advancement. The aim of the school is distinct from that of the university colleges, inasmuch as it is designed to teach science solely with a view to its industrial and commercial applications, and not for the purpose of educating professional scientific men. It provides lectures and laboratory' and workshop practice for apprentices, journeymen, and foremen in the scientific principles underlying their respective trades and industries, and especially aims to bring to their knowledge newly discovered processes and methods, for the purpose of improving any special trade, or of introducing new branches of industry. The school is organized as follows: Day departments in wool and worsted spinning and cloth weaving for those youths of 15 years and upward who can devote the whole of their time to study; and day classes in art, wood carving, woodworking, dressmaking, needlework, cookery, laundry work, typewriting, etc. Evening departments and classes for persons already engaged during the day in handicrafts or business. TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION GREAT BRITAIN. 1035 The courses of instruction are specially arranged for apprentices, journeymen, and foremen employed in the industries of the borough and district, and embrace careful training in technical drawing, espe- cially in the scientific principles upon which these industries depend, together with practice in the laboratories (chemical, physical, mechan- ical), workshops (engineering, plumbing, woodworking, carpentrj" and joinery, house painting and decorating), and in the use of appliances, tools, and spinning and weaving machinery; also for the youth of Halifax, destined to a commercial career, a scheme of commercial education has been formulated by the Halifax incorporated chamber of commerce, and the technical instruction committee; also there is a course for women in dressmaking, millinery, needlework, cookerj^, laundry work, wood carving, and conmiercial subjects. Most of the technical classes are under the auspices of the City and Guilds of London Institute, and are intended to give workmen an opportunity of acquiring a knowledge of scientific principles and methods as applied to their trade. Upon the results of these exam- inations, certificates, prizes, and medals are awarded. The courses of instruction in the evening classes are designed to give systematic training in the principles of science and art as applied to the comm^erce and industry of Halifax and district, with especial I'eference to the following departments: Commercial knowledge, pure mathematics and physics, mechanical engineering, electrical engineer- ing, building trades, chemical industries, manufacture of textile goods, dressmaking, cookery, laundry work, etc., and art. There is no rule confining evening classes to those working at a trade, but the school is conducted on that basis. The school of commerce provides thorough instruction in such sub- jects as arithmetic, bookkeeping, shorthand, commercial geography and history, business methods, commercial science, and modern languages. The engineering courses are designed to fit students to iake impor- tant positions in engineering workshops. The chemistry and science classes are arranged with a view to mak- ing them thoroughly practical, so that the instruction given shall be of the greatest possible value to artisans and professional men. Various courses in dressmaking are arranged so as to afford women such instruction as will enable them to do their own family work or to engage in the dressmaking trade. The classes in millinery and cookery are designed to meet the needs of housekeepers. The instruction relating to the textile industries is most thorough and comprehensive. It embraces designing for all classes of goods, loom construction and tuning, yarn spinning, artistic designing, etc., and every endeavor is made to impart the practical knowledge neces- sary to fit students for taking important positions in factories. The .1036 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. instruction is thus of special value to those who are intending to be or are engaged in the spinning of yarns or in the design and manufacture of woven fabrics, in the buying and selling of yarns and woven fabrics, or in the manufacture and export of textile machinery. The course of instruction in the worsted spinning department extends over three j-ears, and is arranged with the view of giving a comprehensive training in the principles of spinning and their appli- cation to the various processes used. The course includes the theory and practice of worsted spinning, technical drawing, textile engineer- ing, practical mathematics, chemistry, and physics, in their application to fibers, material, and the various processes of yarn production. The complete course is divided as follows: Preliminary course: Worsted spinning (theory), technical drawing, practical mathematics, chemistry, and physics. First-year course: Worsted spinning (theory and practice), textile engineering, chemistry. Second-year course: Worsted spinning (theory and practice), textile engineering. Follow- ing is the course in detail: PRELIMINARY COURSE. Worsted spinning: Geographicai position and relation of wool-producing coun- tries — shearing, packing, and preparation of wool for the markets. Sale of wool, conditions of sale, types of wool and the terms used. Varieties of wool — their char- acteristic features, as seen in the wools of Great Britain, Saxony, Australia, South Africa, Tasmania, River Plata, and New Zealand. The structure of the wool fiber and its relation to the sheep. The chemical composition and physical properties of the wool fiber. The relation and position of the different qualities in the fleece, relative fineness, etc., of the fibers, weight of fleeces. Impurities in wool — methods of removal. Wool-washing machinery — MacNaught's, Petrie's, Eastwood & Ambler's, Perry's, Hoyle & Preston's; method of treating long, short, and skin wools. Scour- ing by means of the light oils — methods adopted and substances used. Nature of the soaps and alkalies used — methods of testing their value. The most suitable water and means of testing, temperature of scour — its importance. The utilization of waste scour, and recovery of oil, etc. Principles of drying, effect of moisture. Drying machines — hydro extractor, MacNaught's, Petrie's, Moore's, and others. The gill box. Calculations relating to gill boxes, speeds, drafts. Preparation of long wools, arrangement and description of machines. The knocker-off. Defects in preparing, fallers. Relative speeds and setting of parts. Removal of vegetable impurities, burrs, etc.; the burring machine. Carbonizing — methods adopted. Calculations relating to production, weights, and places where changes are made. Recapitulation. Technical drawing: Geometry — The use and care of drawing instruments; con- structions of regular polygons, general method; inscribed and circumscribed circles; circles passing-through three points or touching three lines; constructions required in geometrical patterns, drawing simple tracery, moldings; plain scale and scale of chords; proportional division of lines; plans, elevations, and sections of a simple nature taken from machine details. Free-hand drawing — This course comprises work with the pencil from diagrams and machines, and is intended to enable the student to make sketehes, from which he may afterwards make.flnished drawings to scale. Chemistry and physics : Chemistry — Chemical distinguished from physical changes; indestructibility of matter; elements and compounds; the action of heated copper TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION — GREAT BRITAIN. 1037 and mercury on air, and of heated iron on steam; production and properties of Jiydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen; water, its physical and chemical properties; water for textile purposes; hydrogen peroxide and ozone; the atmosphere, its composition and action on animal and vegetable life. Carbon — Combustion, fuels, etc.; sulphur, its oxides and oxyacids; chlorine; bleaching powder; acids and alkalies; ammonia, arsanic, antimony, phosphorus. A brief account of the following metals and their more important compounds: Potassium, sodium, copper, zinc, magnesium, calcium, tin, aluminum, lead, chromium, manganese, and iron. Physics — The physical prop- erties of the fibers, more especially their density, elasticity, and tenacity; the com- pound microscope and its application for measuring fibers and j'arns; heat, especially the consideration of hygrometry; the construction and use of humidifiers; ventila- tion; artificial lighting, etc. FIRST YEAR COURSE. Worsted spinning: The preparation of short wools — general construction of the carder; relation of the various rollers and their setting; various kinds of rollers; card clothing — materials used for foundations, and kinds of wire; particulars of clothing for long, medium, and short wools — grinding; relative speeds of rollers — calculation; balling head — construction and application; baokwashing, its necessity — tinting; substances used; requirements of process — Taylor Wordsworth's machine; Perry's nmltiple roller backwash; combing — objects of machines used; Noble's comb and accessories, with particulars of circles; Lister's comb; Holden's comb; Platts and Eastwood's comb; tops — their production, treatment of combed sliver, noils, combing results, costing of tops; conditioning and oiling of tops — ^amount allowed and niethods of testing; conditions for sale of tops, commission combing and agencies; recombing and treatment of colored slubbing; carding calculations; combing calculations; recapitulation. Practical spinning: The practical course in spinning consists of practice in erecting, setting, timing, and working the various machines, and in sampling, mixing, and testing the several varieties of wool slivers, rovings, yarns, and twists. Also in making complete drawings of the machines and their parts. Textile engineering: Engineering drawing — The use and care of drawing instru- ments; scales; elementary problems in plane geometry; meaning of plan, elevation, and section; exercises in drawing in pencil some of the following machine details from dimensioned sketches and from actual measurement: Nuts, bolts, rivets, screw threads, nut-locking arrangements, keys, shafting, couplings, bearings, etc. (The examples will be selected almost exclusively from spinning and weaving machiner3'. ) Applied mechanics — Units employed in mechanics; force; specification of a force; composition and resolution of forces; work; unit of work; graphical representation of T\rork problems; work done in actuating the treadles of a hand loom; the mech- anism of a steam engine; power; horsepower; moments; the lever, with special con- sideration of examples found on looms, e. g., treadles, jacks, drawing forward pin and warp governing arrangements; beams; simple machines; wheel and axle; pulley blocks; Weston pulley block; screw press; screw jack; worm and worm wheel, etc.; efficiency of a machine. Chemistry: Introduction to organic chemistry with regard to the more common hydrocarbons,- alcohols, acids, oils, and carbohydrates; the felting of wool and its causes; chemistry of the wood fiber and its natural impurities; scouring and bleach- ing of wool; testing of soap; alkalies and water; testing of colors; fastness to soap, light, etc; detection of the more important dye materials. SECOND YEAR COURSE. Worsted spinning: The various methods of drawuig for worsted yarns; objects of the process and their relative merits; open drawing for long, short, and medium 1038 REPOBT OF THE GOMMISBIONEK OF LABOK. wools; description of boxes and their relation; drawing, knociser off motion, and olytechnic in- stitutes or similar classes. In connection with each course of lectures in mechanics, electiicity, heat, and chemistry there is a corresponding course in practice. King Edward VII is president of the institute, and it is governed by a council which consists of 73 members. The teaching staff consists of 26 instructors. In 1900 there were about 240 day pupils in mechanical engineering and between 800 and 1,000 night pupils in physics. There were 16 in cabinetmaking, 25 in chemical industries, and 327 in elcctricit3\ The ages of day pupils range mostly from li to 19 years. The evening students range from li to 50 years of age, and the majoritj' of them are emploj'ed in shops or factories during the day. Experimental classes were begun in 1879 and the college was opened in 1883. Its work has been constantly progressive and, upon the whole, eminently satisfactory. BOKOTJGH POLYTECHNIC IITSTITTJTE, LONDON, S. E. The progress of this school may be traced as follows: Institute opened September 30, 1892; opening of Herold's Institute and the purchase of the freehold from the city of London, 1893; opening of the bakery school and five workshops, 1894; opening of domestic economy school, 1894; reconstruction of Herold's Institute as a leather- tanning school, and opening of Norwood branch, 1895; opening of technical day school for boys, 1897; new school of cookery, physics laboratory, Victoria gymnasium, and five workshops opened in 1898. Of the two branches mentioned above, one of them, Herold's Insti- tute, is devoted entirely to leather tanning and dyeing, while the other, Norwood Technical Institute, includes in its courses classes in science and art, commercial and general subjects, and domestic economy for girls. Technical and trade classes have been a strong feature of the insti- tute's work from the beginning, and the governors have always been desirous of developing the industrial side of education as much as possible. The instruction given is both theoretical and practical, and is designed to supplement the experience of the factory workshops. Admission to the trade classes is restricted to those engaged in the trades, and students are not allowed to attend for practical work only. Apprentices and improvers under 19 years of age, on producing a letter from their employer or foreman, are admitted to any special trade class at half fees. The regular courses in the builders', metal, engineering, and some other trades extend over three years. The first year's course is pre- liminary and general, and is the same for all the trades just mentioned. It includes practical mathematics from arithmetic to plane trigonom- etry, and technical, free-hand, and model drawing. The second and TEADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION GBEAT BRITAIN. 1063 third years cover the subjects of carpentry and joinery, bricklaying, plumbers' work, metal plate work, leather manufacture, and boot and shoe making. These courses are similar to courses in the same sub- jects described for preceding institutions and are not given in detail here. A special department kno^vn as ' ' The National School of Bakery and Confectionery " forms a very important part of the polytechnic work. It is supported by the National Association of Master Bakers and Confectioners, the London Master Bakers' Protection Societj", and the Scottish Association of Master Bakers, and is managed by the governing body of the Polytechnic through an ad\'isory committee appointed by the national association. The courses are very extended and thorough and are shown in detail. First are shown the day courses, which are as follows: Bread section: Course A — The work of this course is shown in tlie syllabus appended to Course G of the evening courses below. The preparation work of each lesson is taken in the mornings; the practical work in the evenings. Course B — Lectures and experimental work: Wheat, including germ, endosperm, and bran; atom, molecule, element, mixture, and compound, wili illustrations; yeast; preparation of the wheat berry for milling; acid, base, alkali, and salt, with illustrations; microscopical examination of yeast; constituents of flour; thermome- ters; microscopical examination of starches; specific heat; organisms that produce fermentation; gluten; the microscope; starch gelatinization; review of previous les- sons; gas evolving pow^er of yeasts (compressed); drying of starch after washing from flour; ovens, firing, stoking, etc. ; malt, composition, etc. ; mineral constituents of flour; estimation of potassiumand phosphoric acid; machine bakery management; specific gravity of worts; moisture and soluble extract in flour; saccharificatiou of malt, etc.; cellulose and fat estimation (Soxhlett's method); estimations of sugars. Course C — The morning work is marked a; the afternoon demonstrations 6. (a) Ferments; (6) ferment sponge and dough; (a) advantages and use of sponges; (6) sponge and dough; (o) ripeness of dough; (6) ferment dough; (a) weak and strong doughs; (6) off-hand dough conducted over a period of twelve hours; {a) patent yeast; (6) ferment sponge and dough from patent yeast; (a) specific gravity of worts; (&) ferment dough (patent yeast); (o) Scotch-flour barm; (6) Scotch-flour barm (half-sponge process) ; (a) salt in bread making; (6) Scotch- flour barm (quarter-sponge process); (a) texture and pile of bread; (6) modern processes of Scotch bread making; {a) brewers' yeast; (&) ferment sponge and dough from liquid bread yeast; (a) hard and soft water, their action; (6) ferment and dough (liquid brewers' yeast); (a) different flavors in bread; (6) sponge and dough (liquid brewers' yeast); (a) compressed yeasts; (6) ferment and dough (compressed yeast); (a) holes in bread; (6) sponges and dough from compressed yeast; (o) sour bread; (6) off-hand dough (compressed yeast); (a) ropy bread; (6) review of the work of the course; (o) spontaneous fermentation; (6) leavened bread; (a) Hunga- rian flour; (6) Vienna bread; (a) flours resembling Hungarian; (&) Vienna bread from such flours; (a) wholemeal; (6) whole-meal bread; (a) action of an acid and soda upon each other; (6) whole-meal bread with chemicals for aeration; (a) germ and other varieties of meal; (6) manufacture of bread from these; (a) potatoes in bread making; (6) ferment and dough with potatoes as yeast food; (a) scalded flour as yeast food; (6) ferment and dough with scalded flour as yeast food; (o) malt extracts, their value in bread making; (6) ferment and dough with malt extract aa yeast food; (a) diastase in bread making; (6) ferment and dough with diastase aa yeast food. 10G4 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OP LABOR. Confectionery section: Course D — The articles are taken consecutively: Puff paste; rock ard rice; puff paste (French); Bath buns; sultanas; bouchfes de dames; Genoa goods; lobster patties; tarts; fancy gateaux cases; light genois; babas and saverins; vol-au-vent; butter biscuits; veal and ham patties; sausage rolla; sultana cake; plain buns; cake; French puff paste; tennis cakes; plain patties; cream tarts; mince-meat; Christmas pudding; mince pies; plain buns; sultana buns; madeleines; sultana scones; Bath buns; artichokes; seed cake; oyster or chicken patties; cheese cake; hazelnut cake; heavy Genoa; petit four glace; Scotch buns; cocoanut biscuits; cur- rant cake; sultana and other scones; Madeira cake; torte de vienois; cocoanut cake; wedding cake; almond icing; light genois; light genois into raspberry cakes. Course E — The articles are taken consecutively: Wine biscuits; macaroons; sponge cake; pompadours; fondant; dessert — sweets; ginger nuts; fancy biscuits; Scotch shortbread; gdteaux St. Honor^ and mocha; small nougat cases; French fancy bis- cuits; marzipan mixture and Hill's process; fancy meringues; sugar boiling; entremets aux crfime; large nougat cases; route biscuits; chemistry of sugar; finish route; tipsy cake; langue de chat; petit Madeleine; whole-meal biscuits; cocoa- nut macaroons; Savoy biscuits; almond dessert; chocolate fondant; dattes diamants; ratifias; haricottes biscuits; hoUandaise biscuits; gingerbread; small meringues; nougat cases, small; petit four sec k la poche; marzipan fruits; biscuit a la reine; mascottes aux chocolat; entremets with cream; preserving of pineapples; chemistry of butter; seed and Genoa block; small almond dessert. Course F — Advanced v/ork, mornings, 10 till 1. The rest of the work is Course M below: Marzipan work, roses, etc.; decorating of cakes with fruit; ices, strawberry cream; preserve of fruit pulps; clear jellies stock; maraschino jellies, decorated; lemon water ice; fancy ices, dessert fruit and flower; soufl^es de noisettes, large; creams, strawberry or maraschino; marzipan cake; ices, their different degrees and amalga- mation; decoration of trocaderos cakes with fruit; writing of inscriptions; writing on chocolate tablets for birthday cakes; piping of cake tops, "dummies;" kirsch jelly; tangerin ice; ice "bomb's;" strawberry souffles; modeling of fruits in marzi- pan; decorating of birthday cakes with fruit; chemistry of sugar; ice sorbet. The session for evening students opens on Mondaj^, September 26, and ends with the examinations in bread making. The evening courses are as follows: Bread Section: Course G— Practical course, taken both by day and evening students. The seven phases in the life of a loaf; off-hand dough, demonstrating the former lecture, conducted over a long, a medium, and a short period of time; off-hand dough, conducted on the same lines, with potatoes, malt extract, scalded flour, sugar, and diastase as yeast food; off-hand dough made with an excessive quantity of yeast; visits to a yeast factory, a mill, a machine bakery, a cake and biscuit factory, and two machine works; Vienna bread; off-hand dough, with average quantity of yeast and high temperature; bro^^n and other varieties of meal bread with yeast and chemicals as aerating agents; off-hand dough, conducted over the shortest time pos- sible; general review of results and conclusions. Course H— Advanced theoretical course. The wheat berry, with lantern demon- strations, etc., including symbols, formuhe, etc.; yeast; milling; fermentation; yeast growth; flour; heat; gluten from various flours; -microscopical instruction; saccharifi- cation of starch, etc.; gas evolving power of brewers', patent, and distillers' yeasts; maize starch in breadmaking; ovens; malt extract in breadmaking; time and heat in relation to breadmaking; machinery and belting; experiments on yeast growth; acidity in bread or flour; diastasic capacity of malt extract, by Litner's method; gluten estimation, etc. ; bakehouse management. Course J— Practical course. The syllabus of this course is that of Course B of the day courses. TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION GEEAT BRITAIN. 1065 Confectionery section: Course K — Eclairs and choux; plain madeira; rice cake; Scotch madeira; light chocolate and hazelnut cates; Dundee cake; meringues; Russian cakes; Genoa for fancy goods; Christmas cakes; Madeleine, large; plain and seed hlock cake; puff paste; rich currant cake; light genois for gateaux; butter bis- cuits; Chutz biscuits; sponge mixture for fancy goods; Victoria sandwiches and pommes de tefre; ^varm meringues mixtxire; sugar boiling; mince meat. Course L — Meringues; marzipan; fondant; caramel dessert; route biscuits; fancy gdteaux (French) ; sugar spinning; dessert — sweets; trifle; pineapples, and how to preserve them; finish genois; finish Christmas cake; small almond dessert; sultana scones; Edinburgh cake; cherry cake; cocoanut block cake; ice and decocate tennis cake; Christmas pudding; finish mixture; entremets charlotte russe; ices; fancy bis- cuits; Savoy biscuits. Course M — The course is in piping only, elementary and advanced, and for all students, day and evening. Icing sugar; piping general; piping cake tops and sides of cake; how to ice cakes proper; piping dummies and chocolate tablets; decorating birthday cakes; piping wedding cakes; piping sugar roses; ice and pipe dummies; inscriptions on cake tops; piping birthday cakes, wedding cakes; Christmas cakes, and bride cake. There are classes for ladies' tailors and dressmakers in the school which are intended primarily for professional dressmakers, but . apprentices are admitted at half fees on a letter from their employers. The course is divided into three sections and covers very fully the whole subject of the trade. Besides the classes already enumerated there are courses more or less extended in pattern making, men's tailoring, letterpress printing, bookbinding, wood carving, wheelwrigbting, and cart building, and a number of general and domestic subjects. The teachers are actual craftsmen. They conduct lectures one night and trade classes the next. Practical training is regarded as a vital necessity for an instructor. Even a teacher of chemistry must have practical knowledge of its application to some trade. The annual enrollment has steadily increased until more than 2,000 men and nearly 1,000 women- paid admission fees in 1897-98. The school has increased the general intelligence and efBciency of the working classes. Its pupils are saved two years of drudgery in workshops if they enter the Polytechnic direct from the elementary schools, and they go into the shops prepared to complete their appren- ticeship by the time they are 21 years old. The school has been the means of improving shop training, and employers in some instances recognize the worth of the school hj giving prizes. At first labor unions opposed the school, but that opposition has disappeared. Altogether the work of the school has been satisfactory. BOLT COURT TECHNICAL, SCHOOL, 6 BOLT COXTKT, FLEET STSEET, LONDON, E. C. This school was founded by the National Society of Lithographic Artists, and was at first aided by the technical education board and the county council. Later the board and council took entire charge and it thus became a municipal institution. 1066 EEPOKT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOK. The object of the school is to give instruction in producing surfaces for printing. Of the various classes held sonae are concerned with the more artistic side of the work, others with the technical, but there is no real line of demarcation between the two, either in intention or practice, the division being made solely for convenience of teaching. Instruction is given in drawing, design, lettering, lithography, ele- mentary photography, photographic copying, and the chief photo- mechanical processes. The school is open to those who are engaged in any branch of the trade, but no provision whatever is made for amateurs. The technical education board considers applications from parents who intend placing their sons as apprentices, but such students must be duly apprenticed within some arranged period of time. The practical instruction is not intended to replace work- shop training but is preparatory or supplementary to it, and has for its object the giving to those engaged in one department of a craft a knowledge of allied branches which in the ordinary course of the trade thej'^ can not obtain. The fees for day students are £9 (143.80) a year, and for evening students 7s. 6d. ( 11.83) per term; but in cases of students whose weekly ' income does not exceed 30s. (17.30) this fee is reduced to 3s. (73 cents) per term. Each school year comprises three terms. There are 160 competitive art scholarships, ranging in value from £5 to £20 ($24.33 to ^97.33), and free tuition for from two to three years. The full course of instruction maj be divided under three general heads, namely, drawing, technical art, and process work. The work in the drawing class includes drawing and painting from figure and from costume model, drawing and painting in color from natural forms, draperies, etc., and drawing and painting from the antique and casts from life and natural objects, such as flowers, plants, birds, etc. The technical art classes have instruction in design as it relates to the ornamentation of surfaces, and special attention is given to book decoration, such as lettering, type, and various kinds of work required in the printing trade. The class in lithography is instructed in draw- ing on polished stone (pen work), on grained stone (chalk work), on transfer and other papers, and on zinc and aluminum; lithography in color; combinations of lithography with process work, as collotype and half-tone, and instruction in the use of Day's shading media. The classes in process work begin with negative making, which deals with the production of negatives and positives required for the various photo-mechanical processes, and also for the production of pictures, etc., by the usual photographic printing methods. Begin- ners receive instruction in the technology and practice of ordinary negative making and silver printing; they are then advanced to line and continuous tone negative making, screen negativ-e making, and tricolor block making. Then are taken up in order ordinary color TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION GREAT BRITAIN. 1067 photography and measurement and half-tono process work and the scientific application of the same. Following negative making the various printing processes are taken up, beginning with line and tone blocks on zinc and followed in succession by instruction in enameline or "fish glue" in its application to half-tone blocks in zinc, copper and Ijrass; fine etching; collotj'pe, and photolithography in line and tone. The school has experienced some diiJicult^' in securing good teachers fi"om ordinary sources, and all of the instructors are taken from shops. In 1898-99 there were 243 students, of whom 201 were in evening classes. Of the 42 day students, 28 were in the art department only, and 14 were taking photo-process work. The ages of students range from 14 to 56 years, though most of them are from 20 to 28 years of age. The school is well equipped with the necessary appliances for study' and practical work. The art studios are well arranged and well lighted, and the photographic and printing rooms are fitted with all modern requirements. While the school was founded by a trade union, there was at one time strong prejudice against any trade school or trade paper reveal- ing the then secret processes of photography. This has partially disappeared. Former students are required to serve as apprentices, but they command ready employment and advance rapidly in their trade. The industry which the school was intended to help has been benefited and the work of the institution has proved entirely satisfac- tory. BATTEESEA POLYTECHNIC, BATTERSEA PABK BOAD, liONDOW, S.W. This institution is an outcome of the work of the South London polytechnic committee, and is designed to provide technical, scientific, and general education for the inhabitants of this and neighboring districts. The foundation stone was laid in 1891 and the buildings were formally opened in 1894. The buildings and equipment cost £80,000 (1389,320). The school has a fixed annual endowment of £3,500 (117,033) from the City Parochial Foundation, and the London Technical Education Board also contributes annually about the same amount. Membership of the institute is open to any student, male or female, between the ages of 16 and 25 years, upon payment of a registration fee of Is. (24 cents) and a subscription of 6s. ($1.46) per year for men and of 38. (73 cents) per year for women. A few students above the age of 25 are admitted by the governing body upon the same terms as noted above for men. The day school is open to those pre- paring to enter the ordinary apprenticeships and to those already 1068 BEPOET OF THE COMMISSIONEE OF LABOK. apprenticed, if they can be absent from their employment for one or more half days weekly. The principal work of the institute, however, is the provision of evening classes in all subjects of technology, science, art, commerce, domestic economy, and music. While the courses of study are largely elective, students who can attend several sessions are strongly advised to undertake a progressive and properly connected course ranging over two, three, or more years. Trade students are impressed with the importance of having some knowledge of the sciences underlying their trade if they desire a thoroughly sound trade education. Some of the more important trade courses are shown in some detail on the following pages. These classes are open only to persons actually working in the trades. Students may take the lecture courses with- out joining the workshop classes, but all who enter the shop classes must also take the lecture courses. Fitting and machine shop : All students in this subject must attend a class in draw- ing, mensuration, or some other kindred subject, unless specially exempted. The course includes, besides drawing, lectures upon such lines as the various needs of students may require, and practical shop work according to their needs. Instruction is, as far as possible, individual. The shop is provided with lathes, drilling, planing, shaping, and milling machines, so that engineering students and others may receive instruction in the working of all ordinary machine tools. Smith's work: This course is very much the same as that for machinists, except that forge work takes the place of machine-tool work. Drawing and plate work: These classes are specially intended to meet the require- ments of the marker off, plater, angle smith, and metal-plate worker. The work is thoroughly practical and is directly applicable to the setting out of all plates in the construction of various steam boilers, and for the development of uptakes, smoke- boxes, funnels, ventilators, hoods, etc. The student is required to make working drawings and then make models in the steel-plate workshop. Cycle construction: Half the time allotted to this course is devoted to lectures, drawing and testing, and half to workshop practice. The lectures cover elementary mechanical principles applicable to cycle construction, qualities and treatment of materials for cycle purposes, types of frames, strength of tubes, compression, ten- sion, torsion, bending, shearing, strength and weakness of frames, springs, wheels, bearings, tires, and cycle details in general. Drawing includes geometry, circles, polygons, cone and sections, frames, wheels, hubs, pedals, chains, gear wheels, bevel gear, and all other parts, besides designing. The class is provided with a testing machine fitted with exact measuring arrangements for testing all cycle parts under practical conditions. Practical shopwork includes turning, fitting, screw cutting, building wheels, setting up frames, milling cranks, brazing, forging, hardening, and tempering, and all the other operations necessary in making a cycle. Pattern making: The work of this class comprises the setting out and making of patterns under the direction of the instructor, and includes lessons on timber and tools used, rules for contraction, ring segments, jointing, doweling, pegging, rapping plates, lifting straps, use of hollows in castings, use of prints, core boxes, core boards, core templates, and other work relating to general engineering patterns. Eegular courses of work are arranged for beginners and apprentices, and as far as possible the work done is adapted to the individual requirements of students, who may, if they desire, mold their own work in the foundry, thus gaining a thorough insight into their work. Students are required to attend drawing classes, unless they TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION GREAT BRITAIN. 1069 already possess sufficient knowlerlge of the subject to be able to make and read working drawings. Carpentry and joinery: This course is arranged to extend over three years, but if a student can pass the examinations in a shorter time he is permitted to do so. The lecture courses afford complete instruction in carpentry and joinery, and the work is arranged to suit the requirements of individual students. Students in this course are recommended to take up geometry, applied mechanics, building construction; and builders' mensuration. Staircasing and hand railing: The work done in the course includes proportions of treads and rises, landings, heights for rails over flyers and landings, methods of set- ting out and gluing up strings, etc., finding face molds and bevels by square-cut system of hand railing, marking out and squaring up wreaths, scrolls, etc., and designing stairs, rails, and balusters. A good knowledge of practical plane and solid geometry is essential to successful work in the classes. Brickwork : The full course covers two years. Students are first grounded in the technique of the trade by a series of lectures including the following subjects: First year — Technical drawing from sketches and specially prepared diagrams; the mean- ing of plan and elevation; various kinds of bonding; bond at acute and obtuse angles; walls and foundations; prevention of damp in walls; brick walls with stone facings; hollow walls, and window and door openings in same; fireplaces, coppers, and ovens, and arrangement and method of building smoke flues; arches, and bond- ing of same; patent and ornamental tiling; roof tiling; tile paving, etc. ; the various kinds of pointing; materials used by the bricklayer, limes, cements, concrete, bricks, sand, mortar, etc., their nature, properties, and characteristics; method of measuring bricklayers' work; sanitary work, method of laying drain pipes. Second year — Technical drawing, in the more advanced subjects; circular and octagonal bays, niches, domes, etc.; tunneling, vaulting, etc.; shoring and underpinning; intricate bonding in ordinary and gauged work; terra cotta, and its application to buildings; sanitary science as applicable to bricklayers' work; specifications of bricklayers' work; management of works; a general outline of the orders and styles of architecture. Practical shop work the first year includes instruction in gauged work, squaring of bricks, striking, cutting, and setting the various forms of arches; molded work; demonstration of bond, and examples of ornamental brickwork and pointing. The second year embraces advanced gauged work and ornamental brickwork. No stu- dent is allowed to begin practical work until he has passed a satisfactory examination ■on the lecture subjects. Masons' work: These classes are intended for apprentices and artisans engaged in masons' work. The instruction is thoroughly practical, and includes the application of descriptive geometry to masons' work, the making of working drawings, and set- ting out and executing the work in stone. Lectures covering every phase of the trade are given on one evening each week. Among the subjects embraced are set- ting out; squaring; jointing; bonding; setting out columns, pilasters, arches, niches, and doorways; setting out twisted stair work; vaultings, oriels; molding, skew arch, stone turning, etc. Students are also recommended to join classes in practical geometry, building construction, and builders' mensuration. Plumbers' work: This course is intended to take students just commencing the subject and carry them systematically through the various stages of the trade. Besides shop practice, including full instruction in lead bossing, pipe bending, lead laying, rolls and seams, wiping of joints, setting out work, etc., there is also a thorough lecture course covering the subjects of general sanitary arrangements and appliances for building drains, traps, baths, lavatories, sinks, water-closets, earth closets; ventilation; measuring and estimating work; methods of testing soil pipes, drains, etc. ; setting out work and making working drawings; methods of water supply, 1070 BEPOBT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. prevention of pollution; filters; cisterns; connection between disease and water, etc. ; weight, pressure, velocity, and discharge of water under different conditions; cocks, valves, pumps, rams, turbines, etc. ; properties and manufactures of the various metals and alloys used in plumbing; action upon metals of air, water, acids, sewage gases, etc. ; disposal of sewage; solders and fluxes; roofing, hot-water fitting, gas fitting, etc. Applied mechanics and building constniction are recommended as supplementary work. Plasterers' work: The course of instruction is thoroughly practical and includes short lessons on the composition, properties, and manufacture of the various materials used in the trade, together with practical work on building shop plastering. Some of the subjects covered are carton pierre, papier-mach^, casting and pressing in sand and Portland cement, setting out ceilings, running ovals, fluted columns, and stucco- work. Students are urged to join classes in the art department also. To obtain a full certificate students must pass examinations in free-hand drawing, model drawing, and modeling. Tailor cutting : Classes have been formed to provide instruction for men engaged in the various branches of the tailoring trade in cutting out all kinds of tailor-made garments. The lessons are thoroughly practical, and instruction is given in the making of different garments. There is a thorough technical and practical course in photography, covering every detail of the art from the simplest amateur work to the most complicated color photography. The school is equipped with every modern facility for gi\'ing the most satisfactory practical training. A women's department is devoted to trade instruction for women. A special course in cookery oilers a thorough training in plain and fancj' cooking, fitting students to enter successfully upon the duties of domestic cooks. Classes in professional dressmaking are arranged to cover all the requirements of the dressmaker's tirade. There is also given a full course in millinery, adapted to teachers and persons wishing special trade instruction. Short courses in home dressmak- ing, laundry, and other domestic subjects are arranged to meet the every-day needs of housewives. Engineering and chemistry occupj^ prominent places in the institute and thorough instruction is given in these subjects. The courses are laid out to meet the practical demands of students who expect to apply their knowledge to some particular line of work. Mathematics, physics, natural science, art, language, commercial subjects, and many other general subjects receive ample attention in the school. Alto- gether there. are about one hundred regular and special courses in all departments. The faculty is made up of an ample number of specially qualified instructors. All the practical instructors formerly held positions as foremen in shops. There are about 3,800 students in the evening classes, though some of them attend only a few weeks, and about 500 attend the day classes. More than one-third of all the students are entered in the mechanical engineering and building trades departments. The school occupies a splendid and commodious building equipped TKADB AN^) TECHNICAL EDUCATION — GBEAT BRITAIN. 1071 with all the necessary appliances for conducting strictly high-class work. General benefits have come to the industries of the community. The working masses have become more intelligent and efficient, and students find ready employment as apprentices and rise rapidly in their trades. Many employers show their interest in the school by offering scholarships and prizes. This is notably true of those engaged in building and in ironwork. SOTJTHWESTEKW POLYTECHNIC, MANRESA KOAD, CHELSEA, LONDON, S. W. This institution was built and equipped at a cost of more than £60,000 ($291,990), the greater poi'tion of which was raised b^^ volun- tary subscription. It at present possesses a fixed annual endowment of £2,500 ($12,166) from the charity commissioners, and the London County Council will also contribute an annual sum, which is expected to average about £4,300 ($20,926). The institution is directed by a governing bodj' consisting of rep- resentatives of the city parochial charities, the London Countj^ Coun- cil, the London school board, and the Chelsea vestry. The building is lighted throughout by electricity and provided with well-equipped mechanical, electrical, physical, chemical, and biological laboratories, with art and photographic studios, and with workshops. It is also fitted for schools of cookery, laundry work, needlework, millinery, and dressmaking, and possesses a large gymnasium furnished with all the most recent appliances. The teaching is conducted by the princi- pal and 78 lecturers, demonstrators, and instructors. The school is divided into a day college for men, a day college for women, a day school for girls and boys, and evening classes. The day college for men is intended for students above the age of 15 years, and was in 1898-99 attended bj^ more than 100 pupils, whose ages ranged from J 5 to 40 j'ears. It offers courses of study in mechan- ical and civil engineering, electrical engineering, and applied physics, chemistry, science, art, music, and commercial subjects covering broadly the essentials of a liberal business and commercial education. Such fundamental branches as mathematics, history, and English are prominent in the commercial department. The scheme of the technical department is almost precisely that of the technical college at Finsbury, and may, with slight modifications, be well described in the words of Sir Philip Magnus in his inaugural address at that institution: Students who enter the college should have previously received a sound English education and have acquired an elementary knowledge of mathematics, physics, and chemistry. * * * The courses of instruction are arranged to occupy at least two years. On entering, the student will state whether he wishes to be trained as a mechanical 1072 EEPOET OF THE COMIUSSIONEE OF LABOE. engineer or an electrical engineer, whether he wishes to be educated with a view to some branch of chemical industry or of the building trade, or, finally, whether he desires to study applied art. In any of these oases, except the last, he will find mapped out for him a com- plete course of study, involving laboratory instruction, tutorial work, attendance at lectures, exercises in mathematics, mechanical and free- hand drawing, and instruction in the workshops. Students having completed a two j^ears' course in the technical department of the college should be in a position to obtain situations in important industrial firms, or to enter upon advanced scientific and technical courses of instruction. ■ The day college for women is the counterpart of the day college for men. It is intended for students of 16 years and upward, and dur- ing the session 1898-99 was attended by 230 students. It comprises departments of commerce and physical culture and a general depart- ment. The commercial and general departments are composed of the same sections as the corresponding departments in the college for men, with the exception that domestic economy is introduced in the general department. The physical-culture department contains sections in gymnastic training for teachers and physical exercises. Under the head of domestic economy instruction is given in cook- ery, dress cutting and making, laundry work, millinery, and sick nursing. The school for boys and girls is intended for youths whose school education will continue until about the age of 16 years, and who desire training for the workshop, manufactory, building trades, or commerce. The school provides a progressive course in applied science, combined with workshop and laboratory practice, and in general and commer- cial subjects. The complete course extends over a period of four years, and includes an elementary, advanced, and advanced technical course. The subjects of instruction for boys in the first and second years are mathematics, practical geometry, free-hand and other drawing, chem- istry, physics, mechanics, English subjects, French. German, or Latin, and manual training and gymnastics. In the third and fourth years boys may devote their attention to that group of subjects which has application to their future work, such as mechanical engineering, electrical engineering, civil engineering, build- ing trades, chemical trades, commerce, or preparation for one of the various professional preliminary examinations — for example, matricu- lation at the University of London. The subjects of instruction for girls in the first and second years are mathematics, practical geometry, free-hand and other drawing, chem- istry, physiology and hygiene or physics, English subjects, French, German, or Latin, cookery, needlework and dressmaking, and gym- nastics. TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION GREAT BRITAIN. 1075 In the third and fourth years they are allowed to follow special courses of study which will fit them to become teachers of art, science, and domestic subjects, or to occupy positions in one of the many branches of commercial life now open to women. The objects of the evening classes are (1) to offer to artisans and others engaged in technical and commercial industries the means of instruction in applied science and art, and similarly to women oppor- tunities of training in cookery, dressmaking, and household manage- ment; (2) to offer instruction which will be of service to those intending to enter on a colonial life; (3) to give instruction in such other branches and subjects of art, science, commerce, language, literature, and gen- eral knowledge as may be approved by the governing body, and (4) to offer to its students abundant means of recreative instruction, recrea- tion, and physical training. The classes and lectures are designed and arranged to supplement, and not to supersede, the training of the workshop. The general scheme of the evening classes offers instruction in practically the same subjects covered by the day classes, and in addition thereto provision is made for instruction in the building trades and domestic economj''. Under the head of electrical engineering special advanced and ele- mentary courses of lectures, each followed by practical instruction in the laboratories, workshops, and testing room, are given from Octo ber to May. These courses are well adapted to meet the requirements of electrical engineers who are desirous of qualifying for posts in elec- tricity supply works or traction stations, of mining engineers, and others who have to deal practically with electricity, and those who are engaged in the electrical trades. They are also suitable for students taking the preliminary, ordinary, and honors grades examinations of the City and Guilds Institute in electric lighting and power distribu- tion and for the evening science exhibitions in electrical engineering offered by the technical education board. The work in the several classes of mechanical engineering is arranged to include the syllabus of the City and Guilds of London examinations in technical engineering, applied mechanics, steam and machine con- struction, and drawing. EAST liONDOKT TECHNICAL COLLEGE, PEOPLE'S PALACE, MILE END KOAD, LONDON, E. In 1882 the trustees of the Beaumont Philosophical Institution, in order to extend their work, took counsel with the Drapers' Company, and, as a consequence, a large hall, called the Queen's Hall, suit- able for concerts and other entertainments, was opened in 1887. The Drapers' Company voted £20,000 (^97,330) from their corporate funds to erect suitable buildings for a technical school, and the foundation stone was laid on the same day that Queen's Hall was opened. In 9257—02 68 1074 EEPOET OP THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOK. 1892 the Drapers' Company offered an annual contribution of £T,000 (131,066) to the People's Palace, and the charity commissioners drew up a new scheme which provided an annual grant of .£3,500 (fl7,033) from the city parochial charities fund. In the meantime the Drapers' Company had made an annual grant of £1,000 (|4,867) for scholarships, and in 1898 the new scheme went into effect. The next year (1894) the company voted £5,000 (|24,333) for the erection of a separate build- ing for an engineering laboratory and workshop. In 1898 the scheme was modified so as to allow of the amalgamation of the Bow and Brom- ley Institute with the People's Palace. The work of the college is now conducted in buildings adjoining the People's Palace, specially erected for the purpose. The college is divided into three parts, the day school, the day classes, and the evening classes. The object of the day school is to prepare boys between 12 and 16 years of age, by instruction in science, art, languages, and the use of tools, to enter a trade or profession demanding scientific or artistic training and manual dexterity. The full course extends over three years, and while its object is, as stated, to prepare for a trade, the the scope of the work is little more than manual training, no partic- ular trade being aimed at. The day classes are intended for both boys and girls who are over 15 years of age. Courses of instruction are arranged m engineering, chemistry, art, and in preparation for the bachelor of science degree of the University of London. Every student is expected to take the full course, except under special circumstances. The engineering course covers two years and embraces geometry, machine drawing and design, applied mechanics, steam, gas, oil, and heat engines, forms of steam boilers and details of their construction, experimental work, and practical shopwork. The course in chemistry extends over three years and is very thorough and practical. The bachelor of science course includes physics and an extended drill in pure and applied mathematics. Besides courses in engineering, science, physics, and fine art, there are a number of trade courses conducted in the evening classes. In these trade courses People's Palace trade certificates are awarded in engineering, dressmaking, sign writing and graining, tailors' cutting, millinery, wood carving, and instrument making. There is a lecture course in carpentry and joinery on the\lilies of the City and Guilds of London syllabus in carpentry. Besides these lectures there are exercises in drawing and setting out, and practical shop training, in which students are taught to work from detailed drawings. Only persons engaged in the trade are admitted to the workshop. The fee is 10s. (|2.43) per session. In the plumbing course those portions of the various science sub- jects with which the trade is connected are studied and explained, and TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION GKEAT BRITAIN. 1075 the principles and practice of plumbers' work are fully illustrated by- diagrams, lantern slides, and models. Those students showing suffi- cient knowledge of the trade will find arrangements whereb}^ they may enter for the examination held by the Worshipful Company of Plumbers. An advanced pass in this examination entitles the student to become a registered plumber, and an honors pass entitles him to registration and honorary freedom of the Worshipful Compan}" of Plumbers. Only those engaged in the trade are admitted to the classes. The fee for the whole course is 12s. 6d. (|3.04). A course in scientific instrument making comprises all the latest methods in use, such as turning, chasing, milling, nurling, profiling, cuttering, working from templates, and the S3'^stem of gauging and interchangeability, the use of the slide rest, etc., and finishing work, such as polishing, bronzing, lacquering, etc. Special attention is given to the making of electrical apparatus of various kinds. The fee is 10s. (12.43) per session. In tailors' cutting there are two classes — elementary and advanced. The teaching in the elementary course is individual as far as possible, and the instruction is practical and as simple as the subject will per- mit. The course deals with trousers, breeches, riding trousers, knick- ers, waistcoats, and jackets. Only those engaged in the trade are admitted. Only those who have passed throug'h the elementary class or have a good knowledge of the trade are admitted to the advanced class. The instruction embraces work on morning coats, frock coats, dress clothes, and overcoats in various styles. The fee for the ele- mentary course is 7s. 6d. (11.83) and for the advanced course 10s. ($2.43) per term. A course in bookbinding is provided for persons engaged in the trade. The whole subject is thoroughly taught, beginning with for- warding, taking up paper and book sizes, signatures, folding and col- lating, pulling books to pieces and refolding, guarding and folding plates, sewing and overcasting, inboard and outboard forwarding, covering in cloth and leather, half and whole bound woi'k, siding and pasting down, in the order named. The advanced work covers clean- ing and restoring, print inlaying, map and photograph mounting, head banding, india-rubber work, graining, leather staining, sprinkling, book-edge gilding, and marbling calf. The instruction in finishing embraces the elementary use of tools, various styles of half-bound work, the classic styles, line and gauge work, and design as applied to book-cover decoration. The course in house decoration includes instruction in compounding and mixing of oil, paint, and distemper colors, and the practical knowl- edge of the same; harmony of color and effect for general purposes of house decoration, and the higher stages of decorative art, including stenciling, lining, arabesque and ornamental painting. The fee for the course is 5s. ($1.22). 1076 BE POET OF THE COMMISSIONEK OF LABOR. Instruction in sign writing and graining embraces different styles of ornamental lettering, gilding, shading, etc. , and graining in imitation of woods and marbles. The fee is 5s. ($1.22). The fee for these last two courses combined is 7s. 6d. ($1.83). In dressmaking -and dress cutting the course is divided into elemen- tavy, intermediate, and advanced work. The elementary work- covers tacking bodice, sleeve, and skirt measures; drawing and cutting out; tacking calico patterns, and the sewing machine. Intermediate instruc- tion embraces fitting; preparing corrected patterns for use in cutting out dress material; drawing, cutting out, and making skirts; working button holes, and making circular, flap, and welt pockets for jackets. Advanced instruction is given in making and boning bodices in dress- makers' and tailors' styles; making sleeves; shrinking and stretching seams, etc.; padding, and making collars and revers; making jackets, capes, etc. , and French pattern modeling. The fee for the entire course is 17s. 6d. (14.26) per term. The course in millinery includes hat and bonnet making, making lace caps; hat and bonnet trimming; flower and feather mounting, and infants' and children's millinery of difi'erent kinds. Besides the subjects already enumerated there are classes in modern languages, and short courses in such commercial subjects as shorthand, arithmetic, and bookkeeping. The teaching staff for the entire college numbers about 80. There are (1901) about 400 boys in the advanced day classes, but few of whom take trade instruction; the evening engineering classes have about 100 students, mostly apprentices with engineering firms. There are about 60 in the carpentry class, 12 in brass worlc, 50 in plumbing, 35 in sign writing, and 50 in tailors' cutting. The college is supported from endowments, numerous grants for scholarships, and tuition fees. The general benefits coming to the community are attested by the growing attendance upon the school. Almost every engineering workshop and drawing office in the East End has one or more boys from the school. Employers show a decided preference for former students, and the principal can generally obtain their admission into workshops as apprentices without payment of the usual fee of from £20 to £30 ($97.33 to $146). CENTRAL SCHOOL OF ARTS AND CRAFTS, 316 REGENT STREET, LONDON, W. This school was established by the technical education board of the London County Council, and was opened in November, 1896. The special object of the institution is to encourage the industrial applica- tion of decorative design and to give students every opportunity to study it in relation to their own particular craft. It is not intended that the school shall supplant apprenticeship, but rather supplement TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION — GEEAT BKITAIN. 1077 it by enabling students to learn those things which they are unable to learn in the shop. Apprentices, learners, and improvers under the age of 21 are admitted to all the privileges of the school except the life class free of charge. Journeymen and improvers working at a trade or craft and receiving wages not exceeding 30 shillings ($7.30) a week may join the school on payment of 1 shilling (24 cents) a month. Others are admitted (except to the life class) on a fee of half a crown (61 cents) a month. Members of the life class are charged a fee of a crown and a half ($1.82) per month. Instruction is offered in the following practical courses: Architecture: This subject is treated by lecture and otherwise, as circumstances may suggest. The idea is that architecture should respond to the facts of modern life. Instruction is given in design, shaded drawing, stonework for architects, and leadwork in ornamentation. This last subject is treated broadly and can be followed to advantage by sanitary plumbers. Stained-glass work: In this class is taught the theory of the general composition and setting of windows; the principles of cutting and use of the lead line in plain glazing; elementary principles of ornamentation, and the various treatments of the glass in painting. Practical exercises are afforded in painting glass from cartoons, sketching to scale, cutting and leading in so far as they influence design, and design. Woodwork and metal-work design: This class is offered instruction in designing for furniture; decoration of furniture and joinery; ironwork, brass, copper, silver- work, etc. The subjects are treated chiefly by individual instruction, and students are advised to base their designs upon craftsmanship and understanding of material. Silversmiths', goldsmiths', and jewelers' work: This is one of the most important departments of the school. In it craftsmen are afforded the opportunity for the practical study of those branches of their craft which they have little chance of learn- ing in the workshop. Students in these classes are encouraged to study design, drawing, casting in metal, enameling, and other subjects bearing on their craft. The' workshops of the school are provided with all the appliances and tools needed by silversmiths, and goldsmiths, engravers, chasers, repouss6 workers, carvers, etc. The teaching is individual throughout, and the work is adapted to the capacity of each student. Special attention is given to the production of particular articles, such as chalices, flagons, cups, badges, and the like. Bookbinding: This class offers instruction to journeymen and apprentices working at the trade. Pupils are expected to carry out, from first to last, the binding and decoration of books and to design and work out their own patterns. The work- shops are fitted with all necessary appliances for forwarding and finishing. Lithography: This class is strictly confined to those who are genuinely engaged in the lithographic business either as draftsmen or designers. Instruction includes drawing on polished stone (pen work); drawing on grained stone (chalk work); drawing on transfer, grained, and other papers; drawing on zinc and aluminum; lithography in color, and combinations of lithography with photographic processes, such as collotype and "halftone." Besides the above-enumerated classes, instruction is given in such art subjects as modeling, drawing from life, and embroidery, and also in engraving and printing m color from wood, wood carving and gild- ing, and cabinetwork and wood inlay. The school is under the control of the London County Council and is largely maintained by appropriations made by that body. The staff of instructors numbers about thirty-five. 1078 BEPOKT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOB. Greneral benefits have come to the industries of the community because of the increased intelligence and efficiency of the working classes. Employers show a decided preference for former students, and such students command steady employment and rapid advance- ment. NORTHAMPTON INSTITUTE (CITY POLTTECHNIC) , CLERKENWELL, LONDON. The Northampton Institute forms one branch of the City Poly- technic, ('') and began its work in 1896. It provides classes in tech- nological and trade subjects, while the other branches are devoted almost entirely to commercial and science and art subjects, technique and the trades being scarcely touched by them. Clerkenwell is thronged with small workshops representing a variety of trades, and the aim of the school is to provide instruction for those employed therein. Watch and clock making is the most prominent trade in the district and the first instruction given in the school was in that trade and in electrotyping and ai-t metal work. The district is also a center of optical works and shops for instrument making. In 1900 the day college was established for mechanical and electrical engineering and horology. The greater part of the work of the school consists of evening classes in different trades and industries. The work is divided into two main sections, an educational section for technological subjects and a social and recreative section. The school is available to mem- bers, associates, and students. Members and associates must, as a rule, be between the ages of 16 and 25 years, but there is no limit of age as regards students. Among the privileges of members and asso- ciates are free admission to the library and reading rooms, the use of the gymnasium, reduced fees in technical classes, and the privileges of the Birkbeck Institution and the (I'ity of London College. The educational work of the institute is divided into the following departments: Mechanical engineering and metal trades, artistic crafts, applied physics and electrical engineering, electro-chemistry, horology, miscellaneous trades, and domestic economy and women's trades. These departments are again divided into 83 special courses. The object of such a minute specialization is to meet the requirements of modern mannfacturing methods and so afford pupils opportunity to concentrate their time upon whatever special subjects may be best suited to their respective needs. Modei'n methods of manufacture employ processes derived from widely different sources, and intelli- gent craftsmen must necessarily have a fair knowledge of more than one science. Notwithstanding the numerous special courses provided, students are strongl}'^ urged to take some broad and complete course. «The other branches ol the City Polytechnic are the Birkbeck Institution and City of London College. TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION— GEEAT BBITAIN. 1079 There are 49 complete courses provided — sufficient, it would seem, to meet the most exacting requirements of the craftsmen of the district. The day school is devoted almost entirely to courses in electrical, mechanical, and horological engineering. These courses are very broad and thorough, and include mathematics, mechanics and mechan- ism, elements of machinery, machine design, materials and their prop- erties, strength of materials, practical physics, electrical technology, chemistry, and ample workshop practice. A complete sj'stem of instruction for evening classes is arranged in workshop drawing as applied to the metal trades. This comprises the preparation and use of drawing instruments, geometrical problems, etc.; the preparation of working drawings of simple machine parts; later of more complicated parts, and, finally, of the whole machine; special work in practical machine designing, etc. The courses are intended for engineering students generall}"^, foremen, chargemen, and leading hands, fitters and turner's, pattern makers, smiths, press tool makers, instrument makers, watch and clock makers, etc. Courses are also given in workshop drawing as applied to the build- ing trades. Besides the preparatory instruction in the use of drawing instruments, etc., various courses are arranged for the instruction of building trades students generally, designers of buildings, carpenters and joiners, stone masons, plumbers, bricklayers, etc. The following syllabuses of evening courses in drawing and design have ,been drawn up with a view to meeting the requirements of the various classes of students indicated. In each case the student is specially instructed in the drawing and design applicable to his own trade. Those attending the practical classes in the same subject are expected to prepare the necessarj^ drawings and designs for the work done by them in those classes. Design for goldsmiths and jewelers: The study of natural forms, flowers, insects, etc., and their adaptation to design for goldsmiths' and jewelers' work. Elementary- students make studies of examples of ornament in precious metals of different coun- tries and periods. In the advanced section the designing of jewelry, mountings for diamonds and precious stones, and the coloring of designs are practiced. Design for diamond mounters: Drawing and design of ornamental forms used in diamond mounting, brooches, pendants, rings, pins, necklaces, head ornaments, tiaras, sprays, and combs; in pencil and also in color, and in white upon dark-tinted card. Design for silversmiths: Free-hand drawing of shapes used ii> silversmiths' work, and the preparation of working drawings; design and its application; the making of full size and scale sketches in pencil and color; the study of different styles from drawings, photographs, and also from a collection of casts and' electrotypes lent by the science and art department of South Kensington. Design for chasers and embossers: Free-hand drawing from outline, casts, or photo- graphs, and also from plant forms, the adaptation of these to design; setting-out of working drawings for chasers, in pencil, pen and ink, or monochrome. Design for engravers and enamel ers: Free-hand drawing and study of ornamental lettering, monograms and forms suitable to engraving; design and preparation o£ sketches, and the study of harmonious coloring as applied to enameling. 1080 EEPOBT OF THE COMMISSIONEK OF LABOB. Design for heraldic ornament: This subject is dealt with in a series of short lectures illustrated by lantern slides and diagrams on the blackboard, of old and modern examples of heraldic ornament, and followed each evening by practice in drawing and designing of heraldic forms and their application to artistic crafts. The course comprises historical development of heraldry; its origin and growth during the middle ages; its subsequent decline and revival; the laws of heraldry; how to treat the metals, colors, and furs used, either in color or by line; divisions of the shield, the ordinaries, subordinaries, charges, etc. ; blazoning the heraldic charges, and the terms used in describing the various coats; crowns and coronets; crests and badges; helms; supporters; mantling and lambrequins. Design for decorative metal work : The adaptation of design to articles of artistic craftmanship, special importance being given to the drawing and design of electric- light and gas fittings, chandeliers, and lamp standards; designing for ecclesiastical and domestic metal work. Design for ornamental ironwork: Geometrical drawing so far as it has direct rela tion to the subject; drawing and setting out of full-size and scale designs for repro- duction in wrought iron; copying of old examples of ironwork of the best periods from engravings and photographs; study of the characteristics of the various styles. Design for ironwork grilles, gates, screens, railings, lamp and gas standards, and for general purposes; the application of wrought iron, either alone or in combination with other metals, for electric-light and other fittings. Design for wood carvers: Free-hand drawing of carving from reproductions, casts, etc., and the study of plant forms suitable to the design required in wood carving; study of design, and the preparation of working drawings of an architectural char- acter; the design suita-ble for enrichment of moldings, etc.; the different styles of ornament applicable to wood carving. Ornamental design for woodworkers: The study of decorative features of wood- work, as used in the construction and furnishing of buildings, is chiefly dealt with, and the following subjects are embraced: Free-hand drawing, sketches, and scale drawings of details from examples of work of different periods. In the advanced section students prepare original drawings and designs suitable for reproduction, and in accordance with the requirements of modern architecture. Design and setting out for cabinetmakers: Drawing and design for furniture, cabi- netmaking, and joinery; the working out of scale drawings, and setting out of full- size working drawings, showing details and methods of construction; design of interior fitments and architectural woodwork; the study of moldings, their names, when used, and their combinations; the qualities and growths of woods and their special characteristics. Design for painters, decorators, and writers: This class supplements the teaching in the practical classes, and students prepare the designs and drawings required for that purpose. The course comprises the study of ornamental details of painters' and decorators' work, and of lettering and sign writing; the preparation of sketches and designs in outUne and color from natural forms and historic ornaments, and also of schemes of decoration for interior and exterior Mork. Architectural ornament for builders: The subjects included under this heading form the advanced courses for building-trade students. The course includes design and its application to architectural ornament, and examples of decorative features of various styles. Photographs, reproductions, and casts taken from examples of classic, mediaeval, and modern architecture are provided, and students make studies from these to enable them to become familiar with their various characteristics. They are also expected, in conjunction with the special course on the design of buildmgs, to supply the decorative features and ornaments of the designs prepared by them. Opportunities are given for advanced students to supplement their work by study in the modeling classes. TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION — GKEAT BRITAIN. 1081 Ornamental design: This class is supplementary to the drawing and design classes already enumerated, and consists of short lectures throughout the session, illustrated by lantern slides, diagrams, sketches upon the blackboard, and specimens ol' handi- craft of various kinds. The course includes a consideration of the principles under- lying all ornamental design; the laws governing the arrangement of line, form, and color; the study of natural forms and plants, and their application and adaptation to design; the geometrical and systematic arrangement of forms; the influence of archi- tecture upon the style and conditions of ornamental design; the characteristics of materials and their influence in design in stone and marble carving, metal work, jewelry, silversmiths' work, woodv/ork, joinery, and cabinet work; color and its position in decorative art; the influence of historic and natural conditions upon design, and the special features of different styles and periods, with a consideration of the growth and development of ornament from the early to later periods. Books, casts, photographs, and actual specimens of artistic workmanship are used in this class to illustrate fully the subjects dealt with, and students are expected to make sketches, drawings, and designs illustrating the various subjects dealt with during the session. Besides the courses in drawing and design, the following evening courses of a practical nature are given, relating to the more important trades : Workshop calculations (engineering and metal trades) : This course is intended for all students in the engineering and metal trades classes who are not thoroughly grounded in the methods of calculation, and includes the following subjects: "Weights and measures; simple calculations; fractions and decimals; square roots; areas of rectangles, triangles, circles, and irregular figures; use of squared paper; determination of the cubical contents of tanks, cylinders, cones, etc.; use of logarithms, slide rule; algebraic calculations. Examples are selected suitable to each class of trade students, such as calculating the weight of heavy castings, the sizes of pulleys and change wheels, speeds of machines, quantity of material to be used for given work, calculations in mechanics, etc. Pattern-making shop: This course of work is arranged to suit the individual needs of the students as much as possible, and the examples are so selected as to exemplify some important point in pattern making. The subjects dealt with comprise the position of mold joints; contraction of castings; amount of taper necessary; allowances for machining; loose parts for undercut molds; cores, core boxes, and prints; the halving of patterns; use of ramming boards; the turning of patterns in halves; methods of arranging patterns which have to be molded in three-part boxes; construction of patterns for strickling up molds in loam; use of skeleton patterns; lagging and building up in segments patterns for gearing, with the method of striking out teeth; materials and teeth used in pattern making; numbering, registering, and storing of patterns, etc. Practical smith work: This shop is open every evening except Thursdays for the students attending the engineering workshop classes. A skilled smith attends on Thursday evenings to give special mstruction to those wishing to take up smith work entirely. The shop is equipped with the most modern appliances for the heating and forging of iron, brazing, and welding. Gas furnaces and brazing tables have been introduced into the smithy, that students may not only carry out ordinary smith's work, but also be taught the management of a new type of heating appliance. Practical cycle making: This class meets in the engineering workshop, and has the use of the machines and tools with .which that shop is equipped. Two good brazing hearths, with gas torches, are fitted in the smithy, and are available for the students of the class. The practical work consists of practice in brazing, the fitting together. 1082 KEJ?OKT OF THE 0OMMIS8IONEB OF LABOE. brazing up, and setting of a frame, the construction of parts, bending liandle bars, wheel building, etc. Students attending this class must also attend either the course of lectures on cycles and their construction or the drawing classes for cycle makers, or both these classes. Practical diesinking and press-tool making: In this class is carried out a practical . course of work in the making of tools for cuttLug out, pressing, stamping, and pierc- ing. Sets of tools are made for producing small articles. The types of tools it is proposed to work upon are dies and punches for cutting out and piercing with single and multiple punches, simple dies and forces for both pressing and stamping, tools for drawing through and deep drawing, combination tools for simple-action press, compound tools for double-action press, triple-action tools, preparation of forces and forcing dies. Special instruction is given in hardening and tempering tools when finished. Short lectures are given explaining recent practice in press-tool making. Brass finishing: This class is specially intended for those engaged in brass found- ing and its allied trades, such as valve and clock makers, chandelier manufacturers, electrolier and lamp manufacturers, fancy brass workers, and others. The work to be carried through includes various electrical switches; cocks and valves for water, gas, and steam; patterns and core stocks; tube work, gas brackets, lamp stands, candlesticks, and clock frames; electric-light pendants, etc. Practical metal-plate work: The work in this class is carried out on the following lines: A suitable example having been selected, the student first sets out the neces- sary templates by geometric methods, making proper allowance for overlapping, beading, etc. Sheet metal is then cut out and worked up into the finished article. Short explanations are given on the properties of metals; the properties and action of acids on metals; the combined action of heat and air on various metals; turning processes; composition of solders; behavior of metals when hollowed, raised, stamped, and planished; brazed, soldered, grooved, and riveted joints; some examples of practical mensuration. Carpenters' shop: This shop is equipped vsdth a band saw, having a fence for straight sawing, 2 wood-turning lathes, a molding spindle, all electrically driven, besides a complete kit of hand tools for all classes of carpenters', Joiners', and pattern makers' work. The students are divided into groups according to their ability. The gen- eral work of the classes includes: Section A. — The tuition needed by apprentices and others who have commenced work in the carpentry and joinery, cabinetmaking, coach-building, and other wood- working trades. The workshop practice is supplemented by oral tuition on the nature and properties of timber, the use of geometrical methods in setting out work, and such other subjects as may be deemed necessary. The soft and hard woods commonly used in carpentry and joinery; seasoning and conversion of timber; names, uses, and management of woodworking tools; sharpening and setting various tools; the use of glue, nails, screws, wedges, keys, tongues, pins, dowels, treenails, screw bolts, and other fastenings; marking out and cutting up stuff; face and edge planing; gauging and striking joints; striking simple moldings; operations of car- pentry and joinery; technical terms; grooving, plowing, rabbeting, mortising, and tonguing; miters; shooting; dovetailing, clamping, housing, blocking, and bracket- ing; match boarding; furring and fillets; heading joints; veneers; inlaying and parquetry; plugs and battens; scribing; beveling and splaymg; wedging, throating, raking, and framing; paring straight and curved surfaces; oblique and tusk tenons; construction of carpentry joints; lapping, fishing, scarfing, tabling, halving, notching, cogging; joggles, bridles, and straps; description and methods of fixing various kinds of locks, hinges, and window fasteners, floor hinges, door springs, door and gate swing, and slide arrangements; descriptions of woodworking machinery; vertical, circular, crosscut, and band saws; planing, molding, mortising, tenoning, and boring machines; universal joiner and spindle machines. TKADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION — GEEAT BRITAIN. 1083 Section B.' — Intended to suit the requirements of journeymen and adult artieana ■who have had a fair degree of workshop experience- The practical work taken will be correlated to section 15 of the workshop drawing class for woodworkers, the working drawings prepared in that class being intended for actual construction in the shop. The syllabus for workshop drawing' may be taken as a sufficient indica- tion of the course in contemplation. Section C. — More difficult and highly finished work than that taken in the preced- ing section. It in general corresponds with the work of the advanced drawing for woodworkers. Section D. — Exerci.ses on use of the square, sketching details of carpentry work, and explanations of processes. Practical plumbing: Exercises are arranged in ordinary plumbers' work, such as marking off and cutting out sheet lead for cesspools of different shapes, cone pieces, etc., lead laying, including gutters, flats, hips, and ridges; bossing-up cesspools, cov- ering finials, breaks, etc. ; pipe bending up to 4 inches diameter; trap making; joint wiping in vertical, horizontal, and other positions; lead burning by sand, copper bit, and hydrogen burner; mixing solders. This class, together with others in the course for plumbers, is intended to prepare students for the examinations of the City and Guilds of London Institute in plumbers' work, and only those who are prepared to take the full course will be admitted to the practical class. Practical brick cutting: The workshop is fitted with all the necessary appliances for practical work, and therefore students have every opportunity to carry out good work. Each student receives individual instruction, and the work is arranged if pos- sible to suit the students' requirements. The practical work includes the setting out and preparation of gauge work in walls, piers, and columns and in cornices, domes, niches, vaults, and arches of both plain and double curvature. In addition explana- tions and notes are given on the properties and uses of bricks, tiles, terra-cotta, etc., and the various cementing materials in common use. Practical plastering: The workshop is well arranged for all classes of plasterers' work. In addition to the necessary work benches, plasterers' table, and tools, special stages have been constructed so that students may plaster the walls, strike cornices, fix ceiling patterns, etc. The course includes the use of hydraulic and nonhydraulic limes; the method and time of slaking; sand, the proportion of admixture for various limes and purposes; use of hair; mixing and tempering of rough, fine, and gauged stuff, run putty, etc. ; the nature and use of plaster of paris and its influence on lime stucco by admixture; setting out and making templates; preparation of molds for casting from in plaster, etc. ; casting and fixing; runningandmitering cornices; fibrous plaster, its preparation and use; character of cements for external and internal use; method of gauging and using Roman, Portland, and other cements. Complete evening lecture courses are given for opticians and optical instrument makers who have already had a good training in elementary optical theorJ^ Laboratory and calculation classes, which are an essential part of the course, have been arranged, and all students are expected to attend them. Following are shown in detail the subjects treated in these courses: Measuring instruments: Measuring machines, dividing engines, and comparators, their construction and use; standards of length; cathetometers; chemical and phys- ical balances, their construction and testing; chronographs for accurate time measure- ment; compensation for temperature. Mathematical and surveying instruments: Simple compasses and miners' dials; 1084 BEPOBT OP THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOB. prismatic compasses; levels and clinometers; theodolites and sextants,' adjustment and testing of surveying instruments; collimation. Optical projection apparatus: Construction and mechanical details of various types of optical lanterns; condensers and front lenses; formation of the image; effects of spherical and chromatic aberration and their elimination; projection microscopes. Sources of light — oil, acetylene, oxyhydrogen, electric, etc. Telescopes, opera and field glasses: Optical principles of terrestrial and astronomical telescopes; use of concave and erecting eyepieces; object glasses; testing qualities of glass, design and construction of object glasses; centering of lenses; Eamsden's and Huyghen's eyepieces; micrometer eyepieces, altazimuth and equatorial mountings; determination of the magnifying power of a telescope. Photographic apparatus: Construction of cameras and details of adjustments; single landscape lenses, their design and construction, use and calculation of stops; sym- metrical, portrait, rectilinear, and anastigmatic lenses; calculation of lens curves; centering of lenses. Testing of photographic lenses, focal length and depth of focus, covering power, distortion, chromatism, astigmatism, flare spot, etc. Types of diaphragms — Waterhouse, iris, etc. Construction and testing of time and instanta- neous shutters. Microscopes and objectives: Theory of the compound microscope; mechanical con- struction; English and continental stands; rack work and fine adjustments; simple and mechanical stages; substage illuminators; construction and use of ordinary and substage condensers, spot lenses, paraboloids, Lieberkuhms, etc.; binocular micro- scopes; camera lucida and other accessories; micrometers; objectives of low and high power, their design and construction; centering; correction collars; water and homogeneous immersion objectives; interference and detraction, and their influence on the resolving power of a lens; Abbe's defraction theory; testing objectives. Spectrometers and polarizing apparatus: Construction of chemical spectroscopes; spectrometers and goniometers; direct vision and defraction spectroscopes; testing and adjustment of spectroscopes; tourmalines; Iceland spar, Nicol prisms, selenites; con- struction of microscope and projection polariscopes and polarimeters; construction and testing of spar, selenites, and other crystals; cutting and mounting specimens, etc. Following is a statement of the equipment in connection with the electrical and physical laboratories: The jmiior electrical laboratory: This laboratory is already well equipped, and affords facilities for experimentally proving all the fundamental electrical laws, and also of carrying out all the testing M'ork required in most factories and test rooms. The apparatus is of the most modern construction, and gives students an opportunity of becoming familiar with all the well-known types of instruments, such as reflecting and other galvanometers, permeameters, magnetometers, etc. The telegraph and telephone laboratory: The equipment in this room consists chiefly of apparatus specially lent by the post-ofiice authorities. It mcludes examples of the most recent patterns of signaling and testing instruments, and the students are exercised in the arrangement and connecting up of circuits and instruments as nearly as possible under practical conditions. The electrical engineering laboratory: This laboratory contains several dynamos, motors, and transformers for testing, and the equipment is being increased. The machines are mounted on sliding rails, embedded in a concrete foundation, in such a way as to be rapidly movable and to be available for every possible test. Alter- ^ nating currents of various frequencies and potentials are available, together with a large amount of direct-current power from the generating plant of the institute. Transmission j,nd absorption dynamometers are being provided, and special arrange- ments made for calibration of heavy current and engineering instruments. Oscillo- graphs and other devices for studying wave form are also available. The power house: This room, which is used in conjunction with the mechanical TEADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION — GEEAT BEITAIN. 1085 engineering department, contains at present a Babcock and Wilcox and a Lancashire boiler, each of 100 horsepower. These supply steam by a ring system of pipes to a 63-kilowatt Willans-Holmes combined engine and dynamo, which supply current for the lighting of the institute and for the necessary power, and they are also arranged with facilities for carrying out separate or combined trials on a large scale Tests are made by the students on this plant, in conjunction with the mechanical engineering department, at intervals during the session. The equipment will be increased by the addition of 100-horsepower slow-speed engine, rope driving a 63- kilowatt multipolar dynamo, already delivered, and also by a 20-kilowatt 500-volt to 100-volt motor transformer. Tests will be made on these machines and also on the distribution of power to the workshops, which are driven by electric motors supplied by different makers, so that as many types as possible shall be available for experi- ment under working conditions. The senior electrical laboratory: A large laboratory has been equipped with accu- rate standards and other apparatus for advanced work in electrical testing and stand- ardizing, and for investigation work. Arrangements are being made for special advanced tests in telegraphic and telephonic work. The senior physical laboratory; This laboratory has been equipped with apparatus for accurate measurements in heat and optics. Arrangements are being made for the accurate measurement of the heats of combustion of various fuels, the determi- nation of the thermal properties of gases and vapors, and for the testing and adjust- ment of accurate and delicate mathematical and optical instrumeuts. The optical laboratory : A special laboratory has been set aside for photometry and for delicate optical experiments requiring a darkened room. The whole room is carefully blackened, and is already well fitted with optical benches, spectrometers, and photometers of various kinds, enabling students to test the focal lengths of mir- rors and lenses, the refractive and dispersive powers of various kinds of glass, the qualities of microscope objectives and photographic lenses, etc. The following syllabuses give some details of practical work carried on in the instrument shop, hut as a rule students are not required to make complete instruments unless they desire to do so for a scholar- ship competition: Electric-light wiring and fitting: Preparation of fluxes; use of rubber and proof tape and solution; jointing and insulating single and stranded conductors; concen- tric and lead-covered cables; use of couplers; joint and house service boxes; vulcan- izing rubber joints by hot and cold processes; use of ordinary and portable cures; special systems of wiring, e. g., paper insulated, C. C, Andrews's, Simplex, Conduit and Insulation Company's; use of bare wire and strip; wiring for heavy current and high-voltage circuits; wiring all kinds of fittings; sizes and connection of fuses; con- nection of dynamos, motors, and accumulators, and of starting and automatic switches; electric bell and telephone wiring; testing joints and circuits mechanically and electrically; detection of faults. Telegraph and telephone wiring: Jointing single and stranded iron, copper, and phosphor bronze wires; preparation of fluxes; jointing and insulating rubber and gutta-percha insulated wires and cables; vulcanizing rubber joints; jointing lead- covered, low capacity, and telephone cables; making wiped joints on lead-covered cables; mechanical and electrical testing of joints and circuits. Electrical engineering: Held in the engineering workshop of the mechanical engi- neering department. The students are practiced in the use of the various machine tools and appliances to be found in most modern machine shops. Should a sufiicient demand arise, a workshop class is contemplated in armature and transformer wind- ing, in which the winding of various kinds of ring, drum, and disk armatures for direct, alternate, polyphase, and multipolar dynamos and motors would be taken up. 1086 KEPOBT OF THE COMMISSIONEK OF LABOR. Electrical instrument making (preliminary) : For electrical instrument makers who have not had a long workshop experience, and who are not specially devoted to telegraphic or railway work. A trial piece of work is given to each student at first, and his subsequent work depends upon the way this is done. Simple switches, keys, and galvanometers, ammeters, and voltmeters are constructed during the session. Electrical instrument making (advanced) : For electrical instrument makers who have had a good previous training. This course deals with the best means of pro- duction of various parts of instruments by means of repetition machinery and other- wise; the various methods of producing the most highly finished work in plug keys, resistance boxes, reflecting galvanometers, pivoted instruments, etc. - Telegraphic instrument making: For students working in the Postal Telegraph fac- tories, but not restricted to them. The work set is adapted to the special require- ments' of students from the Hollo way and Mount Pleasant factories, and the instruments constructed include single and double current keys, needle instruments, ordinary and double plate sounders, relays, etc. Special instruction is given in the setting of tools for repetition machinery and the use of machine tools. Eailway telegraph instrument making: The work is similar to that of the preced- ing class, but the instruments dealt with are those more specially used in railway work — as, for example, single needle and sounder instruments, block semaphores, repeater dials, contact boxes, expansion tubes, point locks, rail contacts, step-up indicators, etc. Optical and mathematical instrument making (preliminary) : Students employed in optical and mathematical instrument shojjs in the daytime, and who have not had a long experience, have an opportunity of extending their training and gaining a general knowledge of workshop practice. A trial piece of work is given to each student on commencing, aiid on its completion the construction of parts of simple optical instruments such as lens cells, simple microscopes and telescopes, etc., is taken up. Optical and mathematical instrument making (advanced) : For students with a good previous training. The work deals with the construction of parts of surveying instruments, the turning and grinding of theodolite centers, and the making of the brass work of microscopes, objectives, and other optical instrumersts. Optical glass working: A special workshop ia_ being equipped for the purpose of instruction in hand and machine grinding and polishing of lenses for spectacles, cameras, telescopes, and microscopes. Tool making for instrument makers: A class in tool making for instrument makers is held on Monday evenings for instruction in the making of ordinary hand fitting and turning tools, and especially in the construction of tools for repetition machinery and the setting of such machines. Practical workshop demonstrations: To give electrical students a wider knowledge of workshop processes than can be gained by a single evening's practical work, a series of demonstrations is given on Wednesday evenings after the lecture on elec- trical instruments. The work is valuable to students taking the optical and mathe- matical instrument making class. It includes shaping, hardening, tempering, and grinding lathe and other tools; working in iron, steel, brass, copper, aluminum, ebonite, fiber, slate, marble, etc. ; best speeds and treatment for each material; use of Whitwortb . and B. A. taps and dies; hand chasing of outside and inside threads; mounting of platinum contact?; setting off and mounting work; finishing, bronzing, and lacquering; boring, surfacing, and taper turning; chucking of various kinds of work; making and use of fly cutters, milling cutters, broaches, etc.; cutting of micrometer threads and of cycloidal, involute, and helical gear wheels: pivoting and jeweling of galvanometers, telegraph instruments, etc.; making, hardening, and mag- netization of permanent magnets; treatment of iron and steel for electromagnets; TKADE AND TJiCHNIOAL EDUCATION — GKEAT BEITAIN. 