i^tatc (50Uc0e of Agriculture At ((ocneU Mmvetaity Jtttata, «. Q. JiibtacH Cornell University Library LA 362. Y6s School survey of York county, [S.C.]A st 3 1924 012 996 249 Wintiftop QlolUgf Bulletin No. 1 September, 1920 Volume XIV School Survey of York County ROCK HILL. SOUTH CAROLINA Issued Quarterly by the College. Entered as Second-Class Matter, October 4, 1907, at the Postoffice at Rock Hill, under Act of Congrejs of July 6, 1894 TRUSTEES Members Ex-Opficio His Excellency Robert A. Cooper, Governor, CHafirman of the Board . Columbia Hon. J. E. Swearingen, State Superintendent of Education _:;. —^ Columbia Hon. J. F. Williams, Chairman of the Senate Committee on Ed- ucation Aiken Hon, S. A. Graham, Chairman of the House Committee on Education — . Heineman Member's Elected Hon. J. E. Breazeale _"! _. Anderson Hon. Thos. G. McLeod Bishopville Hon. D. W. McLaurin Columbia Hon. J. E. McDonald Winnsboro Mr. John G. Anderson Rock Hill Hon. Dan S. Henderson Aiken Mr. W. J. Roddey _. Rock Hill David Bancroft Johnson, A. B., A. M., LL. D., President^ Bulletin No. 1 SEPTEMBER, 1920 Volume XIV BULLETIN OF Winthrop College The South Carolina College For Women SCHOOL SURVEY OF YORK COUNTY A STUDY OF SCHOOL PLANTS, COSTS AND PROGRAM By JOHN F. THO MASON Professor of Rural Life Education FOREWORD This survey of the county-supervised schools of York County was made on the request of John E. Carroll, County Superintend- ent of Education, with a view to giving the public a better ac- quaintance with the public school situation and to directing atten- tion to needed improvements for the future development and growth of the schools. A scoring of city school buildings was made by request of the respective superintendents. Any one who makes a comparison of the schools today with what they were eight years ago cannot fail to note the remarkable improvements which have been made. Therefore little space in this study has been devoted to a discussion of that phase of the schools, but attention has been concentrated on a presentation of the more salient facts of the present school situation and ways and means of providing for future growth. From the point of view of training, experience and native ability. Superintendent Carroll ranks among the best school superintend- ents of the State and this fact is sustained by both the high esteem with which the profession holds him and the high comparative rank of the schools among other counties of the Sti.te. However, there must be greater means with which to do and car- ry out a greater vision of accomplishment if the schools are to func- tion adequately in the future, which fact emphasizes th'e impor- tance of becoming really acquainted with the educational agencies of the county and to giving careful consideration to their ad- vancement. SCHOOL SURVEY OF YORK COUNTY CHAPTER I. YORK COUNTY LOCATION AND DESCRIPTION. York County borders on North Carolina, and is a north-central county of South Carolina. Its total area is about 686.68 square miles, and it comprises nine townships which lie somewhat in tiers of three. Three of these townships (Bethel, King's Mountain and Broad River) have areas containing a number of small mountains. Bethel is crossed from west in an easterly direction by Crowder and Big Allison creeks; Bullock is crossed from north in a south- westerly direction by Bullock's and Turkey creeks; these two town- iships have some rather rough and hilly areas. Two railroads, Carolina & Northwestern and the Charleston Di- vision of the Southern, practically bisect the county, east and west, and north and south, respectively. The main line of the Seaboari Air Line crosses a few miles of the southeastern corner of the county, and the Savannah-Charlotte branch of the Southern crosses the county, from Chester through Rock Hill and Fort Mill, cutting off a southeastern section of the county — approximating one hun- dred and thirty square miles. Broad River forms a part of the western boundary of the county, and the Catawba River separates Fort Mill Township from the remaining townships and contitutes a part of the eastern county boundary. HISTORY. ■The County of York is part of the border territory which origi- , nally formed a part of North Carolina. A survey was made about the time of the Revolutionary War which gave an upper tier of counties to South Carolina and this new territory was known as the New Acquisition. The District of York was created in 1785 and a Court House was built at Fergus' Cross Roads, which is the present location. Time elapsed before there were any stores at the county seat and the wants of the people were supplied from the peddler's pack. A store was built about 1810. , In 1868 a survey was made of York County by Col. W. B. Allison. This survey established the township boundaries of the county. The early settlers were Scotch-Irish and Scots. They were strong believers in religious liberty who brought their Bible across with them. They were bitter and fearless opponents of British and Tories, never taking recourse to British protection. Such was the spirit which won the Revolutionary War. 4 WiNTHROP Bulletin EARLY EDUCATION. After the Revolution and during the early decades of the 1800's there were scant means of obtaining an education. There were few books available. Tories had destroyed books wherever they had found them. Ministers of the Gospel became the teachers. We read that even such a book as "Lock's Essay on the Human Under- standing" was put to use for learning the letters and te read and spell, and copies for writing were set with a stick on an even spot of ground. In the period of common-school revival (1830-1860), institutions of learning were established with considerable rapidity. The ear- liest academy or grammar school of the up-country was established at Bullock's Creek by the Riev. Dr. .Joseph Alexander (Dr. Abner Pyles'Grammar School in Laurens was the other early up-coun- try school). Here Greek and Latin, Moral Philosophy and Geogra- phy were taught, and many went to school who afterwards became of note. Some mentioned are: Andrew Jackson, Wm. H. Craw- ford, Gov. David Johnson, Col. Thomas Taylor, and others. Dr. Alexander established a hospital at his residence, which was ap- preciated by the surrounding country. Another early and successful school was that at Bethel, where a church had been organized as early as 1764. In 1806 (about) a classical academy was opened in the Bethesda congregation. A very distinguished scholar who began teaching in York a few years before the War Between the States was Dr. Robert Lathan. Dr. Latha'n taught the Brick Academy in York about 1852, and made of it a well-known school. After the Constitution of 1868,, Dr. Lathan organized the county school system. During the period of negro rule he was put out of office, but was restored with Hampton's administration, and was Commissioner until about 1888. Dr. Lathan was a scholarly minister and rendered an ex- cellent and pioneer service for education in York. The Bethel Presbytery established Yorkville College in 1852. This was a non-sectarian institution and was considered the equal to any college in the state prior to 1860. Like many other insti- tutions it could not be revived after the war. It was sold to citi- zens of Yorkville, and it was later converted into what was about the second graded school of the state — about 1882 or 1883. It was rebuilt in 1902 into the present building of the city school of York. ' At Ebenezer, early in the nineteenth century, an academy was established by the Associate Reformed Presbyterians; it continued until 189,3. The builditig is now occupied by the Ebenezer Public School. The Ebenezer Academy was spoken of as "The Athens of York," and many useful men received their early training in it. At Fort. Mill there was another noted Academy, Catawba Acade- my. This acaderiiy also possessed noted teachers, aiid many men of prominence were trained in it. In more recent years. Col. Asbury Coward operated King's Moun- tain Military Academy at York. WiNTHROP Bulletin 5 POPULATION. In 1910, York County had a population of 47,718, being surpassed by six other counties in the State : Spartanburg, Richland, Orange- burg,- Greenville, Charleston and Anderson. The fourteenth census (1920) gives York a total population of 50,536. This is an increase of 5.9 per cent.; the average increase for the state was 11.1 per cent. All of the incorporated places of the county show a gain of popu- lation by the 1920 census except Smyrna (lost 8) and McConnells- ville (lost 32). Bethel township (strictly rural) lost 278 in popu- lation. Fort Mill town gained 330; the whole township lost 185. If Smyrna is excepted, the towns of Broad River township show a gain; the whole township shows a loss of 383. If we compare the total gain by the 1920 census, by town, with ■ the gain for the entire county, the gain in the towns, after deduct- ing for the losses of two towns, exceeds the population gain of the whole county by 72. This clearly indicates a loss of strictly coun- try population in York County during the past decade, the loss fall- ing most heavily on Bethel, Broad River and Fort Mill townships. The City of Rock Hill shows by far the largest gain of 1593 or about 22 per cent. The total population of incorporated towns in 1920 is 16,620 and in 1910 it was 13,730, a gain of 21 per cent. If the population of incorporated towns be deducted from the entire population of the county in 1920 and 1910, the remainders will be 33,916 (1920) and 33,988 (1910). This means a total loss of 72 in country population by the census of 1920. The school enrollment of 1910 was 12,060, and in 1920 it was 15,952, a gain of 3,892. About 32% gain in school enrollment was made in this decade, in which there was a gain of 5.9 per cent, population. This is a credit to school growth. TABLE L F'orteenth Census — Preliminary announcement of population of York County, South Carolina: MINOR CIVIL DIVISION 1920 1910 1900 York County 50 536 ' 47 718 41 684 Bethel Township --- 2 944 3 222 3 315 Bethesda township, including Mc'Con- Hells town 5 238 5 13S 5 013 Broad River Twp., including Hickory Grove, Sharon and Smyrna towns 2 816 Bullocks Creek township 3 443 Catawba Tp., including Rock Hill city 14 375 Ebenezer Tp., including Ebenezer town 5 127 Fort Mill Tp., including Fort Mill town 3 783 King's Mountain township, including Cover town 5 793 4 914 4 098 York townshit), including Tirzah and Yorkville towns 7 017 6 825 6 400 3 199 2 677 3 279 3 123 12 583 10 065 4 593 3 143 3 968 3 850 WiNTHROP Bulletin INCORPORATED PLACE 1920 1910 1900 Glover town 1 608 Ebenezer town 298 Fort Mill town ^ 1 946 Hickory Grove town 301 McGonnells town 247 Rock Hill city 8 809 Sharon town ^. 