1087 making, hardening, and tempering of springs; silvering, etc.; use o£ repetition machinery for turning out simple parte; adaptation of ordinary lathes for repetition work; profiling and other special processes; mechanical testing and inspection of instruments for faults; making Kelvin galvanometer needles; winding Kelvin and d'Arsouval galvanometer coils; mounting of mirrors, and damping tubes; winding and roughly adjusting resistance coils; mounting in boxes and waxing; annealing of manganin and similar wires; artificial aging of resistance coils and magnets; setting and adjustment of electromagnetic instruments. Optical workshop: Roughing, turning, grinding, and polishing simple lenses for spectacles, etc.; centering, edging, and fitting spectacle lenses; grinding and polish- mg of plane and cylindrical lenses and prisms; determination of axes of cylinders and prisms; mounting of lenses; use and properties of the different kinds of crown, flint, and Jena glass; workshop tests of glass for uniformity and optical properties; construction of achromatic combinations, centering and cementing surfaces; making and gauging curves of grinding and polishing tools; composition and making of cements, polishing waxes, pitch tools, balsam, etc.; washing and grading emery; use of machinery in grinding and polishing plane, spherical, cylindrical, and sphero- cylindrical lenses; making the optical parts of various optical instruments, object glasses for telescopes, cameras, microscopes, etc.; positive and negative eyepieces, micrometer e\'epieces, etc. Comijlete evening courses in cloclv making and watch making liave been arranged and are shown in detail as follows: First year's courses in clock making: In the class for workshop drawing for clock makers the student is first grounded in the general principles underlying all work- shop drawing, and when sufficiently advanced is exercised in special work connected with horology, such as gearing, escapements, movements, etc. The course includes the preparation and use of drawing instruments; geometrical problems; construction of scales; drawing to scale; representation of solid bodies; projection of plan, eleva- tion, and side views of various solids; sections; drawings of various kinds of escape- ments and movements; curves for toothed wheels, etc. The course is preparatory to the second year's course in technical drawing at the British Horological Institute. The course in mechanics consists of both lecture and laboratory work. Students are not required to attend the whole of the lectures on "Mechanics and mechanism," but only to such portions as are applicable to the science of horology. These consist of ten lectures and laboratory demonstrations. The course in physics also consists of both lecture and laboratory work and is a portion only of the course on heat and its applications. It consists of fourteen lec- tures, with corresponding laboratory work. The subjects dealt with are those parts of physics of especial interest to students of horology. The course in practical clock making comprises the following: In the first year's course the work is confined to the methods of manufacture of simple forms of English timepieces. It consists of filing, scraping, poUshing, turning with throw and lathe; screw making; pivoting, mounting, and colleting wheels; pitching the depths; mak- ing the pendulum, barrel, and hands; making and planting the escapement. The workshop is equipped wdth benches, vises, throws, lathe, anvil, grindstone, and similar large tools, but students must provide themselves with files, gravers, and small bench tools. Lookup drawers are provided for each student. Second year's coarse in clock making: Classes in technical drawing and theory of clock making are held at the British Horological Institute, though in connection with the latter class there is from time to time laboratory work at the Northampton Institute. The class in practical clock making is held in the workshops of the Northampton Institute, and consists of more advanced work than that detailed for the first year's 1088 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. course. Only those students are admitted who can show that they are sufficiently advanced to profit by the instruction. Students must provide themselves with the necessary bench tools and small tools; the larger tools are provided in the workshop. The course includes the methods of construction of regulators; striking clocks and electrical clocks; maintaining powers, dead-beat escapements, compensation pendulums. The complete second year's course in clock making is specially adapted to the requirements of candidates who desire to enter for the examinations conducted by the City and Guilds of Loudon Institute and by the British Horological Institute. First year's course in Avatch making: The course is precisely the same as the first year's course for clock makers, and consists of workshop drawing, mechanics and physics, and practical clock making. Second year's course in watch making: Classes in technical drawing and theory of watch making are held at the British Horological Institute under the same conditions as those for the second year's course in clock making. The class in practical examining, springing, and timing is held in the workshops of the Northampton Institute, and is open only to those who have had some practical experience in wateh making and can show that they are sufficiently advanced to profit by the instruction. The course comprises: (1) Examining — The escapement; the train; the mainspring, barrel, and stop work; end shakes, side shakes, and freedoms; the keyless work; final fitting of movement to case; fitting the dial, motion work, and hands; putting together and oiling. (2) Springing and timing — Selection of a suitable spring; counting; pinning to collet and stud; pinning in equal coils; Breguet springs; making the over coil with or without regulator; adjusting for temperature, isochronism, and positions. The workshop is equipped with benches, vises, regulator, timing oven, etc. , but students must provide their own bench tools. Lockup drawers are provided for each student. Students desirous of making, up a complete watch are guided and advised by the instructor, who superintends the construction throughout. The complete second year's course in watch making is specially adapted for the requirements of candidates who desire to enter for the examinations conducted by the City and Guilds of London Institute and by the British Horological Institute. The miscellaneous trades department offers technical lectures for the printing trades to those already employed in the trade, and also instruc- tion in upholstery for journeymen and apprentices. The domestic departments provide courses for women in trade dressmaking, ladies' tailoring, and upholstery. These courses are intended for apprentices and the design is to provide such instruction as they are not able to get in the shops. The institute provides well for the social enjoyment of its pupils. There is a large hall for popular entertainments. There are also a gymnasium, a swimming bath for men, and one for women, library and reading rooms, club rooms, and commodious refreshment rooms. These conveniences are not all entirely free, but the fees are small enough to make them available to every pupil. The teaching staff consists of about 70 instructors, besides a number of teachers in music, gymnastics, and swimming. The school is sup- plied with ample workshops well equipped with necessar}' tools and machinery, and with suitable laboratories. The students, as a rule, find ready employment at remunerative TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION — GREAT BRITAIN. 1089 wages. They enter the shops as apprentices, or else are working as such while attending the school. Employers prefer them on account of their superior intelligence and efficiency. There is little trade unionism in the neighborhood of the school, except among plumbers, and they arc not altogether friendly to its work. SEGEUT STKEET POLYTECHNIC, 309 EEGEETT STREET, LONDOKT, W. This school may be said to have been the beginning of the national polytechnic movement in Great Britain. It had its origin in a "rag- ged school" for boys, founded in 1863 by Mr. Quintin Hogg. In a ver}' short time the attendance grew to 120, and in 1865 a second room was secured to accommodate the increasing numbers. In 1873 an institute was founded and some half dozen classes were formed. At the end of the first year 48 boys were enrolled. The next move was to still larger premises in Long Acre, but the limit of the capacity of the new quarters was soon reached. At the end of seven years the membership roll was full and more than 100 candidates were constantly waiting for admission. In 1881 the propertj^ of the old Polytechnic was purchased at a cost of £50,000 ($243,325). These new premises were occupied in 1882, and within seven years altera- tions, additions, and improvements were made to the amount of £100,000 (J486,650). Recently another building has been purchased, and still there is not room. From the two ragged sweepers in 1863 the membershij) has grown to 12,000. From the small class in the simplest rudiments of a common education has grown the great insti- tute whose curriculum covers a broad field of instruction in art, science, commerce, technology, and the trades. The institute is open every evening in the year except bank holidays and Sunda3's. For the small fee of 10s. 6d. ($2.56) per year members are entitled to the use of the library, reading room, conversation room, social, chess, and drafts room, and the gymnasium. They also have the privilege of joining clubs and classes for entertainments at purely nominal rates. The day school provides general instruction for boj^s of 9 years of age and upward, and also special courses in architecture, engineering, commercial subjects, and a trade course for carriage builders. The school for carriage builders offers instruction in the nature and prop- erties of all materials used in the construction of a highly finished carriage; selecting and testing materials, and marking out without waste; drawing, sketching from carriages, taking measurements, and carriage designing; and practical shopwork in working from drawings, making sections, painting, trimming, and smith's work. The day school offers instruction for girls in chemistry, drawing and painting, piano and singing, violin, swimming, dressmaking and needlework, cookery, and shorthand. 9257—02 69 1090 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONEK OF LABOR. The boj's' continuation school has classes arranged for the usual English subjects, modern languages, mathematics, chemistry, mechan- ics, physics, freehand and machine drawing, laboratorj' practice, and workshop instruction in engineering and carpentry. This school is open to boys from 11 to 17 j-ears of age. The principal part of the trade instruction of the institute is given in the evening classes. Prominent among the courses is that for car- riage builders, which is substantiallj'^ the same as that provided in the day school and described above. Perhaps the most prominent school in the institute is the photographic trades school. It is claimed for this school that of those engaged in the various branches of the trade in London more are present or past students of the school than is the case with any other industry and its corresponding school. The full field of instruction covered includes camera manipulations, nega- tive making, developing, exposures, selection and use of lenses, copy- ing, orthochromatic work; portraiture, art in relation to photography, landscapes, and architecture; preparation of negatives for printing, intensifying, and reducing; gelatino-chloride, collodio-chloride, and albumen printing, and enameling, mounting, and finishing; platinum, carbon and lantern slide printing; bromide printing, enlarging, and enlarged negative making; retouching; finishing in black and white; photogravure ; line and screen negative making with both wet and dry plate; zinc and copper line and tone blocks; and tricolor photography and photolithography. Practical demonstration in portraiture can not be given in the evening, but full and detailed instructions for working are given by special teachers, and the exposed plates are developed and finished in the class. Other practical trade classes are boot and shoe making, including clicking and pattern cutting, and last fitting; carpentry- and joinery, metal turning and fitting, erecting, d3'namo building, and bicycle making, plumbing, upholstery, typograph}", including instruction on the linotype machine, gentlemen's and ladies' garment cutting, and metal plate work. Practical instruction is offered to young women in dress cutting, di-essmaking, millinery, and cookery. Technical classes are arranged for all trade classes, and in addition to these are classes for teaching technology to bricklayers, masons, cabinetmakers, and gas manufacturers. The science school covers a very extended series of subjects relating to such practical professions as biologj', geology, mineralogj^, botany, electricity, chemistiy, etc. The school of art provides instruction in designing, modeling, drawing, sketching, and painting. There are preparatory classes for the civil service, music, elocution, and such commercial and general subjects as bookkeeping, shorthand, typewrit- ing, political economy, ancient and modern languages, and instruction for sick nursing. TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION — GKEAT BRITAIN. 1091 The governing body consists of 16 men nominated by the charity commissioners, and in tliem is the title to the institute property. Of the more than 12,000 students in 1901, nearly 1,000 were in the day schools, and about 4,000 were in the evening trade classes. The cost of maintaining the institute for the year ending July 31, 1899, was £38,311 (1186,410), which was £5,296 (|25,Y73) more than the receipts from all sources. The principal sources of income were: Fees, £12,497 ($60,817); prizes from the City and Guilds and science and art department, £2,942 ($14,317); grants by London County Coun- cil, £7,470 ($36,353); grants from city parochial charities, £5,218 (126,393), and donations by Mr. Hogg and Mr. J. E. K. Studd (Hon. Sec.) £3,000 and £1,500 (114,600 and 17,300), respectively. The mental, moral, physical, and manual training given to the thou- sands of boys and young men who have attended the institute has had beneficial effect upon the industries of London. The preference for past students by employers is manifested by many large firms taking them into their establishments without pay- ment of the usual apprenticeship fee. The day classes for carnage builders were founded by British carriage manufacturers. That the work of the school has been eminently satisfactory is attested by its wonderful growth and the favor it has met with among craftsmen, employers, and public men who are devoting their energies to the improvement of the working masses. It is taken as the model institution of its kind in Great Britain. THE GOLDSMITHS' COMPANY'S TECHNICAL AND RECKEATIVE INSTITUTE, NEW CBOSS, LONDON. This school was founded by the Goldsmiths' Company in 1891. It has rejected aid from the charities commissioners and the London technical education board, thereby refusing to join forces with the polytechnics, and is therefore freer to admit students not at work at trades than are the various polytechnic schools. The fees for a session of seven months range from 3s. to los. ($0.73 to 13.65). The board of governors has provided, however, that a limited number of artisans and craftsmen may be admitted to certain classes upon payment of half the ordinary fees. Such students must state the exact nature of their employment, which must be certified by their employer, manager, or the secretary of their trade union. The classes they seek, to enter must bear some direct relation to their employment. The school is divided into two general departments — the educational and the recreative. The educational department is again divided into a day department and an evening department. The day classes include the art school, music, commercial and civil service, and electrical engineering. The evening classes include mechanical and building 1092 EEPOBT OF THE COMMlSSIOjSTEB OF LABOR; engineering, chemistry, matiiematics, and physics, miscellaneous trades — plumbing and tailors' cutting — women's classes, and all the subjects of the day classes. The various engineering courses offer thoi'ough theoretical instruc- tion in all necessary subjects and practical shop training according to the special needs of students. The practical classes arranged for building students and others employed as artisans, craftsmen, or trade apprentices cover a number of subjects. The full course in carpentry and joinery extends over three years. The first year is devoted to geometry, building construction, and lectures on carpentry; the second year takes up practical shopwork, and continues building construction and carpentry lectures; the third year is principally devoted to building construction and practical shop- work. The practical work covers not only carpentry and^ joinery proper, but also includes household cabinet work. Drawing forms a part of each year's work. A three years' course is arranged for the subject of masonry and bricklaying. The first year covers building construction, brickwork drawing, and brick cutting; the second year is devoted to geometry and building construction, and the third year's work embraces mathe- matics, applied mechanics, brickwork drawing, brick cutting, and sanitar J' engineering. Free-hand drawing is taught throughout the course as the student has the time to devote to that subject. The first year's work in the pattern-making course is the same as that for carpentry; the second and third years carry the student through the various stages of theoretical study and shop practice necessary to equip a good workman. The metal plate work and boiler making course extends over two years of very thorough training. The lectures take up all the tech- nical details of the trade in their natural order, including measure- ments, methods of construction, development of parts, composition of materials, etc. The shopwork embraces practice in all of the numer- ous operations necessarily performed by the highly skilled craftsman. The lectures arranged for the course in plumbing cover mensura- tion, densitj' of materials, solder and other alloys, the effects of heat, physical and chemical properties of metals used in plumbing, sanitary appliances, water supply, ventilation of drains and buildings, and hot- water heating. Practical exercises in drawing, planning, estimating, and general shopwork are given through the entire two years covered by the full course. There is also practical instruction provided for students in chem- istry, drawing and design, modeling, wood carving, repouss^ work, and tailors' cutting. Besides the subjects just enumerated such household subjects as cookery, laundering, dressmaking and millinery, and house- wifery receive careful attention. The dressmaking and millinery courses TKADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION GREAT BKITAIN. 1093 prepare women for the City and Guilds examinations, and appear to be designed to fit them to enter upon apprenticeships in these trades. The school is governed by an office staff selected by the Goldsmiths' Company. About 2,000 students attend the evening classes annually. The school has been instrumental in increasing the general intelli- gence of working people in its community, and good results have come to the various industries whose artisans attend its classes. Its students find ready employment at good wages. They enter the workshops as apprentices, but they advance more rapidly on account of their school training. The work of the institution has been satisfactory to all concerned. Employers show an increasing interest in its work, and some of them offer special facilities to those of their employees who desire to attend the school. NORTHEBN POLYTECHNIC INSTITUTE, LONDON. The Northern Polytechnic Institute was established to provide for the inhabitants of Islington and the neighboring parts of North Lon- don, aad especially for the industrial classes, the means of acquiring a sound general, scientific, technical, and commercial education at small cost, and also to afford facilities for physical training, and for recre- ation. The building was erected from funds supplied partly bj'' donations from the Clothworkers' Comjpanjr and other public bodies and partly by voluntary local subscription. The income is derived from an endowment from the City Parochial Foundation, grants from the technical education board of the London County Council, attend- ance and examination grants from the science and art department and the City and Guilds of London Institute, students' fees, and voluntary subscriptions. Work began informally at the institute on October 5, 1896. The educational work is conducted for the most part in evening- classes; there are, however, daj^ classes in some departments, and the question of the extension of this day work, so as to utilize more com- pletely the building and equipment of the institute during the day, is under consideration. Artisans and apprentices are allowed to enter for anj^ sessional course at a fee of 10s. (12.43) for the session; both lectures and lab- oratory or workshop practice are included in this fee. Apprentices are admitted to trade classes at half rates on presenting a certificate from their employers that they are actually engaged in the trade to which their application refers. In most cases classes are announced in at least two stages of a subject. Only those students are admitted to the advanced class who show to the satisfaction of the teacher that they are equal to the work. In some cases classes are announced of a still more advanced character. 1094 EEPOET OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOE. In some cases, too, preparatorj- or introductory courses arc arranged where it is found that students come insufficientlj' j)repared to profit by the teaching in the ordinary first j'ear's course. The technological and trade classes, entrance to which is confined to those engaged in the industries concerned, are intended to teach the scientific principles upon the application of which the practice of the various trades depends, and by giving opportunities of gaining manipulative skill to supplement the training in the workshop. The object of the classes is to counteract the narrowing tendency of the extreme di^'ision of labor, which allows a man to become thoroughly acquainted with onl_v a small part of his trade. Short courses pointing out the bearings of mechanics, physics, and chemistry on particular industries form a part of the regular work of the institute. In the women's department classes in needlework, dressmaking, and millinery are now carried on, and arrangements are being made to include courses in cookerj' and laundry work also. Many of the classes in science and technology are in connection with the science and art department or the Cit}" and Guilds of London Institute; and students, unless disqualified hj their teachers, are expected to sit for the examinations of these bodies. The fees charged are on the understanding that students will enter for these examina- tions when desired; otherwise an additional fee of 10s. ($2.13) is charged for each class. The work of the institute is divided among several departments, aa follows: Mathematics and geometry, engineering and constructive science, building construction and architectural science, physics and electrical science, chemistry, biological and sanitary science, English and civil service, language and literature, commerce and economics, women's work, and miscellaneous classes. The courses in the engineering and metal-trades department include machine construction and drawing, mechanical engineering, fitting and machine-shop work, smith work, pattern making, metal-plate work (especially arranged for tin, zinc, and iron plate workers, boiler makers, coppersmiths, etc.), and a special course in metal work for teachers. The courses in the building-trades department embrace building construction, architectural drawing, builder's quantities, carpentry and joinery, brickwork, masonry, plasterers' work, paint- ing and decorating, and plumbing. The courses in physics and elec- trical science take in general elementary science, mechanics, heat, light, and sound, magnetism and electricity, electrical engineering, and electric wiring and fitting. The latter course is limited to those actually engaged in electric wiring and house fitting. In the chemical department there is a preliminary course in general experimental science, a four-year course in inorganic chemistry, and a two-year course in organic chemistry. TBADE AND TECHNIOAL EDUCATION— GKE AT BEITAIN. 1095 The institute is managed by a board of governors composed of 17 members. The faculty consists of about 60 lecturers and instructors, 25 of whom are engaged in the technical and trade classes. The teachers of the trade classes are all actually engaged in the various trades, and are skilled both in knowledge of their handicrafts and in teaching. The work of these classes consists partly of lectures and drawing practice, and partly of workshop practice under the teacher'^s direction. MUNICIPAL TECHNICAL SCHOOL, MANCHESTER. The object of this school is to provide instruction in the principles of those sciences which bear directly or indirectly upon trade and industry, and to show by experiment how these principles may be applied to their advancement. Students under 15 years of age are not admitted to the technical classes of the day school. They must produce a reference from the school previously attended and pass the entrance examination, or some qualifying examination. The night school is conducted on liberal principles, and students are not required to take up studies in harmony with their daily shopwork. The school year is divided into three terms, and the fees range from 10s. 6d. (f2.56) per term upward. Nonnaturalized foreigners are charged double fees. Certificates are granted to students who have been constant in attendance, faithful in their home work, and who sit at the term and sessional examinations. A number of prizes and scholarships are available to students. Some of the scholarahips entitle the holder to three years' attendance in some of the best scientific schools in Great Britain. The medals and prizes offered by the City and Guilds of London Institute are open to the students. The courses of instruction include nearly one hundred science and technical subjects, besides the classes in commercial subjects. Such courses as geologj^ botany, mineralogy, etc., are not within the scope of this inquiry, and are not here considered in detail. The technical teaching in the school begins with a preliminary course arranged to meet the needs of students who are not sufficiently advanced to enter the technical departments. The more important trade and technical courses are as follows : Plumbing: This course as provided in the day school is designed for youths who are preparing to follow the trade of a plumber, or for those who are ah'eady engaged in the business and desire special knowledge of the principles and practice of the trade. Taken in connection with sanitary engineering, the course prepares the student (male or female) for the work of factory or sanitary inspector. The course in the night school is intended to meet the requirements of apprentices and journeymen and master plumbers. It is further designed to afford instruction in the theory, and practice of sanitary engineering. The full course covers two years, in both day and evening schools. Among the subjects included are workshop arithmetic, geometry, 1096 KEPOKI OF THE COMMISSIONEB OF LABOE. and drawing; elementary physics for plumbers; alloys, solders, etc., their composi- tion, properties, uses, and methods of practical use; physical and chemical proper- ties and qualities of lead, tin, zinc, copper, brass, etc., and the various forms and special uses of these metals as applicable to plumbing; water supply, closets, baths, sinks, lavatories, drainage, etc.; traps, waste pipes, drains, tanks, etc.; external plumbers' work, cutting out sheet lead, lining cisterns; hot-water circulation, and the principles of hot-water heating; sanitation and ventilation, and tools used in plumbing. The practical work covers thoroughly all the important phases of the trade, and practical examinations are held to test the students' mechanical skill. Bleaching, dyeing, and printing: This full course extends over three years, and is intended to give the sons of masters, managers, or foremen, or young men wishing to engage in the trade a sound elementary knowledge of the sciences, especially of general chemistry, which underlie the industry, and to train them to apply their knowledge with advantage and success. The first and second year's instruction is devoted to mathematics, organic and inorganic chemistry, chemical physics, quali- tative and quantitative analysis, chemical preparations, German, and laboratory work. The work in chemistry is very thorough and comprehensive, and embraces in great minuteness the study of the constituent and generic properties of the various elements entering into the practical applications of the bleaching, dyeing, and print- ing trade. In the third year the study of chemistry is continued, and instruction is given in gas analysis and gas apparatus, the manufacture of sulphuric acid and alkali; electrolysis and electrolytic bleaching. The technology of textile fibers, natural and artificial coloring matters, and mordants are treated very exhaustively. It treats of the origin, chemical and microscopical character of fibers, the action of chemical agents upon them, the detection of mixed fabrics, and methods of bleach- ing; the various mordants and their action in dyeing, methods of testing mordants and their application to the different textile fibers; water suitable for dyeing and scouring, and thickeners, etc., used in printing and finishing; the origin, varieties, commercial preparation, and coloring principles of such natural coloring matters as logwood, brazil wood, corn wood, and allied redwoods, indigo, cochineal, madder, lacdye, safHower, catechu, fustic, weld, etc. ; the application of these coloring mat- ters to different fibers in dyeing and printing, and the shades produced by different mordants; the stability of the colors obtained, and methods of detecting the different coloring matters when dyed on the fiber; artificial coloring matters, especially the direct cotton, basic, and mordant colors with reference to their practical application in cotton dyeing and printing; the technology and chemistry of coal-tar colors, and the preparation, composition, and properties of artificial coloring matters in general. The experimental work in the dyeing laboratory is intended to acquaint the student with the bleaching of cotton, the uses of mordants, and the application in dyeing and printing of the natural and artificial coloring matters. The experiments are at first carried out on a small scale and are chiefiy comparative, in order to accustom the student to neat and exact work and to enable him to study carefully the various conditions of time, temperature, etc., in mordanting and dyeing. Toward the end of the third year's course opportunity is offered for bleaching, dyeing, and printing on half-scale machinery. The evening school offers a somewhat shorter course, and also affords opportunity for study in special subjects in the trade. Silk manufacturing: This course embraces mathematical calculations, mechanics and engineering drawing, chemistry, weaving, throwing, free-hand drawing, design- ing and application of design to silk fabrics. Instruction in throwing includes origin and species of cultivated and wild silk-producing insects, properties of silk fibers, diseases of silkworms and their effects on the fibers and cocoons, the uses and com- parative values of silks produced in different countries; reeling, winding, cleaning, throwing, carding, combing, and spinning waste silks; doubling and conditioning raw and thrown silks. Preparation includes winding, warping, beaming, dressing, TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION — GREAT BRITAIN. 1097 • drawing in, twisting, and gaiting. Instruction in weaving embraces the construction of hand looms and the comparative merits of hand and power looms, the importance of the hand loom in silk manufacture, the adaptation of the power loom to the pro- duction of various fabrics, the application of design to fabrics, and the analysis of woven fabrics. The time devoted to lectures and practice is 35 hours per week, and nearly one-half of this time is given to practical work in chemistry and weaving. The work in chemistry has principally to do with dyeing. Cotton spinning: The object of this course is to meet the requirements of over- lookers, managers, manufacturers, and merchants. The course extends over three years. The lectures embrace the cultivation, picking, and preparation of the various kinds of cotton for the market; the value of cotton as determined by length, strength, diameter, and touch of fibers; the study of cottons grown in the different cotton- producing countries; mixing, cleaning, opening, and carding cotton, and the ma- chines in use for these purposes; combing in all its phases, and combing machines; drawing, flyer, and mule frames, their use, action, and all their various attachments and complications; doubling, winding, and reeling, and the machinery used in these operations; conditioning and testing yarn; trade terms applied to yarn; the faults in yarn, their causes and remedies; the character and quantity of waste made in pre- paring and spinning cotton, and the utilization of waste, together with a knowledge of waste-spinning machinery; quantities of machinery required to produce yarn of a given count and quality; arrangement of machinery; calculations relating to all the operations in a spinning mill, and ventilating, lighting, heating, and humidifying mills. The practical work conducted during the entire course is very thorough, and includes setting and timing all the machines used in spinning and personally per- forming all operations in each process of manufacture. The course also includes one year's instruction in textile engineering. Cotton weaving and designing: This course extends over three years, and is designed to meet the needs of overlookers, managers, manufacturers, and merchants. The lectures of the first year treat of the conditions in which yams are supplied to the mills, the relative advantages of dyeing and bleaching in such conditions, and the processes through which warp and weft yarns pass in their preparation for the loom; winding, warping, and chaining; combined warping and sizing, dressing and slash- ing machinery, and hot-air drying; sizing in ball and hank, and sizing calculations; Yorkshire and Scotch dressing, winding on, drawing in, and twisting; looms — their various motions, and timing, setting, fixing, and gaiting them; designing cotton fab- rics, and making calculations for reeds, healds, shrinkage, quantities of warp and weft, wages, and cost. The knowledge of preparation, weaving, mechanism, and calculations gained by students in the -first year's work is so thorough that substan- tially all the time of the second and third years is devoted to designing and weaving. The instruction is in keeping with the advanced position occupied by the mills of this great cotton-manufacturing center, and embraces the designing and weaving of the varied assortment of high-class fabrics produced. Particular attention is given Jacquard machines and their work. No detail in cotton cloth manufacture is over- looked or treated lightly, and the course is exceptionally comprehensive and thor- ough. As in the case of spinning, textile engineering forms a conspicuous part of the course. Typographic printing: Three separate courses of instruction are arranged for this subject. The first is for apprentices under 18 years of age, and is preliminary in character; the second is for apprentices and journeymen, and the third is for those who have passed the second course. The lectures in the preliminary course coyer composition and machine and press work. They begin with the history of printing and the evolution of the printing press, and then take up such subjects as spelling, punctuation, casting up matter, classification of type, lay of cases, the art of compos- ing, distribution, proof reading, imposing, jobbing work, sizes of paper, construction of presses, roller composition, casting and care of rollers, various printing machines; 1098 REPOBT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOE. lialf-tone, line, and three-color printing; motive power (steam, gas, and electric), printers' bookkeeping, etc. The second course enlarges upon the work of the first and considers typefounding, stereotyping, electrotyping, process blocking, book and news work, composing machines and general principles of composition, the more difficult schemes of imposition, job printing, and tabular work, manufacture of paper, etc. The third course continue? along advanced lines the work of the second course, and in addition takes up foreign types; methods of ascertaining the weight of type, lead.s, etc., in a given piece of work; modern labor-savmg appliances in all depart- ments of printing, including the Unotype machine; bronze and leaf-metal printiiig; inks, zincography, sizes, qualities, and general treatment of papers; mill, straw, and leather boards; estimating, and general office management. Lithographic and analogous methods of printing: This course is intended 'for first, second, and third year apprentices. The course of instruction embraces the consid- eration of'the geological character and chemical composition of lithographic stone; the properties of such materials as acids, gums, resin, wax, varnishes, etc. ; the hand press and lithographic machines; the source and manufacture of color; the nature, composition, and manufacture of varnishes, inks, and dryers; engi-aving on stone, transposition, chromolithography, patching and shining up color work, zincography, albuminography, copperplate engraving, etching, mezzotint work, and copperplate printing, graduated tint printing, decalcomanie transfer printing, autographic print- ing methods, wood engraving, woodburytype, photogravure, fabric printing, photo- lithography; bronze, metal, and colored dust work; luminous printing and transposi- tion work; methods of estimating, management, and such other matters as relate to special branches of the trade. The leetares are fully illustrated, as far as practicable, by work executed before the students. The classes are equipped with presses and materials for the demonstration of practical work. Flour manufacture: The course comprises thirty lectures, beginning with the abstract principles of milling, and taking up in order the constituents of grains and the prin- cipal varieties of wheat; handling and storing,, cleaning and preparing, and mixing wheat; methods of grinding, sieving, purifying, and reducing, and the machinery used in these operations; flour dressing, milling economics, the designing of mill plants, arrangement of mills and milling machinery, motive power, millwrighting, hygienic considerations in mills, and causes of fire, precautions against the same, and extinguishing appliances. The lectures are illustrated by diagrams, lantern slides, samples, and models. Horseshoeing: This course consists of lectures on the principles of shoeing, the anatomy and physiology of the horse's foot, care of the foot, diseases of the foot, pathological shoeing, and the various details in expert work, such as heel slioeing, etc. The practical work comprises the preparation of the foot and making, flttiMg, and putting on the shoe. At the end of the course an examination is held, and those who pass it successfully are entitled to be enrolled on the register of the Worshipful Company of Farriers. Dressmaking and millinery: The couree in dressmaking comprises cutting, fitting, and making up all kinds of ladies' anject are conducted at Kettering and Wellingborough. Following is an outline of the Wellingborough course: Taking measures, fitting up lasts, etc. ; principles of last making; designing and cutting patterns for uppers; clicking; the best methods of preparing uppers for the sewing machine; ranging, cutting, and sorting bottom stock; riveting, pegging, and screwing by hand and machine; hand and machine sewing — channel sewing, fair stitching, making turned shoes, welts, etc.; heel building; finishing; the principles of lasting and finishing machines; the study of raw materials; processes TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION GKEAT BRITAIN. 1103 of tanning, currying, etc.; and the arrangeaient and regulation of the various departments of a manufactory. Students who attend the lec- tures regularly are admitted to the school workshop for practice. Instruction is also given in such practical subjects as horseshoeing, dressmaking, lace making, woodworking, and domestic subjects. The chief lecturer on boot and shoe manufacture has had thirt}-^ years' practical experience, and he has 9 assistants who have been similarly trained. The inspector from the City and Guilds of London Institute, in speaking of the boot and shoe schools of the count}-, says: "The work that is being done is by no means limited to the class rooms. * * * It is far-reaching in its effect, and has a decided influence upon the trade of the district. '' The work of the schools has been eminently satisfactory. A great proportion of those who have taken the course are well employed and they are far better off than are those who have not taken the course. A London firm recently advertising for clickers specified, " Students from Northamptonshire technical schools preferred. " Of the 33 medals and prizes offered for competition to the whole United Kingdom dur- ing the past few j^ears by the City and Guilds of London Institute 25 have been secured by Northamptonshire students. In the year 1900 the committee had at its disposal £7,500 (136,499). UNIVERSITY COLLEGE, NOTTINGHAM. This college has been open aboat eight years. Its object is prima- rily to afford general scientific instruction, but provision is also made in evening classes for technical teaching in certain trades. Both boys and girls are admitted to the college classes. Day students must be 16 3'ears of age, and evening students must be not under 14 years of age and have reached a stage of advancement equiva- lent to the sixth standard of the Government code. The usual fee for each course in evening technical classes is 5s. (fl.22). The day courses include engineering, architecture, chemistry, phar- macy, mining, commerce, language and literature, and a number of scientific subjects. The courses of instruction in the evening technical classes are arranged to meet the requirements of apprentices, workmen, journey- men, foremen, architects, and draftsmen who are engaged during the day in industrial pursuits, or other persons who are preparing for such pursuits. The work in the course of mechanical drawing and design begins with tracing, working drawings, and machine details, and then takes up original drawings and the simpler details of design. The carpentry and joinery coui-se includes instruction in technical drawing and in setting out work, and such practical exercises as will acquaint the student with the ordinary details of the trade. The 1104 EEPOKT OF THE COMMISSIOWEE OF LAT30B. ground covered by the course is such as to meet the requirements of the City and Guilds of London Institute examinations. The class in metal working is intended to help such persons as turners and fitters who use metal-working tools. Instruction is given in forge work and tool making, setting out work for machine tools, speeding and feeding machines, and practical work in brass turning, screwing, and finishing. In plumbing the course is intended to prepare students to become registered plumbers under the scheme of the Worshipful Company of Plumbers, London. The instruction is in accord with the syllabus of the City and Guilds of London Institute and prepares students for those examinations. The subjects covered are principles of plumb- ing, technical drawing and setting out, properties of metals, solders, and alloj'S, action of gas and water on pipes, and practical instruction in the workshop. Instruction in hosiery manufacture extends over a series of thirty lectures covering the general construction of textile fabrics, the for- mation of stitches in knitted and looped fabrics, the construction and action of ^'arious knitting frames and looms, numbering yarns, glove manufacture, trimming and finishing, and the chemistry of dyeing. Practical demonstrations are given of the various methods used in making framework knitted fabrics. The subject of lace manufacture is treated with a regular course of thirty lectures, but special classes are arranged for students who have not the time to take the full course. The instruction embraces the describing of real lace and imitations, methods and materials used in the production of real lace, a studj- of the different lace machines and the laces produced on each machine, calculations and the details of lace manufacture. Practical work is provided to demonstrate the processes of manufacture. Besides the above outlined courses, there are short special courses of lectures in applied chemistry for dyers, plumbers, and brewers, and also for persons engaged in the building trades and architecture, and for pattern makers, molders, and machinists. The college is governed by a committee composed of representatives from the town council, from the universities of Cambridge and Oxford, and four citizens of the town. In 1901 there were 104 students in practical woodwork, 50 in plumbing, 19 in hosiery, 11 in lace, and 19 in metal-working tools. The school has increased intelligence and cfficienc}' among the work- ing classes and has been of general benefit to the industries of the community. Artisan trade organizations have the privilege of filling trade classes before outsiders are admitted, and they take advantage of the evening classes in large numbers. TKADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION GEEAT BRITAIN. 1105-- Local firms aided in the equipping of the technical schools, and offer- prizes in many subjects. Electrical-engineering firms show their appreciation of the work done in their line by sending articled stu- dents and apprentices to the classes. The school work does not relieve students from apprenticeship, but it has led to better training in the shops and has enabled them ta obtain better wages. OLDHAM MTJTUAIi TECHNICAL SCHOOL, OLBHAM. In 1884 a school for technical education on the principles of self-help originated in the minds of a number of students of the cotton classes- formerly held at Rock Street School. The classes were held in the- winter months only, but thirty of the stulents, considering the sum- mer vacation a loss of valuable time, formed the Oldham mutual cotton class and met once a week~all the year round. At these meetings they discussed subjects picked at random from the whole process of cotton spinning. In 1886 they sought diagrams and illustrations to assist in their studies, and succeeded in procuring some from firms engaged in the manufacture of spinning machiner}^. These firms also sent their rep- resentatives to lecture on sectional parts of machinery. The organi- zation then began to purchase standard works and to pay visits to- cotton mills and other manufactories. The next step was to obtain larger quarters and to procure some machinery for use in the classes^ and in 1891 success crowned these efforts. The building used was the property of the Oldham corporation, and in 1898 they were served with notice to quit. Again new quarters were looked for, and through- the generosity of a local architect the present well-equipped premises was found and occupied in 1899. The stated object of the society is to promote the studj^ of literature,, science, and the fine arts, and all mone3^s coming into its treasury are applied to this purpose. Every candidate for membership must be proposed and seconded by two ordinary members. The entrance fee is 10s. (|2.43), which includes the current month's subscription. Every candidate appears (if necessary) before an investigating committee. The subscription fee for ordinary members is 2s. (49 cents) monthl3^ The members meet every Thursday evening at 7.30 for lecture and discussion. The machinery is in motion every Tuesday and Friday evening from 7.30 to 9 o'clock. There is no prescribed course of instruction; the system is chiefly one of self-instruction, and miscellaneous subjects are taken up at random. In 1900 the following subjects were discussed: Spindles and their uses; flyer frames; Hetherington's mule; calcula- tions; Asa's mule; Brook's ring frame; Howard & BuUough's slubber; 925T— 02 70 1106 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. Asa's roving frame; settins^ points — Piatt's mule; setting points— Asa's mule; points in mule spinning; intermediate frame; roving frame; Piatt's cam shaft; copping; Piatt's fine mule; mule backing-off and taking-in; Howard & BuUough's card; ParrCartis mule; calcula- tions — card-room machinery; drawing frame; mule sector; levers; Hetherington's cam shaft; mule backing-off; Green's economizers; copping; differential motion; reversing and tapering motion ; engineer- ing; scutching; mule quadrant; Piatt's automatic nosing motion; ring spinning; winding on the mule; flat card. There are at present about 120 members of the society. There are no teachei's and there is no course of instruction; neither are there any examinations. It is a unique plan for obtaining technical instruc- tion. As heretofore stated, the machinery is run two nights in the week, and members attend as they see fit. They stand about the room or follow the machines, and discuss with each other the various sub- jects suggested at the time. If a member comes across a knotty problem in his daily work, or in his studies, he introduces the matter to some one of the group of members and the problem is discussed. The scheme has proved of great advantage to the members, and many of them now occupy positions as foremen, etc. , due in large measure, if not entirely, to the Icnowledge gained in the meetings of the society. MUNICIPAL TECHNICAL SCHOOLS, OLDHAM. As far back as 18.39 science and art classes were commenced in Old- ham, in connection with the Oldham Lyceum. Following this the Oldham School of Science and Art was opened in 1865, and in 1881 a handsome new building was added. The Oldham corporation decided to exercise the powers granted by the act of 1889, and in 1892 the school propertj^ was transferred to them with a view to its becoming the nucleus of the contemplated municipal technical schools. Final steps toward giving trade and technical instruction were taken in 1895, and in 1897 practical work began in the new school. The science and technological departments afford facilities for obtain- ing instruction in the practical application of scientific principles to trades and industries. For this purpose there is a good equipment in laboratory and workshop. Students ai'o advised to take up a regular course, but are at liberty to maliQ their own choice of subjects. The number of sul)jects allowed to be taken up depends upon the time the students may ha\'c to devote to study. The fees in the technological department range from Ts. 6d. to 10s. 6d. ($1.83 to $2.56) per session. A number of competitive scholarships, exhibitions, and prizes, ranging in value from 6s. to .£50 ($1.22 to $243) are open to students upon conditions set forth in the prospectus of the schools. The courses of instruction embrace such scientific subjects as mathe- matics, ma^chine construction and drawing, building construction. TEABE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION GKEAT BKITAIN. 1107 mechanics, physics, and chemistry; such art subjects as drawing, painting, modeling, and decorative design; commercial and domestic subjects and technological classes. The more important technical classes are a three years' course in cotton spinning, and courses in cotton weaving, plumbing, carpentry and joinerj', and in dressmaking and millinery. The engineering courses cover the usual gi'ound and are very thorough and practical. The schools are managed by a technical instruction committee com- posed of the mayor and members of the town council. There are 8 instructors in the technological department. The schools are con- ducted in a splendid fireproof building erected with a view of meeting the demands of an all-round modern institution. The building cost about £12,000 (^58,398) not including the cost of equipment. The work of the schools has been satisfactory to all concerned, One of the evidences of the high regard in which it is held by employers is the fact that the equipment of the spinning and weaving schools was donated by one firm. H ARSIS INSTITUTE, PRESTON. Harris Institute, Preston, was originally a mechanics' institution, founded in 1828, and known as the "Preston Institution for the Diffu- sion of Knowledge." For many years classes were held in connection with the science and art department with a fair degree of success, but it was not until 1882, when the institution received, in the form of a bequest, the sum of £-10,000 (1194,660) for the purpose of establishing and maintaining an "institute of literature, art, science, and technical education," that the rapid development of the work of the institute took place. In 1887 the trustees of the original fund made a further grant of £30,000 ($145,995). A supplemental scheme was framed for the application of the fund, and under its pi-ovisions £10,000 (148,665) was applied toward building and furnishing a technical school, the remaining £20,000 ($97,380) being added to the endowment fund. In accordance with the scheme, "not less than one-eighth of the income has to be applied toward the payment of scholarships and exhibitions." This provision has proved of great service to the institute, the benefit derived from this separate fund being greatly appreciated hy the students, many of whom, by obtaining scholarships from year to yenr. receive all their education free. The managing council has power to grant two scholarships of the annual value of not less than £45 ($219) each, to be awarded on com- petitive examination, open to all students who have been attending the classes for not less than two years immediately preceding the exam- ination, and tenable at any college or place of higher education. The classes are broadly divisible into scientific and technical, the former following closely the syllabus laid down by the department of 1108 EEPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. science and art, and at the same time furnishing an adequate course for those who wish to read for a university scholarship or for a degree. The latter embrace more particularlj^ the practical applications of the principles dealt with in the theoretical classes. They do not pretend to be a substitute for practical work or apprenticeship, but aim to render clear manj^ points of doubt and difficulty which arise in the mind of an intelligent and painstaking workman. While there is no compulsorjr course of instruction laid down, students are strongly ad- "^dsed to take up one of the organized courses, in order that a definite and continuous training may be insured. These courses are carefully graded and so arranged that each year's work leads up naturally to the work of the succeeding year. The courses may, with the consent of the principal, be modified to suit particular cases. The work of the institute is divided among 12 departments, as fol- lows: Mathematics, chemistry and physics, engineering, natural science, building trades, spinning and weaving, art, commercial (including modern languages), agriculture, teaching, domestic econ- omj% and miscellaneous. The department of agriculture, which is in . connection with the Lancashire Count}^ Council, affords theoretical and practical instruction to a large class of students who are drawn from all parts of the county. The work of this school is designed to be thoi'ough in every particular, two days each week being devoted to practical and experimental work on near-by farms. The professor in veterinary science likewise avails himself of opportunities for demon- strating the practical part of his subject. In addition to free tuition, the county council allows a sum, not exceeding 10 shillings ($2.43) per week, either for board and lodging or for traveling expenses, to each student who fulfills the conditions laid down. The school year begins the middle of September and closes in May, except in the art school, which has a summer term ending the middle of July. Evening sessions are the rule, though in the schools of domestic economy, agriculture, and art, and in the teachers' classes, day sessions are also held. The organized courses of instruction, which require three years for completion, include mechanical and electrical engineering, pattern making, carpentry and joinery, brickwork and masonry, cabinetmak- ing, plumbing, cotton spinning and weaving, agriculture, courses for iron and brass founders, soap makers, etc. The school of domestic economy has diploma courses in laundr}"- work, cookery, dressmaking, and millinery, which require from one to two years for completion, and technical courses in the same branches, which are limited to twenty lessons in elementary and advanced work. The art school provides instruction in the principles and practice of art as applied in the form of design to manufactures and industrial occupations generally. It also deals with decorative and pictorial branches and furnishes a TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION — GREAT BRITAIN. 1109 methodical course of study for art workmen. Due. consideration is given to the special requirements of students depending on their daily occupations. The institute is managed by a president and governing council. The faculty consists of about 40 instructors, a large number of whom have obtained college degrees. Of the 2,8M students, the average attendance in April, 1899, the art school had 261 and the technical school 147, as follows: Art school — day classes 14, evening classes 179, modeling class 13, elementary class 45, technical design 10; technical school — brickwork and masonry 10, carpentry and joinery 21, cabinetmaking 6, electric lighting 6, plumb- ing 14, wood carving 5, cotton spinning 33, weaving and designing 53. The cost of maintenance is approximately £6,000 ($29,199) per annum. The funds for erecting and equipping the school were provided by endowments, grants, and contributions. The revenue of the institute is derived from interest on endowments, grants from the county council of Lancashire and the corporation of Preston, and tuition fees. Regarding the courses of training and study, it is said that they are satisfactory in every respect. The industrial benefits which have been gained from the establishment of the institute are of a general char- acter. The manufacture of cotton goods is the leading industry of the locality, and the usefulness of the institute and the benefits accru- ing from its system of instruction, especially in the cotton spinning and weaving department, are well attested by the favorable attitude of the local manufacturers, one large firm with 7,000 employees hav- ing paid the tuition fees of 500 students in a recent year. The insti- tute has exerted a strong influence toward increacing the intelligence and efliciency of the working classes in the community. It is stated that the effect upon those who have been under instraction has been in every respect gratifying to the management. The annual report refers to numerous instances where former students in the technical or trade classes have met with remarkable success since leaving the institute. Many of them are now holding important positions in large industrial establishments in the immediate vicinity and in distant cities and towns. Most of the employing carpenters in Preston encourage the attendance of apprentices, and a number of them pay their tuition fees, while some of the leading architects require their office help to attend the classes in building construction. It is stated, also, that the success of the institute has led to the improvement of shop train- ing in the locality. Referring to the possibility of graduates obtaining emploj^ment without serving a period of apprenticeship, it is said that while apprentices, by the aid of the evening classes, can learn in four years what previously required five, still no allowance is made and they must continue their apprenticeship to the usual age. 1110 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. MUNICIPAL TECHNICAL SCHOOL, ROCHDALE. The Municipal Technical School of Eochdale was established about the year 1887 and is the outcome of subscriptions raised in the jubilee j'ear. Like most schools of this class, the earlier years of its career were marked by a slow, though steady, growth, both in respect to the interest manifested by the class of students it aimed to reach and the efficiency of its courses and methods of training. In 1893 a handsome modern school building, which, together with the equipment, cost approximately £12,000 (|58,398), was erected, and since then there has been a large increase in the attendance, especially noticeable in the classes having subjects allied to the industries of the town, such as spinning, weaving, dyeing, and the engineering and building trades. Though organized as a municipal institution, the school is also open to students who reside outside the borough of Eochdale. During the past session 267 of these outside students, making 462 separate class entries, attended the school. The Lancashire County Council makes a grant to the school for each outside student who attends for advanced instruction in science or technology. This grant, however, is not available for students in art or elementary subjects. In most cases the rail or tram fare of students from outside the borough is remitted by their district councils. The prospectus contains the following regarding the object of the school: The aim of the committee in arranging the work of the technical school is to provide systematic instruction in the scientific principles applicable to the leading trades and industries of Rochdale and the district. The classes are intended principally for those who, being engaged in industrial and commercial occupations in the daytime, desire to receive supplementary instruction in the application of science and of art to the trades and manufactures in which the_y are interested. The instruction given in the school is intended to supplement and develop, and not to supersede, the knowledge gained by practical experience in the workshop or factory. Trades can not be taught in the technical school; the necessary manual skill can only come after long practice in the workshop. The main object of the instruction is to provide a thorough knowl- edge of the scientific principles underlying the daily work of the stu- dent, so as to enable him to take that intelligent interest in his work which is essential to success. Among the interesting features connected with the school are the students' associations, which have been promoted by the older students for their own advancement. The first of these — the Cotton Spinning Mutual Improvement Society — was formed in 1897. Its object is the attainment of a more technical knowledge of the various machines in the cotton industry and the provision of facilities for the members TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDTJCATION GKEAT BEITAIIT. 1111 to familiarize themselves with the various parts and motions of such machinerj'. There is also an association among the advanced and honor grade students in the building-trades classes which is designed to supplement the theoretical knowledge gained in the school by visits to quarries, brickyards, and workshops and to buildings in course of erection. Meetings are also held in the technical school, at which papers are read on matters not fully dealt with in the ordinary school course. Students are not compelled to attend an}" definite course of instruc- tion; they are free to select those subjects which are best adapted to assist them in their particular trade or business, but before joining any of the classes they must satisfy the teachers or the secretary that they are qualified to benefit by the instruction given. The school j^ear opens the middle of September and closes the middle of May, except for the art classes, which close in Julj'. Besides the evening ses- sions, which are held in all departments, there are also day classes in domestic economy, art, telegraphy and telephony, and in chemistry. All classes except the special classes for women are open to students of either sex. Those in attendance at a day school and persons under 12 j^ears of age are not admitted. A small tuition fee is charged. The classes in the school may be broadly divided into two groups. The first group comprises technical subjects. Most of these bear directly upon the industries of the district. In them the scientific principles upon which the various industrial processes depend are fully explained, and in several branches a course of practical training is provided. The second group comprises scientific subjects and mod- ern languages. The courses in the science classes follow closely the syllabus of the board of education, and are also suitable for students preparing for university degrees or scholarships. The work is not restricted to industrial applications, but deals also with theoretical principles and pure science. The subjects in detail are as follows: Weaving and designing; cot- ton, wool, and worsted spinning; chemistry; dyeing and bleaching; magnetism and electricity; telegraphy and telephonj'; electric light- ing; machine construction; applied mechanics; steam; pattern making; coloring and sketching; manual training in woodwork; building con- struction; carpentry and joinery; builders' quantities ; plumbing; prac- tical, plane, and solid geometry; mathematics; natural science; domestic economj^, including dressmaking, needlework, milliner.v, cookery, and laundry work; commercial classes; and art classes. The object of the art school is to provide, by suitable courses of study, a thoroughly practical knowledge of designing, drawing, paint- ing, and modeling, with special regard to their various applications to the building trades, architecture, pattern designing for wall papers, paints, textile fabrics, etc., painting and decorating, lithography, etc. 111.2 KEPOET OF THE COMMISSIONEB OF LABOE, The school is managed by a committee of 24, consisting of the mayor, 3 aldermen, 10 councilors who are appointed by the town council, and 10 other citizens who are appointed by the original sub- scribers. There are 50 instructors, 25 of whom are engaged in the art, trade, and technical courses. Most of the instructors have had practical as well as theoretical training, and those in the evening classes are actually engaged in the trades during the day. Of the 2,611 students entering the school for the year 1900-01, there were 1,826 who attended up to the end of the school year. Of this latter number, 751 students were distributed among the technical, trade, and art classes, as follows: YVeaving and designing, 54; cotton, wool, and worsted spinning, 44; plumbing, 97; carpentry and joinery, 55; building construction, 85; builders' quantities, 12; pattern mak- ing, 11; inking and coloring, 10; electric lighting, 8; telegraphy and telephony, 12; cotton, wool, and silk dyeing, 13; dyeing and bleach- ing, 9; art classes, 344. The revenue of the school is derived mainly from Government grants; local taxation (customs and excise); rate aid, Id. (2 cents) in the £1 ($4.87), and tuition fees. The cost of mainte- nance for the year ending March 31, 1901, was £4,760 (|23,165). The influence that the school has had upon the local industries is difficult to trace, but it is thought that it has helped to increase the variety of weaving in the local textile industry. The work of the school has resulted in increasing the intelligence and efficiency of the working classes generally. Local labor unions take a friendly interest in the school, and there has always been one or more active trade unionists on the council com- mittee. Practical plumbing classes are limited b}- the desire of the master plumbers to admit only those who are workers at the trade. Here, as in other places, the master plumbers give prizes to the students. If a student migrates, at the age of 18, in order to get better wages, the unions do not object unless he claims full journey- men's wages. The ejffect upon those who have been under instruction has been beneficial in every respect, and as a rule they have received better positions and higher wages than they would otherwise have obtained. Graduates are required to undergo the usual period of apprenticeship before engaging as full-fledged journeymen. While there is nothing positive regarding the attitude of employers in giving preference to graduates, there is ample evidence that they desire their employees to take advantage of the facilities afforded by the evening classes. One large engineering firm offers prizes to apprentices who attend the school, and many other employers pay the tuition fees of their workmen. In the opinion of the officials, the success of the school has led to the improvement of shop training in the vicinity. TEADE AND' TECHNICAL EDUCATION — GEEAT BEITAIN. 1113 ROYAL TECHNICAL INSTITUTE, SALFORD. The Eoyal Technical Institute was established to provide for the county borough of Salford systematic instruction in those branches of knowledge which have a direct bearing upon the leading industries of the district. A few months after the passing of the technical-instruction act in 1889 a committee was appointed to consider the question of technical instruction within the borough. The recommendation of the commit- tee to establish a technical school was adopted by the council in 1890, and a plot of land adjoining Peel Park, belonging to the corporation, was fixed on as a site for the proposed school. The building was opened March 25, 1896, and the institute commenced teaching opera- tions in September, 189C. The amount sanctioned bj^ the local government board to be bor- rowed for the erection and equipment of the building amounted to £68,500 (^333,355). The total cost of the building was £61,000 (f296,85Y), and the furnishing and equipment have amounted to a little over £20,000 ($97,330), making a total of £81,000 (|394,187); the dif- ference between the amount borrowed and the total cost of building and equipment was met by the large donations of money and machin- ery which were presented by the leading manufacturers and inhabit- ants of the borough. The annual income of the institute exceeds £9,500 (^46,232). The building is of red Ruabon brick, roofed with red tiles, the fac- ings, moldings, and ornaments being of red terra cotta; it is about 311 feet in length, and its height to the central gable is a little over 100 feet. There are four stories. The style of architecture is Renaissance. In the borough of Salford are extensive mechanical and electrical engineering works, chemical works, cotton mills, dyeing and calico printing works, and a large number of smaller but still important indus- tries. The instruction provided in the institute has a direct bearing upon these industries, and is to a large extent practical, the main pur- pose being to teach the application of the principles of science and art to such trades and industries. The courses are divided into day classes and evening classes. Day students are not admitted, unless in exceptional circumstances, under 15 years of age. They are expected to follow one of the organ- ized courses of instruction, which extend over two or three years. The course of study for the first year is the same for all departments, and includes instruction in mathematics, theoretical mechanics, physics, chemistry, drawing, French, German, and workshop practice. The second and third year courses become specialized according to the de- partment the student proposes to enter. These courses are arranged under the following departments: Mechanical engineering; physics 1114 KEl^OET OP THE COMMISSIOWEK OF LABOK. and electrical engineering; chemistrj^; dj-eing, bleaching, and calico printing; the building trades, and art. The fees range from 5 to 9 guineas (125.55 to $45.99) per session. The evening classes are intended for those who are engaged in indus- trial or commercial pursuits in the daytime, and who desire to receive supplementary instruction in the application of science or of art to the trades or manufactures in which they are concerned. Courses of instruction, extending over four years, have been ari'anged with regard to the chief industries of the district. One of the main features of the evening classes is that laboratory instruction is insisted on in all the advanced classes, and a student is allowed, by special permission only, to take up a lecture course without the corresponding practical class. The institute embraces the following departments: Mathematics (pure and applied); mechanical engineering; applied physics and elec- trical engineering; chemistry and metallurgy; dyeing, calico printing, and bleaching; the building trades, including sanitary engineering and plumbing; cotton spinning and weaving; domestic, including cookery, dressmaking, laundry, and millinery; hygiene and physiology; modern languages; school of art. The department of dyeing and calico printing is provided with a lecture theater, large experimental dyehou,se, and a large calico print- ing laboratory. There is also a balance and burette room. The dye- house is fitted with dye tables, giving accommodation for about 30 students working at one time. These tables are arranged with ten sets of six dj^e pots. The pots are placed in glycerin, which is heated by steam under pressure. The tables are also provided with hot and cold water. At the end of the dyehouse there is a set of six color pans, heated by steam, and also drying ovens. Included in the equipment are large dye jigs, which are driven by power, and arranged so that full-width cloth can be dyed. Dii'ectly under the dyehouse is the calico-printing laboratorjr, replete with the most modern and full-sized printing machines, including a full-width sample-printing machine, a single-color sample-printing machine, a two-color sample- printing machine, an aging machine, hot-air drying and padding- machine, steaming cottage, and a range of color-mixing pans. These machines are driven by means of a Y-horsepower alternating-current motor. The course of instruction covers three j'ears, and is intended to give students desirous of obtaining positions in dyeing, printing, or bleaching works a thoroughlj^ scientific and practical training in those branches of knowledge which underlie these industries. Lec- tures are given on dyeing and calico printing, bleaching, coal-tar coloring matters, etc. The experimental work is intended to give students a thorough knowledge of the processes of bleaching, dyeing, and printing, the uses of mordants and their application in dyeing and printing, with the various natural and artificial coloring matters. TEADE AND TECHNICAL EDTJCATIOW GEE AT BEITAIN. 1115 Practice is given in determining the commercial value of dye wares, in the detection of the nature of the coloring matters on dyed fabrics, and in color matching. In the building trades department courses have been arranged to meet the requirements of artisans belonging to the building trades. The lectures include geometry, building construction and drawing, carpentry and joinery, masonry, brickwork, house painting and deco- rators' work, plumbing, and sanitary science. The course in building construction and drawing comprises the setting out of all branches of builders' work, so that artisans not onl}^ learn to understand a sketch, but also how to set out working diagrams, etc., from drawings and written information. Students are taught to draw to scale from sketches and models of builder,,' work. The syllabus of the lectures on carpentry and joinery and masonry and brickwork are similar to those set forth in the programme of the City and Guilds of London Institute. In house painters' and decorators' work the course of in- struction consists of lectures and practical work. The lectures are fully illustrated by designs, drawings, etc. The plumbing classes are arranged to meet the requirements of apprentices and others who desire to obtain a sound knowledge of the principles of their trade. They are also suitable for those sitting for the certificate of the Sani- tary Institute of Great Britain and for other examinations in sanitary science. The accommodation provided in the department consists of '2 lec- ture rooms, a large drawing oflice for about 60 students, a woodwork shop, 2 rooms for practical plumbing, and 2 rooms for painters' and decorators' work. The woodworking shop contains 20 benches, 2 , wood-turning lathes, band saw, circular saw, and grindstone, the whole being driven by means of an electric motor. The instruction consists of exercises in the use of tools, in the making of joints, hand railings, etc. Instruction is also given in wood turning. The plumbers' shops are provided with all kinds of appliances necessary for complete instruction in practical plumbing. Instruction is given in the use of tools, preparation of solder, soil, etc.; in marking and cutting out sheet lead; in jointing and bending lead pipe of all diameters, and in making expansion joints, etc. The house painters' and decorators' workshops are well equipped with all kinds of tools, materials, and examples necessary for such work. The cotton spinning and weaving departments have been instituted in order to provide sound theoretical and practical instruction for those who are engaged in these important local industries. The. courses include the spinning of yarns and the design and manufacture of all kinds of cotton fabrics. The classes are therefore of great service to those who are engaged not only in the manufacture, bat also in the dis- tribution, of such goods. The equipment of the departments includes 1116 EEPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. a complete range of spinning and weaving plant, and the lectures are fully illustrated bj^ means of lantern slides, models, etc. The object of the art department is (1) to give a thoroughly prac- tical knowledge of designing, drawing, painting, and modeliiTg, espe- ciallj^ in their various applications to trades and industries; (2) to give facilities to those persons who desire to adopt art as a profession or to make it part of their general education. The school year opens in September. The sessions of the evening classes close in May and the da}' classes in Juh^. All classes are open to persons of either sex. Tuition fees are payable in advance. The institute is under the general management of a technical instruc- tion committee, consisting of 6 aldermen and 15 councilors of the Salford County Borough Council, together with the mayor and an ex-mayor. There are 2 representatives — the principal and one of the professors — from the council of Owens College, Manchester, and 3 representatives from the Salford school board, in accordance with agreements made between these educational bodies and the committee. The committee have, in addition, appointed 12 members, all either large manufacturers or representatives of the various industries car- ried on in the borough, and appointed on account of their special technical knowledge to assist in organizing the work of the institute on truly technical lines, so as to insure that the instruction and the equipment provided will be complete in every detail. The staff of instructors consists of the principal, 10 chief lecturers, and about 35 assistant lecturers and demonstrators, all of whom have had practical traiuing and are specialists in their own departments. During the session of 1898-99 there were 1,131 individual students in attendance, making 2,823 class entries. Of the latter number, there were 2,640 entries in the evening classes. The entries in the trade, technical, and art classes were as follows: Day technical classes, 31; day art classes, 18. Evening classes — pattern making, 13; engineering workshop, 20; building construction, 120; carpentrjr and joinery, 111; plumbing, 95; sanitary science, 14; painting and decorating, 21; elec- tric wiring and fitting, 98; cotton dyeing, bleaching, and printing, 62; cotton weaving, 65; spinning, 15; art classes, 128; wood carving, 15. It is stated that many benefits of a general character have accrued to the industries of the locality as a result of the establishment of the institute, and that it has increased the intelligence and efficiency of the working classes generally in the community. The effect upon those who have been under instniction has been beneficial in every instance. Many y*oung men who have graduated from the institute are now occu- pying responsible and lucrative positions in England and elsewhere. Many of the local manufacturers take a lively interest in the work of the institute, and some of them pay the tuition fee of apprentices. The success of the institute is said to have led to the improvement of TKADE AWD TECHNICAL EDUCATION — GKEAT BRITAIN. 1117 shop training in the locality. The institute does not profess to teach trades to the extent of turning out finished mechanics, hence the graduates are required to undergo the usual period of apprenticeship before engaging as journeymen. The officials state that the institute schools have proved highly satisfactory, and have fully attained the end for which they were established. SALFORD IRON WOSKS SCIENCE AND TECHNICAL SCHOOL, SALPORD. This school was established in 1873 b}^ the proprietors of the Sal- ford Iron Works for the purpose of enabling the apprentices in the works to study the sciences allied to their trade. The firm requires all apprentices to attend the classes or, in cez'tain cases, classes at other approved institutes, as a condition of their employment in the works, so that each handicraft may be acquired at the same time as the tech- nical knowledge necessary to it. The classes meet four evenings each week during the session.* The course of instruction covers three j^ears. The studies are arranged with a view to giving the students a thorough training in the elementary sub- jects. The studies of the first year include machine drawing and prac- tical plane geometry. In the second j^ear machine construction and drawing, plane and solid geometry, and applied mechanics are taken up. The work of the third year includes a review of the second year's course, with the addition of new examples and experiments. Students who have made satisfactory progress proceed with the consideration of more diffi- cult problems in geometry and a more thorough study of miscellane- ous details. The school is managed by the company. There are 5 instructors. More than 800 pupils have received training in the school since it was established. It is stated that the school has been very profitable to the company in that it has helped to train up a bet- ter and more intelligent class of mechanics, whose services have been employed with advantage by the company, as well as by other indus- trial establishments. SHEFFIELD TECHNICAL SCHOOL, SHEFFIELD. The Sheffield Technical School, which is a branch of the University College of Sheffield, was established in 1883. The City and Guilds of London Institute had granted an annual sum of £800 (| 1,460) for five years to the Firth College to found a professorship of mechanical engineering, with the proviso that a sufficient sum for appliances and maintenance should be raised from local sources. To give effect to the conditions of the grant, and to assure the establishment of a more comprehensive system of technical instruction, a public meeting was held on December 13, 1883, "for the purpose of carrying out in con- nection with Firth College a proposed technical department, having 1118 EEPOKT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOE. special reference to the trade of the district." An executive committee was appointed to carry out the worli, and so satisfactory was the response to the demand for subscriptions and donations toward the school that a commenc/ement was made in October, 1884, with lectures given in the Firth College. The scheme was, however, not in full operation until February, 1886, when the work was transferred to new buildings especially erected for the use of the school at a cost of £13,000 (163,265). After the passing of the technical instruction act in 1889 applica- tion was made to the town council of Sheffield to put the act in force, and to undertake the support of the technical classes. This application was granted, and the council of Firth College agreed, as long as the school was supported from local taxation, to transfer their governing powers to a new committee composed of representatives of the town council, Firth College, and the subscribers to the school. Between this date and that of the incorporation of the new college the site and buildings of the technical school were greatly extended aad improved, over =£12,000 (f58,898) — paid out of grants by the city corporation- having been spent in providing large additions to the metallurgical and engineering departments. In 1897 steps were taken to amalgamate the Firth College, the Sheffield Medical School, and the Sheffield Technical School, and a new charter was taken out under the name of the Univei"sity College. The technological work is divided into two sections, namelj', a technical department and a technical school. Day students over the age of 17 and such day students between the ages of 16 and 17 as have passed an entrance examination are admitted to the technical depart- ment, the work of which comprises engineering, metallurgy, and coal mining. The work of the technical school comprises the instruction given in the evening classes and, to such day students as do not belong to the technical department, in subjects preparatory or supplemental to the work of that department. Students may join any one of the classes without entering for the whole course; they may also enter for instruction or research in any special branch of engineering or metallurgy. The engineering courses are designed to meet the requirements of youths intending to become mechanical, electrical, or mining engi- neers, architects, or engage in industries where a knowledge of me- chanical principles is of importance. The full course extends over three years and includes attendance at lectures and classes, exper- imental work in the laboratories, and practical work in the work- shops and drawing office. All students in the day classes take the same general course for the first two years, after which they special- ize during the third year in either mechanical, electrical, or civil engineering. TEADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION — GREAT BBITAIN. 1119 The workshop courses, though not intended to supersede the trahi- ing of the engineering factory, provide students with the means of acquiring more or less manual skill in the use of tools and the per- formance of the various operations as carried out in engineers' shops. The woodworking department contains benches to accommodate 36 students working at one time, and is equipped with all necessary tools and wood-turning lathes. There is also a smith's shop, which contains appliances for giving instruction in forging, welding, hardening, tem- pering, annealing, etc. In addition to the usual courses in mathemat- ics, mechanics, and physics, lectures are given in mechanical engineering and machine design. The work of the mining department is arranged in two courses, namely, advanced and certificate. The advanced course is for stu- dents who, while serving their articles or just before doing so, are able to devote the whole of the first year and two days a week in the two subsequent j'ears to work in the school. The certificate course is arranged for those who are alreadj^ engaged in colliery work and who can attend the lectures and classes one afternoon each week for two years. The studies outlined in this department include coal mining, experimental mechanics, chemistry, steam, mine surveying, electricity as applied to coal mining, metalliferous mining, and a course for local teachers in coal mining. The distinctive feature of the school is the metallurgical department. This department has been equipped with a view to meeting thor- oughly the requirements of local industries, and is now considered the most complete of its kind for teaching the practical manufacture, the chemical constitution, and the physical properties of steel. The course in metallurgy is as follows: PRACTICAL METALLURGY — IRON AND STEEL. First year: Elementary iron and steel analysis; determination of carbon by color; estimation of silicon, phosphorus, manganese, iron, and sulphur; mixing, melting, casting, chemically and mechanically testing, forging, hardening, and tempering the various qualities of crucible cast steel, annealed and unannealed. Second year: Advanced iron and steel analysis; determination of carbon by com- bustion; estimation of tungsten, chromium, copper, and aluminum; mixing, melt- ing, casting, and chemically and mechanically testing the various kinds of pig irons cast in chills, in sand, annealed and unannealed; manufacture of cast iron, malleable iron, and steel castings; case hardening, manufacture and testing of the various quali- ties of open-hearth steel; analysis and mechanical testing of the various qualities of Bessemer steel. Third year: Advanced iron and steel analysis; determination of arsenic, nickel, and titanium; microscopical examination of steel and"iron; analysis of fuel; analysis of furnace and waste gases; practical calorimetry; analysis of iron ores; dry assay for iron; analysis of slags and refractory materials; pot making; preparation of metallic tungsten, ferro-manganese, ferro-chrome; technical analysis of boiler water; practical pyrometry; determination and platting of the recalescence curves of steel. 1120 KEPOET OF THE COMMISSIONEK OF LABOR. METALLURGY OTHER THAN IRON AND STEEL. Section I; Assay of gold, silver, copper, and lead ores by wet and dry methods; copper and lead smelting; gold, silver, and copper parting; analysis of fuel and prac- tical calorimetry. Section II: Analysis of brass, gun metal, German silver, britannia metal, type metal, fusible metal, and white metal; mixing, melting, casting, and chemically and mechanically testing the alloys; analysis of refractory materials. PRACTICAL FUEL COURSE. Complete analysis of coal, coke, etc. ; calorimetric determination of their evapo- rating power; determination of the caking or noncaking properties of the various classes of coal; determination of the quantity and composition of the gas yielded by various coals; eudiometric analysis of gaseous fuel; testing of fire clays. In addition to the practical course there are also lecture courses on iron and steel manufacture, fuel and refractory materials, and on general metallurgy. Workshops: The ironwork course consists of graduated exercises at the vise, with practice in the use of the various tools and appliance:?. The machine tool shop course is intended for the more advanced students, and consists of (1) the study of the design and construction of the various standard types of machines; (2) a course of practical exercises, to enable the student to acquire a working knowledge of the use and capabilities of the machines. In the woodwork shop the courses of instruc- tion include a general course on the use of woodworking tools, including the elements of engine pattern making. Engineering drawing: Inthe drawing office students are taught to make working drawings from dimensioned sketches, as well as to raako hand sketches from actual examples of machine details. More advanced students prepare drawings, both gen- eral and detailed, from actual measurement of engines and machines and from original designs. In the design class a course of .30 lectures is given on the design of engine and machine details. The work is principally carried on in a building equipped with a 25- hundredweight open-hearth steel furnace, complete with gas producer, hydraulic cranes, forced-draft appliances, and falling-weight test; a 50- ton testing machine, complete with tensile torbion, crushing, and trans- verse gear; a crucible-steel house, melting holes, pothouse, and pot- making tools. There is a flame and ore annealing furnace for the production of malleable iron castings and the annealing of steel cast- ings and an iron cupola, diying stove, and all appliances necessary for the production of green and dry sand castings. The laboratory is fitted with modern apparatus for metallurgical analysis, more espe- cially for the rapid and accurate chemical examination of iron and steel, fuel, and refractory materials; also a complete pyrometric installation and specially designed appliances for the micrographic analysis of metals. General metallurgy is also covered in a separate course deal- ing with metals (other than iron and steel) used in the arts. The courses of instruction in the evening classes are of a more varied character than those of the day classes and, among others, include electroplating, carpentry and joinerj', plumbing, building construc- tion, etc. TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION GREAT BRITAIN. 1121 The school year commences in September. The sessions of the evening classes close the latter part of April, and those of the day classes extend to the latter part of June. The school is managed by a technical committee, a majority of which consists of representatives of the council of the city of Sheffield. There are 12 professors and lecturers. The instructors in shopwork have had practical training. During the session of 1899-1900, there were 169 students in the day classes and 907 in the evening classes. The attendance in the principal evening classes was as follows: Mathe- matics, 110; magnetism and electricity, 108; electrical engineering, 192; machine construction and drawing, 169; applied mechanics, 82; steam engine, 121; engineering workshops, 34; lectures on iron and steel, 70; lectures on fuel, 31; electroplating, 17; building construc- tion, 132; plumbers' classes (lectures and geometry), 42; carpentry and joinerjr, 84; photography, 15; telegraphy and telephonj'-, 20. The revenue of the school is derived principally from grants from the city of Sheffield, the county councils, the Drapers' Company of London, and from tuition fees. The cost of maintenance for the 3'ear ending June 30, 1900, was £9,765 ($47,521). The benefits which have followed the establishment of the school are said to be of a general character. The school has increased the intelligence and efficiency of the working classes generally and has contributed a great deal toward promoting industrial, educational, and social development in the communit3^ For a time the school had some ti'ouble with local labor unions because of the fact that the plumbing classes were opened to architects and employees who had not served an apprenticeship. There was also some trouble during the earlier j^ears with the steel workers' unions, which arose in con- nection with the metallurgical classes. These controversies were readily adjusted, and now, it is said, the school has no stronger friends than the trade unions, three members of which are on the council committee. It is stated that higher wages, steadier employment, and more rapid promotion have accrued to those who have attended the school. All graduates are required to serve a full period of apprenticeship before engaging in regular work. In the opinion of the officials the success of the school has led to improved shop training in the vicinity. The school has proved satisfactory in every respect and has attained the end for which it was established. MINING AND TECHNICAL SCHOOL, WIGAN. This school was organized in 1857 and opened to the public in Au- gust, 1858. Classes in mining, geology, chemistry, and mechanics were formed, and instruction suited to the needs of the working people in 9257—02 71 1122 BEPOBT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOK. the district was begun. The work continued on these lines for a num- ber' of years with a considerable degree of success. In 1893 the Wigan technical school committee, the county borough council of "Wigan, and the Lancashire County Council undertook the joint man- agement of the institution. The school committee gave the use of the school property, the interest of an endowment fund of i;5,000 ($24:,333), and continued their annual subscriptions; the county borough council gave the whole of the amount received under the local taxation (cus- toms and excise) act of 1890, and the Lancashire County Council gave a yearly amount of £500 ($2,433) and threw open their scholarships to competition by residents of the borough of Wigan on equal terms with residents of the county; This joint arrangement enabled the work of the school to be greatly enlarged and made it necessary that larger and better accommodations should be provided. In 1897 the managing director of the Wigan Coal and Iron Company, a concern employing some 10,000 people, who had always taken an active inter- est in the work of the school, took the initiative in raising a sum of £40,000 (1194,660) with which to build and equip a mining and tech- nical college. This proposition met with popular favor, and ample funds were obtained, and the work of consti'uction was commenced at once with the expectation that by 1902 the work of the school, which heretofore has been conducted in buildings some distance apart, would be transferred to a handsome, commodious, and thoroughly equipped building. The chief subject of instruction has always been that of mining, and the large classes have comprised a substantial proportion of working miners. Class lectures have been given in mining on several evenings in each week according to the syllabus of the science and art depart- ment. Since the passing of the coal mines regulation act in 1872, which made it necessary for intending colliery managers to obtain cer- tificates by examination conducted by the home office, special courses of instruction have been given on Satiirdays, and have been well attended by those aspiring to the management of mines. During each session visits, on the invitation of colliery owners and managers, are made to collieries in the district, and every facility is afforded for obtaining personal information on the best mining practice in every department. In addition to the mining department there is a large range of sub- jects in other departments. The courses in the science department include theoretical and applied mechanics, building construction and drawing, chemistry, magnetism and electricity, machine construction and drawing, mathematics, geometry, steam, and engineering. The technical courses embrace carpentry and joinery, cotton spinning and weaving, and iron and steel manufacture. In the art school instruction is given in free-hand, model, and perspective drawing, light and shade work, modeling, painting, principles. of ornament, and design. There TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION GEEAT BRITAIN. 1123 are also commercial and domestic courses and a manual course in woodwork and wood carving. The regular school 5'ear opens in September and closes the latter part of June. There are 24 instructors. During the session of 1898-99 there were 1,705 individual students, making 2,922 class enrollments in 38 departments and subjects. Hitherto the operations of the school have been confined almost entirely to evening sessions, and as the instruction provided is chiefly for the benefit of the masses of the people, the executive committee strongly favor the continuance of this plan, as it enables the students to follow practical work in the mine, mill, and steel works during the day. When the new buildings are occupied, it is proposed to arrange a plan for imparting preliminary education on art, science, and tech- nical subjects during the day to the best scholars of the elementary public schools in the town and district. The benefits accruing as a result of the establishment of the school are of a general character. Many of the early students are now holding distinguished positions in the industrial works of the district. SCOTLAND. HEEIOT-WATT COLLEGE, EDINBTIBGH. In October, 1821, this school was opened under the name of "The School of Arts." Its announced purpose was "for the better educa- tion of the mechanics of Edinburgh in such branches of physical science as are of practical application in their several trades." With this general object in view the two leading classes then established were those in chemistry and mechanical or natural philosoph}^ These have continued to the present to be fundamental subjects of education in the school. The first session was attended with great success, the number of students having been 452; and at its close, in accordance with the wish of a number of students, a class in mechanical drawing was opened during the summer session. During the first session the students organized among themselves a class in higher arithmetic and geometry, and this led to the foundation of a regular class in mathe- matics. For many years no other classes were added, but in later years the range of the education offered has been enlarged until its present scope has been reached. Women were first admitted in 1869. The premises first occupied were of a very humble character. In 1851 the Adam Square building was purchased at a cost of £2,500 ($12,166), and the institution took the title of The Watt Institution and School of Arts. In 1871 this building was pulled down. Arrange- ments were made to transfer the school to Chambers street, and it occupied its new buildings in the winter of 1873-71. In 1885 the school was consolidated with George Herriot's hospital and in 1886 entered upon its present plan of operation under its present name. 1124 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. This institution is said to have been the first in Great Britain which was founded for the express purpose of giving education in the prin- ciples of science to the industrial classes. As time passed it entered upon a much larger field of education than was contemplated by its founders, but the management has never lost sight of the leading idea of making its work of real practical interest. The fees charged for the various courses vary according to the course taken and the number of hours daily devoted to classes. The fees of artisan students, or of others who desire to attend the day classes and require aid to do so, may be remitted in whole or in part; but appli- cants requesting this remission are required to furnish satisfactory evidence of their fitness to benefit by the instruction given at the col- lege. Students not engaged in the trade to which their studies apply are charged, for some of the courses, a greater fee than is charged apprentices or workmen. The work of the college is divided into day classes and evening classes, and the courses of study cover a wide range of subjects out- side of those properly coming within the scope of this inquiry. The day school offers instruction in mathematics, physics, electrical and mechanical engineering, mechanics, chemistry, commerce, modern languages, and to special classes in agricultural subjects. The even- ing school provides courses in fine art, chemistry, mining, geology, botany, zoology, physiology and h3'giene, veterinary science and literary and commercial courses, as well as those subjects mentioned under the day school. Instruction of a technical character is given in a number of trades and occupations, and brief outlines of these courses follow: Metal working: These classes offer instruction, both theoretical and practical, in fitting, turning, machining, and smithing. The practical side of the course is given special emphasis, and students are trained in the use of the various tools and machines, and required to perform the operations usual in the factory or workshop. Carpentry and joinery: This class is intended for persons actually engaged in the trade, and with it must be taken building construction and geometry, unless the student is already proficient therein. The course embraces such subjects as tim- ber, tools, and labor-saving machinery, drawing-in rods for frames, working draw- ings showing in detail the proper construction of doors, windows, stairs, trusses, roofs, newels, etc.; mortises, tenons, bevels, hip rafters, etc., and advanced instruc- tion in the more complicated operations in building. Ample practical work is given throughout the course, and each student is required to design and execute an original piece of work to submit to the science and art department before he can take that examination. ^Masonry and brick work; The course includes bond in brick work, hollow walls, bonding stones, ashlar, rubblework; description, suitability, and preferences of various stones; nature of limes, cements, and sands; construction of foundations, sewers, stone stairs, arches, and cornices, and working detail drawings of various constructive and ornamental features of masonry and brickwork. Plumbing: This course has been arranged with a view of encouraging apprentices to take it in its entirety. Those portions of arithmetic, drawing, and physics which are necessary to a proper understanding of the work are provided in the first year's TBADE AND TECHKICAL EDUCATION — GREAT BEITAIN. 1125 studies. This year also includes instruction in lead laying, pipe bending, and soldering. The work of the second year embraces laws of heat as affecting materials, liquids, and gases, properties of materials, tools employed, solder and soldering, .blowpipe work, brazing, roofing, traps, drains, ventilation, water supply, cisterns, closets, baths, etc. Each student receives two hours' practical instruction each week. These practical exercises include setting out, fixing, and laying platforms, domes, turrets, and dormers; setting up, mitering, turning, etc.; making and fitting apparatus; bending, supporting, and fixing pipes, and lining sinks and cisterns. There is a course in sanitary science arranged to supplement the course in plumbing. Cabinet making: This class takes up all kinds of furniture, of which full size detail drawings are made. The various styles, such as Adams, Sheraton, and French, are dealt with. The work of the class includes exercises in drawing cabinet and chair work to scale; construction and setting out rods; information as to woods, veneering, and other matters connected with the trade. Typography: Among the subjects treated of in this course are type ratios in rela- tion to sizes of books and prices of composition; the linotype, or other type com- posing and distributing machines; the production of line and half-tone blocks; print- ing in colors; the principles of machine construction for letter-press printing; mak- ing estimates, and the general management of a printing office. The necessary practical instruction required in the course is not given in the college, but under the Edinburgh branch of the British Typographia, and students in the college are limited to those who have attended practical classes. Such instruction in arithmetic, theoretical and applied mechanics, English, Latin, Greek, French, and German as is useful to printers is provided for those who desire to avail themselves of it. Lithography : The class work of this course is arranged with a special view of pro- viding apprentices such elementary instruction concerning materials and processes as will help them to understand what they see and do in the workshop. The subjects included are methods of patching, transferring and printing, preparing work drawn on stone, mixing of colors and proving chromo work, and various devices employed and details to be attended to are discussed. Opportunities for practical work are afforded to the greatest possible extent. Watch and clock making: The subjects of technical study in this course are chosen and arranged with a view to qualifying students for the City and Guilds examinations, and embrace time, characteristic properties of metals employed, motors, calculation of trains, friction, tools, escapements, pendulum, balance and balance spring, and drawing. There is a class in wiring and electrical fittings which is arranged for wiremen and other workmen in electrical trades. Instruction is also given in electrical instrument making and in other subjects con- nected with general electrical work. Systematic instruction is oifered to apprentices in house painting, including lettering, graining, mixing material, cutting stencil, etc. There are also lecture courses in car- riage biiilding, photography, gas manufacture, and ornament and design. The college is under the control of a board of governors consisting of 21 members. During the year 1899-1900 there were enrolled 157 day students and 3,886 evening students. Of the total number 639 were females. Some idea of the class of male students attending the college may be had from noting the trades from which they are drawn. There were in the evening school 411 students from building trades; 489 engineers, 1126 KEPOBT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. metal workers, etc.; 101 fi'om printing trades; 119 painters; 126 plumbers, gas fitters, etc.; more than 900 clerks, salesmen, book- keepers, etc. The industries of the citj' have undoubtedly been benefited by the college. Many employees insist that boys shall take the day course in the college before beginning their apprenticeship, and offer to take shorter terms of apprenticeship in case they do. While apprentice- ship is usually required, in many instances it is merely nominal. Labor unions have always been friendly. They recognize the value of the training given, as they observe the rapid rise of those who have received it. GLASGOW AITD WEST OF SCOTLAND TECHNICAL COLLEGE, GLASGOW. The main objects of this college are to afford a suitable education to those who wish to qualify themselves for following an industrial pro- fession or trade, and to train teachers for technical schools. The college was founded in 1886, in accordance with a scheme framed by the commissioners appointed under the provisions of th« educational endowments (Scotland) act, 1883, whereby Anderson's College, the Young chair of technical chemistry m connection with Anderson's College, the College of Science and Arts, Allan Glen's Institution, and the Atkinson Institution were placed under the man- agement of one governing body. Considering Anderson's University, incorporated in 1796, as the beginning of the present college, it is the oldest college of its kind in Europe. The chemical laboratory, opened in 1830, was the first public laboratory in Great Britain. Complete courses are provided in mathematics, natural philosophy, chemistry, drawing, engineering, and other subjects, and the applica- tion of these subjects to the industries and arts. In the day classes instruction is given in civil engineering, mechanical engineering, naval architecture, electi'ical engineering, architecture, chemical engineer- ing, metallurgy, mining engineering, mathematics and physics, chem- istry; in the evening classes are taught mathematics and physics, chemistry, natural science, chemical industries, mechanical engineer- ing, naval architecture, metallurgy, electrical engineering, coal mining, architecture, and building construction. Students 16 years of age or over are admitted to any of the college classes in the day school on satisfying the professors whose classes they attend that they are prepared to profit by the instruction pro vided. Students under 16 years of age and those who desire to qualify for a diploma must pass a preliminary examination in Englisk, mathe- matics, and free-hand drawing. Students desiring admission to the evening classes are expected to have gone through a course equivalent to that of a board school, and to possess such knowledge as will enable TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION — GBEAT BRITAIN. 1127 them to profit by the work of the classes. The fees vary according to the course taken, but are generally lower in evening classes than in day classes. A number of bursaries, scholarships, and medals are annually awarded. These prizes vary in value from £2 to illSS ($9.73 to ?608) per year. The ordinary courses of study in day classes extend over three years, but arrangements are made for advanced students to continue their studies in any of the laboratories. The day classes are complete in themselves as far as possible, but students are strongly advised to attend such evening courses of lectures of a practical nature as hare a special bearing on the department they maj^ have selected. Students are at liberty, however, to extend their work beyond three years, or to vary its order, if they find it necessary or convenient to do so. Courses of study in evening classes are designed to meet the wants of students engaged in the chief local industries. Each course usually occupies four winter sessions, but may cover a longer period if a student so prefers. The full day courses are civil, mechanical, electrical, chemical, or mining engineering, naval architecture, architecture, metallurgy, mathematics and physics, and chemistry. The day classes also offer short lecture courses in a number of subjects of interest and value to those who have not the time to devote to a full course. The evening classes are arranged more particularly with a view of accommodating those engaged in industrial occupations. Some of the more important courses are here outlined: Plumbing: The instruction is divided into two lecture courses, with accompanying shop work. The first course deals with the properties and qualities of leads, zinc, tin, cements, etc.; solders (their composition and use), fluxes, soldering bits, blow- pipe work, brazing, and plumber's tools; geometry as applied to plumbing, cutting out sheet lead, setting out work and making working drawings; workshop arithme- tic; roofing, rain drainage, and other external plumbers' work; varieties of traps, soil pipes, drains, their sizes, materials, and construction; water supply for houses, such as the construction of cisterns and their management and care, water-closets, baths, lavatories, sinks, etc. The second course enters into a more detailed treatment of the above subjects and takes up in.addition the action of air, waters, acids, gases, etc., upon lead, zinc, and tin; the manufacture of metals into the various forms in which they are used in plumbing; casting lead tubes and coating them internally; sanitation, hydrostatics, and hydrodynamics; principles of hot-water circulation and hot-water heating; and the various systems for the disposal of sewage. The practical shop work includes traps, bends, and pipes; solder jointing by iron, copper, bolt, and blowpipe; making and fitting up bath waste connections, and lining cisterns and sinks; roof work, platforms, -gutters, cesspools; various forms of solder jointing; pipe bending by various methods, and other practical plumbing operations. No one is admitted to the practical class who is not attending the lec- tures or who has not previously attended them. Sheet-metal work : These classes are conducted in association with a committee appointed by the Scottish Tin Plate and Sheet-Metal Workers' Society, and the 1128 BEPOBT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOK. instruction is of a thoroughly practical character. The subjects embraced are draw- ing, geometry in its applications to sheet-metal work, mensuration rules, patterns of various kinds, the manufacture of all kinds of sheet metals, tinning and galvaniz- ing processes, brazing and soldering; general principles of hollowing, planishing, stamping, and annealing sheet metals; joining sheet metals by brazed, soldered, riveted, and grooved joints; baths, hoods, domes, spout patterns, pipe bends, physi- cal and chemical properties of metals and fuels, etc. Ample practical work is pro- vided in the Well-equipped workshop. These classes have been in operation only one year (1901), yet this course is said to have better attendance than any other of its kind in Great Britain. There is a very comprehensive and thorough course in architecture and building construction, which seems to be designed for architects rather than mechanics. Every detail of building construction is thoroughly taught. The department of industrial arts offers instruction in house and church decoration, sign writing, imitation of woods and marbles, glass gilding, etc. ; ornamental work, lithographic printing, furniture designing, and wood carving. Some of these courses include practical shopwork, notably lithographic printing and wood carving. The institution is under the management of a board of governors. During the year 1898-99 there were 3,786 students in attendance at the college, of whom 3,485 were in evening classes and 301 were in day classes. In the sheet-metal classes there were 141 theoretical students and 116 who took practical work. There were 174 in the theoretical and 97 in the practical plumbing classes. The classes in architectural building had 409 theoretical students and 147 who took special courses in some branch of the subject. The college owns and occupies several buildings, but it has not room to accommodate all who desire to attend. A new building is now (1901) in prospect and a fund is being raised for that purpose. The work of the college has increased the intelligence and efficiency of the working classes and has enabled them to have steadier employ- ment, more rapid advancement, and better wages. Trade unions are very friendly to the institution, as is evidenced by the fact that plumbers and sheet-metal workers' associations have been instrumental in estab- lishing classes for their trades. The general benefits accruing to the industries of the locality are suggested by the growing number of students, and by the fact that employers show a preference for former students. Heretofore the theoretical side of education has been more empha- sized in most of the college work, but when the prospective new building is completed more practical instruction^ will be given. The income of the college from all sources for the year 1899 was some- what in excess of £25,000 (1121,663). More than £20,000 ($97,330) of this amount came from endowments and public sources, only about £5,000 ($24,333) having come from fees from students. TEADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION — GREAT BEITAIN. 1129 IRELAND. Technical instruction has not as yet made much progress in Ireland, except in a few of the larger cities. The return of the department of science and art, " showing the extent to which, and the manner in which, local authorities in Ireland have applied, or are applying, funds to the purposes of technical edu- cation (including science, art, technical and manual instruction) during the year 1898-99," shows that twelve local authorities made grants under the technical instruction acts, and that one of these authorities is also applying part of the taxes levied under the public libraries acts to teach technical education. The more important schools where technical instruction is given are located in Dublin, Belfast, Cork, Galway, Pembroke, and Limerick. Most of the schools give instruction in the subjects of the science and art department, and in addition thereto technical instruction is also given in the following subjects: Flax spinning, linen and woolen weaving, plumbing, carpentry and joinerj', pattern designing, mechan- ical and electrical engineering, dyeing and printing, tailoring, painting and decorating, metal-plate work, boot and shoe making, boat build- ing, net making and mending, lace making, embroidery, millinery, dressmaking, knitting, cookery, laundry work, wood carving, etc. The amount expended toward the maintenance of technical classes for the session of 1898-99 was £1,523 ($22,011), and of this sum £3,617 ,602) was raised under the local rate of 1 penny in the pound. ATTITUDE OF EMPLOYERS, GRADUATES OF TRADE AND TECHNICAL SCHOOLS, AND LABOR UNIONS TOWARD TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION. The statements that follow present in a condensed and summarized form the opinions of employing proprietors of establishments in a number of leading industries, graduates of trade and technical schools, and officers and representative members of labor unions in regard to industrial education. The information was obtained from representa- tive persons in various parts of the country through personal visits of agents of this Department. The statements made set forth the opinions of the persons responding to the inquiries of the Depart- ment, just as the statements of the preceding portions of this chapter in regard to the schools are largely the opinions of the school officials. The persons personally interested in the subject thus speak for them- selves. In no case should these criticisms or opinions be considered as emanating from this Department. 1130 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. ATTITUDE OF EMPLOYEES. BOOT AND SHOE INDUSTRY. Technical schools are proving to be of great advantage to this indus- try. They have raised the average value of the workman to his employer, and consequently students and graduates are more sought after and receive higher remuneration. It is said that further pro- vision for special education in the trade would enlarge and improve the industry, and it is generally conceded that failure to make such provision will result in injury to the business. It is admitted by some that the American shoe manufacturer can produce his goods at less cost than his English competitor and at the same time pay comparatively higher wages. This is accounted for by the fact that the American workman can do more work in a given time, while the factory is better organized and consequently can turn out a greater production with a given number of operatives. The cure for this difference in the productive capacity of the workmen of the two countries is thought to be technical training. One manufac- turer says: English workmen have persisted in applying old and worn-out principles to modern industry, while the Yankee workman endeavors to operate his machine for all it is worth, and the only limit to its productive capacity is the relative ability of the operatives. Indus- trial training must be provided to explain and illustrate the practical working of modern machinery to foremen and workmen generally. If technical education had been adopted twenty years ago, instead of being talked about, there would have been much greater improvement in production, * * * and the trade as a whole would have been in a much better position than it is to-day to compete in the mutual markets of the world. The best workmen are those who have had shop training supple- mented by technical school training. There are few apprentices in the trade, and all arrangements concerning apprenticeships are usually made to conform to union rules. There is never any interference, so long as the number of boys (not apprentices) is kept within the agreed limit. Only extraordinary boys will learn the trade thoroughly in the factory. Specialization of work makes it next to impossible to learn more than is found in the particular departments in which they are employed. There is no systematic instruction in the shop, and the learner follows the ordinary routine of daily work. BUILDING TRADES. The weight of testimony among builders, and especially among master plumbers, is to the effect that technical schools have increased the general intelligence of the workmen. Notwithstanding the fact that in some communities the facilities already provided are not fully util- ized by the workmen, it is thought that further provision for technical instruction would be a benefit to the industry generally. TEADE AS-J) TECHNICAL EDUCATION — GREAT BRITAIN. 1131 While shop training is absolutely essential to an acquaintance with practical routine work^-jet it is difficult, and in most cases impossible, to learn a trade thoroughly in a shop. Apprentices are required to act rather as helpers to regular journej-men, and unless the appren- tice is a "pusher" he serves thus until he in 21 years of age, and remains a laborer or unskilled hand. These conditions make school training necessary, and the general opinion is that the most perfect system of training consists in both school and shop instruction. In most cases the number of apprentices is limited to conform to the requirements of trade unions, and the latter do not put anj' obstacle in the way of the apprentice. Some employers contend that school training should not shorten the regular period of apprenticeship, while others think that faithful attendance upon a good technical school should entitle the apprentice to a reduction of from one to three years from the regular term. CARRIAGE BUILDING. A. director in one of the most prominent coach manufacturing com- panies in London says that technical training has stimulated the per- sonal interest of the workmen in their trade; it has developed their intelligence and made them quick to perceive and ready to adopt new methods; their character has been improved; and they are therefore of more value to emploj'ers, and get better pay and more permanent employment. Additional facilities should be afforded for workmen to attend technical schools, and it is thought that it Avould be beneficial if attendance were made compulsory. The best training is that of the shop and school combined. In the shop one's time should be devoted to rapid execution of work, and this does not permit instruction. There is no regular sj'stem of train- ing in the shop, and there are few apprentices in the coach-building trade in London. School instruction should not shorten the time which a learner should serve in a shop. Manual ability can only be tested and proved by shop experience. DYEING. One man engaged in this business says that the industry can not be enlarged or improved by further provision for technical educa- tion, and another one says it can. It is agreed, however, that sound technical training is very valuable in connection with shop ti-aining. In ordinary practical work shop training alone is adequate, except in giving a knowledge of chemistry, and this must be acquired in some school. Shop training is given only in connection with the ordinary routine of the work. Trade instruction should not shorten the terms of apprenticeship, except in special cases. Labor unions do not inter- fere with apprenticeships in this industry. 1132 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR, FURNITURE AXD CABINETMAKING. The i-epresentative of an upholstering establiahment says that trade schools relating to this industry are of too recent establishment' to show much effect upon workmen. It is his opinion that technical training for foremen, Avorkmen, and designers would be a great advan- tage to the businetss, and that unless better provision is made for such training in the immediate future the industry must suffer. The ideal training is shop practice supplemented by technical instruction, but the school training should not shorten the term of apprenticeship. There has been no conflict with labor unions as to the number of apprentices, but the unions are sometimes extremely arbitrary as to the time when a boy shall be advanced to the stage of an "improver." The mechanical training in the shop is good, but unless a youth is acquisitive he gains little technical knowledge. There is little system in shop training in this industry. HOUSE DECORATING. This industry has been improved by technical schools, although in communities where the schools are of recent origin the improvement is not so marked. The schools develop intelligence in their pupils, and consequently give to the trade workmen who are of more value to employers. Their superiority is appreciated and they are soon able to command full wages. Further provision for technical instruction would benefit the industry in general, and it would be of special advantage to the artistic side of the trade. Education begets and cultivates higher ideals, and if it is not provided there is danger, some believe, of the industry going backward. Others feel that there will always be men who will find their way to the front, whether there are schools or not. Lack of systematic training in the shops makes it essential for the apprentice to attend a technical school. Shop training is of most importance, and in exceptional cases is sufficient, but the majority of workmen would be benefited by a supplementarj^ technical course in a good school. In most branches of this business the number of apprentices is limited by tirade unions, but the limitation varies in dif- ferent localities. Apprentices are usually bound until they reach the age of 21 years, the apprentice usually beginning at the age of 15, thus making the term six years. There is a feeling that labor unions are too exacting with reference to apprentices. As has been intimated, the trades do not afford adequate instruction for learners. Competition compels emploj^ers to consider first their own interests, and this frequently conflicts with the interests of the apprentice. Boys who have spent a year in a technical school should have that much time deducted from the term of apprenticeship, but no amount of school training can entirely take the place of a practical training under the highly varying conditions to be met in shop work. TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDDCATION — GREAT BRITAIN. 1133 IRON AND STEEL. The special education provided for some of the trades in this indus- try has produced a marlced improvement in style of products and methods of work, and it has increased the wage-earning power of those who have taken advantage of it. Further provision for trade and technical instruction would certainly improve the industry, and if such provision is not made it is thought that it will suffer from the competition of those countries that are more advanced in their methods of technical and scientific instruction. Some trades provide the apprentice with adequate instruction, but on account of the lack of system most of them do not, the instruction being usually dependent upon workmen under whom the apprentice serves. Opinion among employers is about equally divided as to whether school instruction shortens the term of appi'enticeship or not. All agree that the ideal trade training is a combination of school instruction and shop practice. METAL TRADES. Technical schools have been generally beneficial to workingmen in the metal trades. The apprentice who has been to a school conies to his work with a fair knowledge of the use of tools and with a greater intelligence than his fellows. The school has enlarged his ability to understand and take hold of his work, it has inaproved him in charac- ter, elevated him as a man, and therefore made him more useful to his employer, besides enabling him to command better wages. Occasion- ally there is found an employer who has not been so favorably impressed with the work done by the schools, but such are rare. Among a large pi-oportion of employers there is a conviction that this industry could be improved by further provision for technical education, and that the business will suffer if such provision is not made. Others say they would like to see further results from the schools already established before expressing an opinion as to the desirability of establishing more. It is universally agreed that the shop and school combined afford the ideal training. Shop training alone leaves the workman entirely dependent upon his foreman. He may be a good workman, capable of rendering satisfactory service in that line where he has had ample experience, but take him away from this and he will fail, while a tech- nical man would have no difficulty in succeeding. Shop training alone does not sufficiently develop the workman's mental power, and under modern shop methods thorough training is impossible. In some localities labor unions limit the number of apprentices to one for every four journeymen. The usual term of apprenticeship is five years— from 16 to 21 years of age— and this is not considered too long. A few shops have an arranged system of training for their 1134 KEPORT OF THE COMMISSIONEE OF LABOR. apprentices, but in naost places ^;he apprentice goes through the ordi- nary routine of the shop in the manner that is most valuable to the employer. For the ordinary workman this is thought to be sufficient, but for those who aspire to higher positions as foremen or superin- tendents it is inadequate. It is not considered wise to shorten the term of apprenticeship because of any technical training an apprentice may have had. It is best for him to serve the full term, for by so doing he will gain enough to compensate him for the time spent. MODELING AND SCULPTURE. Technical training, it is said, makes a workman more intelligent, careful, and skillful, thus securing for the trained workman a better remuneration, save in cases where trade unions require that all men shall be paid the same wages regardless of their ability. Further provision for technical and industrial-art education would enlarge and improve this industry, and it will suffer unless such provision is made. Both technical instruction and shop training are necessary to make a good workman. The value of shop training depends largely upon the individual. He may get his trade in a shop, but the artistic side and the technique of the trade must be learned at school. PRINTING AND PUBLISHING. Some employers in this industry say that technical training for printers has not had time to show results, but they are hopeful of much good from this source in the future. Others, who seem to have had more extended observation and experience, say that technical schools have been a benefit to the industry. They turn out better equipped worl?;men, and it is obvious that the more an apprentice knows of the nature of his trade the higher wages he can command. While the schools now in existence are doing much for the betterment of the industry, the establishment of more schools and better facili- ties in those already established would bring still greater benefits, and it is thought that failure to make such further provision will undoubtedly cause the industry to suffer. This is especially true in color work. In some localities there is a lack of interest on the part of printers to avail themselves of the facilities now offered by the schools. .Labor unions generally limit the number of apprentices in such trades as compositors, pressmen, stereotypers, and machine tenders, and where the unions do not fix a limit custom does. The term of apprenticeship fixed by the unions is seven years. This is not gener- ally regarded as too long, but one man says it is absurdly so, and thinks for technically trained apprentices the time should be reduced to four or five years. It is affii-med that shop training alone does not make all-round good worlcmen. In some instances this is due to the TEADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION — GKEAT BEITAIN. 1135 apprentice failing to realize the importance of becoming thoroughly efficient; while in other cases it is because the shop does not afford opportunities to learn anything pertaining to the trade outside of the particular department in which the apprentice happens to be placed. The training in the shop is usually not systematic. The departmental division of work does not permit an apprentice to pass through all that the printer should know, and it thus becomes neces- sary for him to attend a school if he expects to become thoroughly skilled in his trade. SCIENTIFIC INSTRUMENTS. One of the best-known firms engaged in this business in England is so impressed with the value of technical education that it has a reading room in its factor}" and supplies technical books and periodicals for its employees, and encourages them to study at the various evening technical schools of the town by paying the tuition fees in all approved cases. The men in this establishment are all shop-trained, but many of them have also attended evening classes in technical schools. While these classes have been instrumental in promoting a more intelligent interest in the firm's business, it is thought that they would be much more useful if they dealt with matters more closely related to the daily duties of the workmen. Many of the men study drawing, which is valuable to any workman; but it is more important for them to know the properties of the materials they use and the scientific principles which underlie the physical changes thej^ undergo. This kind of education explains to the intelligent workman the secrets that are just beneath the surface of his daily work. This firm has always had the most pleasant relations with trade unions. There is a regular system of apprentice training, but it is not deemed sufficient to make high-grade workmen. Apprentices are paid wages from the start, which are increased each year during the term of five years. As schools are at present conducted it is not thought that .any shortening of the apprenticeship term should be made on account of the school training. TANNING AND CURRYING. The effect of trade education is scarcely noticeable as yet in this industry, but it is tnought that it can be both enlarged and improved by a wise and substantial provision of trade instruction. Without such provision the industry may suffer, both in itself and in its rela- tion to competing countries where technical instruction is more largely provided for. A combination of school and shop training is certainly the prefer- able method of learning a trade. The old apprentice system has largely died out. Specializing enables a boy to learn only in a few 1136 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. departments, and no apprentice learns the whole trade. School train- ing should not shorten the term of apprenticeship. TEXTILE INDUSTRIES. Generally good results have come to the textile industries through technical education, and the intelligence and efficiency of the workmen have been increased. This is specially noticeable among designers and pattein makers. They show better taste in color arrangement, more variety in design, and, as a rule, do better work. Overseers and weavers have gained a more intelligent grasp of their work. These accomplishments make them more valuable to their employers, and consequently they command better wages. There has been gen- eral improvement in British goods, both in design and quality, and a general tendency towai'd higher wages, but it is difficult to say how far these conditions are due to the influence of technical schools. Manufacturers generally feel that this industry can be profitably enlarged and improved by a further provision for technical educa- tion, though occasionallj' one is found who thinks otherwise. Those who advocate more schools feel that they are necessary to maintain the present advanced position occupied bj' the British textile trade and to prevent comparative retrogression. One says that without such further provision "Continental and Yankee competition will run away with the trade." Another says that the "whole textile industry in the United Kingdom suffers now from a lack of such provision." Still another thinks that the benefits to be expected from more schools are rather indirect, and will come as a result of a rise in general intelligence. The ideal training is agreed to be a combination of the shop and school, and this ti-aining is generally considered most valuable if taken concurrently. It is felt by some that there is a disposition to over- estimate the advantages of technical education.' It is not believed that a man could become an expert designer, for instance, Avith only school experience and outside private practice. Such a man could produce intricate and complex designs, but it is doubted whether he could introduce cloths of merchantable styles without having experi- ence in a designing room. One of the most substantial friends of technical education in Great Britain and a man of long and broad experience says: "The youth who has studied drawing, together with the science applicable to his work, other things being equal, has invariably taken the higher posi- tion. His technical training has qualified him for promotion or enabled him to step out of his particular track and enter another which gave him more scope for his acquirements. * * * The textile industry might be enlarged and improved by artistic and scien- tific training on the part of all those concerned with the designing, dyeing, and finishing of the cloth." TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION — GEEAT BRITAIN. 1137 Training in the shops and factories is generally unsystematic and inadequate. A learner acquires a fair knowledge of the work done in his department, but outside of that he gains but little. Shop training is conducted with a view to business advantage rather than to training apprentices. In some instances apprenticeship is made unduly long and difficult by labor unions, while in many others such is not the case. Certain trade secrets are jealously guarded by the unions, and are reluctantly imparted to apprentices. There is much division of sentiment among employers as to whether technical training should sborten the term of apprenticeship. Some are emphatic in declaring that it should, while others advocate the old apprentice term of six or seven years. WATCHMAKING. Technical schools have resulted in good for this business. There is need, however, for more schools, and it is thought that the industry will suffer if they are not provided. Boys who go into the shops to learn this trade ai'e put under selected men, who are paid to instruct them, but this shop work should be supplemented by technical train- ing. One firm places such a high estimate upon the value of technical training that it has for some years given time to apprentices during working hours to attend afternoon classes in a technical school two daj^s in the week, and it also pays their school fees. They have expe- rienced good results from this generous course. ATTITUDE OF GRADtTATES OF TRADE AND TECHNICAL SCHOOIiS. CARPENTERS AND JOINERS. The reason given by the graduates in this trade for taking a course of instruction in a technical school was that they wished to learn the theory of construction and to become more proficient in the practical side of the trade. They had served full terms of apprenticeship before attending school, but upon being graduated they obtained better posi- tions and were able to command higher wages. Their school training has been a benefit to them, and they would send their sons to technical schools to prepare them for a trade. Every boy should have a sound knowledge of the underlying principles of his trade, for without it he can not become a thorough mechanic or be qualified to fill positions of responsibility. ELECTRICAL WORKERS. A belief that the school offered the fullest opportunity to obtain a good practical and theoretical education, a desire to become equal with companions in the same trade, and the convincing arguments of former students are reasons assigned for taking instruction in tech- nical schools. While all the persons answering these inquiries 9257—02 72 1138 KEPOKT OF THE COMMISSIOMEE OE LABOB. were employed during the tiine they were in school, yet the fact that they attended schools and commanded the support of the school authorities was the occasion of their securing higher positions and better remuneration. The electrical business is so new that the trades are not generally organized and apprenticeships are not common. In some localities where apprenticeships are required the term is seven years. Those who have been trained in technical schools are firm believers in that kind of education. In the school a pupil will inevitably learn how and why things are done much better than in a place where out- put is the chief consideration. Another great advantage is that he is thrown into contact with so many persons holding advanced opinions that he can not fail to be benefited thereby. ELECTROPLATEES. One graduate says that after six years' apprenticeship in a good «hop he was convinced that he did not thoroughly understand the principles underlying the trade, and therefore he attended a technical school to perfect and broaden his knowledge. Another went to a school to learn the science of the trade because it could not be learned in a shop. One of the persons reporting is the son -of an employer, and therefore did not have to depend upon any outside influence to secure and hold a position. Another says that the school authorities put him in com- munication with employers, and that the certificate given by the school was taken as evidence of his ability. His school training has resulted in higher wages and more rapid promotion than would have been the case otherwise, and he mentioned other graduates whose school train- ing has brought equallj' good results. Every boj^ should attend a good technical school to learn the scien- tific principles of the trade he wishes to follow. Technical instruction can not be efliciently given in a shop, because there is no time to devote exclusiveljr to regular, systematic instruction. MACHIISriSTS. Generally speaking, the graduates reporting under this head had but one object in taking a course of instruction in a technical school. They desired to become finished workmen and to fit themselves to fill responsible positions in the trade, but in order to do this they found that it would be necessarjr to acquire a more thorough knowledge and training than could be had in the ordinarj^ workshop. Some recog- nized, too, the general broadening influence of technical education of any kind, and felt that their evenings could not be better spent than in systematic study. Nearly all the graduates were employed either as journeymen or as apprentices during the day, while pursuing their studies at night. TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION GREAT BRITAIN. 1139 Those -who attended day classes readily found employment when graduated. The school authorities generally interested themselves in finding positions for those who had none, and better ones for those already at work. All graduates were obliged to serve an apprenticeship before being engaged as regular workmen, but in a few instances the time was from six months to two years shorter than the usual term. It is the unanimous opinion that their school training has resulted in higher and better-paying positions and more rapid promotion than would have been the case otherwise, and they are so well pleased with their own success that they are all either present or prospecti\'e patrons of the schools. Among the reasons which are assigned for sending a boy to a technical school are the following; The school gives a boy good groundwork in the principles of the trade; his mind is developed and he is lifted above the necessity of forever remaining just an ordi- nary workmen; school training is necessary to make a thoroughly practical workmen; it makes it easier to advance quickly in the shop; and it qualifies a boy to avail himself of many opportunities which otherwise would be closed to him. MECHANICAL DEAFTSMEN. A desire for better preparation for practical work and ambition to rise to high positions in the trade are the principal reasons given by this group of graduates for taking a course of instruction in a tech- nical school. Most of them were employed in drafting rooms and saw the necessity for the theoretical training afforded by the schools, and some were advised by their employers to attend the evening classes. Nearly all have secured better positions as a result of their school training. It is customary to serve an apprenticeship of from five to seven years, but in some cases graduates were allowed a reduction of two years from the regular period. Having experienced the value of technical training themselves, these men would send their sons to a technical school to prepare them for a trade. In the school a boy gets the theory of his trade together with sufficient practice to demonstrate its application to actual work; his reasoning powers are developed and he is better prepared for the varying conditions of the shop. With shop training alone he seldom gets more than a ^ague knowledge of theoretical principles, and consequently is not so well qualified to advance in his trade. PAINTERS AND DECORATORS. Graduates in this trade attended technical schools to acquire a know- ledge of the best technical methods and to make themselves proficient in high-class work. In some cases the fact that a course of instruc- tion had been taken in the trade proved of assistance in securing 1140 REPORT OF THE C05IMISSI0KER OF LABOR. higher and better-paying positions than would otherwise have been the case. The term of apprenticeship is six years and this is not shortened by reason of school training. Boys are advised to take advantage of trade and technical schools, because they can there get a better knowledge of the technique and of high-class work than can be had in the ordinary shop. Furthermore, it is said that a large percentage of the men engaged in the trade are not well grounded in the theory and science of it, and therefore are not qualified to give instruction, even though they are so disposed. PATTERN MAKERS. The men in this trade attended technical schools to gain thorough instruction in theoretical principles which would enable them to become more proficient and make more rapid progress in practical work. All were employed while attending school, but after completing their studies they secured higher and better-paying positions. The usual period of apprenticeship is five years and no allowance is made for school training. All these graduates are heartily in favor of school training for bo3's who are to engage in trades. It is said that in school a boj' gets a good training in the theory of his trade and learns the best way to set about doing his work, besides getting a certain amount of practical knowledge which can not be had in the average workshop. PLUMBERS. Apprentices in this trade attended plumbing classes for technical instruction and to get a broader experience in practical work. This training has had a beneficial effect upon those who received it. One man says that when his employer found out the character of work he was doing in school he was immediately promoted to a better position at higher wages. A formal apprenticeship of from five to seven years is required, which is shortened in some instances for those who attend a technical school, though labor unions sometimes object to this. It is the general opinion that boys should attend technical schools, as they teach the use of tools and provide abundant material for practice work. The instructors are practical workmen, and the student gains a far better knowledge of the trade than can be acquired under shop training alone. SI-IOEMAKERS. The two graduates reporting for this industry had learned one or more of the operations in shoemaking before entering school. They attended school for the purpose of acquiring a technical knowledge of the various kinds of leather and the construction and operation of different kinds of machinery so that they might be qualified to fill TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION GREAT BRITAIN. 1141 better positions. The desired result has been realized, both men hav- ing been promoted to positions as foremen, and in each case the pro- motion is attributed to the knowledge obtained in the school. They would send their sons to a technical school to prepare them for the trade, because they believe that technical training is necessary to enable a workman to apply his practical knowledge to the best advan- tage. Furthermore, the workman who has learned the operations of different machines as taught in the school has a better chance to secure steady employment and more rapid promotion. TEXTILE WORKERS. The reasons assigned for attending trade and technical schools may be summed up as follows: To get a general knowledge of the trade; to become more skillful workmen; to increase earning capacity, and to get that theoretical knowledge which can not be obtained in a mill. All the persons reporting were engaged in mills while attending the schools, but the fact that they attended classes for instruction secured promotion for many of them. The schools usually take a kindly interest in the success of their former students, and render them assistance whenever it is necessary, but it is rarely the case that a school-trained man has trouble to find desirable employment. A number of graduates were found who are occupying positions as overseers, foremen, and managers, and they feel that their success is largely due to their technical training. Generally there are no formal apprenticeships in the textile trades. A youth goes into a mill and works as a weaver or spinner, or at what- ever trade he wishes to follow, until he is qualified to do acceptable work. This may take seven years or it may be accomplished in a much shorter time. Those who have attended these schools state that they would send their sons to similar institutions, because they believe that a properly equipped technical school is the only place in which a boy can obtain both theoretical and practical instruction. In the school he finds a combination of appliances which can not be found in any factory or mill, and he therefore has opportunities for information which would not otherwise be available, and he learns to perform his work in an intelligent manner. He gets a knowledge of every branch of the trade. While in the factory he rarely covers but one branch of it, being usually restricted to the part that best suits the needs of his employers, so that his chances for promotion are limited. MISCELLANEOUS. This group comprises graduates who are holding positions of respon- sibility as foremen, supervisors, and managers in v^arious industrial establishments. Their object in taking a course of instruction was to 1142 BEPOKT OF THE COMMISSIOWEB OF LABOK. acquire a technical and scientific knowledge which would enable them to master the difficult problems encountered in every -day work and to place themselves in line for advancement in their particular trades. Some were working as ordinary mechanics in shops while attending school, and others were acting as assistant foremen, etc. Their tech- nical training has resulted in promotion to higher and more remu- nerative positions, and thej' are among the strongest supporters of the schools. The consensus of opinion is that all boys should be sent to technical schools to prepare for a trade, and that both apprentices and workmen derive great benefit from the evening classes. The facilities afforded for investigating problems at night which the workman has not time to follow out during the day are invaluable to the man of small means, and these schools receive strong support from both employers and employees. ATTITUDE OF LABOK tTNIOSrS. Some of the trade unions were at first suspicious of the technical schools, but by the exercise of some tact and by making some conces- sions the schools have won over to their side, as far as could be learned, every union. It is interesting to study tjae way in which this has been done. The London Technical Education Board made careful inquiry in 1895 of 40 tj'pical employers, with 12,000 employees in the building trades. They had only 80 formally indentured apprentices, and 143 so-called learners, who could be discharged at any time, instead of 1,600 apprentices, which would have been about the normal propor- tion. Some very interesting testimony on the building trades was taken in 1898-99 by a special subcommittee of the London Tech- nical Education Board. It then appeared that rent was so high that employers did not think they could afford space at the bench for any except good workmen. Premiums of from ^26 to £40 ($122 to |195) are required of an apprentice, and of course few can pay it. The trade is therefore chiefly recruited from the country, where men pick up a portion of the trade, secure employment in London, and there- after in many cases improve their training at the technical schools. There are to-day nearly 3,000 students in the building-trade classes in London. Although the trade unions admit to their membership those who have not formally served an apprenticeship, a few of them, particu- larly in the building trades, insist upon the schools being more restric- tive than are the unions themselves. The plumbers' union, embrac- ing 10,000 members, or about 80 per cent of all that work in London, opposed the admission to the practical workshop classes of all over 22 years of age, and of laborers who casually assist plumbers, no TBADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION — GEE AT BRITAIN. 1143 matter what their age. From even theoretical classes the}' urged the exclusion of those who are not practical plumbers. The London County Council has so far yielded to the unions and to the desires of many emploj'ers and teachers as to exclude from the practical evening classes, except in the artistic trades, those who are not at work duiing the day at the same trade. Neither carpenters nor woodcarvers are admitted to the joiners' classes in some schools. A plumbers' class of 40 threatened to strike if gas fitters were admitted, and the latter were thereupon excluded. A poultry farmer was refused admission to a carpentry class, where he wished to learn to do his own work. The principal of the Battersea Polytechnic — one of the most progres- sive institutions in London — said that he confined his classes strictly to those engaged during the day at the trade, and would not admit a laborer, a son of a bricklayer, a builder's draftsman, a clerk in a builder's office, or any unskilled man to attend the practical classes in the building trades. The subcommittee in making its report, however, advised that any learner or improver under 19 years of age, as those are called who are not formally apprenticed, should be permitted, if competent, to attend practical classes, and that mechanics in anj' branch of the build- ing trades should be allowed to attend both the theoretical and prac- tical classes in other branches of the building trades. These suggestions, or at least the second one, do not yet appear to have borne fruit in most of the London technical institutes. In two of them, however, the Goldsmiths' and the People's Palace, founded and con- trolled respectively by the Goldsmiths' and by the Drapers' Livery companies, with some help in the latter case from the old charities, but independent of the control of the London County Council, most of the practical classes are open to all who are competent to attend. Even in these schools the teachers prefer those in the trade and do not appear to have many others in their classes. It is said by man}' teachers of such classes that the amateurs, as those not in the trade are often called, may be more enthusiastic to learn than the others, but being ignorant of technical terms and unfamiliar with many things relating to the trade, they take up the time of the teacher with many questions which the trade students do not need to ask. The latter look down upon amateurs and often make their life in the class some- what unpleasant. There is a general desire among the London trade-unionists, even in the more restrictive printing and building trades, to encourage the better education in technical schools of those already in the trade, but there is little opportunity as yet for the London-born boy to get started at a trade or to learn a new trade if he finds at 20 or 22 that 1144 EEPOET OF THE OOMMISSIONEK OF LABOR. he has mistaken his calling. In some of the restrictive trades, if par- ents can afford to send their children for day instruction, a youth can begin directlj^ in school the use of the tools of his chosen trade, pro- vided that his parents and he express their intention of his following that trade afterwards, and of taking an apprenticeship course in a reg- ular workshop after leaving school. In most of the technical schools outside of London, practical work- shop classes, save in plumbing, are open to any who desire to take them, whether at work in the trade or not, and whether taking the school instruction by da3^ or in the evening. Nevertheless the teach- ers agree with those in London in preferring to teach those at work in the trade, and they generallj' discourage somewhat the attendance of others. The secretary of the Amalgamated Society of Engineers of England, the greatest trade union there, states that the majority of his organi- zation, composed lavgelj of machinists and metal workers, is in favor of opening the workshop classes to all who desire to enter them, and he thinks this is the opinion of the majority of English unions, while the opposite view is held only bj' such unions as are in other respects also very restrictive — for example, in not working with nonunion men, or in limiting the number of apprentices, etc. He states that the sentiment in favor of the schools and of this broader policy is steadily growing. In order to secure the friendship of the unions, the principals of some of the large technical institutions select trade- unionists of approved ability as teachers of their practical workshop classes, and one principal stated that he asked and accepted the advice of a certain trade union before selecting a teacher in their trade, but that such a policy when adopted by a principal is not revealed even to the governing body or trustees of the union. BOOKBINDEKS. Technical schools are considered valuable to workmen, but there is a strong sentiment in some unions against the schools admitting any persons as pupils except those actual!}" engaged in the trade, and some of the schools have been waited upon by deputations from unions urging such a course. The unions have not assisted the schools finan- cially, but they have in some instances advised with the school authori- ties concerning the selection of teachers. There is a fear in some quarters that the schools may turn out partially trained, cheap labor, and until the results in this direction are seen some of the unions decline to take any decided attitude. The number of apprentices is not universally limited, but where there is such a limit it is fixed at 1 apprentice to 3 journeymen. The nominal term of apprenticeship is seven years, but there is large provision for exceptions. No provision is made for shortening the TKADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION — GEE AT BRITAIN. 1145 apprentice period on account of school training, but if such a need should arise the unions would act equitably. Under present shop conditions it is almost a necessity that a boy should attend a school. The tendency and practice in the shops to keep a boy on one or two subdivisions of the trade prevents him from becom- ing proficient in the trade' as a whole. Employers solemnly engage to teach a boy his trade, and then use him for their own profit by mak- ing him efficient in one or two of the simplest operations only. This kind of training must necessarily be supplemented by the schools to enable the apprentice to learn the more complicated and delicate opera- tions of his trade. One drawback to the usefulness of evening schools is the difficulty of keeping the average boy up to the mark of attendance. After a day's hard work he is often not inclined to go a long distance to school and take up an evening task. BOOT AND SHOE WORKERS. Union officials in some localities are members of the advisory com- mittees in trade and technical schools, but the vmions as bodies do not interest themselves in them, though such schools are regarded as giv- ing valuable instruction. Where there is any limit to the number of apprentices it is 1 boy to 3 men. The term of apprenticeship varies greatly, according to custom and the branch of the trade engaged in, ranging from one to seven j'ears. The term is not shortened bj^ reason of any previous school training. CABINETMAKERS. Cabinetmakers are very friendly to trade and technical schools, and their unions give them encouragement. One tinion was instrumental in starting evening classes for cabinetmakers in the technical school of its home cit}^. Another recommends its members to send their children to technical schools on the ground that apprentices do not receive proper attention in the shops. "Wherever the unions fix a limit to the number of apprentices it is 1 to each 4 journeymen for cabinetmakers, and for wood carvers 3 apprentices are allowed to each shop. The usual term of apprentice- ship is five to six years. This term is not shortened on account of any school training a youth may have had. CARPENTERS AND JOINERS. Trade, technical, and continuation (night) schools are considered valuable, but there is not that importance attached to them that is found in some other trades. \\''hile they are very useful to the industry, the workman is thought to gain less advantage than the employer. 1146 EEPOBT OF THE COMMISSIONED OF LABOE. The unions have not uniformly given either moral or financial aid to the schools, and some think the public funds set apart for this purpose are not used for the interests of workmen so much as they should be. Not many union officials personally oppose the schools, but some of them criticise their work. These say that the schools teach only a part of the trade and that there is a tendency to make machines of the students. Where there is a tendency among employers to use much cheap labor, an attempt is made by the unions to limit the number of appren- tices, but there is no general rule as to this point. The usual term of apprenticeship is five years, though this is sometimes extended to six years in case the apprentice begins his service at the age of 15. The time spent in school does not count in the term of apprenticeship, as a rule, though there are instances in which it has been recognized to some extent. It is argued in favor of the schools that a boy may learn that which he would not have an opportunity to learn in the shop; he is enabled to grasp more readily the practical requirements of his trade; and he will, by reason of his technical education, have an advantage over the masses of workmen. On the other hand, it is said that the trade must be learned in the shop because the schools do not adapt their work to the practical needs of the students. Some good comes from the schools, but there is much room for improvement. COACH MAKERS. The unions and individual members generally are friendly to trade and technical schools, and regard them as valuable to the workingman. In some localities the unions require an apprenticeship of five years, and limit the number of apprentices employed in the trade. Leading ofiicials say they would send their sons to trade or technical schools to prepare them for a trade, for the reason that the theoretical and technical instruction afforded by such schools helps a boy to readily understand the practical part of his trade, thus enabling him to become a better workman. FARRIERS. The secretary of the single union reporting is strongly in favor of technical schools. He states that they are held in high esteem by far- riers, and while no instance is reported in which their unions have given pecuniary aid to such schools, they give them their moral sup- port and many members attend the classes. The number of appren- tices is not limited, and there is no fixed term of apprenticeship, but it usually requires five years for a learner to become a competent workman. TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION — GREAT BRITAIN. 1147 A boy should most certainly attend a technical school. He there learas the theory and scientific principles of his trade, besides having broader practice. MAOHIXISTS AND METAL WOEKP^ES. Schools that maintain night classes for the purpose of giving- tlieo- retical and technical instruction in trade -work are considered hy the representatives of these trades to be valuable to the workmen. A number of unions give such schools their moral support and some offer special inducements to encourage the attendance of members and their sons. In Birmingham the brass workers' union donates an annual prize of 3 guineas [$15.33] to the local school and recommends its members to join the classes in brass work. In the same place the gun workers' union encourages boj'^s to attend the school by paying their tuition fees and providing prizes for regular attendance and excellent worlf . In the Birmingham district, also, prominent members of the engineers and machinists' union deliver lectures on engineering subjects in the schools. In ShefEeld the engineers' and machinists' union gives two prizes annually to sons of members attending science and art classes in the local technical school. In some places the unions limit the number of apprentices emplo3^ed in the trade and fix the period of apprenticeship at five j'ears. In most localities, how- ever, there is no restriction regarding the number of apprentices employed, nor is there any fixed term of apprenticeship, but custom usually calls for four or ^ve j^ears' pi'actical experience before a man is considered a qualified workman. In no case is it stated that a course in a technical school shortens the term of apprenticeship. The idea seems to be to have apprentices attend the schools for the purpose of acquiring a technical knowledge which will enable them to become better workmen and not with a view to shortening the time of prelim- inary shop training. Many union officials patronize trade schools, and all state that they would do so if they had sons desiring to learn a trade. - It is said that the boy who has a scientific knowledge of his trade is better able to grasp the problems that arise in his work; he is trained in appreciation of the beautiful in design; he is better able to see causes and effects, and his work is therefore made easier. PAINTEES AND DECOEATOES. Technical education is in general favor among painters and decora- tors, and some of the unions encourage the schools with hearty moral support. In one place the union induced the governing board of the local school to provide instruction in this particular trade. The unions generally limit the number of apprentices, but this limit varies in different districts. Perhaps a fair example of the limit is 3 1148 EEPOBT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOB. apprentices to 20 journeymen, and a maximum of 6 to the estab- lishment, reg-ardless of the number of journeymen. The term of apprenticeship begins usually when a boy is 16 years old and ends when he is 21. This period is not shortened on account of any time spent in school. It is the general opinion that apprentices should attend a technical school because of the larger opportunities afforded for acquiring both theoretical and practical knowledge, which on account of the sub- division of shoj) work can not be satisfactorily acquired bj^ shop train- ing alone. PATTEKN MAKERS. Most of the pattern makers regard technical schools as valuable to their trade, but there are some who consider them as useless. The unions generally seem to hold an indifferent attitude toward the schools, and where support of any kind is given, it is only moral. A majority of the unions do not limit the number of apprentices, but they fix the term of apprenticeship, usually at five years. Those who would patronize the schools would do so to enable their sons to acquire theoretical knowledge. One says he would not patron- ize a trade school because often the teachers are not practical and the boy would be confused when he had to unlearn in the shop what he had been taught in the school. PLASTERERS. The information for this trade was furnished by a prominent official of the National Association of Operative Plasterers. He states that trade, technical, and continuation (night) schools are all considered valuable to workingmen. The association has never contributed monej' to the schools, but it has given them moral encouragement, and its secretary managed the drawing and modeling classes in a school two seasons without compensation. There has never been any opposi- tion to the schools, but unless all students are actuallj'^ working at the trade, or intend to do so, support is withheld. The number of apprentices is restricted to 1 to 1 journeymen. The apprentice must enter the trade by the time he is 16 years old and remain until he is 21. This rule, however, is not strictly enforced in all localities. All boys who intend to follow a trade for a livelihood should attend a trade or technical school, as they would there learn the theory and science of the trade and would therefore make better progress in practical work. PLUMBERS. Representatives of plumbers' unions regard technical instruction as valuable to workingmen, but their expressions are more or less quali- fied. One would have night schools only because the day schools tend TEADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION — GREAT BRITAIN. 1149 to produce what he terms "illegitimate apprentices;" another would prefer training, particularly in sectional work; and another still would confine the schools to those students who are bound apprentices. While the unions do not oppose the schools, they have not generally given them substantial aid. One union, however, was found which has materially assisted in the establishment of technical classes for apprentices and young joiirneymen, and many individual plumbers patronize the schools. In England the unions generally limit the number of apprentices, while in Scotland the opposite is true. Tlie term of apprenticeship varies according to locality. In cities and large towns, where a higher class of work is demanded, the term is longer than in smaller places, ranging from five to' seven years, and it is not shortened by reason of any time the apprentice may have spent in school. It is the general opinion that every boy who desires to learn a trade should either take a course in a technical school before entering the trade or supplement his shopwork by theoretical instruction in the night classes. The school would give him the opportunity to become skilled in special branches and he would receive such instruction as would better fit him for his calling. In these days of keen competi- tion a young man has little prospect of advancement unless he has had technical training, and in the small towns particularly it is impossible for the ajjprentice to get adequate instruction regarding modern methods of plumbing or sanitary appliances without attending school. PRINTERS. Representatives of tj'^pographical unions generally regard trade, technical, and continuation (night) schools as valuable to workingmen. One says that they are of the very highest value. Another believes they are valuable, but thinks they should confine their teaching to those already engaged in the trade. Still another regards them as valuable in a few cases, but not generally. Most of the unions give the schools their moral support, and one gives a prize to the most suc- cessful student member and makes an additional donation to the prize fund of the local school. This union has been instrumental in placing a Linotype machine in the school of • its locality. Members of unions are instructors in some of the schools. The unions limit the number of apprentices, but the limit is not uniform. Some fix the number of apprentices at 1 for each 3 jour- neymen, while others fix the number at 3 to a shop. The regular prescribed term of apprenticeship is seven years. One ofiicial says that often a boy is kept three or four years in a shop before his time counts, and in such cases the apprenticeship extends over t«n or twelve years. Trade-school graduates serve as long a term as those who have never attended the schools. 1150 BEPORT OF THE OOMMSSIOI^EE OF LABOE. All of the union officials answering these inquiries state that they would patronize technical schools if they had sons who desired to learn a trade, and, indeed, naany have sons attending such schools. The schools afford means for obtaining knowledge supplementary to that gained in the shop during apprenticeship. A boy is not expected to learn a trade from the knowledge gained in a technical school, but with this knowledge he is better equipped than are those without it, and he will rise higher in his trade. Technical training should continue after starting to work in order further to improve the mind. TEXTILE WOEKEES. Officials of unions representing various textile trades uniformly regard trade and technical schools as valuable to workjngmen, and some regard them as absolutely necessary. A majority of the unions give moral support to the schools and some are liberal in giving pecuniary aid. When one of the most sucoessfid trade sciools was started it Avas a cooperative institution and the president and secre- tary of the local spinners' association were regular contributors when- ever there was a call for financial aid. One weavers' society gives eight yearly scholarships of £1 ($4.87) each to the school of its town, and a weavers' association in the same town gives £20 {f 97.33) annually to the school. Large numbers of the members of unions attend the schools, and this is perhaps the strongest evidence of the iigh esteem in which thej- are held by the workmen in general. In most of the textile trades there seem to be no apprenticeships, as that term is commonly understood. In some localities, however, there is a fixed period of service before a learner is permitted to receive full pay. This period varies from two to five years, and in one instance it is stated that the time from a boy's entrance into the mill as a "half -hand" until he is a fully qualified spinner will approx- imate nine years. The custom seems to be that whenever a learner becomes proficient he receives full pay without regard to the length of his services. A number of the labor union officials who answered the inquiries are patrons of technical schools, and all say they would be if they had sons who Avished to learn a trade.- All trades are becoming more and more technical and more highly skilled artisans are in demand. Tech- nical schools are the connecting link between the common schools and the workshop. The theoretical and scientific principles underljnng a trade are taught in the schools, and the youth learns the reasons for doing or not doing his work in a particular manner, his judgment is quickened, his industrial vision is broadened, his labor is lightened, and stability is added to his character. He becomes less a machine, Ms new knowledge gives him added power, and he is better fitted to profit by his shop experience. In the shop a j'^outh receives no more TRADE AKD TECHNICAL EDUCATION GEEAT BEITAIN". 1151 assistance than those over him are forced to give, and his school training makes him in a very large measure independent of them. In the school he may fit himself for anj'' department of his trade, while in the shop this is very difficult. UPHOLSTERERS. Technical schools are regarded as ver}- valuable to young shop hands, and the unions have given them their moral support. The unions have never opposed the schools, except where they have attempted to interfere with trade customs — such, for instance, as introducing women into positions held by men. The number of apprentices is limited to 1 boy to 3 men, and there is a tendency to make the limit more stringent by fixing it at 1 to 4 or 5. Custom fixes the a.pprenticeship period at five years, but there is no specific rule to that effect. The fact that a young man attends a school does not shorten the period he must serve as an apprentice. The secretary of the union reporting says he considers it a duty to send a boy to a trade or technical school, Vjut he would not do so until he was apprenticed at his trade. The upholsterer who makes a mark in his trade is the one who supplements his shop training by school instruction. In the school he learns drawing and design and gets an insight into other branches of the trade, such as cutting and fitting, which not one apprentice in a hundred is taught in the shop. MISCELLANEOUS. This classification includes a number of labor unions from which the data obtained were too incomplete to be used in separate state- ments. The individuals representing these trades are all verj' favor- ably disposed toward the system of technical trade instruction which has been established in England, and they are of the opinion that the schools afford a decided advantage to ajiprentices and workingmen generally. By some they are declared to be indispensable. The bricklayers, electrical workers, goldsmiths and jewelers, sheet-metal workers, iron founders, and paper-mill workers reporting all give moral support to the schools; many electrical workers attend the night classes; and the goldsmiths and jewelers and paper-mill workers advertise the schools and adrise their members to attend them. None of these unions opposes technical schools, but electrical workers insist that only those engaged in the trade should be taught. All unions except leather workers and paper-mill workers limit the num- ber of apprentices. Goldsmiths and jewelers fix the number at 1 to 6 journeymen, and iron founders usually allow 1 apprentice to 3 molders. With bricklayers each local union fixes the term of appren- ticeship, but the time for beginning must not be later than 18 years of age; tin-plate and sheet-metal workers require six years; electrical 1152 EEPOET OF THE COMMISSIONEE OF LABOB. workers from three to five years; electrotypers and stereotypers seven years; goldsmiths and jewelers require six years, but some- times accept five; iron founders stipulate that an apprentice may enter at 1-i and must have entered at 16 years of age in order to com- plete his term of apprenticeship by the time he reaches 21, thus mak- ing the term from five to seven years. In no case is the term of apprenticeship shortened on account of school training. It is the general expression that the technical schools offer valuable and necessary theoretical training which can not be had in the shops, and practically all the representatives of these unions say that they would send their sons to such schools if they wished to prepare them for a trade. CHAPTER IX. TMDE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN HUNGARY. 1153 9257—02 73 CHAPTER IX. TEADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN HUNGARY. INTRODUCTION. Hungary was not originally included among the countries whose sys- tems of industrial education were to be covered by the present report. A comprehensive report on the Hungarian industrial and trade schools, however, was published in 1900 by Mr. Josef Szterenyi, royal coun- cilor and chief of the division of industrial and commercial education in the department of commerce at Budapest, and it is thought that the inclusion of the parts bearing more particularly on the classes of schools covered by the present report will be of interest as supple- menting the more extended account of the Austrian schools. A brief digest of the report of Mr. Szterenyi was translated for the report of the United States Commissioner of Education for the year 1899- 1900, and use is here made of that translation. Industrial instruction in Hungary — that is to say, instruction tending to foster industries — reaches back, several centuries, to the time when Christianity was introduced into the country. The first beginnings of industrial instruction are found in the convents, especially in those of the Benedictines, who maintained regular workshops, each of which was the nucleus of a school in which knowledge of trades, skill in their pursuit, and love for industrial labor were fostered. The first explicit information about these schools reaches as far back as the thirteenth century, in which, among the monks, a number of skilled architects were noted. Several now existing architectural monuments were planned and executed by Benedictine monks. From the convents instruction with industrial tendencies spread to the cities, where in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries several schools were maintained in which all the branches were taught that were considered essential for commercial and industrial life. How- ever, instruction with a decided industrial tendency may be said to have commenced with the introduction of systematic instruction in geometry, which took place during the sixteenth century. During the seventeenth century geometry was fittingly supplemented by the introduction of drawing. This branch was particularly promoted by the order of the Piarists, who already taught architecture and indus- trial drawing. 1155 1156 KEPOET OF THE OOMMISSXONEK OF LABOR. While during the preceding centuries industrial instruction was chiefly fostered in convents by religious orders, it became general in Hungary during the eighteenth century, and the entire educational sj'stem was organized chiefly under the initiative of Empress Maria Theresa. She gave the impulse to the organization of State institu- tions of learning in 1774, but previous to that, in 1770, the Eoyal Drawing School at Budapest was organized; this is the first secular school of that kind in Hungary. The new school organization was published in 1777. It required that eveiy city should organize a national school in which drawing was to be an obligatory study, but other studies also were to consider industrial and commercial relations; this is plain from the fact that it was ordered to teach arithmetic with applications to commercial and industrial pursuits. In 1779 a first attempt was made in Hungarj" to establish an indus- trial school combined with a workshop; that is, at a time when scarcely any of the Western nations had any, or at least very few, of such insti- tutions, though these nations were much further advanced industrially and commercially. At the same time humanitarian institutions, such as schools for deaf mutes and blind, promoted industrial pursuits by teaching certain trades, such as bookbinding. In 1783 a noteworthy decree was published by the Government which required of cities the establishment of Sunday drawing schools, making it obligatory for apprentices in workshops to attend them regularly. This decree was accompanied by a detailed course of study in drawing with explanatory remarks. A court decree of 1795 made the one of 1783 more effective. This second decree stated that upon penalty no master was allowed to receive a boy as apprentice unless he had passed through the ele- mentary school, and that every apprentice should attend the Sunday drawing school for at least a year, otherwise he could not obtain his certificate of having completed his apprenticeship. Journeymen, also, were obliged to attend these Sundaj' schools for a year, for without a certificate of attendance upon such a school they could not become master workmen. Heavy penalties were inflicted if a journeyman had been admitted by any guild as master without having proved by documentary evidence that he had enjo3'ed a year's instruction in drawing. In consequence of this I'oyal decree instruction in drawing became general among apprentices and journeymen, and hence industrial instruction received a uniform organization. This was the status of industrial education during the first half of the nineteenth century. At the close of this period a unique system of lower trade schools was established in Budapest and a few provin- TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION — HUNaART. 1157 cial cities in which apprentices were taught partly on Sundays, partly in the evenings of work days, reading, writing, arithmetic, book- keeping, and drawing. At about the same time the capital city, Bu- dapest, established a higher- industrial school, which years afterwards developed into the present polytechnicum. The history of the system of special schools in Hungary during the nineteenth century is very rich in changes. The necessity of system- atic instruction for industrial people made itself felt; both the State Government and society felt it. This led in 1872 to the passage of a law which made it a duty of apprentices to attend regularly so-called apprentice schools, and the law of 1884 made it a duty of communities to establish and maintain such schools whenever in any community there are 50 apprentices working in shops or factories; and the mas- ters of trade are obliged to procure their attendance at these schools. But the Government was not satisfied with the inauguration of lower evening and holiday schools. It was found of eminent importance to provide for schools in which foremen and masters of trade should be educated, to whom the special education of apprentices could be intrusted. Several schools of this kind were established for different branches of industry, such as for weavers, wood and metal workers, and for the ceramic industry; these schools furnished a considerable number of experts. But while all industrial schools were at first the result of private initiative, they afterwards became State institutions with the exception of apprentice schools, which through the law of 1884 were, and remained, communal or local institutions. The following table shows the great increase in the expenditures on the part of the State for industrial schools: EXPENDITURES FOR INDUSTRIAL SCHOOLS, 1868 TO 1897. Year. Through the depart- ment of commerce. Through the depart- ment of education. Year. Through the depart- ment of commerce. Through the depart- ment of education. 1868 S500 1,600 2,600 2,705 2,450 3,200 9,400 6,012 8,363 8,230 8,042 8,600 8,860 7,792 16,694 1883 J22, 345 28, 412 24,108 26, 408 28, 121 19,378 20,041 23,626 32,692 38,232 90,026 127, 701 144,846 175, 500 242, 600 857,098 65, 051 1869 1884 1870 1885 83, 399 1871 1886 83, 911 90,351 89, 607 1872 1887 1873 . 1888 1874 1889 83, 947 1875 1890 80, 421 1876 1891 86, 050 1877 i892 91, 043 1878 . .. 1893 98, 127 1879 $12,499 12,710 23,865 42,002 1894 104,863 1880 1895 90,000 1881 1896 95,600 1882 1897 37,700 From these data it is seen that the State has increased its expenses for industrial education five hundred and sixty fold within thirty years. But it should be borne in mind that the State is not the only agency that supports this special education; cities, counties, and towns, and 1158 KEPOET OF THE COMMISSIONEE OE LABOE. particularly chambers of commerce and industry, pay annually large sums for the same purpose. In 1895-96 the apprentice schools alone had cost the communities $254,297, of which sum the State paid nothing. Thus, in briefest possible outline, the most important points -are stated concerning the history of industrial education in Hungary; but enough has been said to show that the country is doing its duty in the field of special education in the interest of national economy, and a glance at the present conditions may sei've to show in detail how these schools are managed and what they attempt. Industrial education is organized in a complete system, all the parts of which are organically connected. Its organization is uniform though it makes allowance for local conditions and needs. It is divided into two main parts, (1) apprentice schools and (2) technical schools proper. The former are under the control of the department of education, the latter under that of the department of commerce, which latter has a special bureau for industrial education, the chief of which is the royal superior-director. But both departments, that of education and that of commerce, have supervision of all the schools devoted to industrial education. Essential changes in the course of study can be made only upon agreement of both departments. In order to obtain the best possible advice concerning questions of organization^ curricula, choice of text-books, and devices for teaching, a board is appointed, called the State industrial school board, consisting of 32 members, partly professional industrial teachers, partly manufacturers and merchants, and some professors of the Royal Polytechnicum. This board is the highest advisory authority for the system of industrial schools. It is independent of the two departments, and acts under authority of a statute approved by the King. The teachers of apprentice schools are usually teachers of common elementary, and high schools, who teach in these evening and holiday schools for a small additional salary. The technical schools proper all have regular faculties, the members of which are regarded as State officers. The professors in schools for woodworkers, weavers, metal workers, and machine builders are graduates of the department of mechanical engineering in the polytechnicum; those in schools for stone workers and masons are sculj^tors and architects; those in schools for the ceramic arts are chemists, sculptors, and modelers. Each one of these teachers is sent abroad for a year or more at the expense of the State, before he is appointed definitely, to study his branch in noted schools of other countries, or he is sent to a university to enter as a student of a special branch. The professional preparation of fore- men and work superintendents appointed in these schools is provided for in the same way. The department of commerce sends annually a number of these teachers abroad to study the condition of the trades TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATIOK — HtJNQAEY. 1159 which their schools represent, and to visit schools of similar charac- ter, so that every teacher has a year's travel to study after three or four years of work. The system of industrial schools consists of (1) apprentice schools; (2) journeymen's schools; (3) trade schools; (i) industrial technical schools; (5) higher industrial schools; (6) women's industrial schools; (7) industrial drawing schools or schools of design; (8) one public ' lower industrial school; (9) schools of general culture in which some industrial branches are taught; (10) industrial museums. APPRENTICE SCHOOLS. These form the lowest step of the sj'stem and are under the control of the minister of education. A.ttendanee at these schools is obliga- tory ; it was made so by the law of 1872. Formerly attendance on the part of apprentices was obligatory only where such schools existed, but since 1884 the cities and towns having at least 50 apprentices were obliged to establish such schools and make attendance obligatory. Masters of shops and owners of factories failing in their duty to send their apprentices to these schools are liable to fines of 50 florins (120.30.) The law provides that the city or town councils must estabhsh and maintain apprentice schools; the expenses are to be defrayed from fines and a special tax not exceeding 2 per cent of the State school tax. In cases where these sources are inadequate special -subsidies are granted by the minister of education. County funds are established, the interest of which is used to support these schools. In urgent cases, even the capital may be used to establish them. Every trade apprentice is obliged to attend these schools during the entire time of apprenticeship. They have three grades, and a boy may enter at 12 years of age, after having gone "through the elemen- tary school; but since many boys fail to go through the entire course of the elementary schools, many apprentice schools are obliged to have preparatory classes. The instruction takes place in the evenings and on holidays, and is given seven hours per week — two hours each on two week days, and three hours on Sunday. The three hours on Sunday are exclusively devoted to drawing. The branches of instruction are (1) the mother tongue, (2) geography, history, and nature study, (3) penmanship, (4) arithmetic and bookkeeping, (5) drawing and sketching. The course is given in detail by the central Government. If the religious commu- nities desire to have these apprentices taught religion, they may do so, but they must do it at their own expense. In order to make these schools very effective, special courses for teachers are arranged. In 1896-96 Hungary had 366 apprentice (evening and holiday) schools with 72,676 pupils and 2,150 teachers. In p'laces where there are not 1160 KEPOET OF THE COMMISSIONEK OF LABOB. enough pupils (50 to begin with), apprentices are obliged to attend the elementary continuation schools till they are 16 years old. The city authorities appoint a special inspector, usually a professional teacher, who reports upon the condition of the apprentice schools to the city council as well as to the State government. The Government inspects the schools through its own functionaries. SCHOOLS FOR TRADE JOURNEYMEN. These schools are advanced apprentice schools; attendance in them is not obligatory, but they are well patronized in cities. Their main- tenance depends partly on tuition fees and partly on contributions of city and State governments. The number of such schools is about 20 in, the whole State; they have about 1,000 students, and are supervised like the apprentice schools. SCHOOL WORKSHOPS. The workshops for apprentices form the second step of the industrial school system, but the first step of the system of technical educa.tion. They belong to the department of commerce. Their object is to sup- ply the trades with skilled laborers and particularly aid the industries known as home industries in contradistinction to factory industries. The course is one of three years, except for boys preparing for special branches of work, for whom extra courses are arranged, lasting from three months to one year. The three-year courses are both theoret- ical and practical, chiefly practical, of course. In drawing and design- ing much valuable Avork is done. About ten hours a week are devoted to theoretical instruction and about forty hours a week to practical application. Boys must be 12 years of age to be admitted and must have completed the course of the elementary school. These school workshops differ from the manual training schools in this : They teach one or at most two trades, while in the manual training schools no trades are taught, but the use of tools and material is aimed at. In Hungarian trade workshops no theoretical instruction is given to boys who come to perfect themselves in certain branches of home industry. Besides these workshops conducted as schools, there are a number of factory work schools, maintained by the owners of factories who intend to prepare their own workmen for special work. The work- men, chosen by the foremen or owners of the factory for the purpose of attending school, are paid like regular workmen. Beside these, there are school workshops of a peculiar nature called wage work schools. The students of these take material home and bring the completed work to the institution. School workshops are connected with the following industries: (1) Weaving, (2) braiding, (3) stone working, (4) toy industry, (6) lace making, (6) ceramic industry. TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION — HUNGARY. INDUSTRIAL TECHNICAL SCHOOLS. 1161 These technical schools are the youngest branch of the industrial school system and the most promising type of practical schools. They form the third step of the system, and their chief object is to aid Hungarian industry by preparing well-equipped laborers of a high order who can act as master workmen and directors of factories. These technical schools are to develop handicrafts by degrees into art indus- try (that, at least, is the intention). This necessitates, of course, a systematic, theoretical, and practical education. Each of these schools is provided with the necessary power machines. The course is one of four years, except in the weaving schools, where it is of two j^ears, and the locksmith's school, which has a three years' course. The theoretical instruction claims from four to eight hours a week, drawing from fourteen to eighteen hours, and instruc- tion in workshops from twenty to thirty hours, so that the whole number of hours of work per week is from fifty to fifty-two. The theoretical lessons embrace general and technical branches, as is seen from the following schedule. To this must be added from twenty to thirty hours' shopwork per week. SUBJECTS TAUGHT AND HOUES PER WEEK DEVOTED TO EACH, HUNGARIAN INDUSTRIAL TECHNICAL SCHOOLS. Sutijccts taught. Schools for wood- workers. Schools for metal workers and ma- chine builders. Schools for stone- workers and clay modelers. Schools for textile workers. 1st year 2a year Sd year 4th year Ist year 2d year 3d year 4th year Ist year 2d year 3d year 4th year 1st year 2d year. GENERAL SUBJECTS. Language (mother tongue) 2 2 2 4 2 2- 1 1 4 3 3 8 2 1 2 / 3 I 2 4 1 6 6 4 2 2 1 2 -1 1 2 2 }3 1 2 Geometry Geometnc draTving 6 4 Free-hand drawing 4 4 4 6 4 6 4 9 4 2 i 4 Bookkeeping 3 2 1 2 2 1 1 6 7 2 2 1 Chemistry TECHNICAL SUBJECTS. 5 5 6 2 2 10 2 14 2 12 2 12 3 12 3 6 2 6 ""2 2 \ 2 2 2 3 1 4 1 6 3 4 4 7 4 4 The conditions of admission to these schools are as follows: The applicant must have completed his twelfth year of age, and either have completed the elementary school course or the two lower grades of a high school. In exceptional cases graduates of the apprentice evening schools are admitted. The weavers' schools admit only boys 14 years 1162 BEPOBT OF THE COMMISSIOITER OF LABOE. old. Many of the technical schools are boarding schools, having ample dormitories. At the close of the course the students receive a diploma, which facilitates their employment and enables them, after two years' practi- cal work as journeymen, to become master workmen. State factories and railroad shops prefer to employ the graduates of technical schools. The schools for the building trades differ in essential points of organization from those described in the foregoing. They are not independent technical schools, but connected with some other indus- trial institutions. Their courses are either three whole years or four winter semesters, and during the building season the students are engaged in practical work. The graduates are only journeymen in their trades; to become masters in brick or stone masonry, stonecut- ting, or carpentry several years of practical work are required and a final examination before a trade board of examiners. Students who pass the four years' course in school may acquire the right to act as masters after another four years of practical work without examination. The following industrial schools are found in Hungary : 1. Two State schools for wood workers in Homonna and Ujpest, in which cabinetmakers, turners, and wood carvers are prepared. Num- ber of students in 1895-96, lY and 14, respectivelJ^ 2. Four schools for the wood and metal industry in Arad, Klausen- burg, Maros-Vasarhely, and Szegedin. Besides the branches taught in (1), there are taught bra,nches for locksmiths, art workers in wrought iron, and machine builders. In one of these schools (Klausenburg) stokers of engines and others are also taught. The 4 schools have together 318 students. 3. There are 2 schools exclusively devoted to metal work, situated at Budapest and Golniczbanya; number of students, 77. 4. There are 2 weaving schools in Kesmark and Heltau. The former applies itself to both hand weaving and mechanical weaving; the latter is devoted to wool weaving exclusively; nimiber of scholars, 23. 6. There are 8 schools for stone workers and the ceramic arts in Udvarhely, Zalathna, and Unghvar. In these schools stonecutting, ornamental sculpture, claj^ pottery, tile making, and stone polishing are taught. The number of students in 1896 was 100. 