419 Smyrna town 101 Tirzah town 160 Yorkville town 2 731 2 326 2 012 ROCK HILL CITY BY WARDS 1920 Rock Hill city 8 809 1 207 961 190 331 1 616 1 394 285 289 279 7 216 5 485 374 150 109 48 128 131 Ward 1 1 623 Ward 2 2 382 Ward 3 3 337 Ward 4 '. ^ l 467 WiNTHROP Bulletin 7 CHAPTER 11. INDUSTRY York in 1916 ranked high among the counties of the state in the . manufacture of cotton. From Table V., Textile Reports by Coun- ties, 1916, the capital of the textile industries in the county was $3,479,147, rank 7; "the value of products was $5,321,163, rank 5. Counties surpassing York in capitalization were Greenville, Spar- tanburg, Anderson, Union, Aiken, and Newberry. There were in this year approximately 200,000 spindles in York County, more than half of which were in Rock Hill. The textile industry of York County has grown since 1916. In addition, cotton seed oil mills were located at Clover, Rock Hill and York, the capitalization be- ing $140,500, and in value of products the rank among counties was 28. Rock Hill has a large and successful motor company with about $2,500,000 capital invested. A listing of capital invested in other industries in York County in 1916 follows: INDUSTRY CAPITAL VALUE OP PRODUCTS Bakery products . $ 10,000 $ 26,000 Brick and tile 100,000 50,000 Carriages and wagons 300,000 197,141 Confectionery 500 500 Electricity 1,671,000 110,345 Ice 25,000 22,000 Mineral and soda waters. - 20,575 46,000 Fertilizers 25,000 100,000 Foundries and mach. shops 7,400 24,500 Flour and grist mills 29,050 48,360 Gas 80,000 10,000 Lumber 100 163,000 Monuments and stone 5,000 12,000 Printing and publishing-- 45,300 46,781 (ft) Wages (Not including salaries). (6) Rank among other counties by caprtalization. York County ranked 13 by the census of 1910 among the 43 coun- ties of the state in total value of all crops produced. The twelve counties surpassing York were : Aiken, Anderson, Barnwell, Clar- endon, Darlington, Dillon, Florence, Lee, Marlboro, Orangeburg, Spartanburg, and Williamsburg. York's agricultural productions for the year 1909 were' distri- buted as follows: -.VAGES RAINK (a) (6) $ 2,340 6 20,921 2 35,407 1 300 10 16,195 8 4,600 10 4,350 11 2,900 15 7,100 10 4,818 9 3,500 6 20,076 25 800 10 16,617 6 WiNTHROP Bulletin Cereals -$ 674,880 Other grain --- 11,582 Hay and forage 119,612 Vegetables 136,464 Fruits and meats 61,170 All other crops (Principally cotton ) 3,062,958 •rank 16 36 9 22 3 12 Total ' 1- $4,066,666 The leading counties in the production of cotton in 1909 were : COUNTY Aiken -. Anderson Barnwell Darlington - Dillon BALES ACRES >RODUCED PLANTED 41,408 78,958 55,881 133,343 47,978 98,376 42,412 46,412 41.702 50,260 42,240 70,055 38,566 101,829 74,572 86,019 71,092 129,053 45,038 99,855 38,480 86,530 Lee 42,240 Laurens Marlboro Orangeburg Spartanburg ^ Tork York County ranked 11 in bales produced and 7 in acres planted; it grew in 1909 about one bale for each 2.24 acres planted in cot- ton. The three best cotton counties for that year averaged nearly one bale for each acre planted. Acreage, yield per acre, and production of cotton in 1919 (Bureau •of Crop Estimates) : COUNTY Anderson Greenville Laurens Marlboro Orangeburg Spartanburg ^._ Sumter York ACREAGE YIELD PER ACRE BALES 157,000 260 85,000 96,000 260 52,000 105,000 230 50,000 95,000 380 75,000 155,000 269 87,000 140,000 257 77,000 80,000 267 46,000 100,000 216 45,000 The above data represent cotton ginned in the counties, and may vary somewhat from the cotton grown within their borders. The bales yield for South Carolina by the Report of the Bureau of Census for 1919, 1918, and 1917 was 1,426,146, 1,569,918, and 1,236,871 bales, — equivalent of 500 pound-bales — ^respectively The corresponding production in York was 44,858, 40 532 and 29,938. The data are insufficient to enable an exact and just assignment of an industrial rank to York when compared with other counties of the state; the number of year? for which the data are in conven- * Rank among the 43 counties of the State. MAP I. — Showing the location of roads and schools in York County. WiNTHROP Bulletin. 9 ient form in the various industrial activities does not make easy the securing of reliable averages. However, when we consider the facts as given in the thirteenth census, the Bureau of Crop Esti- mates' reports of more recent years, and some of the reports of South Carolina Commissioner of Agriculture, it is possible to make a rough approxijnation and it is safe to say that York's industrial rank is well within the margin of the upper quartile of the forty- six counties of the State. Since the thirteenth census two of the high ranking counties in cotton production, Barnwell and Orangeburg, have lost territory to new counties. lo WiNTHROP Bulletin CHAPTER III. GENERAL SCHOOL LAWS Article XI of the Constitution (1895) of South Carolina contains the constitutional provisions relating to public education. Provis- ions are made for the election of a State Superintendent of Educa- tion for a term of two years by the qualified electors of the State, and authority is vested in the General Assembly to define his pow- ers, duties and compensation. Section 2 provides for a State Board of Education composed of the Governor, State Superintendent of Education, and not exceed- ing seven persons appointed by the Governor every four years. This Board has authority to regulate, teacher certification, the awarding of scholarships, and other powe'rs and' duties determined by law. Other necessary school officers shall be provided by the General Assembly by election or appointment, and the pay of both State and county schooj officers is to be provided otherwise than from the public school fund. Section 5 requires that the General Assembly provide for a lib- eral system of free public schools for all children between the ages of six and twenty-one, and for the division of counties into dis- tricts as compact in form as practicable, with a maximum area ol forty-nine and a minimum area of nine square miles. Section 7 requires that separate schools shall be maintained for the white and colored races. The General Assembly has defined the main duties of the State Superintendent of Education as follows: (1) to have general su- pervision over all school funds; (2) to visit the counties as often as practicable, to inspect schools, to arouse interest in education, and make constructive criticism of the schools; (3) to secure, with and by advice of State Board, uniform text-books; (4) to prepare and transmit to County Superintendents all necessary blanks, etc., for records and reports; (5) to cause the publication of legal pro- ■N^isions relating to education; (6) to make a report annually, through the Governor, to the General Assembly. The State Board of Education constitutes an advisory board for the State Superintendent and it hears appeals from the decisions of County Boards of Education. Additional powers and duties of the State Board arr^: 1. the adoption of school regulations not inconsistent with (he law; 2. the making of rules for the examina- tion (if teachprs; 3. to prescribe standards of proficiency before fore County Boards of Education for the certiflcation of teachers; 4. to prescribe the course' of study: .5. to prescribe, so far as prac- ticable, uniform texts, make contracts with publishers for the adopted texts, etc.; 6. to review on appeal an order revoking a county certificate; 7. to award scholarships created bv the General WiNTHROP Bulletin ii Assembly; 8. to grant teachers' certificates and revoke them for cause. County Superintendents of Education are elected by the quali- fied electors of a county for a term of four years. It is the duty of a County Superinteifdent to visit the schools of his county at least once a year, to note the quality of instruction, etc., and to make suggestions in private to the teacher. He shall also suggest im- provements to the local trustees, and seek to obtain the profession- al improvement of the teachers. There are certain clerical duties of the County Superintendent in approving school warrants, keep- ing of records, and preparation of statistical reports; in addition there are general administrative duties in connection with the local school management which are largely advisory in character. The State Board of Education appoints two persons for a term of four years who, together with the County Superintendent, con- stitute a County Board of Education. The term of County Board members was two years, but an act going into effect June, 1921, fixes the term at four years. Formerly a main duty of this board in the eyes of the law was the examination and certification of teachers, but this duty now belongs to the State Board of Exami- ners, which acts under the direction of the State Board of Educa- tion. The County Board is an advisory body for the Superinten- dent, a tribunal in matters of local school controversy, and it is the authority to determine the size and boundaries of local school dis- tricts. However, the initiative power to create new districts or to consolidate districts rests with the qualified electors of the ter- ritory. The school districts are declared to be divisions of the county for taxation for school purposes, and the manner of conducting elections for special levies, and for the issuance of_ bonds, is pre- scribed in sections 1742 and 1743 of the General School Law of South Carolina. A Board of Trusteps (3) which has the management and control of the schools of a district is appointed by the County Board of Edu- cation for a term of two years (provisions are made for the elec- tion of special district trustees for terms of different lengths). This Board has the following powers and duties: 1, to provide school houses; 2, to employ and discharge teachers;' 3, to suspend or dismiss pupils: 4, to call meetings of the qualified electors for consultation; 5, to control school property; 6, to visit schools. It will be noted that local district trustees have great powers in a strictly administrative sense; though it is true that section 1753 states that these local boards shall be subject to the supervision and orders of the County Board of Education, still the empha- sis upon local authority is plain, since the interpretation and prac- tice is to have initiative come from the local trustees. The Coun- ty Board may for satisfactory reasons in cases of appeal revoke the action of the local trustees. There are many general statutory laws relating to education, but space does not permit their discussion here. In March, 1919. the General Assembly approved a state-wide compulsory attendance act for children between the ares of eight and fourteen years; the 12 WiNTHEOP BuLt-ETIN period of compulsory attendance is limited to four consecutive months. If the school is not maintained four months the require- ments of the act are satisfied by the full term of such school. The act permits the lengthening of the compulsory attendance period upon a written petition of a majority of the qualified electors re- siding in any school district. The state appropriated $66,000 'n 1920 to pay the school attendance officers. Other general acts set forth the plans for state co-operation with local communities in the maintenance of high schools, centralized high schools, rural graded schools, term extension schools and equalizing schools, vocational education and adult schools. The 1920 appropriations for co-operation under these particular heads amounted to about $828,200. State appropriations have been in- sufficient for carrying out the plan of co-operative aid under sev- eral of the laws. WiNTHROP Bulletin 13 CHAPTER IV. THE SCHOOL BUILDINGS AND EQUIPMENT PLAN OF SCORiING. In seeking to determine the efficiency of the school plants of York County, the Score Card for Village and Rural School Build- ings of Four Teachers or Less (Strayer-iEngelhardt, Jan., 1920,) was employed. The buildings of Clover, Fort Mill, Rook Hill and York were judged by the Score Card for City School Buildings (Or. Geo. D. Strayer), and are given a separate tabulation because of some minor differences, though the principles and apportioning of the scores are somewhat tne same. These score cards are the re- sult of the combined judgments of several hundred school admin- istrators throughout the United States who have had wide experi- ence, and they may therefore be considered to represent the best thought and practice pertaining to school buildings. The value of so scoring the school plants is seen by the fact that attention is directed to how a building compaies in detail with the besL and approved slandarrts. It is not necessary io repeat criti- cisms for each particular building, but by inspection of the tabu- lated results for any and all of the buildings of this county, one may discovr^r with a fair degree of accuracy the points in detail where a particular building falls short of the approved standards. The judgment of one scorer of experience is sufficient to give a fair approximation of the score to which a building is entitled; the combined judgment of two or three scorers will give a still closer approximation. In scoring the buildings of York County, an acknowledgment of indebtedness is made to Superintendent E. A. Montgomery, Super- intendent of York City Schools and member of the State Board of Education of South Carolina, and to Superintendent W. H. Ward, Superintendent of City Schools, Greer, S. C, (formerly Supt. of Fort Mill Schools) . Both of these gentlemen gave their services to assist in scoring with a view to promoting education through better school build- ings. Superintendent John E. Carroll, Superintendent of York County Schools, supplied conveyances and accompanied the scor- ers over the county, making it possible to complete the task through his accurate and valuable knowledge of the county. The party was disorganized twice because of the great rainfall during the latter part of the summer,, but this gave a better notion of the roads of the county arid of the vital relationship of good roads to good schools. The standards of judgment employed for the buildings and the score cards can be procured from: Bureau of Publications, Teach- ers' College, New York City. The standards employed in judging rural school buildings are given below in this report. H WiNTHROP Bulletin SCORE CARD FOR) RURAL SCHOOL BUILDING Score of Building 1. Site 160 A. Location .... 65 .... 1. Accessibility 30 2. Environment 35 B. Drainage .... 40 .... 1. Elevation 20 2. Nature of Soil 20 C. Size, Form and Use 45 45 .... D. Flagpole 10 10 .... II. Building .... 200 A. Placement 40 .... 1. Orientation 25 2. Position on Site 15 B. Gross Structure 90 .... 1. Type 20 2. Material 10 3. Height 10 4. Roof 5 5. Foundation 10 6. Walls 10 7. Entrances 10 8. Aesthetic Balance 5 9. Condition 10 C. Internal Structure 70 .... 1. Stairs and Corridors 25 2. Basement 30 ..f. 3. Color Scheme 10 4. Attic 5 III. Service Systems 250 A. Heating and V-entil'n .... 55 .... 1. Kijid - 20 .1 .... 2. Ins'taliation & Distribu. 10 3 Air Supply IS 4. Fans and Motors 5 5. Temperature Control S B. Fire Protection .... 20 .... 1. Apparatus 5 2. Fireproofness 5 3. Exits 5 4. Lighi Installation 5 C. Cleaning System .... 25 .... 1. Kind and Equipment 10 2. Efficiency 15 D. Artificial Lighting .... 20 .... 1. Gas or felectrcity 5 ...l .... 2. Outlets and Fixt's 10 3. Illumination 5 E. Schedule and emer- gency equip. .... 20 1. Clock 5 .... 2. Bell 5 .... 3. Telephone 5 .... 4. First Aid 5 .... F. Water System .... 50 1. Drinking 20 .... 2. Washing 15 3. Bathing 5 .... 4. Hot and Cold 10 .... G. Toilet Systems .... 60 1. Placement 15 .... 2. Fixtures 10 .... 3. Adequacy 10 .... 4. Seclusion, sanit't'n & Condition 25 IV. Class Rooms A. Arrangement 10 10 B. Construct'n & Finish .... 80 1. Size ' 20 .... 2. Shape 15 .... 3. Floors 10 .... 4. Walls 5 .... 5. Doors 5 .... 6. Closets 5 7. B. B'rds & Bui. Bds 15 .... 8. Color Scheme 5 .... C. Illumination " .... 60 1. Glass Area 30 .... 2. Window Placement 20 .... 3. Shades 10 .... D. Cloakr'ms & W'd'robes 20 20 E. Equipment .... S5 1. Seats and Desks 30 .... 2. Teachers' Desks 5 .... 3. Other Equipment 20 .... 225 V. Special Rooms" A. Rooms for General Use .... 1. Play Room 20 2. Community Room 30 3. Library 20 4. Lunch Room JO B. Officials' Con'tion' R'm 20 C. Other Spe'l R'ms 1. Industrial Arts 30 2. Household Arts 30 3. Fuel Room 5 80 20 65 165 Totals 1000 1000 1000 WiNTHROP Bulletin IS STANDARDS FOR VILLAGE AND RURAL SCHOOL BUILDINGS OF FOUR TEACHERS AND LESS. 1. SITE, A. — Location : 1. Accessibility: a. Location near intersecting main highways if possible. b. Centrality (present and future) desirable, but not more than 2 miles from farthest home served unless transpor- tation at public expense is provided. 2. Environment: a. Sanitary and healthful- — not adjacent to farm houses, barns, stock pens, open ditches, swamps, ponds, or dense woods. b. Free from disturbance by noise or mal-odors of railroad trains, mills, factories, and the like. c. If located in village, should not be near business center, thus avoiding disturbing influence of picture shows, can- dy shops, village loafers, and street activities. d. Free from dangerous cliffs, deep or swift-running stream, or other hazardous elements likely to make for unneces- sary hazard to children when not under direct supervision. e. Pleasing, natural landscape, with trees, hedges, flowers, gardens, green lawns, artistic walks, and fences. f. Not unduly exposed to winter winds, storms, and floods. B. — Drainage : 1. Elevation: a. Natural elevation preferred — slope away from biuldirrg. 6. Site should be underdrained with tile whenever necessary. 2. Natu.re of soil : a. Quick drying, sandy loam, fertile and well adapted to vegetation. b. Section .devoted to playground should drain quickly and have finished surface of finely crushed stone or gravel. C. — Size, Form and Use: 1. Size: A minimum space of four acres, thus providing space for adequate playgrounds, athletic field, school garden, and pleasing location of building. 2 Form: Should be rectangular in shape, approximately 300 ft. by 550 ft., allowing for location of building on end or corner with well adapted space for playgrounds and garden. 3. Grounds should have modern play apparatus, athletic field, and school garden. D. — Flag Pole: Preferably on grounds in front of building — pole higher than building. n. BUILDING. A. — Placement : 1. Orientation: Light exposure of classrooms should be, in order of preference, southeast, east, southwest, west. Classrooms should not have full north or south light ex- posure. i6 WiNTHROP Bulletin 2. Position op site: a. Maximum artistic effect. b. Greatest possible utilization of grounds for play ana gardening purposes. c. Should allow for future additions and expansion of plant. B. — Gross Structures: 1. Cottage type; three or four teacher buildings can be planned in T, E, or U type to advantage, thus allowing for easy additions. 2. Materials : hardburned brick, concrete, hollow tile stuccoed, or stone. Wood, if constructed along lines of modern fire-resistive methods. 3. Height: one-story above basement. No one to four teacher building will be approved if more than one story in height. i. Roof: a. Sloping of asbestos, shingle, slate, or tile, waterproof, properly sloped for drainage b. Provided with eave gutters and leaders emptying into cis- tern connections or other outlets. 0. Metal guards near eaves to prevent snow slides. 5. Foundation : a. Concrete or masonry walls with wide footing. 6. Should extend below maximum freezing line. c. Wall inclosing basement should be made waterproof, and damp-proof. 6. Walls : ~ a. Walls of hard brick laid in cement mortar, reinforced con- crete, masonry, hollow tile, or wood. b. Outer walls of masonry should be furred. c. If built of wood, fire stops of metal, asbestos, or brick should be inserted to prevent rapid spread of fire through building. 7. Entrances: a. Number : (1) One or two teacher building, one or more entrances, 6 to 8 feet in width with porch reached by concrete steps, 6 inch risoii's, 12 inch non-slip treads. (2) Three and four teacher building should have at least two entrances. (3) Outside entrance to heating system if located in base- ment. (4) Community room, if located in basement, should have convenient outside entrance, allowing use o.f room during school hours without disturbing school activities b. All entrances should be kept free from outside obstruc- tions. c. Doors : (1) Two pairs of double doors, opening outward, substan- tial but not so heavy as to be biit of proportion to the strength of small children who will open them (2) 'Should be provided with panic bolts, checks and nro- vision for holding .open. WiNTHROP Bulletin 17 (3) Size— 3x71/2 to 8 feet. 8. Aesthetic balance : o. The building should be symmetrical and pleasing in effect. b. All ornamentation not contributing to strength or utility should be avoided. c. Should vary in design from other buildings in same vicin- ity but set a standard of good taste. 9. Condition : The building should be well painted and kept free from deface- ments and demarkations. C. — Internal Structure: 1. Stairways, vestibules, and corridors: a. Basement stairways: , (1) Constructed of fireproof material. (.) Width — 4% to 5 feet, 12 inch treads, 6 inch risers. (3) Landings: should equal in width the length of the treads. (4) Lighting: natural as well as artificial light should be provided in adequate amount. (5) No storage rooms should be located under stairways. (6) When leading to basement containing heating appa- ratus should be closed off at base by fireproof doors. (7) Sanitation: where angles and corners would other- wise occur in stairway construction, the plans should pro- vide for concaved surfaces (coves), thus preventing the accumulation of dust, dirt and germ-carrying filth in places inaccessible to brooms and brushes. b. Vestibules : (1) 8 to 12 feet wide. (2) So arranged as to serve as storm door entrance pre- venting cold drafts of air from entering school room or corridor when outer doors are opened. Shoul'd not be used as cloakroom. (3) Metal foot scraper mat flush with floor in vestibule, c. Corridors — essential to any 3 and 4 teacher building plan. (1) Should provide easy access to class rooms and exits with least possibility of congestion. (2) Construction: (a) Material — hard maple or hard pine or battleship lino- leum glued on wood floors. Cement overlaid with battle- ship linoleum preferred. (b) Width— 7 to 10 feet. , • (c) Doors — all classroom and special room doors should open into corridor, glazed in upper portion. (d) Lighting — adequate natural light, sunshine if possi- ble, with provision for artificial lighting. (e) Heating — should be as well heated as other parts of building, provisions being made for warming feet and drying wet and damp clothing. (/) Sanitation — all intersecting surfaces should show cove finish, preventing accumulation of dust and dirt. Dirt catching ledges should be avoided. i8 WiNTHROP Bulletin (3) Should be free from projections or obstructions. Pleas- ing effect— should be made attractive by furnishmg with pictures, friezes, busts, plants, and the like. 2. Basement: a. Depth below grade— except for heating plant and luel room, basement should not extend more than 3y2 feet below grade. b. Heating plant and fuel room should "be separated from rest of basement by fireproof masonry walls and, fireproof ceiling with self-closing fire doors. c. Floors and walls should be damp-proof.- 3. Color scheme: (See Classrooms.) 4. Roof space — properly ventilated. in. SERVICE SYSTEMS. A. — Heating AuD Ventilating: The systems of heating and ventilating are here defined with a compound name — the first part of which designates the heating system and the second part the ventilating system. Definitions. 