6. There are 2 watchmakers' schools at Budapest and Klausenburg; number of students, 47. 7. The leather industry is represented by a school at Seben, in which chiefly shoemaking and saddlery are taught; number of students, 11. Hence there were in Hungary, in 1895-96, 16 industrial schools, with 616 students. In this connection it may be mentioned that a number of advanced burgher schools have opened workshops in which the boys are induced to occupy themselves with trade work, but, though heartily supported TRADE Al^D TECHNICAL EDTTCATTOIT — HUNGARY. 1163 ■by the Government, the idea did not find a like support among the people and with teachers who think that -the general education offered in such schools should not be burdened with prosaic, so called, prac- tical occupations. At first such shops were established quite numer- ouslj^, but of late they have been abandoned, so that in 1895-96 there were only four schools of that kind left. It is generally thought best to let the children obtain a thorough elementary education, and after that induce them to enter practical pursuits in purely industrial schools. STATE INDUSTRIAL SCHOOLS. " As the highest step of the system of Hungarian industrial schools below the polytechnicum at Budapest maj^ be regarded the State indus- trial schools. They are advanced institutions aiming at a thorough preparation of foremen and factory owners. Their course is one of three years, but it has been found desirable to increase it to four years. Applicants for admission must have graduated from a burgher school or have passed through the four lower grades of a secondary school. In some of these schools practical experience in shops is required also. The students who pass the examination for graduation are thereby not only entitled to an abridgment of their military service to one year, but also to a preference in the appointment to subordinate offices in postal, telephone, railroad, and customs bureaus. The best feature of these schools is found in the excellent facilities for practical shopwork offered the students. These shops are built on a large scale and contain the latest technical inventions. The organi- zation of these schools is uniform except that in their time tables they differ, but only in so far as the local conditions require. Of the forty- eight to fifty hours per week of instruction twenty to twenty -six are devoted to shopwork. Instruction is not gratuitous, but tuition fees are paid. The school at Kaschau is chiefly devoted to mechanics and machine construction, but teaches also electro-technique and political economy. The school at Budapest is the largest institution of this kind in east- ern Europe, having five distinct departments: (1) Architecture, (2) mechanical engineering, (3) chemistry, (4) metal work, and (5) wood industry. The theoretical branches taught to the students of all the five depart- ments are: Hungarian language, arithmetic, geometry and algebra, physics, chemistry, free-hand and instrumental drawing, machine con- struction, political economy, and bookkeeping. Each department of this school has, of course, its own course of study in practical work. The following lists will show how thorough that work is: Course in architecture: Architecture, architectural drawing, modeling, architec- tural geometry, materials, foundation laying, surveying, building mechanism, theory of construction, making estimates, bridge and hydraulic engineering, history of archi- tecture, and practical shopwork. 1164 EEPOBT OF THE COMMISSIONER OP LABOB. Course in mechanical engineering: Drawing from nature, mechanics, technology of wood, machine construction, constructive drawing, technology of metal, agricul- tural machinery and its drawing, surveying, railroad machinery, mill building, paper mills, electro-technique, and twenty-one hours a week practical shopwork. Course in chemistry: Modeling, general chemistry, inorganic chemistry, laboratory practice, organic chemistry, mechanical drawing, inorganic and organic technology. Course in metal industry: Free-hand drawing from nature, mechanics, locksmith- ing, simple iron construction, modeling, heating and ventilation, wells, pumps, fire engines, waterworks, electro-technique, and twenty-four hours a week shopwork. Course in woodworking industry: Modeling, drawing from nature, technology of wood, theory of construction, constructive drawing, and twenty-three hours a week shopwork. The number of teachers in 1895-96 was 232. There were, in addi- tion to these day courses, a number of special winter courses, one for the building trades with 143 students, and one for stokers and engi- neers for stationary and locomotive engines, with 800 students. Only men engaged in factories and shops are admitted. A small State industrial school for joiners is situated in Kronstadt, the chief subject of study of which is artistic wood carving. INDUSTRIAL SCHOOLS FOR WOMEN. These institutions have the purpose of preparing women for suitable occupations or wage working. Their organization is uniform in essen- tials. Admission is granted only to those who have completed an ele- mentary school course. In some of these schools for women theoretical instruction is given, which is, however, confined to the three branches, language, arithmetic, and bookkeeping. Drawing is taught in every one of these schools for women. The course is one of two years, and tuition fees are charged. There are eleven of such schools, some of which are subsidized by the State, others are private or municipal schools. INDUSTRIAL DRAWING SCHOOLS. In other countries, notably in the United States, such institutions are called schools of design. This branch of the Hungarian industi-ial- schoo! system is the most modest of all, comprising only a few institu- tions. Their object is exactly that of other schools of this kind in Germany, France, Austria, and the United States, namely, to raise industrial art to the highest possible perfection by inventing new designs and new modes of introducing art into industrial pursuits. In 1895-96 these schools of design had 1,083 students, of whom only 91 were women. LOWER INDUSTRIAL SCHOOLS. At present there is only one school of this kind. It is located at Temesvar. It prepares young boys for entering shops as appren- tices. It has 238 students. It is the intention of the Government to TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION — HTJNGAKY. 1165 raise this school to the dignity of a secondary school as soon as the funds available reach an amount which will permit doing so. MANUAL TRAINING SCHOOLS. Schools of this kind are so y/ell understood in this country that a description of course and organization is not necessary. There were only four of them in Hungary in 1895-96. Separate buildings are used for the boys, who come from their day high schools for a speci- fied number of hours per week to get instruction in cardboard and wood work. INDUSTRIAL MUSEUMS. These museums are mentioned last because they are not, properly speaking, schools, but aids for all industrial schools of the State. There are four of them— in Budapest, Maros-Vasarhely, Klausenburg, and Seben. A general exhibition of all industrial arts is open all the year round; special exhibits of the products and methods of separate trades are arranged for in each of these museums, and lectures to the workmen, foremen, and ijiasters of shops and factories are held at cer- tain times, which are well attended. Naturally each industrial tech- nical school has, if not an extensive museum, certainly the nucleus of such an institution, just as a school has its own library. CHAPTER X. TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN ITALY. 1167 CHAPTER X. TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN ITALY. («) INTRODUCTION. As early as the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries several efforts were made in the direction of industrial education in Italy, but these were tentative and of little importance in the midst of the general neglect of public education, and especially of practical instruction. Even in the eighteenth century the celebrated Giovanni Battista Vico, in his book " De nostri temporis ratione studiorum," complained that in Italian schools no attention was given to "the practical utility of the studies." At the close of the eighteenth century the Grand Duke Pier Leopoldo established at Florence a drawing school for artisans, Giuseppe Bonaparte established at Naples and at Nola schools of arts and trades,' and during the first half of the nineteenth century several schools for workingmen were established, which marked the com- mencement of the union of the school and the workshop. (*) In 1841-42 and in 1842-43 the Austrian Government, which then held the provinces of Lombardy and Venetia, established at the cities of Venice and Milan two technical schools having a I'eal industrial char- acter. These schools had for their object not only commercial and artistic instruction, but also instruction in chemistry and in science applied to the arts and trades (dyeing, glass making, tanning, wine making, manufacture of pottery, etc.). These two schools, however, • soon lost their industrial character, and were transformed into schools for general culture. The so-called technical schools, instituted by the law of November 13, 1859, followed the same tendency, and became schools of general culture. Of these there are at present about 280, distributed through- out the peninsula. It was only after the formation of the national union that real indus- trial education was established in Ital3^ The needs of the time caused the establishment of industrial schools and schools of arts and trades, in addition to the schools for literary, scientific, and general culture. "This chapter was prepared for this report by Dr. Eiccardo Bachi, formerly ol the Institute Tecnico di Vicenza, now chief secretary of the Italian Eoyal Industrial Museum, Turin, Italy. ^Gli istituti tecnici e le scuole tecniche, by Bardelli e Moreschi. Eeport to the Minister of Public Education, Eome, 1900. 1169 9257—02 74 1170 BJEPOET OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOK. These schools were founded chiefly by local action. Sometimes they were founded and maintained, especially in northern Italy, by work- ingmen's associations. Usually they received subsidies from the State, from the provincial and communal administrations, from the cham- bers of commerce, and sometimes even from the savings banks. There are also some schools having a capital fund, and schools founded by charitable institutions. These schools have grown, here and there, according to their neces- sities and the means of the localities, without a preestablished plan, almost without the intervention of the State. They are of widely different types, and vary greatly in their objects and programmes. There is an almost absolute lack of coordination, but the schools respond readily to the needs of each locality. The tendency toward administrative regulation which has become so strong among the Latin nations, and on account of which their institutions have acquired such perfect symmetry, has not succeeded in bringing the Italian trade schools to a uniform system. While the other schools — elementary and secondary^have an almost identical programme and character throughout the entire kingdom, the industrial and trade schools have a liberty of action that permits adjustment to surrounding conditions. It is desirable, however, that a law should be passed, which would bring about a closer relation between the schools, make State super- vision more effective and the condition of the teaching personnel more certain, without encroaching upon the liberty of their organization and of their programme. On two occasions, July 12, 1880, and June 27, 1881, the Chamber of Deputies invited the ministry of agriculture, industry, and commerce to present a bill for the regulation of these .schools. Such bills have been presented before the Parliament several times — in 1886, in November, 1889, and in November, 18&3 — ^but the conditions of parliamentary work did not permit their passage. A desire for such a law was recently expressed at the first congress of Italian industrial and commercial schools held at Turin in September, 1898. The schools are of two distinct types, industrial schools and schools of art applied to industry. There are, of course, several grades repre- senting each of these types. At the head of the industrial schools are institutions having the rank of universities. These schools are intended to train the captains of industry, industrial engineers, and superintendents of industrial enterprises. There are in Italy three large schools of this grade, the Italian Eoyal Industrial Museum, at Turin, the Politecnico, at Milan, and the School for Engineers, at Naples. These institutions are of great importance, but do not come within the scope of this inquiry. Next, there are the industrial and trade schools of medium grade intended to train foremen of workshops; and, lastly, the schools of TEADE AND TECHNICAL EDUOATLON — ITALY. 1171 arts and trades (schools of inferior grade) for training workmen. In the former type are found several superior schools of art applied to industry (a higher grade of schools) and the schools of art and design applied to industry, for workmen in artistic industries. There are no complete statistics of these schools. The ministry of agriculture, industry, and commerce, in a recent publication, (") pro- duced statistics relating to schools receiving subsidies from that min- istry, but these figures do not give a complete idea of industrial education in Italy, because there are a number which do not receive any subsidy. According to this publication, there are 68 industrial schools and schools of arts and trades (schools for foremen of workshops and for workmen) subsidized by the ministry, with a total attendance, in 1898-9&, of 16,551 students, of whom 9,069 presented themselves for examination; 6,690 were promoted to higher classes, and 586 were graduated. These schools receive a subsidy of 259,710 lire (f50,124) from the ministry of agriculture, industry, and commerce, 24,556 lire ($4, 739) from the ministry of education, 156,258 lire (|30,158) from the provincial administrations, 251,857 lire (f48,608) from municipalities, 125,180 lire (|24,160) from the chambers of commerce, 5,906 lire ($1,140) from labor organizations, 28,630 lire ($5,526) from savings and other banks, monts-de-piete, etc., and, finally, a yearly income of 106,048 lire (120,467) from legacies and various donations. The total, 958,143 lire ($184,922) is not, however, the entire amount of the budget, because it does not include the tuition fees which several of the schools require, nor Ihe returns from the sale of objects made in the workshops, etc. The superior schools of art applied to industry are 8 in number, with an attendance of 984 students in 1898-99. They receive 72,000 lire ($13,896) from the ministry of agriculture, industry, and com- merce, 15,000 lire ($2,895) from the minister of education, 46,500 lire ($8,975) from the provinces, 49,100 lire ($9,476) from the communes, 11,140 lire ($2,150) from the chambers of commerce, 2,952 lire ($570) from various administrations, and 3,405 lire ($657) from legacies and special funds. The schools of art applied to industrial design number 117, with an attendance of 11,259 pupils in 1898-99. They receive 75,990 lire ($14,666) from the ministry of agriculture, industry, and commerce, 1,520 lire ($293) from the ministry of education, 36,160 lire ($6,979) from the provinces, 111,947 lire ($21,606) from the municipal- ities, 28,010 lire ($5,406) from the chambers of commerce, 12,002 lire ($2,316) from labor organizations, 11,213 lire ($2,164) from sav- ings and other banks, etc., and 29,920 lire ($5,775)- from legacies and special funds. o Annuario per Tanno 1901 delle scuole indugtriali, profesaionali, commerciali, di disegno industriale e d' arte applicata all' industria dipendenti o aussidiate dal Ministero d'Agricoltura, Industi-ia e Commercio. Eome, 1901. 1172 BEPOKT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOK. These schools are of course unevenly distributed in the different sec- tions of Italy. For industrial schools and schools of arts and trades, Piedmont and Lombardy, essentially industrial districts, take the lead with 13 and 10 schools respectively; Campania and Tuscany come next with 10 and 8 schools respectively; then come Venetia with 5 schools, Emilia with 1, Liguria and Sicily with 3 each, Calabria with 2, and lastly, Apulia, Basilicata, and Sardinia with only 1 school each. The superior schools of art applied to industry are situated in Tuscany at Florence, in Lombardy at Milan, in Campania at Naples, in Sicily at Palermo, in Campagna di Roma at Rome, and in Venetia at Venice. As regards schools of art applied to industry and schools of indus- trial design, Lombardy and Venetia are in the lead with 35 and 25 schools respectively, then come Tuscany with 10 schools, Piedmont and Sicily with 9 each, Marches with 8, Emilia with 7, Campania with 5, Abruzzi with 3, Apulia with 2, and Liguria, Campagna di Roma, Basilicata, and Calabria with 1 school each. Umbria and Sar- dinia have no schools of this class. But these figures have only a rel- ative value, because, as stated, there are several important schools, especially schools of applied art, which receive no subsidj"- from this ministry. Thus there are at present in Italy about 200 industrial and industrial- art schools that receive subsidies from the ministry of agriculture, industry, and commerce, and are, therefore, under its authority. It would be well if all the schools of this kind were under the super- vision of this ministry, and it had the right of inspection of those that receive no subsidy. There is, on the other hand, a certain num- ber of schools which, while they have a real industrial character, are under the control of the ministry of public education. Among others may be cited the Politecnico at Milan, which trains industrial engineers; the scuole di applicazione jyer gll ingegneri, which train civil and industrial engineers; the industrial departments annexed to some of the Mituti tecnlci^ which give a medium grade of industrial instruction, and several special schools, such as the Sciiola dl tessitura di Oomo^ a weaving school; the Scuola lndus.triale dl Bnssano, an industrial school; the Scuola dellepletre dufe dl Flrense, a school for carving in hard stone, etc. On the other hand, the ministry of agriculture, indus- try, and commerce has jurisdiction over superior naval instruction at the Regla scuola siq>erlore navale dl Geneva, and the ministry of public education directs the intermediate naval instruction by means of the Istitutinmdlcl, which trains the captains of vessels and marine machin- ists. These schools should logically come under the authority of the ministry of marine. It would seem to be opportune, therefore, that a law should be passed distributing these difierent groups of schools in a more loo-ical manner among these three ministries in such a way that each would TKADB AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION — ITALT. 1173 have charge of that group of schools which it is most capable of direct- ing. It has several times been proposed that all the industrial schools, schools of arts and trades, and of art applied to industry be placed under the ministry of education; but it is to be feared that such a change would not be advantageous to the schools. The ministry of agriculture, industry, and commerce is brought into closer contact with the real needs of the industry and commerce of the nation, and is, therefore, more capable of making the schools practical or of pre- serving their practical character. It is believed that beneficial results would follow a complete revision of the subsidies granted, so that they would better respond, not only to the merit of the schools, but also to the local conditions. {") The sub- sidies could be administered according to the practice which has long been followed in England in the elementary schools — that is, to give subsidies in proportion to the results obtained by the schools as certi- fied by inspectors. However, account must also be taken of local conditions, so as to grant the subsidies where the schools can be of the greatest utility to the local industries, and also where the financial resources of the local administrations are small. The subsidies accorded by these local administrations^ could also be organized in a more reasonable waj', and might perhaps be rendered obligatory under certain conditions. When there is an industrial school the existence of which is a benefit, first to the nation at large,. then more particularly to the inhabitants of the province, and, above all, to the citizens of the commune, the "merchants, manufacturers, and workmen of the locality, it would perhaps be just to make obligatory a subsidy by the State, the provincial administration, the municipalities, the chambers of commerce, and the labor organizations. The ministrj' of agriculture, industry, and commerce exercises com- plete supervision over these schools, but the means at its disposal are insuflicient. It not only inspects the schools, but the programmes and the nomination of teachers are sometimes submitted for its approval. The schools annually send in statistical and economic reports, a general resume of which is published by the ministry. In the exercise of the supervision of the schools of art applied to industry, the ministry is aided by the commissione centrale per Vinseg- namento artistieo applicato alle Industrie^ a central commission cre- ated by the royal decrees of October 23, 1884, and of May 21, 1885. This important commission is charged with the following duties: (1) To exercise a supervision over the industrial art museums, the schools of art applied to industry, the drawing schools for workmen, and all other institutions under the authority of or subsidized by the ministry of agriculture, industry, and commerce, and having for their object « II Ministero di Agricoltura, Industria e Commercio neile sue scuole e nell'economia nazionale, by Primo Levi. Borne, 1898. 1174 EEPOBT OF THE OOMMISSIONEB OF LABOR. the artistic education of the Tvorking classes; (2) to give advice regard- ing propositions for the establishment of new museums or schools ot industrial art or for the extension of existing museums and schools; (3) to examine the programmes of schools in order to insure that they respond to the needs of industrial art instruction in the localities where the schools are situated or are to be created; (4) to give advice regard- ing the selection of teachers; (5) to exercise a supervision over the methods of instruction of the schools of art applied to industry,^ of design, modeling, etc.; (6) to provide for making and distributing among the schools collections of plaster models according to the dif- ferent types of Italian ornamentation, and special collections for the application of ornamentation to all branches of industrial art; (7) to give advice regarding the books and publications which should be dis- tributed among the schools; (8) to decide upon the merits of persons aspiring to obtain the title of teachers for the instruction of art applied to industry. This commission serves a very useful purpose, and it would be well to establish a similar commission for the professional and industrial schools. A part of the members of these commissions might be elected by the schools. The inspection service of these schools is insufficient on account of the lack of an inspecting personnel, there being no special provision for this purpose. The work is intrusted, first of all, to the factory inspectors {ispettori delle Industrie) who hold office by virtue of the royal decree of April 3, 1879, and who must exercise an inspection not only over the professional instruction, but also over the entire national industrial operations. The mining engineers (ingegneri delle miniere), officers who are under the jurisdiction of the ministry of agriculture, industry, and commerce, and exercise a supervision over the mines, are also charged with this duty. Finally, for the schools of industrial art, the members of the commissione centrale per V insegnamento artis- tico industriale, mentioned above, are charg-ed'with the duty of inspec- tion. But all these officers exercise supervision over the schools only as a supplementary duty, and the number is not sufficient for the undertaking, so that there are schools that are not inspected except at long intervals, sometimes not for several j'cars. Aside from these functionaries, the ministry sometimes commissions some person living in the locality of a school to inspect the same; but frequently these inspections do not present a sufficient guaranty of independence or ability on the part of the inspectors. It is evidently desirable to establish a special corps of inspectors for the industrial schools. As has been already observed, the origin of the different schools having been entirely spontaneous and without governmental interven- tion, they present a variety among themselves, which no doubt has its advantages, but it also has its disadvantages. Sometimes in the same or in neighboring localities there are schools of a similar or identical TKADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION HALT. 1175 character, and valuable energy is wasted in useless competition. The ministry of agriculture, industry, and commerce should have the power to bring about the fusion of such schools. These schools should also be systematized in a general way, so that they might better respond to the object of improving the national industry, leaving to each its proper character or its special aims and allowing each to adapt itself to the needs of the locality where it exists. They should not, of course, all be forced into the same mold, nor should a uniform programme be made and rendered obligatory for all; neither should a fixed curriculum of studies be established among schools of different grades. But at the same time a certain coordination might be arrived at by instituting" regular congresses and organizing a correlation among the schools for the exchange of didactic material, information regarding programmes, etc. Such work of coordination might become one of the principal duties of the ministry of agriculture, industry, and commerce. One of the most efficacious means of obtaining coordination among the schools is better regulation of the recruiting of teachers. If all the teachers of industrial schools 'were educated in the same superior school they would, upon leaving the school, be in accord with regard to the method of instruction without prejudice to the variety of char- acter and organization of the schools. An attempt has been made in Italy to obtain this result by instituting in the Italian Royal Industrial Museum at Turin a series of classes having a truly normal character, which lead to the title of teacher of industrial schools and schools of arts and trades, for the teaching of physics and industrial chemistry, mechanical technology, and of ornamental design. Unfortunately, conditions have changed gradually, so that while the Koyal Indus- trial Museum still retains the power of bestowing these titles, in practice they are but little appreciated, and teachers are chosen with- out regard to uniformity of methods and are not always taken from the list of graduates of the Royal Museum. {") Notwithstanding their defects, the industrial, trade, and applied art schools exercise a beneficent influence upon the social life of the nation. Italy is afflicted with a scourge which sadly prevails in the Latin nations and which is almost unknown in America, namely, the intel- lectual proletariat. In Italy, for the last thirty years, there has been an excess of young persons who devoted themselves to study, and especially to classical study, a phenomenon which had its origin partly in the special qualities of the race, and partly in various social circum- stances of the epoch. It follows that there is a superabundance of doctors, professors, lawyers, etc. , who can not find work in the pro- fessions for which they have been educated, and who devote them- selves particularly to seeking public employment. Whenever there «See article on Le Souole industriali in Italia in Rivista Tecnica, January, 1901. 1176 KEPOBT OF THE COMMISSIONEB OF LABOR. are vacancies in the civil service, tliere is a host of competitors, even when the places oflfer the most niggardly salaries. This unfortunate class of proletarians weighs heavily upon the social balance of the nation, because it is a truly unproductive class. If, on the contrary, the industrial and trade schools be developed and raised in the public esteem, they will become useful to the nation, not alone on account of the progress that they will bring about in the industries, and in making more skilled workers and foremen, but also because they may divert from classical studies and toward more useful occupations a classof young people who are crowding the ranks of the intellectual proletariat. INDUSTRIAL SCHOOLS AND SCHOOLS OF ARTS AND TRADES. Putting aside the schools for higher technical instruction, industrial schools and schools of arts and trades will first be considered. In the preceding pages some statistics of these schools have been given, and a distinction has been made between schools for the training of fore- men of workshops and those for workingmen. The schools of the former class are less numerous and it is natural that they should be so. As they must be provided with considerable scientific material — must have workshops and a well-paid teaching force — they can not be very numerous. "If, for example," observes Prof. Tullio Buzzi, the director of the school of weaving and dyeing at Prato, "there were in Italy ten localities where weaving and textile printing had attained a considerable development it would not on that account be necessary to create a special industrial school in each localit3\ It would be sufficient to have one or two schools to furnish the necessary personnel to the factories of all the ten localities." These schools, as will be better seen in the reports which appear in the following pages of each of the most important schools, generally have for their object instruction in a single industrj^ or in a small num- ber of related industries. This specialization is ^ery useful and should be made even closer. The instruction is, in general, almost exclusively technical, and little room is left for branches of general education, because pupils are usually not admitted unless they have followed courses of general education in the secondary schools, or until they have passed an examination in such studies. These schools, as well as those for workingmen, generally have workshops for practical instruction. These workshops are sometimes exclusively devoted to the instruction of the pupils, where they pre- pare the appai'atus, models, and didactic material for their own schools — objects, in short, which are destined for the school and not for the public. Other schools have workshops where the pupils exe- cute work to order, or which is intended for public sale, so that the TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION — ITAL"i;. 1177 school possesses an industrial establishment from which it receives some revenue. This revenue is not generally of great financial importance to the school. Sometimes it is partly drawn by the teach- ers as a supplement to their salaries. The selling prices of the prod- ucts of these workshops are necessarily below the current market prices, as they are made by pupils who are still, one may say, in the period of apprenticeship, and the labor cost can not be fully consid- ered in the cost of production. However, as the traffic in such prod- ucts is not of any great importance, it does not constitute a dangerous competition with private establishments and does not excite the enmity that prison labor does everywhere. Some of the schools have no work- shops of their own and send their pupils, under special arrangements, to private workshops; others make special contracts with private manufacturei's, who, in a way, conduct their enterprises in the school building and employ the pupils as workingmen. Each of these dif- ferent types of workshops presents advantages and disadvantages, varying according to the character of the schools. It can not be said that any one is preferable in all respects to the others. Notwithstanding the special technical character of these schools for foremen, and in spite of the development of the workshops annexed to the schools, the complaint is generally made that the schools do not teach the true practice of the industry. This is perhaps a general defect of all such schools and is not confined to Italian industrial schools. A remedy for this defect may be found in the creation of scholarships for practical industrial education which the ministry of agriculture, industry, and commerce is about to establish. These scholarships are intended for the best pupils of industrial schools and will permit them to acquire practical knowledge in manufacturing establishments in Italy or abroad. THE INDtrSTBIAL SCHOOIi "ALESSAWDRO EOSSI," VICENZA. This school was founded in 1878 by Senator Alessandro Kossi, who made a donation of 350,000 lii-e (|67,550) for the expenses of estab- lishment and for one-half the running expenses for the first six years. Senator Eossi desired to found a large school for mechanical indus- tries, following the example of the four large French national schools at Chalons-sur-Marne, Aix, Angers, and Lisle, and he actually suc- ceeded in having erected a school of considerable importance for , the mechanical industries. The school is located in a city of about 35,000 inhabitants which is not a great industrial or commercial city, but which is surrounded by smaller districts containing important industrial establishments. It is not merely a local school, but rather a national institution, being attended by pupils from all the provinces of Italy. The purpose of the school is to prepare intelligen t and skillful foremen for the mechanical industries, and to qualify for advanced 1178 EEPOKT OP THE COMMISSIONEK OF LABOK. technical pursuits such of ite pupils as are specially qualified for the study of higher mechanical technology. It is therefore divided into two sections, a section for mechanical construction work, electro- technics, and the textile industries, the object of which is to train fore- men for the electrical, mechanical, weaving, and spinning industries, and a section for higher studies, which prepares the best students for the superior schools for engineers. The course comprises two preparatory and three normal years. During the first four j^ears are taught subjects of general education and technical branches common to the two sections. The real division takes place in the last year, when those in the first section are taught the resistance of materials, mechanical technology, power machines, electro-technics and textile technology, and in the second section stu- dent's receive instruction in complementary mathematics, historj-, geography, and the Italian language. All pupils serve an apprenticeship in the six workshops attached to the school, and remain longest in those where they show the greatest aptitude. These workshops are for patternmakers and carpenters, molders, blacksmiths, machinists {congegnatori), turners and machine tenders, and electricians. The shops are very well provided with materials, models, tools, and machinery. A part of the material is manufactured in the workshops by the pupils. Orders are also taken from private establishments, and a considerable business is done by furnishing castings and other products made by machines or with tools, from which source the school receives considerable revenue. The expense of maintaining these workshops is about 12,000 lire ($2,316) per 3'ear, but the revenue derived from the sale of products reduces the net expense to about 3,000 lire ($579). The institution is a board- ing school, no day pupils being admitted. The regular tuition is 700 lire ($135) per year, but for the pupils from the province of Vicenza it is only 600 lire ($116) per j^ear. There are, however, several scholarships and partial scholarships. The discipline during meal hours, recreation, promenades, etc., is intrusted to the teachers of the school and not to special ofiicers. By this arrangement there is a complete personal contact between the teachers and the pupils. The income of the school is quite large. It receives 35,000 lire ($6,755) from the Government, 29,000 lire (|5,597) from the provin- , cial administration of Vicenza, and 3,000 lire ($579) from the com- mune of Vicenza. It also obtains a considerable revenue from the tuition fees. The commune of Vicenza also grants the free use of the building in which the school is located. There is an average attend- ance of 150 pupils per year, and the graduates are employed in all the Italian industries. The school is in constant receipt of requests from industrial establishments, so that there is no difficulty in finding posi- tions for the pupils who are graduated each year. The period of TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION IT ALT. 1179 apprenticeship is generally two j^ears at the most, and there are those who, from five to eight years afterwards, receive annual salaries as high as 6,000 lire ($1,158). Some of them have positions abroad and have salaries of 12,000 lire ($2,316) per year. The school thus shows good results, but in view of the great development of local industries it would perhaps be desirable to give greater attention to instruction in spinning, weaving, 'and electro-technics. INSTITTTTE OF ARTS AND TRADES OP MARCHES, EERMO. This institute was founded at Femio, in central Italy, in 1861, with the revenue derived from theMontani charitable fund, under the name of Istituto cParti e mestieri per le Marche. It was quite recently trans- formed, as a result of an extraordinary inspection, by a royal decree of May 16, 1901. This institution is supported by the revenue from the Montani and Perpenti funds, and receives in addition an annual contribution of 16,000 lire ($3,088) from the ministry of agriculture, industry, and commerce, 10,000 lire ($1,930) from the administration of the '"''fondo per il culto^\ 17,600 lire ($3,378) from the provincial administration of Ascoli Piceno, and 7,000 lire ($1,361) from the com- mune of Fermo. The object of the institute is to give theoretical and practical instruc- tion in mechanics and electro- technics, for the purpose of ti'aining pupils for machinists and foremen of workshops in mechanical and in- dustrial establishments. The instruction is divided into two courses — the preparatory course of two years and the normal course of three years. The institute is a boarding school like the school at Vicenza, but day pupils are also received. The branches of study are Italian, German, French, history, geog- raphy, arithmetic, algebra, drawing, physics, chemistry, technology, geometry, mechanics and its applications to industry, and electro- technics. Attached to the institute are shops for ironwork, woodwork, machine construction, modeling, wood carving, etc., where work is done on private orders, which yields a considerable revenue. There is an average attendance of 70 pupils. TRADE SCHOOL, BIELLA. This school {Scuola jyrofessionale di Biella) is the first established in Italy, having been founded in 1869 by Quintino Sella, the celebrated minister and savant, in a district rich in industrial establishments and in a city spoken of as the Manchester of Italy. Its object is to train technical overseers and foremen for the mechanical arts, chemistry, textiles, dyeing, construction work, and wood carving. The school has several courses, namely, one normal day course of three years, several evening courses, and theoretical and practical courses in steam-boiler tending and in electricity. 1180 KEPOET OF THE COMMTSSIONEB OF LABOS. The subjects taught are Italian, arithmetic, algebra, geometry, _ trigonometry, bookkeeping, calligraphj^, ornamental and geometrical drawiog, architectural design, topography, machine technology, plastic art, wood carving, physics, statics, practical and descriptive geometry, construction work, kinematics, mechanics, physical, mechanical and textile technology, weaving, general and applied chemistry, and dye- ing. In the two theoretical and practical courses special instruction is given for enginemen and electricians. During the year 1898-99, there were 138 pupils taking the day courses. 111 the evening courses, and 8 the theoretical and practical courses; during the year 1899-1900 the pupils for day courses were 142 and for evening courses 145. The school has considerable resources, receiving annual contribu- tions of 12,000 lire ($2,316) from the ministry of agriculture, industry, and commerce; 5,650 lire ($1,090) from the provincial administration of Novara; 5,000 lire ($965) from the commune of Biella, in addition to the use of the building, the annual rental value of which is 5,000 lire ($965); 6,000 lire ($965) from the chamber of commerce of Turin, aud 4,320 lire ($834) from several other sources. The school possesses laboratories of chemistry, weaving, and tech- nology, in the first of which analyses are sometimes made for private parties. To the school is annexed the municipal public library. From the foundation up to the year 1899-1900 the number of grad- uates from day courses was 293, and of these 138 (47 per cent) were graduates in construction work, 75 (26 per cent) in mechanics, and 80 (27 per cent) in weaving and dyeing. Many of these graduates are employed in mechanical workshops, wool and cotton factories, etc., in Italy and in foreign countries. IlTDtrSTBIAL SCHOOL OF ALESSANDRO VOLTA, NAPLES. This school {Scuola industriale Alessandro Volta) was founded by a royal decree of January 28, 1886. According to article 2 of this decree, its object is to train skilled workmen and foremen for mechanical, chemical, and textile industries by means of theoretical and practical instruction in physics, chemistry, and mechanics, and to advance the development of production in the city of Naples, either by perfecting the methods of existing industries or by stimulating new lines of industrial work. In 1890 instruction in the applications of electricity was substituted for that in textiles. The school is divided into four sections, as follows : For machinists, molders, chemists, and electricians. The normal course covers three years, but there is also a preparatoiy course of one year for such as do not have a sufficient general education. The studies are Italian, French, history, geography, calligraphy, arithmetic, algebra, book- keeping, plane and solid geometry, trigonometry, general and applied physics, general, analytical, and applied chemistry, kinematics, TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION — ITALY. 1181 mechanical technology, ornamental, geometrical, and mechanical drawing, plastic art, and laboratory and shop work. There are attached to the school an electrical workshop and a machine shop with a foundry. In 1898-99 the number of pupils was 338, but only 240 appeared for examination, and of these 138 were promoted and 14 received their graduating diplomas. For pupils who aspire to become foremen of workshops, a supple- mentary course of one year has been established for practical appren- ticeship. The laboratories and workshops give excellent results. A consider- able part of the scientific material is prepared by the pupils themselves. The machine shop and foundry were established in 1897, and the pupils have made the operating machinery and the necessary appli- ances, including the motor for working the ventilator of the furnace and the transmitters requisite for its operation. The section of chem- istry, b}^ default of means, has not given as good results as the other sections. The school receives an annual contribution of 21,000 lire ($4,053) from the ministry of agriculture, industry, and commerce, 6,000 lire (11,168) from the province of Naples, and 27,000 lire ($5,211) from the commune of Naples. ROYAL TBADE SCHOOL OF WEAVING AND DYEING, PKATO. This school of weaving and dyeing (Regia scuola professionale dA tessitura e tlntoria) at Prato, in Tuscany, was founded in 1886. Its object is to train technical overseers and workers in the weaving and dyeing industries. At first a preparatory course in arithmetic, geom- etry, bookkeeping, and Italian was taught, but as this caused a useless expense it was abolished in order that all efforts might be concen- trated upon the technical course, a decision which perhaps merits imitation by the other Italian industrial schools. The existing courses of the school are as follows: Two ordinary day courses, one for instruction in chemistry and dyeing and the other for weaving and spinning; one evening course in drawing; a Sunday course, divided into two sections, one for dyeing and the other for spinning and weaving. The evening course had, in 1898-99, 42 pupils and the Sunday course 32. These are the courses intended for workers, and the pupils are recruited from among the employees of industrial establishments of the vicinity. These employees ordinarily attend the school several successive years. They find a better reception in the local establish- ments, are better paid, and "it may be said," writes Prof. Tullio Buzzi, director of the school, " that the overseers of the self-acting spinning machines and the overseers in dyeing establishments of the vicinity are workmen who have attended the school." The course in 1182 EEPOKT OF THE COMMISSIOJiTEB OF LABOB. spinning has enabled manufacturers of Prato who have introduced the self-acting machines to instruct their force in this work without resorting to foreign labor. The course in drawing has placed the weavers in a position better to adapt their designs to the technical exigencies in the manufacture of woven goods. It is in contemplation to add to the foregoing evening courses other courses in mechanics, mechanical drawing, plastic art, etc., so as to establish a veritable school of arts and trades for perfecting work- ingmen employed as machinists, masons, cabinetmakers, wood-carvers, etc. Special courses in electro-technics and in steam-boiler tend- ing will also be added during the years when there is a sufficient attendance. The day course is of great importance. A division into two sec- tions, made in 1896-97, brought about a specialization which was of advantage to the pupils of both sections. The section of chemistry and dyeing comprises a course in general inorganic chemistry; a course in general organic chemistry sufficiently extended to cover the study of coloring materials; a course in textile fibers (bleaching, dyeing, and finishing); a course in analytical chemistry for analyses relating to products employed in dyeing, printing, and finishing textile fibers, woven goods, etc. ; a course in chemistry applied to the printing of textile fibers, and practical work in the use of printing machines; a course in drawing which serves as a complement to the course in dye- ing and printing, and a course in physics and mechanics. The section of spinning and weaving comprises a course in textile fibers, wool spinning, and the formation of tissues; a course in cotton, linen, hemp, jute, and silk spinning and weaving machinery; a course in orna- mental and mechanical drawing and designing applied to the weaving industry, and a course in physics and mechanics. In 1901-02 it is intended to add a course in analytical chemistry, with a special labo- ratory for the analyses of all products relating to the textile fiber industry, for training specialists, a course in kinematics, and a course in weaving design for the training of technical designers for the weav- ing and cloth-printing industries. All these courses, aside from the theoretical instruction, thoroughly develop the practical side' by means of the well-equipped laboratories and workshops which the school possesses. The pupils can there manufacture tissues of various kinds and can make collections of samples, which on completion of their studies can be used to demonstrate the skill that they have acquired. Analyses are also made for the commune of Prato and for private parties. The number of pupils in the day courses is steadily increasing. In 1898-99 it was 38 and in 1899-1900 it was 50, of which 41 were in, the section of chemistry and dyeing and 9 in the section of weaving. In 1900-01 there were 52 pupils, of whom 40 were in the section of TKADE AND TECHKICAL EDUCATION — ITALY. 1183 chemistry and 12 in that of weaving. The graduates of these two sections are very much sought after by manufacturers, by whom they are given positions without serving an apprenticeship. The director of the school writes that after a practical experience of one or two years the graduates of the section of chemistry and dyeing are pro- moted to positions as ove"i?seers or superintendents of dyeing establish- ments, in which they receive good salaries. After four or five years they each receive, on an average, 300 to 400 lire (157.90 to 177.20) and sometimes as high as 600 lire (1116) per month. They are employed in the manufacture of woolen cloth, cotton goods, hats, coloring matter, and in establishments for dyeing, printing, weaving, etc. As the school is situated in a region where the straw-plaiting industry is strongly developed, the ministry of agriculture, industry, and com- merce, in 1897, sent Prof. Tullio Buzzi to France, England, German v, and Switzerland to make an inquiry into this industry. The school then carefully studied the industry and sent the report and samples of work to the chamber of commerce at Florence. In consequence, manufac- turers often apply to the school for information and advice regarding the bleaching and dyeing of straw. This school is, without doubt, one of the best in Italy, and can well compete with those in foreign countries. It enjoys such a good repu- tation that pupils go there from all parts of Italy. The results would perhaps be still better if the resources were greater. The annual contributions are only 25,600 lire (|4,911), and it should be mentioned that of this sum 1,000 lire ($193) are annually contributed by Mr. Eugenio Bona, proprietor of a large cloth manufacturing establishment at Carignano, in Piedmont, who, in addition to this contribution to the school at Prato, also gives 3,000 lire ($579) per year k> the industrial school at Biella. INDUSTRIAL SCHOOL ANNEXED TO THE KOYAL TECHNICAL INSTITTJTB OF VICTOR EMANtTEL II, BERGAMO. The technical institutes are advanced schools of a secondary grade which give a general, not classical, education to young persons from 11 to 18 years of age and a specialized scientific education preparatory to scientific university studies, and also train persons as land surveyors and accountants. These institutes, which number about 70, are under the jurisdiction of the ministry of public education. Several of them, those of Bergamo, Como, Livorno, Naples, Eome, Terni, Turin, and Venice, have established an industrial section for the training of fore- men of workshops. The one attached to the technical institute of Bergamo {Scuola -industriale annessa al regio istituto tecnico Yittorio Emanuele II) is perhaps the most important. This section was founded in 1885. It receives an annual contribution of 15,000 lire ($2,895) from the ministry of public education, 800 lire ($154) from the ministry of agriculture, 5,200 lire ($1,004) from the province of Bergamo, 7,000 M 1184 BEPOKT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOB. lire ($1,361) from the commune, 8,000 lire ($1,641) from the chamber of commerce, 2,600 lire (|483) from the industrial society of Bergamo, and a subsidy of about 5,600 lire (11,062) annually from commercial and manufacturing establishments. This section is divided into three subsections of three years each, devoted respectively to mechanics, weaving, and chemistry. Steps are being taken to add also subsections for spinning and electro-tech- nics, in order to provide fully for the needs of the numerous indus- tries of the locality. The instruction comprises, in addition ^o mat- ters of general education, mechanical drawing, mechanics, descriptive geometry, general and technological chemistry, general and applied physics, weaving, textile drawing, industrial accounting, and mechan- ical technology. There are attached to the school mechanical and weaving shops and a chemical laboratory to which is annexed the municipal chemical laboratory. The number of pupils of this section has continually increased. In 1886-86 it was only 5, the next year 25, and in 1898-99 it was 43. The graduates easily find good positions. To the industrial section have been added other schools which are of an inferior rank, but of considerable importance, so that the tech- nical institute at Bergamo has become a center of elementary and intermediate industrial education. It has, first of all, the school for foremen in textile and mechanical industries {Scttola -per allievi capi operaiper le Industrie tessili e meccaniche), a school intended for 3^oung men who aspire to become foremen and overseers in these industries. The day course is divided into two sections (textile and mechanical industries) and trains persons for intermediate positions between those of workmen and of technical directors. In 1898-99 there were 37 pupils, of whom 18 took the mechanical and 19 the textile course. There are also Sunday schools (scuole domenicaJi) for workingmen, which in 1898-99 had an attendance of 242 pupils. They comprise a course in weaving (81 pupils), a course in electro-technics (66 pupils), a course for boiler tenders (38 pupils), a course in machine drawing (37 pupils), and a course in mechanics (20 pupils). These courses cover a period of two or three years, and are patronized by empfoyees of industrial establishments. There are also the evening schools for workers and artisans {scuole seraJl per oj>eral ed artieri), which in 1898-99 had an attendance of 271 pupils. They comprise a prepara- tory course of two years, followed by special courses in drawing applied to the arts, decorative painting and plastic art, and in draw- ing for the machinists', blacksmiths', masons', and carpenters' trades. The technical institute of Bergamo has succeeded in solving the prob- lem of uniting in a single organization intermediate industrial instruc- tion with elementary and popular courses, accomplishing much better results and with a smaller economic effort than is accomplished when these institutions are separate. TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION ITALY. IISS- ROYAIi TRADE SCHOOL "liORENZO COBIANCHI," INTRA. To the schools for the training of technical chiefs may be added that founded in 1886 b}-- the donation of Lorenzo Cobianchi {Eegia scuola professionale ^'"Lorenzo ColiancTiV), in the small industrial town of Intra. This school has an annual expense fund of about 20,000 lire ($3,860), and comprises a day and a night course. The day course covers three preparatory years and three years for normal ti-ade work. The normal course is divided into the three sections of mechanics, chemistry, and electro-technics. The evening course formerly comprised a course in drawing, one for boiler tenders, and one in weaving, but the course in weaving was discontinued in 1900, it being the intention to establish a well-developed daj^ course in that industrJ^ The number of pupils in 1899-1900 was 83 in the pre- paratory course, 4 in the course in mechanics, 12 in chemistry, 6 in electro-technics, 136 in the course in drawing, and 3i in that in boiler tending. The school has laboratories of industrial chemistry, dyeing, and electro-technics. The section for electro-technics, established in 1899, responds to a great need, because this region is rich in water power, and several enterprises have been founded for the transmission of electricity. The first course of this section is common with that of mechanics. In the second are taught electrology and the drawing of electrical machines and appliances; in the third, electro-technics, practice in electric measurements, design and construction of electrical machinery and installation of industrial electrical apparatus. This section will probably give good results in the future. The pupils of the school at Intra easily find positions as technical chiefs, even in foreign countries. SCHOOLS OF miliriNG. To the schools treated in this chapter may also be added the mining schools intended for the education of a technical personnel skilled in the exploitation of mines. In Italy there are no superior schools of mines, such as are to be found in other countries for the education of mining engineers. There are, hov/ever, schools of an intermediate degree intended for the education of persons for secondary positions in the mining industries, and this object has been attained. An official publication (") says in regard to these schools: "At present many of the graduates, who are mine bosses in the large mines or superintendents in the smaller ones or assistants in the royal corps of mines, are rendering valuable services to the mining industry by aNotizie e documenti sulle scuole minerarie del Regno. Annali di Agricoltura. Eome, 1885, p. viii. See also the Annali di Agricoltura for 1887 and for 1896. 9267—02 75 1186 EEPOBT OF THE OOMMISSIOIfEE OF LABOR. substituting in the place of the empirical methods of exploitation the methods suggested by science and conforming to modern mining rules." Until the year 1885 the graduates of these schools received the title of mine bosses {cajn mmatori), but as the graduates of these schools, especially in Sicily, are placed in higher positions, such a^ actual directors of mining exploitations, and as these graduates are frequently called as experts by the judicial authorities in questions relating to mines and mining operations, a royal decree of December, 1885, accords the graduates of these schools the title of mine bosses and mining experts {capi minatori e j^eriti minerari). The teaching per- sonnel of these schools consists partly of the engineers of the Eoyal Corps of Mines. In this way teachers are secured at small expense; and being also charged with the supervision of mining operations, they are in a position to give practical instruction in conformity with the progress of the mining industry. There have been four mining schools founded in Italy: (1) The school of Carrara, in Tuscany, near the celebrated marble quarries, founded in 1872 for the purpose of instructing pupils in quarrying and in cutting and finishing marble, in order to train technical chiefs for the marble industry; (2) the school of Agordo, established in 1867, upon the initiative of Mr. Quintino Sella, the celebrated minister and savant, in northern Venetia, a region rich in mineral deposits; (3) the school of Caltanisetta, established in 1863, in Sicily, in the center of the sulphur mining operations, which is the most important mineral industry in Italy (this school was the first which was founded in Italy); (4) the school for mine bosses at Iglesias, in Sardinia, situated in an important mining center. ' Only the last two exist to-day, and they have a real importance in the training of the secondary rank of employees in mining operations. Before the establishment of the school of Iglesias, the mining compa- nies of Sardinia had to have recourse to foreign schools to obtain a good working force. There was a large number of "captains" who came from English schools and from the French school at Alais, whereas the body of laborers was entirely Italian. In 1869 a commission of inquiry proposed the establishment of the school of Iglesias with a docimastic laboratory intended especially for assaying galena for lead and silver, and also for assaying zinc ore. It is supported by contri- butions from the State, the province, the chamber of commerce of Cagliari, and the municipality of Iglesias. It is in the midst of the important metalliferous region of Sardinia, at a short distance from one of the most important mines in Italy. It has succeeded in fur- nishing a personnel to the mines which is a good substitute for the former foreigners, at a technical and economic advantage to the indus- try. The school does not admit pupils unless they have received a TEADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION — ITALY. 1187 secondary education of the first degree. The course of study covers three years, and comprises, besides several branches of general educa- tion, physics, mineralogy, geology, elementary and applied mechanics, analytical and docimastic chemistry, topography, the science of con- struction, the exploitation of mines, the mechanical preparation of minerals, metallurgy, etc. The school contains chemical, physical, and mineralogical laboratories. The chemical laboratory is also used for making analyses of minerals for private parties. The pupils work a certain number of days each year in the mines, so that when gradu- ated they have not only a theoretical training, but they have a practi- cal knowledge of the exploitation of a mine and can be emplo3red as mine bosses under the direction of a mining engineer. The school had about 20 pupils. In 1897-98 there were 22, in 1898-99, 21, and in 1899-1900, 23. The graduates, the director states, are almost all well placed in the mines of the island, the others being employed abroad or in the vojal corps of mines. The school at Caltanisetta is organized almost on the same princi- ples as the preceding, with special reference to the operation of sul- phur mines. In this school the course of instruction, aside from the branches of general education, is as follows: Drawing applied to machinery and mine-construction work; general, analytical, and applied chemistry; mineralogy; geology; mechanics; metallurgy; topography, and min- ing operations. In 1898-99 a course on the hj'giene of mine workers, with instruction regarding first help to the injured in accidents during mine labor, was added, with good results. During the year 1900-01 the school had 27 pupils. Since its establishment there have been 198 graduates, and of these about 80 are employed as directors or assistant directors of mines, 1-1 are employed in the royal corps of mines, 8 ai'e technical overseers in the sulphur mines, 5 are managers of mines, 8 are mine owners, etc. The workingmen's schools are naturally much more numerous than those for the education of foremen and overseers. They are known by the name of schools of arts and trades {scuole d\irti e mestieri), but they may be subdivided into schools intended for training persons for a trade, offering a substitute for the long and tedious apprentice- ship in industrial establishments, and schools for improving workmen already engaged in industries. The schools of the former class gen- erally have day courses, while those of the second must naturally be limited to evening and Sunday courses. The former gradually approach the schools for foremen and overseers previously described. The classification is not a clear one and, as in the case of classifica- tions generally, has no absolute value. As regards the schools for the improvement of employees at work, they may approach the many evening and Sunday schools whose purpase it is to give elementary 1188 KEPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. instruction of a general character. These schools are very numerous, and some of them also give instruction of a trade character, but they are not iudusti-ial schools proper, and do not come within the scope of this inquiry. The schools of arts and trades are numerous, both in the cities and in the small towns. Surprising results are accomplished in certain small country ^'illages by these schools and the schools of arts applied to industries, which are entirely without means and scientific and didactic materials, the results being due to the early efforts of obscure and forgotten founders and the faithfulness of poorly paid teachers. These schools receive little or no subsidy from the State, and yet with a meager budget of a few hundred lire they sometimes succeed in exei'cising a remarkably beneficial influence. This vitality of cer- tain rural industrial schools indicates that with better assistance they could probably attain a result of the highest social importance, such as has been reached in Scandinavia by the small schools of a similar character, that is, the revival of domestic industrj'. In certain sec- tions of Italy, where for many reasons modern industry has not yet penetrated, the schools of arts and trades might become the center of flourishing domestic industries which would add considerably to the family incomes of the agricultural population and tend to diminish the temporary and permanent emigration. In the pages following is given certain information regarding a number of art and trade schools of the two categories which come within the scope of this report. ALDINI-VALERIANI INSTITUTE OP ARTS ANB TRADES, BOLGGBTA. This institute {IsUtuto Aldlni- Yale rlani per le arti ed I mestieri) was established by means of a legacy by Professor Aldini, an eminent savant who, with a clear foresight into the needs of the future, had, since the year 1834, been wishing to found an institution for the dif- fusion of knowledge in mechanics, chemistry, and physics applied to the artf:!. The institution Avas definitely organized in 1876 and has for its object "the development of technical education and the training of the hand and eye of the young apprentice who wishes to become a skilled worker in the mechanical and physico-chemical arts, and to give popular courses in scientific, technical", and graphic instruction to the workers." The institute thus belongs to both of the foregoing classes of schools. It is divided into three sections: (1) A section for pupil apprentices of the mechanical arts, with day courses; (2) a sec- tion for pupil apprentices of physico-chemical arts, with day courses; (3) a section for adult workers, with evening courses. The day courses cover three years and comprise instruction in Ital- ian, physics, chemistry, mathematics, mechanical technology, geomet- rical, ornamental, and mechanical drawing, and political economy. The evening courses are as follows: One-year courses in geometrical TEADE AST) TEOHKICAL EDUCATION — ITALY. 1189 and ornamental drawing; three-year course in mechanical drawing; three-year course in masonry; one-year course for electrical worlcers; one-year course in steam-boiler tending. The pupils of the day sec- tions, in 1898-99, numbered 146, and those of the night courses, 335. During the year mentioned the institute received a revenue of 48,941 lire ($9,446) from the Aldini-Valeriani fund, a contribution of 3,000 lire ($579) from the ministry of agriculture, industry, and commerce, and one of 9,940 lire ($1,918) from the municipality of Bologna. ■Persons desiring admission to the school must show that they possess an elementary education. The pupils belong in general to the working class or to that of the small merchants. The graduates easily find positions as machinists, many being employed by the railroad companies. The institute possesses a workshop well equipped for wood and metal work, in which the pupils learn carpentry, forging, turning, etc. Each pupil works on an average, according to his trade, 2,634 hours in the shops during the three-year course. In the workshop the pupils are trained, first of all, in the use of hand tools and in lathe work, and later on they take up machinery. The training is gradual for each trade, so that not until the middle of the second year of the course are the apprentices sufiiciently instructed to be able to under- take real industrial work. The work sometimes consists of making- tools or other objects needed in the laboratory or school, and sometimes they are made to order or for sale. The school does not take orders for objects unless their manufacture is of didactic utility to the pupils. In the execution of the work a degree of care and perfection is gener- ally attained which makes it superior to ordinary work, because the purpose in view is the instruction of the pupils. A pamphlet pub- lished by the school in 1898 states that the prices of the objects made are usually the commercial prices, because it is not desired that the school should compete with private industrial establishments, and the latter therefore do not object to the workshop of the institute, and even send their patrons there for certain special work. The pupils are required to do all the manual work of the shop, such as repairing and cleaning the machinery, transporting the raw material and fuel, etc. The evening courses most patronized are those in drawing. As is generally the case in all the evening schools, the number of pupils gradually diminishes during the school year. In the evening popular lecture courses on agricultural economy are given at the institute. The chemical laboratory attached to the institute has made important studies regarding the cultivation of sugar beets in the vicinity of the city of Bologna. According to the provisions of the will of Professor Aldini, the institute conducts each year, among workers in the mechanical trades and the physico-chemical arts, a competition for a prize of 1,000 lire ($193) for industrial inventions and improvements. This institute is Drobablv the best of its kind in Italy. 1190 EEPOBT Of THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOB. TRADE SCHOOI- FOS WOHKKIEN, FABBaiANO. This school {Scuola ;professionale per gli operai) was founded in 1880 at Fabbriano, a small industrial town of central Italy. Its object is to give instruction of a general nature and in technology in relation to the local industries, paper making, carpentry, cabinet making, engrav- ing stamps for filigree paper, metal casting, and mechanics. It has two sections, a day course and a night course, each covering four years. It has, in addition, a two-year course in elementary electro-technics, and every second year it has a special course for boiler firemen. It has workshops for practical instruction in wood and metal work. In the day courses instruction is given in kinematics, machine drawing, and plastic art. In the evening courses instruction is given in geometrical, ornamental, and industrial drawing, physics, technology, and mechanics. Instruction is also given in general educa- tional branches. In 1898-99 there were 72 pupils. Graduates easily find positions. The school gives good results, especially for those who do mechanical or wood work. Quite recently it has devoted itself to an industry which has long existed in Fabbriano — the manufacture of paper. It has a budget of about li,000 lire ($2,702). CASA2T0VA INSTITUTE OF AETS AND TRADES, NAPiiES. This institution {Istituto cfarti e mestieri Casanova) was founded by Alfonso Casanova in 1869 and has given excellent results. The school has a budget of about 67,000 lire (112,931), partly revenue from charitable funds and partly contributions from the ministries of agri- culture, industry, and commerce and of public instruction, and from the province, commune, and chamber of commerce. The municipality provides the teachers for the general branches. The school has a large number of pupils. In 1900-01 there were 692, of whom 622 were present at the examinations; 563 were promoted to higher classes and 20 were graduated. The course covers eight j'ears, and the pupils, by means of a series of workshops for carpenters, cabinetmakers, wood carvers, founders, silversmiths, brcJnze workers, goldsmiths, printers, watchmakers, tinsmiths, machinists, blacksmiths, and electricians, become skillful workers. The school is open all the year for twelve hours a day. The pupils enter the school at about 8 years of age. During the first years they receive only general and elementary edu- cation, and then at about 11 years of age thejr enter the workshops. These are under contract to private manufacturers. The school pro- vides the premises and the manufacturers can not employ other apprentices than the pupils. By this means the pupils receive a very practical training in the various trades enumerated. The director of the school has the right to exclude those workmen emploj^ed bj^ the manufacturers who, on account of their loose habits, are not suited TKADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION — ITALY. 1191 to the educative character of the school. Wheu the work done by the pupils begins to have a value they receive wages. This school is probably the best industi'ial school of southern Italy and has given to Naples many hiindreds of well -trained workmen. It has been much praised by a high official of Krishnuggur in a report, bearing date of March 5, 1901, to the government of India, and that government has decided that the organization of the school shall serve as a model for the Indian industrial schools. TBADE SCHOOL " SAVERIO ALTAMXJRA," FOR THE MECHANICAL AND MANITAL ARTS, EOGGIA. This school {Scuola professionale per le arti meccaniche e fahhrili " Scmeno Altamura'''') was established in Foggia, southern Italy, in 1872, through the efforts of the local chamber of commerce, which contributes 38,000 lire (^7,334) annually toward its support, while the State gives 7,500 lire ($1,448), and the province and municipality of Foggia each give 2,000 lire ($386). The purpose of the school is to give theoretical and practical instruc- tion in mechanics and electro-technics. The course covers four years, during which instruction is given in general educational branches, industrial, geometrical, and mechanical drawing, physics, chemistry, mechanics and electro-technics, and mechanical technology. There are, in connection with the school, workshops for machinists, molders, carpenters, wood carvers, and electricians. The number of pupils in 1898-99 was 142. The instruction lasts nine hours each day. The theoretical instruction alternates with manual work in the shop. TYPOGRAPHICAL SCHOOL, MILAN. This school {Scuola professionale tipografica) is well organized and enjoys a good reputation. It was established in 1884 by the labor organizations, and recognized by the ministry of agriculture, industry, and commerce in a decree of June 14, 1888. It has only a modest income, so that the course can not have such development as, for example, 'the ^^cole Estienne, of Paris, but it doubtless exerts a good influence upon the local printing trade. In 1899-1900 the school had a revenue of 5,717 lire ($1,103), consisting of contributions from the State, the municipality, the chamber of commerce, the savings bank, the province, some gifts, and small tuition fees from the pupils of cer- tain coursea. This is not sufficient to permit the school to keep abreast with the rapid progress of the typographical industry. The school is intended to give a literary and technical education to printers' apprentices. The lessons are given in the evening and on holiday mornings. From the month of November to the month of April the literary courses are given, consisting of elementary instruc- tion in Italian, French, German, and drawing applied to art. The 1192 BEPOET OF THE OOMMISSIONEK OF LABOE. technical courses are given from May to October. They comprise a course for compositors, in which are taught the distribution of type, the setting up of manuscript and printed matter of various kinds (prose, poetry, numerals, etc.), the correction of proof, making up, etc.; a course for press feeders {impressori), helpers, and pressmen, in which is taught a knowledge of the different kinds of machines, paper, ink, and the operations of feeding and taking off; a course for proof readers, in which is taught the signs used in correcting proof, abbre- viations, formulas, punctuation, and a multitude of facts relating to the orthography of the Italian and other languages; a course for book- binders, and a course in photomechanical processes, in which instruc- tion is given in photography, photozincography, photolithography, phototypy, and photochromy. The last course was established in 1900 with satisfactory results. In order to be admitted to the school the applicant must have an elementary education, have passed the age of 14 years, and have served an apprenticeship of at least 1 year. The school possesses the typographical materials which serve for practical instruction. To the courses above described must be added the conferences and lectures held from time to time by artists and artisans on special subjects relating to the book industry. The num- ber of pupils matriculated for the year 1899-1.900 was 355, but only 180 attended the courses; and 90 appeared at the examinations. This gradual diminution of the number of puDils is a difficulty met with in all evening and Sunday schools. The Societa TJmanitaria, a charitable institution of Milan, is arrang- ing with the authorities of the Tj^pographical School to extend its work; that is, to transform it into a Scuola del Libro, a complete school for printing and the allied trades. A subsidy of 45,000 lire ($8,685) will be given by the society. EXPERIMENT STATIOn FOB THE LEATHEB, INDUSTaT, NAPLES. This "station" {Stasioiie werinienttde jxn'T l7id\u'strla dclle jJt-U!) fur- nishes theoretical and practical instruction relating to the manufacture of gloves, and conducts experiments and researches regarding the tanning and coloring of hidtes. The lessons are given every Sunday, and in the summer on Thoirsdaj^s also. The course covers 3 years, but many of the workmen Avho have been pupils continue to visit the station, in order to keep in touch with industrial improvements. Instruction is given in general chemistry and chemistry applied to the tanning and coloring of hides, and the practical manipulations for tanning and coloring. Workingmen are also admitted, but only to the practical exercises. These are conducted in a workshop attached to the station. In this workshop there were 11,688 hides tanned in 1894-95, 12,344 in 1896-97, and the number has increased each year. For this work there are also paid employees. The hides are from TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION ITALY. 1193 Italian and foreign sources, and one can notice in the products a certain degree of improvement. Quite recently the station has made experi- ments with good results in the tanning of kid, which was formerly a monopoly of the French tanning industry. The station furnishes information to the Government regarding questions concerning the levying of import taxes on hides, gives information to manufacturers, and conducts analyses. In 1898-99 there were 41 students. The school could give better results if the course was longer. As this station is devoted to jour- neymen tanners, there has been established at Turin, a center where the leather industry is strongly developed, a tanning school for the training of foremen. SCHOOL OF WEAVING AND DYEING, ABPINO. While the school at Prato has for its object the training of techni- cal overseers for the weaving and dyeing industries, the school at Arpino {Scuola di tessitura e tintoria) is intended for the training of workingmen for the same industries. It accomplishes very good results, although the annual contributions are but 10,500 lire (|2,027). Graduates easily find positions. The instruction is of a practical char- acter, and includes Italian, arithmetic, geometry, drawing, physics, chemistry, the study of coloring matter, of weaving, and of dyeing. "W eaving and dyeing workshops are attached to the school. CASTILLINI SCHOOL OF ARTS AND TRADES, COMO. Established in a very important industrial center, this school {Scu- ola d''artl e mestierl ■Castillini) has for its object the instruction of the working classes in drawing (especially for textiles) ; in modeling and in wood carving; in wood, iron, and stone work; in goldsmithing, etc. It has an annual income of about 11,500 lire ($2,220). The lessons are given during 2 hours each evening. There are a special course for firemen, a preparatory course of 2 years, and a normal course of 3 years. It is divided into three sections: Indus- trial art, building and road construction with a special course for master masons, and machinery and metal construction work. ALEES.GHETTI EVENING SCHOOL OF ARTS AND TRADES, IMOLA. This school {Scuola serale d^arti e mestieri Alberghetti) is said to be one of the best in Italy. It has an income of 16,600 lire (13,201), of which 13,600 lire (f2,625) is the revenue from the Alberghetti fund. The course covers three years and relates to art applied to industry and to mechanics. It comprises, in addition to several branches of general education, geometry, projections, mechanics, plastic art, and geometrical, ornamental, object, mechanical, construc- tion, and architectural drawing. The pupils of the sections of me- chanics, wood carving, and cabin etmaking must take a finishing course. 1194 EEPORT OF THE COMMlSSlGISrEE OF LABOK, There are workshops for mechanics, cabinetmaking, and wood carving attached to the school. The lessons are given during 3 hours in the evening. In 1898-99 the school had 71 pupils. WOUKSHOP-SCHOOL OP ELSCTEO-TECHIfflGS OP THE HUMANI- TAEIAIJ SOCIETY, MILAN. The Societd TJmanitaria, a wealthy organization of Milan, concluded on July 1, 1902, agreements with the Royal Superior Technical Insti- tute and with the Society for the Encouragement of Arts and Trades to establish a Scuola-Laboratorio di elettrotecnica. This new school absorbs an existing school of electro-technics founded by the afore- said Society for the Encouragement of Arts and Trades. The Tech- nical Institute gives the free use of land which was donated by the King. The Societa ITmanitaria gives 100,000 lire (119,300) for the building, furniture, machinery, apparatus, scientific materials, etc., and a yearly allowance of 35,000 lire ($6,755) for the current expenses. The school will be governed by a council whose members are to be appointed by the Humanitarian Society, the Technical Institute, the Society of Encouragement, the Labor Chamber, the Italian Association of Electro-technics, and the Carlo Erba Institute of Electro-technics. The school will have evening and Sunday courses to give theoretical and practical instruction to the workmen. In the first year the courses will relate to electro-technics, practice in electrical measurements, and design of electrical machinery. The second year will consist of three specialized sections: A section for workmen engaged in the construction of electrical apparatus; a section for workmen engaged in the exercise of electrical apparatus, that is, employed in central electrical stations or in other electrical plants; and a section for work- men engaged in telegraph or in telephone plants. SCHOOL OP AETS AND TRADES, LIVOKNO. This school (ScuoJa d^arti e mestierl) was founded in 1886 and com- prises the three sections of mechanical and metallurgical industries, decorative arts, and marine machinists. Each section covers three years. There are, besides, two special annual courses, one for boiler tenders (firemen) and the other for electricians. Workshops are attached to the school, one for machinists, one for stonecutters, and also a shop for the production of electricity, containing apparatus for the electrical course. The instruction comprises several branches of general culture, mechanics, and mechanical technology, general and technological physics, chemistry, metallurgical technology, steam engines, and the duties of enginemen, elementary electro-technics, drawing (geometrical, ornamental, machinery, and projections), decorative painting, plastic TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION ITALY. 1195 art, stonecutting, machine fitting, dj-namo tending, and fitting elec- trical apparatus. MTHSriCIPAl, SCHOOL OP ARTS AND TSADSS, GENOA. In 1892 the municipality of Genoa, on the occasion of the Italian- American exposition and the fourth centenary of the discovery of America, founded a school of arts and trades {Scuola civica Wartie Tnestieri). This school receives young persons who have passed through at least the third elementary class and who wish to learn a trade. The course covers six years, and comprises a " study section" and an "industrial section." The first two years of the study section correspond to the fourth and fifth elementary classes, with the addi- tion of insti'uction in drawing and manual work. In the last four years the school gives a secondary education of the first grade, with the addition of drawing applied to the arts, machine drawing, plastic art, and physics and chemistry applied to the industries. The industrial section is the more important from the standpoint of this inquiry. It comprises : (1) Woodwork (carpentrj', carving, cabinet- making); (2) typography; (3) lithography; (4) mechanics; (.5) gold- smithing; '(6) tanning. The instruction in each of these trades is given in workshops well provided with material, tools, and maehines, and operated by contract by manufacturers. Each pupil, from the time his work becomes productive, receives wages which can be deposited, by the use of a pass book, in the savings bank. In 1897 there were established, in the place of the last two trades, a section for artistic ironwork and one for the training of electrical workers. The latter was undertaken by the General Electric Company {Allge- meine Eleetricitdts Gesellschaft), and can not be entered by the pupils until after they have attended the section for machinists for three years. ■WOSKINGMSN'S SCHOOIiS, TURHST. In each of the larger cities of Italy there are several institutions for the industrial education of workingmen, orphans, foundlings, etc., maintained by the public administration, by associations, by philan- thropj'', by the income from donation funds, etc. As these establish- ments all belong to the same class, and do not present any great variation, in order to avoid unnecessary repetition a description is given of the institutions of this type which are found in the city of Turin. The San Carlo's society for technical schools for workers {societh, delle scuole tecniche operaie di Ban Oarlo) was established in 1818 by a number of working people desirous of improving themselves by mutual instruction. At first they encountered the ill will and opposi- tion of the Government authorities, and had many financial obstacles 1196 EEPOET OF THE OOMMISSIOWEE OF LABOR. and difficulties; but tiie society has continued to exist and to prosper during a half century of effort, conserving at all times its popular character. It was incorporated in 1879, and owns a large school building. The schools are attended each year by about 100 workers, to whom instruction is given in evening courses with the purpose of making them more proficient in their trades and occupations. Some of the instruction given is of a general or popular nature and does not come within the scope of this inquiry. The other branches relate to industrial art. There are elementary courses in geometrical and ornamental drawing, and the following superior courses: Section of ornamentation (drawing, modeling, form, heraldic, and flower drawing) ; section of architecture, with a course in the art of masonry (architec- ture, construction, practical geometry), and a course for cabinet- makers; section of mechanics, with courses in mechanical drawing, practical mechanics, the care of steam engines, and electro-technics. This school exerts a considerable influence upon the working popu- lation. It has an income of from 13,000 to 14,000 lire ($2,509 to $2,702), and awards to the best pupils a number of prizes in money or in deposits at the savings bank from funds established by the public authorities and by philanthropists. The Archimedes society (^a Societa ArcJdmede) established in 1878 in Turin popular Sunday schools for working men and women for industrial instruction and general education. The number of pupils sometimes exceeds 2,000, but it diminishes during the year. The, lessons are given for four hours on Sunday, except the course in plastic art, which is offered every evening. The courses have no fixed limit, the pupils attending the school until they have acquired the necessary education. The school receives a subsidy of about 2,000 lire ($386), and the instructors render their services free of charge. The pupils belong to the working class. The female section is much better attended than the male section. Aside from the large number of branches of a general educational character, there are courses in mechanics, technology, and electro-technics, with a workshop for a course for steam-boiler heaters (firemen). Most important from the standpojnt of industrial education are the evening shop schools and holiday schools for working people {scuole officine serali e smvle festive operaie). They are divided into several sections in different parts of the city, and are attended by both sexes. In some sections the lessons are given every evening, in others every Sunday. The instruction is essentially of a trade character. To the evening section for males are attached workshops for lithogra- phers, pressmen, wood carvers, cabinetmakers, and filers, and a practical school of leveling, planimetry, and masonry construction work. The courses cover from one to four years, according to their nature. TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION ITALY. 1197 The Royal Inn of Virtue (Regio ATbergo di virtu) is a school founded in the time of the Duke Emanuele Filiberto by the religious brother- hood of St. Paul, for teaching trades to the children of the poor. It was reorganized in 1587 by the King, Carlo Emanuele I, and in the seventeenth century, it was enlarged and enriched. The children of the poor (preferably orphans) from 10 to 15 years of age are admitted, and remain iive years, some of them paying a small tuition fee, though the greater number pay nothing at all. The pupils receive an elemen- tally education, and each group pursues a special trade, as lithography, printing, mechanics, wood carving, bookbinding, weaving, etc. Each trade has a woU-equipped workshop intrusted to a manufacturer. In this manner during the centuries this institute has developed thousands of poor children into as many good workmen. By the side of the above may be placed the College of Little Arti- sans {Collegia degli artigianelli), belonging to the Associazione di cat'ita. This is a charitable institution, founded in 1850 for teaching trades to poor children. Two hundred children receive instruction in wood carving, printing, bookbinding, cabinetmaking, tailoring, ^tc. , in the workshops, which together form one large building. The asso- ciation also has an important agricultural colony at Rivoli for training- pupils in farm work. On account of the development of the electrical industry in the city of Turin and complaint of the scarcity of electrical workers, the Assoc t'a.c lone elettro-m.€ccanica Galileo Ferrario has established a school for evening instruction in electro-technics, physics, mechanics, ele- mentary mathematics, and drawing. In 1902 there was also established a People's School of Electro- technics {Scuola poj>olare di elettrotecnica), which gives both theoret- ical and practical instruction to electrical workmen. The course is of two years' duration, and is given in the evening and on Sunday. The first year comprises the principles of mechanics and physics, electro-technics, and geometrical drawing. In the second year the course is essentially practical and is specialized in the various sections {ihontatori elettricisti, installatori interni ed este^'iii, telegrafisil e tele- fonisti). The tuition fee is 5 lire (97 cents) for the first year and 10 lire (11.93) for the second. The second year is free for those pupils who in the examinations obtain a certain rating. The school has also special practical courses for firemen, policemen, and other persons engaged in public services who have to use electric tools and wires. The municipality of Turin in 1889 discussed the qaestion of estab- lishing a school of arts and trades "having an especially practical character, for the purpose of producing good workingmen, in order to further the more important local industries. " Study of similar institu- tions in Italy and other countries was made, and the school was opened - in 1893. It offers a course covering three years. The pupils pay an 1198 EEPOBT OF THE COMMISSIONEE OF LABOK. annual tuition fee of 2 lire (39 cents), but if they obtain a rating of eight-tenths in the examinations they are exempted from payment for the following year, and if they obtain such a rating in the examinations for graduation the tuition is refunded. The instruction at the school relates to wood and iron work. In the iirst two years the pupils worK both in the shops for woodworking and in those for ironworking. In the third year they work in one or the other of these shops accord- ing to their aptitude or the choice of their parents. Pupils who have attended the elementary school are admitted. In the first year the number is limited to 70. Instruction is given in Italian, free- hand and mechanical drawing, with an elementary course in perspec- tiA'e and industrial draTring, elementary mathematics, kinematics and mechanics, physics, and elementary chemistry. The theoretical courses require four hours each day. During the remaining four liours of the school day the pupils work in the shops. They belong mostly to the working classes. Graduates easily find emploj^ment and quickly rise to the positions of skilled workmen and even foremen. The best among the graduates receive as a prize a deposit book in the savings bank and gold and silver medals awarded hj the chamber of commerce. Finally must be mentioned the Cavour School of Chemistry {Scuola di cMmica Oavour), which was established in 1878 as a result of a donation made by the Marquis Ainardo Benso di Cavour. Its object is to instruct workmen gratuitously in chemistry applied to the local industries. In order to be admitted an applicant must have an ele- mentary education, be at least 16 years of age, and must show that he is a workman or small manufactui'er. The course covers two years, but the graduates often ask permission to repeat the second year. The instruction is given in the evening, twice a week. The first course comprises general chemistry; the second, organic, analytical, and applied chemistry. Requests are being made for the institution of a third course or an augmentation of the number of lessons. This school shows good results. The municipality gives the free use of the building and an annual contribution of 2,348 lire (|453). OTHER TRADE SCHOOLS. Besides the schools just described, several others which resemble the types spoken of may be noticed. Some of these are schools of arts and trades with evening courses for instruction relating to mechanics, wood and iron work, weaving, decorative arts, etc.; and several also for courses in electro-technics and for steam-boiler heat- ers (firemen). They are the Jona Ottolenghi Evening and Sunday School of Arts and Trades, {Souola serale e domenicxde d'arti e mestieri Jona Ottolenghi), Acqui, the Evening School of Arts and Trades and of Design Applied to the Arts {Scuola serale d''arti e mestieri e di TRADE ANB TECHKTOAL EDUCATION ITALY. 1199 disegno a-pjjliccdo alJe arti), Alessandria, the Evening and Sunday School of Arts and Trades {Scuola serale e domenicale cParti e mestiet^i)^ Aquila, those of Are2;zo and Belluno, and of Casal-Pusterlengo, Catania, Coni, Domo d' Ossola, Pistoja, Portici, Rimini, Salerno, Sa- luzzo, San Giovanni a Teduccio, Siena, Spezia, Stradella, Suzzara, Ti-apani, etc. Others have day courses and workshops for various industries, and look to the training rather than to the finishing of workmen. Such are the School of Arts and Trades in the Art Insti- tute of San Lorenzo {Scuola di'arti e mestieri nelV Istltuto artistico di San Lorenzo), at Aversa, the Technical School {Scuola tecnica) of Campiglia, those of Chieti, Golle Val d' Elsa, Cremona, Mondovi, that of Monza, which accomplishes good results, especially in dj^eing and weaving, those of Pisa, Pontedera, etc. The city of Naples has two good schools for railway workmen where theoretical and practical instruction is given by the force of the railway workshops. The num- ber of pupils is limited to the needs of the railway service, and the sons of the workmen and clerks of the railway administration are pre- ferred for admission to the schools. The pupils, when graduated, are admitted in the railway workshops and receive a wage. A similar school is established in the royal arsenal of Naples to train workmen and machinists for the naval service. POPXJIiAB SCHOOIiS FOE ADtTLTS. By the side of the working people's schools at Turin may be placed the popular schools for adults {scuole popolari ^yer gli adulti) of Milan, the holiday schools of masonry {scuole festive professionali miirarie) of Milan, the School of Design for Pupils in Goldsmithing and the Related Arts {Scuola di disegno fer gli allievi orefici ed affini) of Milan, the Daniel Manin Institute {Istituto Daniele Manin) of Venice, the evening schools for artisans {scuole seralijper gliartieri) of Rome, etc. Attention must also be called to the fact that in accordance with re- form projects of 1898 some of the nonclassic secondary schools of the first grade, of which there are 283, established under the direct or indi- rect jurisdiction of the ministry of public education, and which are improperly called technical schools {scuole tecniche), are to be trans- formed into technical schools of the industrial type. It is proposed that instruction in the general branches in these schools be somewhat reduced, and the study of elementary mechanics (two hours in second class and two hours in the third) and industrial technology (two hours in the second class and three hours in the third) added. This project has not been carried out. It is very doubtful whether with such a slight reform it will be possible to give a sufficient rudimentary indus- trial education. It would be better perhaps to transform these schools completely into schools of arts and trades, with workshops, in accordance with the needs of the localities. 1200 EEPOET OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOE. SCHOOLS OF ART APPLIED TO INDUSTRY AND SCHOOLS OF INDUSTRIAL DRAWING. These schools ai"e of great importance in a country where the artistic temperament is so well developed. This innate artistic character, which one observes among the people in many parts of Italy, makes it pos- sible to give the most ample development to the artistic industries. The schools of art applied to industry can contribute very largely to this development. These schools are numerous, more numerous even than the indus- trial schools, and they abound in the villages. There are many which have an income of a few hundred lire only, and which exist by what might be called the heroic efforts of the teachers, who are contented with extremely meager compensation or give their services gratui- tously. For these schools, even more than for the professional schools, it is necessary to have a complete understanding between the ministry of agriculture, industry, and commerce and the ministry of- public education, which latter has the direction of academies and schools of art. There should be, in fact, a direct relation between the schools of ai-t and the schools of industrial art. The latter should, so to speak, receive from the former the first principles and forms of the beautiful, in order to make them penetrate the life of the work. The relation must not, however, be too direct. The schools of industrial art must not become schools of art. The instruction must not become academic, but must, on the contrary, respond to the needs of industry and of life. The object should not be simply to make researches to attain the beautiful, but to embellish that which is useful. On the other hand, there should be such a relation as will cause the principles of beauty to influence all the industries, so that all industrial products, e\en the most modest, will show this research for beauty in form which is a repose and a joy to the eye, as it was during the most glorious epochs of national art. It is especially useful to unite in one institution the industrial school and the school of industrial art. This union often occurs in Italy, a considerable number of the schools spoken of in the preceding chapter having, by the side of the sections for machinists, electricians, masons, weavers, etc., sections for decorative art, wood carving, cabinetmaking, etc., which are sections of art applied to industry. The complaint is generally made that in the schools of art applied to industry the instruction is too academic. In general there is a great lack of didactic materials. The ministry of agriculture, indus- try, and commerce, with a proper conception of the needs of this TEADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION ITALr. 