1. Th-e "Furnace-Gravity" system includes the following: a. Ventilating room heaters. These shall be located on the same floor with the room or rooms to be heated, but in separate compartments adjacent to these rooms; or b. Hot air furnace located in the basement and below the room or rooms to be heated. Both appliances (a) and (b) take the air from out of doors and deliver warm air to the rooms without the use of mechanical devices. Ducts or flues of proper size are provided. The air, in sufficient volume to ventilate the rooms, is heated to a temperature adequate to maintain the standards set up in these requirements. In addition, there is provided a coresponding gravity exhaust system, which withdraws vitiated air from the rooms and dis- charges it out of doors. The discharge may be effected with or without acceleration by means of an added source of heat. 2. The "Direct-Natural'' system shall moan an equipment in- cluding direct radiators under the windows for heating the room and properly designed deflecting ventilators for the windows. These ventilators will allow the natural admission of the air from out of doors. A system of ex- haust ventilation for the removal of vitiated air in the required volume, through specially located outlets in the room, is included. The following rules should be followed : a. This system should not be used in assembly rooms. b. It should be used only in connection with a steam atmos- pheric vapor system of heating, with graduating control valves on the radiators. c. The radiators shall extend the full width of all windows All windows shall be used for the admission of air to the" WiNTHROP Bulletin 19 radiating surface otliervvise necessary to maintain, the standard room temperature. d. Window deflecting ventilators, not less than twelve (12) inches high, should be placed on the sill and extend the full width of each window. They should be of such con- struction as to insure effective deflection and diffusion of the air without objectionable drafts. e. Vitiated air should be taken from each room through one or more openings located near the floor in the wall on the side of the room opposite from the window ventila- tors. If no accelerating heaters are placed in the exhaust flues, at least two such openings should be provided in each schoolroom. These openings should be spaced not less than eight (8) feet apart, center to center. Each opening should connect with an independent exhaust flue extending through the roof. The combined areas of such flues should be not less than one (1) square foot for each Ave occupants of the room. Each flue should be provid- ed with shut-off damper. For a mechanical exhaust, or for a gravity exhaust system having accelerating heaters in the flues, a single exhaust opening and flue for each • room may be provided. This single opening should be located as above required. 3. The "Direct-Gravity" system includes: a. Direct radiators located within the rooms to be heated; and b. Indirect radiators, in suitable casings, located below the rooms to be ventilated. The air is taken from out of doors over the indirect radia- tors and delivered to the rooms in sufficient volume and at approximately the required room temperature, without the direct use of mechanical means. Ducts and flues of proper size are used for the delivery of air. Approved mechanical means should be provided for auxiliary use when necessary. A corresponding gravity exhaust sys- tem, which withdraws the vitiated air from the rooms and discharges it out of doors, should be installed. This ex- haust system may be installed with or without accelera- tion by means of an added source of heat. 4. The "Direct-Mechanical" system includes the following: a. The "split system," providing both direct radiators locat- ed within the rooms to be heated, and a forced air supply for classrooms, study rooms, and the like. The forced air supply system consists of a mechanically operated fan or blower, which takes the air from out of doors and draws or forces it through suitably enclosed air heaters. At these heaters it is warmed to approximately room tem- perature and thence delivered to the rooms through prop- erly proportioned ducts or flues. b. A "unit system," which includes in each room one or more ventilating units which are located under the windows and which contain electrically operated twin multi-blade fans, drawing the air directly from out of doors and de- 20 WiNTHROP Bulletin livering it to the room in the required volume. The ven- tilating unit also contains extended surface steam radia- tors for heating air to the required temperature. In connection with either of the above systems a corres- ponding mechanical or gravity exhaust system is installed. This exhaust system withdraws the vitiated air directly from the rooms and discharges it out of doors. The dis- charge may be effected with or without acceleration by means of an added source of heat. ,5. The "Indirect-Mechanical" system permits of no direct radi- ators within the school rooms, but provides for both the heating and ventilation of school rooms to the required standard by means of a forced system of air supply. /S. mechanically operated fan or blower is employed which takes the air from out of doors and draws or forces it through suitably enclosed steam or hot water indirect radiators or through hot air furnaces. When thus warm- ed to a sufficient temperature, the air is delivered tO' the classrooms through properly proportioned ducts or flues. A corresponding mechanical or gravity exhaust system for classrooms, study rooms, and the like, is used. This system provides for the withdrawal of the vitiated air from the rooms and its discharge out of doors. This sys- tem may be installed with or without acceleration by means of an added source of heat. The indirect mechanical system requires, in addition, direct radiators sufficient to heat all rooms where water is provided and also direct radiators at all entrances. 6. The "Direct-Indirect" system : The so-called "direct-indirect" system of heating and ven- tilation should not be used in any school room. By "di- rect-indirect" is meant the introduction of air at the base, or upon any part, of a "direct" radiator without the use of a fan as provided in the "unit system." 1. Kinds of systems acceptable : a. One and Two Teacher Schools: The "Furnace-Gravity" system, using either ventilating room heaters or hot air furnaces, is the standard; other systems, or approved combination thereof, may be used. b. Three and Four Teacher Schools: The "Furnace-Gravi- ty" system, using hot-air furnace only, is the standard; other systems, or approved combinations thereof, may be used. 2. Installation and distribution : a. Ventilating room heaters : (1) Should not be installed in any school building contain- ing more than twenty thousand (20,000) cubic feet of space to be heated. No single heater should serve more than ten thousand (10,000) cubic feet of space. (2) Approved vertical pattern, having insulated sheet metal shield entirely surrounding the heater. The shield should be not less than six (6) inches distant from the WiNTHROP Bulletin 21 radiating surface of the heater. The bottom of the shield should be not more thaa fourteen (14) inches or less than eight inches distant from the floor. (3) Provided with approved water evaporating pan lo- cated within the shield, preferably on the heater. (4) Computed to size on the basis of: (a) Total heat necessary for heating building and warm- ing the air for ventilation as required. (6) The heating value of fuel. (c) The rate of combustion. id) The combined efTiciency of furnace and grate. The heating surfaces and grate area of., the heater shall be such that its rated and required capac- ity may be obtained without forcing under any conditions of service. (5) Provided with an approved exhaust or vitiated air flue located in the same end of the room as the heater, and not less than four (4) -feet distant therefrom. This flue should conform to either of the following standards: (a) When exhaust air is taken out through the smoke flue the flue should be not less than sixteen by sixteen (16x16) inches clear on the inside throughout its entire length. The flue should be provided with an approved mixing chamber . which should insure the maximum ventilation of the room, together with a complete exhaust of the waste products of combustion. (6) When the exhaust air flue is separate from the smoke flue it should be constructed of double brick walls and should be not less than twenty by twenty (20x20) inches from the floor inside throughout its entire length. The smoke flue which should be located in the center of the exhaust flue should not be less than eight (8) inches in diameter and constructed of iron of not less than 12 U. S. gauge metal. Double flue chimneys, in which it is proposed to use one flue for smoke and the other flue for exhaust air, are not acceptable. Exhaust air connections from rooms should be near the base of the exhaust flue. Every such room opening should be fitted with a wall grille or register and a shut-off damper or equivalent device. Floor registers do not meet the standard. b. Hot air furnaces : (1) Should be of approved design, having Are pot and radi- ator entirely surrounded by insulated sheet metal casing or masonry enclosure. This enclosure should be so ar- ranged that no perceptible resistance is encountered by the air in passing to the warm air leaders. (2) Should be provided with approved water evaporat- ing pan located within the casing, preferably near the top. 22 WiNTHROP Bulletin (3) Should be computed for size on same basis as specified for ventilating room heathrs. 3. Air supply: a. Supply 1800 to 2000 cubic feet of air per hour to each child in classroom. 6. Maintain temperature of 65 to 68 degree on coldest days without recirculation of air. c. Air must be kept in motion in all parts of the rooni, allow- ing no dead air pockets to exist. d. Supply air at relative humidity of from 40 to 50. e. Humidiflcation — steam jets or vaporization by means of trays or tanks of heated water in contact with air to be circulated. t. Recirculation of air not permitted while children are in building unless passed through air washer. B.— Fire Protection System. 1. Apparatus — Small hand Are extinguishers easily accessible from any part of building. Should be two in each work room afld one near heating plant. * 2. Fireproofness — Desirable from standpoint of security and durability of structure. Not essential to safety of oc- cupants if exits are well planned. Door leading to fur- nace room should be fireproof and self-closing. Furnace room should be fireproof. 3. Exits — No part of building, including basement should be without direct and unobstructed passage to outside of building. 4. Light installation — ^Electric wiring and lighting fixtures in- stalled in accordance with the latest rules of the National Board of Fire Underwriters. Inspection and certificate of approval by underwriters required. Acetylene gas or gasoline tanks should be located below surface at a safe distance from building with connections that meet under- writers' standards. iVoTB — For standards of steam, hot water boilers, etc., consult the Strayer-Engelhardt Score Card for City School Buildings, published by the Bureau of Publications, Teachers Col- lege, Columbia University, , New York City. C.