1201 instruction, has maintained, since 1885, in connection with the Indus- trial Art Museum at Kome, a workshop for the manufacture of plaster models, reproducing the different types of Italian ornamentation. This laboratory has made two important collections of plaster models, a superior and an inferior, for the different grades of instruction, and has distributed a large number among the schools. It also distributes, from time to time, works on drawing and design, and the periodical entitled ^'Arte italtana decorativa ed indihstriale.'''' Notwithstanding this, the didactic material is very often insufficient and not suited to modern needs. (") The models are often taken from antiquity, and do not respond to the new expressions which modern life should inspire in the artist. They do not apply to the needs of the private and public life of to-day. The study of the real is not sufficiently developed, nor is enough known of the new artistic tend- encies, which are absorbing the forms of beauty in the thousands of details of nature, especially of plant nature, and too strict an adher- ence is given to traditional artistic forms. Furthermore, the industrial art schools, as well as the Italian artistic industries, neglect many forms of industrial art which might have a great development and which might give to Italy the first place in the production of artistic novelties {articles de Paris). They neglect almost entirely, as may be observed with Mr. Levi, instruction in engraving, guilloche work, chasing, goldsmithing, and jewelry. They neglect the production of silver tableware, which could become an Italian industry, and which is, on the contrary, entirely German. They neglect the cutting of precious stones, work in hard stones, ivory, coral, lava, mother-of-pearl, leather, etc., whereas in most of these industries Italy has in the past been famous. In view of the limited resources of many of the schools, an arrange- ment might be made for the loan of models among the schools in order to place them all in a position where thej^ could profit by the new and varying materials and respond to modern needs. It might, perhaps, be possible to arrange for a special loan service through the ministry. The central commission for instruction in art applied to industry {commissione centrale jper Vinsegnamento artistico applicato alle indus- irie) exercises a special supervision over these schools. Each year examinations are held at the superior schools of art applied to indus- try to determine the suitability of candidates as instructors in the schools of applied art. These examinations are regulated by a decree of December 29, 1895, and the said commission exercises a special «See pamphlet of Mr. Primo Levi, already mentioned, pp. 21-31. 9267—02 76 1202 BEPOET OF THE COMMISSIOKEE OF LABOE. supervlsioa by giving judgment upon some of the work presented by the candidates. {") There are seven schools of art applied to industry, brief accounts of which follow: SOHOOL 05' DSCOaATIVB AKT, FLOBESTCIS. This school (Scicola prqfessionale <£elle arti decorative) was founded in 1839, on the initiative of wome of the citizens, as a school for wood carvers and cabinetmakers. In 1880 it was transformed into a school of industrial decorative art, for giving art and technical instruction which can better aid the development of the Florentine industries founded on the arts of drawing and modeling. It is thus intended, above all, for the education of young persons engaged in the arts and in wood carving, carving ornaments in marble and plaster, stucco work, decorative painting, wood or motal engraving, goldsmithing, chasing, mosaic, inlaid work, etc. In order to be admitted, pupils must be 12 years of age and must have an elementary education. It is divided into three courses: Elementary, two years; special, three years, and practical, one j^ear. It is further divided into three sec- tions: Decorative architecture, decorative painting, and decorative carving. In 1900 a course for training teachers of industrial drawing- was added. The lessons occupy four hours daily. The branches of instruction are as follows: Free-hand, geometrical, architectural, orna- mental, and object drawing; study of the styles of decorative orna- mentation; plastic art; application to industrial art, with composition exercises, and history of the decorative and industrial arts. In 1898-99 there were 130 pupils, of whom 87 appeared for examination and only 1 was graduated. The school receives annual contributions amounting « At a congress of delegates of the schools of art applied to industry held in Eome in 1901 it was proposed, among many other reforms, that the prizes to pupils should consist in books, models, photographs, etc.; that the visits of the pupils to the museums, monuments, workshops, etc., should take place more frequently; that the publication of technical and artistic handbooks, periodicals, models, photographs, etc., should be encouraged; that the use of books, models, etc., belonging to the schools should be alloweil pupils; that there should be exposed in the schoolrooms a series of photographs, concisely explained by jilacards; that the teaching of the history of industrial and decorative art should be more practical; that lectures on special subjects should be given; that small libraries of easy and useful works on industrial and decorative art and on scientific and technological subjects should be kept in the schools, to which pupils could have free access; that each school should possess a collection of objects of industrial and decorative art of the past and of the present, those of the past to relate chiefly to those epochs in which the artistic industries of the region or of the locality attained a high degree of perfection; that provision should be made by the superior schools of industrial art and the secondary schools of general culture, where there is no preparatory course, for the coordination of the courses and programmes; that the schools of industrial art existing in some benevolent institutions should be reformed; that pupils should be admitted free to the national and municipal museums to study, take copies, etc. TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION ITALY. 1203 to about 32,500 lire (^,2T3). Tke pupils pay a fee of 10 lire ($1.93) per annum. The school gives excellent results. STJPEHIOS SCHOOL OF AKX APPIilED TO IIO>TJSTIlY, mrLAN. This school {Scuola su_perlare cVarte applicata alPindwsiria) was founded in 1882, witii the purpose of giving to workmen already acquainted with the elements of drawing instruction in art applied to the trades which they practice. No tuition is charged, and the lessons arc given in the evening. On Sunday lectures are given and art visits arc made. The school is divided into three sections — linear drawing, orname-ntal drawing, modeling. Each section is divided into two courses — one for imitation, the other for composition work. In order to be admitted ajiplicants must have an elementary education and pass examinations in drawing and geometry. The complete course at the school covers six years. To the first section are admitted cabinetmak- ers and manufa-cturers of inlaid work, marble cutters, etc. To the second are admitted workers who aire employed at decorative painting, engraving, carving, designing for embroidery work, for inlaid work, mosaic, enameling, tapestry, etc. To the third are admitted carvers in wood and in marble, chasers, bronze workers, etc. The school receives annual contributions amounting to 35,000 lire (i^l,825). In 1898-9'9 there were 362 pupils, and of the 250 who presented themselves for examination, 156 were promoted, and 40 were graduated. The school accomplishes good results. It has been said of this school that " it is a model of logic and practice, without prejudice, and at the same time a triumph of the testbetic sense. * * * The results obtained in all the branches and in all the applications of the instruction are such that nothing better could be desired." ISTDTTSTRIAL AET MUSSUM, NAPLES. In connection with the Industrial Art Museum {Jfus^o artiitlco indicstriale) of Naples are established schools for teaching drawing, modeling, and decorative composition to persons employed in the industrial arts. Instruction is there given in geometrical, ornamental, elementary, architectural, decorative, and industrifll drawing, plastic art history of the decorative arts, etc. There are attached to the schools several workshops for ceramic work, bronze and other metal work work in silver, gold, enamel, etc. , woodwork (artistic cabinet- making, wood caawing, inlaid work, etc.), lithography, and engraving on metal and wood. The lessons are given during eight hours per day in winter and eleven hours in summer. There is a preparatory course of variable duration and a normal course of three years. Stu- dents may be admitted to the museum to attend only the instruction in art without going to the workshops. The budget is a]x)ut 80,000 lire ($16,400). 1204 KEPOET OF THE C0MMIS8I0]SrEE OF LABOB. SUPERIOK, SCHOOL OF ART APPLIED TO IWDtTSTSY, PALEBMO. This school {Scuola snjyerlore cParte applicata aWindustrid) whose object is to further the development of artistic industries, possesses a museum of ancient and modern objects of industrial art. The course covers three years, and comprises ornamental, geometrical, object, architectural, and perspective drawing; modeling objects; composi- tions in relief, drawing, and color for the industrial arts; and practical exercises in styles of ornamentation. The lessons are given during three hours in the morning and three hours in the evening. The school has five teachers and a budget of 25,000 lire (|4,825). In 1896-97 the number of pupils was 22, and in 1898-99, 37. In 1898-99, 15 were present at the examinations, of whom 8 were promoted and 6 were graduated. INDTJSTIIIAL AKT MUSEUM, ROME. By far the most important of the schools of this class is the superior school attached to the Industrial Art Museum {Museo artistico indus- triale) of Rome, whose purpose is to "further the development of the industrial arts, to dignify and improve the taste, and to spread artistic culture among the working classes." The course covers three years, and the lessons are given in the evening. There are three sec- tions: (1) School of color decoration, with its application to ornamental styles, composition, and exercises in painting; (2) plastic art, with compositions and exercises in decorative ceramics, and work in marble, wood, and plaster; (3) school of plastic decoration for metal work, with compositions and exercises in chasing, engraving, and enameling. The number of pupils in 1898-99 was 90. Forty-one presented themselves for examination, of whom 26 were promoted and 7 were graduated. Of tliis institution it may be said that it is praiseworthy in many respects, but it needs a more modern character. The pupils are taught to compose exclusively from subjects of the Italian, Greek, Roman, Bj^zantine, ogival, and Renaissance styles, and they succeed in the reproduction of the classics applied to some objects, but they ought to be accustomed to give a modern character to modern objects. This museum is all the more important because, as already noted, the ministry of agriculture, industry, and commerce has established in connection with it a worlvshop for the manufacture of plaster models for the other schools. VENETLA.N SCHOOL OF ART APPLIED TO INDUSTRY, VENICE. This school {Sciwla veneta Warte applicata aWindvstriu) was founded in 1872, for the improvement of the artistic industries. It comprises a regular course of two years and special courses lasting four j^ears. In the regular course the pupils are taught the necessary knowledge for ail branches of decorative or industrial art. In the special courses TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION ITALY. 1205 they are taught the studies which are directly needed in the special branches of art which the pupil intends to pursue. These special courses are of three kinds: Decorative, ornamental, plastic work; architectural and construction work; drawing. Lessons are given for two hours each day. There are also held at the school Sunday courses for the practical education of decorative workers, in which instruction is given in linear perspective, plain decoration, and the history and technics of the industrial and decorative arts. This school is attended by an average of 200 pupils and has a budget of 23,000 lire ($4,439). STJPEBIOE, SCHOOL OF ORlfAMESrT, TXTEirKr. Finally, there should be mentioned the Superior School of Orna- ment {Scuola superiore dj' ornato) attached to the Royal Industrial Museum of Turin. This school is at present in a transition state, on account of reforms that are being made. SCHOOLS OF APPLIED AKT AND INDUSTRIAL DRAWING. These are very numerous, and as it is not possible to describe all, this report will be limited to a mention of only the most prominent. Piedmont, Province of Turin. — The greater number of the work- ingmen's and popular schools, already described, also teach industrial drawing. There should further be mentioned the evening schools of design (scuole serali di disegno) opened by the municipality of Turin on January 11, 1805. These schools cost the municipality about 30,000 lire ($5,790) each year, and are distributed throughout the different parts of the city. In these are taught subjects of general culture, free-hand and ornamental drawing, plastic art, machinery drawing, and geometrical and architectural drawing applied to the arts. The lower courses cover two years and the higher courses are unlimited. The matriculation fee is 3 lire (58 cents) per year, but the poor are exempt from its payment. A municipal councilor has said that these schools are veritable jewels, and they have a good influence on the artistic education of the working class. The School of Design {Scuola dl dis- egno) of Chieri is a Sunday school maintained by a provident associa- tion, and subsidized by the commune. There are two courses, one for ornamental drawing, the other for technological and geometrical drawino'. The Evening School of Design Applied to Industry {Scixola serale di disegno applicato alle industrie) of Moncalieri is situated in a small town near Turin. It has 20 pupils. Instruction is in the charge of a teacher having the meager salary of 200 lire ($38. GO) per year, assisted by two members of the Artists' Club (a club which subsidizes the school), and consists of ornamental, geometrical, and architectural drawing, and ornamental plastic work. The school accomplishes jjood results. The small school at Pinerolo, an evening school, may also be mentioned. It has a budget of 200 lire ($38.60). 1206 EEPOBT OK TEE COMMISSIONER Oi' LABOE. Peoyince of Alessandria. — Here may be mentioned the municipal drawing school at Casale, similar to the preceding. It has two-year courses. The matriculation fee is 3 lire (58 cents), but is refunded to pupils who attend the lessons regularly. The Evening and Sunday School of Design Applied to the Trades {Scuola serale e domenicale di dlsegno appUcato ai 7nestieri) of Nizza-Monferrato was founded in 1881, and is attended by about 80 pupils. Instruction is gratuitous. The annual contributions amount to 1,250 lire ($241). The instruction con- sists of matters of general education, and of linear and geometrical drawing applied to the blacksmiths', masons', and carpenters' trados. The School of Design [Scuola di disegno) of VrJenza, an evening and Sunday school, was founded in 1873 by artists' and working-men's societies, with the object of teaching drawing applied to the trades. It receives annual contributions amounting to 570 lire (fllO). The course covers four years, and the school is in session from November 1 to the end of March. Instruction is given in drawing applied to the arts. In 1898 there were 70 pupils. The Evening School of Design Applied to Arts and Trades {Scuola serale di dlsegno applicato alle artl ed ai mestieri) of Castelnuovo Scrivia was founded in 1896. The les- sons are given twice a week, the instruction consisting of geometry, and of geometrical, architectural, and applied drawing. The annual contributions are 1,700 lire ($328). The drawing school of Castellazzo, an evening school, was founded by a workingmen's mutual aid society, and reorganized as a result of a donation. Tuition is free to members of the society and their children. Others pay 2 lire (39 cents) per month. It has 40 pupils on an average, and holds two sessions per week. The subjects taught are linear and geometrical drawing, and drawing applied to the industries in which the pupils are engaged. The income is about 500 lire (^96. 50), of which the teacher receives 200 lii'e ($38,60). The School of Design {Scuola di disegno) in San Salva- tore is an evening school founded by a workingmen's mutual aid society. No tuition is charged. The school is similar to the preceding. Pkotince of Coni. — At Coni there is a school of arts and trades, which, in its programmes, attaches much importance to instruction in applied art. At Ceva an agricultural and workingmen's society has founded an evening school for instruction in applied drawing. It has an average attendance of about 150 pupils. At Racconigi the munici- pality founded, in 1890, an evening school of drawing, plastic art, and wood carving, for the purpose of giving instruction in practical art. In 1898 it had 74 pupils, nearly all of whom were workingmen. Instruction is given in geometrical, ornamental, and architectural drawing, decorative plastic work, and several general branches. Province of Novara. — At Vercelli there was founded, in 1850, the Art Institute {Istituto di 'belle arU), which, in the section for males, furnishes instruction in drawing, architecture, machinery drawing, TKABJE ANI! TSCHiTIOAL SDL'CATIOIvT ITALY. 1207 plastic art, and wood carving. The institute has workshops for cabi- netmaking and wood carvino-. In tlie section for females instruction is giyen in ornamental drawing with ils artistic, domestic, and indus- trial applications. Instruction is gratuitous and is given in the even- ing during the winter and in the morning during the summer. In 189.8-&9 the section for males had 393 pupils a.nd that for females 70 pupils. The institute has a large revenue from endowment funds, and receives a subsidy of 500 lire (196.50) from the ministry of agriculture, industry, and com.merce. The School of Art Applied to Industry {Soitola d'arte appUcata aW industrid) of Novara was founded in 1833 as a result of a donation. Tuition is free. The course lasts 4 years and comprises ornamental, geometrical, architectural, and machinery drawing, plastic art, and modeling. Instruction is given in the evening and on Sunda3^s. To be admitted to the school the candidate must prove that he is a working-man. The Drawing School of Varalio was founded in 1778 ior evening instruction in different branches of draw- ing. In the same city, in 1836, was founded a school of carving {LahoTCitorio d'intaglio), a free day school with five-year courses for instruction in wood carving. The income amounts to 2,500 lire ($483), of which 700 lire ($135) is used for subsidies to poor pupils. At Borgo Sesia was established, in 1836, as the result of a donation, a drawing school for training stucco workers, decorators, etc. It is a day school attended by 30 pupils. The income is about 500 lire (§96.50). In the same city the workingmen's association has established a small drawing school, with a Sunday course, with a budget of but 100 lire ($19.30). Another school was founded in 1868 in the village of Alagna, giving evening lessons for artisans. Similar schools for elementary lessons in applied drawing exist in the villages of Valdobbiadene (day school); MoUia (day school), the teacher receiving 153.5 lire (129.63) annually; Valduggia (evening school); Eosso (evening school), where the annual income is 164 lire (131.65), of which the teacher gets 150 lire ($28.95), and Santa Maria Maggiore, with day and evening courses. At Domo d'Ossola a school of applied art was opened in 1874, as a result of a large donation from the municipality, its purpose being ' ' to favor the creation and development of small industries. " Instruc- tion is given in drawing, ornamental plastic work, and wood carving. The receipts from this donation amount to 4,000 lire (i?7T2), and suffice for the payment of the expenses of the school. The municipality each year gives scholarships of 975 lire ($188) for the poor pupils. At Oanobbio an industrial drawing school was founded in 1885, the receipts of which, amounting to about 2,700 lire (f521), are provided by ten public administrations. The school is free and is devoted to the instruction of art applied to the trades, though probably too much attention is given to ornamental drawing. The course covers 3 years, and the lessons are given in the daytime. The school ha-'. 54 pupils in 1208 KEPOET OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOB. 1898-99. At Baveno there is a Sunday drawing school, founded bj^ the Worliingmen's Mutual Aid Association. Similar schools were founded by a workingmen's association at Pallanza for evening and Sunday instruction, specialized according to the trade followed by each pupil, and at Invorio Inferiore, by a charitable donation by Giovanni Curioni, for evening instruction, free for inhabitants of the commune, with instruction specialized for each trade. The average attendance is 60. Other districts of Italy are all more or less sprinkled with evening and Sunday industrial drawing schools for workers, either free or requiring very small tuition fees, and similar to those just described. A few of these may be noted as having certain distinctive features: LoMBARDY. — At Milan, besides the large number of popular draw- ing schools, there is a drawing school for goldsmiths' apprentices, for giving theoretical and practical instruction in the evening and on Sundays in the art of goldsmithing and jewelry manufacturing and engraving, founded and directed by a goldsmiths' association. The school gives instruction in drawing, designing for the goldsmith's trade, modeling in wax and in pastilina, and the elementary ideas of chemistry applied to art. In 1898-99 the school had IM- pupils; of the 75 who appeared for examination, 60 were promoted and 12 were graduated. The small school founded at Meda by the Workingmen's Mutual Aid Association has attached to it a workshop for wood carv- ing. At Lissone the Mutual Aid Society of Workers and Agricultur- ists founded a school of industrial drawing applied to the manufacture of furniture, a verj' important industry in that locality. The drawing course lasts 3 years, that of wood carving 4 years. In 1898-99 there were 105 pupils. Similar schools, with special application to wood carving, have been founded in many other villages in Lombardy. In the citj" of Brescia, besides the two public schools, the Moretto communal school {SciMla co'immale Moretto) was established at the beginning of the nineteenth century for evening instruction in art applied to the trades of carpentering, blacksmithing, painting, stone- cutting, etc. It has attached to it a workshop for blacksmithing, machine construction, and carpentering. Quite recently a course in industrial education and electro-technics was added. The excellent evening and Sunday school at Salo has a workshop for carpentering, blacksmithing, and chasing, which accomplishes good results, espe- cially in artistic metal work. At Canturio a good school, devoted to the two local industries of furniture making and embroidery work, was founded, through the initiative of the municipality. The school has a workshop for wood carving and a section ior women. The school costs the State, commune, and chamber of commerce 3,725 lire ($719). In 1898-99 it was attended by 165 male and 34 female pupils. The school of industrial art at Varese should also be men- tioned. It is divided into two sections: Ornamental work (for decora- TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION ITALY. 1209 tors, makers of inlaid work, stonecutters, etc.), and construction work. The course covers 4 years, and comprises instruction in geometrical, ornamental, machinery, and object drawing, modeling, the principles of the science of urban and rural construction work, mechanics, and descriptive geometry. Instruction is given in the evening and on Sundays. The school had, in 1898-99, 6 teachers and 182 pupils. The annual contributions from the public administrations amount to 4,750 lire (|91Y). Other similar schools have been established in a large number of small cities and towns of Lombardy. One of these is the School of Alpine Art and Industry {Scuola d'artl e cTindmtrie alpine), of Bormio, intended for the instruction of peasants in the technical knowledge necessary for the manufacture of various small objects. In the evening instruction is given in geometrical and orna- mental drawing, and in plastic art, and during the day in wood carv- ing, gilding, etc. It has 2 teachers and 40 pupils. The income is 600 lire (|116). LiGUEiA. — Several of the schools of arts and trades also give instruc- tion in applied art. In addition to these may be mentioned the even- ing schools of applied art at Porto Maurizio, at San Remo, and at Chiavari. The school last mentioned was established by workingmen's associations, has an income of 5,400 lire (fl,042), and in 1898-99 had 53 pupils in its 4-year courses. Venbtia. — At Murano, a small town on one of the islands near Venice, an old and celebrated center of industry for artistic glasswork, the commune established, in 1861, a small school for glassworkers. It is annexed to the municipal museum of glasswork, and has an income of 1,100 lire (|212). This school has a three-year course in drawing and in plastic art applied to the glass industry. Instruction is given during 3 hours on Thursdays and Sundays. In 1898-99 there were 73 pupils. Placed in the most important center of this special indus- try, this school occupies a position of great importance and can improve the industry by introducing new ideas. At Burano, another little town on an island near Venice, is a famous school for women for teaching the manufacture of laces, which conserves the glorious tradi- tions of this Venetian industry. The Pietro Selvatico School of Design {Scuola di disegno Pietro Selvatico), of Padova, has a day course of 6 j-ears, for instruction in carpentering, stonecutting, and wood carv- ing, with workshops for these three trades. An elementary educa- tion is necessary for admission. In 1898-99 there were 128 regular and special pupils, of whom 67 appeared for examination and were promoted. Venetia also has a large number of small rural schools for day, evening, and Sunday instruction, some of which give good results in the way of the extension of small industries. The number of pupils at these schools often varies greatly in the course of the year on account of the large temporary emigration. These schools are 1210 EEPOKT OF THE COMMISSIONKK OF LABOE. established at Chioggia, Mestre, Mirano, Dolo, Feltre, Longarone, Auronzo, Fouzaso, Crespino, Ficcarolo, Polesella, Massa-Superiore, Badia, Polesine, Trecenta, Conegliano, Vittoria, Oderzo, Valdobbia- dene, Possagno, Este, Cittadella, Lonigo, Valdagno, Schio, Bassano, Nove, Pordenone, Tolmezzo, Gemona, Cividale, Pieliungo, San Daniele Sant' Ambrogio, Legnano, etc. The flourishing condition of these schools, due mostly to local energy, is remarkable. Emilia. — The Professional School of Decorative Art {Scuola ^rofes- slonaleper le arti decoratwe) of Bologna was founded in 1885 for the purpose of stimulating the development of local industries having for their basis the arts of drawing and modeling. The instruction is divided into two sections, the first for the study of drawing and plas- tic art, the second for its application to the different trades of wood carving, stucco work, decoration, chasing, etc. The course covers live years, the instruction being given in the daytime and in the evening. The contributions received amount to 6,660 lire (^1,090). In 1898-99 there were 113 pupils. The Dosso Dossi school of Ferrara has one section for fine arts and one for ai'tistic instruction applied to the trades. The drawing school for workers at Eeggio was founded in 1797. Besides an elementary course it has two sections, one for designers and the other for modelers. The school is free, but in order to be admitted pupils must possess an elementary education, be between 12 and 25 years of age, and must show that they follow a trade wherein the instruction given at the schools would be useful. The les- sons are given in the daytime. The school of Guastalla is similar to that at Reggio, but it attaches more importance to practical applications, having also a workshop for ornamental plastic work. The scbool of Mirandola was opened in 1862. The lessons are given in the evening and on Sundays, and the course covers three years. It is divided into three sections — into the first are admitted cabinetmakers, carpenters, blacksmiths, and carriage makers; into the second, masons, stonecut- ters, and machinists; into the third, persons devoted to fine arts, designers, and decorators. Women are also admitted for the study of drawing applied to embroidery, etc. Other schools exist in the smaller towns and villages. Tuscany. — At Florence there are three public schools of applied art, with evening and Sunday lessons. The most important of these is the school established by the philanthropic fund of De Bardi, which fund amounts to 280,000 lire (|54,010). Important schools exist at Arezzo (day school), Livorno (day school), Pietrasanta, Carrara, Massa, Vol- terra, Grosseto, etc. The school at Pietrasanta is devoted to workers employed in the marble industry, which flourishes in the locality, the instruction consisting of architecture, ornamentation, object drawing, and modeling. It has two shops for marble work. The school is well attended and accomplishes good results. Pupils who are not residents TEADE AWD TECHNICAL EDUCATION ITALY. 1211 of Pietrasanta paj^ a tuition fee of 18 to 21 lire {$3.i7 to U.GS) per year. The income of the school is 6,000 lire (|1,168). The school' at Massa has special reference to marble work, and is similar to that at Pietrasanta. Marches.— Here may be mentioned the evening and Sunday schools at Cagli, which furnish a three-year course in carpentering, stone- cutting, decoratiye painting, pottery, wood carving, etc. ; at Fano, at Possombrone, at Sant' Angelo, in Vado; at Pesaro, at Lorcto, at Ascoli-Piceno, at Macerata, at Potenza Picena, etc. Umbria. — There are evening schools for instruction in drawing at Todi, Spoleto, and Narni. Campagna 1)1 KoMA. — Aside from the popular municipal schools, Some has a municipal evening school with a three-year course, which serves as a preparatory school for the Museum of Industrial Art. The studies consist of elementary geometry, drawing in its different branches, including its application to the trader, perspective, plastic art, marble carving, etc. At Vclletri there is a free municipal evening school, with a four-j^ear course for decorators, carpenters, masons, and blacksmiths. A shop for wood and stucco work and decoration is attached to the school. About 100 pupiia attend the school. Abruzzi. — At Chieti there is an evening and Sunday school having a three-year course, and attended by about 100 pupils. The instruction consists of the different branches of drawing and their application to industry, geometry, projections, modeling in clay, wood carving, and lathe work. The annual expenses amount to 4,200 lire ($811). Other similar schools exist at Lanciano and in several villages. Campania. — At Naples there are several popular schools of applied drawing, attended by a large number of workers. At Torre del Greco was founded in 1878 the School of Coral Cutting and of Decorative and Industrial Art {Souola dHjicisione sul corallo e cVartl decorative ed industriali), for giving artistic instruction regarding the decoration and carving of coral, lava, sea shells, mother-of-pearl, tortoise shells, ivory, hard wood, metal, etc. It comi^rises two three-year courses, one for carving and inlaid work, the other for the Pompeiian style of decorating; a two-year day course in modeling, and a five-year even- ing course in drawing. A workshop is attached to the school, the sale of the products constituting an important revenue, a part of which is distributed among the pupils. The school receives contri- butions amounting to 9,350 lire ($1,805). In 1898-99 there were 62 pupils in the day courses, and 183 in the evening courses. The school gives good results. In the midst of the crisis in the coral industry this school created novelties in coral work which increased the use of that material. The School of Inlaid Work and Carving {Sciwla di tarsia e d'mtaglio), of Sorrento, founded in 1886, has for its object the giving of instruction in the inlaid-work industries and in wood carv- 1212 BEPORT OF THE COMMISSIOjSTEK OF LABOR. ing, which are ver}' important in Sorrento, the products of these industries finding a large mai'ket among foreigners as "souvenirs of Naples." There is a workshop connected with the school. Instruction is given in the evening and on Sunday, the course lasting four years. It consists of drawing applied to inlaid work in colors, in light and shade, and in ivory, to carving, and to mosaic work. The school has had -ivithout doubt a good influence on the taste of the inlaid workers, but there are some that think that the inlaid work of Sorrento has lost something of its former artistic ingenuity. (") The contributions received by the school amount to 5,Y90 lire (|1,117). In 1898-99 there were 89 pupils in attendance. In manj^ localities of this district there are evening and Sunday schools similar to those of other districts. Apulia and Calabria. — Among the several small schools of these two districts the Sunday schools of Maglie and of Bitonto are note- worthy. Although situated in villages and without regular incomes — ■ the former receiving contributions amounting to 3,100 lire ($598) and the latter 1,500 lire ($290) — they give excellent results in wood carving and in stone work, and are examples of the vitality and usefulness of the small schools. Sicily. — At Palermo, Messina, and Catania there are several popu- lar evening and Sunda}^ schools. Other schools have been founded in smaller towns, generally upon the initiative of workingmen's asso- ciations. « See article by ^Ir. Paolo Rispoli on the professional st-hools of Naples in .the Rassegna Italiana, September, 1901. CHAPTER XL TRADE im TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN SWITZERLAND. 1213 CHAPTER XI. TEABS AHD TECHNICAL EBTJGATIOU IN SWITZERLAND. INTEODUCTION. The first efforts for the development of a special sj'stem of schools for industi"ial education in Switzerland date from the commencement of the eighteenth century. These efforts took the direction of the establishment of special schools of drawing. Such a school was pro- jected at Geneva in 1704, but the project was not actually realized until 1751. This school served as the model for many of the munici- pal art schools in Switzerland. In 1762 a di-awing school modeled after the one at Strasburg was opened at Basel. Failing, after a few years of existence, it was succeeded in 17^6 by a "school of drawing and modeling," founded by the Society of Public Utility of the city. This school, after an existence of ninety years, was converted into a general industrial school by a cantonal laAV passed December 20, 1886. In 1780 Johannes Fries, a master carpenter, opened a school of drawing for workmen at Zurich. Another private school of drawing was opened, in 1787, at Saint Gall, and later became a municipal insti- tution. In 1789 a similar school was opened at Winterthur. In 1773 an art school was established at Zurich. Sixty years later it was trans- formed into a lower industrial school [untere Industriescliule). Bern created an art school in 1779. In 1798 the Helvetic Eepublic was formed, and ambitious plans were laid for the development of a national educational system. These, however, w«re not carried out. The individual Cantons continued their efforts to found schools giving instruction of a practical charac- ter, in 1811 a factory school was founded at Basel, and in 1820 v,'ork- men's schools {ecoles d'' artisans) were cytablished at Aarau. Similar schools were opened at Bern in 1826 and at Zug in 1830. Drawing schools were opened at Geneva in 1814 and at Lausanne in 1821. The Lausanne school, as well as that founded at Geneva in 1761, belonged to the class of industrial art schools. About this period, or in the early twenties, the first trade school proper, or school for giving instruction in a particular trade, v.-as opened. This was the engravers' school of Geneva. A watchmakers' school was opened in 1824 in the same city. In 1827 a technical insti- tute was founded at Zurich and an industrial school at Aarau. In 1835 1215 1216 BEPOET OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. superior industrial instruction vvas incorporated in the programmes of the cantonal schools of Zurich and Aarau. In 1833 Winterthur opened an industrial school; in 1839 Soleure a technical institute, and in 1842 Saint Gall an industrial school. It was during this period that the drawing schools of Ticino, which will be described subsequently, were created. Artisans' schools were created at Chur in 1841, Oberweil in 1844, Carouge in 1845, Frauenfeld in 1846, Bischofszell in 1848, and Lenzburg in 1850. A new federal constitution was adopted in 1848. Article 32 of this document gave the Federal Government authority to create a Swiss university and a polytechnic institute. In pursuance of this power a federal polytechnic school at Zurich was provided for by the law of February 7, 1854, and formally opened in 1855. The provision of lower industrial education still remained the duty of the Cantons. Artisans' schools, Sunday schools, drawing schools, and continuation schools, all intended to supply the need of indus- trial training, sprang up all over Switzerland. In this development a profound influence was exerted by the frequent industrial expo- sitions which were held in the chief cities, as well as by the participa- tion of Switzerland in international expositions. More and more the movement for trade and technical education took form in the establishment of schools for special trades or the practical application of art to industry. A school of drawing for the textile industrjr was created at Saint Gall in 1867; a school of art at Bern in 1870; schools of industrial arts at Geneva (city) in 1869, Chaux-de- Fonds in 1870, Geneva (Canton) in 1876, Lucerne in 1877, Zurich in 1878, Bern in 1881 ; schools of watch making at Chaux-de-Fonds in 1866, Saint Imier in 1866, Locle in 1868, Neuchatel in 1871, Bienne in 1872, Fleurier in 1879, Porentruy and Soleure in 1884; schools of practical work for women at Basel in 1879 and at Zurich in 1880; weaving schools at Zurich and Wattwyl in 1881 ; a trade academy at Geneva in 1883, and schools for wood carving at Brienz and Meiringen in 1884. The first industrial museums and depots for models were established at Bern in 1871, at Zurich and Winterthur in 1874, at Saint Gall in 1878, at Basel in 1881, and at Lausanne in 1884. The Technikum of Win- terthur, an institution for secondary technical education, was founded in 1873. The year 1884, however, may be said to mark the point of departure of the modern movement for trade and technical education in Switz- erland. Prior to that date, as has been shown, the development of industrial education had been left almost wholly to the individual Cantons. On June 27, 1884, however, the Federal Assembly passed a resolution by v/hich the development of trade and technical education was made a national affair. This resolution provides for the granting of assistance, under certain conditions, to all institutions for trade and TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION SWITZERLAND. 1217 industrial education that desire it. This has resulted in the establish- ment of new and the development of existing institutions, and has given a great impetus to trade and technical education throughout the oountr3^ Since its adoption the number of trade schools has doubled, and other classes of schools, such as drawing schools, workingmen's evening schools, industrial art schools, etc., have greatly increased in number and efficiency. As this resolution sets forth the essential basis of the Swiss system of trade and technical education, its translation is giv«n in full. Article 1. With the object of improving trade education the Con- federation will grant subsidies to institutions already established or which shall be established for this purpose. However, when an insti- txTtion shall at the same time pursue another object, such as general education, for example, the federal subsidy shall be granted only in favor of the trade education. Art. 2. The following are considered as institutions intended for trade education : Workingmen's schools; trade continuation schools {ecoles profession- nelles de perfectionnement) and trade drawing schools, existing alone or annexed to primary schools; superior industrial and technical insti- tutions; as well as schools of arts and trades, collections of patterns, models, and material for instruction, and industrial museums. Art. 3. The Confederation may likewise contribute by subsidies toward the expenses for lectures or for prizes awarded after competi- tions on questions relating to trade education. Art. 4. The federal subsidies may, subject to the decision of the federal council, amount to one-half of the total expenses borne annually by the Cantons, communes, corporations, and private individuals. Art. 5. The federal council shall require of the cantonal govern- ments detailed information concerning the employment of the sums mentioned in article 4; it shall take cognizance of the progress of the institutions, and require the transmission of the programmes of instruction, the reports, and the results of the examinations. In determining the amount of the federal subsidy account shall be taken of the fact when there are trained, in the institution to be subsidized, teachers for trade education and especially teachers of drawing for the workingmen's schools and the continuation schools {ecoles de per- fectionn enien t) . The Confederation shall share, in the same measure, the expenses which are required for the training of persons wishing to devote them- selves to teaching in the institutions named in article 2. Art. 6. The "federal council shall enter into negotiations with the Cantons regarding the conditions under which the Confederation will participate in this trade education, and shall, in cooperation with them, adopt any further measures deemed necessary, by contract, if it be found desirable. Art. 7. The present payments of the Cantons, the communes, the corporations, and private individuals must not be diminished because of the subsidies which the Confederation shall allow. These ought rather to be a stimulus to the fulfillment of greater obligations in the field of the development of industry and of the arts and trades. 9257—02 77 1218 KEPOKT OF THE OOMMISSIOWEK OF LABOE. Aet. 8. The budget of the Confederation shall provide an annual credit of 150,000 francs [128,950] for the improvement of trade educa- tion. This credit maybe increased when the necessity for it is felt, and when the financial condition of the Confederation permits it. For the year 188i there is opened to the federal council for this pui-pose a supplementary credit of 100,000 francs [119,300]. Art. 9. The federal council is instructed, in conformity with the provisions of the federal law of June 17, 1874, concerning popular voting on the federal laws and resolutions, to publish the present reso- lution and to fix the date when it shall go into effect. The following are the regulations adopted January 27, 1885, and still in force, concerning the execution of the above resolution relating to trade education: The Swiss federal council, in execution of the federal resolution of June 27, 188i, in reference to trade education, on the proposition of its department of commerce and agriculture, resolves: Article 1. Applications for federal grants toward the expenses of trade education must be made to the federal department of commerce and agriculture through the medium of the respective cantonal gov- ernment, which must first investigate them and accompany them with its detailed report. Art. 2. Applications presented for the first time in behalf of an institution must furnish the information concerning it and be accom- panied by the documents hereafter mentioned: A. In regard to organization: a. The exact name of the institution and of the place where it is located. h. The name of the proprietor. c. The date of the foundation of the institution. d. The detailed description of the institution — information con- cerning the organization, the division, the object, the gov- ernment, the attendance, the conditions of admission for the pupils or the public. e. All printed documents or other publications which have refer- ence to the institution, such as laws, decrees, ordinances, regulations, programmes, statutes, annual reports, financial statements, catalogues, etc. B. In regard to financial condition: a. The detailed statement of receipts and expenditures during the last year. h. The itemized budget for the year for which the subsidy is requested. These documents must specify accurately the subsidies and other allowances of the Canton, the communes, societies and corporations, and private individuals, and the special purposes to which these subsidies are applied. c. Information concerning the existence and, if there are any, the amounts of fees to be paid for attendance at the institution (tuition, admission fees, etc.). d. The proposed use of the federal subsidy, which must be made the object of a statement in detail and showing the reasons. New expenditures proposed for the ensuing j'ear must be stated separately from the usual expenditures. e. Information as to the amount of the assets of the institution; the balance sheet. TRADE AND TECHKICAL EDUCATION SWITZERLAND. 1219 . ^^'^- ^: ^°i' t'^® schools, including the'special courses, the following intormation and documents must also be furnished: a. The division into school j-ears, classes, courses, etc., and their respective duration. i. Thenurnber of weeks of school during the j-ear and their dis- tribution over the various months. c. The programme of instruction— teaching staff, courses of study, number of hours of school per week, arrangement of hours {horaire), etc. d. The number, sex, and age limits of the pupils. e. An estimate of the actual or probable attendance in the several branches, and information as to whether these branches are obligatory or optional. /. Information as to whether, and if so, in what manner, the institution trains teachers for trade instruction, particularly drawing teachers for the workingmen's schools and the con- tinuation schools {ecoles de perfectionnement). Art. 4. Applications for subsidies for the collections (article 2, paragraph 2, of the federal resolution aforementioned) must be accompanied by the statutes, Regulations, and reports which give the necessary information respecting the object of the collection, the right to make use of it, the number who have availed themselves of the privilege of using it. The statutes must contain definite provisions concerning the disposi- tion which would be made, in case of the dissolution of the institu- tion, of the acquisitions for which the federal subsidy shall have been granted. Art. 6. Applications for subsidies for itinerant courses, for prizes for competitions in connection with trade education, and for scholar- ships to persons who wish "to devote themselves to teaching in those institutions mentioned in article 2 of the federal resolution, must be presented in conformity with, the prescriptions of article 1' above. Scholarships shall not be granted to candidates who apply for them unless the cantonal government on its part grants one in each case. The scholarship granted by the Confederation may equal in amount that granted by the^anton. . The candidate to whom a federal scholarship is given must agree to present to the federal department of commerce and agriculture, at least once each semester, a report upon his studies,_and after their completion to practice teaching in one of the Swiss institutions enu- merated in article 2 of the aforementioned federal resolution. Art. 6. Applications in favor of existing institutions which have already been subsidized by the Confederation must give the information and be accompanied by the documents following; a. A detailed report upon the progress and results of and the attendance on the institution during the last year. In that which speciallv concerns the schools this report must take account of the points indicated in article 3 above, and give a brief sketch of the results of the examinations. 5. A detailed programme of the ensuing year. . , „ , c The documents and information enumerated m article 2 above, under the letter B, a to e, and an explanatory detailed state- ment concerning the employment of the federal subsidy. 1220 EEPOKT OF THE GOMMISSIONER OF LABOE. Art. 7. As a rule, the following expenditures must not be included in the estimates for the applications for subsidies: a. Expenditures for general administration, office expenses, rent and repair of buildings, lighting, and heating. h. Expenditures for school furniture, furniture for the collections (cases, etc.), school supplies intended for the ordinary use of the pupils (paper, etc.). On the other hand, the following expenditures maj^ be included in the estimates: a. Those relating to the raw materials, tools and instruments, apparatus for instruction (in the workshops, etc.), and the collections. T). Those which are made for certain installations for the special use of the institution making the application. The federal department of commerce and agriculture shall consider each case separately and decide each time according to the circum- stances. Art. 8. All further information which the federal department of commerce and agriculture shall deem it necessary to demand concern- ing institutions which lay claim to a federal subsidy must be given to it by the proper pei'son. Art. 9. Subject to the final decision of the federal council, the fed- eral department of commerce and agriculture is authorized upon its own authority and within the limits of the budget, to pass upon the applications for subsidies made in conformity with article 1. Art. 10. The subsidies of the Confederation may, according to cir- cumstances, amount to one-half the expenses borne annually by the Cantons, communes, corporations, and private individuals. The sub- sidies hitherto granted by the Cantons and the communes nmst not be diminished. Those contributed by corpo:i'ations and private individ- uals must, if the department of commerce and agriculture deems it necessary, be guaranteed for a fixed perio.d; if there is default in these the federal subsidy shall be calculated only according to the cantonal and communal subsidies. Art. 11. The cantonal governments must each year transmit to the federal department of commerce and agriculture for examination and review an inventory (the accuracy of which shall have been certified to by them) of the purchases to which the federal subsidy shall have been applied. They must, moreover, guarantee that, in case of the dissolution of the subsidized institution, the property acquired shall always be devoted to public uses. Art. 12. Access to the subsidized collections must be rendered easy; moreover, in so far as it shall be possible, the articles composing them shall be loaned to traveling expositions and private individuals, in con- sideration of good security, and their reproduction by photography, drawing, etc. , shall be permitted. Art. 13. The Confederation may grant, in favor of a course extend- ing over several years, a subsidy for the whole duration of the course, with the reservation, however, that the subsidy shall be withdrawn in case the course shall not be completed because of the dissolution of the institution in which it is given, or if the results from it are found to be unsatisfactory. Art. 14. For the purpose of informing itself with respect to the results in the institutions subsidized by the Confederation, the federal TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION— SWITZERLAND. 1221 department of commerce and agriculture has the right at all times to ■ malce an inspection of these institutions by its own personnel or throu SUBSIDIES RECEIVED, 1899. Canton, town, and school. Expendi- tures. Federal subsidy. Canton of Bern: Blenne, Technikum of We.stern Switzerland 832,931 15,425 10,080 45,937 89,023 4,574 3,387 12 279 Burgdorf , Cantonal Technikum Canton of Zurich: Winterthur, Technikum Total 104, 373 29,263 EXPENDITURES OF GENERAL INDUSTRIAL SCHOOLS SUBSIDIZED BY THE GOVERNMENT AND AMOUNT OF SUBSIDIES RECEIVED, 1899. Canton, town, and school. FEDERAL Federal subsidy. Canton of Basel Town: Basel, Industrial School Canton of Freyburg: Freyburg', Secondary Industrial School Freyburg, Industrial Trade School Freyburg, School of Trade and trade courses for adults Canton of Vaud; Lausanne, Cantonal Industrial School . . . Total $7, 005 612 579 598 1,255 9,949 INDUSTRIAL ABT SCHOOLS. The Swiss industrial art schools are for the most part subdivisions of line art or industrial schools. Exceptions to this general rule are the special schools of industrial art at Lucerne and Geneva. In Chaux- de-Fonds and Geneva art industries are taught in the municipal art schools, and in Bern, Zurich, and Winterthur they are taught at the trade and higher technical schools. Industrial art in Switzerland has not yet reached that stage of specialization which is found in Germany and some other countries. Probably, however, the Swiss industrial art schoqls will be specialized in like manner when the number of pupils and the funds available permit. The existing schools make an effort to have special classes for each branch of art industry whenever the number of pupils justifies their formation. In all cases the special needs of the locality in which the school is located are considered in arranging the schedules of studies. Drawing is the basis of all industrial art education, and is duly empha- sized. In general it may be said that the schools resemble those of Germany, not having developed any distinctive features. j The criticisms passed on the work of the schools are, first, that the pupils are not always sufficiently familiar with the technique of the industries in which they are to be employed, and do not fully appreciate the limitations which the technique imposes in the execution of designs and patterns; and, secondly, that the schools follow too closely the tradi- tional styles and therefore lack originality in design. Both of these 1226 BEPOBT OF THE C0MMI8SI0NEE OF LABOR. criticisms have been made of similar schools in other countries and are the natural faults which such institutions must overcome. The reports of the institutions, however, show that these dangers are being appre- ciated, and efforts are being made to guard against them by sending instructors to visit foreign industrial establishments, foreign schools, and especially international expositions. The following table shows the amounts expended for the maintenance of these schools and the amount of the federal contribution: EXPENDITURES OP INDUSTRIAL ART SCHOOLS SUBSIDIZED BY THE EEDERAl GOVERN- MENT AND AMOUNT OP SUBSIDIES RECEIVED, 1899. Canton, -town, and school. Expendi- tures. Pederal subsidy. 82, 987 22, 8U 19,812 3,876 8,843 jfl, 312 Canton oJ Geneva: 7,315 6,562 1,225 Canton of Neuchatel: 2,220 m Total 58,332 c 18, 634 a Now a section of the Trade and Industrial Art School, Bern. 6 Not reported. c Not including one school, not reported. TRADE SCHOOLS AND APPRENTICESHIP SHOPS. The trade schools of Switzerland cover a wide field and'are intended to provide opportunities for the training of those persons who expect to fill the higher positions in industrial life as well as of those who may be classed as skilled workmen. The founders of the schools have been mainly associations of private persons. They are usually either persons engaged in the industry, as in the case of the silk- weaving school of Zurich which was founded 'bj the Silk Weaving Society, or associations of persons such as the numerous societies of public welfare {Gemeinnutzige Vei^eiiie). Prac- tically all the schools i-eceive subsidies from the Federal Government and from other sources. Some of the schools are still the property of the private persons who established them, but the most importaijt ones have become municipal or cantonal institutions. The most numerous schools of this group are those for the watch- making industry and they have reached a high state of development. In practically all such schools the pupils enter at the age of li and begin by making small watchmaking tools. They thus learn to file, to use the lathe, and to do other mechanical work. They next make a rough set of the works of a watch. The parts are then carefully finished, special attention being given to the escapement mechanism. Preliminary regulating is next taken up. If the pupil wishes further instruction, he is taught to make the works of a repeating watch, or of TRADE AND TECHIflCAL EDUCATION — SWITZERLAND. 1227 a calendar clock. Finally, as the most difficult and delicate part of the work, the pupils do simple and precision regulating. All reports agree that these schools have played no small part in placing the Swiss watchmaking industry in its present high state of development. Apprenticeship shops are intended as a substitute for the instruction which is otherwise given in the shops of master workmen engaged in industry. Pupils who attend are regularly indentured as apprentices, and the instruction given is mainly practical. In Switzerland there are but two subsidized institutions known as apprenticeship shops {Lehrwerkstdtten) and the character of the instruction given is about the same as that of a regular trade school. On the other hand, some of the institutions known as trade schools require their pupils to be regularly indentured as in an apprenticeship shop. The plan of pair- ing a master workman, who carries on a regular business, to undertake the training of apprentices as is done in some countries does not seem to have been undertaken in Switzerland. Schools for the trade training of females, which constitute an important group, are included in this class. Their courses of instruc- tion relate either to single trades such as ladies' tailoring, embroidery, etc. , or to a group of trades. The courses of instruction in the latter class include garment cutting, dressmaking, plain sewing, embroiderj-, millinery, artificial flower making, crocheting, knitting, ironing, etc. The following table shows the expenditures of each of these schools and shops and the amount contributed by the Federal Government:. EXPENDITURES OF TRADE SCHOOLS, APPRENTICESHIP SHOPS, ETC., SUBSIDIZED BY THE FEDERAL GOVERNMENT AND AMOUNT OF SUBSIDIES RECEIVED, 1S99. TRADE SCHOOIiS. Canton, town, and school. Expendi- tures. Federal subsidy. Canton ol Appenzell; Teuflen, •weaving institute Canton of Bern; Brienz, school ot wood carving Poreutruy, school of watchmaking Saint Imier, school of watchmaking and mechanics Canton of Geneva: Geneva, school of watchmaking Geneva, school of mechanics Geneva, school for the building trades Canton of Neuchatel: Chaux-de-Fonds, school of watchmaking and mechanics Couvet, school of m.echanics Fleurier, school of watchmaking and mechanics Locle, school of watchmaking and mechanics Neuchatel, school of watchmaking Canton of Saint Gall : Grabs, etc. , embroidery schools ■ Wattwyl, Toggenburg school of weaving Canton of Soleure: Soleure, school of watchmaking Canton of Zurich; Winterthur, trade school for metal workers Zurich, school of silk weaving Total «1, 431 7,006 2,904 7,450 9,372 5, 5S4 8,920 10, 193 3,239 5,471 7,789 3,314 14, 694 3,663 3,147 11, 970 7,422 S290 1,042 679 1,891 3,046 1,737 2, 604 2,706 830 1,544 1,088 984 8,744 965 483 1,641 1,544 113,569 26,718 1228 EEPOBT OF THE COMMmSIOWEB OF LABOB. EXPENDITUEES OF TRADE SCHOOLS, -APPRENTICESHIP BHOPS, BTC.-Concluded. APPRENTICESHIP SHOPS (liEHRWEKIlSTXx'f EN.) Canton, town, and school. Expendi- tures. Federal subsidy. Canton of Bern; Sumiswald, apprenticeship shop for clockmaking $752 26,491 $251 4,227 Total 27,243 4,478 XKADE SCHOOIiS AND COURSES FOR FEMAIiES. Canton of Basel Town; Basel, school for women's work (Frauenarbeitsschule) Canton of Bern: Bern, school for women's work (Frauenarbeitsschule) Canton of Freyburg: Freyburg, course in ladies' tailoring Canton of Glarus: Diessbach, course in sewing, knitting, etc. (Handarbeitskurs ) Hiitzingen, course in sewing, knitting, etc. (Handarbeitskurs) Haslen, course in sewing, knitting, etc. (Handarbeitskurs) Luchsingen, course in sewing, knitting, etc. (Handarbeitskurs) Mollis, course in sewing, knitting, etc. (Handarbeitskurs) . . Nettstal, course in sewing, knitting, etc. (Handarbeitskurs) Nitiurn, course in sewing, knitting, etc. (Handarbeitskurs) Rtiti, course in sewing, knitting, etc. (Handarbeitskurs) Canton of Grisons: Chur, school for women's work (Frauenarbeitsschule) . . . Canton of Neuchatel: Chaux-de-Fonds, trade school for girls - Neuchatel, trade school for girls Canton of Saint Gall: Saint Gall, school for women's work (Frauenarbeits- schule) - Canton of Valais: Bagne, etc., course in embroidery Canton of Vaud: Lausanne, trade courses for girls Morges, trade school for girls - . - Vevay, school for sewing Canton of Zurich: Zurich, trade school for ladies' tailoring and lingerie Total 11, 029 HOXrSEKEEPING AND DOMESTIC-SERVICE SCHOOLS. The recent movement for the provision of instruction in housekeep- ing, cooking, and the training of domestic servants, is due almost entirely to the efforts of the Swiss Women's Society for Public Wel- fare {Societe d? TJtil'de pvMique des Femmes suisses), which was organ- ized in 1888. As a means in realizing its aims this society established schools of housekeeping, which met with such success that in 1895 the Federal Government was induced to grant subsidies to them on condition that their courses furnish a suiEciently complete practical and theoretical instruction on the subject. Courses of less than three weeks, and so-called cooking schools which in reality are only catering establishments, are excluded from the benefits of the federal subsidj'. The teachers employed must be persons of broad, general education, who are likely to exercise an elevating influence over the pupils. Under the stimulus of the federal subsidy, several types of schools have been evolved. The housekeeping school {eoole nienagere or Haushaltungsschule) is usually a boarding school adapted especially for young women who wish to have a thorough knowledge of their own housework. It is also a training school for women who expect to take up housekeeping as a means of earning a livelihood. The TEADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION — SWITZERLAND. 1229 pupils do all the housework, cooking, and serving in the school. The courses last from three months to one year. A second type is that of the school for training domestic servants. The pupils live at the school, and do all the work connected with the housekeeping. The practical instruction relates to cooking, baking, and other kitchen work, house cleaning, sewing, washing, ironing, and gardening. The theoretical work includes domestic economy, theory of nutrition, bookkeeping, and hygiene. The courses last from three to six months. The cost of board, lodging, and tuition ranges between 70 francs ($13.51) and 110 francs (121.23) for the term. A mixed type of schools includes courses both for housekeepers and for domestic servants. In addition to these schools there are day and evening courses in cooking and housekeeping for pupils who live at home. A special effort has been made to provide such courses for working women. Finally there are courses in cooking given in the public schools as a part of the regular instruction. Normal schools for the training of teachers for the housekeeping and cooking schools have been established at Bern and at Zurich. They are subsidized by the Federal Government. The next step in advance, that of making instruction in cooking and housekeeping a compulsory feature of the public school work, is now being advocated by the above-mentioned Swiss "Women's Society for Public Welfare. In the Canton of Freyburg such compulsory instruc- tion has been introduced in the schools, so that henceforth all pupils on leaving school possess the rudiments of a training in this pursuit. The following table shows the schools and courses of this class which receive federal subsidies, the amounts of these subsidies, and the expenditures: EXPENDITURES OP HOUSEKEEPING AND COOKING SCHOOLS AND COURSES SUBSIDIZED BY THE FEDERAL GOVERNMENT AND AMOUNT OF SUBSIDIES RECEIVED, 1899. Canton, town, and school or course. Canton of Aargau: Aarburg, housekeeping school Aarau, cooking courses Boniswil, cooking and housekeeping school Bottenwil, housekeeping school Brittnau, housekeeping school Lenzburg, school for housekeepers and servants Menzikon, cooking and housekeeping school Eeinach, cooking and housekeeping school Uerkheim, housekeeping school Wittwil, housekeeping school Zoflngen, cooking and housekeeping school Canton of Appenzell, Outer Rhodes: Herisau, people's cooking school. Canton of Basel Land: Arlesheim, housekeeping course Gelterkinden, cooking and housekeeping school liiesthal, cooking and housekeeping school Liesthal, cooking and housekeeping courses ■Miinchenstein, cooking and housekeeping school Muttenz, housekeeping school Sissach, school kitchen ■- Sissach, cooking and housekeeping school ~ Expendi- tures. 1,085 .,465 -43 31 :,427 135 314 68 47 173 271 103 ,176 605 291 185 128 97 363 Federal subsidy. S13 116 78 9 14 169 56 72 16 13 60 104 314 125 77 39 39 39 1230 REPORT OF THE OOMMISSIONEK OV LABOR. EXPENDITURES OF HOUSEKEEPING AND COOKING SCHOOLS, ETC.— Concluded. Canton, to"\vn, and school or course. Canton of Basel Town: Basel, cooking course Basel, cooking schools Canton of Bern: Bern, school tor domestic servants . . . .■ Bern, cooking and housekeeping courses Herzogenbuchpee, housekeeping school Saint Imier, housekeeping school Worb, housekeeping school Canton oi Freyburg: Freyburg, trade courses in cooking Canton of Geneva: Carouge, housekeeping school Geneva, housekeepiug school Canton of Grisons: Chur, cooking and housekeeping school ' Dissentis Mustar, cantonal cooking course Canton of Lucerne: Biihl bei Nottwyl, cooking and housekeeping school Canton of Neuehatel : Chaux-de-Fonds, housekeeping school Canton of Obwalden: Cooking courses Canton of Saint Gall: Saint Gall, cooking and housekeeping school , . Canton of Soleure: Aeschi, housekeeping school t '. . . -Balsthal, housekeei>ing school Biberist, housekeeping school Derendingen, housekeeping school Grenchen, housekeeping school Kriegstetten, housekeeping school Olten, housekeeping school Schonenwerd, housekeeping school Soleure, housekeeping school Canton of Thurgau: Neuklrch a. d. Th., housekeeping school Canton of Vaud: Lausanne, housekeeping school Vevay , school for domestic servants Canton oi Valais: Loeche, housekeeping school Canton' of Zurich: Kilssnacht, housekeeping school Pfaffikon, cooking courses Richtensvceil, housekeeping school Stafa, housekeeping school Winterthur, housekeeping school and courses Zurich, housekeeping school Total Expendi- Federal tures. subsidy. $1,042 1336 1, 617- 347 4,740 679 797 266 1,471 279 4,701 135 3,264 309 1,604 444 2,646 830 13,287 4, 929 1,051 193 323 58 1,527 154 889 207 283 77 3,640 241 170 63 351 111 300 86 674 207 285 102 149 48 136 65 165 48 453 87 1,857 135 9,266 2,258 1,139 148 779 97 188 25 620 97 197 39 161 41 1,780 356 8,634 1,206 78,046 INDUSTRIAL CONTINUATION AND HANDICRAFT SCHOOLS AND TRADE COURSES. The industrial continuation schools, which are by far the most numerous of any of the classes of industrial schools in Switzerland, correspond in general to the industrial continuation schools in Ger- many. In Switzerland the specialization of industrial into special trade continuation schools has not reached that stage of development which has been attained in GermanJ^ In general the Swiss continuation schools cover the field of educa- tional work immediately beyond that of the primary schools, and hence are arranged for pupils over 14 years of age. They are often so closely related to the preliminary courses for 'recruits {Rekruten- vorl'.urse) that a few words must be given to this peculiar branch of the Swiss»educational system. The law of July 15, 1879, requires that all recruits for the Swiss army shall be examined bj' federal examiners on the subjects of reading, composition, arithmetic, geography, and the history and gov- ernment of Ssvitzerland. The results of these examinations are pub- lished by the Cantons, the latter being ranked accordingly. This has TKADE AJTD TECHNICAL EDUCATION SWITZERLAND. 1231 caused a wholesome rivalry among th« different Cantons, and as a result eleven Cantons have established special compulsory courses, in which persons are prepared for these federal examinations. These courses bear a close resemblance to those of the general continuation schools, and in some Cantons the two are combined. With regard to compulsory attendance upon general continuation schools the Cantons have pursued different policies. Nine Cantons have made attendance upon these schools compulsory, vnth the option of substituting in'dustrial continuation instruction. Five Cantons make it optional with each commune whether or not such attendance shall be compulsory within the commune limits. In the remaining Cantons attendance is voluntar}-. The time of attendance is usuallj^ from thre« to six hours per week, in the evenings and on Sundays. In a few cases a forenoon or an after- noon per week is devoted to this instruction. In some Cantons classes may not be held after 8 p. m. ^Yhen instruction is given on Sundays it must be at such hours as will not prevent the pupils from attending church services. The Sunday classes are most frequently devoted to drawing and sketching. Usually the instruction is given only during the winter months. The Canton of Ticino, in Italian Switzerland, requires each commune to provide at least one continuation school for instruction in drawing. The Canton in this case bears the expense of the teachers' salaries, while the communes defray the other expenses not covered by the tuition fees. Together with the class of industrial continuation schools may be considered the handicraft schools {Ifandwerkm'schulc?i) and the special trade courses for ai'tisans. Both of these classes of institutions are intended mostly for journeymen and master workaien, and in that respect they differ from the industrial continuation schools. The instruction is usually given in the evenings and on Sundays. In some cases the trade courses are given in the daytime on -n-eek days during periods when business is slack. The chief points of difference between these two latter classes of institutions are that in the handicraft schools instruction is given regularly to artisans of various trades, while the trade courses are held at irregular intervals, and the instruction in each course is usually devoted to a single trade. In the handicraft schools much emphasis is given to industrial and trade drawing, the greater part of the time being devoted to that sub- ject. Language, arithmetic, geometry, and trade calculations usually constitute the rest of the progi-amme. Handicraft schools are most numerous in the Cantons of Bern, Zurich, and Aargau. ■ In the special trade courses the work includes theoretical and prac- tical instruction, and whenever they are held in the daytime they are 1232 BEPOKT OF THE COMMISSIONEB OF LABOE. SO arranged that they can be completed in a short time. They are usually conducted under the auspices of trade guilds, industrial asso- ciations, and similar bodies. The following tables show the total number of industrial continua- tion schools in Switzerland and their attendance, and a list of the industrial continuation schools, handicraft schools, and trade courses receiving federal subsidies, together with their total expenditure and the amount of such subsidies: NUMBER AND ATTENDANCE OF INDUSTRIAL CONTINUATION SCHOOLS, BY CANTONS, 1899. Schools. Attendance. Total. Canton. Males. Females. 11 1 13 5 23 8 7 4 2 4 26 3 8 11 18 17 1 3 2 30, 816 (a) 741 i") 2,380 484 706 399 126 496 (") 371 341 623 753 635 45 24 156 4,037 316 («) («) '741 (a) 116 C) Bern 2,496 484 388 1,094 399 126 Neuchatel 177 (a) 673 (°) 371 35 376 623 Ticino 763 635 45 30 5^ Zug 166 Zurich . 4,037 Total 197 !'12,633 !'746 !>13,379 Not reported. & Not including 32 schools, not reported. EXPENDITURES OF INDUSTRIAL CONTINUATION SCHOOLS, HANDICRAFT SCHOOLS, AND SPECIAL TRADE COURSES SUBSIDIZED BY THE FEDERAL GOVERNMENT, AND AMOUNT OF SUBSIDIES RECEIVED, 1899. INBXJSTIIIAI. CONTINUATION SCHOOSiS FOK MAIZES. Canton and town. Ex- pendi- tures. Federal sub- sidy. Canton and town. Ex- pendi- tures. Federal sub- sidy. Canton of Appenzell; Herisau $716 188- 179 266 218 144 907 356 281 126 264 943 264 212 247 253 694 1,477 907 183 193 1, 901 S234 59 52 88 73 48 261 135 77 40 77 347 97 68 77 77 170 492 304 65 68 579 Canton of Saint Gall: Altstatten . S334 277 172 157 201 222 230 180 185 200 63 154 234 141 388 201 425 362 122 475 187 5,980 340 172 14-1 $101 80 Speicher.. Stein-Hundwyl Buchs . . 68 Teuffen 58 Trogen Ebnat-Kappel . 58 79 72 Gelterldnden 61 Waldenburg Gossau.. . . 66 Canton of Bern: Tavannes Grabs 68 Canton of Freyburg; Morat Grub 19 Canton of Glarua: Kirchberg 48 Engi 63 Mels 37 Mollis Nieder Uzwil 131 Nffif els 68 Nettstal Eagatz 139 94 Schwanden Rhemeck 41 Canton of Grisons: Rorschach 157 Chur ■. Schennis . 58 Saint Gall 1,621 Ems Thai 104 Thu.sis 57 Canton of Lucerne: Lucerne Wartau 42 TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION — SWITZERLAND. 1233 EXPENDITURES OF IKDDSTRIAL CONTINUATION SCHOOLS, ETC.-Continucd. INBUSTKIAl, CONTINUATION SCHOOI.IS FOB. MAliES-Concluaed. Canton and town. Canton of Saint Gall— Conc'd. Wattwyl Wyl Canton of Schaflhausen : Neunkirch Schaff hausen Stein Canton of Scliwytz: Art Brunnen-Ingendohl Einsiedehi Gersau Kiissnaclit , Lachen Schwytz Wollerau Canton of Soleure: Balsthal-KluB Biberist Breitenbach Derendingen Erlinsbach Grenchen Hessigkof en Kriegstetten Niedergerlafingen , Olten Canton of Thurgau: Amriswll Arbon Bischofszell Diessenhofen Ermatmgen Ex- pendi- tures. Federal sub- sidy $207 463 319 1,766 177 351 196 487 139 188 336 642 168 458 113 146 354 217 639 347 370 363 1,201 150 304 216 140 145 869 135 105 60 181 43 39 99 147 46 135 36 48 111 72 185 116 120 116 42 101 77 52 52 Canton and town. Prauenf eld Kreuzlingen Miihlheim Oberhof.-Miinchwilen Scbonenberg-Kradolf Weinfelden Canton of Uri; Altorf Canton of Valais: Sion Canton of Zug: Baar Canton of Zurich: Bassersdorf Bauma Biilacb Dielsdorf Elgg Illnau Kiissnacht Mannedorf Nanikon Oerlikon-Seebacb-Schv/a- mendingen Pfiiffikon Eiiti Richtensweil Bykon-Lindau Staf a Uster Wald Wetzikon Winterthur Zurich Total 94,940 Ex- pendi- tures. 491 84 150 139 369 405 3,117 226 234 287 164 141 231 244 370 241 191 589 316 582 229 146 348 740 412 345 1,652 48, 911 Federal sub- sidy. 8290 124 41 41 98 135 679 63 77 77 68 19 77 58 138 77 68 174 77 154 68 45 97 210 116 14, 282 27, 844 INDTJSTKIAIi CONTINUATION SCHOOI.S FOK FEMALES. Canton of Aargau: KoUiken Kilngoldingen Oftringen Canton of Appenzell, Outer Rhodes: Gals Heiden Herisau Hundwyl Grub Lutzenberg Eehetobel Reutte Schwellbrunn Speicher Stein Teuffen Trogen Wald Waldstatt Walzenhausen Wolfhalden Canton of Bern: Duggingen Miinchenbuchsee Thun Canton of Glarus: Nieder Urnen Schwandi Canton of Schaffhausen: Beggingen Dorflingen Schaflhausen Schleitheim Stein Canton of Soleure: Biisserach Canton of Thurgau: Affeltrangen Altersweiien Altnau Amriswyl Bichelsee Bischofszell 886 826 28 13 31 18 31 8 88 28 619 183 60 13 12 2 26 4 37 11 14 4 12 65 20 47 13 112 37 69 23 21 7 19 6 27 9 25 8 103 14 165 34 215 39 125 39 34 10 77 25 24 8 837 232 130 42 111 39 209 66 100 29 33 12 68 14 129 38 48 15 85 29 Buch Diessenhofen Dussnang Ermatingen Etteuhausen Frauenfeld Gottigkof en Guntershausen Herrenhof Hiittlingen Kesswil Langdorf Leimbach iVIarstetten Matzingen Mettlen Miihlheim Neukirch-Egnach . . . Oberaach Ober Neunforn Pfyn Schonenberg Stettfurt Sulgen Tagerweilen "Wangi Weinfelden Canton of Zurich: Andelfingen DiJbendorf Dynhard-Eschlikon . Egg Hegi Hutzikon Illnau Neftenbach Rilti Toss Turbenthal Unter Stammbeim . . Winterthur Yberg-Seen Total 11,854 929 67 63 108 38 293 39 115 63. 65 61 106 38 72 98 231 147 25 55 i,299 17 $11 23 2(! 35 13 97 13 32 32 10 19 12 20 12 12 27 12 12 15 16 12 15 14 17 32 15 29 14 19 9 29 12 31 15 62 48 5 IS 1,644 ,498 9257—02 78 1234 EEPOKT OF THE COMMISSIONEK OF LABOK. EXPENDITURES OF INDUSTRIAL CONTINUATION SCHOOLS, ETC.— Concluded. HANBICHAFT SCHOOIiS (HANBIVEKKEKSCHUI-EN). Canton and to\VTi. Canton of Aargau: Aarburg Baden Bremgarten Brngg Frick , Gebenstorf , Lenzburg Menzikon Murgenthal Muri , Rheinfelden Scboftland WoMen Zofingen Canton of Bern; Bern , Bienne Burgdorf Herzogenbucliaee Huttweil Interlachen Ex- Federal pendi- sub- tures. sidy. 8202 862 758 196 210 3 663 163 185 68 129 39 287 87 419 86 166 53 199 53 301 86 239 39 207 69 427 126 6,239 1,614 1,019 290 917 270 235 77 187 48 816 262 Canton and town. Kirehberg Langenthal Langnau Miinslngen Ober-Diesbach Oberhofen StefSsburg Sumiswald Thun Wangon Worb Canton of Geneva: Geneva — Canton of Soleure; Soleure Canton of Valais: Slon Canton of Zurich: AfEoltern, Mettmenstetten, Hansen Horgen Toss Wadensweil Total Ex- pendi- tures. $192 620 324 165 90 146 269 243 548 343 225 6,153 1,957 347 575 247 819 26, 750 Federal sub- sidy. 862 145 87 49 21 48 82 68 164 120 39 1,544 618 116 174 77 116 77 7,276 TKADB COUKSES. CantoA, town, and course. Ex- pendi- tures. Federal sub- sidy. Canton, town, and course. Ex- pendi- tures. Federal sub- sidy. Canton of Geneva: Geneva, op- tional evening courses S?2,196 1,161 1,203 640 296 135 8618 270 405 179 91 53 Lausanne, courses in gilding for bookbinders 881 879 338 169 489 831 Canton of Neuchatel: Locle, courses of the Society for Trade Lausanne, trade courses for locksmiths 333 Lausanne, trade courses for wagon makers and horse- Canton of Vaud: 86 the Industrial and Com- Morges, trade courses Vevay, trade courses of the Industrial and Commer- 55 Lausanne, trade courses for upholsterers 116 Total tinsmiths . 7,477 2,237 Lausanne, trade courses for USTDTTSTEIAL DRAWING SCHOOLS. The Canton of Ticino is the home of the Swiss industrial drawing schools {Gewerbllche Zeiclicnschulen). As was stated above, each com- mune of the Canton is required by law to establish a drawing school, and many of these schools are devoted to industrial drawing. This feature of industrial education is one that is of the greatest importance, and justifies the emphasis that is placed on the subject in Ticino. The woi'k covers free-hand drawing, ornamental drawing, the study of the theory of ornamentation, drawing of articles used in the various trades, modeling, figure drawing, drawing from nature, designing, enlarging and diminishing, history of art styles, mechanical di-awing and per- spective. Coloring is also taught. Some of the schools encourage TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION SWITZEELAND. 1235 the pupils to do original work, such as the designing of textiles, metal work, etc. The Cantons of Appenzell, Bern, Basel Land, and Unterwalden, together with Ticino, have paid the most attention to developing this class of schools. The following table shows the industrial drawing schools receiving federal subsidies, the amount of these subsidies, and the expenditures for each subsidized school: EXPENDITURES OF INDUSTEIAL DRAWING SCHOOLS SUBSIDIZED BY THE GOVERNMENT AND AMOUNT OP SUBSIDIES RECEIVED, 1899. FEDERAL Canton and town. Ex- pendi- tures. Federal sub- sidy. Canton and town. Ex- pendi- tures. Federal sub- sidy. Canton of Appenzell: Buhler $97 108 419 120 73 224 564 B91 628 119 149 1,124 683 681 84 1,411 886 390 334 439 335 «3l 32 118 35 23 77 193 174 193 39 54 381 90 100 36 602 62 57 64 54 48 Curio ^> Loeamo Lugano S423 1,317 5,422 1,163 Ja) 370 703 351 426 366 374 79 105 4:1 508 136 637 858 319 2,804 Heiden 231 Ponte Tresa («) Waldstatt 46 104 Canton of Basel Land: Russo Seasa Liesthal Sonvico 54 Stabio 64 Canton of Bern: Tesserete 58 75 Canton of Unterwalden (Lower) : 19 Canton of Ticino: Buochs .. . 29 1S5 Canton of Unterwalden (Upper) : 168 Kerns 39 Canton of Zug: Zug Breno 245 Ceyio Total' 621,760 b 6, 911 a Not reported. t> Not including 3 towns not reported. INDTJSTKIAL MUSEUMS. The industrial museums of Switzerland have not developed any special characteristics. They seek to preserve and to classify the best specimens of the work of the different trades and of the different periods. The museums have attempted to popularize the study of industrial styles and inventions by means of lectures and exhibitions. Most of them made special efforts to secure specimens of the best modern work by purchasing articles displayed at the Paris Exhibition of 1900. They also seek to assist the tradesmen by exhibiting sam- ples of products, as, for instance, textile products of recent manu- facture, which have been coDected or loaned for this purpose. This effort'to keep in close touch with current industrial life is one of the best features of the Swiss industrial museums. They also display considerable activity in organizing workshop courses and industrial art courses for artisans. 1236 KEPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. The following table shows the museums receiving federal subsidies, the amount of these subsidies, and the expenditures for each museum: EXPENDITURES OF INDUSTRIAL MUSEUMS SUBSIDIZED BY THE FEDERAL GOVERNMENT AND AMOUNT OF SUBSIDIES RECEIVED,- 1899. Canton, town, and museum. Canton of Aargau: Aarau, cantonal museum and handicraft school Canton of Basel Land: Liesthal, collection o£ school appliances ot the can- tonal industrial union Canton of Basel Town: Basel, industrial museum Basel, historical museum Canton of Bern: Bern, permanent Swiss school exposition Bern, cantonal industrial museum Canton of Freyburg: Freyburg, cantonal industrial museum Canton of Geneva: Geneva, museum of decorative arts Canton of Grisons: Chur, collection of patterns and models Canton of Saint Gall: Saint Gall, cantonal depot of school appliances Saint Gall, industrial museum Canton of Vaud: Lausanne, industrial museum - Canton of Zurich; Zurich, depot of school appliances (Pestalozzianum) Winterthur, industrial museum Zurich- Winterthur, central commission Total Expendi- tures. $7, 033 297 69, 596 Federal subsidy. S2, 241 4,684 6,990 l,4f6 1,648 310 7,201 2,329 4,438 488 77 2,243 695 1,235 1.54 95 16, 944 347 77 4,922 110 592 3,478 4,370 174 965 1,448 17, 588 SUPERVISION OF THE APPRENTICESHIP SYSTEM. A short account should be given of the extremely interesting sj-s- tem which has been developed in Switzerland for supervising the work of apprentices in the shops, and insuring, as far as possible, that apprentices receive a proper training during the j'ears when they are learning their trades. The end sought, indeed, is to introduce some system of control and oversight that will perform the services for- merly exercised in regard to this matter by the old guilds. The attempt was first made to exercise such a control hj examina- tions to be taken by the apprentices at the end of their terms, and liy special courses for boys who were occupied during the day. After- wards it was recognized that it was desirable to fix definitely the conditions of apprenticeship, to determine its duration, to specify for each trade the work that must be successively performed, to regu- late the terms of the contract made between the apprentice and his employer, etc. Finally several Cantons passed laws which confided to the councils of prudhommes, or unions of employers and employees, or to the communes, the general oversight of apprenticeship in the shops. Basel Town was the first Canton to institute a system of examina- tions for apprentices in order to determine their qualifications for performing journeymen's duties. This system rapidly extended to the other Cantons of German Switzerland. As the general organiza- tion was seen to be susceptible of improvement, the central committee of the Swiss Union of Arts and Trades {Gewerbevere'm) decided to TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION SWITZERLAND. 1237 centralize the system. A regulation was accordingly adopted provid- ing for a system which, briefly, is as fo]lows: The central committee of the union has constituted a commission of seven members to have charge of apprenticeship examinations. This commission, acting in conjunction with the local bodies or sections, appoints expert examiners, and determines the conditions of the exam- inations. An examination consists of the making of a test article— of executing some work under the eyes of the examiners and of giving proof of the general and technical knowledge of the person exam- ined. Diplomas are given to persons successfully passing these exam- inations. These diplomas are considered by employers as a guaranty that their possessors have a knowledge of at least the fundamental elements, both theoretical and practical, of their trades. The following figures will give some idea of the importance this system has assumed: In the fall of 1898 and the spring of 1899 exam- inations were held by the union in 29 sections or districts, at which a total of 1,104: boys were examined. Of these, all but 8 were granted diplomas. The reports of the examinations give the occupations pre- pared for in detail. Of the 1,096 boys and girls given diplomas, 156 were joiners, 149 locksmiths, 87 machinists, 63 tailoresses, 46 seam- stresses, 46 painters, 40 tinsmiths, 36 ladies' tailoresses, 86 shoemakers, 34 tailors, 32 blacksmiths, 31 wagon smiths, 29 carpenters, 24 garden- ers, 20 bakers, 20 saddlers, 17 bookbinders, 15 metal drawers, 14 coopers, 13 instrument makers, 13 upholsterers, 11 wood turners, and 11 potters, while the others represented 66 different occupations. The Swiss Merchants Societj' {Soclete Suisse des Commergajits), it may be remarked, conducts similar examinations of pex'sons preparing for commercial occupations. In the French Cantons much the same sj^stem of apprentices' exam- inations has been adopted within recent years, though here the matter instead of being left to a private society has been undertaken as a governmental duty. Neuchatel, Geneva, Yaud, and Freyburg have all passed laws on this subject. The law of Neuchatel was passed November 21, 1890; that of Geneva October 15, 1892; that of Frey- burg November 14, 1896, and that of Vaud November 21, 1896. The Geneva law was replaced in 1899 by the law of November 25, 1899, regarding the work of minors. A.I1 of these laws provide that the serving of apprenticeships shall be subjected to official supervision to be exercised through the local authorities, em.ployers' associations, or councils of prudhommes. They fix the duration of apprenticeship, determine the relative duties of the master and the apprentice, and prescribe examinations to test the progress made by the apprentices. Copies of the laws of Neuchatel and Vaud were published in Bul- letin No. 26 of the United States Department of Labor, in the article 1238 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. describing the labor laws of Switzerland. As this legislation relates so directly to the problem of trade training, it is hex-e reproduced: Neuchatel. — Following is the law concerning the protection of apprentices passed by the Canton of Neuchatel, November 21, 1890: For the purpose of elevating apprenticeship and developing the professional value of workingmen in the various arts and trades prac- ticed in the Canton, and especially in the various branches of watch- making, on the report of the council of state and a special commission it is decreed as follows: Supervision of apj^renticeship. — 1. Apprentices in each locality shall be under the supervision of the communal authorities. _ This super- vision, according to the needs and importance of the localities, msiy be intrusted by the communal council to a special apprenticeship com- mission composed of an equal number of employers and employees possessing special qualifications for this duty. 2. In localities where there are councils of prudhommes these bodies must exercise, subject to the control of the communal authori- ties, the supervision of apprentices for which no special supervision shall have been organized by the unions {syndicats) of their trades, in conformity with article 3, that follows. 3. In places where employers and workingmen of the same trade have formed trade unions, these bodies may, upon their request and the special decision of the council of state, be invested Avith the mis- sion of supervising, under the control of the communal authorities, apprentices in theii- trades. Before undertaking this duty a union must prove that it represents at least a majority of the persons, employers, and workingmen interested, and each j'ear must make a report to the conamunal council concerning the results of its super- vision. This supervision must be exercised by a committee half of whose members are elected by the employers' union and half by that of the employees. 4. If there exists only one union, either of employei's or employees, to represent the interests of a trade, it may nevertheless demand that the supervision of apprentices in its trade be intrusted to a committee composed of an equal number of employers and employees belonging to the trade, half of whose members are elected by the union, pro- vided that it shows that it embraces among its members a majority of the persons interested. The communal council will elect the other half from among the class not represented by the union. 5. The delegates of the communal authorities, as well as those of ihQ commissions charged with the supervision of apprentices, shall have the right to visit at any time the apprentices in the shops where they work and control the course of their apprenticeship. 6. Among other things, thej^ must assure themseh'es that the apprenticeship instruction is not neglected, and that the employer either himself instructs or causes the apprentices to be otherwise instructed in a gradual and complete way in the profession, art, trade, or branch of trade which is the object of the apprenticeship contract. 7. If in the course of their supervision, or as the result of com- plaints, they discover acts of abuse, negligence, or bad treatment, they must intervene immediately for the protection of the apprentice, and at the same time notify his parents, guardian, or the commune which has control over him. TRADE AKD TECHNICAL EDUCATION- SWITZEELAND. 1239 8. An employer is prohibited from employing an apprentice with- out the execution of a written contract setting forth the duration of the apprenticeship, the conditions as regards remuneration and where necessary, as regards board and lodging, and the reciprocal obligations of the parties, which contract must be signed by the father, mother, or legal representative of the apprentice. This contract must be exhibited to the delegates charged with the supervision of apprentices whenever they request to see it. i _ 9. The emp'loyer is likewise prohibited from employing an appren- tice in work or services other than those relating to the exercise of his trade, except, however, in exceptional cases or as regards certain work or services sanctioned by usage and permitted by the authorities having the supervision of apprentices. ' _ 10. Each apprentice must be allowed during the work period such time as is necessary for the performance of his religious duties, or the scholastic instruction required by law. 11. The normal hours of labor per day must not exceed 10 for apprentices from 13 to 15 years, and 11 hours for those more than 15 years of age, inclusive of the time devoted to scholastic and religious instruction. In general, no night work shall be imposed upon appren- tices, nor shall they be required to perform any work in their trade on Sundays or holidays. By night work is meant work performed between the hours of 8 p. m. and 5 a. m. 12. Exceptions from the preceding restrictions may be permitted in the case of trades and industries which require night work, or which must be exercised on Sunday, but the council of state, as well as the communal authorities and the supervisory commissions, shall always have the right to require that these exceptions be specially authorized. 13. There shall be instituted by the council of state in the depart- ment of industrjr and agriculture a commission, in which must be represented as far as possible the various trade unions officially recog- nized, having as its duty the study of the improvements that can be introduced in the service for the protection and supervision of appren- tices, and the means of continually increasing the value of apprentice- ship and the technical training of workingmen. It shall also, upon the recommendation of the apprenticeship commissions and the trade unions, prepare the programme of apprenticeship examinations, as hereafter provided. Examination of apjjrentices. — 14. It shall be the joint duty of the department of industry and agriculture, the communal councils, and the apprenticeship commissions to organize examinations for the pur- pose of determining if the apprentices have acquired during their terms of apprenticeship the technical knowledge and professional apti- tude necessary in order that they may exercise with intelligence and profit the trade they have chosen. 15. No person shall be permitted to take these examinations unless he is an apprentice in Neuchatel or one of the other Swiss Cantons, is less than 25 years of age, and has prosecuted at least half of his appren- ticeship with an employer resident in the Canton. , la. These examinations shall consist of inquiries concerning the theory of the technical elements which it is considered should be known by the apprentice, but chiefly of the execution of practical tasks, so that it may be possible to jud^e of his skill and knowledge in respect to the rules and practices of his trade. 17. Diplomas indicating the results of the examinations shall be 1240 EEPOET OF THE COMMISSIONEK OE LABOR. given by the department of industry and agriculture to those appren- tices who show a sufficient capacity for the practice of their profession. 18. There shall also be given to the apprentices whose examinations show the most favorable results prizes and recompenses consisting of deposits in the savings bank, books, or instruments or tools made use of in the trade which they intend to follow. Scholarships may also be accorded to those apprentices giving evidence of exceptional aptitude and desiring to further perfect themselves in the practice of their art or tx'ade. The council of state shall fix the number and value of these scholarships, as well as the conditions under which they will be awarded. 19. Provision must be made each year for an appropriation of not less than 3,000 francs [1579] to be distributed in prizes to apprentices receiving diplomas. 20. The objects made and presented at the examinations by the apprentices receiving diplomas must, in general, be publicly exhibited, with mention of the name of the apprentice making each, the results of the examination, and the name of the employer. 21. Candidates for apprenticeship diplomas must register themselves at least 3 months before the termination of their apprenticeship either with the commission having charge of the supervision of apprentices in their districts or in their trades, or with the communal council. 22. The apprentice who fails upon an examination shall not again present himself for examination until at least 3 months have elapsed. 23. The examination of candidates for apprenticeship diplomas shall be by a jury of 3 members, of whom at least 2, one an employer and the other an emploj^ee, must belong to the trade followed by the apprentices. If the conditions of the examinations require it, this jury may be composed of 5 members, of whom at least 4, 2 employers and 2 employees, must belong to the trade. These juries are appointed by the apprenticeship commissions where there are such bodies, other- wise by the communal council. 24. All the provisions of this law apply equally to female apprentices. Penalties. — 25. Whoever is guilty of breaking article 8 of this law shall be punished by a fine of from 10 to 50 francs [$1.93 to $9.65]. Whoever breaks articles 9, 10, or 11 shall be punished by a fine of from 50 to 100 francs [19.65 to $19.30]. 26. The present law shall enter into force after having been approved by the referendum. Vaud. — Following is the law concerning apprentices passed by the Canton of Vaud, November 21, 1896: General regulations. — 1. The present law relates to apprenticeship in industry, in the handicraft trades, and in commercial establishments. Its provisions constitute public law, and can not be changed by private agreements. 2. In cases of doubt as to whether a person is subject to this law, the apprenticeship commissioner shall decide, from whose action an appeal may be taken to the department of industry and agriculture. 3. All documents in reference to apprenticeship shall be free from stamp duties. Certificates, proofs, and forms shall be gratuitously provided. The forms may be procured from the communal chancellor and the clerk of the industrial courts. 4. It is unlawful to hinder an apprentice from fulfilling his duties TKADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION^ — SAVITZEBLAND. 1241 or to induce him to leave his apprenticeship. Whoever, contrray to law, breaks an apprenticeship contract is liable for damages. 5. Whoever has been deprived of his civil rights by a judicial order may not have apprentices during the period of his punishment. Apprenticeship contracts. — 6. The conditions of each apprenticeship must be incorporated at its commencement in a written contract, for which the official form must be used. 7. Three copies of the contract must be made, one of which must be given to the clerk of the industrial court or the communal clerk, who shall transmit it to the apprenticeship commission, and the other two shall remain in the hands of the master and the apprentice or his legal representative. 8. The parents who apprentice their child become parties to the apprenticeship contract in respect to seeing that the apprentice fulfills his legal and contractual obligations. Ditties of the master. — 9. It is the duty of the master to instruct the apprentice in a methodical and thorough way in the occupation or specialty to which the contract relates. He may on his own responsi- bility intrust this duty to a foreman or other competent workman. He is further obligated to see that the apprentice pursues his technical instruction, and to allow him the necessary time during working hours for this duty. He is prohibited from employing the apprentice in household or other work that does not relate to the trade he is learning. 10. The master must care for the apprentice, and may use paternal discipline if the apprentice is not under the direct supervision of his parents or legal representative. He must keep him at work and look after his development. He must inform his parents or legal repre- sentative if he is guilty of any serious misdeeds or shows evil tenden- cies. He must in like m.anner give notice if the apprentice becomes ill, or absents himself, or if any other event occurs that makes the intervention of the parents desirable. 11. The master is bound to treat his apprentice well, to give him no bad advice, nor set him any bad example, and to see that he receives no bad treatment on the part of tie workingmen or others belonging to his family. 12. The master must care for the health and strength of the appren- tice and see that he is protected from overexertion or dangers which are not peculiar to the trade. He must make him mindful of the dangers of the trade, and show him how they can be avoided. He must insure him against industrial accidents, and bear half the cost entailed by such insurance. Exceptions, however, may be made through order in the case of industries presenting no dangers, in which case the employer still remains Uable. 13. The hours of labor of the apprentice, including the time neces- sary for religious, ordinary, and technical instruction, must not exceed 10 per day. As an exception the period may be extended to 11 hours upon the condition that the weekly period does not exceed 60 hours. An unbroken rest of at least li hours must be allowed at noon. The apprentice must not work at night nor on Sundays. Work between the hours of 8 p. m. and 6 a. m. is considered as night work. 14. When the exceptional conditions of a business are such as to make it seem desirable, the administrative council may grant exemp- tions from the provisions of article 13. Where the conditions are such as to require it, the apprenticeship commission or its delegate may grant permission for a lengthening of the labor period, provided that the 1242 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. periods of rest are lengthened in a corresponding manner. This per- mission must be in writing, and must not be for more than a month nor be renewed more than 3 times in a year. 15. If the apprentice lives with his master, the latter must supply him with a clean living room, healthy food, and, m case of temporary sickness, medical attendance, and, when no other agreement has been made, provide for such washing, lighting, and heating as may be necessarv. 16. On the conclusion of the apprenticeship term the master must provide the apprentice with a certificate signed by himself, which shall contain only information concerning the trade of the apprentice and the length of his apprenticeship. If this certificate is not given by the master the apprenticeship commission may, at the request of the ap- prentice, provide one. The master is prohibited from dismissing the apprentice before the end of his term, except upon justifiable grounds. hutie-s of apprentices.— VJ. The apprentice owes obedience and respect to 'his master. He must work with diligence and conscien- tiousness under his supervision and advice. 18. He must attend the trade instruction which is given in his local- ity or near by, so far as it relates to his trade. The apprenticeship commission shall decide concerning the extent of this obligation. 19. He is prohibited from revealing the trade secrets of his master, or from informing strangers concerning his knowledge or business. 20. He is also prohibited from absenting himself without permission except upon sufiicient excuse. 21. He is likewise prohibited from quitting his apprenticeship before the end of the term except upon justifiable grounds. Supervision of apprenticeship. — 22. Apprenticeship matters shall be watched over by apprenticeship commissions created by the industrial courts. In those districts which have no industrial courts the appren- ticeship commissions shall be created by the administrative authorities {Regierung). The apprenticeship commissions are under the super- vision of the department of industry and agriculture, which may delegate this duty partly or wholly to a special ofiicial. 23. The commissions or their delegates shall look after the exact observance of the law, the execution of the regulations, and the ap- prenticeship contracts. They must inform themselves as to whether the master instructs his apprentice in his trade or specialty in a com- plete and methodical manner. They must likewise see that the appren- tice is not given work injurious to his health or beyond his strength. They may grant permission for the temporary extension of the work period (arts. 13 and 14). They must organize and oversee the appren- ticeship examinations. 24. The commissions or their delegates must receive the complaints of the masters and of the apprentices or their legiil representatives, and transmit them to the proper authorities. According to their judgment they must prepare regulations and make the rules necessarj'^ in relation to the matter of the breaking of apprenticeship contracts. They must inform the legal representatives of the apprentice whenever their intervention is necessary. They must furnish the apprenticeship cer- tificate when the master fails to do so. The}' may, upon their own initiative or upon request, take an apprentice out of his apprentice- ship if they are satisfied that the master does not possess the necessary technical knowledge, does not fulfill his duties toward the apprentice, , or gives himself to drink, or upon other grounds. TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION — SWITZERLAND, 1243 25. A supervisory council in relation to apprenticeship shall be cre- ated in the department of industry and agriculture, whose duty it shall be to study all means of improvement which the supervision of apprenticeship matters brings up, and the means by which the value of the apprenticeship system or the technical instruction of workingmen can be increased. It must organize and supervise the apprenticeship examinations in the Canton, i or this purpose it must give the appren- ticeship commissions the necessary instructions. Apprenticeship examinations and conditions of appreniicesJdp. — 26. Examinations shall be held under the supervision of the department of industry and agriculture to determine if the apprentices have received or possess a satisfactory practical and theoretical knowl- edge. A special regulation shall determine the more exact conditions for the regulation of these examinations. 27. The department of industry and agriculture shall give a diploma to each apprentice who, at the end of his apprenticeship, satisfactorily passes the examination. This diploma shall contain information con- cerning the result of the examination and the work and behavior of the apprentice during his term of apprenticeship. The results of the examination of the apprentices receiving diplomas shall be published, with their names and those of their masters. 28. Those apprentices who pass the examination with very good results may be given. prizes, such as deposit books in savings banks, books, or instruments or tools which are necessary in their trade. Eewards may also be given to those who have instructed these apprentices. 29. Those apprentices who show special capacity in their examina- tions and desire to be still further instructed may be given stipends. 30. Upon the request or proposition of the communal council and the apprenticeship commission, the administration may make State contributions to (a) communes or associations that maintain courses for trade instruction; (b) industrial enterprises which take special care for the development of worthy apprentices; (c) those young persons who have the necessary capacity but not the necessary means to com- plete their apprenticeship term, with the coassistance of their native communes, and according to a tariff drawn up by the administrative council. 31. The communes must defray half the cost entailed by the examination of apprentices and the supervision of apprenticeship. Civil disputes. — 32. Disputes concerning apprenticeship shall be decided by the industrial courts, and when there are no such bodies, by the apprenticeship commission, from whose decision an appeal lies to the supervisory apprenticeship commission when the matter in dis- pute exceeds 500 francs [$96.50]. The procedure is determined by the law of November 26, 1888, in relation to industrial courts, so far as its provisions apply in a direct or analogous manner. Fenalties. — 33. Infractions of this law may be punished by the apprenticeship commission by fines not exceeding 200 francs [$38.60]. When the fine exceeds 50 francs [|9.65] an appeal may be made to the appellate court of the industrial court, and in the absence of such a court, to the supervisory apprenticeship commission. The concluding sections of the act give certain provisions regarding the manner in which the law shall go into force that are not of per- manent interest, and therefore are not reproduced. ' 1244 EEPOET OF THE COMMISSION EK OF LABOB. These laws in practice have given excellent results. The Canton of Neuchatel has established for each of 56 different trades a programme indicating the successive work that must be executed by the appren- tice each quarter during his apprenticeship, and the programme of the examination, including the test piece of workmanship, that must be passed before a diploma is granted. These programmes are reported to be very useful to all classes concerned — to the apprentice, who thus knows what is expected of him; to the employer, who is guided in his instruction of the apprentice, and to the parents. The following table gives the number of diplomas granted in the different trades in each of the three Cantons of Neuchatel, Geneva, and Vaud, the last jea,Y for which information is available. It is of interest to note the great specialization of trades in the different industries : APPRENTICESHIP DIPLOMAS GRANTED IN ACCORDANCE WITH THE APPRENTICESHIP LAWS IN THE CANTONS OP NEUCHATEL, GENEVA, AND VAUD. Indus-tries and occupa- tions. Neu- chatel, 1898. Gen- eva, 1899. Vaud, 1899. Industries and occupa- tions. Neu- chatel, 1898. Gen- eva, 1899. Vaud, 1899. Watchmalcing, jewelry, and fine metal instru- ments; Watch ring and pend- 3 Wood, leather, metal and construction work: Coopers (bashel mak- ers) 1 ant makers 4 2 1 Wagon smiths Boiler makers Architectural drafts- ■mPTi 3 2 4 Enameled dial mali- 1 3 3 2 2 3 Chain makers 3 Metal basin makers . . 1 6 1 14 2 1 17 Cabinetmaking Tinsmiths 8 2 6 Assemblage and dis- tribution of parts . . . Wheel gilders Gardeners 13 S 6 Q Escapement makers . . Horseshoers. .... Case makers 4 2 1 5 3 1 1 6 9 Engravers and chasers 1 4 2 12' Fine metal workers . . Machinists, teeth cut- Iron-pattern makers Carriage painters and letterers Stove makers, sheet- iron workers 1 3 4 1 6 8 1 1 2 Watch jewel setters . . Case polishers and finishers Saddlers Regulators 7 21 1 Watch .spring makers. File cutters Makers of screws and 2 3 watchmaking ac- ces.sories Upholsterers 4 7 1 other occupations Wood turners, fin- 1 Total 61 11 12 52 46 Food products, clothing, etc: Butchers 2 23 i' 2 7 3 3 16 5 2 3 Commerce, printing, bookbinding: Commerce (clerks) . Sheathe makers 2 4 8 1 1 2 14 IS Pork butchers Confectioners, pastry 9 1 ■1 5 bakers Lithographers Photographers Bookbinders i' 6 1 3 Shoemakers Cooks 1 1 1 Drus^i^ists Total , Spinners 1 15 4 13 25 27 Seamstresses 3 3 1 S 1 37 5 1 8 »" 4 83 3' Total for all in- 245 154 Furriers 239 3 1 52 4 Tailors . Women's tailoresses .. Children's tailoresses. Total 116 72 135 TBADE AKD TECHNICAL EDDCATION— SWITZERLAND. 1245 i:S'DIVIDUAL SCHOOLS. The following pages contain descriptions of a few of the important trade schools in Switzerland, arranged in the same order as in the classification already given: SECONDAEY TECHNICAL SCHOOLS. The three schools of this class selected for individual description cover, it is believed, the whole range of subjects taught in the second- ary technical schools of Switzerland, and hence it is not necessary to describe the others. While the schools of Bienne, Burgdorf, and Freyburg belong to the same class, they differ considerably both in the subjects taught and in the degree of prominence given to practical work, as will be seen in the detailed descriptions which follow. The Freyburg school also has a division for apprentices. THE TECHNISUM OF WESTESK' SWITZESLAND, BIENNE. This institution was established in 1890 by a resolution of the munic- ipal council of Bienne, merging the schools of watchmaking and of industrial art, existing at that time as separate institutions. At the same time there was added a school of electrical and mechanical engineering. In August, 1891, a school was also opened for persons desiring to pi'epare themselves for positions in the railway service, which later, in the spring of 1900, was expanded so as to include the postal, telegraph, and custom-house service. The institution now embraces five distinct schools, as follows: A school of watchmaking; a school for machinists, electricians, and fine instrument makers; a school of industrial arts and architecture; a school for railway, postal, telegraph, and custom-house service employees, and a preparatory school for pupils not sufficiently advanced to begin the regular work. A commission appointed by the municipal council exercises a gen- eral supervision .over the institution, with special committees directing the affairs of each separate school. The faculty is composed of a director, 27 instructors, and 6 assistants. Applicants for admission must be 15 years of age and must have completed the course of the primary school of the city, or its equiva- lent. Pupils who do not possess a sufficient knowledge of mathematics are given supplementary instruction in this branch to make up their deficiency. The tuition fee for residents of Switzerland in the school of watch- making and in the department for fine instrument makers is fixed at 10 francs ($1.93) per month. For the other schools the fee is 50 francs ($9.65) per term. Students of foreign nationality who attend the school of watchmaking pay a tuition fee of 26 francs (|i.83) per month. 1246 EEPOBT OF THE COMMISSIONEK OF LABOE. Students pursuing the theoretical course in electrical and mechanical engineering are required to pay a laboratory fee of 5 francs (97 cents) per term to cover the cost of materials. The tuition fee may be remitted to worthy students of limited means. Nearly all students are insured against accidents. One-half of the premium is paid by the institution, the student's share being from 1 franc to 6 francs ($0.19 to $1.16), according to the course of studies pursued by him. Certificates ar& issued to students at the end of each term, and diplomas to those who at the completion of their course pass the final examination satisfactorily, provided they have attended at least three full tei-ms at this institution. Numerous excursions, under the guidance of the principal instruc- tors of the institution, to vai'ious industrial establishments of Bienne and vicinity offer opportunities for practical observation in the subjects in which the students are especially interested. The following programme gives the subjects of study pursued at this institution and the number of hours per week devoted to each. SCHOOL OF AVATCH MAKING. This school was founded in 1872. It aims to fit students for prac- tical work as watchmakers and to give them the theoretical instruction necessarj"- to an intelligent comprehension of their vocation: First year: Theory of watchmaking, 2; arithmetic, 2; algebra, 2; geometry, 2; physics, 2; chemistry, 1; technical drawing, 4; practical work, 44. Second year: Theory of watchmaking, 2; algebra, 2; geometry, 1; cosmography, 1; physics, 2; mechanics, 2; bookkeeping, 1; drawing, 4; practical work, 44. Third year: Theory of escapements, 3; drawing, 4; trigonometry, 1; practical work, 51. The work in drawing embraces plane geometrical figures and projections; con- struction of cyclical curves; various mechanisms; catches; winding mechanisms; escapements on various scales; construction of curves for spirals; calibers. The practical work embraces turning and filing, making small tools and such parts of watches as can be made with file and lathe, rough work, mechanisms for winding; finishing and pivoting parts, making small tools for escapements, com- pleting an escapement model, practice in jewel setting; complete escapements, escapement models on large scale from sketches, anchor and cylinder escapements for watches, setting and regulating. Provision has also been made for an advanced course in watchmak- ing, intended for those who desire to pursue studies in the higher forms of watchmaking and in electro-technics, including practical exer- cises in electrical and chemical operations. There is also a special course in watch repairing requiring three years. During the first two j-ears the students recei\e all the practical instruction comprised in the regular three-years' course. In the third year they receive instruction in the theory of watchmaking in its appli- cation to practice, in technical drawing, bookkeeping, foreign lan- guages, in letter engraving, and in repairing clocks, simple and complicated watches, chronometers, and cases. TBADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION SWITZEKLAND. 1247 Another special course, requiring a minimum of six months, pro- vides instruction in fitting and adjusting stem and key winders, anchors, and cylinders. SCHOOL FOR MACHINISTS ELECTRICIANS, AND FIXE IXSTRr:\IENT MAKERS. The department for machinists has for its object the training of engine builders, foremen of machine shops, foremen of mechanical workshops, etc. The course of instruction covers a ]oeriod of six half- ycai' terms and is as follows: First half-year term: Arithmetic, 3; algebra, 4; geometry, 3; physics, 4; chemis- try, 3; projective drawing, 6; free-hand drawing, 4; German, 3 and 4; French, 3 and 4; penmanship, 1; shopwork, 8. Optional: English, 2. ^ Second half-year term: Algebra, 4; geometry, 3; physics, 4; chemistry, 8; descrip- tive geometry, 4; machine drawing, 8; German, 2 and 4; French, 2 and 4; shop- work, 4. Optional: English, 2. Third half-year term: Algebra, 3; geometry, 3; descriptive geometry, 3; physic^>, 4; mechanics, 5; theory of machinery, 4; technology, 2; strength of materials, 3; technical drawing, 8. Optional: Italian, 3. Fourth half-year term: Algebra, 3; geometry, 3; physics, 2; mechanics, 5; hydr'aul- ics, 2; theory of machinery, 4; statics, 2; strength of materials, 2; chemistry, 1; technical drawing, 8; shopwork, 4. Optional: Italian, 2. Fifth half-year term: Boilers and furnaces, 2; science of heat, 2; motors, 4; statics, 2; practical geometry, 4; architecture, 4; bookkeeping, 2; theory of machinery, 6; technical drawing, 16; electro-technics, 2. Sixth half-year term: Boilers and furnaces, 2; motors, 4; estimates, 1; machine- shop management, 1; theory of machinery, 2; technical drawing, 20; geometry of motion, 2; mathematics, 2; electro-technics, 2. The department for electricians provides a course covering a period of seven half-year terms. The studies of the first three terms are identical with the studies of the corresponding terms in the depart- ment for machinists, and are pursued simultaneously in the two departments. For the succeeding terms the programme is as follows: Fourth half-year term: Algebra, 3; geometry, 8; physics, 2; mechanics, 5; hydrau- lics, 2; theory of machinery, 4; strength of materials, 2; statics, 2; technical draw- ing, 8; electro-technics, 3. Fifth half-year term: Science of heat, 2; motors, 4; theory of machinery, 2; prac- tical geometry, 4; architecture, 2; bookkeeping, 2; mathematics, 2; electro-technics, 2; magnetism and electro-magnetism, 2; chemistry, 1; technical drawing, 8; installa- tion of electrical plants, 7; laboratory, 5. Optional: Statics, 2; lifting and transport- ing machines, 4; boilers and furnaces, 2. Sixth half-year term: Motors, 4; mathematics, 2; electro-technics, 2; magnetism and electro-magnetism, 2; installation of electrical plants, 4; telegraphy, telephonj-, electric clocks, etc., 2; laboratory, 6-8; electrical railways, 2; technical drawing, 8; theory of electrical machines, etc., 2; chemical laboratory, 5-6; dynamos and con- tinuous-current motors, 2. Seventh half-year term: Mathematics, 2; installation of plants, 2; plans for elec- trical .plants, 3; alternating-current machines and transformers, 3; laboratory, 6-8; technical drawing, 10; chemical laboratory, 5-6; special graduating work, 5. A shorter course, requiring five half-year terms, is provided for those who do not desire to take the full theoretical course of seven terms. The instruction is mainly 1248 KEPOBT OF THE COMMISSIONER OE LABOK. of a practical character in laboratory work and in the installation of electrical plants. Applicants for admission to this course must have had at least two years' experience in electrical work. The department for fine instrument makers is intended for makers of fine tools and machines, particularly those used in watchmaking; for makers of instruments of precision, and for makers of electrical apparatus. Pupils entering this department are required to enter into a contract of apprenticeship for the full course, covering three years. Instruction is mainly of a practical character, carried on in the mechanical workshop, supplemented by a limited amount of theo- retical instruction relating to the specialty of the pupil. The theoreti- cal svibjects include arithmetic, algebra, geometry, trigonometry, phy- sics, chemistry, bookkeeping, mechanics, drawing, technology, and theory of watchmaking. At the completion of his three years' appren- ticeship the pupil takes his final examination and submits a graduating piece of work made after drawings and patterns executed by himself, and receives a certificate showing his apprenticeship and the character of the work done by him. Usually about one-third of the pupils, after completing their apprenticeship in this department, enter the depart- ment for machinists or the department for electricians. SCHOOL OF INDUSTRIAL ARTS AND ARCHITECTURE. This school is intended for persons who desire to qualify themselves for the positions of draftsmen, decorative painters, modelers, en- gravers, carvers, master builders, building contractors, master car- penters, and masons, foremen, etc. The department of industrial arts is composed of two sections, one for designing and modeling and one for chasing and engraving. The work in the designing and modeling section covers three years, and consists of a preparatory course of one year and an advanced course of two j-ears. The preparatory course comprises free-hand drawing, i hours per week; ornamental and figure drawing from models and copies, 8 hours; linear and projective drawing, i hours; shades and shadows, 4 hours; architectural styles, 1 hour, and arch- itectural drawing, 4 hours. In addition, pupils devote 18 hours per week to the execution of work planned in the class room. In the advanced course the subjects are adapted to the needs of the future occupation of the pupils. The programme of studies and hours per week are as follows: Ornamental and figure drawing, 8; ornamental forms with exercises, 4; industrial drawing and designing, 10; perspective, 4; modeling, 13; plastics in leather, 4; archi- tectural styles, 1; architectural drawing, 5; anatomy, 1. There is also a course in drawing from models, from figures in relief, and from nature, arranged especially for girls. The section for chasing and engraving, which is a part of this depart- ment, aims particularly to prepare pupils for decorative and ornamental TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION SWITZERLAND, 1249 work, especially as it relates to watchmaking. The course covers four years, according to the following progranime of studies and hours per week: First year: Free-hand drawing, 9; technical drawing, 5; ornamental forms, 5; chasing and engraving, 37. Second year: Ornamental forms, 4; drawing from gypsum models, 5; industrial drawing, 9; architectural styles, 1; modeling, 5; anatomy, 1; chasing and engrav- ing, 32., Third year: Ornamental forms, 4; industrial drawing, 9; architectural styles, 1; modeling, 5; anatomy, 1; figure drawing, 5; chasing and engraving, 32. Fourth year: Industrial drawing, 9; modeling, 9; drawing from living models, 5; chasing and engraving, 33. The programme in the department of architecture covers a period of three years, of two terms each. The course of instruction and hours per week are as follows: First half-year term: Arithmetic, 3; algehra, 4; plane geometry, 3; chemistry, 2; physics, 4; geometrical drawing, 6; German, 3-4; French, 3-4; penmanship,!; archi- tectural forms, 8; free-hand drawing, 6. Second half-j'ear terni: German, 2-4; French, 2-4; algebra, 4; geometry, 3; phys- ics, 4; chemistry, 2; descriptive geometry, 4; penmanship, 1; building construction, 6; architectural styles, 2; architectural drawing, 8; free-hand drawing, 4. Third half-year term: German or French, 2; algebra, 3; trigonometry, 3; physics, 4; geology, 2; descriptive geometry, 4; mechanics, 2; building construction, 6; archi- tectural drawing, 10; architectural styles, 2; free-hand drawing, 4; surveying and leveling, 4; penmanship, 1; modeling in wood, 2. Optional: Italian, 3. Fourth half-year term: Descriptive geometry, 2; statics, 4; building materials, 2; perspective, 2; rural architecture, 4; building construction, 6; designing, 3; archi- tectural drawing, 12; architectural styles, 2; ornamental drawing, 4; modeling in clay, 2; protective measures against fire, 1. Optional: Italian, 2. Fifth half-year term : Perspective, 2; statics, 4; surveying and leveling, 4; building materials, 2; building machines, 1; building supervision and estimates, 3; building construction, 5; designing, 2; architectural drawing, 12; ornamental drawing,/4; mod- eling, 4; architectural styles, 2. Sixth half-year term: Koad and bridge construction, 3; earthworks and water- works construction, 3; bookkeeping, 1; designing, 4; architectural drawing, 16; ornamental drawing, 4; modeUng in clay, 4; encyclopedia of electro-technics, 2; building laws and building hygiene, 2; protective measures against accidents and emergency treatment in cases of accidents, 1. SCHOOL FOE EAILWAY EMPLOYEES. This school is intended to prepare young men for positions in the various departments of the railway service. The course of instruction covers a period of 2 years, and is arranged in such a manner as to offer instruction and practice along the lines of work the students intend to pursue. There are 2 courses, a general or theoretical course and a special or technical course. The time of instruction is divided about evenly between these 2 courses. 9257—02 79 1250 BEPOKX OF THE COMMISSIOWEE OF XABOK. The general course comprises the following subjects and hours per week: First year: German language, 4; French, 4; Italian, 3; geography, 3; arithmetic, 4; physics, 4; chemistry and claasiacation of products, 2; penmanship, 2. Optional: English, 2. Second year: German language, 3-4; French, 3-4; Italian, 2; geography, 2; arith- metic, 2. Optional: English, 2. The technical course is as follows: First year: Construction of railroads, 2; signal systems, 2; train service, 3; rail- road laws, 2; tariffs, 2; emergency relief in cases of accidents, 1. Second year: Construction of railroads, 2; signal systems, 2; traffic management, 5; train service, 4; railroad laws, 2; tariffs, 2; railroad correspondence, 2; telegraphy and practical exercises in preparing reports, etc., 9. Pupils of the other schools have the privilege of attending the classes in foreign languages as provided for in this school on condition that such attendance does not conflict with their obligatory studies. The following table shows the number of students in attendance in the diS'erent schools and departments during the year 1900: STUDENTS ATTENDING IN THE VAEIOUS SCHOOLS AKD DEPAETMIENTS OP THE TECH NIKUM OF WESTERN SWITZERLAND, BIENNB, 1900. Schools and departments. Students. Watchmaking school Department for machinists and electricians Department lor fine instrument makers Department of industrial arts Department of architecture Senool for railway employees Preparatory school Total -■ 27 157 47 59 52 124 42 508 The following classification of the students according to the States and countries in which they reside shows the extent to which foreign- ers have availed themselves of the benefits of this institution: STUDENTS ATTENDING THE TECHNIKDM OF WESTERN SWITZERLAND, BIENNE, BY STATES AND COUNTRIES IN WHICH THEY RESIDE, 1900. States and countries. Switzerland France Bulgaria Russia Germany . . . Italy America England Spain Students. 412 22 21 14 13 7 4 States and countries. Austria Roumania . Egypt Cuba Africa Holland ... Poland Totnl Students. CANTONAL TECHNIKUM, BUBGDOEr. The object of this school is to offer such a course of instruction of a scientific character as is indispensable to technical experts of the mid- dle grade engaged in the handicrafts and in industrial pursuits. TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION — SWITZERLAND. 1251 The instruction given in the school is not intended to take the place of a practical workshop apprenticeship, since the training in purely manual work, such as is given in the workshops or factory, does not lie within its province. Its object is rather to give to young men such industrial knowledge and training as can not be gained in a prac- tical apprenticeship, and the possession of which is indispensable to every one who wishes to rise above the rank of the ordinary handi- craftsman. This school therefore strives to fit young persons to con- duct small establishments independently, or to fill, in larger establish- ments, positions between that of journeyman and of engineer or architect, and for which a technical college education is required. To this end the institution is divided into three departments, namely, one for building, one for machine construction, and one for chemistry. The department for the building trades contains (1) a section for construction work, which is intended to train students as master builders, as draftsmen and manufacturers of building materials, and as foremen of masons, cax'penters, joiners, and stonecutters, and which undertakes to train them to design, draw, estimate, and execute separate constructions and architectural parts of various kinds of buildings, so that they may be cipable of directing construction work and conducting the business of a building contractor; (2) a section for civil engineering work, intended to train students as general man- agers, road masters, weighmasters, foremen, specification writers, draftsmen, builders, and managers of gas and waterworks plants, building inspectors, etc. The department for machinery construction, which includes electro- technics, is intended for persons wishing to become machinists, con- structors, master workmen, foremen, draftsmen, house smiths, elec- tricians, machine or tool makers, manufacturers, managers, technically trained traveling salesmen, etc. It has for its main object the train- ing of students to prepare practical working drawings; to design sim- ple machines and to make calculations of their construction; to judge of the usefulness, strength, and safety of single machines and groups of machines; to make calculations of weight and cost, and to do inde- pendent machinery construction work. Students who intend to make electro-technics a specialty receive, during the last two half-year terms, theoretical instruction in branches pertaining to the subject, besides training in calculating and constructing electro-technical appa- ratus, machines and plants, and practical work in the electro-technical and chemical laboratories. The department of chemistry has for its purpose the training of students who wish to fit themselves as managers of establishments in which a knowledge of chemistry is essential. Students may speciahze in any particular branch. Students should have from one to three years' practical experience 1252 EEPOBT OF THE COMMISSIONEK OF LABOB. either in building operations or in the workshop, according to the needs of each case. It is urgently recommended that this practical work be done before the students enter the school. The school year is divided into a summer and a winter term. A complete course of instruction in the building trades iind the machine construction departments (including electro-technics) occupies 5 half- year terms, and in the chemical department 4 half-j^ear terms. The work of one summer term in the building trades department is repeated during the winter. This arrangement enables students who so desire, to obtain a practical experience in building work and in the workshops during the summer. The summer term begins the latter part of April and the winter term begins the first part of October. Both regular and special students are admitted. They must be at least 15 years of age, and must pass a preliminary examination in the German and French languages, arithmetic, algebra, geometrj?, and geometrical and free-hand drawing. The tuition fee is 25 francs (14.83) per term, special students being charged 2 francs (39 cents) per weekly hour per term. Students who take chemical laboratory work must pay an additional fee of 20 francs (13.86) per term. Students without means maj^ be wholly or partly exempted from these payments. At the end of each term certificates are given showing the student's work and conduct, and at the completion of the course graduation certificates are issued to those who have attended the institution three or more terms. Examinations are held at the end of each term. The following programmes give the subjects of study pursued at this institution with the number of hours per week devoted to each: DEPAKTMENT FOR THE BUILDING TRADES. Section for construction work. First half-year term: German language, 4; French, 4; arithmetic, 6; algebra, 4; geometry, 3; geometrical drawing, 5; ornamental drawing, 6; penmanship, 2. Second half-year term: German language, 3; French, 3; algebra, 4; geometry, 3; descriptive geometry, 4; physics, 3; chemistry, 3; architectural drawing, 7; building construction, 2; ornamental drawing, 4; bookkeeping, 2. Third half-year term: Mathematics, 2; practical geometry, 2; applied descriptive geometry, 3; physics, 3; ornamental drawing, 4; ornamental modeling, 5; building construction, 11; architectural drawing, 8. Fourth half-year term: Building mechanics, 4; building materials, 2; stonecutting, 2; building construction, 9; architectural drawing, 8; estimates and superintending of building work, 4; water and lighting arrangements, 1; ornamental drawing, 6 ornamental modeling, 3; building law, 1. Fifth half-year term: Perspective, 2; building construction, 4; drawing plans, 15; architectural styles, 3; road construction and earthworks, 4; heating and ventilation, 2; electro-technics, 2; ornamental drawing, 4; ornamental modeling, 3. A synopsis of the more important subjects follows: Chemistry: Embracing general fundamental laws, metals, and bases so far as they have practical importance, and their compounds; brief introduction to the study of TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDTJCATION^ SWITZERLAND. 1253 organic ohemistry; manufacture of gas; special studies in relation to building mate- rials, such as lime burning, mortar, preservation of wood, artificial stone. Architectural drawing: Drawing of architectural sections, socles, architraves, mold- ings, window and doorframes, sections of fagades, Tuscan and Doric styles; sketch- ing profiles drawn on the blackboard by the instructor; drawing ground plans and sec- tions from objects; copying details according to LetarouiUy, fa?ade work; detail work; drawing the facade of the school building; changing architectural drawings to differ- ent scales; copying fagade sections after LetarouiUy, Vignola, Mauch; drawing a window with specified floor and breast heights, with sections drawn to scale; draw- ing parts of the school building, the bank building, and the facade of the old town hall of Bern; transferring drawings to different scales; designing a brick dwelling house according to plans and scale; fai^ade to details, shaded and colored; masonry and carpentry plans; details of window and roof molding in full size; design for a stable. Building construction: Masonry work; back bondings with brick; walls of natural and artificial stone; door and window moldings; stone bonds; adhesive materials; ashlar walls; window frames. Carpentry work: Joints, truss and strut frames; strut and framework walls; joist frames; roof construction; ceiling work; various ceiling materials and their application and use; exercises in framing joists, building frame- work; roof supports. The building site, foundation; main and other rooms and kitchens of dwelling houses; exercises in designing small houses from specifications; the various orders. Agricultural buildings, floors, walls, and ceilings; designing of simple stables and outhouses. Wood, stone, and iron construction for complete buildings; working drawings. Building mechanics: General mechanics; composition and resolution of forces; static factors; parallel forces; center of gravity; stability; conditions of wind pres- sure; application of these theories to weighted beams, simple roof construction, cranes, chimneys, church towers; theory of friction and its application to screws, spirals, and reels. Theory of resistance; strain and pressure; application of theory to calculations regarding chains, cables, walls, columns, tension; girders of wood and structural iron, beams with three supports; resistance to cracking, calculations for supporting columns of wood, cast and wrought iron. Building materials: Natural and artificial building stones, their locality, prepara- tion and use in building; mortar; woods and their uses; cement and asphalt; metals and their uses; glass; paints and varnishes. Stonecutting: Arches, vaults, niches, steps; and more difficult constructions. Estimating and superintending of building construction: General and special man- agement of construction work; organization of the working force; wage lists; general and special building regulations; building contracts. Water and lighting arrangements: General instructions about water supply and consumption; filtration; chemical and physical properties of water; drainage and sewerage; general gas arrangements. Drawing plans: Design for a group of houses; dwelling houses of one and two stories; details in natural size; design of a schoolhouse for seven classes, with teach- er's dwelling, drawn to a scale of 1: 50. Architectural styles: Egyptian, Persian, Greek, and Roman architecture; styles of the Italian Renaissance to the middle of the sixteenth century. Road construction and earthworks: Explanation of maps; drawing of charts; graph- ical execution of a street project with scale calculations and estimates; exercises in leveling, surveying, laying out streets, etc. ; measuring the building site of the savines bank- transverse and longitudinal construction of scaffolding. Heating and ventilation: Principles of heat; fuel and its heating power; draughts; grates and chimneys; heating and cooling conditions; fireplaces and stoves of iron and porcelain; gas stoves; natural and artificial ventilation, etc. 1254 EEPOET OF THE OOMMISSIONEE OF LABOK. Electro-technics: Fundamental principles of electro-technics; electric bells and lighting arrangements; accumulators, dynamos, motors, transformers and systems of distribution. Section for cinl engineering work. First half-year term: The same as in the first term in the section for construction work. Second half-year term: The same as in the second term in the section for construc- tion work. Third half-year term: Mathematics, 4; practical geometry, 2; applied descriptive geometry, 3; physics, 3; building construction, 7; machinery, 3; earthwork and similar construction, 3; drawing, 8; free-hand drawing, 4. Fourth half-year term : Building mechanics, 4; building materials, 2; stonecutting, 2; street construction and water works, 6; wood and iron construction, 4; drawing, 12; surveying, 5; water and lighting arrangements for buildings, 1; building law, 1. Fifth half-year term: Electro- technics, 2; heating and ventilating arrangements, 2; building construction, 4; building mechanics, 1; waterworks construction, 2; railroad construction, 6; drawing, 12; estimates, 3; improvements, 2; law, 1. A synopsis of the more important subjects follows: Building construction: Masonry work; stonecutting; carpentry and roofing work, ground plans for plain buildings; combined construction work in wood, stone, and iron. Machinery: Motors, transmission and power machines. Earthwork and similar construction: Arrangement of working sites; construction work; the kinds of soil; stratification; supporting capacity; scale calculations; build- ing apparatus and machinery; construction of earthworks; methods of making foun- dations. Drawing: Plan and design lettering; location plans in black and in color; drawing of building constructions which are used in underground construction work (stone bondings, arches, wood joints, framework, truss work, and scaffolding); dams, cuts, openings, sluices, and dikes; plain storehouses and outbuildings; problems in con- structing foundations, and calculations of bearing strength; bridges of wood, stone, and iron; laying out streets; problems connected with the construction of waterworks and railroads. Building mechanics: Composition and resolution of forces; static factors; parallel forces; center of gravity; stability; inertia; friction; simple machines; theory of resistance and its application. Building materials: Natural and artificial building stones; woods, metals, produc- tion and use of binding materials, such as sand, lime, cement, gypsum, and mortar. Stone cutting: Masonry and sections of masonry; vaults, steps, niches. Street construction and waterworks: Laying out of streets; plats; length and cross- sections; roadways; construction of footpaths and sidewalks; setting out ti-ees; street lighting; drainage; street cleaning and repairing; sewerage; gas and water conduits; estimates of cost; action of water in the soil; lining of springs; movement and pressure of water in rivers, canals, and closed conduits; water power; dike, sluice, and canal building; embankment construction; maintenance of river work; water measurements. Wood and iron construction: Wood joints; laying of joists; truss and strut frames; lattice trusses, walls, floors, and gratings; conservation of wood; wooden bridges; rivet, screw, and wedge fastenings; iron supports and columns; connecting structural ironwork with wood and stone work; iron latticework girders; stone and iron bridges. Surveying: Study of instruments; surveying of extended pieces of land; leveling of hilly sections; staking off circular sections; graphical execution of measurements. TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION SWITZERLAND. 1255 Electro-technics: General principles; electric lighting and power distribution; signal arrangements; lightning-rod construction. Heating and ventilating arrangements: Theory of heat; disposition of fireplaces, grates, and chimneys; cooking and washing arrangements; ventilation of buildings, tunnels, mines, etc. Eailroad construction: Preliminary work; foundation work; surface construction; crossings; crossing gates; tunnels; station buildings, freight and store houses; loco- motive and car houses; mechanical fittings of stations; lighting; water arrange- ments; signals; roadway maintenance; street railways. Estimates: Estimates for building construction work; valuations and assessments; contracts for work and for supplies. Improvements: Causes of and remedies for swamps; removing and supplying water for land areas; drainage; systems of irrigation. Law: Kail way, street, and riparian law. DEPARTMENT FOE MACHINERY CONSTRUCTION AND ELECTRO-TECHNICS. Section for machinery construction. First term: German language, 4; French, 4; arithmetic, 6; algebra, 4; geometry, 3; geometrical drawing, 5; free-hand drawing, 6; penmanship, 2. Second term: German language, 3; French, 3; algebra, 4; geometry, 3; descriptive geometry, 4; physics, 3; chemistry, 3; drawing, 11; bookkeeping, 2. Third term: Algebra, 5; geometry, 3; descriptive geometry, 3; physics, 4; chem- istry, 3; mechanics, 4; theory of resistance, 4; construction work, 4; drawing, 10. Fourth term: Mathematics, 5; physics, 4; mechanics, 6; graphical statics, 1; con- struction work, 16; drawing, 6; technology, 2. Fifth term: Theoretical study of machinery, 6; electro-technics, 2; graphic statics, 1; construction work, 25; waterworks construction, 1; mathematics, 1; estimates, 1; factory laws, 1. A synopsis of the more important subjects follows: Drawing: Sketching and drawing screws, cranks, pipe joints, piston rods, etc.; drawing simple machines from sketches made by the students or from models, embracing pulleys, reels, cranes, pumps, steam cylinders, etc. ; sketching and draw- ing machines and parts of machines, tracing and blue printing. Mechanics: Composition and resolution of forces; static factors; conditions of equilibrium; application of these theories to levers and weighted beams; theory of center of gravity, and its application to simple and complex bodies; stability; mechanical work; volume of water; fall and power of water courses; methods of determining mechanical work; theory of friction, of the wedge, the inclined plane, the screw; axle friction of wagons and railroad coaches; rope and belt friction, application to methods of transmission; rigidity of ropes and chains and application to pulleys; dynamics of solid bodies; axioms of power, weight, and acceleration; compound motion; inclined planes; projectile motion; pendulum motion; relative motion; centric and eccentric crank motion; kinetic energy; centrifugal force; hydrostatics; vertical and lateral pressure and their application to dams; hydraulics; flow of water under constant pressure; measuring of water by complete overfall (Braschman, V/eisbach, Frese), by incomplete overfall (Weisbach, Darcy, Lang); water wheels; overshot wheels; undershot and breast wheels; Poncelet wheels; turbines of various kinds; Pelton wheels; theory of hydraulic-pressure machines. Construction work: Theory of screws and nuts, their construction, uses, and classi- fication; theory of rivets, and particularly their uses in the construction of steam boilers;' tubes and tube connections; theory and use of belts and pulleys, cogwheels, wedge's, pivots, axles, supports, girders, trusses, etc. ; theory of the construction of cranes, steam engines, and gas motors. 1256 EEPOET OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOK. Theory of combustion: Heating, ventilation; furnaces; systems of steam heating; principal systems of steam boilers. Technology: Production of pig iron in the blast furnace; kinds of pig iron^ pro- duction of wrought iron and steel by various processes; production of cast steel; properties of wrought iron; hardening of steel; other technically important metals and alloys. Theoretical study of machinery: Theory of heat; general study of gases and of steam; boilers and calculations relating thereto; steam engines and their parts; theory of single and double link motion; various kinds of link motion; valve motion according to Griibner; indicated and actual power of single and compound steam engines; consumption of coal and steam; theory of fly wheels; Porter's and Hoff- mann's regulators; elements of locomotive construction; relation between heating surfaces and grate area; cylinder dimensions; diameter of driving wheels; traction power; friction; number of axles; arrangement of three- and four-cylinder compound locomotives; brief study of gas and petroleum motors; the Diesel motor; testa with the 6-horse-power gas motor of the Technikum. Electro-technics: Review of magnetism and electricity; accumulators; dynamo machines; transformers; electro motors; systems of distribution. Waterworks construction: Experiments in water measurements; method and con- struction of canals; construction of dams and sluices. Mathematics: Theory of surveying plane and elevated surfaces; exercises in leveling. Section for electro-technics. The work in the first, second, and third terms is the same as in the corresponding terms in the school for machinists. Fourth half-year term: Physics, 4; mechanics, 6; construction work, 4; technology, 2; mathematics, 5; drawing, 6; electricity, 2; electro-technics, 6; construction and management of electric plants, 3; chemistry, 2. Fifth half-year term: Mathematics, 1; mechanics, 6; construction work, 14; electro- technics, 12; chemistry, 8. Drawing: Drawing of electro-technical apparatus and of component parts of elec- trical plants from models, 'sketches, and original designs. A synopsis of the more important subjects follows: Electricity: Magnetism; magnetic field of an electric current; solenoids; electro- magnetism; hysteresis; magnetic induction; voltaic induction; self-induction; induction in material conductors; direct-current machines; methods of working commutators; scheme of winding for armatures and fields for bi- and multi-polar machines. Electro-technics: The absolute mass system; measurements of resistance by various methods; universal galvanometer of Siemens & Halske; measurement of resistance to insulation of various substances; insulation of completed lighting arrangements, dynamo machines, transformers, etc.; methods of substitution; indirect determi- nation of resistance of differential galvanometer; measuring electro-motive power; measuring the strength of currents; construction and management of electric plants; systems of current distribution; systems with storage batteries; alternating current systems with transformers; detailed designs of plants; regulation and ma-nagement of the central station for light and power distribution; execution of complete designs for such plants; various technical applications of electricity; calculation of direct- current machines and motors; theory of the alternating current; self-induction and capacity of an alternating-current circuit; tension, current strength, and effect of the alternating current; theory and calculation of alternating-current transformers; poly- phase currents; general study of alternating-current machines and motors; measur- ing of light; determination of capacities; magnetic measurements; testing of tech- TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION SWITZERLAND. 1257 nical measuring instruments; examination of accumulators; direct and alternating current macliines, transformers, and motors. Construction and management of electric plants: The electric potential; potential difference; the electric current; resistance of conductors; Ohm's law; Kirchhoff's propositions; Joule's law; arc lamps; calculation of conductors with branching-oft currents; calculation of graded conductors; closed conduction; graphical treatment of closed and open conduction; numerous practice exercises; insulation, measuring, and control apparatus; lightning safeguards; measuring instruments; registry and signal apparatus; electrometer; regulators; accumulators; exercises in designing particular plants fon manufactories, dwelling houses, hotels, public buildings, etc., with separate machine plants or connected with the central station. Construction work: The most important gearings; construction of gear wheels; installation of fixtures; complete transmission plants; iron construction work in so far as it relates to the housing of transformers and electrical conductors; construction of dynamo machines and Jiransformers; drawing and designing of plans for electric plants. Chemistry: Qualitative analysis with reference to materials used in electro- chemistry. CHEMICAL DEPARTMENT. First half-year term: The same as in the first class of the mechanical division. Second half-year term : The same as in the second class of the mechanical division. Third half-year term : Physics, 4; mineralogy,!; inorganic chemistry, 5; analytical chemistry, 4; organic chemistry, 3; chemical technology, 3; laboratory, 16; mathe- matics, 2; machinery, 3. Fourth half-year term : Physics, 3; organic chemistry, 5; analytical chemistry, 3; chemical technology, 4; laboratory, 16; microscopy, 1. Optional: Elements of dif- ferential and integral calculus, 2; gymnastics, 2. A synopsis of the more important subjects follows: Physics: Electricity; magnetism; current distribution; electrolysis; polarization; thermo-currents; magnetic fields; uses of the electro-magnet in telegraphy; Rontgen rays; general description of dynamo machines and electric motors, telephones, etc. Inorganic chemistry : Study of the elements and their compounds. Analytical chemistry: Qualitative analysis; experiments by the students with vari- ous gases and solids; volumetric analysis; technical examination of products. Organic chemistry: Reactions; analytical and synthetical combinations, qualitative and quantitative analysis of elements; study of organic chemical substances; aromatic combinations; the products of dry distillation of tar and other compounds and prop- erties. Chemical technology: Examination of water; filtration of water for drinking and cooking purposes; necessary attributes of water for the various technical branches of industry; determining the hardness of water; production and testing of various acids and salts; production of chloride of lime; pyrite roasting; metallurgy of iron; high- furnace process, and working of crude iron; steel; wrought and cast iron; Bessemer process; dyeing of cotton, woolen, and silk goods, and the necessary apparatus and machines for these dyeing processes; bleaching; organic and inorganic mordants; dyes; fermentation. ' Machinery: Classification of machines into motors, transmission and working machines- description of J;he machine plants at the Technikum; hydraulic and caloric motors; methods of transmission; general methods of electrical power trans- mission; the important tool-making machines; filter presses; centrifugal machines; pumps, etc. Laboratory: General reactions in qualitative analysis; simple and complex anal- ysis; examination of chemical products and raw materials; analysis of organic ele- ments; exercises in microscopy. 1258 EEPOKT OF THE CaMMISSIONEB OF LABOE. The institution is managed by a board consisting of 10 members. The teaching personnel consists of a director, 12 instructors, and 6 assistant instructors. The attendance during the school year 1899-1900 was as follows: In the department for the building trades, 115 regular and l-i special students, or a total of 129; maehinerj' construction department, 130 regular students; electro-technical department, 45 regular students; chemical department, 12 regular students; making a total attendance of 306 students in the entire institution. Of these, 253 pupils had entirely or partly completed a practical apprenticeship before their entrance into the school. Scholarships amounting to 1,575 francs ($30-1) were given to 22 students of the summer term, and 1,525 francs (^294) to 23 students of the winter term. The school received books and other contributions from the Government and from private firms and individuals. Numerous excursions are made, under the direction of instructors, to various industrial establishments in this and other localities. A special course in the fundamental principles of electro-technics for firemen and machinists was given Sunday afternoons for twelve weeks during the winter term, 45 persons attending this course. Courses in the elements of differential and integral calculus and in g3miinastic exercises were given as optional branches. After the examinations held in March and August, 1899, diplomas were issued as follows: In the department for the building trades, 14; machinery construction department, 14; electro-technical department, 10; chemical department, 6; making a total of 44 graduates. SCHOOL OF ABTS AND TRADES, FKEYBUBG. This school is a part of the Industrial Museum of the Canton of Freyburg. It has two divisions — ^a technical school and a school for apprentices. TECHNICAL SCHOOL. The oljject of the technical school is to give to pupils, in addition to a certain amount of practical training in the various branches of industrial activity, a theoretical instruction equal to that obtained in a regular school of technology. It is composed of four distinct departments as follows: A department for machinery construction, a department for electro-technics, a department for builders, and a department for industiial art. The department for machinery construction aims to fit pupils for positions as master mechanics, foremen of machine shops, factory superintendents, experts in the installation of machinery, mechanical draftsmen, etc. The course of instruction covers four years. The following table shows the time devoted to each subject: TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION SWIXZEKLAND. 1259 COURSE OF STUDY IN THE DEPARTMENT FOR MACHINERY CONSTRUCTION, SCHOOL OF ARTS AND TRADES, FREYBUEG. Hours per week. Subjects. First term. Second term. Third Fourth term. term. Fifth term. Sixth term. Sev- enth term. Eighth term. French language Arithmetic 2 3 3 4 2 2 4 3 4 Geometry Trigonometry 2 2 2 2 Geometry, descriptive 6 2 3 2 2 3 3 2 4 Geometry, analytical Physics 3 2 Chemistry 2 - 1 4 4 Calligraphy Drawing, free-hand Drawing, geometrical and projec- tion 4 4 Drawing, technical 4 2 8 12 2 12 10 12 Mechanics Calculus, differential and integral-. 2 2 3 3 Statics, graphical .^t^Rngt,h of jTiatftrinls 3 Technology ■. 2 .3 Electro-technics 2 Hydraulics 2 Fly wheels and regulators 3 3 Laboratory work, physics 2 2 2 5 2 Theory of machines -^ 6 Q Estimates of work 1 "RfviWpppiTig ' . I 20 20 I 20 20 20 20 20 20 Total 43 48 t 43 48 47 48 45 49 The department for electro-technics prepares pupils for work in the various branches of electrical work, such as designing and constructing electrical machines of different kinds, installing apparatus for electrical heating and lighting, telegraph and telephone systems, superintending work of electric light and power plants, etc. Pupils of this school fol- low the same course as those in the school for machineiy construction during the first two years. During the remaining two years they pur- sue a somewhat different course, devoting special attention to work in physics and in electro-technics. The course of study is as follows: COURSE OF STUDY IN THE DEPARTMENT FOR ELECTRO-TECHNICS, SCHOOL OF ARTS AN"D TRADES, FEEYBURG. Subjects. French language Arithmetic Algebra Geometry Trigonometry Geometry, descriptive Geometry, analytical Physics ■ Chemistry Calligraphy Drawing, free-hand Drawing, geometrical and projec- tion Drawing, technical Mechanics ■■• Calculus, differential and integral . Statics, graphical Strength of materials Technology ■ Hours per week. First term. Second term. Third teim. Fourth term. Fifth term. Sixth term. Sev- enth term. Eighth term. 1260 KEPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. COURSE OF STUDY IN THE DEPARTMENT FOR ELECTRO-TECHNICS, SCHOOL OF ARTS AND TRADES, FREYBURG— Concluded. Hours per week. Subjects, First term. Second term. Third term. Fourth term. Fifth term. Sixth term. Sev- enth term. Eighth term. Electro- technics 3 4 4 2 5 Hydraulics 3 Laboratory work, physics 3 2 4 2 4 2 2 5 ■ 2 Theory of machines 2 1 Boolvkeeping . 1 Shopwork (optional) 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 Total 43 48 4S 48 48 47 61 52 The department for builder,s provides in,struction in the various branches of the building industry, ,sach as masonry, carpentry, stone- cutting, etc. It seeks to educate pupils to a proper understanding of architecture and its relation to the Avork of building and construction, and to prepare them for positions as architects, construction engineers, contractors, and superintendents of construction work. The course of instruction covers a period of three and a half years, one of which is devoted entirely to practical work in the shops and yards of the school. The cour.se of studjj^ follows.: COURSE OF STUDY IN THE DEPARTMNET FOR BUILDERS, SCHOOL OF ARTS AND TRADES, FEEYBURG. Hours per veelt. Subjects. First term. Second term. Third term. Fourth term. Fifth term. Sixth term. (°) Seventh term. 2 3 3 4 3 2 1 2 8 5 I 4 3 3 2 Arithmetic Algebra 1 3 Physics Chemistry Calligraphy 1 1 Drawing, geometrical and proj ection 5 4 2 4 3 4 4 5 C 5 5 Drawing, technical - 5 History of architecture 3 1 1 Strength of materials 3 4 4 2 2 6 1 1 4 Modeling, ornamental 4 Mechanics 2 1 Geometry, descriptive 1 i 1 Architecture , practical 2 2 2 2 3 3 4 1 1 Statics Hydraulics Stereotomy.. . . . . 3 Shading Engineering, construction 2 Mathematics (review and applications) .. 2 Building laws 1 Stereotomv, applications of 4 Builder's accounts i Total 36 42 40 41 n Entire time devoted to practical ivorli. TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATIOI>I- SWITZERLAND. 1261 The department for industrial art offers to students instruction in such branches as are essential to the practice of the different industrial arts, more particularly the work of sculptors, lithographers, engravers on wood, designers, glass stainers, decorative painters, and master draftsmen. The length of the course is three j^ears. Below are given the subjects taught and the number of hours per week devoted to each : COURSE OP STUDY IN THE DEPARTMENT FOR INDUSTRIAL ARTS, SCHOOL OF ARTS AND TRADES, FREYBUKG. Hours per week. Subjects. First term. Second term. Third term. Fourth term. Fifth term. Sixth term. French language . .... 2 3 2 1 8 5 4 2 2 2 Chemictry . Drawing geometrical and projection ... Drawing, free-hand 5 4 6 5 4 6 3 5 4 ' 10 4 14 [ 1 6 4 8 33 o 1 1 8 23 8 31 8 30 8 8 32 38 Total ' 56 60 66 60 56 60 APPRENTICESHIP SCPIOOL. By a system of practical and theoretical instruction the apprentice- ship school aims to prepare pupils for efficient work as skilled machinists, masons, stonecutters, joiners, cabinetmakers, etc. Only a limited amount of time is devoted to theoretical instruction, tlie pupils being employed chiefly in the performance of actual work in the shops and yards belonging to the school. The school is composed- of three departments, as follows: A department for machinists, a department for stonecutters and masons, and a department for joiners and cabinetmakers. In addition to these there is a short course in hydraulic work for those who desire to render themselves competent to plan and superin- tend the construction of dams and aqueducts, drainage works, road- ways, etc. In the department for machinists the pupils spend four days each week in the execution of practical work in the shops, the two remain- ing days being devoted to theoretical instruction. The course of study 1262 EEPOBT OF THE COMMISSIONEK OF LABOK. covers foar years and is apportioned- according to the table shown below: COURSE OF STUDY IN THE DEPARTMENT FOE MACHINISTS, SCHOOL OF ARTS AND TRADES, FREYBURG. Hours per week. Subjects. First term. Second term. Third term. Fourth term. Filth term. Sixth term. Sev- enth term. Eighth term. 3 2 2 2 2 2 3 2 2 3 2 2 3 2 Chemifitrv 2 1 1 4 Drawing, free-liand Drawing, geometrical and projec- 4 4 4 4 4 3 2 10 3 8 3 12 3 Technology 2 2 40 5 2 Shopwork Study hours , 40 4 40 (5 40 7 40 5 40 4 40 5 40 3 Total ,.. 58 60 68 -60 58 60 58 60 The course of study in the department for stonecutters and masons covers a period of two years, and is largely practical in character. Only a few hours each week during the winter months are given to theoretical work. The apprentice stonecutters devote four days per week during the two winter semesters and their entire time during the summer semester to work in the yards. The apprentice masons receive theoretical instruction during one semester only. Below is given a list of the subjects constituting the theoretical course und the number of hours per week devoted to each: THEORETICAL COURSE OF STUDY IN THE DEPARTMENT POR STONECUTTERS AND MASONS, SCHOOL OF ARTS AND TRADES, FREYBURG. Hours per week. Subjects. First term (winter). Second term (sum- mer). Third term (winter). Arithmetic .., , 3 2 3 Drawing, free-hand - 4 4 4 Drawing, technical .... 6 3 3 3 Total 14 3 18 The department for joiners and cabinetmakers aims to educate pupils for positions as masters and journej^men in the various branches of the cai'pentry and cabinetmaking industries. The pupils devote four days per week to practical work in the shops of the school and two days to theoretical instruction. The duration of the apprenticeship is four years. TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION — SWITZERLAND. 12&3 COURSE 0¥ STUDY IN THE DEPAETMENT FOR JOINERS AND CABINETMAKERS, SCHOOL OF ARTS AND TRADES, FREYBURG. Hours per week. Subjects. First term. Second term. Third term. Fourth term. Fifth term. Sixth term. Sev- enth term. Eighth term. Arithmetic 3 2 4 5 2 2 4 5 Geometr J' 9 3 3 5 2 2 4 3 5 2 Drawing, geometrical and projec- tion 3 6 2 2 1 3 6 2 2 1 3 6 2 2 1 1 3 Drawing, technical . . . 6 Study of forms 2 2 1 1 X Bookkeeping 1 1 1 46 1 40 44' 2 40 2 41 Shopwork... 42 40 44 Total ... 56 60 56 60 66 60 66 60 The school for hydraulic experts {ecole de dic/ueurs ei drai?ieurs), which is annexed to the school of agriculture, but which is considered a division of the school of arts and trades, prepares pupils for the supervision and construction of dams and drainage works, aqueducts, bridges, roadways, etc. It also educates persons for positions as superintendents of cantonal and municipal roads. The theoretical course comprises six months of study, at the conclusion of which the pupils devote two months more to practice in various kinds of hydraulic and earthwork construction under the direction of competent instructors. The studies constituting the theoretical course and the number of hours per week given to each are as follows: Course in common for drainers and constructors of dams, etc.: Geometrical draw- ing, 4; free-hand drawing, 4; technical drawing, 10; geology, 2; surveying and leveling, 8; bookkeeping, 1; estimates of work, etc., 5; total, 34. Special work for drainers: General agriculture, 3; technology and drainage, 10; total hours for all studies, 47. Special work for constructors of dams, etc.: Hydraulics, 4; study of dam construc- tion, 2; study of plans, specifications, etc., 4; study of water-course laws, 2; study of tools and materials, 2; total for all studies, 48. Two hours per week are devoted to instruction in gymnastics for students of all divisions who desire to take part. Special courses are provided for persons desiring to become teachers of drawing in schools. These courses are held during the sumner months of each year and comprise alternately a general course of about three months' duration in drawing and modeling as applied to the industrial arts, and a higher course, lasting about four months, in designing for architectural and machine construction work. The numl)er of students admitted to these courses is limited to 15. These must be at least 18 years of age and are selected from among the most proficient of those who present themselves for examination. The tuition fee is 20 francs ($3.86) for each course. 1264 EEPOET OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOE. A contract of apprenticeship must be entered into by those who desire admission to the apprenticeship school. The cost of tuition to pupils of the school is as follows : Department for machinery construction and department for electro-technics, 20 francs ($3.86) per term, to pupils pursuing the theoretical course alone and 40 francs (17.72) to those taking both the theoretical and practical branches; department for builders and department for indus- trial arts, 20 francs ($3.86) per term. Pupils of the apprenticeship school pay a matriculation fee of 30 francs ($5.79) on entering. The winter term begins on the first Monday in October and continues until the end of March. The summer term opens on the second Monday in April and closes about the last of July. This allows two weeks of vacation in the theoretical course at Easter and about eight weeks in August and September. There is also a vacation of one week during the Christmas holidays. Work in the shops is suspended during three days at New Year, the afternoon of Mardi gras, three days at Easter, the day following Whitsunda3^, and two weeks in August or September. In the theoretical course the daily session lasts from 8 a. m. in winter and from 7 a. m. in summer until 7 p. m., with an intermis- sion of two hours at noon, and with shorter recesses at 10 a. m. and 4 p. m. The shopwork begins at 7 a. m. in summer and winter and continues until 6.30 p. m., with one and a half hours intermission at noon, and with short rests at 10 a. m. and 4 p. m. On Saturdaj^ evenings work is suspended at 6 o'clock. At the end of each term public examinations are held, in which all pupils of the school are required to take part, and at which are exhib- ited the worli executed during the term. Each pupil receives at this time a certificate showing the progress he has made in his studies. Pupils who have successfully completed the course of study in any of the divisions of the technical school are granted a diploma. The total expense of maintaining the school in 1899 was 52,230 francs ($10,080); the subsidies received were 17,550 francs ($3,387) from the Federation, and 28,720francs ($5,543) from other sources — communes. Canton, etc. The number of pupils in the technical school in the j^ear 1898-99 was 54 INDUSTRIAL ART SCHOOLS. In selecting schools of this class for individual description, one has been taken which is devoted purely to the art industries, namely, the School of Industrial Art in Geneva, and one in which both art and other industries are taught, or the Trade and Industrial Art School in Bern. It is believed that these two schools are sufficient to give a fair idea of the nature of industrial art instruction in Switzerland. TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION — SWITZERLAND. 1265 CANTONAL SCHOOL OF INDTJSTRIAL ARTS, GENEVA. This school was founded in 1876. It is a cantonal institution, and has received a national subsidy since 1884. Its object is to give pupils a thorough training in the following branches of industrial arts: Decorative sculpturing in the building trade, molding and retouching in plaster, stone and marble sculpturing, wood carving, artistic gold- smithing, bronze work, artistic wrought-iron work, xylograph}^, ceramics and decorative painting, and painting on enamel. The pupils of the school are divided into two classes: Regular and special pupils. Eegular pupils are those who take a complete course in any of the arts taught at the school. They are required to follow the regular programme of studies for a period of five years, and to perform all the practical work pertaining to the particular profession which they desire to enter. Special pupils are apprentices, working- men, or other persons engaged in the arts or manufactures, who take special work at certain hours. Following is the programme of instruction in the -^^arious classes: Figure modeling: Application of pupil's knowledge of drawing to modeling; copying from casts of the human head in low and high relief and in the round; study of antique fragments, the masters, and molds from nature; application of the ele- mentary principles of anatomy; copying from parts of the human body; osteology and myology; copying from groups of models in bas-relief or round boss with special reference to each pupil's occupation; making reduced or enlarged copies from plaster casts, prints, or photographs; similar exercises with modifications intended to famil- iarize the pupil with the principles of composition; study of anatomical proportions, draperies, and animals; styles of decorative figures; study of figures from living models; studies based on examples taken from the masters; models in round boss or bas-relief intended to be reproduced in bronze, marble, wood, etc. ; retouching plaster casts; composition of industrial art objects. Ornamental modeling: Copying from models in all styles of relief; enlargements and reductions; retouching in plaster, cut moldings and the principal ornaments as applied to architectural decoration; composition from various kinds of styles and from drawings by the masters of all ages as adapted to the particular trade or art of each pupil; retouching of plaster casts of model and mold compositions, with a view to their execution; composition of decorative groupings and pieces, and applications to the various branches of industrial art (bronze work, chasing, wood, stone, and marble sculpturing, wrought-iron work, and ceramics); flowers and leaves from nature. Ceramics and decoration: Instruction in picture decoration as applied to ceramics; industrial drawing and painting on paper, canvas, and cloth; studies from nature (sketches and water colors) ; study of the different styles of ornamentation of former times; copying or arrangement of a given style by the aid of documents; exercises in decorative composition by the aid of given copies and particularly by the aid of copies made from observation or studies from nature made by the pupils; composition and decorative styles as applied to various objects and executed on different materials, such as crockery, porcelain (plates, vases, dishes, etc.), silk, screens, panels, woolen tapestries, colored cloth, and various articles on which decorative and industrial patterns are made by impressions; aquarelle and water-color painting; painting on porcelain and crockery, enamel, semivitrified crockery, crude enamel and crude clay; 9257—02 80 1266 EEPOET OF THE COMMISSIONER OP LABOR. the diHerent processes of ceramic painting; knowledge of materials; the various clays and their properties, semivitrified crockery ware, metallic oxides and their deriva- tives, the enamels, and the materials employed in ceramic decoration; executing designs in clay or other materials used in ceramics, by the use of the potter's wheel; laboratory work in qualitative and quantitative analyses of raw materials, and in making experiments relating to the technique of ceramics. Chasing: Study of chasing on steel, iron, bronze, and the precious metals; study of repousse work; burin, and its relation to chasing; figures and ornaments, used in large and small pieces of jewelry, and gold and silver smithing; retouching and chasing of casts (original and remolded) . Stone and v/ood carving: Elementary instruction in stone and wood sculpturing; knowledge of the tools used in working on different materials, such as soft and hard stone, wood and marble; instruction in rough cutting from full-sized models; practical course relating to figures; continuation of work in carving ornaments on stone; rough- cutting figures, busts, and statuettes of stone; graded work in wood, ornamental and figure carving; decorative carving of ornaments in high relief for the decoration of buildings; carving figures and ornaments in marble; rough cutting with enlargement or reduction of the size of models; wood carving for furniture and large decorations; carving of figures and ornaments on stone, marble, and wood ; execution of models made by the pupils. Xylography: Preliminary studies; tone plates; cutting of lines, etc.; making fac- similes of pen, crayon, or water-color drav.'ings; interpretation of drawings and of photographs taken from paintings or drawings of the masters; making wood engrav- ings of drawings executed by the pupils. Painting on enamel: Grinding colors; painting on clay; painting under flux; application of these processes in reproducing engravings, photographs, etc. ; grinding of enamels; preparation of copper; enameling on copper; Limoges enameling; painted gold work; open-work enameling; cloisomae enameling; laid-gold work, and enamel- ing connected with various other processes. Artistic wrought-iron work: Practical instruction concerning the tools used in workshops for wrought-iron work; bellows, forges, drilling machines, lathes, hammers, vises, bench tools, files, etc. Study of the different kinds of iron, cast iron and steel, coals, and carbons; first elements of forging iron and steel; soldering and forge work; methods of filing; principles of adjusting, drilling and turning of iron; arrange- ment of tools, gravers, chisels, augers, etc.; tempering of steel; fitting and mounting; sheet-iron rejjousse work, such as leaves and other objects; execution of work and of objects of art requiring exercise of the pupil's knowledge of forge, file, lathe, etc. A course of 16 lectures on the history and the various styles of art is given during the year. Studies are also made of the different proc- esses of molding, such as excavated molds, broken casts, etc. The number of hours per "week devoted to each branch of instruc- tion is as follows: Course in figure drawing, 24 hours for men and 12 hours for women; architectural and perspective drawing, 12 houis; ornamental designing, 12 hours; modeling and retouching in plaster, 24 hours; ceramics and decoration, 18 hours for men and 12 hours for women; chasing, -IS hours; engraving on metal, 7 hours; stone and wood carving, 24 hours; xylography, 36 hours; painting on enamel, 24 hours; artistic wrought-iron work, 36 hours for day course and 12 hours for evening course for men; history of art and styles (16 lec- tures); molding in plaster, 48 hours. The number of mstructors employed in the school is 14. TRAPE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION — SWITZERLAND. 1267 In order to be admitted as regular pupils, persons must be at least 14 years of age and must have attended for two j'ears tlie industrial school of Geneva or possess an equivalent education. Irregular or special pupils, before being admitted, must show that they possess the necessary knowledge and capacity for following with profit the course which they desire to pursue. The admission of all such pupils must be approved by the supervisory commission. Instruction is gratui- tous, but pupils are required to furnish their own tools and all materi- als used in their work. The school year begins with the first week in August and continues until the end of June. The daily sessions last from 6 a. m. in summer and from 8 a. m. in winter till 8 p. m., with one hour's intermission at noon. During the winter a course in artistic wrought-iron work is given in the evening. The school possesses a collection of models for the use of students, a museum of industrial ai't objects, such as bronzes, gold work, ceram- ics, artistic ironwork, etc., a warehouse for the sale of articles made in the school, and a library. TBADE AND INDUSTRIAL ART SCHOOL, BERN. The trade school {Ilandwerlcerschule) founded in 1824 hj master- workmen of Bern, and the industrial art school (Kunstsclmle) founded in 1869 by the artists' association, were merged into one school, b}' permission of the Federal Government, on July 5, 1899. Although the trade school wa,s in excellent condition, and might have continued alone, the condition of affairs in the industrial art school made a change necessary because not only was there a lack of room, but an increase in its subsidy was conditioned on this change. To this end the establishment of a common course of industrial art instruction for both schools was agreed upon in September, 1898, and put into opera- tion in the spring of 1899. The new institution enables instructors to devote themselves to individual subjects with better results. This school has the following divisions: An industrial art school, trade courses for handicraftsmen, an industrial continuation school, and a special drawing school for teachers. The new institution began its sessions October 1, 1899. Candidates for admission to the industrial continuation school must have satisfied the common school requirements. Applicants for admis- sion to the trade courses must have completed the course prescribed for the industrial continuation school. The industrial art division is intended for those who wish to prepare themselves for or are engaged in art industries. There is also an art class for amateurs. The fourth division offers a special course in drawing intended for teachers of drawing and for those who are preparing themselves as teachers. Girls are also admitted to this institution. 1268 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. A tuition fee of 6 francs ($1.16) per winter term is charged in the continuation school and trade courses, and of 10 'francs ($1.93) in the industrial art school. A fee of 10 francs (11.93) is charged pupils of the industrial continuation school and the trade courses who also take the evening class of the industrial art school. Instruction in the school for drawing teachers is gratuitous. A fee of 20 francs ($3.86) per course is charged in the art classes. The subjects taught in the industrial art school and the hours per week devoted to each are as follows: Projection drawing, study of shading and perspective, 3; lectures and illustrations on the theory of perspective, 1 ; drawing figures and ornaments from plaster casts, in pencil, crayon, india ink, etc., 12; architectural drawing, 4; study of styles and orders, 4; exercises in sketching and the laws of perspective, 4; reproduction in pencil and in water colors of objects of industrial art, 3; designing, 12; drawing and designing for plastic work, 13; modeling in clay, gypsum, and wax, practical work in wood carving, leather engraving and embossing and chasing, 13; landscape and figure sketching and painting from nature (art class), 13; pencil and crayon drawing from living human models, 3; drawing and painting flowers for needlework and on porcelain, 4; history of art, 2. In the trade courses special classes are formed for the following trades and groups of trades: Masons, stonecutters, potters, etc.; car- penters and joiners; wood model makers; cabinetmakers and wood turners; locksmiths; blacksmiths and wagon makers; tinsmiths; ma- chinists, instrument makers, and electricians; grainers .and marblers; letterers; gardeners; compositors and pressmen. The courses are as follows : Architectural drawing (stone work): Instruction is given according to the various trades and the ability of the pupils. Masons are instructed in drawing brick bonds, details of doors and windows, socle plans and facade details according to scale; stone cutters are taught detail work of windows, doors, stairs, balconies, and pedestals according to scale, and cut-stone construction; marble workers are taught profile work of the capitals of columns, tombstone work, etc. Architectural drawing (woodwork): Building experts, carpenters and joiners are instructed in the drawing of sections of parts of buildings and of entire buildings, and drawing in reference to roof and stair construction in wood and stone, joinery details, etc. 3Iodeling in wood: This includes theory of different classes of roofs, construction of stairs, sketching of models, making models of parts of roofs, towers, and stairs. Locksmithing: This consists of a preparatory course in drawing and studying vari- ous simple objects produced in this trade, and a technical course in which instruction is given in drawing fittings for columns, supports and roofs, locks, blinds, etc., from models; and designing sections of iron windows and doors, glass roofs, etc., from specifications. Tinsmithing: Beginners are instructed in drawing simple objects from models, such as cylinders, cones, and pyramids. Those who are farther advanced take up hexa- gons and octagons, cornices, oval forms, and other objects of the tinsmith's trade after specifications and models. Graining and marbling: Exercises are given in graining and marbling first in crayon in order to learn the grains of different kinds of wood and marble, and afterwards in colors. TRADE AKD TECHNICAL EDUCATION SWITZERLAND. 1269 Machinists' trade: The instruction relates to the various kinds of screws, screw- threads and fittings, nuts and bolts; drawing simple parts of machines from models; sketching of simple machine parts and making drawings from sketches of machines and parts of machines; explanation of the gearings used in the transmission of power- drawing wall brackets, couplings, etc.; making drawings of various tools; explana- tion of toothed wheels and their applications; the construction of spur-toothed and conical wheels; screw and wheel movements; sketching machine tools and parts of the same; drawings from sketches. Instrument making: Preparing classified list of materials used; construction of .threads and of screws; sketching and drawing from models; drawing apparatus of various kinds, parts of machines; detail drawings of apparatus and machines. Blacksmithing and wagon making: Study of the different parts and of the con- struction of wagons; drawing frames and plain bodies, with special explanation regarding the preparation and joining of wood, which is carried out partly by prac- tical work according to scale. Furniture designing and interior finishings: Sketching and detail drawing of pieces of furniture from models and objects; designing complete furnishings and decora- tions for rooms with various styles of ceilings and wainscoting. Lettering: Copying Roman letters in various forms and sty lea. Decorative paint- ing. This is almost wholly ornamental, beginners painting from simple objects and advanced pupils making their own sketches, which are then developed in technical form. Printing: The course for compositors' apprentices covers 4 years. During the first and second years the following work is taken up: The history of the art of printing, the arrangement of a printing establishment, type and tools, grades of type, com- position, imposing, and emptying forms, and all the technical details of composition, such as punctuation, spacing, sentence structure, paragraphing, tabulating, and the headings, footnotes, tables of contents, etc. During the third and fourth years the following work is taken up: Arrangement of styles, theory and practice of printing, proportion and symmetry, titular composition, such as spacing, punctuation, division of space, selection of type, etc.; various forms of printing menus, cards, pro- grammes, etc. The course for pressmen's apprentices embraces the following work: Color print- ing, including ink, rollers, paper, conditions of temperature, impression; details of producing and handling rollers, printing of illustrations of different styles, such as depressed, raised, and surface or flat printing; history of the art of wood engraving up to the present time; setting up of power arrangements; planing the blocks, vari- ous preparing methods, explanation of various technical terms; cutting out and pasting on cuts, instruction in materials used in illustration printing, paper, colors, rollers, machines; explanation of three and four color printing; producing and handling of colored plates. Courses are also given in gardening and surveying. Following is the course in the industrial continuation school: Bookkeeping, business forma and arithmetic; French language, with reading, grammar, conversation and composition; German language, including grammar and penmanship; algebra and trigonometry; physics; experimental chemistry and study of materials; history and geography of Switzerland; freehand drawing, drawing from plaster casts, technical and geometrical drawing, object drawing, and perspective drawing. The drawing school for teachers provides instruction in the follow- ing subjects: Eelief drawing from casts, drawing from nature, blackboard exercises, style, technical drawing, architectural drawing, and sketching of various objects. 1270 EEPORT OF THE COMMISSIONEE OF LABOR. The affairs of the school are directed hy a commission composed of representatives of the councils of the Canton, the commune, the city, and the supervising board of the trade school. The total number of instructors in this school is 69. The attend- ance on January 1, 1900, was 1,061, of whom 915 were males and 116 females. Of these pupils, 669 had a primary school education and 402 had a higher school training. The number of apprentices was 121, the number of journeymen 255, and the number of pupils in the teachers' class and those without definite occupation 85. Following is a table of the receipts and expenditures of this school for 1899 and 1900: RECEIPTS AND EXPENDITURES OF THE TRADE AND INDUSTRIAL ART SCHOOL, BERN, 1899 AND 1900. Items. Trade school, 1899. Art school, 1899. Trade and industrial art school, 1900. RECEIPTS. Contributions of the Confederation Contributions of the Canton Contributions of the municipality Contributions from corporations and private individuals. Interest on capital - Tuition fees, etc SI, 614 1,467 1,605 58 125 1,448 SI, 313 2,779 386 116 77 193 S3, 165 3,551 2,451 174 203 1,640 Total income . 6,217 4,864 11,184 EX.PENDITURES. General administration Printing and advertisements . Light and heat Furniture Articles used in teaching Salaries Cleaning and maintenance - . Living models Rent other articles 174 232 926 77 676 :,101 97 116 154 289 97 290 386 1,235 270 772 6,996 135 145 270 685 Total expenditures . 11,184 TRADE SCHOOLS AND APPRENTICESHIP SHOPS. These schools are mostly devoted to individual trades, although some, such as the building-trades and metal-working schools, teach a number of related trades. The trade schools selected for individual description are arranged alphabetically by occupations, and these are followed b_v a description of the municipal apprenticeship shops at Bern. SCHOOIi FOE, THE BTJILDIBTG TRADES, GENEVA. This school, known as the mJcoU de Metiers, owes its existence to a cantonal law passed October 19, 1895. As its name implies, the pur- pose of the school is to train men for the building trades. The course of instruction lasts three years, but during the last year the pupils are required to work in outside shops and yards under the supervision of the school. The school j^ear begins August 1 and ends July 1, and is divided into a winter and a summer term. The theoretical courses take up TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATIOK — SWITZERLAND. 1271 from 10 to 21 hours per week and the practical courses from 28 to 45 hours per week. The theoretical instruction generally begins Octo- ber 1 and ends April 1, thus allowing the rest of the rear to be devoted entirely to practical work. _ The school is divided into three departments, viz, one for carpentry, joinery, and cabinetmaking; one for masonry and stonecutting; and one for tinsmithing and plumbing. The age of admission is U years, and candidates must pass an ex- amination to show that they possess a sufficient degree of education. Tuition is free for Swiss citizens; foreigners pay 60 francs (|9.65) per year. The following table shows for each department the hours per week devoted to each subject: COURSE OF STUDY IN EACH DEPAETME^fT, SCHOOL FOR THE BUILDING TRADES GENEVA. DEPAKTMENT FOK CARPENTERS, JOINERS, AN» CABINETMAKERS. Subjects. Hours per week, summer term. Hours per week, winter term. First year. Second year. Third year. First year. Second year. Third year. 44 4 40 f !>2 i ai f a46 .55 1 ai \ 28 6 2 4 4 2 3 f !>27 1 "29 I 62 i.3 c40 35 I ai Building Descriptive geometry Mathematics 2 2 3 French and singing 2 3 f 68 1 a6 a2 as 2 3 f bS { ae hi a2 \ as n3 Stereotomy-carpentry Physics and chemistry 1 M Exercises in composition 2 f2 Industrial accounts DEPARTMENT FOR MASONS ANU STONECUTTERS. Shopwork 44 4 37 2 t!55 28 6 2 i 4 2 3 27 2 3 o40 Drawing Construction Descriptive geometry 2 2 3 French and singing 2 3 3 8 2 3 8 4 Exercises in composition 2 Industrial accounts 2 DEPARTMENT FOR TINSMITHS AND PI.UMBERS. Shopwork Drawing Construction Descriptive geometry Mathematics French and singing Gymnastics Stereotomy Physics and chemistry Exercises in composition . Industrial accounts d55 a For cabinetmakers. 6 For carpenters and joiners. cFor carpenters and joiners; shopwork in private shops, ri Shopwork in private shops. ^ 1272 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. The course of instruction in the carpenters, joiners, and cabinet- makers' department is as follows: First year (for all pupils): Shopwork — Study of tools and of woods, preparing woods, finishing and joining; exercises in connection with simple objects; various pieces of work made from models. All work done by the pupils is drawn in full size or to a reduced scale, either in the shop or during the drawing lessons. Drawing — Elements of sketching and free-hand drawing with special reference to the trade of the pupil. Building — Elements of the science of building; the ground, the principal materials and their uses; plans of the different parts of the building; beginning of the study of a building. Descriptive geometry — Representations of lines, surfaces, and solids in projection; simple intersections. Ornamental drawing of geometrical figures. Mathematics — Geometry, arithmetic, mensuration of surfaces and volumes; problems relating to building construction. Pupils who are not prepared in these studies review during the first months of the term. Pupils who have sufficient knowledge may be exempted from mathematics on passing an examination therein. Other subjects are French, singing, and gymnastics. Second year (for carpenters and joiners) : Shopwork — Continuation of the work of the first year; making of models relating to stereotomy; various exercises in car- pentry and joinery; doors, windows, closets, stairs, iron fittings; measurements, estimating the value of work; making working drawings and drawings on a reduced scale; competitive execution by pupils of various pieces of work. Drawing — Tech- nical drawing of plans, elevations, and sections in relation to the lessons in building construction, to objects in carpentry and joinery, to be made by the pupils; tracings; exercises in sketching. Building — Continuation of the courses of the first year; prin- ciples of statics. Carpentry — Section cutting; bevel or miter sections; working draw- ings; sections of slanting rafters; complete working drawings of a roof; construction of a model of the same; introduction to stonecutting; sections and intersections of cones and cylinders. Physics and chemistry — Elementary principles and their appli- cation to building materials; structure and composition of these materials, effect of atmosphere on them. French, singing, gymnastics. Second year (for cabinetmakers): Shopwork — Joints of moldings, frames; panels, angular and curved; small pieces of ordinary furniture, of deal, and of hard wood; working drawings, plans, and sections; projections of various pieces of furniture; estimates of work done. Drawing — Technical drawing; plans; elevations and sec- tions relating to the objects studied or executed; working sketches and outline sketches; ornamental drawing. Stereotomy — The same as that for carpenters and joiners. Other subjects are French, singing, gymnastics. Third year (for carpenters and joiners): "Work in stereotomy, composition, book- keeping, and gymnastics occupies nine hours per week, the re.^t of the time being spent in private shops. Third year (for cabinetmakers): Shopwork — Exercises in executing objects; fur- niture copied from the best models or designed in the school. Stereotomy — Supple- mentary instruction in stereotomy by the foreman of the shop; technical and con- struction drawing. Drawing — Knowledge of styles and application of the same to furniture. Composition, French, singing, and gymnastics. In the masons and stonecutters' department the course of instruction is as follows: First year: Shopwork— Study of tools, the principal kinds of building stone and other building materials; practice on sandstone, limestone, etc.; designing of panels; execution of models in plaster on a reduced scale; exercises in masonry and stor.e setting. The courses in drawing, building construction, descriptive geometry, mathematics, TBADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION — SWITZERLAND. 1273 French, singing, and gymnastics are the same as in the first year of the section for carpenters, joiners, and cabinetmakers. Second year: Shopwork— Continuation of the exercises of the first year. Work in cement; working drawings; calculations and estimates of work done. Surveying and leveling — field work. The work in drawing, building construction, etc., is the same as in the section for carpenters, etc. The third year's work is also similar to that of the section for car- penters, etc. In the tinsmiths and plumbers' department the following is the course of study: First year: Shopwork — Tools and their uses and care; cutting, soldering, joining plane and curved surfaces. Work in zinc, tin plate, and sheet iron; designing of work to be executed, etc. The work begins with simple exercises, some of it being done by the pupils in competition with one another. The courses ia drawing, con- struction, descriptive geometry, mathematics, French, singing, and gymnastics are the same as in the other two sections. Second year: Shopwork — Making articles of tin plate for domestic purposes and for building work; sheet-ironwork; installation of plumbing arrangements, etc. ; plans and calculations of work done. The courses in drawing, construction, stereotomy, physics and chemistry, French, singing, and gymnastics are the same as in the other sections. Third year: Stereotomy, exercises in composition, industrial bookkeeping, and gymnastics require 9 hours per week, and the balance of the week spent in private workshops. The affairs of the school are in the hands of a board composed of 11 members. The teaching personnel consists of 7 instructors, i master workmen, and a dean who has immediate charge of the school. The salaries, furniture of the school, and materials for instruction are furnished by the Government. The City of Geneva furnishes the school building, light, and heat. TSADE SCHOOL FOR LADIES' TAILORING AND LINGERIE MAKING, ZURICH. The object of this institution is to prepare young women for the trades of ladies' tailors, seamstresses, teachers of female manual training in the public and continuation schools, and to teach general needlework. It comprises the following departments and courses: A trade department for ladies' tailoring; a trade department for lingerie making; a course in pattern drawing for ladies' tailors; courses in dressmaking and in plain sewing for household needs; a course for teachers of manual training; and evening courses for work- ing women. Each of the trade departments has a salesroom where pupils must work for at least six months. For this work they receive a compensa- tion fixed by the school board, according to their capacity and efficiency. In order to be admitted pupils must be over 14 years of age, and must present certificates showing a general education equivalent to that obtained in a good common .school or in an intermediate school, and 1274 EEPOKT OF THE OOMMISSIONEK OF LABOE. a knowledge and experience in female handiwork, such as is afforded by the primary schools of Zurich. Persons who have served an appren- ticeship elsewhere and who wish to obtain a further training maj"- also be admitted. The number of pupils in each class is limited, in order that proper attention may be received by each pupil. Instruction in the two trade departments is free to residents, but foreigners must pay a tuition fee of 150 francs ($28.95). Pupils who do not take the full courses must pay the same fee. Provision is made for needy deserving pupils. The tuition fee for the special courses is from 30 to 60 francs (|5.79 to $11.58), according to the length of the period of instruction and the necessary expenses. The school year begins May 1, instruction being given daily for 8 hours, 4 hours in the forenoon and 4 hours in the afternoon, with the exception of Saturday afternoon. The vacation period covers 4 weeks. At the close of the school term examinations and an exhibition of work done during the year are held. The course of instruction in the department for ladies' tailoring covers from 3i to 4 years, of which 3 years are spent in the workshop and 6 months or 1 j^ear in the salesroom. It embraces the following- work: First year: Practical exercises — Hand and machine sewing; trimming, cutting and making underskirts, aprons and simple articles of clothing. Theoretical instruc- tion — Measuring, designing and drawing patterns. Auxiliary subjects — German language, business forms and correspondence, 1 hour per week; geometrical and free-hand drawing, 2 hours, consisting of simple ornamental forms, drawing to various scales, exercises in designing from given patterns, coloring for use in embroidery * work, and transferring designs to goods; industrial bookkeeping, 1 hour; and French language, 2 hours. Second year: Practical exercises — Making dress-skirts (finishing, draping and trimming); finishing waists; stitching together, sewing and trimming sleeves; cut- ting and making blouses, morning gowns and plain dresses; repetition of the work done on skirts; altering dresses. Theoretical instruction, 2 hours per week — Meas- uring, designing and drawing waist patterns. Auxiliary subjects — German language, 1 hour per week; drawing, similar to that taught in the first year but of a higher grade, 2 hours; French language, 2 hours. Third year: Practical exercises — Cutting and making ladies' and children's cloth- ing, jackets, cloaks, etc., fitting, trimming. Theoretical instruction, 6 hours per v.eek — Measurmg, designing and drawing patterns for the above-mentioned articles; designing and drawing more difficult patterns and patterns for abnormally formed bodies. Auxiliary subjects — Domestic economy, 1 hour per week; study of costumes, styles and colors, 1 hour; during the winter, French, 2 hours. Fourth year: Practical work in the salesroom, such as cutting, fitting, and finishing work to order. The course of instruction in the department for lingerie work coa'- ers from 2i to 3 years, 2 years of which are spent in the workshop and from one-half to 1 year in the salesroom. It embraces the fol- lowing work: First year: Practical exercises— Hand and machine sewing, and instruction in the use of the sewing machine, plaiting, cutting and making aprons and sleeves for the TRADE AND XECHNICAL EDUCATION— SWITZEELAND. 