-— Cleaning System: 1. Kind iiud equipment — Oil brushes, cleaning compound, and dust cloths. Corn brooms and feather dusters should not be used for cleaning purposes. Portable vacuum cleaner with suitable appliances, will be found desirable for the •thrpe and four-teacher buildings. Electri,^ generator for cl°aning, where no public service electric suuplv ox-'sts" is desirable. ' ' 2. Efficiency— All parts of building and equipment should be neat and sanitary. All cleaning should be done outside of school hours. D. — Artificial Lighting Systems: i. Kind — Electricity or gas. Electric generator for light where no public electric service exists, should be provided WiNTHROP Bulletin 23 2. Outlets and fixtures — 6 to 9 per classroom; special attention should be paid to lighting of auditorium or community room. 3. Standard illumination — 9 foot candles at each desk with no glare, shadows, or light in direct line of vision. E. — Schedule and Emergency Eqipment: 1. Clock in each classroom. 2. Electric gong desirable. Hand bell or belfry signals allow- able as substitutes. 3. Telephone connection with community telephone system. 4. First-aid case with complete emergency equipment availa- ble in case of minor accidents. F. — Water Supply System: Source of water: community water system or deep drilled, bored, or driven wells precluding possibility of surface drainage or contamination. Dug wells or springs not acceptable. (o) Building should be equipped with pressure tank, gasoline, or motor-driven pump and complete water sup- ply piping and fixtures. (6) Water periodically tested. 1. Drinking: a. One automatic bubbling fountain, of type preventing mouth coming in contact with bubbler, for each fifty pupils. h. Should be located in corridor with provision for easy use by small children. c. Drinking facilities should never be placed in toilet rooms. d. Individual drinking cups required where drinking foun- tains are not installed. 2. Washing: Wash bowls adapted to height of children in toilet rooms. Officials' consultation room and work rooms should have washbowls where possible. Sinks — should be located in work rooms, basement and jani- tor's (iloset. 3. "Bathing: Provision for shower baths. Individual shower stalls and ad- joining dressing stall with canvas curtain should be pro- vided for girls. Heads of showers located on angle and at sides of shower compartment. Separate valves for hot and cold water. 4. Hot and cold water should be supplied to above washing facilities. Hot water heater separate from heating plant. Soap and towels — liquid soap and paper towels should be furnished. G. — Toilet System : 1. All toilets should be placed inside of building on same floor as classrooms. Separate toilets should be provided for teachers. 2. Fixtures : 24 WiNTHROP Bulletin a. Porcelain beats of open type with individual flush. Height adapted to children. b. Boys' individual urinals of porcelain (non-absorbent and easily cleaned.) 3. Sewage disposal plant with septic tank and filtration field or chemical toilet or sewer connection. 4. Adequacy — one seat for each 25 boys or fraction thereof; one urinal for each 15 boys. One seat for each 15 girls. 5. Seclusion, sanitation, and condition: a. Seclusion — Non-communicating, soundproof wall be- tween adjoining rooms provided for the two sexes. En- trances to toilet rooms should be well screened. Stalls with light swinging doors for each seat. 6. Sanitation and condition — Light, airy rooms; sunshine de- sirable. Separate duct for ventilating purposes; exposed plumbing, non-absorbed floors and walls. All interior walls finished in moisture-proof cement painted white, capable of being washed. No demarcations or deface- ments should be permitted to remain in any toilet rooms. IV. CLASSROOMS. A. — ^Arrangement : Easy of access to exits. Minimum of congestion in passing to and from room^. B.«— Construction and Finish : 1. Size: a. ,18 square feet of floor space and 200 cubic feet of air space per pupil as minimum. b. 22x28x12 feet, seating 30 pupils. 24x32x12 feet, seating 40 pupils. 2. Rectangular — seated on the long axis. 3. Floors — Hard wood or wood overlaid with battleship lino- leum. 4. Walls and ceiling: standard^hard, smooth, non-gloss finish plaster. Picture mold and wall space for pictures, maps, and the like. 5. Doors — substantial but not heavy, 3 feet by 7 feet, opening outward. No raised thresholds across door openings 6. Closets or closed cases— At least one in each classroom pro- viding space for supplies, books, globes, etc. 7. Blackboards : a. High grade slate 4 feet wide, mounted with firm back- ing; perfectly butted and shaved joints. Height from , floor should vary with age of children. For lower grades 24 inches, upper grades 32 to 36 inches. Should run full length of front wall and opposite windows No- blackboard should be placed on window wall *. Bullptin boards— Part of space not utilized for blackboard should be usorl for cork or burlap display. In one and two-teacher schools blackboards should be installed it, two heights — 2-4 inches and 32 inches. WiNTHROP Bulletin 25 8. Color scheme — Walls light buff or light gray; ceilings white or very light cream. Woodwork and furniture to har- monize in tone in dull finish. G. — Illumination : 1. Glass area equal to 1-5 to 1-4 of floor area. 2. Window placement — Unilateral from pupils' left, banked as closely as construction will permit, extending from rear of room to within 7 feet of front wall. Sill of window should be from 3 to 4 feet from floor and top should be as near ceiling as possible. MuUions should not exceed ten inches in width. Optional. Counterbalance windows may be found desirable. 3. Shades — Double mounted at center of windcnv or adjustable. one pulling each way; light tan or straw color; in good condition and repair. D. — Cloakrooms and Wardrobes: Should provide ample space for winter wraps for full ca- pacity of classroorrjS. Rack for umbrellas. Cloakrooms should be separate from corridors and classrooms. Hooks or hangers in cloakrooms should be placed at heights to conform to the size of children expected to use the class- rooms for which cloakrooms are provided. The heights of children vary approximately as follows : , 5 year olds 39 inches to 46 inches 6 year olds 39 inches to 49 inches 7 year olds 40 inches to 52 inches 8 year olds 42 inches to 54 inches 9 year olds 45 inches to 56 inches 10 year olds , 47 inches to 59 inches 11 year olds 48 inches to 63 inches 12 year olds 50 inches to 66 inches 13 year olds 53 inches to 69 inches 14 year olds 55 inches to 71 inches 15 year olds - '- 57 inches to 72 inched 16 year olds 58 inches to 72 inches Adequate shelving should be provided in cloakrooms for children's lunch boxes. E. — Equipment : ■ 1 1. Seats and desks — Should be individual, adjustable, and ad- justed. Moveable chairs are preferable in screwed down seats. No double seats, seating two children, should he installed in any school. For children exceptionally larg:e, the front or back seat of a row should be placed to suit. In all cases pupils should be comfortably seated. Where adjustable desks only are used in one to four-teacher schools, there should be three sizes, capable of being ad- justed as to height of seat and desk. 2. Teachers' desks — Substantial, attractive, adequate to needs. 26 WiNTHROP Bulletin not mounted on platform. Preferably size 52x32 (ap- proximately) and with body raised from floor to permit of sweeping underneath. 3. Other equipment — Maps, globes, stereopticon, books, pictures, phonograph, etc. Suitable boards cut to fit tops of desks, making tables for school or community exhibits, dinners, etc. V. SPECIAL ROOMS. A. — Booms for Gener.\l Use: 1. Play room — Basement space of classroom size or greater. For buildings of three or more rooms two play rooms should be provided, one. each for boys and girls. Mova- ble furniture in classroom, when moved aside, may pro- vide play space for smaUer children. 2. Community room : a. In case of one_teacher buildings, provided in basement (space otherwise used as playroom.) Must have con- venient outside entrance. Classroom and adjoining spaces for library and manual arts may be used for com- munity purposes when movable furniture is installed. b. In case of two to four-teacher building, two classrooms may be thrown together by means of sliding or folding doors or larger space may be provided in basement with platform or stage. 3. Library — Not less than 80 square feet for one-teacher school, and increasing in size with the number of teachers and pupils. Book shelves, library tables and chairs. Well selected books. Library should be well lighted and at- tractive. Teacher control either by means of glass par- tition or screen. 4. Lunch room — In conjunction with or adjoining domestic science room. Tables, chairs, and provision for serving hot lunches or supplementing children's lunch with hot soup, cocoa, and the like. B. — School Official's Consultation Room: General purpose; room to serve as teachers' room visiting nurses' quarters, school board meetings, and private con- ferences of teachers with pupils, parents and school of- ficials. C. — Other Special Rooms: 1. Industrial arts room with benches, tools, stock rack and lockers. Teacher control from classroom 2. Household arts room— equipped for teaching cookerv and sewing. Teacher control from classroom 3. Fuel room— inside building convenient to heating apparatus Dustproof and capable of being closed off from classroom or heating room. a,=,ciuuiu 4. Fireproof ash-bin in basement if ashcans are not provided. WiNTHROP Bulletin 27 DISCUSSION OF THE SCORING Not much effort was made by the committee to decide whether a building needed this or that to which points are allotted on the score card. The general rule was to score accurately by the card. Some modifications were made on points where the standards were clearly designed for other sections of the country or where the Clemson plans were thought best adapted to the situations. If upon examination of the card and the points scored as well as the standards employed, one desires to make corrections and raise the scbring of a building it can be done from an inspec- tion of the tabulated scores. For example, if a lunch room is not thought necessary, correct where deduction has been made by add- ing the 10 points deducted. However, we are of the opinion, gen- erally speaking, that no such corrections would be permissable for the following special rooms: fuel room, househol,d arts, industrial arts, consultation and nurse's room, library, and community room. Corrections on artificial lighting should not be made in a good buildiiig for a consolidated school which is designed for a social center. Many country school buildings are of such type and kind, and are such poor buildings from the modern teaching process point of view that it would be an absurdity to place within them many of the things for which deductions are made. In such cases, improvement resolves itself into a task of thorough remodeling where it is possible; otherwise, the building should be abandoned and a new structure erected after right plans, using good mate- rial a^d workmanship. The demands upon the modern country school have radically changed because of the just contention that country children should have equal school opportunities with city children, and the cur- riculum and process of instruction are undergoing a corresponding change in order to meet these new