1275 use of the pupils, cutting and mailing various pieces of vromen's clothing, hemming and mending lingerie. Theoretical instruction, 2 hours per week-Measuring designmg, and drawing patterns for the ahove-mentioned articles. Auxiliary sub- jects—German language, 1 hour; drawing, 2 hours, embracing geometrical and free- hand drawing, such as simple ornamental styles and drawings; drawing to various scales; exercises in designing from, given patterns or models, coloring for use in embroidery work, transferring designs to goods, industrial bookkeeping 1 hour- French, 2 hours. Second year: Practical exercises— Cutting and making under waists, and other lin- gerie from measure; men's and children's linen and bed linen; cutting and making articles from models in half size. Theoretical instruction, including exercises in measuring, designing, and drawing patterns for the above-mentioned articles, and designing and drawing patterns for models in half size, 6 hours per week. Auxiliary subjects— Fundamental principles of domestic economy, 1 hour; drawing similar to that given in the first year but of a higher grade, 2 hours; French, 2 hours. Third year: Practical work in the salesroom— Cutting and making men's hnen wear, trousseaus, and children's outfits to order; ironing and plaiting. Theoretical instruction— Measuring to order, cutting and fitting, completing pattern drawings for men's and children's linen wear. The special course in pattern drawing- for tailoresses occupies 6 weeks, of 38 hours each. The work is as follows: Designing and drawing patterns for morning gowns, various styles of waists, sleeves, gowns, jackets, etc., for normally and abnormally shaped figures; for children's clothes; for mantles, cloaks, etc.; designing of a jacket pattern from a waist pattern; designing patterns for various styles of jackets, cloaks, collars, capes, etc.; for various children's jackets, cloaks, collars, capes, etc.; designing and drawing patterns for reform and athletic costumes, gymnasium costumes, bicycle skirts, and riding habits; making half-size models in muslin; exercise in setting in various kinds of pockets in woolens. The special course in dressmakinp^ for home and familj^ needs occu- pies 11 to 12 weeks of 38 hours each. The work is as follows: Practical work — Exercises in hand and m^achine sewing with instruction in the use of sewing machines; cutting and making underskirts, underwaists, plain skirts, waists or blouses, morning jackets, morning gowns, and children's dresses; repairing and altering various articles of clothing. Theoretical instruction, 4 hours per week — Measuring, designing, and drawing patterns for underskirts, miderwaists, -^-arious stj'les of skirts and waists for adults and children, and morning gowns. Auxiliary subjects — Free-hand drawing, stripe and ribbon ornamentation, lettering, and mono- grams, transferring designs to goods, 2 hours per week. Two special courses in plain sewing- for home and family needs are a day course covering 15 weeks of 36 hours each, and a half-day course covering 23 weeks of 22 to 21 hours each. These courses comprise the following- subjects: , Practical work — Exercises in hand and machine sewing with instruction in the use of sewing machines; plaiting and buttonhole making; cutting and making white aprons (for the use of the pupils) ; cutting out and making ladies' shirts of various kinds and styles, ladies' nightgowns, drawers, undershirts, and underwaists, night jackets, morning jackets, men's shirts, and linen blouses. Theoretical instruction, 4 hours per .^yeek- Measuring, designing, and drawing patterns for the above-mentioned pieces. Auxiliary subjects— Free-hand drawing, stripe and ribbon ornamentation, lettering, and monograms, and transferring drawings to goods, 2 hours per week. 1276 EEPOET OF THE COMMISSIONED OF LABOR. The school is under the general supervision of a board of managers consisting of 9 members, 6 of whom represent the Government and 4 the city of Zurich. Each class of the trade school and of the special courses is in charge of a teacher who is personallj'' responsible for the conduct of her class. Each section is in charge of a section director or manager. These instructors constitute a committee which has immediate supervision over the pupils, prepares the schedules of instruction, etc. The attendance at the end of the school term 1899-1900 was as fol- lows: Department for ladies' tailoring, 52; department for lingerie making, 44; special courses, 176; total, 271. Upon graduating from the school many of the pupils of the trade departments take the apprentices' examination of the Swiss Industrial Union. Of 26 graduates who took this examination in 1900 all obtained certificates. This fact can not be taken as a measure of the work done by the school, as very few pupils except the regular apprentices take this examination. The number of graduates from the department for ladies' tailoring was 14, and from the department for lingerie making 18, in 1900. The cost of the grounds, buildings, and equipment of the school ■was 300,479 francs (f57,992). It is maintained by contributions from the Canton and City of Zurich, the Federal Government, and from corporations and private individuals. All private donations and lega- cies, unless otherwise specified, are devoted to the fund for scholar- ships. Materials and supplies are furnished to pupils by the school at cost price. During the school year 1899-1900 the sum of 2,000 francs (1386) was expended for scholarships for worthy pupils. The school has a collection of models, cloths, and costumes for use in illustrating the styles and fashions of different times. The following table shows the receipts and expenditures of the school for the calendar j^ears 1898 and 1899: RECEIPTS AND EXPENDITURES OP THE TRADE SCHOOL FOR LADIES' TAILORING AND LINGERIE MAKING, ZURICH, 1898 AND 1899. Items. 1899. RECEIPTS. Contributions of the Federal Government Contributions of the Canton of Zurich Contributions of the city of Zurich Contributions of private individuals Tuitions Proceeds from the sale of goods Sale of working materials and school supplies Interest and sundries Balance from the previous year Payment of a loan on the building account . . Total SI, 930 1,158 1,061 19 1,280 4,875 2,706 43 307 531 13, 910 82, 316 1,255 1,158 4,377 58 381 16, 227 TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION SWITZERLAND. 1277 RECEIPTS AND EXPENDITURES OF THE TRADE SCHOOL FOR LADIES' TAILORING AND LINGERIE MAKING, ZURICH, 1898 AND 1899— Concluded. Items. EXPENDITTJBEB. Rent Janitor service, light, and lieat Teachers' salaries Laborers' wages Furniture Scjiool supplies Working materials Library Advertisements, printing, etc Scholarships Contribution to the fund for scholarships . Advance for new buildings Total. 92, 277 787 3,693 223 506 872 4,737 47 1,031 16, 153 SCHOOL FOR MECHANICS, GENEVA. This school was established in 1879 as a division of the school of watchmaking. In 1891 it became a separate institution, remaining, however, under the same directorate as the former school. It is a municipal institution under the control of the administrative council of the city. Its object is "to offer to mechanics a more complete theoretical knowledge than can be acquired in workshops, together with a practical training." The administrative council is assisted in the general supervision and administration of the affairs of the school by a consulting committee, distinct from that of the watchmaking school. This committee con- sists of 7 members who are appointed by the administrative council for a term of 2 years. The administrative council, upon the advice of the consulting committee, appoints all officials of the school, prepares the programmes, makes all regulations, and determines the duties of each officer. The consulting committee presents each year to the administrative council a report on the progress of the school. The theoretical course covers three years and comprises mathematics, bookkeeping, mechanics, physics, chemistry, the elements of descrip- tive geometry, and technical drawing in its applications to mechanics. With the exception of bookkeeping the studies are compulsory. The practical work comprises three departments, as follows: Pre- paratory department— metal and wood work without the use of machinery; department of general mechanics— machine work, fitting; department of fine mechanics— instruments of precision and physical apparatus. This course also covers three years, and upon its comple- tion pupils are qualified for admission to the superior division of the school of watchmaking. The faculty of the school consists of a director, who also has supervision over the school of watchmaking, and five assistants. , , • Pupils must be at least 16 years of age, and have an education eqmv- alent to that received in the second year of the high school of Geneva. 1278 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OP LABOR. Day pupils are not admitted to the practical work, but, on the advice of the consulting committee, they may be allowed to pursue the theoretical course. The general expenses of the school are provided for by tiie city, by federal subsidies, and by tuition fees. During the j^ear 1899 the total expenditures, as shown by the '''' Jahrbucli des Unterrichtswesens in der SohweJ.-::" were 28,931 francs ($6,584), of which amount 9,000 francs (^1,737) were received as subsidy from the Federal Government. The tuition fee for natives of Switzerland is 10 francs (fl.93) per month for the first j^ear and 5 francs (97 cents) per month for the second year. During the third j'ear tuition is free to those who have completed the first and second years' work. Those who take only the second and third 3^ears' work pay 5 francs (97 cents) per month for the two years. Tlie tuition fee for foreigners is 25 francs ($4.83) per month for the entire course. Children of foreigners who have resided in Geneva at least ten years are admitted upon the same terms as Swiss children. The school furnishes all tools needed in the work and supplies all necessary materials. The school j^ear begins during the last week of July and ends about the last of June. During the first three weeks of each year the theo- retical instruction is suspended and the entire time given to practical worli. The average time per week devoted to theoretical instruction and drawing is, for the preparatory department, 10 hours; for the department of general mechanics, 13 hours; for the department of fine mechanics, 13 hours. The practical work consumes 57 hours per week. SCHOOL FOB METAL WOKKEE.S, WINTERTHUE. This school is a cantonal institution and was annexed to the Indus- trial Museum of Winterthur in the spring of 1889. Its object is "to educate, b}^ means of practical and theoretical instruction, workmen skilled in the various branches of metal work." It is placed under the control of the board of supervisors of the museum and under the immediate supervision of the director of that institution. The school is composed of the following departments: A depart- ment for housesmiths and wrought-iron workers; a department for machinists; a department of fine mechanics; a department for pattern making and metal casting, and a course for apprentices and jour- _ ne3mien. The courses of study in the first three departments are arranged to cover three years and constitute the work of the school proper. The course in the department for pattern making and metal casting covers two and a half years. Special pupils are permitted to take practical courses of instruction of one year's duration in certain branches of metal work. Such pupils are generally young persons who have already obtained, or who intend to obtain later, the necessary theoret- TEADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION SWITZERLAND. 1279 ical training. The course for apprentices and journeymen is designed to offer both theoretical and practical instruction in individual branches to those who are unable to take the complete course. The number of hours per week devoted to each studj- is shown in the following table: COURSE or STUDY IN THE SCHOOL FOR METAL WORKERS, WIXTERTHUR. Hours per week. Subjects. Krst year. Second year. Third year. German language 2 2 2 2 6 6 2 2 2 2 4 2 6 1 Arithmetic and algebra Geometry Physics Drawing, free-hand Drawing, proj ective Drawing, technical . 6 Trigonometry Technology of metals Machine construction ■1 Electro- technics 2 Bookkeeping 1 2 Modeling 4 28 28 32 Total 48 49 53 The practical work is as follows: First year: For housesmiths and machinists — Practice in handling materials; exer- cises at the vise, forge, and auxiliary machines; practice in forging, welding, and sol- dering; simple ironwork; use of tools, hammers, files, chisels, punches, etc.; simple tin work, such as folding, bending, riveting, and soldering. For instrument makers — Practice in handling of materials; exercises at the vise, lathe, and auxiliary machines; forging, soldering; use of tools; making simple tools; execution of simple work. For pattern makers — Practice in use of tools for pattern making; study of materials; exercises at the planing and turning benches. Second year: For machinists — Practice in the production of exact mechanical work; divers manipulations. For tool and instrument makers — Execution of tools, simple electrical and physical apparatus, and instruments; polishing and enameling; use of acids, etc. For housesmiths and wrought-iron workers — Various forms of mount- ings; simple work in fitting; execution of divers kinds of forged work, pincers, sockets, locks, tools, etc. For pattern makers — Execution of tools for pattern making; simple patterns from drawings; exercise in hand shaping. Third year: For machinists — Execution of tools; separate parts of machines; entire machines. For tool and instrument makers — Production of instruments and appa- ratus; galvano-plastic work; copper, nickel, and silver plating; general training for independent work. For housesmiths and wrought-iron workers — Ornamental mount- ings, locks, etc. ; different kinds of more complex work, trellises, embossed and forged rosettes, leaves, and flowers; chasing, engraving, stamping, and etching. For pattern makers— Patterns and core boxes from drawings; core making in sand and clay from core boxes and models; alloying, smelting, bronze casting, etc. The faculty of the school consists of a director, who also gives the- oretical instruction, 8 instructors in theoretical branches, and 5 teachers of practical work. Pupils must be at least 15 years of age, must prove that they have spent three years in the secondary schools of Zurich, or similar schools, 1280 KEPORT OP THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. and must possess the necessary physical qualifications for beginning an apprenticeship. Kegular pupils are received for a probationary period of one month. In the first three departments mentioned above, the cost of instruc- tion to regular pupils is 40 francs (17.72) per year, and to special pupils 300 francs (157.90) per j^ear. Foreigners who enter as regular students are charged a tuition fee of 80 francs ($15.44) per year, and those taking special courses 450 francs ($86.85) per year. The rates in the school for pattern making and metal casting are 40 francs ($7.72) for regular and 150 francs (128.95) for special pupils. Apprentices and young workmen who attend the theoretical course only, pay 3 francs (58 cents) per year for each weekly hour of instruction; those attending the practical course only, pay 6 francs (11.16.) A matriculation fee of 10 francs (fl.93) for regular pupils and 2 francs (39 cents) for appren- tices and young workmen is paid on entering the school. Partial or total remission of tuition fees is made to v/orthy pupils in needy circumstances. The school is in session throughout the year, except one week in summer, one week from Christmas to New Year's day, and two weeks in April. Theoretical instruction is suspended during a few weeks in the fall. The revenues of the school are derived from tuition fees and fi'om cantonal and federal subsidies. The attendance during the year 1899-1900 was 94 pupils, of whom 21 completed the course and received certificates of graduation. The total number of graduates of this institution since its organization in 1888 is 344, of whom 125 were regular and 219 special pupils. SCHOOL OF SILK WEAVING, ZUBICH. This school was founded in 1881 by the Association for the Silk Industry {Seidenindustrie-Gesellschaft) of the Canton of Zurich. Its object is to prepare young men for the higher positions in the silk- weaving industry, such as superintendents of mills, and for work in the designing, arranging, and finishing departments. It is also intended to educate pupils as manufacturers and dealers in silk textiles. The course of study covers two years and includes: History of the silk industry, study of silk culture and of raw materials, instruction in preparing the silk, theory and practical work in hand and power- loom weaving, preparing cards for Jacquard looms, study of color and of styles, free-hand and technical drawing, designing patterns, indus- trial bookkeeping, mathematics of weaving, and practical work on hand and power looms. The instruction is conducted by the director, who, in addition to his supervisory work, teaches the theoretical branches of silk culture, raw materials and their preparation for weaving, bookkeeping, and mathe- TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION SWITZERLAND. 1281 matics; a teacher of theoretical and practical work relating to hand- loom weaving; a teacher of theoretical and practical work relating to power-loom weaving, and of technical drawing; and a teacher of free-hand and pattern drawing, the preparation of cards for Jacquard looms, etc. Pupila must be 16 years of age and have a school education sufficient to render them capable of pursuing intelligently the studies prescribed for the school, as well as a practical knowledge of the ordinary processes employed in weaving. The cost of instruction to pupils who are natives of Switzerland is 200 francs (138.60) for the first course and 300 francs ($57.90) for the second. Foreigners are charged 300 francs ($67. 90) for the first course and 500 francs ($96.50) for the second. Free scholarships and aid funds are provided for pupils of small means who show themselves capable and industrious. The school is in session daily, except Sundays and holidays. The winter and summer semesters are each 22 weeks in length. During the vacation period pupils have access to the school for the purpose of doing practice work. The school is under the administration of a commission composed of seven members, of whom one is selected by the cantonal govern- ment, three by the municipal council of Zurich, and three by the Association for the Silk Industry. The income is derived from federal, cantonal, and municipal subsi- dies, tuition fees, private donations, and from the treasury of the asso- ciation which founded it. During the year 1899 the expenditures of the school amounted to 38,456 francs ($7,422), of which amount 8,000 francs (|1,544) were received as subsidy from the Federal Government. SCHOOL OF WATCHMAKING, GENEVA. This school was founded in 1824 by the Geneva Societ}^ of Arts, and continued under its direction until 1843, when its control was trans- ferred to the city. In 1879 there was added a class in mechanics, which was detached from it in 1891 to form a separate school. The object of the school is "to give complete instruction in the art of watchmaking, so as to make able and well-informed workmen, thereby maintaining and increasing the renown of the Geneva work." It is in reality an apprenticeship school, in which an inferior course embraces three and a superioi" course two years of apprenticeship. For the administration and general supervision of the school the administrative council of the city is assisted by a consulting committee of twenty members appointed by it. Of this committee three mem- bers are nominated by the chamber of commerce, three by the Watch- makers' Association, two by the Society of Arts, and the remaining- 9257—02 81 1282 BEPOET OF THE COMMISSIONEK OF LABOB. twelA'e by the council itself. This committee is presided over by a member delegated by the administrative council, and holds one session each month, at which a detailed report of the progress of the school is presented by the director. It has supervision over all that concerns the instruction and interior administration of the school. The admin- istrative council, upon the advice of this committee, appoints all func- tionaries of the school, makes all interior regulations, prepares the pi'ogrammes, and determines the duties of each officer and employee. Instruction in the school is theoretical and practical. The theoretical course covers four j^ears and embraces mathematics, kinematics, tech- nical drawing, elements of physics and of chemistry, elements of astronomy, applications of electricity to watchmaking and to appli- ances for transmission of energy, and theory of watchmaking. These studies are in accord with the aim of the school and are compulsory. Optional branches, such as bookkeeping or others whose usefulness is apparent, may be introduced with the advice of the consulting com- mittee. The practical work comprises two divisions, the inferior and the superior. The inferior course comprehends successively the following work, covering in all three years: Preparatory work, rough work, mechanisms for winding, wheelwork, anchor and cylinder escapements, work by the machine process. This division includes, in addition, three classes pursuing special studies in electric clock making and in construction by the hand and the machine methods. The superior course is designed for pupils who desire to study one particular branch of watchmaking or who intend to become experts or superintendents in watch factories. It comprises the following work, covering two years: Escapements (special kinds), construction by the machine process, movements and other complicated parts, finishing and regu- lating, and electric clock making. In this division pupils have the liberty of choosing the class which they desire to enter. In all other respects the instruction is obligatory. The faculty of the school consists of a director, who also gives theo- retical instruction, a teacher of preparatorj;' work, one of rough work, one of meclianisms for winding, one of wheelwork, one of escapements, one of movements, one of machine work, one of finishing and regulat- ing, and a teacher for the class for girls. Pupils must be at least li years of age and must possess an educa- tion corresponding to that received in the first year of the high school of Geneva, or, at least, must have a knowledge of arithmetic, includ- ing common fractions, the elements of algebra and of geometry, and must understand the use of the rule and the compass. Pupils of the high school who have won promotion at the end of the first year's course are admitted to the school without examination. Workingmen desiring to perfect themselves in any one branch TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION 8WITZEBLAND. 1283 taught in the school can be admitted to the superior division ]>y special authority of the administrative council. A class for girls was added to the school in 1896. The practical work in this class Ls divided into two periods of about six months each and consists in making such small tools and detached parts of watches as can be executed with the file and the lathe. The theoret- ical work consumes two hours per week and is in direct correlation with the practical. The daily session continues eight hours during the entire year. Pupils must be at least 13 years of age, must have completed the course in the primary school of the city, or possess an equivalent education. Pupils in this class are subject to the same regulations as apply to the classes for boys. The expenses of the school are defrayed bj' the city, by federal subsidies, by tuitions, and by voluntarj' donations. The tuition fee for regular pupils is fixed at 6 francs (97 cents) per month for natives of Switzerland and 25 francs (14.83) for foreigners. The rates for special pupils are as follows: Classes in escajDcments and in movements, 20 francs ($3.86) per month for natives and 40 francs (f7.72) for foreigners; classes in finishing and regulating, 30 francs ($5.79) per month for natives and 50 francs (|9.65) for foreigners. Children of foreigners who have resided in Geneva at least ten years pay the same rates as Swiss children. All tuition fees are payable in advance and without deductions. Pupils in poor circumstances who prove themselves capable and industrious can secure remission of the tuition fee. The school year comprises forty -eight weeks and begins during the last week of July, though pupils are admitted at any time during the year. The morning session lasts four hours in winter and five in summer. The afternoon session lasts five and one-half hours in winter and four and one-half hours in summer. In the lower division pupils are furnished all tools necessarv to their work, while in the higher these must be paid for by the pupils. The pupils of either division who obtain a percentage of 75 or over receive at the end of each year a certificate admitting them to the next class. The interest arising from a bequest of 10,()00 francs ($1,930) is extended as aid to deserving pupils, and that of another fund of 1,000 francs (|193) is awarded as prize money to pupils who attain distinc- tion in their work. The total expenditures of the school for the year 1899 were 48,569 francs ($9,372). Of this amount 15,783 francs ($3,046) was received as a subsidy from the Federal Government. SCHOOL OF -WATCHMAKriSrG, ITEUCHATEL. This school was founded in 1871 and was entirely reorganized in 1882. It is a municipal institution and, since 1885, has received a sub- sidy from the Federal Government. Its object is " to offer to pupils 1284 EEPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. and to workingmen in the watchmaking industry the means of acquir- ing the necessary theoretical knowledge, and as nearly as possible a practical training in their vocation." A commission consisting of 13 members appointed by the municipal council of Neuchatel exercises a general supervision over the school and presents every three years to the council a detailed report showing the progress of the school during that period. Three courses of study are provided: A scientific course, a course in theory of watchmaking and technical drawing, and ^ practical course. The first or scientific course is directed in such manner as to assist the pupil to a proper comprehension of the work in the theory of watchmaking. It comprises the following studies: Preparatory class (4 hours per week): Arithmetic. Algebra. Plane geometry. French language. First-year class (4 hours per week): Arithmetic. Algebra. Plane geometry. French language. Second-year class (7 hours per week): Algebra. Solid geometry. French lan- guage and commercial correspondence. Mechanics. Physics. Astronomy — General study of planetary bodies, celestial movements, laws, astronomical instruments. Electricity — Sources, effects, laws and measurement of electric currents, their appli- cation to watchmaking, classification of electric watchmaking, study of the different systems of time regulating by electricity. Third-year class (7 hours per week): Algebra. Plane trigonometry. Descriptive geometry. Mechanics. Physics. Electricity — Electrical registering, lighting, trans- mission of power. Chemistry. Special higher course for candidates for experts' diploma (7 hours per week): Calculus — Differential and integral. Analytical geometry. Mechanics. Physics. Electricity — The telephone and the telegraph. Astronomy and spherical trigonom- etry — Elements, astronomical coordinates (zenithal, horary, equatorial, and ecliptic); measurement of time, conversion of sidereal time into mean time, and vice versa; astronomical ephemerides; explanation and use of the " Connaissance des Temps," the "Berliner Jahrbuch," and the "Nautical Almanac;" geographical coordinates, parallaxes and astronomical refraction, effects of refraction on astral coordinates; theory of astronomical instruments, the theodolite, the meridian circle, the sextant, reflecting instruments; reckoning time, practical work at the observatory. Chemis- try — Principles of metallurgy and of organic chemistry in their application to the materials used in watchmaking. The course in theorj^ of watchmaking and technical drawing is as follows: First year: Theory of watchmaking (2 hours per week) — General functions of clocks and watches, the pendulum and the balance, motive forces, wheel work, cal- culations and applications, calendar clocks, complicated pieces, etc. Technical drawing (4 hours per week) — Preparatory exercises, sketching small tools by free- hand and from side plans. Second year: Theory of watchmaking (2 hours per week) — Study of gearings — determining circumference and radius of wheels and pinions, exterior and interior gearings, racks, transmission of energy by wheels, different forms of contact; geo- metrical study of the cycloid, the epicycloid, and the circle; gearings of mechanisms for winding, common defects in gearings; general study of escapements — general TEADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION SWITZERLAND. 1285 theory of escapements, anchor and other escapements, different parts, functions and practical terminology, common defects in escapements and their remedy; measure- ment by aid of the goniometer and the micrometer screw, etc. Technical- drawing (4 hours per week)— Drafting gearings; geometrical drawings of the different forms of anchor escapements. Third year: Theory of watchmaking (2 hours per week)— Cylinder escapements- principal parts and their functions, practical terminology, proportions and dimen- sions of the principal parts; study of duplex and detent escapements, determining the dimensions of wheels, the flies of pinions, the position of the ratchet wheel and the regulator spring; old escapements, theory of regulating, inertia and angular velocity of the balance, force of the spiral, duration of oscillation, compensation, etc. Tech- nical drawing (4 hours per week) — Drafting cylinder and other escapements, tools and machinery, Phillips' curves. Special higher course for candidates for experts' diploma: Theory of watchmak- ing (2 hours per week) — Study of regulating the various influences affecting the bal- ance, effect produced by play of pendulum spring, by friction, by the escapement, by a defect in equilibrium, etc.; adjusting to different temperatures and positions, outlines of calibers, review of the whole subject. Technical drawing (4 hours per week) — Drawing complicated pieces, repeaters, chronographs, calendar clocks, cali- bers of clocks and watches. The practical work consumes, on an average, 8 hours per day and is divided into two courses. The first course covers three j'ears and consists in preparing and setting the parts for six watches of the three calibers of the school, together with the making of the small tools used in the work. Pupils also devote a certain amount of time to work on anchor and cylinder escapements for ordinary watch movements. The superior course is designed for candidates for an expert's diploma and can be taken only upon the completion of the first course. It consists of the construction of complicated pieces, such as chronom- eters, repeaters, calendar clocks, etc., and the more delicate work in adjusting, regulating, and testing. Pupils who have completed the three years' course and who are not prepared to undertake the higher work are admitted to a special course of one year's duration in watch repairing. There are also classes pursuing special studies in escape- ments, regulating, etc., which are open to workingmen who desire to perfect themselves in these branches. The faculty of the school is composed of a dii-ector (who also teaches in theoretical and practical work), two instructors of practical work, four professors of scientific branches, and a teacher of electricity. The minimum age at which pupils are admitted is 13 j-ears. The tuition fee for Swiss pupils, or those of foreign birth whose parents reside in Switzerland, is fixed at 15 francs ($2.90) per quarter; for foreigners it is 60 francs ($11.58) per quarter. The school is in session from 7 a. m. in summer, and from 8 a. m. in winter, until 7 p. m., with one and one-half hours' intermission at noon. The school year comprises 48 weeks. 1286 EEPOBT 01 THE C0MMI8BI0NEK OF LABOR. SCHOOL OF WATCHMAKING, SOLETJBE. This school was founded in 1884 by the Industrial Society {Oewerbe- verehi) of the city of Soleurc It is now a municipal and State insti- tution. Its affairs are administered by a commission composed of members of the cantonal and municipal councils. Since 1886 it has been granted a subsidy by the Federal Government. The practical work covers three years and consists, successively, of rough work, wheelwork, cylinder and anchor escapements, finishing, regulating, and testing watches. Pupils who have successfully com- pleted the three years' apprenticeship may take a special course in watch repairing. Workingmen who desire to perfect themselves in particular branches may attend six months or a year, acccording to their previous attainments. These may take a course in only one branch if they desire. The theoretical course is arranged as follows: First year: Arithraetic, geometry, algebra, composition, theory of watchmaking (movements and wheelwork) , and mechanics. Second year: Arithmetic, geometry, algebra, bookkeeping (single entry), and theory of watchmaking (escapements). Third year: Geometry, algebra, bookkeeping (double entry), and theory of watch- making (regulating, mechanisms for winding, complicated pieces) . All the pupils devote three hours per week to industrial and projection drawing. During the winter months there is given in the evenings a public course in watchmaking open to all. This course covers a period of three years and includes wheelwork, detents, springs, escapements, mechanisms for winding, drafting calibers, complicated pieces, and adjusting and regulating. Pupils must be 15 years of age, and must enter into a contract of apprenticeship for the full time. The faculty consists of a director and three assistants. The tuition fee is 5 francs (97 cents) per month for Swiss children or those of foreign birth whose parents reside in Switzerland, The cost of tuition to foreigners varies from 10 francs ($1.93) to 20 fi'ancs (S?3.86) per month, according to the character of the work thej- are pursuing. Pupils in poor circumstances who prove themselves capa- ble and industrious can secure partial or total remission of the tuition fee. The hours of work are arranged as follows: From March 16 to September 30, 7 a. m. to 12 m. and 1.30 to 7 p. m.; from October 1 to March 1.5, s a. m. to 12 m. and 1.30 to 7 p. m. There is a vacation of fifteen daj^s during the summer. Money prizes are awarded to pupils who successfully pass the examinations at the conclusion of their apprenticeship. The proceeds arising from the sale of work executed bj^ the pupils are delivered to them at the close of the scholastic j'ear. TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION SWITZERLAND. 1287 In 1899 tke expenditures of the school were 16,307 francs (Si:!, 117). The Federal subsidy for this year was 2,500 francs ($183). SCHOOL OF WATCHMAKING AND MECHANICS, CHAUX-DE-FONDS. This school was established as a school of watchmaking in 18»i5. The department for mechanics was added in 1886. it is a municipal institution under the control of a board of 21 members appointed by the municipal council Subsidies Imve been received from the Federal Government since 1885. Its object is to educate young men practi- cally and theoretically in all the branches of watchmaking, and also in the construction and repair of tools and majchinery used in watch manufacture. The regular course of studj^ covers a period of three j^ears. Pupils who complete this course may be admitted to a higher course of one year's duration. Special studies, lasting one month or longer, may be taken by those desiring to perfect themselves in particular branches. In the department for watchmaking the practical work comprises preliminary work in turning and filing, making small tools, rough work, wheelwork, mechanism of stemwinders, simple pieces, compli- cated pieces, divers escapements, finishing, mounting and adjusting, regulating and repairing. The time per Aveek devoted to theoretical work is apportioned as follows: First year: Arithmetic, 2 hours; elementary geometry, 2 hoTixs; algebra, 2 hom-s; metallography, 1 hour, and theory of watchmaking, 2 hours. Second year: Elementry geometry, 1 horn-; trigonometry, 1 hour; algebra, 1 hour; theory of mechanics, 2 hours; applied mechanics, 2 hours; phj'sics, 2 hours; cosmo- graphy, 1 hour; metallography, 1 hour, and theory of watchmaking, 2 hours. Third year: Descriptive geometry, 1 hour; algebra, 1 hour; theory of mechanics, 2 hours; applied mechanics, 2 hours; physics, 1 hour; metallography, 1 hour, and theory of watchmaking, 2 hours. Special higher course: Analytical geometry, 1 hour.; theory of mechanics, 1 hour; chejmistry, 1 hour, and theory of watchmaking, 1 hour. During the first, second, and third years 4 hours per week are devoteil to technical drawing. In the department for mechanics the jDractical work is as follows: First year: Preliminary work, file work, turning, forge work, ejiecuting models for castings. Second year: Models for castings, file work, turning, forging, setting up and adjust- ing appaj-atus for measuring, execution of simple dies and matrices. Third year: Setting up and adjusting, executing tools used in watchmaking, also other machinery; making machines and instruments previously planned and designed by the pupil, dies and matrices, stamping. Fourth year: Fine instruments and physical apparatus, instruments for measuring, executing machines planned and designed by the pupil. The students in this department pursue the same theoretical course as those in the watchmaking department, except that the subjects of 1288 BEPOBT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. cosmography and theory of watchmaking are replaced by metallog- raphy, chemistry, and applied mechanics, and six hours instead of four are devoted each week to technical drawing and sketching during the first, second, and third j^ears. The amount of time per week devoted to practical work in the depart- ment for watchmaking is as follows: First year, 49 hours in winter and 60 hours in sximmer; second year, 45 hours in winter and 46 hours in summer; third year, 50 hours in winter and 51 hours in summer; fourth or extra year, 55 hours in winter and 56 hours in summer. In the department for mechanics the number of hours per week given to practical work is smaller by two than in the corresponding classes of the watchmaking department. These two hours are devoted to mechan- ical drawing. The school is in session daily, except on Sundaj^s and holidays, from 7 a. m. in summer and 8 a. m. in winter until 7 p. ra., with an intermission of one and a half hours at noon. The faculty consists of a director, who also gives instruction in theory of watchmaking and technical drawing, two instructors in theo- retical branches, and five teachers of practical work, one of whom is also instructor of metallography. The tuition fee fqr natives of Switzerland and pupils of foreign birth whose parents reside in Switzerland is fixed at 15 francs ($2.90) per month during the first two years of apprenticeship, 10 francs ($1.93) per month during the third year, and 5 francs (97 cents) per month during the fourth year. For foreigners the cost of tuition is 25 francs ($4.83) per month during the entire apprenticeship. Free tuition is accorded to pupils of small means. To be admitted to the school pupils must be 14 years of age and have passed a satisfactory examination. SCHOOL OF WATCHMAKIBTG AND MECHANICS, SAINT IMIEE. This school was founded in 1866 as a private enterprise. It is now one of the municipal institutions of Saint Imier and has been subsi- dized since 1885 by the Federal Government. It maintains a depart- ment for watchmaking and one for mechanical work. The object of the watchmaking department is "to offer to young men who devote themselves to watchmaking the opportunity of serving a thorough apprenticeship and of acquiring knowledge that thej^ can utilize in the prosecution of their vocation." The course of study in this department covers three years and is both theoretical and practical in nature. During the first 3'ear the practi- cal work comprises the execution of small tools for watchmaking, rough work, mechanisms for winding, finishing the wheel work for watches, and preparing the rough work for chronometers and other complicated pieces. The second year is devoted to Avork in anchor, cylinder, and other kinds of escapements, making and finishing the TKADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION SWITZEELAND. 1289 different parts, and setting and mounting them. The third year's coiirse includes the finishing and mounting, incasing, regulating, test- ing, and repairing of watches and clocks. A recent change in the programme for this year permits special attention to be given to the construction of movements for chronometers, repeaters, and other delicate timepieces. In addition to the regular course of instruction in this department there is a special course in escapements for those who desire to perfect themselves in that branch of the work. The theoretical course in watchmaking comprises the following branches: First year: French language. Arithmetic. Algebra. Geometry. Mechanics. Theory of -watchmaking — Time and its units, description of a timepiece, motive force, calculations #or wheel work, determining the diameters of wheels and pinions, study of gearings. Technical drawing — Exercises, geometrical figures, projections, sketch- ing curves and gearings, drawing the elements of machines, free-hand drawing. Second year: Algebra. Geometry., Mechanics. Cosmography — The earth, the solar system, terrestrial motions, measurement of time, latitude, longitude, sun dials, calendars. Theory of watchmaking — Anchor cylinder, lever, duplex, and other escapements. Technical drawing — Drawing gearings, study of wash coloring^ drawing escapements, sketching tools in different positions, profiles and details. Third year: Trigonometry. Physics — Heat, optics, electricity (applied to watch- making). Chemistry — Principles, study of metals used in watchmaking, assaying the alloys of gold arid silver. Mechanics — Practical study of the transmission of motion. Bookkeeping. Commercial arithmetic. Theory of watchmaking — Eegu- lators, calibers, determining the excess of teeth in wheels and in pinions, etc.; review of the whole subject. Technical drawing — Drawing tools and machinery; outlines of calibers; Phillips' curves. In the department for mechanics the practical work consists in execut- ing simple models for castings, making small tools, such as rules, gauges, squares, drills, burins, etc.; work in soldering, hardening, grinding, chamfering, planing, and polishing; fitting and mounting machines for drilling, thread cutting, countersinking, etc. During the third year the pupils are occupied at making the stamping and shaping tools used in Avatchmaking, those used in constructing the movements and the more delicate parts of watches, and at the higher work in machine construction, such as completing and mounting, filing and flatting machines, lathes, dynamos, and electric motors. The theoretical course in mechanics is arranged as follows: First year: French language. Arithmetic. History and geography. Algebra. Geometry. Mechanics— Measurement of forces, synthesis and analysis of forces; momentum; center of gravity; simple machines. Drawing— Exercises, geometrical figures, projections, free-hand drawing from nature, drafting parts of machines. Second year: Algebra. Geometry. Mechanics— Elements of kinematics, machines for transmitting circular motion, gearings, plans and calculations. Drawing— Drawing machinery, gearings, and devices for transmission of motion. Physics. Third year: Trigonometry. Mechanics— Machinery for transmission of motion, elements of dynamics, centrifugal and centripetal forces, mechanical powers, strength and resistance of materials. Bookkeeping. Commercial arithmetic. Technical drawing. Physics. 1290 EEPOET OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOB. The faculty of the school is composed of the director, who gives instruction in technical drawing, mechanics, and theory of watchmak- ing; three teachers of practical work in watchmaking; two teachers of practical work in the course for mechanics, and three instructors in scientific branches, making a to.tal of nine persons. A commission composed of 13 members is charged with the administration and gen- eral super^'ision of the school and presents each j^ear a detailed report of its progress. The examinations at the close of each year are con- ducted by a board of experts consisting of the federal inspector of watchmaking schools and two examiners of practical work in the watchmaking department, two in the department for mechanics, and two of theoretical work in both departments. Pupils must be at least 14 years of age, must have finished the primary education prescribed by law, and must pass an examination for admission. The parents or guardians of children residing in the district must sign a contract of apprenticeship. Those living else- where must find some citizen of Saint Imier who will assume respon- sibility for the fulfillment of the terms of the contract. A pupil who leaves the school before the expiration of the time specified is subject to a fine, the amount of which is fixed by the commission, but which must not exceed the sum which would have been paid for tuition had the pupil remained. The tuition fee for natives of Switzerland, or those of foreign birth whose parents reside in Switzerland, is 16 francs ($2.90) per month for the first year of apprenticeship, 10 francs ($1.93) per month for the second year, and 5 francs (97 cents) per month for the third year. Foreigners pay a matriculation fee of 100 francs (fl9.30) and a monthly tuition fee of 25 francs ($4.83). Tuition for the special course in escapements is 5 francs (97 cents) per month. Partial or total remis- sion of tuition is made to worthy pupils who are unable to pay. The work done by the pupils belongs to them, but they are encouraged to donate portions of it to the museum of the school. All tools used in their work must be furnished by the pupils, with the exception of the fixed tools and machinery which are supplied by the school. The expenses of the school are covered by federal and cantonal subsi- dies, municipal appropriations, tuitions, interest -on the capital of the school, and by voluntaiy donations. The receipts and expenditures for the year 1899 were as follows: Receipts : Federal subsidy Jl, 891 Cantonal subsidy 1, 737 Municipal appropriation ■. 1, 303 Tuition fees 620 Donations 908 Receipts for testing timepieces 327 Tools and materials sold to pupils '. ] 48 TKADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION SWITZEELAND. 1291 Keceipts — Concluded. Sundries cj^gg Interest on special funds _ ' gg Total receipts -j ^jq Expenditures: Salaries of director and teachers 3 pgQ Kent, lighting, heating, etc 537 Tools 104 Physical apparatus jpg Library 4q Bureau for testing timepieces ] 22 Museum 3 Materials for instruction 53 Tools and materials for pupils 221 Eent, tools, materials, etc. , for department of mechanics 1 , 724 Sundries - 414 Balance applied to loan fund 117 Total expenditures , 7, 450 An^ inventory of the assets of the school, taken December 31, 1899, showed the following values: Halls for theoretical instmctioa §400 Library 5)3 Materials for instruction - ^ 1, 277 Museum 890 Workshops for watchmakers 2, 539 Workshops for mechanics 4, 797 Materials for work in mechanics' department - 291 Tools and materials in warehouse 434 Bureau for testing timepieces 293 Loan fund 1, 179 Building fund 4,302 Total assets... 16,915 The school is in session daily, except Sundays and holidays, from 7 a. m. .to 6 p. m. in summer, and from 8 a. m. to T p. m. in winter, with an intermission of one hour at noon. There is no vacation. The maximum attendance during the year 1899-1900 was 48 pupils, distributed as follows: Department of watchmaking — first-year class, 12 pupils; second-year class, 9 pupils; third- year class, 8 pupils; special class in escapements, 4 pupils. Department of mechanics— first-year class, 9 pupils; second-year class, 4 pupils; third-year class, 2 pupils. At the beginning of the new year. May 1, 1900, there were 53 pupils in attendance. SCHOOL OF WEAVING, WATTWYL. This school was founded by the Weaving School Association {Webschvlgenossemchaft), a branch of the Cantonal Society for the 1292 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. Advancement of Public Utility of Saint Gall, and was formally opened May 16, 1881. The object of the school is to supply to the weaving industry artisans specially skilled in the manufacture of the various kinds of cotton, linen, and woolen textiles; mill superintendents and overseers possessing a thorough knowledge of all the details of prac- tical work, both on hand and power looms, and, in addition, to afford young men devoting themselves to the mercantile branches of the industry an opportunity of acquiring a knowledge of materials and products and other information useful to them in the conduct of their business. The course of instruction is for one year, and comprises all the details of weaving plain goods, coarse, fine, and complicated patterns, upholstering materials, towelings, etc., on the hand and power looms; performing the preparatory work on the looms, examining and finish- ing the goods, etc. This work is performed during four hours in the afternoon. Theoretical instruction is given in the forenoon of each day and includes technical drawing, designing patterns, preparing cards from copy, from goods, and from original compositions, and mathematics of weaving. The general administralion of the affairs of the school is intrusted to a board of directors named by the weaving school commission, which in its turn designates a supervisory committee charged directly with the management of matters pertaining to the school's welfare and progress. Instruction is given by the director and one assistant. The school derives its income from cantonal and federal subsidies, tuitions, private donations, and from the treasury of thesocietj^ which controls it. During the year 1899 the total expenses of the school were 18,981 francs (|3,663), of which 5,000 francs ($965), was received as a subsidy from the Federal Government. Pupils must be 15 years of age and have completed the course pre- scribed by law for primary schools, or 14 years of age and have taken two courses in the high school {Realschule). The annual cost of instruction to each pupil is 100 francs ($19.30) for natives of Switzerland, and 300 francs (167.90) for foreigners. Free tuition and aid funds are provided for pupils in poor circum- stances who show themselves capable and industrious. Pupils are supplied with all materials, and all articles made by them become the property of the school. SCHOOL OF WOOD CARVING, BRIENZ. This school was established in 1884 as a substitute for the School of Drawing and Modeling {ZeicJien- und Modelliersehule), founded by the Society for the Advancement of Public Utility of Brienz in 1862. It is a municipal institution for the training of young men for the wood- TKADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION — 8WITZEELAND. 1293 carving industrj^ It also aims to assist local wood carvers in their work by offering them free access .to its collection of books and models and by giving them practical advice. The regular course of instruction covers four years, and comprises free-hand and technical drawing, study of styles of ornamentation, modeling, and wood carving. Besides the usual styles of ornamenta- tion, special attention is given to those styles that are peculiar to Switzerland, such as Alpine plants and animals, for which there is always a great demand. The hours of work per week are arranged as follows: Free-hand drawing, Y; technical drawing, 2i; study of styles of ornamentation, 2i; modeling, 7; wood carving, from 36 to ±0. The course in wood carving is divided into elementary work in the first half-year term, special work in animal and ornamental carving in the second term, and the making of objects to be offered for sale during the second, third, and fourth years. During the winter months there is a special evening course in draw- ing for adults and boys who can not attend the day school. The course for adults lasts from the middle of November until the end of March and comprises free-hand and technical drawing for various trades. Six hours per week are devoted to this work. In the course for boys 7i hours per week are devoted to instruction in elementaiy free-hand drawing. The minimum age at which persons are admitted to the drawing classes is 16 years for those pursuing the course for adults and 8 years for pupils of the class for boys. Pupils of the wood-carving school are received for a probationary period of three months. They must be between the ages of 16 and 25 years and must enter into a contract of apprenticeship. Instruction in the school is gratuitous, but pupils are charged a matriculation fee of 10 francs ($1.93) on entering to cover cost of materials, and are required to deposit 50 francs ($9.65) as security for serving out their entire apprenticeship. After the first year they are allowed one-half of the proceeds from the sale of articles made by them. The school is in session daily, except Sundays and holidays, during 26 weeks in winter and 22 weeks in summer. The teaching personnel consists of a director, who is instructor of technical drawing and styles of ornamentation; a teacher of free-hand drawing and modeling, a teacher of ornamental carving, a teacher of animal carving, and one assistant. The affairs of the school are administered by a committee of ten persons appointed by the municipal council of Brienz. Its income is derived from the sale of articles made in the school, from church con- tributions, and from federal and municipal appropriations. During 1294 KEPOET OK THE COMMISSIONEE OF LABOK. the j-ear 1899 the federal subsidy was 5,400 francs ($1,042) and the amount received from other sources was 11,000 francs ($2,123). The school possesses a collection of models, a library, and a geolog- ical park in which are kept a number of animals of different kinds for study by pupils who are making a specialty of animal carving. The attendance upon the school during the year 1898-99 was 161 pupils, divided as follows: School of wood carving, 23 apprentices; special drawing course for adults, 48 pupils; school of drawing for boys, 90 pupils. APPRENTICESHIP SHOPS, BEKBT. This school was established in the spring of 1888. It is a municipal institution, under the direction of a board of supervisors appointed by the municipal council. At the time of organization it comprised two departments — carpentry and shoemaking. In 1894 there was added a department for metal workers (locksmiths and tinsmiths). In 1900 the department of shoemaking was discontinued because of lack of students. The object of the school, as embodied in a resolution of the munici- pal council, is "to enable young persons leaving school thoroughly to learn some useful trade; to meet the increasing efficiency of foreign labor by placing domestic labor on a higher plane; to elevate skilled labor in general by giving to workingmen a thorough training in the theoretical, artistic, and practical features of their work; and further, to investigate and place before the members of the various trades the results of the latest industrial improvements." The course of instruction in the division for carpenters is as fol- lows: First year: Arithmetic. Geometry. Technical drawing — Drawing wood joints and such work as the pupils execute in the shop. Workshop instruction — Practice in planing, sawing, dovetailing, chiseling, slitting, making models of the various wood joints, making sijnple pieces of furniture. Second year: Arithmetic — Explanation of the calculations used in the various technical operations; estimates of costs from workshop plans. Stereotomy — Calcu- lating the surface and contents of bodies. Technical drawing — Exercises in sketch- ing furniture in plans and in perspective. Free-hand drawing — Ornamental drawing and shading. Workshop instruction — Beginning hard-wood work of large size, mainly chairs and chest furniture of oak; building work. Third year: Bookkeeping — Purpose, arrangement and keeping of the necessary books of an establishment; brief explanation of bills of exchange, bankruptcy pro- ceedings, etc. Technical drawing — AppUcation of architectural forms; designing sets of furniture and arrangement of rooms. Free-hand drawing — Colored relief work and plastic ornament dra\^'ing. Workshop instruction — AVork in plain and polished walnut. In the divisions for locksmiths and tinsmiths the work in arithmetic, geometrj^, and ^gookkeeping is practically the same as that just described. The work in drawing is adapted to the needs of each trade. TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION SWITZERLAND. 1295 The shopwork for locksmiths is as follows: First 5^ear: Exercises in filing, chiseling, simple sheet-iron work, such as venti- lators, stove doors, etc. The forge work consists of making cramp irons, chisels, drills, etc. Second year: Work on building iron, and simple scroll work; chiseling out, filing and welding of leaves, flowers, etc. ; making bolt locks. Third year: Forging industrial art objects; executing window and door lattice work in iron; railings, etc., for stairs. The work for tinsmiths is as follows: First year: Making simple household utensils; exercises in cutting, laying in of wire, rounding, soldering, drawing-in, chamfering, etc. Second year: Work in sheet tin, zinc, and copper; use of the machines; hard soldering. Third year: Making bath tubs of various kinds; gas water-heating devices for bath tubs; building work executed in the shop; two months' work in actual build- ing operations; zinc ornaments; use of stamping machines, etc. The theoretical work takes from 8 to 11 hours per week, while the shopwork takes from 46 to 50 hours per week. The faculty consists of a director, who also gives instruction, and 15 instructors. The number of students on Januarj- 1, 1900, was 89. The school is in session dail3% except Sundays and holidaj^s, from 7 a. m. to 6 p. m., with li hours' intermission at noon. There is a vacation of one week during the Christmas holida3's. In summer theoretical instruction is suspended during four weeks in the car- pentrj' and metal-working departments and the entire time devoted to practical work in the shops. This school receives all young men who have completed the term in the public schools prescribed by law and who possess the requisite health and mental fitness for beginning an apprenticeship. These must enter into a contract of apprenticeship for the full term of three years. All instruction is free. Dinner is furnished at noon at the expense of the institution. Arrangements are made by which pupils who do not reside in the city can obtain board at reduced prices. After six months of apprenticeship the pupils receive a money compensation for work executed within a specified time. The amount of this compensation is determined by a tariff, which assigns to each article a sum to be paid for its completion before the expiration of a set time. The work in order to be accepted must be of a certain degree of excellence. This system is considered a very important feature of the shopwork, as it has been found that since its introduc- tion pupils work with greater zeal and willingness than before. All are anxious to make their first earnings in life as great as possible, and, as a consequence, they work to their full capacity. In 1899 the amount of federal subsidy accruing was 21,900 francs ($4,227). The total expenditures of the school for the same year were 137,257 francs (126,491). 1296 EEPOET OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOR. HOUSEKEEPING AND DOMESTIC SERVICE SCHOOLS. The only schools of this class within the scope of the present report are those which train domestic servants. Th"e school at Lenzburg, which is described in detail, is probably one of the best of its kind in Switzerland. SCHOOL FOE, HOTJSBKEEPEKS AND SERVANTS, LENZBUEG. The school for housekeepers and servants at Lenzburg, in the Can- ton of Aargau, was founded in 1889 by the Swiss Women's Society for Public Utility. It is a boarding school with a course lasting three months. The instruction includes both theoretical and practical work in all subjects connected with housekeeping and cooking. The practical work is as follows: Cooking and baking, with special attention to the meats, vegetables, and fruits used in ordinary households; bread baking; preparation of confectionery and pastry; preparation of conserves and of candied fruits and vegetables; needlework; sewing by hand, with the machine, mending, knitting, embroidery, etc.; washing and ironing; garden- ing and the growing of vegetables. The pupils also do all the ordinary work of housekeeping, such as making beds, putting rooms in order, , sweeping, etc. The theoretical work of the school covers: Domestic economy; theory of nutrition; discussion of recipes for cooking; single-entry bookkeeping; expense accounts; hygiene. The female director of the school gives the instruction in the theo- retical and practical branches, with the exception of needlework, for which a special teacher comes to the school once a week. Only 12 pupils are received each term. They must be at least 16 years of age and in good health. The cost of tuition, board, and lodging is 70 francs (113.51) for the three months. Philanthropic societies are given a reduced rate for pupils whom they send to the school. Eeductions are also made for able and industrious young persons who can not afford to pay the regular fee. ■ >-::' The salary of the directress is 800 to 1,000 francs ($154 to $193) per year, and in addition she receives board and lodging. The total expense of conducting the school ranges from 8,000 to 10,000 francs ($1,544 to $1,930) annually. In 1900 the federal subsidy amounted to 1,000 francs ($193). The results of the school are considered satisfactory. In 1900 the number of pupils who were given diplomas was 43. Most of the graduates of the school have good positions and are rendering satis- factory service to their employers. In spite of thi^ fact those in charge of the school claim that the period of instruction is too short. The directress of the school also states that the brightest and most adaptable girls prefer to take up other work than domestic service. TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION— SWITZEELAND. 1297 The result is that those who come to the school are more difficult to educate than persons attending other classes of schools. For these reasons a longer school term than three months is being advocated in Lenzburg, and as a matter of fact has been adopted by similar schools- in other localities. In Boniswyl the term is five months, while in Bern it is six months. INDUSTRIAL CONTINUATION AND HANDICRAFT SCHOOLS AND TRADE COURSES. In Switzerland the industrial continuation schools and special trade courses so closely resemble those of other countries that they need not be described in detail. The two handicraft schools described below are fairly representative of that class of schools in Switzerland. HANDICRAFT SCHOOL, BTJRGDOBF. The object of this school is to offer a course of instruction of a theo- retical character, combined as far as necessary with practical exercise&v in those branches which are indispensable to persons engaged in the; intermediate grade of industrial pursuits. The course of instruction is divided into two terms — a summer ternt beginning in April and ending the latter part of September, and a. winter term beginning in October and ending in March. Instruction, during the winter term is given on week days from 8 to 9.30 p. m.,, and on Sundays from 9 to 11.30 a. m. During the summer term the-, instruction is irregular, being usually given on evenings and on Sun- day mornings. The subjects taught are as follows: Summer term: In free-hand drawing beginners are taught the elements of surface- ornamentation with special reference to leaf forms, while advanced pupils are taught, perspective drawing of round bodies and colored surface ornamentation. In tech- nical drawing instruction is given in simple technical lettering, drawing plans and', sections of simple bodies from models, drawing bodies in various positions, etc.- screw lines and surfaces and exercises in sketching. Winter term: In free-hand drawing beginners are taught the elements of surface; ornamentation, and linear perspective with practical application to models; advanced, pupils are taught to draw and paint surface ornaments, and to shadS in crayon and in. colors. In technical drawing instruction is given in the use and handling of drawing- instruments, measurement of angles, measurement of polygons, ellipses and circles,, ordinary ornamentation; views of doors, windows, chests, etc., from designs; exer- cises in sketching, calculations of surfaces, bodies, and weight generally in connection with drawing exercises. In physics instruction is given in the principles of mechan- ics and electricity, currents, induction, telephones and telegraphs, lighting, motors, etc. Instruction is also given in arithmetic, bookkeeping, German language, and history and geography of Switzerland. This school is managed by a board of nine persons, all of whom are engaged in various industries. The teaching personnel consists of the director and nine instructors. 9257—02 82 1298 BEPOET OF THE COMMISSIOJSTEE OF LABOR. A tuition fee of 2 francs (39 cents) is charged for the summer course, and 6 francs (97 cents) for th.e winter course. Needy pupils maj^ be excmijtod from these paj-ments. The attendance at the summer course of 1899 was 12, and at the winter course of 1899-1900 it was 115. Following- is a table showing the receipts and expenditures for the 3'ear ISOS-ioOO: e7';!:;eipts and expj^ndituees or the handicraj?t school, buegdorf, i899-i900. Receipts. Items. Amount. Expenditure.'!. Items. Balance from previous year , Tuitions and tines , Contribution of ttie Public Utility So- ciety of Bin:gdorf Contribution of the Handicrafts' As- sociation of Burgdorf Contribution of tlie municipality of Burs"dorf Contribution of the Canton of Bern... Contiibution of the Federal Govern- jnent Interest Total . ?1S 97 270 193 270 23 Salaries Heat and rent Lighting School supplies Teaching materials Furniture Excursion to Bern Printing and advertisements . Repairs Freight, etc other items Total. S576 135 50 75 26 24 19 20 4 TRADES ACADEMY, GEITEVA. The object of this school is to give to working men and women, dur- ing their leisure hours, such instruction as will better fit them for suc- cessful work in their respective occupations. It is supported by the city and by federal subsidies. The total expenditures for 1899 were 31,882 francs ($6,153), of which 8,000 francs (§1,541:) were received from the Federal Government. The division for men was founded in 1883. Pupils must be at least 10 years of age and must possess the educational qualifications neces- sary to a proper comprehension of the work. The cost of instruction to each pupil is 1 franc (19 cents) per course. The courses of study comprise a general course for builders, lasting two years; a course for tinsmiths, zinc workers, etc., lasting two years; a three-years' course for upholsterers, a three-years' course in draping, a four-years' course in furniture ornamenting, a practical course for shoemakers, and courses for jewelers, chain makers, and tailors. The division for women was founded in 1885 and consists of two departments. The first is in session only on week-day evenings, from 8 to 9.30 o'clock, and is composed of young seamstresses, needle- women, commercial employees, etc., who desire instruction suited to their several vocations. The course of study comprises cutting ladies' garments, cutting garments for children, cutting underwear, mending, embroidery TKADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION SWITZERLAND. 1299 designing, millinery work, cleaning and ironing, each branch two les- sons of li hours per week; machine sewing, one lesson of li hours; bookkeeping and calligraphy, two lessons of 1^ hours each. The second department is intended chiefly for persons without gain- ful occupations and its aim is to give them such training in house- hold and domestic economy as will enable them to secure positions in the service of families. Instruction in this department is given only during tlie day and comprises two lessons of 2 hours each per week. The school year embraces 7 months and is divided into two terms, from October 2 to December 22 and from January 8 to April 30. A special course in garment cutting is arranged for apprentices of less than 16 years of age. Its aim is to give theoretical instruction in keeping with the practical work executed in the shops. These lessons are free and occur on Monday of each week throughout the j'ear, from 7 to 9 a. m. in summer and from 8 to 10 a. m. in winter. There is, in addition, a practical course in cutting and making ladies'' garments. This course consumes 5 da^-s per week, from 8 a. m. to noon, and from 1.16 to 6 p. m., and comprises three terms of 3 months each. The cost of instruction in the several departments is as follows: For the evening classes, 1 franc (19 cents) per term; for the day courses, 3 francs (58 cents) per term; for the practical course in garment mak- ing for ladies, 15 francs ($2.90) per term. All necessary materials and supplies are furnished free. Pupils must be at least 11 years of age for the day school and 16 years for the evening courses. ATITTUDE OF EDUCATORS, EMPLOYEES, GRADUATES OF TRADE AND TECHNICAL SCHOOLS, AND LABOR UNIONS TOWARD TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION. ATTITUDE OF EDTJCATORS. The secretary of the Swiss federal department of industry, speaking with reference to trade education generally in Switzerland, stated that " the courses in all the schools are made as nearly perfect as pos- sible, and are changed from year to year as local conditions may require." While specific data as to the benefits accruing from these schools could not be produced, he stated without qualification that their influence " has been good, and that they have improved the efficiency of the workmen." This ofiicial knew of no case of a labor union opposing trade schools. On the contrary, he said, they were always in favor of such schools, and even themselves organized courses for workmen. The need for this action, however, becomes less as new schools are founded by the Government. Since the trade schools receive State subsidies, they do not need pecuniary aid from the labor unions. The development of these schools during the last 15 years, 1300 EEPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOE. as shown by the enormous increase in their expenditures and the cor- responding increase in the subsidies granted to them, argues their suc- cess in preparing workingmen for the trades. He stated that while the question of graduates obtaining better wages is largely one gov- erned by business conditions and the state of the labor market, they do obtain better positions and probably advance more rapidly than those who have not had technical instruction. Although it can not be said that any new industry has been created by the operation of trade schools — such an occurrence being very rare in Switzerland— certain old industries have been favorably affected. Through the schools for wood carving that industry has been largely developed. Another important industry developed in like manner is machine embroidery, the products of which are largely exported to the United States. It is becoming more and more the practice in Switzerland, espe- ■ cially in small establishments, to do away with the old apprentice sys- tem and employ only men who have taken a course at a trade or apprenticeship school. Some large establishments have adopted the same rule. The founding of the apprenticeship shops {Lehrwerk- statten) had as its main object to supply this increasing demand for ready-made workmen. At the same time the success of these schools has caused an improvement in the ordinary shop training. It is, in general, possible for the graduate of a trade or technical school in Switzerland to practice his trade without a term of apprenticeship; but he must in every case go through a short form of apprentieeship merely to get accustomed to the conditions, etc. In general, the official quoted is of the opinion that the trade and technical schools of Switzerland have fully realized the aims for which they were established. The chief clerk of the department of public instruction and wor- ship, Canton of Vaud, furnished observations respecting trade schools generally in Switzerland. The Canton of Vaud, mainly agricultural, has few manufacturing industries of importance and no special trade schools, except small local courses. He stated that not only have the Swiss schools been recognized by the labor unions, but the latter are always in favor of them. In many instances courses have been organ- ized on a small scale by committees of the unions. These are sup- ported partly by the unions, partlj^ by the communes, and partly by the State. The graduates of the trade schools, he believes, can obtain better wages, advance more rapidly and reach higher positions than those who have merely a shop training, because they are better fitted by their systematic training in the schools to^adapt themselves to the con- ditions in anj^ workshop. They are also more independent, and if a place does not suit a graduate he can leave it with a better chance of TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION SWITZEELAND. 1301 getting another. Employers prefer graduates' of trade and technical schools to apprentices and workmen with only a shop training. Kegarding the causal relation between the development of industries on the one hand and the establishment of trade schools on the other, he thinks the influence may be in either direction. It is hard to ascer- tain a predominance either way. A school inspector of the city of Bern stated, regarding trade schools in that city, that their courses of study "are altered from year to year as the need may be felt, so that at all times they are as nearly perfect as we know how to make them." The schools have improved the workmanship and the quality of products, undoubtedly tending to increase the intelligence and efficiency of the working classes. Specific evidence of the beneficial effect of the schools is found in their continual increase in size and number and in the generous subsi- dies granted them by the Government. The labor unions are friendly, have never been otherwise, and recognizing their value, are working in harmony with them. Graduates generally get higher wages, steadier employment, etc., because of their school training. They are pre- ferred by employers ' ' because they are better and more scientifically trained than those who have learned their trade entirely by apprentice- ship." The schools have had the effect of diminishing the number of j^ouths who learn their ti-ade by apprenticeship. In some trades it is possible for a graduate to work without passing through a period of apprenticeship. Eegarding the relation of the schools to industrial development, no precise statement could be made, "as it is seldom possible to say whether the development or revolution of an industry is due directly to the schools or to other causes in connection with them. Leather working and wood carving, at all events, are industries which owe their development largely to the schools." The director of primary and technical education in Geneva and president of the supervising committee of the school for the building trades in that city, finds nothing faulty or defective in the courses of study of these institutions. They have, he states, been recognized and favored bj^ labor unions generally in Geneva. There has been notice- able, however, a certain undercurrent of opposition on the part of some of the members of the unions — an opposition entirely personal and never openly expressed. It may be attributed to the fear of being displaced by the better-trained graduates of the trade schools. At the time of founding the school for the building trades he took counsel of a commission of six manufacturers and six workingmen. The man- ufacturers were distinctly in favor of founding the school, because it would furnish them with systematically trained men, whereas, under the existing regime, when they had to train the apprentices themselves, about a year was practically lost in getting them started. The work- ingmen, as representatives of unions, were also in favor of the school. 1302 REPOET OP THE COMMISSIONEE OF LABOB. though some may have been opposed personally, as before stated. The unions had never opposed the schools. There is no doubt, he thinks, that graduates of these schools obta,in better places, higher wages, etc., than merely shop-trained men, though perhaps not at first. The apprentice, working in the shop of the school, obtains a good general idea of the different processes in his trade, besides the theoretical knowledge. But at first he is not able to com- pete with the shop-trained workman because of lack of practice in the details and the special processes used in the shop. After six months or a 3'ear, however, be has mastered these details, and is in every way a better workman than the other man and capable of filling a more responsible position. The trade-school graduates are preferred hj employers in Geneva, because they are trained more systematically, are better qualified to take responsible positions, and require a shorter period of apprenticeship. Graduates always have to undergo a cer- tain apprenticeship in order to become accustomed to the particular methods of the shop. At the same time the success of the schools has caused an improvement in the ordinary shop training given in Geneva. They have also stimulated and helped to develop the trades in which the}' give instruction. Specific data, however, on this point are not procurable. As regards the industrial efi^ects there are so many causes which directly or indirectly influence the development of an industry that no one can say to what extent it is due to the trade schools. He does not think that an industry can be developed or revived solely through the influence of trade schools. There must be a demand, an opening for the industry, and if it develops sufliciently schools will probably be founded to train the workmen, and this will accelerate the development of the industry. An industry which has grown rapidly in Geneva since the opening of trade schools is that of furniture making. The school for the building trades was founded so recently that its effects can hardly be seen as yet. Even now, how- ever, it is noticed that a considerable output is being made of orna- mental ironwork (locks, hinges, racks, etc.). This trade practically did not exist in the city before that school was established. In the watchmaking school at Geneva the prescribed courses of training and study meet fully the views of its director. He states that the school supplies manufacturers of watches with educated work- men who can do useful work at once. A certain industrial develop- ment profitable to the locality results from these schools, although such schools are a result of the development of industries, and not the cause of their origin. This school has experienced no hostility from labor unions. On the contrary, they make a point of keeping informed about the pupils and examine graduates with regard to their effi- ciency. According to the views of this director, the men who have passed through this school, having received better and more general TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION- instruction in their work, can advance more rapidly and reach a higher position than shop-trained men. After a few jv&vh of practical work the.y may become foremen. For the reasons stated above, employers prefer graduates of the school to merely shop-trained apprentices, while the ordinary shop training has been improved in consequence of the work of the school. A graduate of the school, in entering on the practice of his trade, undergoes merely a formal apprenticeship which lasts only long enough for him to get accustomed to the methods of the shop. ATTITUDE OF EMPIiOYEKS. MACHINERY CONSTRUCTION. The director of a machinery manufacturing company near Zurich, employing iG foremen and 1,700 workmen and apprentices, stated that only in rare instances do its regular workmen attend a technical school after entering on the practice of their trade. The apprentices, numbering about 130, attend a continuation school in Oerlikqn one half day per week, or in Zurich one day per week. The term of apprenticeship is four j^ears, and during this period the apprentices are trained in a number of different occupations represented in the industry. The policy is to shorten the apprenticeship for those who adopt a special occupation. The apprentices are remunerated, and their attendance at the continuation school is strictly enforced. The ages of the apprentices range between 14 and 20 years. The employees of the establishment have organized an association in which popular lectures are given on technical subjects. The small number of regular workmen who do attend technical schools, go to the cantonal technical schools at Winterthur, Burgdorf, or Bienne, and their object is to lit themselves for higher positions. This company is of the opinion that the workmen trained in such schools obtain employment more easily (under certain conditions) ; that they command better positions and higher wages, and can more quickly rise to a high class of labor. The director also believes that the employment of such workmen has been of some advantage as regards the output of their establishment, and that the technical schools have produced a better-trained class of workmen. SHOE MANUFACTURE. A shoe manufacturer in Bern, employing 20 persons, of whom 2 have attended the Bern apprenticeship shops (Zeki-^erkstdtten), states that he favors the attendance on continuation schools by his employees during their apprenticeship period. He is of the opinion that work- men trained in trade schools secure better positions and higher wages than those not so trained, and that they can advance to a higher class of work; but he is not sure that they secure employment more 1304 EEPOET OF THE COMMISSIONER OF LABOE. easily. His best workmen are, in point of age, the youngest, and owe their more rapid advancement solely to the instruction of the technical schools, which, he says, are of great advantage to the indus- try. It is, however, his belief that only such technical schools as provide an adequate workshop training will accomplish much. WATCHMAKING. A member of a prominent firm in Geneva, employing about 160 workmen and 8 foremen, states that nearly all the employees have gone through a school of watchmaking or of mechanics applied to this trade. There is in Geneva no evening school for workmen in this industry. As far as possible, the firm recruits its factory with grad- uates of the special trade schools for the reason that such men have a more extensive theoretical knowledge and are in better position than others to enlarge rapidly their practical knowledge. This firm be- lieves that workmen so trained get employment more readily, obtain better positions and higher wages, and can rise sooner to a higher class. It regards the special trade schools as a necessity and thinks it a duty to facilitate in every way possible the entrance of young men into them. ATTITUDE OF GRADUATES OF TRADE AND TECHNICAL SCHOOLS. CUTTER, SHOE FACTORY. A cutter employed in a shoe manufactory' at Bern, was graduated from the shoemaking section of the apprenticeship shops in that city in 1893. He states that upon leaving the school he at once obtained a situation. He believes the school training has been advantageous to him, in proof of which he cites the grade of employment and wages he has been able to obtain. He thinks attendance on a technical trade school is the best way to learn a trade. FOREMAN, MACHINE SHOP. A foreman in the employ of a machine manufacturing company in Oerlikon, near Zurich, who attended the industrial school at Zurich one year and the technical school at Winterthur one term, states that he found immediate emploj^ment on leaving the latter institution in 1893. He says this technical training has been, in his opinion, of advantage to him. Besides enabling him readily to obtain employment, it has enabled him to obtain a better position and higher wages than he would otherwise have secured. He believes, however, that a prac- tical apprenticeship in a machine shop is to be preferred as a method of learning the trade. FOREMAN, SHOE FACTORY. A foreman in the same factory, and a graduate of the same trade school in the same year, agrees at every point with the views ex- pressed above. TRADE AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION SWITZEELAND. 1305 MACHINE HANDS, WATCHMAKING. Five hands employed in a watchmaking establishment at Geneva, who graduated from the Geneva Watchmaking School in different years between 1880 and 1898, all found employment immediately after leaving the school, and all agree that the technical training therein received was a help in securing a situation. Two of these men are of opinion that it also has enabled them to secure better positions and higher wages, while the other three do not credit it with such an effect. All five agree that a special trade school affords the most suitable method of learning a trade. SETTEE-UP, MACHINE SHOP. A setter-up employed in the same machine shop, who had attended the technical school at Bienne, expressed the same views, except as to " better position and higher wages," which he had not j-et experienced. TECHNICAL EXPERT, MACHINE SHOP. An expert in the assa}^ office of this machine company, who gradu- ated in 1897 from the technical school at Winterthur, expressed the same views as the foreman of a machine shop mentioned above. ATTITUDE OF LABOR XTNIONS. The following statement was made by the head of the "Secretariat Ouvrier" at Zurich: Trade and technical schools of the several types are regarded as valuable to the workingman. The trade unions here have always given such schools their moral support. At times they have organized and maintained small practical courses for workingmen (continuation schools) in localities not provided with State or communal trade schools. But this is becoming less frequent as new schools are established by the Government. These receive such liberal subsidies from the State and the communes that they do not need the financial support of the trade unions. The only union in this locality which limits the number of its apprentices is that of the printers. The unions require three years' apprenticeship. No union requires a shorter apprenticeship for graduates of industrial schools than for other apprentices. The only way they can get practical experience in their work is by going through the same apprenticeship as the others. But at the end of that term graduates are much better prepared for their trade than those who learn the trade solely by the apprenticeship system, because of the theoretical knowledge and systematic training which they obtain in the schools. The engravers' union is an excep- tion for it admits no one who has not been through the school and allows no apprenticeship. He would send his boy to a trade school if he was to be prepared for a trade, for the reason that he would learn his trade more thoroughly and have a better chance of securing a good situation. II^^DEX, A. Page. Agricultural and Mechanical College, Greensboro, N. C oq Agricultural College and Experimental Farm, Guelph, Ontario, courses in'dairving 687 688 Agncultural education, development o£, United States 19 20 Agriculture, course in — ' Armstrong and Slater Memorial Trade School, Hampton Normal and Agricultural InsM- tute, Hampton, Va 345 34S High Point Normal and Industrial School, High Point, N. C '322 St. Paul Normal and Industrial School, Lawrenceville, Va 363 Tuskegee Normal and Industrial Institute, Tusliegee, Ala 288-292 Aiken, S. C, Schofleld Normal and Industrial School 826-328 Aix-la-Chapelle, Prussia, School for the Textile Trades 935, 936 Alabama Girls' Industrial School, Montevallo, Ala 355, 356 Alais, France, School for Mine Bosses and Foremen g04-807 Alberghetti Evening School of Arts and Trades, Imola, Italy li93, 1194 Aldini-Valeriani Institute of Arts and Trades, Bologna, Italy 1188,1189 American Brewing Academy, Cliicago, 111 97, 98 American Correspondence School of Textiles, New Bedford, Mass 155-157 American Scliool of Correspondence, Boston, Mass 230-234 American Steel and Wire Company, Worcester, Mass., evening drawing school 279,280 Ames, Iowa, department of dairying, Iowa State College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts.. 101-109 Antwerp, Belgium — Indiostrial School 621 , 622 trade drawing. Saint Luke courses in 671,672 Trade School for Girls 604, 605 Applied art and industrial drawing, schools of, Italy: Abruzzi 1211 Alessandria, Province of 1206 Apulia and Calab ria 1212 Campagna di Koma 1211 Campania 1211, 1212 Coni, Province of 1206 Emilia 1210 liguria 1509 Lombardy 1208, 1209 Marches 1211 Novara, Province of 1206-1208 Piedmont, Province of Turin 1205 Sicily 1212 Tuscany 1210, 1211 Umbria 1211 Yenetia 1209,1210 Apprentice Tailors' Patronal Committee, School of, Paris, France 809, 810 Apprenticeship diplomas, number of, granted in Cantons of Neuchatel, Geneva, and Vand, Switzerland 1244 Apprenticeship, law relating to — Germany = 903,904 Switzerland — . Canton of Neuchatel 1238-1240 Canton of Vaud 1240-1243 Apprenticeship School of the Association of Carriage Workers, Pans, France 802, 803 Apprenticeship School of the Industrial Society, Nantjs, France S36, 837 Apprenticeship schools, Hungary 1159, 1160 Apprenticeship shops— ,„„. ,o„t: '^ Bern, Switzerland ™^?8n^ln for females, Belgmm •■■ 679' ^80, 620 for males, Belgium ^^'*'^°'^'rtLl for stoneeutting, Belgium --- J94,09a Germany ^^' °9/,oy» Apprenticeship shops and trade schools for weaving Belgium .595-600 Apprenticeship shops and trade schools, Switzerland 1226-1228, 12/0-1295 Apprentlcefiihip shops. {Sec also Trade schools.) Apprenticeship system— . . . = r.v'fis Williamson Free School of Mechanical Trades, Wimainson School P- p-^Pa ( , 68 Apprenticeship Workshop and Housekeeping School for Girls, Jemelle, Belgium . . . .------ 620. Apprenticfshif workshops for stonecuttSng? Ecaussines-D'Enghien and Ecanssines-Lalamg, ^^__^_^ App^renticeship workahopVof tlie IndusYriaVsc^ Belgium 640-642 1307 1308 INDEX. Pa?e. j^pprenticeship workshops of the St. Nicholas School, Paris, France 789-797 Archimedes Society, popular Sunday schools for working men and women, Turin, Italy : . 1196 Architectural drawing and decoration, course in. Royal School of Industrial Art, Munich, Bavaria 911,912 Architectural drawing, course in, Hillyer Institute (Y. M. C. A.), Hartford, Conn 219,220 Architecture and industrial art, course in. The Technikum of western Switzerland, Bienne, Switzerland 1248,1249 Architecture, course in- Central School of Arts and Crafts, London, England 1077 Drexel Institute, Philadelphia, Pa 183 International Correspondence Schools, Scranton, Pa 228 Pratt Institute, Brooklyn, N. Y 44 State Industrial School, Budapest, Hungary 1163 Armour Institute of Technology, Chicago, 111 125, 126 Armstrong and Slater Memorial Trade School, Hampton Institute, Hampton, Va 337-360 Arpino, Italy, School of Weaving and Dyeing 1193 Art and Industrial Design, Central Ontario School of, Toronto, Ontario 691, 692 Art applied to industry- School of, Venice, Italy 1204, 1205 schools of, and schools of industrial drawing, Italy 1200-1212 Superior School of, Milan, Italy 1203 Superior School of, Palermo, Italy 1204 Art, decorative and industrial, schools for, France 719, 720, 755-760 Art, industrial, schools of, Switzerland 1225,1226,1264-1270 Art, industrial. (See also Industrial art, etc.) Art, schools of. Province of Ontario, Canada 692, 693 Artisans' School No. 1, Berlin, Prussia 964-968 Artisans' School No. 2, Berlin, Prussia ; 968,969 Arts and Crafts, Central School of, London, England 1076-1078 Arts and manufactures, schools of. Province of Quebec, Canada 688-691 Arts and trades — Alberghetti Evening School of, Imola, Italy 1193, 1194 Aldini-Valeriani Institute of, Bologna, Italy 1188, 1189 Casanova Institute of, Naples, Italy 1190, 1191 Castillini School of , Como, Italy '. 1193 department of, J. B. de La Salle School, Eheims, France 824, 825 Municipal School of, Genoa, Italy 1195 National School of, Chaions-sur-Marne, France 740-743 School of, Freyhurg, Switzerland 1258-1264 School of, Livorno, Italy 1194,1195 School of, Turin, Italy , 1197,1198 Arts, fine and applied, course in, Drexel Institute, Philadelphia, Pa 182,183 Arts, Industrial, District School of, Saint-Etienne, France 757-760 Asch, Austria, State School for Weaving and Knitting 501-503 Asheville Academy and Industrial School, Asheville, N. C 320, 321 Asheville, N. C, Normal and Collegiate Institute 365,366 Atlanta, Ga. — Clark University ; 309,310 Georgia School of Technology 155 Spellman Seminary 310-312 Attitude of employers, graduates of trade and technical schools, labor unions, etc., toward trade and technical education: Austria 560-563 Belgium 672-684 Canada 698, 699 France 853-868 Great Britain 1129-1152 Switzerland 1299-1305 United States 367-424 Auehmuty system of trade instruction 25, 26 Audenarde, Belgium , trade courses in decorative painting and drawing 672 Austria — apprenticeship system, development and supervision of 451-155 attitude of educators, employers, and graduates of trade and technical schools toward trade and technical edubation 660-563 central industrial educational institutions 437^40, 455-475 classes of institutions 437-451 expenditures for industrial education, 1892-1898 451 general drawing schools 460 general handicraft schools 443, 444 growth of industrial education 427-437 higher industrial schools 440-443 industrial continuation schools 448-450, 548-560 inspection of industrial schools 436 schools for foremen 440-443 schools for important groups of trades 440-443, 475-490 schools for particular trades 444-448, 490-5^18 supervision and administration of industrial schools 436 trade and technical education 427-563 trade and technical institutions, number of and attendance at, 1877-1895 451 B. Bakers' Apprentices, Trade and Continuation School for, Berlin, Prussia 974 Bakery, courses in. Borough Polytechnic Institute, London, England 1063-1065 Baldwin Locomotive Works, Philadelphia, Pa., apprenticeship system of 382-385 Baltimore, Md., Maryland Institute for the Promotion of the Mechanic Arts 242-246 Barbers and Hairdressers, Trade School for, Berlin, Prussia 974 Barbers' schools. United States 166-170 Baron de Hirsch Trade School, New York, N. Y 58-60 INDEX. 1309 Page. Basket Makers and Wickerworkers, Trade School of the Guild of, Berlin Prussia mi cne. Basket Making and Willow Culture, State School for, Fogliano, Austria. 606 507 Basket Making, State School for, Bleistadt, Austria ?n5' Sffi B^«f.lH''^T^.' Wickerworking, and Straw Plaiting, School of, Heinsherg; Prassia; ! ! ! ! .' ! ! ! ! ! 948! 949 Battersea Polytechmc, London, England ^cS^l^m^ Belgium— -^ °' -^"'-^ apprenticeship shops and trade schools for wearing w'l-finn apprenticeship BhoiJs for females s™ lifTSi^ apprenticeship shops for males 694-600 fifiTlm apprenticeship shops for stonecutting '.'.".'.'.". 594 595 attitude of employers, graduates of trade and technical schools, and labor unions toward ' trade and technical education 672-684 classes of institutions 670-600 establishment of trade and industrial schools 669 growth, recent, of trade and technical education 601-603 housekeeping and trade schools for females. (See Trade schools for females. ) housekeeping schools and housekeeping classes 576-579 industrial schools 680-585,621-643 inspection of trade and industrial schools 56K, 669 receipts of and subsidies granted to institutions for trade and technical education 603^ 604 Saint Luke trade schools 591-594, 662-667 statistics of trade and technical schools 601-604 subsidies for trade and industrial schools, system of granting 567, 568 superior trade and technical schools 590, 691, 654-662 supervision and administration of trade and industrial schools 569, 570 trade and housekeeping schools for females. {See Trade schools for females. ) trade and technical education 56.5-684 trade continuation schools . . .•. 649-654 trade courses for females 579, 619, 620 trade courses for males 600, 671, 672 trade schools for females 672-575, 604-619 trade schools for males 686-689, 644-664 trade schools of fishing 654 Benefits of technical education in' England 1000, 1001 Berean Manual Training and Industrial School, Philadelphia, Pa 91, 92 Bergamo, Italy, Industrial School, Royal Technical Institute of Victor Emanuel II 1183, 1184 Bergreichenstein, Austria, State School for Wood Working 507 Berlin, Prussia- Artisans' School No. 1 964-968 Artisans' School No. 2 968, 969 Industrial Hall 969-971 municipal continuation schools for girls 971, 972 Eoyal Museum of Industrial Art 916 School for Cabinetmakers 977, 978 School for Carpenters and Masons 979-981 School for the Building Trades 927-930 School for the Textile Trades 936-942 School of Industrial Art 907,908 schools of the Lette Society 972,973 Trade and Continuation School for Bakers' Apprentices 974 Trade and Continuation school for Blacksmiths 975 Trade and Continuation School for Shoemakers 983, 984 Trade and Continuation School for Tailors 984 Trade and Continuation School of the Guild of Chimney Sweeps 978 Trade and Continuation School of the Guild of Saddlers, Trimmers, and Trunk Makers . . 983 Trade and Continuation School of the Potters' Guild 983 Trade School for Barbers and Hairdressers 974 Trade School for Confectioners 979 Trade School for Gardeners 9/9 Trade School for Painters ' noo Trade School for Paper Hangers and Decorators aaoaH Trade School for Photographers 9»2, asj Trade School for Printers' Apprentices =8d Trade School for Tinsmiths 984 Trade School of the Glaziers' Guild ;■-,;.-■,• ;; 07, li,t Trade School of the Guild of Basket Makers and Wickerworkers 974. 975 Trade School of the Guild of Bookbinders ^' mI Trade School of the Guild of Wagon Makers and Wheelwrights o-o o?i Victoria Continuation School -■ 9/ii,y/4 Bern, Switzerland — 100^ lootc apprenticeship shops - :^5°*> i^^ Trade and Industrial Art School ™ 7W Bemard-Palissy School of Industrial Art, Pans, France 7Sb, 7&7 Besangon, France, National School of Watchmaking il79 1180 Seff^izS^.l'^Tei^nik^^Wesi.r^^^^ Birmingham, England, Municipal Technical School, mm Birfioffsheii Tride School for Girls Brussels Belgium ioS-IoU Blackburn, England, Municipal Technical School i"^^ i"^* ^'^ Armit*™|and sfaterllemorial Trade School, Hampton Institute, Hampton, Va 341 Georgia State Industrial College, College, Ga.. ....--.--. ^^^ High Point Normal and Industrial School, High Pomt N C 322 TufkegeeNormalandIndu£ri£^Instita^^^^ ^^^is^siipl'itcfh^n^irfctj^^^^^^ in4i;?i Eoyal Technical Institute, Salford, England 1021 Technical School, Bolton, England 1310 INDEX. Page. Bleaching, dyeing, and printing. (See also Textile, etc.) Bleistadt, Austria, State School tor Basket Making 50.5, 606 Bologna, Italy, Aldlnl-Valeriani Institute ot Arts and Trades 1188,1189 Bolt Court Technical School, London, England 1065-1067 Bolton, England, Technical School 1015-1023 Bookbinders, Trade School of the Guild of, Berlin, Prussia 975-977 Bookbinding, course in — Central School of Arts and Crafts, London, England 1077 East London Technical College, London, England 1076 Boot and shoe making. (See Shociuaking, etc.) Bordeaux, France, courses of the Philomtitic Society- 845, 846 Borough Polytechnic Institute, London, England 1062-1065 Boston, Mass. — American School of Correspondence 230-234 Boston Asylum and Farm School 84-86 Erie Pape School of Art 253-266 Lowell School of Practical Design 259-261 Massachusetts Charitable Mechanic Association Trade School 65, 66 North Bennet Street Industrial School 171 North End Union Trade School 61-65 People's Institute 118,119 public evening dramng schools 274-278 School of Drawing and Painting, Museum of Fine Arts 251-253 Wells Memorial Institute 200,201 Women's Educational and Industrial Union School 115-118 Young Men's Christian Association School 214-218 Young Women's Christian Association School 111-115 BouUe School of Furniture Making, Paris, France ^ 777-779 Boylan Industrial Home and School, Jacksonville, Fla 307, 308 Bozen, Austria, State School for Woodworking 508-510 Bradford Municipal Technical College, Bradford, England 1023-1027 Bradl ey Polytechnic Institute, Horological School, Peoria, 111 159-162 Bread making, course in— Borough Polytechnic Institute, London, England 1063, 1064 Merchant Venturers' Technical College, Bristol, England 1028,1029 Brewers' schools. United States: American Brewing Academy, Chicago, 111 97, 98 development of 94, 95 Hantke's Brewers' School and Laboratories, Milwaukee, Wis ^8,99 National Brewers' Academy, New York, N. Y 96,97 United States Brewers' Academy, New York, N. Y 95,96 Brewing, Superior Institute of, Ghent, Belgium 654-669 Brewing, Technical School of, Ghent, Belgium 659, 660 Bricklaying and plastering, course in — Arrastrong and Slater Memorial Trade School, Hampton Institute, Hampton, Va 340 Tuskegee Normal and Industrial Institute, Tuskegee, Ala 298, 299 Bricklaying, course in. High Point Normal and Industrial School, High Point, N. C 322 Bricklaying, etc. (See also Masonry; Building trades.) Briekmaklng, course in, Tuskegee Normal and Industrial Institute, Tuskegee, Ala. 299 Brickwork, course in. Merchant Venturers' Technical College, Bristol, England 1029 Brienz, Switzerland, School of Wood Carving _ 1292-1294 Bristol, England, Merchant Venturers' Technical College 1027-1031 Brooklyn, N. Y.— Pratt Institute 36-54 Young Women's Christian Association School 122, 123 Brown & Sharpe Manufacturing Company, Providence, R. I., -apprenticeship system of 38.5-388 Brack a. d. Mur, Austria, State School for Wood and Iron Work 524-526 Brussels, Belgium — Bischoif sheim Trade School for Girls 607-611 continuation courses in dress cutting and making 619 National School of Watchmaking, Fine Mechanical Work, and Electricitv 646 Trade and Housekeeping School for Girls, 10 rue de la Roue ." 617 Trade and Housekeeping School for Girls, 102 rue Terre-Neuve 616,617 Trade School for Girls, 26 rue du Poinpon 605,606 Trade School of Jewelry Working and Chasing fi49, 650 Trade School of Printing 650, 651 Trade School of Tailoring 647, 648 Trade School of Upholstering, Draping, Trimming, Furnishing, etc 651-654 Budapest, Hungary, State Industrial School 1163, 1164 Building and Industrial Art, School of, Kaiseralautern, Bavaria 908-910 Building and mechanical trade schools. United States: Baron de Hirsch Trade School, New York, N. Y 58-60 Berean Manual Training and Industrial School, Philadelpliia, Pa 91 , 92 Boston Asylum and Farm School, Boston, Mass 84-86 California School of McchanicaJ. Arts, San Francisco, Cal , . 70-79 Hebrew Technical Institute, New York, N. Y' 81-84 Highland Palls Trade School, Highland Falls, N. Y' 60, 61 Institute for Colored Youth, Philadelphia, Pa 89-91 McAlpin Trade School, New Y''ork, N. Y 57,58 Mas.sachusctts Charitable Mechanic A.ssociationTr.'ide School, Boston, Mass 65^66 Miller Manual Labor School ot Albemarle, Crozet, Va 86-89 New York Trade School, New Y'ork, N. Y^ 2-1-36 North End Union Trade School, Boston, Mass 61-65 Pratt Institute, Brooklyn, N. Y 36-54 St. Goorg^e's Evening Trade School, New Y'ork, N. Y 54-57 St. Joseph's Industrial School for Colored Boy.s, Clayton, Del 92-94 Williamson Free School of Mechanical Trades, Williamson School P. O., Pa 22, 24, 66-70 Wilmerding School of Industrial Arts, San Francisco, Cal 79-81 Building Trades and Civil Engineering, School for the, Zittau, .Saxony 931-934 INDEX. 1311 Building trades, course in — ^^''' Battersea Polytechnic, London, England i okq ir,7n Cantonal Technikum, Burgdorf , Switzerland '.". io^'lj"'!; Goldsmiths Company's Technical and Recreative Institute, London England ~ " ino9 Heriot- Watt College, Edinburgh, Scotland 1124 1195 Hungarian industrial technical schools '\iig Municipal Technical School, Birmingham, England. ionfi-iiin^ Municipal Technical School, Halifax, England 10 "o Northampton Institute, London, England iog") io83 School of Arts and Trades, Freyburg, Switzerland .' 1260 r'fi"''l263 State Industrial School, Innspruck, Austria ' 'wi-|OR State Industrial School, Eeichenberg, Austria 477 47s js'o Building trades, school for— 1/1, i/o.-i..u Berlin, Prussia 9''7-r;30 Geneva, Switzerland i''70-r'73 Munich, Bavaria .'..'.".'.'.'..'....." ~930 iisi Building trades, schools for the, Germany iSS!-,s,X7 K1-»M Burgdorf, Switzerland- .h^ »»-,»^< .rfi Cantonal Technikum 1250-1''58 Handicraft School "...[V.[\V........\..\]..\]\[ 1297 I2'.'s C. Cabinetmakers, SchooHor, Berlin, Prussia 977 973 Cabinetmaking — ' course for. Artisans' School No, 1, Berlin, Prussia 965 966 course in, Armstrong and Slater Memorial Trade School, Hampton Institute, Hampton, Va. 343^ 344 course in, Heriot-Watt College, Edinburgh, Scotland 1120 School for, maintained by the Association for the Protection of Apprentices, Paris, France. . 637, 838 State School for, Mariano, Austria 517, 518 Cabinetmaking and carpentry. (See Carpentry, etc.) Calhoun Colored School, Calhoun, Ala 282 California School of Mechanical Arts, San Francisco, Cal 70-79 Caltanisetta, Italy, Mining School •. 1187 Cambrai, France, Municipal Drawing School 849, 8.50 Camphill, Ala. , Southern Industrial College 354, 365 Canada — attitude of employers and labor unions toward trade and technical education 698, 699 trade and technical education 685-699 Canadian Horological Institute, Toronto, Ontario 696, 697 Candle manufacture, course in, Leeds Institute of Science, Art, and Literature, Leeds, Eng . . 1055 Canning, course in, Tuskegee Normal and Industrial Institute, Tuskegee, Ala 305 Cantonal School of Industrial Arts, Geneva, Switzerland 1265-1267 Cantonal Technikum, Burgdorf, Switzerland 1250-1258 Carpenters and Masons, School for, Berlin, Prussia 979-981 Carpentry and cabinetmaking- Artistic, School of, Flensburg, Prussia 949,950 course in, Hillyer Institute (Y. M. C. A.), Hartford, Conn 220 School of, Magdeburg, Prussia 951-953 Carpentry and joinery, course in — Battersea Polytechnic, London, England 1069 Heriot-Watt College, Edinburgh, Scotland 1124 Carpentry, course in — Armstrong and Slater Memorial Trade School, Hampton Institute, Hampton, Va 339, 340 Georgia Stale Industrial College, College, Ga 312 Northampton Institute, London, England 1082, 1083 Tuskegee Normal and Industrial Institute, Tuskegee, Ala 292-294 Carpentry, etc. (See also Building trades.) Carpentry, schools of, maintained by Employers' Association, Paris. France 827 Carriage Draftsmen and Mechanics, Technical School for. New York, N.Y 205-207 Carriage makers, trade courses for, Paris, France 827 Carriage Workers, Apprenticeship School of the Association of, Paris, France 802, 803 Casanova Institute of Arts and Trades, Naples, Italy 1190, 1191 Castillini School of Arts and Trades, Como, Italy 1193 Cavour School of Chemistry, Turin, Italy 1198 Central City College, Macon, Ga rji'iiA .-- .i- Central industrial educational institutions, Austria 43/^140, 4oo-47o Central Ontario School of Art and Industrial Design , Toronto, Ontario 691, 692 Central School of Arts and Crafts, London, England 10/6-10/8 Ceramic and related Industries. (See Pottery.) -,„-... Chaions-sur-Marne, France, National School of Arts and Trades itoLt, Charleroi, Belgium, Industrial and Commercial School pijait Chatelet, Belgium, Industrial and Commercial School.... -...-.... ioaf^Ss" Chaux-de-Fonds, Sivitzeriand, School of Watchmaking and Mechanics 1287 1288 Chemical industries, course in. Technological Industrial Museum, Vienna, Austria fi~j^ Chemical technics, course in. State Industrial School, Eeichenberg, Austria 4^8, 4/9 Chemistry and Physics, Municipal School of, Paris, France ' Tjoi Chemistry, CavourSchool of, Turin, Italy... ............-.--.--- "/^ Chemistry, course in. Cantonal Technikum, Burgdorf, Swjtzeriand mo mi Chemnitz, Saxony, Eoval School of Machinery Construction 07 or Chicago, 111 ., American Brewing Academy 1 os i or Chicago, 111., Armour Institute of Technology ........ 'i^s Chimney builders and repairers, etc. , trade courses for Pans France -^. . •■•-••• ^:' Chimney Sweeps, Trade and Continuation School of the Guild of, Berlm, Prussia 9 .^ Chrudim, Austria, State School for Woodworking oiu-uu City and Guilds of London Institute— 993-996 account of work of 993 influence of, on technical education --• „„. gjg subjects In which examinations are conducted By 1312 INDEX. Page. City and Guilds Technical College, Finabury, London, England 1060-1062 Civil Engineering and the Building Trades, School for, Zittau, Saxony 931-934 Civil engineering work, course in. Cantonal Technikum, Burgdorf, Switzerland 1264, 1255 Claflin University, Orangeburg, S. C 328-332 Clark University, Atlanta, Ga 309,310 Clay modeling and stone working,* course in, Hungarian industrial technical schools 1161 Clay modeling, course in. North Bennet Street Industrial School, Boston, Mass ., 171 Clayton, Del., St. Joseph's Industrial School (or Colored Boys 92-94 Clemson College, South Carolina 20 Clock and watch making. (See Watchmaking, etc.) Cluny, France, National Practical School for Workmen and Foremen 744-747 Cluses, France, National School of Watchmaking 813-817 College, Ga., Georgia State Industrial College 312-315 College of Little Artisans, Turin, Italy 1197 Colored pupils, schools for, in the North: Berean Manual Training and Industrial School, Philadelphia, Pa 91,82 Institute for Colored Youth, Philadelphia, Pa 89-91 St. Joseph's Industrial School for Colored Boys, Clayton, Del 92-94 Colored race, industrial schools in South for. {See Industrial schools in South for colored race. ) Colored race in the South, development of industrial training for the 22, 23 Columbus, Miss., Mississippi Industrial Institute and College 361-365 Commerce and Industry, Practical School of, for Girls, Marseille, France 770,771 Commerce and industry, practical schools of, in France 720-726, 760-771 Communal TradeSchool for Girls, Mons, Belgium 606 Como, Italy, Castillini School of Arts and Trades 1193 Compulsory attendance at contiouation schools in Germany, law relating to 892, 893 Confectioners, Trade School for, Berlin, Prussia 979 Confectionery and Bakery, National School of. Borough Polytechnic Institute, London, England 1063-1065 Congregational (Saint Luke) schools, Belgium 591-594 Continuation and handicraft schools, industrial, and trade courses, Switzerland . . 1230-1234, 1297-1299 Continuation and technical schools. (See j?echnical and continuation schools.) Continuation and trade school — for Bakers' Apprentices, Berlin, Prussia 974 for Blacksmiths, Berlin, Prussia 975 for Shoemakers, Berlin, Prussia 983, 984 for Tailors, Berlin, Prussia 984 of the Guild of Chimney Sweeps, Berlin, Prussia 978 of the Guild of Saddlers, Trimmers, and Trunk Makers, Berlin, Prussia 983 of the Potters' Guild, Berlin, Prussia : 983 Continuation courses in dress cutting and making, Brussels, Belgium 619 Continuation School, Victoria, Berlin, Prussia 973, 974 Continuation schools — compulsory attendance at, law relating to, Germany 892, 893 development of. United States 23 industrial, Austria 448-450,648-560 industrial, Belgium 580-585,621-643 municipal, for girls, Berlin, Prussia 971, 972 number of and attendance at, by States, Germany , 896 trade and industrial, Germany 889-896, 947-984 trade, Belgium 649-654 Continuation schools and courses, rrade and technical, France 731-737,826-849 Cooking, course in — Claflin University, Orangeburg, S. C 331 High Point Normal and Industrial School, High Point, N. C 322 St. Paul Normal and Industrial School, Lawrenceville, Va 362 Tuskegee Normal and Industrial Institute, Tuskegee, Ala 302, 303 Cooking. (See a^so Domestic, etc.; Housekeeping, etc.) Cooper Union, New York, N. Y 235-242 Correspondence, instruction by 223-234 Correspondence School of Flour Milling, etc. , Paris, France 838-840 Correspondence schools, United States: American Correspondence School of Textiles, New Bedford, Mass 156-157 American School of Correspondence, Boston, Mass 230-234 International Correspondence Sch ools, Scranton, Pa 225-230 Cotton. (See also Textile, etc.) Cotton dyeing, bleaching, and printing. (Sec Bleaching, etc.) Cotton manufacturing, course in— Lowell Textile School, Lowell, Mass 143, 144 New Bedford Textile School, New Bedford, Mass 153-156 Cotton spinning, course in — Municipal Technical School. Manchester, England 1097 Technical School, Bolton. Englana 1016-1018 Cotton weaving and designing, course in- Municipal Technical School, Manchester, England 1097 Technical School, Bolton, England 1018-1021 Cotton weaving, course in, Philadelphia Textile School and School of Industrial Art 138 Coventry, England, Municipal Technical Institute and School of Art 1031-1034 Crefeld, Prussia, School lor (he Textile Traces 943-945 Crozet, Va., Miller Manual Labor School of Albemarle 86-89 D. Dairy school — University of Minnesota, St. Anthony Park, Minn 109,110 University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis 100-104 Dairy schools, development of. United States 99, 100 Dairying, course in — Armstrong and Slater Memorial Trade School, Hampton Institute, Hampton, Va 346 Ontario Agricultural College and Experimental Farm, Guelph, Ontario 687, 688 INDEX. 1313 Dairying, courses in, establishment of, "United States ''^tn DecorativeArt, School of, Florence, Italy.... ' loS ion? Decorators and Paper Hangers, Trade School for, Berlin," Prussia '.'. " ' qr., De La Salle, J. B., School, Reims, France „„. 5°; De Lewarde School, Douai, France . . ° ' So? Design. (See aiso Drawing, etc.) '°* So^ISS" QiS^^^™f''/°'J'^''V'i'- Toronto Technical School, Toronto, Ontario 694 SfJS^tlS5°° °{'^,S''^^^^^}'-?J'-^VX?}''X Manufacture and Allied Industries, Paris, France'" 83* Diderot School of Wood and Metal Working, Paris, France ' ' ' ' vs'i 7SS District School of Industrial Arts, Saint-Etienne, France 7^?' 7„^ Domestic art, department of, Pratt Institute, Brooklyn NY i^uSv Domesticeconomy, schools and classes of, Belgium ™'^?a Domestic, etc. (See a!so Housekeeping, etc.) oio oiv Domestic science, course in St. Paul Normal and Industrial School, LawrenceTiUe Va 352 Domestic service and housekeeping schools, Switzerland ... i228-i2w'i2Qfi 1907 Domestic training, millinery, dressmaking, etc., schools of. United StotesV ' (sie'Dressmakink ' millinery, domestic training, etc., schools of ) Dornbirn, Austria, State School for Machine Embroidery Aan aqi Dortmund, Prussia, School of Machinery Construction. . . mm Doiiai, France— J^i,s/i De Lewarde School nca Municipal Academic School .'." 755 75? School for MineBosses and Foremen .'.'..'.".".'.' 8O7' 80* Drawing and decorative painting, courses in, Audenarde, Belgium '672 Drawing and design, course in — Eric Pape School of Art, Boston, Mass 254 25b- Northampton Institute, Loudon, England in7<)-ins) Pratt Institute, Brooklyn, N. Y WW^V.]'.]]'. 43 44 Ehode Island School of Design, Providence, R. I 248-250 Drawing and design, industrial, development of instruction in, United States 20-22 Drawing and design, industrial, schools of. United States: Cooper Union, New York, N. Y 235-242 Eric Pape School of Art, Boston, Mas.3 " ' .' 253-266. Evening Drawing School, American Steel and Wire Company, Worcester, Mass ' 279 289 Franklin Institute, Philadelphia, Pa 268-271 Lowell School of Practical Design, Boston Mass 259-261 Maryland Institute for the Promotion of the Mechanic Arts, Baltimore, Md 242-24(> Massachusetts Normal Art School, Boston, Mass 271-274 National Institute of Practical Designing for Women, New York, N. Y 267, 26S New York School of Applied Design for Women, New York, N. Y 263-26T New York School of Art, New York, N. Y 256, 267" , Philadelphia School of Design for Women, Philadelphia, Pa 2,67-259' Public Evening Drawing School, Lowell, Mass. 278, 279> Public Evening Drawing Schools, Boston, Mass 274-278- Rhode Island School of Design, Providence, R. 1 246-251 School of Drawing and Painting, Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, Mass 251-253 School of Industrial Art and Technical Design for Women, Neiv York, N. Y 261-263. Wilmington Institute Drafting School, Wilmington, Del 280, 281 Drawing and modeling — State School for, St. Ulrich in Groden, Austria 545. Trade School for, of the Union of Jewelers, Goldsmiths, etc., Paris, France 829, 830' Drawing and Painting, School ot Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, Mass - 251-25S. Drawing and trade classes, free evening, of the public schools, Springfield, Mass 208-211 Drawing, architectural, and decoration, course in. Royal School of Industrial Art, Munich, Bavaria 911,912! Drawing, course in— Bischoffsheim Trade School for Girls, Brussels, Belgium 607, COS; Claflin University, Orangeburg, S. C 329,830' General Society of Mechanics and Tradesmen, New York, N. Y 192-195- Hillyer Institute (Y. M. C. A.), Hartford, Conn 219,220> Maryland Institute for the Promotion of the Mechanic Arts, Baltimore, Md 243, 244 St. Nicholas School, Paris, France 798- State Industrial School, Inuspruck, Austria 488, 489. Trade School for Girls, Verviers, Belgium 614 Tuskegee Normal and Industrial Institute, Tuskegee, Ala 292,305,30S Drawing, mdwstrial — courses in , Germany 896, 89T Germaln-Pilon School of, Paris, Prance 860, 851 schools tor, France 737, 738, 849-863: schools for, Hungary 1164 schools for, Switzerland 1234, 1285. Drawing, Municipal School ot, Cambrai, France 849, 85* Drawing school- evening, American Steel and Wire Company, Worcester, Mass 279, 280 for Girls, Eighteenth Arrondissement, Paris, France 852, 85S for Girls, Second .irrondissement, Paris, France 861 for Girls, Tenth Arrondissement, Paris, France 851, 852 Public Evening, Lowell, Mass 278, 2(» Drawing schools — general, Austria f^^ public evening, Boston, Mass ■' "'''~;-S Drawing, trade courses in, Herve, Belgium 6(? Dresden, Saxony — Museum of Industrial Art 91S School of Horseshoeing 5?n' XVT School of Industrial Art 913. 91* 9257—02 83 1314 IKDEX. Page. Dressmaking and lingerie making, trade eouises in, Josse-Ten-Noode, Belgium 61^,620 Dressmaking and lingerie Making, Trade School for, Zurich, Switaerland —. -^^'^"^^/o Dreasraaking and mllluiery, course in. Municipal Teclinical Sckool, Manchester, JSngland — 1998 Dressmaking, course in — Bischoilslielm Trade School for Girls, Brussels, Belgium.— , 808,609 Claflin University, Orangeburg, S, C - ^31 continuation classes, Brussels, Belgium "'^ Drexel Institute, Philadelphia, Pa - 185,186 East London Technical College, London, England 10 '6 High Point ISformal and Industrial School, High Point, N. C 322 Merchant Venturers' Technical College, Bristol , JEnglaiwi 1029 North End Union Trade School, Boston, Mass 62, 63 Pratt Institute, Brooklyn, N. Y - 46 St. Paul Normal and Industrial School, LawreneeviUe, Va. - 3^,358 Technical College, Huddersfleld, England 1043 Trade School fox Gcirls, Verviers, Belgium — 613 Tuskegee Normal and Industrial Institute, Tuskegee, Ala — - 301 Dressmaking, etc. {See also Trade courses for females; Trade scliools for females.) Dressmaking, millinery, domestic training, etc., schools of. United States: Armour Institute of Technologv, Chicago, 111 125,126 Hebrew Trade School, Philadelphia, Pa -— 126-128 McDowell Dress Cutting, Dressmaking, and Millinery Schools 129, 130 Mitchell School of Garment Cutting, New York, N. Y .- 130-132 People's Institute, Boston , Mass —-— 118,119 Taylor, S. T., Dress Cutting and Dressmaking School, New York, N. Y 128 "Women's Educational and Industrial Union School, Boston, Mass. ,. 115-118 Women's Training School, St. Louis, Mo 124, 125 Young Women's Christian Association School, Boston, Mass 111-115 Young Women's Christian Association School, Brooklyn, N. Y 122,123 Young Women's Christian Association School, Harlem, N. Y 128,124 Young Women's Cirietian Association School, New York, N. Y - . 119-122 Drexel Institute, Plilladelphia, Pa... - - -.- 180-188 Duisburg, Prussia, School of Machinery Construction and Metallurgy 920, 921 Durham College of Science, Newcastle-upon-Tyne, England , 1099 Dyeing. (See Textile, etc.; Weaving, etc.) E. Earthemvare industry. (See Pottery.) Bast London Technical College, People's Palace, London, England — -. 1073-1076 Eastern Trade School, Nancy, France - 820-822 Ehensee, Austria, State School for Woodworking 513,514 Ecaussines-D'JSnghien and Ecaussines-Lalaing, Belgium, apprentice workshops for stone- cutting ^ ^ 667-671 Edinburgli, SooUand, Heriot- Watt College - — 1123-112,6 Educators, attitude of, toward trade and technical education: Austria - 560-562 Switzerland 1S99-1803 Ef&ngham, 111., Illinois College of Photography - 173,174 Electric ligtting and power distribution, course in. Merchant Venturer's Technical College, Bristol, England ^ 1029,1030 Electrical and physical laboratories, equipment of, Northampton Institute, London, Eng- land - -„ 1084,1085 Electrical engineering, course in, Drexel Institute, Philadelphia, Pa — . 183,184 Electricity, coiu-se in — Armstrong and Slater Memorial Trade School, Hampton Ntffmal and Agricultural Insti- tute, Hampton, Va , 344 Hinyer Institute (Y. M. C. A.), Hartford, Conn 220,221 Practical School of Industry, Saint-Etienne, France 7GS Pratt Institute, Brooklyn, N. Y 48 The Technikum of Western Switzerland, Bicnne, Switzerland 1247,1248 Electro-technics, course in — Artisans' School No. 1, Berlin, Prussia -965 Cantonal Technikum, Burgdorf, Switzerland 1256,1257 School of Arts and Trades, Freyburg, Switzerland 1259,1260 Technological Industrial Museum, Vienna, Austria 4*8-472,474,475 The Technikum, Hambui-g, Germany 926, 926 Electro-technics, Watch Making, and Fine Mechanics, School of, Schwenningen, Wurttemberg. 960-962 Electro-technics, Workshop School of, of the Humanitarian Society, Milan, Italy 1194 Embroidery and Lace Making, State School for, Laybach, Austria 492 Embroidery, Hand and Machine, State School for, Graslitz, Austria 491,492 Embroidery, Machine, State Scliool for, Dornbirn, Austria ,. 430,491 Employers, attitude of, toward trade and technical education: Austria 561-563 Belgium — firearms manufacture 673 garment making 673 metal trades 674,67-5 printing and publishing 675 Canada — carpet manufacture 698 cotton textiles 698, 699 France — automobile manufacture .•. 854, 855 barbexing and liair dressing 855 bronze goods 855 joinery 855,856 paper and paper* goods manufacture 856, 857 printing and publishing ^. .. 8.57 railroad service 857, 858 INDEX. 1315 Employers, attitude of, toward trade and technical education— Concluded. Paee. France— Concluded, " railway car and engine bnildiug ajid repairing 85' 859 stained gtass mauulacture ,.. 'gcq structural Ironwork oS watoh making " qcq oi-n Great Britain- Sd»,mo boot and shoe Industry . .- j jog building trades ii<>f, ^^o■, carriage building 'ii?i dyeing... ;:;."" ,{3^ lumiture and oabinetmaking "'" J132 house decorating - 1139 iron and steel V'.\V......\\.... 1133 metal trades J 1133 1134. modeling and sculpture '_ " ' 'U34 printinp; and publishing 1134 1135 scientific instruments ' 1135 tanning .and currying !!"''.'.y.".^;'.".".'.!;"il35,113S textile industries , 1135 1137 watch making '.] " ' 1137 Switzerland — machinery construction _ 1303 slioe manufacture _., 1303,1304 watchmaking, .,.., , , 1304 United States — barbering 369 Brewing _ 309,370 building trades _ 370-372 butter and cheese making 372 car building 378 carriage building 373 chemical industry 374 clothing industry 374, 375 domestic service 375 dressmaking 375, 376 electrical apparatus and supplies 376 furniture and cabinet making 376, 377 harness making and repairing 377 jewelry 377,378 metal trades , 378-388 millinery 388, 389 printing and publishing 389,390 scientific instruments 390, 391 shipbuilding 391,392 silverware manufacture 392 textile industries 392-394 wall paper - - . . 394 watchmaking and repairing 394, 395 Employment bureau, St. George's Evening Trade School, New York, N. Y -55 Engineering and metal trades, course in, Northampton Institute, London, England 1081,1082 Engineering, course in, Municipal Technical School, Birmingham, England 1005,1006 England — technical education, character and extent of 987-996 tra,d« and technical schools 1001-1123 Engravers, watchmakers, etc, schools for. United States. {See Watchmakers, engravers, etc., schools for.) . ,, r,- Engraving, Artistic Brazing, and Bronzework, State School for, Gablonz, Austria 543-51o Engraving, jewelry, course in, HUlyer Institute (Y. M. C. A.), Hartford, Conn 221 Eric Pape School of Art, Boston, Mass 253-2.i6 Estienne Municipal School of Printing and Publishing, Paris, France (81-7^3 Evening shop schools and holiday schools for working people, Turin, Italy 1196 Expenditures for industrial education, Austria, 1892-1898 *51 Expenditures for industrial education, Germany, by States... 874 Expenditures of government subsidized schools, Switzerland, 1884-1899 - 12-1 Expenditures of government subsidized schools, Switzerland, 1899, by kind of school 1225-12,16 Experiment Station for the Leather Industry, Naples, Italy 1192,1193 F. Eabhriano, Italy, Trade School for Workmen Ko„-'i?? Periach, Austria, State School for Firearms Making ^^a Fermo, Italy, Institute of Arts and Trades of Marches ii-^ Fine arts, department of, Pratt Institute, Brooklyn, K.l lAsa^w? Finsbury Technical College, London, England lubu-iuo/ Firearms making — . „.. t, t^q course in. Practical School of Industry, Sauit-Etienne, France ^oqlS State School for, Ferlach, Austria |J= ^^ FishTng'?Ml'rine!sL>f/fOT^Tmd^^^ Fishing, trade schools for, Belgium Flensburg, Prussia- ,.. . ^ 954 955 School for Marine Machinists qja'a^n School of Artistic Carpentry and Cabinetmakmg hm v>m Florence, Italy, School of Decorative Art 308 soq |}S?r^L^Sft^t^r'e!tr4'S;X"ntfea!V^echnic^ i^°g'S^iJ»i^e'iih?r?si^^^^^^^^^ FogEaAo, Austria, State School for Basket Making and W lUow Culture 506, 507 1316 INDEX. Page. Foremen, schools for — Austria 440-443 Prance 744-747,804-808,885,836 Germany 882, 883, 919-927 Forging, course in, HiUyer Institute ( Y. M. C. A.) , Hartford, Conn 220 France- apprenticeship system, changes in 703, 704 attitude of employers and graduates of trade and technical schools toward trade and technical education 853-868 classes of Institutions - 715-739 general industrial schools 730,731,818-826 growth of industrial education 703-713 Industrial drawing schools 737, 738, 849-853 inspection of State and subsidized schools 713-715 national trade schools 726,727,772-775 practical schools of commerce and industry 720-726,760-771 schools for advanced industrial education ; 716-719, 740-765 schools for decorative and industrial art 719, 720, 755-760 State system of trade and technical education 705-711 trade and technical continuation schools and courses 731-737, 826-849 trade and technical education 701-868 trade schools for several trades 727-729, 775-802 trade schools for single trades 739, 802-818 Franklin Institute, Philadelphia, Pa 268-271 French School of Hosiery, Troyes, France 803, 804 Freyburg, Switzerland, School of Arts and Trades 1258-1264 Fulpmes, Austria, State School for Iron and Steel Work 538 Furniture Making, BouUffBchool of, Paris, France 777-779 Furniture making. (See also Cabinetmaking.) Furtwangen, Baden — School of Watch and Clock Making 958-960 School of Wood Carving 962,963 G. Gablonz, Austria, State School for Artistic Brazing, Engraving, and Bronzework 543-545 Gardeners, Trade School for, Berlin, Prussia 979 Gas manufacture, course in, Leeds Institute of Science, Art, and Literature, Leeds, England. 1055 General industrial schools, France 730, 731, 818-826 General Society of Mechanics and Tradesmen, New York, N, Y 192-195 Geneva, Switzerland — Cantonal School of Industrial Arts 1265-1267 School for Mechanics 1277, 1278 School for the Building Trades 1270-1273 School of Watchmaking 1281-1283 Trades Academj^ 1298, 1299 Genoa, Italy, Municipal School of Arts and Trades 1195 Georgia Normal and Industrial College, Milledgeville, Ga 356-369 Georgia School of Technology, Atlanta, Ga 155 Georgia State Industrial College, College, Ga 312-315 Germain-Pilon School of Industrial Drawing, Paris, France 850, 851 Germany- apprenticeship shops 888, 897, 898 apprenticeship system, development and supervision of 899-906 classes of institutions 877-898 compulsory attendance at continuation schools, law relating to 892, 893 continuation schools, number of and attendance at, by States 896 continuation schools, trade and industrial 889-896,947-984 creation and maintenance of industrial schools 872-874 expenditures for industrial education 874 growth of industrial education 871 industrial drawing courses 896, 897 industrial education, various institutions for 897, 898 inspection of industrial schools 870 instruction in weaving, by itinerant teachers 888, 889 labor legislation, history of 899-903 law relating to apprenticeship 903, 904 schools and museums of industrial art 881, 882, 907-919 schools for foremen 882, 883, 919-927 schools for the building trades 883-887, 927-934 schools for the textile trades 887-889, 936-946 secondary or intermediate technical schools 879-881 supervision and administration of industrial f chools 874-876 teachers in industrial schools 876, 877 technical colleges 878, 879 trade and industrial continuation schools 889-896, 947-984 trade and technical education 869-984 Ghent, Belgium — Industrial School 626-028 Nlcaise, H., Trade School of Metal and Woodworking 644-646 Saint Luke Trade School 662, 663 Superior Institute of Brewing 654-659 Technical School of Brewing 659, 660 Gilbert Academy and Industrial College, Winsted, La 316, 317 Girls' Drawing School of the Eighteenth Arrondissement, Paris, France 852, 853 Girls' Drawing School of the Second Arrondissement, Paris, France 851 Girls' Drawing School of the Tenth Arrondissement, Paris, France 851, 852 Glasgow and West of Scotland Technical College, Glasgow, Scotland 1126-1128 Glass Industry, State School for— Haida, Austria 531, 532 Stein Schonau, Austria 532-535 INDEX. 1317 Glaziers, Trade School for, Berlin Prussia 0,0 Goldsmiths' Company's Technical and Recreative Instiiute, London,'Engiand io91-1093 Auftria"! . . technical schools, attitude of, toward trade and technical educaHon: Belgium— ^^ blacksmiths „,„ carpenters ?,? designers, metal trades ?,» electrical workers ovc c77 fitters, machine shops '""'„!, foremen, foundry and machine shops K77 rto foremen, pattern makers mt foremen, printers J: i; foremen, railroad (;7» k7q garment cutters fi7Q gunsmiths ^iq joiners „7„ ^on machinists '.'.'..... 680 mechanical draftsmen (.gg mine bosses gon painters on enamel cro spinners, cotton ksi tailors V. .'.'..'.'.'.['.'..'.'.'/. .'. 681 turners, iron cfn France- ""^ barbers and hairdressers 8g0 861 blacksmiths 'gg^ cabinetmakers ...............!!..!!!. 861 clerks, paper and paper goods !.!!!'.!!!!!.!'! 861 862 draftsman, railway car shops ' '852 engravers 853 fitter, automobile factory .'.'...'.'.'.. 863 fitters, car building and repair shops 863 864 fitters, railway shops „ '854 foremen, assistant, car building and repair shops '.'.'.'.'.[ 864 865 foreman, car building and repair shops ' ges foremen, fitters, car building and repair shops 866 foremen, joiners 866,866 foreman, paper iiiakers 866 fralsers, car shops gee joiners 866 machine builders' helpers 867 machine fitter 867 paper makers 867 pattern makers, car building and repair shops 867, 868 watchmakers and repairers 866 Great Britain — carpenters and j oiners 1 137 electrical workers 1137, 1138 electroplaters 1138 machinists 1138, 1139 mechanical draftsmen 1139 painters and decorators 1139, 1140 pattern makers 1140 plumbers 1140 shoemakers 1140, 1141 textile workers 1141 miscellaneous 1141, 1142 Switzerland — cutters, shoe factory 1304 foremen, machine shop 1304 foremen, shoe factory 1304 machine hands, watchmaking - 1306 setters-up, machine shop 1305 technical experts, machine shop 1305 United States- architectural draftsmen 895, 396 barbers 396 brewers 396,397 bricklayers 397,398 butter makers 398,399 carpenters .■■■■■ 399 designers of art novelties, house decorations, stained glass, etc 399, 400 designers of textiles 400,401 domestic servants 401, 402 dressmakers ,„„ 45^ electrical workers 402,403 garment cutters 403 illustrators ^„^ <04 machinists 404,406 mechanical draftsmen 405-^07 milliners f07 pattern makers 1„I' 5„„ plumbers and gas fitters T„5':9x printers *°^'1JS sheet-metal workers ,, „ f ;? textile workers •- !,?';;! watch makers and repairers ' 4ii, 412 miscellaneous occupations - 412, 413 Graslitz, Austria, State School for Hand and Machine Embroidery 491, 492 1318 INDEX. Page. Great Britain — attltnde of employers, graduatea of trade and teelinical schools, and labor unions toward trade and technical education.^- 1129-1152 benefits of technical education 1000,1001 character and e^Steirt of technical education in England 990-996 growth of trade and technical education 987-990 obstacles of technieal instruction 995-1000 selection of teachers - 1000 trade and technical education 985-1 152 trade and technical schools- England -- 1001-1123 Ireland 1129 Scotland 1123-1128 Greensboro, N. C, Agricultural and Mechanical College 20 Group schoofs, France. {See Trade schools for several trades.) Guelph, Ontario, Ontario Agricultural College and Experimental Farm, courses in dairying.,. 687, 688 Guttenberg Typographical School, Paris, France 81 H. Haida, Austria, State School for the Glass Industry 531,532 Hairdressers and Barbers, Trade School for, Berlin, Prussia , 974 Hairdressers. {See also Barbers.) Hairdressing, Trade School for, Lyon, France 826 Halifax, England, Municipal Technical School 1034-1041 Hallein, Austria, State School for Woodworking 514r-516 Hamburg, Germany, The Technikum 923-927 Hampton Institute, Hampton, Va 22,337-350 Handicraft and Industrial continuation schools and trade courses, Switzerland 1280-1234, 1297-1299 Handicraft School, Burgdorf, Switzerland 1297,1298 Handicraft schools, general, Austria 443,444 Hantke's Brewers' School and Laboratories, Milwaukee, Wis 98,99 Harlem , N. Y., Young Women's Christian Association School. 123, 124 Harness making and earriage trimming, course in — Armstrong and Slater Memorial Trade School , Hampton Institute, Hampton, Va 842 Tuskegee Normal and Industrial Institute, Tuskegee, Ala 296 Harris Institute, Preston, England 1107-1109 Hartford, Conn., Young Men's Christian Association School (Hlllyer Institute) 218-223 Haven Home and Industrial School, Savannah, Ga 315,316 Havre, France, Practical School of Industry - 761-765 Hebrew Technical Institute, New York, N. Y 81-84 Hebrew Trade School, Philadelphia, Pa 126-128 Heinsberg, Prussia, School of Basket Making, Wickerworking, and Straw Plaiting 948, 949 Heriot- Watt College, Edinburgh, Scotland 1123-1126 Herve, Belgium, trade eourses in drawing - - ■. 672 H«verU, Belgium, Trade and Housekeeping School for GMs 618 Highland Falls Trade School, Highland Falls, N. Y 60,61 High Point Normal and Industrial School, High Point, N. C S21-323 Hiflyer Institute (Y. M. C. A.), Hartford, Conn 218-223 Hoe & Co., School of. New York, N. Y 207,208 Horological schools. {See Watchmaking, -etc.) Horology, course in, Municipal Technical Institute and School of Art, Coventry, England 1032 Horseshoeing — course in. Municipal Technical School, Manchester, England 1098 School of, Dresden, Saxony 953, 954 School of, Paris, France , 840 Horticulture, course in — Armstrong and Slater School, Hampton Institute, Hampton, Va 346 St. Paul Normal and Industrial School, Lawrenceville, Va 353 Hosiery making, course in — French School of Hosiery, Troyes, France 803,804 University College, Nottingham, England 1104 House building, course in, Armstrong and Slater School, Hampton Institute, Hampton, Va . . 340, 341 House Furnishing Trades — School for Apprentices and Journeymen in the, Paris, France 840, 841 Trade School of Upholstering, etc, Brussels, Belgium 651-654 Housekeepers and Servants, School for, Lenzburg, Switzerland - 1296,1297 Housekeeping and domestic-service schools, Switzerland 1228-1230, 1296, 1297 Housekeeping and Trade School for Girls, Tournay, Belgium 618, 619 Housekeeping and trade schools for females, Belgium 572-575, 615-619 Housekeeping, course in, Tuskegee Normal and Industrial Institute, Tuskegee, Ala 304, 305 Housekeeping, etc. {See also Domestic, ■etc.) Housekeeping School and Apprenticeship Workshop for Girls, Jemelle, Belgium 620 Housekeeping schools and housekeeping classes, Belgium 576-579 Housesmiths, etc., .lourneymen. Trade Courses of the Union of, Paris, France 828,829 Huddersfleld, England, Technical College 1041-1044 Hungary — apprenticeship schools 1159, 1160 classification of industrial schools _ . 1159 growth of industrial education 1155-1159 industrial drawing schools 1164 industrial museums 1165 industrial schools for womeTi 1164 industrial technical schools - 1161-1163 lower Industrial schools 1164, 1165 manual training schools 1165 school workshops 1160 flchools for trade journeymen 1160 State industrial schools '. 1163, 1164 trade and technical education 1153-1165 Hutchinson's School for Watchmakers, Engravers, and Opticians, La Porte, Ind 162, 163 INDEX. 1319 I. Iglesias, Italy, Mining School iisB hrV Illinois College oi Photography, Effingham, 111.. ::::::::::::;: 173 174 Imola Italy, Alberghetti Evening School of Arts and Trades 1193 1194 Industrial and Commercial School, Charleroi, Belgium . BffilfiM Industrial and Commercial School, Chfitelet, Belgium '.'. 624-62fi Industrial and decorative art, schools for, Pran>.e iii'iw 75B-7fiO Industrial and Trade School, Verviers, Belgium 'i», '^u, 'oo-/bu Industrial art— ' "*" Bernard-Palissy School of, Paris, France na Museum of, Dresden, Saxony Aia Museum of, Naples, Italy i,/;! Museum of, Nuremberg, Bavaria 01-7 mi Museum of, Rome, Italy \ml Royal Museum of, Berlin, Prussia ma Royal School of, Munich, Bavaria cnn_oia School of, Berlin, Prussia wnmi School of, Dresden, Saxony nio'mi School of, Prague, Austria '.'.'.'.'.'.'.['.'.'/.'..'. 438^40 schools and museums of, Germany oai 'iih am-cn a schoolsof, Switzerland i'^25r«B 1264-1270 Industrial Art and Building, School of, Kaiserslautem, Bavaria - .— . gjjg_ Industrial Art and Technical Design, School of, for Women, New York, N. Y " ' ' 261-263 Industrial Art and Trade School, Bern, Switzerland i267-1270 Industrial art, course in. State Industrial School, Inuspruck, Austria 486-488 Industrial art. (,See also Alt.) ioo-^m Industrial arts- Cantonal School of, Geneva, Switzerland 1265-1267 course in. School of Arts and Trades, Freyburg, Switzerland ' 126I District School of, Saint-Etienne, Prance ' 757-76O Industrial continuation and handicraft schools and trade courses, Switzerland 1230-1234, 1297-1299 Industrial continuation schools, Austria 448-450 648-560 Industrial continuation schools, Vienna, Austria '548-660 Industrial design, course in, Toronto Technical School, Toronto, Ontario ' 694 Industrial drawing and applied art, schools of, Italy. (See Applied art and industrial draw- ing, schools of.) Industrial drawing and design, schools of. United States. (See Drawing and design, indus- trial, schoolsof.) Industrial drawing courses, Germany 896 897 Industrial drawing schools— ' France 737,738,849-863 Hungary 1164 Switzerland 1234, 1235 Industrial drawing, schools of, and schools of art applied to industry, Italy 1200-1212 Industrial education — Austria, expenditures for, 1892-1898 461 Austria, growth of 427-437 Belgium, growth of 601-603 France, advanced schools for 716-719, 740-755 France, growth of 703-713 Germany, expenditures for 874 Germany, growth of 871 Great Britain, growth of 987-990 Hungary, growth of 1155-1159 Hungary, organization of 1158, 1159 Italy, growth of 1169,1170 Switzerland, growth of 1215-1221 United States, growth of 19-24 Industrial educational institutions, classification of — Austria 437-460 Belgium 670-600 France 716-738 Germany 877-898 Switzerland 1223-1236 United States 24 Industrial Hall, The, Berlin, Prussia 969-971 Industrial Institute of Northern France, Lisle, France 747-760 Industrial museums- Hungary 1165 Switzerland 1235,1236 Industrial schools: Austria — continuation 448-450,548-560 higher : 4.40-443 inspection of 436 Belgium — continuation 580-585,621-643 inspection of 668, 569 subsidies for, system of granting 667, 668 subsidies granted to and receipts of 603,604 supervision and administration of 669, 570 France — general 730,731,818-826 inspection of 713-715 Germany- creation and maintenance of 872-8/4 supervision and inspection of 874r-876 1320 INDEX. Industrial schools— Concluded. Page. Hungary- lower 1164,1165 number of 1162 State 1163,1164 State expenditures Jor, 1868-1897 1157 women' s 1164 Italy- consideration of 1176, 1177 inspection of 1174 subsidies received by 1171 Switzerland — expenditures of 1221,1225-1236 inspection of 1221,1222 subsidies received by 1221, 1225-1236 Industrial schools and schools of arts and trades, Italy 1171, 1172, 1176-1199 Industrial schools in the South for the colored race: Armstrong and Slater Memorial Trade School, Hampton Institute, Hampton, Va 337-350 Asheville Academy and Industrial School, Asheville, N. C 320, 321 Bovlau Industrial Home and School, Jacksonville, Fla 397, 308 Calhoun Colored School, Calhoun, Ala 282 Central City College, Macon, Ga 315 Claflin University, Orangeburg, S. C 328-382 Clark University, Atlanta, Ga 309, 310 Florida Baptist Academy, Jacksonville, Fla 308, 309 Georgia State Industrial College, College, Ga 312-315 Gilbert Academy and Industrial College, Winsted, La 316, 317 Haven Home and Industrial School, Savannah, Ga 315, 316 High Point Normal and Industrial School, High Point, N. C 321-323 Kuoxville College, Knoxville, Tenn 333-336 Mount Meigs Colored Industrial Institute, Waugh, Ala 307 St. Augustine's School, Raleigh, K. C 323, 324 St. Paul Normal and Industrial School, Lawrenceville, Va ; 351-354 Schofleld Normal and Industrial School, Aiken, S. C 326-328 Shaw University, Raleigh, N. C 324 Slater Industrial and State Normal School, Winston-Salem, N. C 325, 326 Snowhill Industrial Institute, Snowhill, Ala 284 Spellman Seminary, Atlanta, Ga 310-312 State Colored College, Orangeburg, S. C 332, 333 State Normal School for Colored Students, Montgomery, Ala 283, 284 Tougaloo University, Tougaloo, Miss '. 317-320 Tuskegee Normal and Industrial Institute, Tuskegee, Ala 284-307 Wiley University, Marshall, Tex 336, 337 Industrial schools in the South for whites: Alabama Girls' Industrial School, Montevallo, Ala 355, 356 Georgia Normal and Industrial College, Milledgeville, Ga 356-359 Louisiana Industrial Institute, Ruston, La 359-361 Mississippi Industrial Institute and College, Columbus, Miss 361-365 Normal and Collegiate Institute, Asheville, N. C 365, 366 Southern Industrial College, Camphill, Ala 354, 355 Industrial Society, Apprenticeship School of the, Nantes, France 836, 837 Industrial Society of St. Quentin, trade school and trade courses of the, St. Quentin, France . . 7.S7, 788 Industrial technical schools, Hungary 1161-1163 Industry and commerce, practical schools of, France 720-726, 760-771 Industry, Practical School of, Havre, France 761-765 Industry, Practical School of, Saint-Etienne, France 765-770 Innspmck, Austria, State Industrial School 482-490 Inspection of industrial schools- Austria 436 Belgium 568, 559 France 713-715 Germany 874-876 Italy 1174 Switzerland 1221, 1222 Institute for Colored Youth, Philadelphia, Pa 89-91 Institute of Arts and Trades of Marches, Fermo, Italy 1179 Institute, Technical, Roubaix, France 750-755 Institutes of technology, influence of, upon industrial education in the United States 19 Instrument makers, course for. Artisans' School No. 1, Berlin, Prussia 965 Instrument makers. (See also Watchmaking, etc. ) International Correspondence Schools, Scranton, Pa 225-230 Jntra, Ita,ly, Royal Trade School "Lorenzo Cobianchi" 1185 Iowa State College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts, Ames, Iowa, department of dairying . . . 104-109 Ireland, technical education in 1129 Iron and Steel Industry, State School for, Steyer, Austria 538, 539 Iron and steel manufacture, course in, Leeds Institute of Science, Art, and Literature, Leeds, England 1054, 1055 Iron and Steel Work, State School for, Fulpmes, Austria 538 Iron working, course in, Claflin University, Orangeburg, S. C 330 Italy- growth of trade and technical education 1169, 1170 industrial schools and schools of arts and trades 1176-1199 schools of art applied to industry and schools of industrial drawing 1200-1212 trade and technical education 1167-1212 Itinerant instructors, Germany 888, 889, 898 J. Jacksonville, Fla.— Boylan Indu.'strial Home and School 307, 308 Florida Baptist Academy 308, 309 INDEX. 1321 Page. Jemelle, Belgium, Apprenticeship Workshop and Housekeeping School for Girls 620 Jewelers, Goldsmiths, etc., Trade School for Drawing and Modeling of the Union of, Paris, France 829,830 Jewelers' School of Engraving, Chicago, 111 165, 106 Jewelers' work, course In, Central School of Arts and Crafts, London, England 1077 Jewelry (imitation) Manufacture, etc., School of Design for, Paris, France 830 Jewelry Working and Chasing, Trade School of, Brussels, Belgium 649, 660 Joiners, Trade School for, Paris, France - 830, 831 Josse-Ten-Noode, Belgium, trade courses in dressmaking and lingerie making 619, 620 Journeymen and master workmen, courses for. Technological Industrial Museum, Vienna. . . 472, 473 Journeymen, schools for, Hungary 1160 Jumet, Belgium, Industrial School 628-630 K. Kalserslautern, Bavaria, School of Building and Industrial Art 908-910 Karlstein, Austria, State School for Watch and Clock Making 647, 548 Keighley, England, Technical School, Keighley Institute 1044-1046 Klagenfurth, Austria, State School for Machine Construction 535, 536 Knitting. (See Textile, etc.) Knoxville College, Knoxville, Tenn 333-330 L. Laas, Austria, State School for Stonecutting 626 Labor legislation in Germany, history of 899-903 Labor unions, attitude of, toward trade and technical education: Belgium — Metal workers 682, 683 Printers 683,684 Canada S99 Great Britain— „,.,,„: Bookbinders 11'14, 1145 Boot and shoe workers 11*5 Cabinetmakers ■ 1145 Carpenters and joiners 1146, 1146 Coach makers • ,„ }}™ Farriers -^^^^'iJI? Machinists and metal workers ■ 1147 Painters and decorators 1147, 1148 Pattern makers 1148 Plasterers ■ .„ 114» Plumbers }H?'?Jf? Printers. 1149, 11.50 Textile workers'. '. ". HB^j 1161 Upholsterers • Ij^l Miscellaneous ^'■'"■< :)J™ Switzerland i*' United States— .,„ ., . Barbers *13'«f 414 Bricklayers . Bi'ewers ^15 J,. Bridge builders and structural iron workers ^ik II7 Carpenters and joiners I1 7 I1 a Cigar makers ' 41 9 Electrical workers ji° Elevator erectors 41 » I1 q Garment workers *^°' ^iH Granite cutters diaVm Machinists Ion Painters and decorators 420 421 Pattern makers ' Jti Plasterers - ■ x,-. Plumbers, gas fitters, and steam fitters ||^ Printers 422 423 Sheet-metalworkers 423*424 Textile workers - . . . :■■■■: 490^92 Lace making and embroidery, schools for, Austria. 7?Xa lIcI Sak si, course in , University College. Nottingham, England ... i273-lOT Ladies' TailSnng and Lingerie Making, Trade School for, Zurich, bwitzeriand 630-632 LaLouvifere, Belgium, Industrial School g^g g^^ ]^rp1>rtflXHuVhtso°n'/scefIor^ ^""stpl"ufNTmSanIlndustrial school, Lawrenceville,ya 352 Tuskegee Normal and Industrial Ii>st«"te. Tu„t«f f ' f*^ ; ! ! ! ; 3.51-35I Lawreiiceville Va., St. Paul Normal and Industrial School.-.. o^'- " LaybSrAustrikrstate School for Embroidery and Lace Making 492 LaybachI Austria, State School for Woodworking '^''*u'rse?n,''NUampton and County Technical Institute, Northampton, England .^.^ 1101 course in, Yorkshire College, Leeds England 1192,1193 Experiment Station for, Naples, Italy . . . .... ..... ■■:-■■■:■■■ ; ; 1054, 1055 Leeds England, Leeds Institute of Science, Art, and Literature 1047-1054 Leeds, England, Yorkshire College 1055-1057 Leicester, England, Municipal Technical School 800-802 Lemonnier, *lisa, trade schoo s for giris, Pans, P™n'=e ■ ■ ■ - - ■ • - 1296, 1297 Lenzburg, Switzeriand, School for Housekeepers and Servants 972 973 Lette Society, schools of the, Berlin, Prussia 1322 INDEX. Paga Liege, Belgium- Saint Luke Trade School 663-665 Trade School oi Firearms Making 646, 647 Trade School of Tailoring 649 Linotype course, Washington Linotype School, Washington, D.C 171-173 Lisle, France, Industrial Institute of Northern France 747-750 Lithography and analogous methods of printing, course in— Bolt Court Technical School, London England 1065-1067 Central School of Arts and Crafts, London, England 1077 Heriot- Watt College, Edinburgh, Scotland 1125 Municipal Technical School, Manchester, England 1098 Liverpool School of Science, Technology, and Art, Liverpool, England 1057, 1058 Livorno, Italy, School of Arts and Trades 1194, 1195 Locksmi thing, State School for, Swiatniki, Austria 536, 537 London, England— Battersea Polvtechnic 1067-1071 Bolt Court Technical School 1065-1067 Borough Polytechnic Institute 1062-1065 Central School of Arts and Crafts 1076-1078 City and Guilds Technical College, Finsbury, 1060-1062 East London Technical College, People's Palace 1073-1076 Goldsmiths' Company's Technical and Recreative Institute 1091-1093 Northampton Institute (City Polytechnic) 1078-1089 Northern Polytechnic Institute 1093-1095 Regent Street Polytechnic 1089-1091 Saint Bride's Foundation Institute 1058-1060 Southwestern Polytechnic 1071-1073 Louisiana Industrial Institute, Huston, La 359-361 Lowell, Mass., public evening drawing school 278,279 Lowell School of Practical Design, Boston, Mass 259-261 Lowell Textile School, Lowell, Mass 139-148 Lower industrial schools, Hungary 1164, 1165 Lyon, France^ courses of the Rh6ne Society for Trade Education 846-849 Martin School for Boys 818,819 Martin School for Girls 798,799 Municipal School of Weaving and Embroidery 776 Trade School for Hairdressing 826 M. Machine building and metal working, course in, Hungarian industrial technical schools 1161 Machinery construction — course in. Cantonal Technikum, Burgdorf, Switzerland 1255,1256 course in, Drex^l Institute, Philadelphia, Pa 184,185 course in, Pratt Institute, Brooklyn, N. Y 47,48 course in. School of Arts and Trades, Freyburg, Switzerland 1259 course in, the Technikum, Hamburg, Germany 924, 925 course in, the Technikum of Western Switzerland, Bienne, Switzerland 1247 Koyal School of, Chemnitz, Saxony 922, 923 School of, Dortmund, Prussia 921, 922 State School for, Klagenfurth, Austria 535,636 steamship, course in, The Technikum, Hamburg, Germany 926, 927 Machinery Construction and Metallurgy, School of, Duisburg, Prussia 920, 921 Machinery, plumbing, and founding, course in, Tuskegee Normal and Industrial Institute, Tuskegee, Ala 2J7 Machinists, courses for Battersea Polytechnic, London, England 1068, 1069 Machinists, Marine, School for, Plensburg, Prussia 954, 955 Machinists' trade, course in, Armstrong and Slater School, Hampton Institute, Hampton, Va.. 341, 342 Macon, Ga. , Central City College 3] 5 Madison, Wis., Dairy School, University of Wisconsin 100-104 Magdeburg, Prussia, School of Carpentry and Cabin etmaking 951-953 Manchester, England, Municipal Technical School 1095-1099 Manual training— Berean Manual Training and Industrial School, Philadelphia, Pa 91 , 92 California School of Mechanical Arts, San Francisco, Cal 72 development of, United States 21 , -22 schools for, Hungary 1165 Mariano, Austria, State School for Cabinetmaking 517^ 518 Marine engineering, course in, American School of Correspondence, Boston, Mass 232 Marseille, France, Practical School of Commerce and Industry for Girls 770, 771 Martin School for Boys, Lyon, France 818, 819 Martin School for Girls, Lyon, France 798, 799 Maryland Institute for the Promotion of the Mechanic Arts, Baltimore, Md 242-246 Masonry. {See also Building trades^ Masonry and brickwork, course in, Heriot- Watt College, Edinburgh, Scotland 1124 Masonry, course in, Georgia State Industrial College, College, Ga 313 Masonry, lathing, and plastering, course in, Claflin University, Orangeburg, S. C 330 Masonry, technical courses relating to, maintained by Employers' Association, Paris, France. . 811 Masons and Carpenters, School for, Berlin, Prussia 979-9-1 Massachusetts Cliaritable Mechanic Association Trade School, Boston, Mass 65, 60 Massachusetts Normal Art School, Boston, Mass 271-274 Mattress making and upholstering, course in, Tuskegee Normal and Industrial Institute, Tuskegee, Ala 305 McAlpin Trade School, New York, N. Y 57,58 McDowell dresseutting, dressmaking, and millinery schools 129,130 Mechanical and building trade schools. United States. (See Building and mechanical trade schools.) Mechanic.ll .ind Manual Arts, Trade School " Saverio Altamura " for, Foggia, Italy 1191 INDEX. 1323 Page, Mechanical drawing, course in^ Armstrong and Slater Memorial Trade School, Hampton Institnte, Hampton, Va 343 Drexel Institute, Philadelphia, Pa 184 Hillyer Institute (Y.M.C.A), Hartford, Conn 220 Mechanical engineering, course in, State Industrial School, Budapest, Hungary 1164 Mechanical-locomotive course. International Correspondence Schools, Scranton, Pa 228 Mechanics — course in. High Point Normal and Industrial School, High Point, N. C 322 course in, International Correspondence Schools, Scranton, Pa "227,228 course in. Slate Industrial School, Reichenberg, Austria 476, 477, 481 SchooUor, Geneva, Switzerland 1277,1278 Mechanics and electricity, course in. Technical Institute oi EoubaLx, France 754 Mechanics and watchmaking — School of, Chaux-de-Fonds, Switzerland 1287,1288 School of, Saint Imier, Switzerland 1288-1291 Merchant Venturers' Technical College, Bristol, England 1027-1031 Metal and Wood "Working — Diderot School of, Paris, Trance 785, 786 National School for Workmen and Foremen, Cluny, France 744-747 Nicaise, II., Trade School of, Ghent, Belgium ^ 644-646 Metal industry — course in. State Industrial School, Budapest, Hungary 1164 course in, Technological Industrial Museum, Vienna, Austria 464^-108 State Soliool for, Nixdorf, Austria 641,542 Metal trades, course in. Municipal Technical School, Birmingham, England 1008,1009 Metal workers, course for, Artisans' School No. 2, Berlin, Prussia 968,969 Metal Workers, School for, Winterthur, Switzerland 1278-1280 Metal working and machine building, course in, Hungarian industrial technical schools 1161 Metal working, course in, Heriot-Watt College, Edinburgh, Scotland 1124 Metallurgy and Machinery Construction, School of, Duisburg, Prussia 920,821 JdetsUlurgy, course in- Municipal Technical School, Birmingham, England 1003,1004 Sheffield Technical School, Sheffield, England 1119,1120 Milan, Italy — Superior School of Art Applied to Indnstry 1203 Typographical School 1191,1192 Workshop School of Electro-Technics of the Humanitarian Society 1194 Milledgeville, Ga., Georgia Normal and Industrial College 356-359 Miller Manual-Labor School of Albemarle, Crozet, Va 86-89 Millinery, course in— Bischoffsheim Trade School for Girls, Brussels, Belgium 609 Drexel Institute, Philadelphia, Pa 186,187 East London Technical College, London, England 1076 Merchant Venturers' Technical College, Bristol, England 1030 Pratt Institute, Brooklyn, N. Y 46,47 Technical College, Huddersfleld, England 1043 Tuskegee Normal and Industrial Institute, Tuskegee, Ala 302 Millinery, domestic training, dressmaking, etc., schools of. United States. (See Dressmakmg, mlllinerv, domestic training, etc., schools of.) Milwaukee, Wis., Hantke's Brewers' School and Laboratories 98,99 Mine bosses and loremen— School for, Alais, France T^Tl School for, Douai, France ?i'-'?^ Mine Bosses, SchooUor, Saint-Etienne, France • °~'°g° Mining and Technical School, Wigan, England Sia SJo Mining, courses in , International Correspondence Schools, Scranton, Pa sa,siv Mining, schools of, Italy ....- ST,! Mississippi Industrial Institnte and College, Columbus, Miss S i S Mitchell Scfiool of Garment Cutting, New York, N. Y rti Mons, Belgium, Communal Trade School for Girls ™o Montevallo, Ala., Alabama Girls' Industrial School oS'Si Montgomery, Ala., State Normal School for Colored Students Sk^r Morlanwelz, Belgium, Industrial School ""-^ S^ Mount Meigs Colored Industrlallnstitute, Waugh, Ala ""' Munich, Bavaria — cjin-Qi^ Koval School of Industrial Art ".^" Z^^ Scllool for the Building Trades ™"' 'Si Municipal Academic School, Douai, France. ...--.-. qvi'oTo Municipal continuation schools for girls, Berhn, Prussia mq mn Municipal Drawing School, Cambral, France <»3,ojv Municipal School of— 2j95 Arts and Trades, Genoa, Italy 77q_7si Physios and Chemistry, Paris, France '776 Weaving and Embroidery, Lyon, France,.... 1023-1027 Municipal Technical College, Bradford, England ......-.-- inqi-i 0^4 MuSiclpal Technical Institute and School of Art, Coventry, England 1031 1034 Municipal Technical School— 1001-1011 Birmingham, England 1011-1014 Blackburn, England ' 1034-1041 Halifax, England _ _ i055-1057 Leicester, England... 1095-1099 Manchester, England 1110-1112 Rochdale, England i,----,-'".i . 1106,1107 Municipal technical schools, Oldham, inglana.... ... .^...-.- _„„ „„g Municipal Trade School for Girls, Eue Pondary, Paris, France ™^»w Museum of Fine Arts, School of Drawing and Painting, Boston, Mass 251 253 Museum of Industrial Art— gjg Dresden, Saxony 0^7 gjg Nuremberg. Bavaria gj^g Eoyal, Berlin, Prussia 1324 iNOEX. Page. Museum of Textile Art, Plauen, Saxony 918, 919 Museums and schools of industrial art, Germany 881, 882, 907-919 Museums, industrial, Hungary 1165 N. Nancy, Prance, Eastern Trade School 820-822 Nantes, France, Apprenticeship School of the Industrial Society 836, 837 Nantes, France, National Trade School 772, 773 Naples, Italy — Casanova Institute of Arts and Trades 1190, 1191 Experiment Station for the Leather Industry 1192, 1193 Industrial Art Museum 1203 Industrial School of Alessandro Volta 1180, 1181 National Brewers' Academy, New York, N. Y 96,97 National Institute of Practical Designing for Women, New York, N. Y 267, 268 National Practical School for Workmen and Foremen, Cluny, France 744-747 National School of — Arts and Trades Chaions-sur-Marne, France 740-743 Watchmaking, Besanjon, France 812, 813 Watchmaking, Cluses, France 81S-817 Watchmaking, Fine Mechanical Work, and Electricity, Brussels, Belgium 646 National schools for trade and technical education, France 704-711 National trade and industrial schools under the ministry of commerce, receipts, expenditures, etc. , of, France 739 National Trade School, Nantes, France 772, 773 National Trade School, Voiron, France 773-775 National trade schools, France 726, 727, 772-775 Negroes, industrial schools for. (Se^-Colored race.) Neuchatel, Switzerland, School of Watchmaking 1283-1285 Newark Technical School, Newark, N. J 201-204 New Bedford, Mass., American Correspondence School of Textiles 155-157 New Bedford Textile School, New Bedford, Mass 148-155 Newcastle-upon-Tyne, England, Durham College of Science 1099 New York, N. Y.— Baron de Hirsch Trade School 58-CO Cooper Union 235-242 General Society of Mechanics and Tradesmen 192-195 Hebrew Technical Institute 81-84 McAlpin Trade School 57,58 Mitchell School of Garment Cutting 130-132 National Brewers' Academy 96, 97 National Institute of Practical Designing for Women 267,268 New York School of Applied Design for Women 263-267 New York School of Art 266,267 New York Trade School 24-36 School of Industrial Art and Technical Design for Women 261-263 St. George's Evening Trade School 54-57 School of Messrs. R. Hoe & Co 207,208 Taylor, S. T., Dress Cutting and Dressmaking School 128 Technical School for Carriage Draftsmen and Mechanics 205-207 United States Brewers' Academy 95, 96 Webb's Academy and Home for Shipbuilders 175-180 Young Womens' Christian Association School 119-122 Nicaise, H. , Trade School of Metal and Wood Working, Ghent, Belgium 644-646 Nixdorf, Austria, State School for the Metal Industry 541, 542 Normal and Collegiate Institute, Asheville, N. C , 365,366 Northampton and County Technical Institute, Northampton, England 1100, 1101 Northampton County Council Schools, Northampton and Northamptonshire, England 1101-1103 Northampton Institute (City Polytechnic), London, England 1078-1089 North Bennet Street Industrial School, Boston, Mass 171 North End Union Trade School, Boston, Mass 61-65 Northern Polytechnic Institute, London, England 1093-1095 Nottingham, England, University College 1103-1105 Nuremberg, Bavaria, Museum of Industrial Art 917, 918 Nurse training, course in, Tuskcgee Normal and Industrial Institute, Tuskegee, Ala 303, 304 0. Oberleutensdorf , Austria, State School for the Ceramic and Related Industries 527, 528 Obstacles of technical education in England 996-1000 Oldham, England, municipal technical schools 1106, 1107 Oldham, England, Oldham Mutual Technical School 1105,1106 Omaha Watch Repairing, Engraving, and Optical Institute, Omaha, Nebr 164,165 Ontario Agricultural College and Experimental Farm, Guelph, Ontario, courses in dairying.. 687, 688 Ontario, Province of, schools of art 692, 693 Orangeburg, S. C— Cilaflin University 328-332 State Colored College 332, 833 P. Painters' and decorators' work, course in. Merchant Venturers' Technical College, Bristol, England 1030 Painters, Trade School for, Berlin, Prussia 981,982 Painting, course in — Armstrong and Slater Memorial Trade School, Hampton Institute, Hampton, Va 340 Claflin University, Orangeburg, S. 330,831 Georgia State Industrial College, College, Qa 813 ■ Tuskegee Normal and Industrial Institute, Tuskegee, Ala 296, 297 INDEX. 1325 Painting, decorative, course in — Artisans' School No. 1, Berlin, Prussia ocr Audenarde, Belgium So Bisehoffsheim Trade School for Girls, Brussels, Belgium m? knt Trade School for Girls, Verviers, Belgium fiu'm^ Palermo, Italy, Superior School of Art Applied to Industry! 1204 Paper and Paper Goods Makers' Association, Trade School of the, Paris, France 831-833 Paper Hangers and Decorators, Trade School for, Berlin, Prussia qr2 Pans, France — "° Apprenticeship School of the Association of Carriage Workers sn? Km Bernard-Palissy School of Industrial Art ^^i'ny Boulle School of Furniture Making 777-779 Correspondence School of Flour Milling, etc 838-840 courses in pattern designing, etc., for bar-loom passementerie work'. ". 833 courses in roofing, plumbing, gas fitting, etc 834 835 courses of the Polytechnic Association S42' 843 Diderot School of Wood and Metal Working 7815' jla Estienne Municipal School of Printing and Publishing 781-785 Germain-Pilon School of Industrial Drawing 850 8.51 Girls' Drawing School of the Eighteenth Arrondissement 85'' 853 Girls' Drawing School of the Second Arrondissement "'851 Girls' Drawing School of the Tenth Arrondissement '..... " 851 852 Guttenberg Typographical School '812 Lemonnier, Elisa, trade schools for girls 800-802 Municipal School of Physics and Chemistry 779-781 Rue Fondary Municipal Trade School for Girls 799,800 Saint Nicholas School 788-798 School for Apprentices and Journeymen in the House Furnishing Trades 840, 841 School for Cabinetmaking maintained by Association for Protection of Apprentices 837, 838 School of Design for Imitation-Jewelry Manufacture and Allied Industries 830 School of Horseshoeing 840 School of the Apprentice Tailors' Patronal Committee 809,810 schools of carpentry maintained by Employers' Association 827 Society for Trade and Technical Instruction Relating to Marine Fishing 844, 845 technical courses in cutting maintained by Union of Master Tailors 842 technical courses relating to masonry maintained by Employers' Association 841 trade and technical education in 711, 712 trade cour.ses for carriage makers 827 trade courses for chimney builders and repairers, etc 828 trade courses of the Union of Journeymen Housesmiths, etc • 828, 829 Trade School for Drawing and Modeling of the Union of Jewelers, Goldsmiths, etc 829, 830 Trade School for Joiners 830, 831 Trade School for Shoemakers 809 Trade School of the Northern Railway Company 822, 823 Trade School of the Paper and Paper Goods Makers' Association 831-833 Trade School of the Union of Bar- Loom Passementerie Weavers 833, 834 Trade School of Watchmaking 817,818 Pattern designing, etc., courses in, for bar-loom passementerie work, Paris, France 833 People's Institute, Boston, Mass 118, 119 People's Palace, East London Technical College, London, England 1073-1076 People's School of Electro-technics, Turin, Italy 1197 Peoria, 111., Horological School, Bradley Polytechnic Institute 169-162 Philadelphia, Pa. — Berean Manual Training and Industrial School 91, 92 Drexel Institute 180-188 Franklin Institute 268-271 Hebrew Trade School 126-128 Institute for Colored Youth 89-91 Philadelphia School of Design for Women 257-259 Philadelphia Textile School and School of Industrial Art 22, 133-139 Spring Garden Institute 188-192 Philomatic Society, courses of the, Bordeaux, France 845, 846 Photographers, Trade School for, Berlin, Prussia 982, 983 Photography, course in, Illinois College of Photography, Effingham, 111 1V3 Physics and Chemistry, Municipal School of. Pans, France 779-781 Plastering, course in — . High Point Normal and Industrial School, High Point, N. C 322 Northampton Institute, London, England 1083 Plastering. (See also Building trades. ) „, „ „, „ Plauen, Saxony, Museum of Textile Art S-'S^ Plauen, Saxony, School of Textile Art 9lo,916 "oia^w and West of Scotland Technical College, Glasgow, Scotland 1127 Heriot- Watt College, Edinburgh, Scotland ■^■'■-^' „on HillyerInstitute(Y.M.C. A.), Hartford, Conn - 220 Municipal Technical School, Manchester, England 1095, 1096 Northampton and County Technical Institute, Northampton, England 1100, 1101 Northampton Institute, London, England io^ North End Union Trade School, Boston, Mass o^ Paris, France 'mn public schools, Springfield, Mass ^J" Technical College, Huddersfield, England ^"^ Plumbing. (See aiso Building trades.) o v, i o„,„„*„r, uo ws Plumbing, heating, and ventilation, course m, Correspondence Schools, Scranton, Pa oj, ojo Polytechnic Association of Paris, France, courses of t^^^ .............---..-------■■•■•-■■■■•--■ »|^.^« Polytechnic schools, London, England 988, 989, 1062-1066, 1067-1076, 1078-1U91, 109^1"™ Popular schools for adults, Italy ........-.------ - ... ■--•■■-■. -^iSo Potters, Trade and Continuation School for, Berlm, Prussia »m 1326 INDEX. Page. Pottery, School of, Landshut, Bavaria 956, 957 Pottery, etc., schools of— State School for Ceramic and Related Industries, Oberleutensdorf , Austria 527, 528 State School for Earthenware Industry, Teplitz, Austria 528-530 State School for Earthenware Industry, Znalm, Austria - 530,531 Practical School, National, for Workmen and Foremen, Cluny, France 744-747 Practical School of Commerce and Industry for Girls, Marseille, France 770,771 Practical School of Industry, Havre, France 761-765 Practical School of Industry, Saint-Etienne, Prance 765-770 Practical schools of commerce and industry, France 720-726, 760-771 Pragrue, Austria, Industrial Art School 438-440 Prato, Italy, Royal Trade School of Weaving and Dyeing 1181-1183 Pratt Institute, Brooklyn, N. Y 36-54 Precious-stone Grinding and Setting, State School for, Turnau, Austria 546,547 Preston, England, Harris Institute 1107-1109 Printers' Apprentices, Trade School for, Berlin, Prussia 983 Printers, school for, St. Bride's Foundation Institute, London, England 1058-1060 Printing and Publishing, Estienne Municipal School of, Paris, France 781-785 Printing, course in — Armstrong and Slater Memorial Trade School, Hampton Institute, Hampton, Va 344 Claflin University, Orangeburg, S. C 331 Heriot- Watt College, Edinburgh, Scotland 1125 Merchant Venturers' Technical College, Bristol, England 1031 Municipal Technical School, Manchester, England 1097,1098 North End Union Trade School, Boston, Mass 62 Tuskegee Normal and Industrial Institute, Tuskegee, Ala 295 Printing, Guttenberg School of, Paris, France 812 Printing, school of, Milan, Italy 1191,1192 Printing,- Trade School of, Brussels, Belgium 650,651 Process printing, course in, Bolt Court Technical School, London, England 1066, 1067 Providence, R. I., Rhode Island School of Design 246-251 Q. Quebec, Province of, schools of arts and manufactures 688-691 R. Railroad engineering, course in— International Correspondence Schools, Scranton, Pa 229 The Technikum of Western Switzerland, Bienne, Switzerland 1249,1260 Railway company, trade school of, Paris, France , 822, 823 Raleigh, N. C— St. Augustine's School 323, 324 Shaw University 324 Regent Street Polytechnic, London, England 1O89-T.091 Reichenberg, Austria- State Industrial School 475-482 State Schoolfor Weaving 492-496 Reims, France, J. B. de La Salle School 824,825 Reutlingen, Wurttemberg, School for the Textile Trades 946,946 Rhode Island School of Design, Providence, R. I 246-251 Rhdne Society for Trade Education, courses of the, Lyon, France » 846-649 Richmond, Va., Virginia Mechanics' Institute Night School of Technology 204,205 Rive deGier, France, Trade and Preparatory School 825,826 Rochdale, England, Municipal Technical School 1110-1112 Rochester Athenseum and Mechanics' Institute, Rochester, N. Y 195-200 Rome, Italy, Industrial Art Museum 1204 Roofing, plumbing, gas fitting, etc., courses In, ParLs, France 834,835 Rossi, Alessandro, Industrial School, Yicenza, Italy 1177-1179 Roubaix, France, Technical Institute 750-755 Royal Inn of Virtue, Turin, Italy 1197 Royal Museum of Industrial Art, Berlin, Prussia i 916 Royal School of Industrial Art, Munich, Bavaria 910-913 Royal School of Machinery Construction, Chemnitz, Saxony 922, 923 Royal Technical Institute of Victor Emanuel II, industrial school of, Bergamo, Italy 1183,1184 Royal Technical Institute, Salford, England 1113-1117 Royal Trade School "Lorenzo Cobianchi," Intra, Italy 1185 Royal Trade School of Weaving and Dyeing, Prato, Italy 1181-1183 Rustoa, La., Louisiana Industrial Institute 359-361 S. Saddlers, etc.. Trade and Continuation School for, Berlin, Prussia 9.'^3 St. Anthony Park, Minn., Dairy School, University of Minnesota 109,110 St. Augustine's School, Raleigh, N. C 323,324 St. Bride's Foundation Institute, London, England 1058-1060 St.-Etienne, France — District School of Industrial Arts 757-760 Practical School of Industry 765-770 School for Mine Bosses 835, 836 St. George's Evening Trade School, New York, N. Y 64-57 St.-Gilies, Brassels, Belgium, Trade and Housekeeping School for Girls 615 St. Imier, Switzerland, School of Watchmaking and Mechanics 1288-1291 St. Joseph's Industrial School for Colored Boys, Clayton, Del -- 92-94 St. Louis, Mo. — St. Louis Watchmaking School 163,164 Southwestern Railway Telegraph School 174 Women's Training School 124, 1 25 St. Luke courses in trade drawing, Antwerp, Belgium 671, 672 INDEX. 1327 St. Luke Trade School— ^^Sa- Ghent, Belgium xro ra^ Liege, BelKium - tlifl Sohaerbesl (BTtiKsols), Belgium ril TouTuay, Belgium - 'aa:^i~ St. Luke trafle schools, Bulgium... "" i.m'i.a, arol:^-, St. Nicholas School, Pkris, France. . . . . . ". ! ". '. '. ! : ^^^-^^^- ^^Utl St. Paul Normal and Industrial School, Lamenceriiie,' Va" :..":.■.■.■: sm^VA St mri?h Yn'^??rt p'V.^d'' V- ^'°SJ and trade courses of tke Industrial Societ^'ii SainiQumiin".: 787, 788 bt. Uluch in Gruden, Austria, State School for Drawing and Modeling. ' kil Salford, England, Eoyal TechTiical Institute . """in^iii? SaUord Iron W9rks Science and Technical School, Salford, England ". 1117 San Carlo a Society for Technical Schools for Workers, Turin, Italy ... ' il95 ii qr, San Francisco, Cal.— auo, iiso California School of Mechanical Arts 7n_7Q "WilmerdingBchool of Industrial Arts " Ln_S Savannah, Ga., Haven Home and Industrial School " m\^li Sawmillmg, course in, Tuakegee formal and Industrial Institute, Tusktgee," Ala' ' ' 299 Schaerbeek, Belgium— o^c, ^lo. zbb Saint Luke Trade School .' rrn Trade and Honsekeaping School for (Jirls K1S fiifi Schofleld Normal and Industrial School, Aiken, S. C . Sfilm Schonberg, Austria, State School for Weaving '.'.'.'. ""' 4964g9 Schools and museums of industrial art, Germany Rsi'sR'J 9(17-qiq Schoolsfor— aBx,!ibz,wi uia aaya-nced industrial edncation, France 716-719 740-755 advanced trade and technical education, Belgium . _ '590 591 apprentices, Hungary ■...■.■.■_:'.;'.::::;'/.:'il59,il60 barbers. United States 166-170 brewers. United States '_'/"_ " ' 94.99 building and meohanioal trades. United States.- 24-94 building trades, Germany 883-887, 927-^84 colored race in the South, ITuited States ., 281-354 dairyrng Industry, UiiitedStates ~_ '" 99-110 decorative and industrial art, France _ 719 726 755-760 dressmaking, millinery, domestic training, etc.. United States ._ ' '111-132 females, Belgium ^ _. 672-580,604-620 toremen, Germany 882,883,919^27 housekeeping and domestic senice, Switzerland 1228-1230, 1296, 1297 important groups of trades, Austria , . , 440-443 475-490 industrial dxarwing and design. United States ' 236-281 .industrial drawing. Prance 737,738, 849^853 industrial drawing, Hungary ' 1164 industrial drawing, fiwitzerland 1234, 1235 males, Belgium „. 580-^00,621-672 manual training, Hungary _ 1165 particular trades, Austria , 41>1 1 4 8, 490-548 several trades, France 727-729, 775-802 single trades, France 780, 802-818 textile trades, Germany 887-889, 935-946 textile trades. United States 132-157 women, Hungary 1164 Schools of— art. applied to industry and schools of industrial drawing, Italy 1200-1212 art, industrial, Switzerland 1225, 1226, 1264-1270 art. Province of Ontario, Canada 692, 693 'arts and Tuaniifactures, Province of 'Quebec, Canada _ 688-691 carpentry maintained by Employers' Association, Paris, France 827 commerce and industry, practical, France 720-726, 760-771 Lette Society, Berlin, Prussia 972, 973 Sdhwenningen, Wurttemberg, School of Watchmaking, Fine Mechanics, and Electro-Teclmlcs. 960-962 Science and technology, department of, Pratt Institute, Brooklyn, "N. Y 47,48 Scientific instrument making, course in, Northampton Institute, London, England 1086,1087 Scotland, trade and technical schools 1123-1128 Scrauton, Pa. , International Correspondence Schools 22.T-230 Secondary technical schools, Germany _ 879-881 Secondary technical schools, Switzerland 1224, 122o, 124.5-1264 Seraing, ^Belgium, Industrial School - 639, 640 Sewing — course in, Clafiin University, Orangeburg, S. C - . , 331 course In, Georgia State Industrial College, College, Ga 314 course In, High Point Normal and Industrial 'School, High Point, N. C 321 course in Pratt Institute, Brooklyn, N. Y 45 hand and machine, course in, 'Drexel Institute, Philadelphia, Pa 185 hand, course in, St. Paul Normal and Industrial School, Lawrenceville, Va - 352 ■plaui, course in, Tuskegee Normal and Industrial Institute, Tuskegee, Ala 300, 301 Sewing. (See aiso Dressmaking, etc.) Shaw university, Ealeigh, N.'C 324 Sheet-metal -work, course In, Glasgow and West of Scotland Technical College, Glasgow 1127, 1128 Sheffield Technical School, Sheffield, England 1117-1121 Shipbuilding, course in— The Technikum, Hamburg, Germany 92.t ■WebVs Academy and Home for Shipbuilders, New York, N. Y' 177, 178 Shoemakers, Trade and Continuation School for, Berlin, Prussia 983,984 Shoemaking, courgein, — , „ , , „ 1 t ^.^ ^ ^r ^ t, o^n Armstrong and Slater Memorial Trade School, Hampton Institute, Hampton, Va .342 Georgia State Industrial College, College, Ga . . . . ................. 313 314 Nortliampton Countv Council Schools, Northampton and iN orthamptonshire, England. . 1102, 1103 Tusfeegee Normal arid Industrial Institute, Tuskegee, Ala 298 Shoemaking, Trade School of, Paris, France 809 1328 iXDEx. Page. Silk manufacturing, course in, Municipal Technical School, Manchester, England 1096, 1097 Silk manufacturing, School for the Textile Trades, Crefeld, Prussia. . . : 943-945 Silk weaving, course in Philadelphia Textile School and School of Industrial Art 139 Silk Weaving, School of, Zurich, Switzerland 1280,1281 Slater Industrial and State Normal School, Winston-Salem, N. 326, 326 Snowhill Industrial Institute, Snowhill, Ala 284 Society for Trade and Technical Instruction Relating to Marine Fishing, Paris, France 844, 845 Soleure, Switzerland; School of Watchmaking 1286, 1287 Sonneberg, Saxe-Meiningen, School of Toy Making 957, 958 Southern Industrial College, Caraphill, Ala 354, 355 Southwestern Polytechnic, London, England 1071-1073 Southwestern Railway Telegraph School, St. Louis, Mo 174 Spellman Seminary, Atlanta, Ga 310-312 Spinning, course in. Technical Institute of Eoubaix, France 751, 752 Springfield, Mass., free evening drawing and trade classes of the public schools 208-211 Spring Garden Institute, Philadelphia, Pa 188-192 Stained-glass work, course in, Central School of Arts and Crafts, London, England 1077 State Colored College, Orangeburg, S. C 332, 333 State industrial schools, Hungary 1163, 1164 State Normal School for Colored Students, Montgomery, Ala 283, 284 Steam engineering, course in, Armstrong and Slater School, Hampton Inst., Hampton, Va... 342 Stein Schonau, Austria, State School for the Glass Industry 532-535 Steyer, Austria, State School for the Iron and Steel Industry 538, 539 Stonecutting — apprenticeship shops for, Belgiiim 594, 595 apprenticeship worTjishops for, Ecaussines-D'Enghien and Ecaussines-Lalaing, Belgium.. 667-671 course in. School of Arts and Trades, Freybuig, Switzerland 1262 State School for, Laas, Austria 526 Stone working and clay modeling, course in, Hungarian industrial technical schools 1161 Straw plaiting, etc., trade schools for, Germany 947-949 Subsidies for trade education, Switzerland, law relating to 1217-1221 Subsidies for trade education , etc. , United States 19, 20, 23, 99, 101 , 105, 106, 109, 132, 133 Subsidies granted to and receipts of institutions for trade and technical education, Belgium.. 603, 604 Subsidies received by industrial schools from the Federal Government, Switzerland, 1899. . . 1225-1236 Subsidies received by industrial schools from the Federal Government and other sources, Switzerland, 1884-1899 1221 Subsidies received by industrial schools and schools of arts and trades, Italy 1171 Subsidies received by superior schools of art applied to industry, Italy 1171 Subsidies, State, for trade and technical education, Belgium 667, 568 Sunday schools for working men and women, Archimedes Society, Turin, Italy 1196 Sunday schools, Germany 894, 895 Superior Institute of Brewing, Ghent, Belgium 654-659 Superior School of Textiles, Verviers, Belgium 660-662 Superior schools of art applied to industry, Italy 1171, 1172, 1203, 1204 Superior trade and technical schools, Belgium 590, 591, 654-662 Supervision and administration of industrial schools- Austria 436 Belgium 569, 570 Germany 874^876 Supervision and inspection of State and subsidized trade and technical schools, France 713-715 Supervision of industrial schools. (See also Inspection of industrial schools.) Supervision of State and subsidized schools, France 713, 714 Supervision of the apprenticeship system — Austria 451-455 Germany 899-906 Switzerland 1236-1244 Swiatniki, Austria, State School for Looksmithing 536, 537 Switzerland — apprenticeship shops and trade schools 1226-1228, 1270-1295 apprentice-hip system, supervision of 1236-1244 attitude of educators, employers, graduates of trade and technical schools, and labor unions toward trade and technical education 1299-1305 classes of institutions 1223-1236 expenditures of Government subsidized schools, 1884-1899 1221 expenditures of Government subsidized schools, 1899, by kind of industrial school 1225-1236 expositions of trade and technical schools 1222, 1223 growth of industrial education ^ 1215-1221 houselceeping and domestic-service schools 1228-1230, 1296, 1297 industrial art schools : 1225, 1226, J264-1270 industrial continuation and handicraft schools and trade courses 1230-1234, 1297-1299 industrial drawing schools 1234, 1235 industrial museums 1235', 1236 inspection of industrial schools 1221, 1222 law relating to apprenticeship — Canton of Neuchatel 1238-1240 Canton of Vaud 1240-1243 law relating to subsidies for trade education 1217-1221 secondary technical schools 1224, 1225, 1245-1264 subsidies received by industrial schools from the Federal Government, 1899 1225-1236 subsidies received by industrial schools from the Federal Government and other sources, 1884-1899 1221 technical colleges 1223, 1224 trade and technical education 1213-1305 training of teachers for trade and technical schools 1222 INDEX. 132(^ T. Taohau, Austria, State School for Wood Turnlnsr rio K^a Tailoring— * t)i.^,OJ.i> course in, Armstrong and Slater School, Hampton Institute, Hampton Va q« course in , East London Technical College, London, England in?? course m, Georgia State Industrial College. College, Ga 5i» course m, Tuskegee Normal and Industrial Institute, Tuskegee Ala sm School of Apprentice Tailors' Pa* ronal Committee, Paris, France sriq sm Trade School of, Brussels, Belgium . Riirdi Trade School of, Liege, Belgium 64» Tailors, courses in cutting for, maintained by Union of Master Tailors,'Paris! France 842 Tailors, Trade and Continuation School for, Berlin, Prussia . osl Taylor, S. T., Dress Cutting and Dressmaking School, New York, N Y 12» Teachers for trade and technical schools, training of, Switzerland 1222 Teachers for workshop classes, selection of, England icoo Teachers in industrial schools, selection of, Germany 876 svT Technical and continuation schools. United States: ' Drexel Institute, Philadelphia, Pa 1S0-18S. free evening drawing and trade classes of the public schools, Springfield, Mass' 208-211 General Society of Mechanics and Tradesmen, New York, N. Y 192-19.> HlUyer Institute (Y.M.C.A), Hartford, Conn 218-22S Newark Technical School, Newark, N.J 201-204 Eochester Athenaeum and Mechanics' Institute, Rochester, N. Y 196-200 School of Messrs. R. Hoe & Co. , New York, N. Y 207 20S Spring Garden Institute, Philadelphia, Pa 188^192 Technical School for Carriage Draftsmen and Mechanics, New York, N. Y 205-207 Virginia Mechanics' Institute Night School of Technology, Richmond, Va 204, 205 Wells Memorial Institute, Boston, Mass 200, 201 Young Men's Christian Association School, Boston, Mass 214-21S , Young Men's Christian Association schools. United States 211-22a Technical and trade education. (See Trade and technical education.) Technical College, Huddersfield, England 1041-10J4 Technical colleges — Germany 878, 879' Switzerland 1223, 1224 Technical courses, evening, Pratt Institute, Brooklyn, N. Y 4S> Technical courses in — cutting, maintained by Union of Master Tailors, Paris, France 842 masonry, maintained by Employers' Association, Paris, France 841 Technical education, England — benefits of 1000,1001 character and extent of 990-996 obstacles of 996-lCOO Technical industrial schools, Hungary 1101-1163 'I'echnical Institute, Roubaix, France 750-755 Technical School for Carriage Draftsmen and Mechanics, New York, N. Y 20.5-207 Technical School of Brewing, Ghent, Belgium 659, 660 Technical schools — secondary, Switzerland 1224,1225,1245-1264 secondary or intermediate, Germany 879-881 Technical schools, Great Britain : Battersea Polytechnic, London, England 1067-1071 Bolt Court Technical School, London, England 1065-1067 Borough Polytechnic Institute, London, England 1062-106& Bradford Municipal Technical College, Bradford, England 1023-1027 Central School of Arts and Crafts, London, England 1076-1078 City and Guilds Technical College, Pinsbury, London, England 1060-1062 Durham College of Science, Newcastle-upon-Tyne, England 1099 East London Technical College, People's Palace, London, EnglaKd 1073-107S Glasgow and West of Scotland Technical College, Glasgow, Scotland 1126-1128 Goldsmiths' Company's Technical and Recreative Institute, London England 1091-109S Harris Institute. Preston, England 1107-1109- Herlot-Watt College, Edinburgh, Scotland 1123-1126 Leeds Institute of Science, Art, and Literature, Leeds, England 1054, 1055- Liverpool School of Science, Technology, and Art, Liverpool, England 1057, 1058 Merchant Venturers' Technical College, Bristol, England 1027-1031 Mining and Technical School, Wigan, England 1121-1123 Municipal Technical Institute and School of Art, Coventry, England 1031-1034 Municipal Technical School, Birmingham , England 1001-1011 Municipal Technical School, Blackburn, England 1011-lOU Municipal Technical School, Halifax, England 1034-1041 Municipal Technical School', Leicester, England 1055-105T Municipal Technical School, Manchester, England 1096-1C'9> Municipal Technical School, Oldham, England 1106, 1107 Municipal Technical School, Rochdale, England . . .... JJiS'JH? Northampton and County Technical Instatute, Northampton, England ...... 1100, 1101 Northampton County Council Schools, Northampton and Northamptonshire, England.. 1101-llOS Northampton Institute (City Polytechnic), London, England J2,(HxS Northern Polytechnic Institute, London, England. iV„H?Sj Oldham Mutual Technical School, Oldham, England i„2„'im? Regent Street Polytechnic, London, England n,?,!!?! Royal Technical Institute, Salford, England ^lltl^nm Saint Bride's Foundation Institute, London England lO^^-l"?!^ Salford Iron Works Science and Technical School, Salford, England 1117 ShetHeld Technical School, Shefaeld, England Im imi Southwestern Polytechnic, London, England imiimi Technical College, Huddersfield, England 1041-1044 9257—02 84 1330 INDEX. Technical schools, Great Britain— Concluded. Technical School, Bolton, England 1016-1023 Technical School, Keighley Institute, Keighlev, England 1044-1046 University College, Nottingham, England '. . 1103-1105 Yorkshire College, Leeds, England 1047-1054 Technical schools. ( See also Continuation schools. ) Technikum, Cantonal, Burgdorf, Switzerland 1250-1258 Technikum of Western Switzerland, The, Bienne, Switzerland , 1245-1250 Techniknm, The, Hamburg, Germany 923-927 Technological Industrial Museum, Vienna, Au.itria 455^75 Technology and science, department of, Pratt Institute, Brooklyn, N. Y 47, 48 Technology, institutes of, influence of, upon industrial education. United States 19 Telegraph School, Southwestern Railway, St. Louis, Mo 174 Teleg;raphy and telephony, course in. Merchant Venturers' Technical College, Bristol, Eng. 1030, 1031 TepUtz, Austria, State School for the Earthenware Industry 528-530 Textile Art— M-useum of, Planen, Saxony 918, 919 School of, Plauen, Saxony 915,916 Textile engineering, course in, American School of Correspondence, Boston, Mass 233 • Textile fibers, course in, Practical School of Industry, Saint-Etienne, France 767 Textile Industry — course in, Hungarian industrial technical schools .., 1161 State School for the, Vienna, Austria 504,505 Textile School and School of Industrial Art, Philadelphia, Pa 22, 133-139 Textile schools. United States: American Correspondence School of Textiles, New Bedford, Mass 155-167 Georgia School of Technology, Atlanta, Ga 155 Lowell Textile School, Lowell, Mass 139-148 New Bedford Textile School, New Bedford, Mass 148-156 Philadelphia Textile School and School'of Industrial Art, Philadelphia, Pa 22, 133-139 Textile trades — School for the, Aix-la-Chapelle, Prussia 935, 936 School for the, Berlin, Prussia 936-942 School for the, Crefeld, Prussia 94.3-945 School for the, Eeutlingen, Wnrttemberg 945, 946 schools for the, Germany 8.S7-889, 935-946 Textiles — course in, Bradford Technical College, Bradford, England 1024, 1025 course In, Municipal Technical Institute and School of Art, Coventry, England 1032, 1033 course in, Municipal Technical School, Blackburn, England 1012-1014 course in. Municipal Technical School, Hop wood Lane, Halifax, England 1036-1040 course in. Municipal Technical School, Manchester, England 1096,1097 course in. Technical College, HuddersBeld, England _ 1042 course in. Technical School, Bolton, England 1016-1021 course in. Technical School, Keighley Institute, Keighley, England 1045, 1046 course in, Yorkshire College, Leeds, England 1018-1052 Industrial School of, Tourcoing, France 810, 811 Superior School of, Verviers, Belgium 660-662 Textiles. (See a^so "Weaving, etc.) Tinsmithing, course in — Armstrong and Slater Memorial Trade School, Hampton Normal and Agricultural Insti- tute, Hampton, Va 344 Tuskegee Normal and Industrial Institute, Tuskegee, Ala ., 299,300 Tinsmiths, Trade School for, Berlin, Prussia .' 9S4 Toronto, Ontario — Canadian Horologieal Imstitute 696, 697 Central Ontario School of Art and Industrial Design 691,692 To'ronto Technical School 693-696 Tougaloo University, Tougaloo, Miss 817-320 Toulouse, France, School of Fine Arts and Industrial Sciences 819,820 Tourcoing, France, Industrial School of Textiles 810, 811 Tournay, Belgium — Housekeeping and Trade School for Girls 618, 619 Industrial School 640-642 Saint Luke Trade School 665-607 Toy Making, School of, Sonneberg, Saxe-Meiningen 957, 958 Trade and Continuation School for— Bala^rs' Apprentices, Berlin, Prussia 974 Blacksmiths, Berlin, Prussia 975 Shoemakers, Berlin, Prussia 983, 984 Tailors, Berlin, Prussia 984 Trade and Continuation School of— (juildof Chimney Sweeps, Berlin, Pritssia 978 Guild of Saddlers, Trimmers, and Trunk Makers, Berlin, Prussia 983 Toltcrs' Guild, Berlin, Pra'sia 983 Trade and housekeeping schools for females, Belgium 572-575, 615-619 Trade and Indastrial Art School, Bern, Switzerland 1267-1270 Trade aud industrial continuation schools, Germany 889-896, 947-984 Trade and Preparatory School, Ilive de Gier, Prnnce ^ 825.826 Trade and technical continuation .schools and courses, ]''ranco 731-737,826^849 Trade and technical education, attitude of emphncrs, graduates of trade and technical .schools, labor unions, etc., toward: Austria 560-.563 Belgium 672-C84 Canada 698, 699 France .853-868 Great Britain 1129-1152 Switzerland 1299-1805 United States 367-424 INDEX. 1331 ^taiuuui^n's^'^d^^iifaS'oT) ^^^^^^fl-^^" °f institutions lor. (,SV. Industrial educational ^''''- Trade and tecHnlcal education, growth of- Austria ^97^27 Belgium 427-437 France : i.::;; " ^S1?^ Germany L-1 gS^5^*^'° ::■:::"::::::::::::;:::::;::::::;;;:::;;:::;:;;::;;;;::;;;:: 987-99^ Italy ■ 1155-1159 switzeriaiid::;;:::;;:::;::;;::::;;;::::::::: IJf^'iw? United states ■■- ^^°llZo] Trade and technical schools, superior, Belgium .'.".'.' sqii'^qi fi>ulK(i9 Trade classes, Pratt Institute, Brooklyn, NT Y . . . osu, o»i, 004-M.- Trade continuation schools, Belgium 619-064 Trade courses andiudustrial continuation and handieraf t'scbbols; Switzeriand ! ." ." '1236^1234," 1297-1299 carriage makers, Paris, Franco 827 chimney builders and repairers, etc. , Paris, France ... 828 emales in Belgium ^79 gjg gjn emales, schools of the Lette Society, Berlin, Prussia '972 973 males in Belgiujn =55 m-i' c-,Ty Trade courses in— wu,u,j.,u/- decorative painting ajid drawing, Audenarde, Belgium 672 drawing, Herve, Belgium- _ ' 572 drawing. Saint Luke courses, Antwerp, Belgium 671672 dressmaking, lingerie making, etc., Josse-Ten-Noode, Belgium 619'620 Trade courses of the Union of Journeymen Hoiisesmiths, etc., Paris, Prance 828' 829 Trade course.?— practice courses for master workmen, Germany '898 Trade education, Switzerland, law relating to suteidies for 1217-1221 Trade school and trade courses of the Industrial Society of Saint Quentin, France ... 787 788 Trade School "Saverio Altamura," for the Mechanical and Manual -Arts, Foggia, Italy 1191 Trade schools— for females, Belgium 572-575,604-619 for journeymen, Hungary 1160 for males, Belgium .''!!!.'^!! '685^89, 644-6.54 for several trades, France 727-729, 775-802 for single trades, France ; 73O, 802-818 national, France 726, 727' 772-775 of fishing, Belgium , 654 Trade schools and apprentieesliip shops, Switzerland 1226^1228, 1270-1295 Trade schools, miscellaneous. United States: Illinois College of Photography, Effingiam, 111 _„ 173,174 North Bennet Street Industrial School, Boston, Mass 'l71 Southwestern Eailway Telegraph School, St. Louis, Mo 174 Washington Linotype School, Washington, D. C 171-173 Webb's Academy and Home for Shipbuilders, New York, N. Y 175-180 Trade' schools. (.%« ateo Apprenticeship shops; Saint Luke trade schools; Arts and trades.) Trade unions. {See Labor unions. ) Trades Academy, Geneva, Switzerland- 1298, 1299 Trades and arts. (See Arts and trades.) Trades, important groups of. sckools for, Aastria 440-443,475-490 Trades, particular, schools for, Austria 444-448, 490-548 Troyes, France, French School of Hoaiery 803, 804 Trankmakers, etc.. Trade and Continuation School for, Berlin, Prussia 983 Turin, Italy — Superior' School of Ornament 1205 WoTklngmen's schools 1195-1198 Tumau, Austria, State School for Precious Stone Grinding and Setting 546, 547 Tuskegee Normal and Industrial Institute, Tuskegee, Ala 284-307 Typographical School, Milan, Italy - 1191, 1192 Typograpby. (Sea Printing.) U. United States — agricultural education, development of 19,20 attitude of employers, graduates of trade and technical schools, and labor unions toward trade and technical education 367-424 barbers' schools 166-170 brewers' schools 94-99 ■building and mechanical trade schools 24-94 clas.sification of trade and technical schools 24 dairy schools -. 99-110 growth of trade and technical education 19-24 mdustrial schools in the South tor the colored race 281-354 industrial schools in the South for whites - 3-54-866 instruction by correspondence 223-234 miscellaneous trade schools 171-180 schools for v/atchmakers, engravers, etc 157-166 schools of dressmaking, millinery, domestic training, etc 111-132 schools of industrial drawing and design 235-281 technical and continuation schools - - . 180-211 textile schools 132-157 trade and technical education 17-424 Young Men's Christian Association schools 211-223 United States Brewers' Academy, New York, N. Y 95,96 University College, Nottingham, England 1103-1105 University of Minnesota, Dairy School, St. Anthony Park, Minn 109,110 Upholstering, Draping, Trimming, Furnishing, etc., Trade School of, Brussels, Belgium 651-654 1332 IMDEX. V. Page. Venice, Italy, School of Art Applied to Industry 1204,1205 Verviers, Belgium — Industrial and Trade School 642, 643 Superior School of Textiles 660-662 Trade School for Girls 611-615 Vlcenza, Italj;, Industrial School "Alessandro Rossi" 1177-1179 Victoria Continuation School, Berlin, Prussia 973, 974 Vienna, Austria — industrial continuation schools 548-560 State School for the Textile Industry 504, 505 Technological Industrial Museum 455-475 Villach, Austria, State School for Woodworking 519-521 Virginia Mechanics' Institute Night School of Technology, Richmond, Va 204, 205 Voiron, France, National Trade School 773-775 Volta, Alessandro, Industrial School, Naples, Italy 1180, 1181 W. Wagon Makers and Wheelwrights, Trade School of, Berlin, Prussia 984 Wallachisch Meseritsch, Austria, State School for Woodworking 522-524 Waltham, Horological School, Waltham, Mass 157-159 Warnsdorf, Austria, State School for Weaving 499-501 Washington Linotype School, Washington, D. C 171-173 Watch and clock making — course in, Northampton Institute, London, England 1087,1088 Heriot-Watt College, Edinburgh, Scotland 1125 School of, FuTtwangen, Baden 958-960 State School for, Karlstein, Austria 547, 648 Watchmakers, engravers, etc., schools for, United States: Horological School, Bradley Polytechnic Institute, Peoria, III 159-162 Hutchinson's School for Watchmakers, Engravers, and Opticians, Laporte, Ind 162, 163 Jewelers' School of Engraving, Chicago, 111 165,166 Omaha Watch Repairing, Engraving, and Optical Institute, Omaha, Nebr 164, 165 St. Louis Watchmaking School, St. Louis, Mo 163, 164 Waltham Horological School, Waltham, Mass 157-159 Woodcock's Watchmaking, Optical , and Engraving School, Winona, Minn 162 Watchmaking — Canadian Horological Institute, Toronto, Ontario 696, 697 course in, Municipal Technical Institute and School of Art, Coventry, England 1032 course in. The Technikum of Western Switzerland, Blenne, Switzerland 1246,1247 National School of, Besangon, France 812, 813 National School of, Cluses, France 813-817 School of, Geneva, Switzerland 1281-1283 School of, Neuohatel, Switzerland 1283-1 285 School of, Soleure, Switzerland 1286,1287 Trade School of, Paris, France 817, 818 Watchmaking and mechanics — School of, Chaux-de-Fonds, Switzerland 1287, 1288 School of. Saint Imier, Switzerland 1288-1291 Watchmaking, Fine Mechanical Work, and Electricity, National School of, Brussels, Belgium . 646 Watchmaking, Fine Mechanics, and Electro-technics, School of, Schwenningen.Wurttemberg. 960-962 Watch repairing, courses in, Canadian Horological Institute, Toronto, Canada 696, 697 Wattwyl, Switzerland, School of Weaving '. 1291, 1292 Waugh, Ala., Mount Meigs Colored Industrial Institute 307 Weaving- apprenticeship shops and trade schools for, Belgium 595-600 apprenticeship shops for, Germany 887 course in. Practical School of Industry, Saint-Etienne, France 767, 768 course in. State Industrial School, Reichenberg, Austria 479 instruction in , by itinerant teachers, Germany 888, 889 School of, Wattwyl, Switzerland 1291,1292 School of (silk), Zurich, Switzerland 1280, 1281 State School for, Reichenberg, Austria 492-496 State School for, Schonberg, Austria 496-499 State School for, Warnsdorf, Austria 499-501 Weaving. {See also Textile, etc.) Weaving and dyeing- courses in, technical Institute of Roubaix, France 752,753 Royal Trade School of, Prato, Italy 1181-1183 School of, Arplno, Italy 1193 Weaving and Embroidery, Municipal School of, Lyon, France 776 Weaving and Knitting, State School for, Asch, Austria 501-503 Webb's Academy and Home for Shipbuilders, New York, N. Y 175-180 Wells Memorial Institute, Boston, Mass 200, 201 Whoelwrighting, course in— Armstrong and Slater Memorial and Trade School, Hampton Normal and Agricultural Institute, Hampton, Va 341 Tuskegee Normal and Industrial Institute, Tuskegee, Ala 295, 296 Wheelwrights and Wagon Makers, Trade School of, Berlin, Prussia 984 Wickerworking, etc.— Trade School for, Berlin, Prussia 974, 975 Trade School for, Heinsberg, Prussia 948, 949 Wigan, England, Mining and Technical School 1121-1123 Wiley University, Marshall, Tex 336, 337 Williamson Free School of Mechanical Trades, Williamson School P. O. , Pa 22, 24, 66-70 Wilmerding School of Industrial Arts, San Francisco, Cal 79-81 INDEX. 1333 Page. Wilmington Institute Drafting School, Wilmington, Del : 280, 281 Winona, Minn., Woodcock's Watchmaking, Optical, and Engraving School 162 Wmsted, La., Gilbert Academy and Industrial College 316,317 Winstou-Salem, N. C, Slater Industrial and State Normal School 325, 326 Wmterthnr, Switzerland, School for Metal Workers 1278-1280 Women's Educational and Industrial Union School, Boston, Mass 115-118 Women's Training School, St. Louis, Mo 124,125 Wood and Iron Work, State School for, Bruck a. d. Mur, Austria 524-526 Wood and Metal Working, Diderot School of, Paris, France 785, 786 Wood and Metal Working, H. Nieaise Trade School of, Ghent, Belgium 644r-646 Wood and stone carving, course in, North Bennct Street Industrial School, Boston, MasH 171 Wood carving — School of, Brienz, Switzerland 1292-1294 School of, Purtwangen, Baden 962, 963 Woodcock's Watchmaking, Optical, and Engraving School, Winona, Minn 162 Wood Industries, course in. Technological Industrial Museum, Vienna, Austria 456-461 Wood Turning, State School for, Tachau, Austria 518, 519 Woodwork and metal-work design, course in, Central School of Arts and Crafts, London, England 1077 Woodworking— course in, Claflin University, Orangeburg, S. C 330 course in, Hungarian industrial technical schools 1161 course in. State Industrial School, Budapest, Hungary 1164 State School for, Bergreichenstein, Austria 507 State School for, Bozen, Austria 508-510 State School for, Chrudim, Austria 510-513 State School for, Ebensee, Austria 513, 514 State School for, Hallein, Austria 514-516 State School for, Laybach, Austria 517 State School for, Villach, Austria 519-621 State School for, Wallachisch Meseritsch, Austria 522-524 Wool and worsted weaving, course in, Philadelphia Textile School and School of Industrial Art 1-38 Wool manufacturing, course in, Lowell Textile School, Lowell, Mass 141 Wool manufacturing. (See also Textile, etc.) Worcester, Mass. , evening drawing school, American Steel and Wire Company 279, 280 Workingmen's schools, Turin, Italy 1195-1198 Workmen and Foremen, National Practical school for, Cluny, France 744-747 Workshop School of Electro-Technics of the Humanitarian Society, Milan, Italy 1194 Workshops, school, in Hungary 1160 Y. Yorkshire College, Leeds, England 1047-1054 Young Men's Christian Association School- Boston, Mass 214-218 Hartford, Conn. (Hillyer Institute) 218-223 Young Men's Christian Association schools. United States 211-223 Young Women's Christian Association School — Boston, Mass 111-115 Brooklyn, N.Y 122,123 Harlem, N. Y 123, 124 New York, N.Y 119-122 Z. Zittau, Saxony, School for the Building Trades and Civil Engineering 931-934 Znaim, Austria, State School for the Earthenware Industry 530, 631 Zurich, Switzerland— School of Silk Weaving JSS'JS Trade School for Ladies' Tailoring and Lingerie Making I27ii-12 n o hdbosi.as'TIm'"""'''-'''"^^ mmmf.a?"'' •^'^''nical education. 3 1924 002 403 065 1 iS^ --;-i» > ^. ri- .-i, --'--a.j'i^iij^ ._=!... ., .- ■^■V',v«■--/■-,■Vv- ..-.,.,■• ..y ,■■..- 'V-fif . .--rf- "'■,.-,.--.'>"v'w,'i 1 M-. 'MS «■■ , ', ■ ';. .iifi -...."il .'V :.'■ C