demands. It is absolutely neces- sary to make a revision of architectural plans for our country schools. If we continue operating country schools on the small scale of one, two and three teachers, with the same process of in_ struction as in former days,, there would be no need to worry about plans for better buildings, etc., but such will not be the case, for while it is true that a pioneer teacher could conduct efficiently the learning process as was expected of him in a one-room building with a fireplace or an unjacketed stove, such is not true of the teacher trained to modern usage in school practices. Several cuts are displayed in connection with this discussion of buildings in order to exhibit some recent features of improved school architecture. Anyone who understands how the school is expected to function in the community will realize that not only is pioneer equipment in- adequate, but many of our present day plans for building and equipping country schools are not very much more adequate for the purpose. Nor can we afford to continue to place approved designs for school buildings in the hands of local trustees and place the responsibility of building in accordance with plans and specifica- tions uppn them. If an architect is needed to direct the construe- WiNTHROP Bulletin 29 tion of city school buildings, it is equally important that he should be employed by a county to supervise the construction of the buildings for the country school children of the future. There are g'ood reasons for this contention. -The first is that Clemson Col- lege plans have been carried out so poorly in many buildings built as to render ineffective some of the plans for service systems, such as adequate heating and ventilating, lighting, coloring, etc. Anoth- er reason is that the plans themselves appear to need some revis- -FIRST FLOOR. PLAN- TWO TEACHER SCHOOL ACAUe W' t'Qof ion to conform to more modern uses which are to be made of the good country school building of the future. Especially are we think- ing of large consolidated schools and of more sanitary schools. In order that the large consolidated school may measure up to the ex- pectations of its patrons, the building must be planned for the situ- ation and the services of an architect will be required to direct its construction. A visitation to smaller schools should convince any competent judge that there is great need for making improvements to secure better sanitation. Toilets are a very serious problem. In our judgment where attempts to improve conditions have been made by constructing sanitary outdoor toilets, the results were far from satisfactory. In one instance the results appeared worse than the old-fashioned privy. Boards of health should give consideration to this matter, and it is possible that the experience of North Carolina 30 WiNTHRdP BuLljn'IN would be suggestive. That state ruled that all toilets must be placed indoors. (Outdoor pit toilets being accepted in some places). The law allowed four years for the change to be made, — 25% per year. The reports given of the indoor chemical toilets are favorable. It certainly is a mistake for health ofllcials, and others interest- ed, to induce the construction of outdoor toilets by some of the plans now offei-ed the people ami assume thai toilet sanitation is an accomplished fact when it is beyond the teacher to give or have CHEMICAL TOILET (Courtesy Kaustine Co.. Inc.) given the needed attention required for making a success of such plans. Our conjecture would be that this is the reason few such toilets were found in York County schools. One solution of the toilet problem for larger country schools is the pressure tank system. Such a system can be installed so as to avoid freezing, and the sewage can be emptied into septic tanks when other safisfactory provisions can not he made. SOME RESULTS FOUND. The median score of the totals for city or town school buildings is approximately 150 points higher than that for rural schools By median score is meant that point on the scale to 1000 at which we find 50% of the buildings to he above and 50% to be below Therefore 150 points higher median must mean considerable ad- vantage in school buildings. Again, when the town building mak- ing the lowest score is compared with the country building mak- mg the highest score, it will be noted that the best country build- WiNTHROP Bulletin 31 • F, J .R.5T FXO OR- P.UA -K • First Floor Plan, Center Consolidated School ing has only 116 points more than the poorest town building; the highest town building has 513 points more credit than the lowest country building. It will be seen that city sites score higher than country sites. The standards for sites of city and country ^•ary, but an inspection of Figure 11 will show one reason for deduction on the score of coun- try school siles — they are inadequate in size. But there are other causes of discount. Many of them are totally unsuited for sphool sites and most other purposes. Some sites were covered with treee and thick undergrowth and it was evident that no modern school use was being made of the grounds. It is also true that little has been done toward school ground ijnprovement and beautiflcation. The score of both city and country buildings on the size, form and use of the sites was necessarily low; one city school building is located in a close and narrow angle formed by intersecting rail- road tracks. It is clearly apparent that county-unit adminis- tration would be a logical plan for the solution of many of these problems, so that there might be more right and fun- 3LCOND ri-OOR. PL\M Second Floor Plan, Center Consolidated School TABLE II— SCORES OF RURAL SCHOOL BUILDINGS OF YORK COUXTV SHO^^■.\ I.\ 1 SITES i 1 STRUCTURE I SERVICE syste:m 1 CLASl Name of sch'l No. A B C D Tot'l A B C Tot'l A B C D E F <; -J :ot'i 250 A 10 B 80 G Total points, possible 65 40 45 10 160 40 90 70 200 55 20 25 20 20 50 60 60 Oak Ridge 1 58 31 28 2 119 36 79 25 140 21 9 7 11 54 9 54 42 Bettiany 2 58 37 12 7 114 34 70 25 129 11 s 8 5 5 i 44 9 53 42 Massey 4 51 10 10 71 35 35 ^} 72 5 5 -> 2 14 5 43 21 Roddey 5 55 30. 15 100 37 38 4 79 3 4 5 5 17 50 35 Lowrie Wilson 6 58 39 15 9 121 38 77 28 143 20 7 12 1 1 8 11 60 8 63 46 India Hook 7 65 37 10 112 38 75 21 131 5 4 11 ■•^ 6 5 33 8 60 i9 Carhartt 7 60 27 20 10 117 40 84 25 149 7 13 5 14 15 30 84 6 58 52 Cannon Mill 8 55 33 8 10 106 25 54 4 83 5 8 7 18 3 14 55 8 50 41 Beth Shiloh 8 60 36 16 112 35 71 5 111 8 5 7 -> 5 7 34 8 54 52 Wilkerson 9 53 20 5 78 37 48 3 88 5 5 9 5 24 8 57 li Ogden 14 60 36 16 9 121 37 70 17 124 5 3 5 5 5 2 25 8 55 29 Bullocks Creek 15 48 30 12 90 30 61 5 96 5 4 5 5 19 43 31 Olive 16 42 22 10 74 35 67 5 107 7 3 5 5 2U 70 55 35 Mount'n View 17 55 38 10 103 25 43 35 103 13 6 25 8 55 57 Broad River 18 55 20 15 90 40 75 5 120 5 5 16 9 55 33 Beersheba 19 45 22 10 77 30 32 62 9 2 5 5 21 2 31 5 Sharon 20 55 20 12 87 35 81 28 141 5 12 5 9 -J 5 44 7 52 46 Filbert 21 65 38 20 7 130 30 69 31 130 5 3 5 5 5 10 33 8 58 37 Bowling Green 22 60 38 17 8 123 35 69 5 109 8 2 5 9 5 2"-' 8 56 52 Brandon 22 60 32 15 107 37 67 5 109 5 3 5 5 4 5 27 8 49 45 Laney 23 50 25 12 87 33 69 5 107 5 2 5 5 3 20 8 48 43 Dixie 24 60 38 15 113 20 28 10 58 5 5 4 14 42 10 Riverside 26 45 15 7 67 35 45 11 91 4 4 'i 12 5 44 35 Concord 27 55 33 9 97 37 36 2 75 3 2 5 2 12 4 40 42 Bethesda 29 60 38 15 113 32 52 84 5 4 5 5 5 5 29 7 41 38 Forest Hill 30 53 17 10 8 88 30 60 7 97 5 2 5 4 3 19 7 51 45 Allison Creek 31 45 20 10 ^ 77 35 72 5 112 5 3 5 5 18 8 52 50 Ebenezer 32 52 25 15 92 25 59 15 99 5 5 7 1 7 7 32 5 44 16 Philadelphia 33 55 38 27 8 128 40 69 5 114 29 8 12 1 12 30 92 9 60 56 Tirzah 35 62 38 10 5 115 40 63 16 119 5 1 5 5 2 6 24 8 58 32 Newport 36 63 37 10 110 34 47 3 84 5 9 7 1 5 5 5 30 5 46 27 Miller 37 60 25 20 5 110 33 68 3 104 5 4 5 2 5 7 28 6 47 32 Hopewell 38 58 17 10 10 95 8 64 4 76 5 3 6 1 5 5 15 40 8 54 35 Gold Hill 39 57 36 12 105 40 25 2 67 4 3 4 3 2 16 2 25 14 Hickory Grove 40 58 25 10 93 30 72 29 131 5 8 4 1 5 4 11 38 9 56 27 Santiago 41 60 25 15 3 103 35 64 10 109 19 6 5 2 10 28 70 8 55 15 Latta 42 65 27 10 102 37 38 2 77 5 3 5 3 5 21 4 45 26 East View 43 55 33 15 103 32 50 2 84 5 1 3 1 10 6 50 49 Smyrna 44 40 20 10 70 25 56 5 86 9 4 4 1 5 5 5 33 6 39 32 Friendship 45 60 35 10 105 24 25 49 7 1 5 5 5 12 35 3 45 15 Catawba 46 50 34 15 8 107 30 71 101 3 4 6 o 5 20 6 48 29 Miller 48 58 33 11 102 34 65 5 104 5 3 5 2 3 5 8 31 9 50 40 Cotton Belt 49 52 38 18 108 30 72 15 117 17 6 5 5 11 8 52 9 56 50 Mt. Holley 50 45 30 25 100 40 47 20 107 4 4 5 5 2 20 7 52 36 Outhriesville 51 54 37 12 103 21 45 3 69 8 7 10 3 7 11 46 1 40 30 Cedar Grove 52 55 20 10 85 37 70 5 112 5 6 5 5 6 27 8 63 53 Leslie 52 55 32 10 97 32 45 18 95 6 4 5 1 4 1 5 26 7 50 43 Post Oak 53 60 38 12 110 30 69 5 104 5 5 5 5 20 10 53 48 Flint Hill 55 60 38 12 10 120 40 72 5 117 6 4 5 5 5 9 34 8 56 47 Blairsville 56 53 33 10 96 27 63 5 95 9 5 5 1 5 4 29 8 53 39 Fairview 57 62 39 13 5 119 37 83 5 125 16 7 13 5 11 52 8 63 48 Hero 57 40 40 15 95 22 41 63 6 4 5 8 23 5 30 34 WlNTIIRMP IjULLETIN 33 building MEDIAN SCORE OF YORK COUNTY SCHOOL BUILDINGS CITY SCHOOLS Ma .V lfi5 Med 11.1 Site Max. 125 Med. 100.5 Special Rooms Max. Med. 140 19 RURAL SCHOOLS Site l\!ax. Med. 160 10.? Special Rooms Max. 165 Med. 8 Bui ^ y Class Rooms Max. 290 Med. 201 Max, Med. 200 104 Max. 225 iled. 127.5 Shaded area represents the Median Score FIG. I 34 WiNTHROP Bulletin damental planning. It is also self-evident that improper planning and failure to make right and adequate provisions for the school plant must necessarily counteract the process of education. The school plant should merit the respect of the pupils and factor as an inspiration to better and more efficient living. i 5 n 1 W\y^ Km _nJ ^^ FIG. II SHOWING SIZE OF SCHOOL SITES OF SIXTY WHITE SCHOOLS OF YORK COUNTY COMPARED WITH 4 ACRE MINIMUM STANDARD Both town and country buildings scored very low on sefvice sy.s- tems and special rooms. Study Figure I. Improvements made under these two heads would raise many buildings above a score of 500. It is doubtful if a building should be used for school which will not score as much as 500; when the score of a building is about that point it is time to consider abandoning or remodeling or re- pairing. A higher standard or rule has been applied to teachers for a long time, that is. teachers in this state who cannot make a general average on examination of 60 per bent, and not less than 40 per cent, on any one branch are not granted a THIRD grade certifi- cate, hence are not allowed to teach. Transpose these requirements to scores for school buildings and it would read that no building should be used for school purposes which scores in total less than 600 and which falls below 40 per cent, under any one of the five general headings. The range of efficiency established for the buildings of York's country, schools by the scorings is from 21.1% to 53.8%, that for the city and town schools is from 42.2__ to 72.4%. Anybody who be lieves that the present service systems of these country schools are good enough, that is, that adequate provisions are made for heat- ing and ventilation, flre protection, cleaning system, artificial light- (A type of modern school architecture having many" desirable features of the large consolidated school.) FIRST FLOOR PLAN— Entering Loggia, Principal's office on right and Teacher's Room on left; proce^ing across lobby to auditorium 54' 2' x 63' 0', on either side of which are courts 60' 0' x 74' 8' ; from the stage dressing rooms there is easy access to the inner courts, to the outside and to clois- ters, giving access to Domestic Science room and girls' toilet, "on the oppo- site side to Manual Training room and boys' toilet; corridors. (10' 2" wide) afford passage around the auditorium and courts and give access to twelve class-rooms which are located on the outer side of the building; besides the main front entrance, there is one at each end and two at the rear. WiNTHROP Bulletin .'^5 f^r-- 36 WiNTHROP Bulletin ing, schedule and emergency equipment, water supply system, and toilet system, can make corrections and raise the total average score about 166 points; also, if there is no need for such rooms as play roonj, community room, library, lunch room, officials' consul- tation room, industrial art room, household arts room, and fuel room, the total average score can be raised about 102 points. Thus might the average score for all the rural buildings be raised to 642 or 64.2%. It will be readily granted that a few of the provisions enumerated are not serious cause for deduction from every build- ing, but will any competent judge, after a study of standards, admit of a higher correction than 90 points for the average country school building under the two named heads? It is not likely, and such a correction would only raise the total average of the rural build- ings from 374 to 464 points, less than 50% efficiency when com- pared to standard. By a somewhat similar process of reasoning, one may eliminate some of the things on which the city school buildings were scored ZERO, thereby raising the average score. It is not probable, how- ever, that anyone would so correct as to gain more than 60 to 90 points, or to raise the general average of city and town buildings to 'something like 55 to 60% efficiency. It will be noted that the only building score in the county which has above 72% efficiency is Rock Hill High School, and by com- parison with that building one may understand the deficiencies of some of the other buildings. It may be useful to list here the items on which that building was scored zero : fans and motors, special provisions for heating and ventilation, fire apparatus, clock, bathing, elevator, book-lifts, waste-chutes, play-room, study hall, library, gymnasium, swimming pool, lunch room, teachers' room, nurse's room, lecture room, store room, and studios. The total deductions for the above zero scores are 143 points. Under all other heads the scorer endeavored to give a reasonable and full credit. Considering the 143 points deducted, the scorer would not add more than 65 points to the score of this building by eliminat- ing from the above list things not thought necessary to this high school. In other words this building is viewed as beiijg 75% effi- cient for its present occupants. Its most striking defects are the lack of library, reading room, and laboratory. The auditorium is nice and capacious, — seating about 800, but the stage is small and the arrangements so poor as to greatly limit the uses of the audi- torium. In other words, poor returns can be had from the audi- torium in comparison with what might have been had by differ- ent stage arrangements. However, it is very manifest that the deficiencies of this building are due to the amount invested in it. It is an exceptional building for what it cost. Plans can be readily devised to have it merit a much higher score, but when this im- provement is undertaken the future high school needs of Riock Hill should receive very careful consideration and provisions should be made for a much larger enrollment. The criticism of this building is made more in detail to caution school authorities against the assumption that the tabulated scor- WiNTiiROP Bulletin -yj ings are far too rigid because uf tlie scoring of a few items at zero wliicli may be regarded by tliem as non-essential. The original score cards are preserved to enable any school ofTicials to make ex- aminations if the tabulated scores are not suiliciently explicit. SOME GENERAL FACTS. Mention should be made of (he fact that these score cards are especially valuable in checking over blue-prints of new buildings. The per capita white enrollment invested in grounds and build- ings in the county supervised schools of York in 1919-1920 was about $40.47; for the three special districts it was $110.04. The per capita invested in furniture and apparatus per enrollment for the same year was about $4..30 in county supervised schools and $5.07 in special districts. MOVABLE DESK CHAIR (Courtesy Empire Seating Co.) There \\\\\ doubtless be suim.' who will examine the staiirlards by which these school buildings haxc l.uM'n scoriTl and who will feel disposed to conclude that they are Ifrirrnh/ xhoiilanls — or fno far removed in cost and ijuality for the school cliildren of York County. To such indi\"iduals. this proposition is subrnilfed. Before reaching su(di a definite conclusion make an inspecticn of the splendid Court House of the counly erected for the administration of the county's business and in particular for the (rial of criminals, then answer the question, why shouhi llii^ imilding standards for the school 38 WiNTHROP Bulletin children of the county be lower than are those emplcJyed where criminals are tried, et«.? The Court House is what it should be, and if we were scoring court houses we would probably score this one 950 out of 1000 point score card; but if there should be high building standards for comfort and efficiency in court houses and jails, certainly there is every reason to provide equally well in building for education, and it is but good economy in the end. TABLE III. SUMMARY OF TOTAL SCORES FOR RURAL BUILDINGS O < u O OS d2 I H u is eg .J < S l^m ^Q ifi m ^<^ urt t/ipi H Tot'l Points Pos'ble 160 200 250 225 165 1000 Oak Ridge 1 119 140 54 153 72 538 Bethany 2 114 129 44 142 429 Massey 4 71 72 14 85 242 Roddey 5 100 79 17 125 321 Lowrie Wilson 6 121 143 60 159 37 520 India Hook 7 112 134 33 166 20 465 Carhart 7 117 149 84 156 20 526 Cannon Mill 8 106 83 55 138 382 Beth Shiloh 8 112 111 34 132 15 404 Wilkerson 9 78 88 24 97 287 Ogden 14 121 124 25 124 394 Bullock's Creek 15 90 96 19 112 12 329 Olive 16 74 107 20 129 330 Mountain View 17 103 103 25 139 20 390 Broad River 18 90 120 16 132 20 378 Beersheba 19 77 62 21 51 211 Sharon 20 87 144 44 133 35 443 Filbert 21 130 130 33 144 437 Bowling Green 22 123 109 22 147 8 409 Brandon 22 107 109 27 135 10 388 Laney 23 87 107 20 136 7 357 Dixie 24 113 28 14 80 265 Riverside 26 67 91 12 112 282 Concord 27 97 75 12 111 295 Bethesda 29 • 113 84 29 111 10 347 Forest Hill 30 88 97 19 128 332 Allison Creek 31 77 112 18 129 ■8 344 Ebenezer 32 92- 99 32 83 26 332 Tirzah 35 115 119 24 130 388 Philadelphia 33 128 114 92 177 23 534 Newport 36 110 84 30 100 324 Miller 37 110 104 28 115 8 265 WiNTHROP Bulletin TABLE III.— Continued 39 d H H U «. ga > H Hi n w !» mm < S H Tot'l P't's Pos'ble 160 200 250 225 165 1000 Hopewell ■ 38 95 76 40 127 20 358 Gold Hill 39 105 67 16 54 18 260 Hickory Grove 40 93 131 38 117 25 404 Santiago 41 103 109 70 114 11 407 Latta 42 102 77 31 106 306 East View 43 103 84 10 130 10 337 Smyrna 44 70 86 33 102 15 306 Friendship 45 105 49 35 89 5 283 Catawba 46 107 101 20 104 10 342 Miller 48 102 . 104 31 132 369 Cotton Belt 49 108 117 52 153 430 Mt. Holley 50 100 107 20 123 12 362 Guthriesville 51 103 69 46 98 15 331 Cedar Grove 52 85 112 27 153 10 387 Leslie 52 97 95 26 113 10 341 Post Oak 53 110 104 20 151 285 Flint Hill 55 120 117 34 141 412 Blairsville 56 96 95 29 126 12 358 Fairview ■57 119 125 52 157 453 Hero 57 95 63 23 82 8 271 Hypo. Med. 103 104 27.5 127.5 8 358.5 Lowest Score 67 49 10 51 211 Highest score 130 149 92 177 72 538 Average Score 103.1 103.5 33.7 126.4 11 374 40 WiNTHROP Bulletin ■CO o l-H O ►4 ■w ►J o o a u l-H >H M H J U n < (« H O W O u in Q < H W Q lO OJ rl- ^ ? s; 'S- O 00 O O c^ O O i-" On ON OS CN] ^ ^ o o o a NO On lO u-j CM o (M og O o "^ "* n O] O -f <'0 >o in t^ "1 \n -t c*:i CM O 00 ■= :s o o^ ;s; ■ = " 31 • cot/3 m S K Cfi < rtc/3 COH Possible Scores 125 165 280 290 140 1000 Clover 37 109 124 35 190 468 Fort Mill 28 95 115 109 191 48 558 Rock Hill Schools 12 High School 111 152 188 248 25 724 Central School 106 132 176 205 33 652 Highland Park 92 72 61 197 422 Aragdn — Blue Buckle 49 108 96 216 13 482 Arcade- Victoria 95 77 60 191 423 York 11 108 111 90 209 25 543 Hypothethical Median 100.5 113 93 201 19 512.5 Lowest Score 49 72 35 190 422 Highest score 111 152 188 248 48 724 Average score 95.6 111.4 102 205.8 18 534 WiNTHROP Bulletin 43 CHAPTER V. THE FINANCIAL SUPPORT OF EDUCATION TAX RETURNS AND COLLECTIONS. School revenues in York County are practically all derived from taxation. The County Auditor, to whom assessment returns are made, prepares the levy sheet; the County Treasurer puts the levies on the books and collects all school taxes levied in the county. The returns of property by owners for taxation are reviewed by township boards. It is the duty of these boards to- raise or lower tax returns so as to equalize them. Personal property returns are examined annually, but real property is reviewed every four years, the next year for such revision being 1922. The affidavit of taxpayer when returning property certifies that property is returned at a true valuation, but citizens and tax authorities seek to make a comparative valuation rather than a true valuation. This is true as between the property of townships within the county, and as between the counties of the State. The State Tax commission, which has been working to equalize assessments, dealt first with the property of corporations and some special properties with the aim of placing it on a 42% basis of its true valuation. It is claimed that this work has been fairly well accomplished so that a beginning of equalization has been made, but land and town or city property has not as yet been equalized on a percentage of true value basis. TABLE VI. The assessed valuation by townships of York in 1919 was: .TOWNSHIP ASS'MT MLS. ROAD ACRES SQ.MLS *LEVY Bethel $ 489,535 100.10 45,996.8 71.87 27 Bethesda 892,585 107.9 59,660.8 93.22 27 Broad River_- 668,696 72.51 39,475.2 61.68 36.5 Bullock's Crk__ .551,870 103.35 57,401.6 89.69 27 Catawba 3,579,103 84.5 55,155.2 86.18 29.5 Ebenezer 1,668,698 71.5 39,104 61.10 28.25 Fort Mill 1,106,723 60.22 35,910.4 56.11 27 King's Mtn.._. 1,205,349 101 57,331.2 89.58 32 York 1,642,338 97.4 - 49,932.8 78.02 29.75 Total $11,804,897 798.48 439,968.0 687.45 av.29% * General and Township Levy, in mills. Exclusive of Special School and Municipal Tax (1920). In the item of land, this assessment represents an average valua- tion of $-7.91 an acre. There is not much land in the county which U, 2 2 3 55 Cm O U tj S o 3 o o •-n < z o u 2 -iJ Cl 6 2:2 < -■ WiNTHEOP Bulletin 45 could be bought for less than $30.00 per acre, and it is doubtful 1 f a marketable valuation of the land of the county would be below $65.00 per acre. Assuming the above statement to be approxi- mately true, a true valuation of the taxable property of the county would be several times what it is, and 42% of the true valuation would give several millions greater returns in the county. HIGH RATES, LOW ASSESSMENTS, POOR EQUALIZATION. At present in South Carolina the rate of taxation is being run up and assessments kept down. Unquestionably, the business-like step is to first equalize assessment of property at true value. This step was taken in North Carolina, with the result that more money is obtained by (he state for education from 13 cents on the $100 (es- timated' to produce $5,000,000), than was formerly obtained from 32 cents on the $100. In that state, schools are maintained by the state for about o-ne-third (three months) of the session, the county maintains the building and pays the teachers' salaries for the next three months, and local tax is the source of maintenance for the term beyond six months. A recent report of the joint legislative committee on taxation dis- closes the antiquated state of the tax system' of South Carolina. That (Committee, after a careful study of the facts, reports that the re\enues, raised largely by a general property tax, are exceedingly small in comparison with the proportionate state and local expen- ditures by the average state in the union. The report finds that there is a gross undervaluation of property, real, personal, and in- tangible. Also that great inequality results from the diflferent val- ues at which the same class of property is returned in different counties; and that the small property owner is paying larger taxes proportionately than the larger owner. This report pronounces the tax system of the state a failure, and that it "places the taxpayer in the position of circumventing the law and is subversive of habits of good citizenship and of public morals; it has been producti^•e of gross iniquity and consistent in justice in the incidence of the tax burden upon the citizens of the state," and that it has led to exorbitantly high tax rates. The re- port points out the necessity of making some constitutional amend- ments before a satisfactory tax system can be made, such as a re- moval of the constitutional provisions requiring taxation of all property at a uniform rate which makes a general in- come tax inexpedient. Many constructive recommendations are made in the report, and it probably means the inauguration of some long needed changes. SOURCES OF SCHOOL MONEY. The sources of school revenue in South Carolina are : receipts from poll tax, dog tax, 3 mill tax (apportioned in county collected per enrollment), and special tax levies; local taxes are supple- mented by state. aid under the heads: high school, term extension, libraries and improvement prizes, building, adult schools, and the teaching of special or vocational subjects; the county makes a small appropriation for libraries, buildings, and from a county 46 WiNTHROP Bulletin board fund. This scheme of procuring revenues is not simple, and it is probable that local school boards find difficulty in understand- ing the plan of administration. A study of the special tax graphs for York County schools (Fig- ures III and IV) discloses how the people are voting extra levies to provide schooling for their children. The average special tax levy for York County tvas doubled during the summer of 1920 by raising it from 4.8 mills (48 cents on the hundred.) to 9.5 mills (95 cents on the hundred). \l\ J _rL ^_n_r Lr^ ijir li n ji !■( J* *i 11 11 w >; H-ii >» Ji •*•"*' • i w DM CG S> or d3 Ocn Tin O ^D o t"" JS o H^ O W Sh ^■^ S hH ►=- H ►^ " C/1 goo I a >n OM Sot ^ W SO Is WW >> W X w r n • 48 WiNTHROP Bulletin •1- ' 47. FIG. V Figure showing the percent of School Revenues of York County (1919-1920) derived from th ; severa sources of receipts Special tax = 48.9 County Board State aid = 14.9 Fund = 1. 3 Mill zr 23. Dog tax = 1.2 Poll tax ^ 4.6 All other sources = 6. Base of Funds z = $156309.89 An inspection of total revenues of York County for July 1, 1919, to July 1, 1920, Figure VI, shows that 27.7% was spent for educa- tion. The school money of the three special districts is not includ- ed in the preparation of this figure, since these are town or city schools and such comparison would necessarily have included other city expenditures to make the comparison fair. In seeking to be fair, the expenditures for salary and maintenance of the County Superintendent's oflTice were taken from the Ordinary County Fund and charged to education. It will be noted that about 34.7% of the total receipts was for roads and bridges, and quite a large part of that expenditure, was in King's Mountain township, where bonds have been issued to build better roads. The funds for all county purposes appear to be low, but the amount spent for education is especially low, and the per cent, of the budget allotted to education is low. Education is entitled to approximately 40% of the county's total revenues. In 1916 the city schools of Rockford, 111., were receiving $1.97 of every $5.33 that the city raised by taxation, which is approximately 37%. The WiNTHROP Bulletin 49 avei-age of 213 cities sliows 30.8% for education. Education should have a larger percentage of the financial budget of York. It should be noted that the amount of the per cent, does not supply the school funds needed, if the entire budget is small. The three mill constitutional levy in 1919-1920 was the source of about 23% of the maintenance funds for education in all the schools of the county. This is 8.1% more than the total per cent, received from the state, or 1.54 times the stale appropriation to this county. An average of Stale appropriations fur the school years 1916- 1917. 1917-1918. and 1918-1919 to York County schools totals $12,159.6-4, and the rank of the county among the other counties FIG. \'I Figure ■ showing receipts by Treasiirer's books, July 1, 1919-July' 1, 1920, for county expenditures. Special districts are omitted from tlie' educational fund. . ■■ ■ . Oixiinary County Funds .'. ,. .;...:.' '. :..: = ' 3L4'/c = $-i38.051 County Roads ..,; :...', .....„'. ^ 13. Sale of King's Mountain Townsh.ip Bonds ; :.).< =: ■ ■ 13;S-. ■''■' Original Assessnjent Kgs. Mt. T,, P. Bds i,,...; ,. =^ .,8:i: '..■.' Original Assessment S. F. Kgs. Mt. T. P. Bds. .,. = .5 ■•. ■ , Broad River Bridge ^ 2.1 Original Assessment Upper Catawba Bridge ...., ,....-... = 1.3 Lower Catawba Bridge ....'. = 3.2 S. F. Court House ^. = 1.8 Irit. for R. R. Bonds .-. '. = 2.7' S. F.. R. R; Bonds :•...::. :': ; = T.2 ■ ' Education .-. [.:...:. :. :..; :> = ' 27.7 ■=$122,169' Base;, of Funds. .,., ; .;:.'. , , ;. = ■ ; • ,■ .• $439,545 VVlNTlJROl- Hui.r.liTIN IM J 1 - I o' a 6' FIG. VII Unequal School Term for White Children of York County in 1920. Sixty- six Schools. receiving state aid is 13. The appropriations were made under term extension, $2,464.33 (three year average) , rank 5; consolidated and graded schools, $4,866.67, rank 16; high schools, $1,597.00, rank 23; public school buildings, $466.67, rank 24; equalizing fund for needy schools, $768.33, rank 17; public school library and improvement prizes, $72.33, rank 21; night schools, $496.27, rank 4; agricultural instruction, $157,50, rank 18. The total sum of the individual averages varies from the average of the total amount received because of a variation in the manner of tabula- tion in the reports so as to include other classifications of State aid. The amounts appropriated are so small and the method of distribution is such that little has resulted in the equalization of school opportunities within the county. PERMISSIVE TAX LAWS. The general school law permits a school district to levy a local special school tax of $1.50 per hundred 'of assessed valua- tion for current expenses and 40 cents per hundred high school tax. The general school law provides for the issuance of bonds WiNTHROP Bulletin ni Ln TtJ [f IKf ll tJ r u FIG. VIII Figure showing variation of pupil costs per day in cents. k«i»i a»?. .(111. dii)„.ti' ^..>c»».^ rap t«a.tV.v.y iPurrMi FIG. IX Figure showing the amount of assessed valuation of property for the districts of York County, and the unequal amountsper the teachers employed in 1919-1920 Lowest assessed valuation per teacher = $8923. There are 3 such teacher situations. Highest assessed valuation per teacher ^ $86439.There are 7 such teacher situations. Median assessed valuation per teacher =: $36626.50. Median assessed valuation per district — $31071 (Per teacher) Average assessed valuation of land in county =z $7.91 per acre. 52 WiNTHROP Bulletin not to exceed 4% of the assessed valuation. Rock Hill levied in 1920 19 mills special, 4 mills for interest on bonds, and 3 mills for sinking fund for bonds— a total of 22 mills special school tax. When we compare our taxation laws for education m bouth Carolina with those of some other states, we find that the permis- sive rate per hundred, or number of mills, shows up very credita- bly, but the real bottom falls out by reason of the difference m the per cent, of assessed valuation. There certainly has been no wave of advance in tax returns comparable with what has occurr- ed in market values. If local initiative be relied upon to correct this fundamental defect, it will never come, since local initiative which favors an equalization of tax assessments considers it to be a state-wide proposition so long as there is a state levy. ■ , SOME VITAL INEQUALITIES. In giving consideration to the problems of equalizing school opportunities as between strong and weak districts, country and town districts. Figure ,VII presents the inequality of days of school offered white children in York. Note that 16.2% of the ; children had only 120 days or less; over 25% of them were offered ■ 140 days or less, over 43%, or the children of wealthier districts, ; as assessments now stand, were given from 160 to 180 days of schooling under|better conditions. TABLE VII. Assessed valuation Frequency' Frequency Frequency of property in of of of dollars. districts Teachers Pupils Per Teacher employed. Taught. 1,000—10,000 1 3 •94 10,000—20,000 7 31 1307 20,000 30,000 18 58 2972 30,000 40,000 14 83 4410 40,000-50,000 8 39 1848 50.000 60,000 2 59 3967 60,000—70,000 1 4 296 70,000—80,000 1 7 378 80,000—90,000 3 10 681 Total 55 294 15953 Frequency is a technical word used in distributions, and means the number found in that class or under that heading. Both races. A study of Figures VIII and IX, Tables VII and VIII, revealjthe inequalities ftom other angles. 53 teachers in. the countv have back of them from $8,923 to $24,547 assessed valuation of properly; 131 teachers have from $24,547 to $41,674; and 110 teachers have from $41,674 to $86,439 behind them. Can good schools be main- tained when one-half of the teachers of the county each have less WiNTHROP Bulletin 53v than $36,626.50 of taxable property from which the major part of their support must be derived, or when onfe-half of the school districts each have an assessed valuation of less than $31,071.00 per teacher? Again, we may well ask what difference does it make in providing funds for schools if the rate of taxation ranges from 30 mills ($3.00 per hundred) to 76.5 mills ($7.65 per hun- dred), if the average assessed valuation of the 439,968 acres of land be only $7.91 per acre, and much other property is equally low? It is very likely that many taxpayers imagine themselves to be paying high taxes because the rate is high, and it is proba- TABLE VIII Assessed Valuation of property per pupil in York County 1919-1920 both races. Property Frequency Pupils Districts. Valuation of both Per pupil. Districts Races. 8, 39, $100.-150. 2~ 329 0. 150.— 200. 6. 200.— 250. 1 ' 34 9. 250.-300. 1 91 43, 56. 300.-350. 2 491 24, 30, 31. 350.— 400. 3 570 13, 22, 38, 51. 400.^450. 4 1173 14, 15, 18, 21, 29, 35, 41, 49. 450.-500. 8 1961 2, 17, 19, 23, 33, 42, 45, 57. 500.-550. 8 1375 1, 4, 34, 40, 50. 550.— 600 5 1159 47, 54. 600.— 650. 2 171 5, 16, 44. 650.-700. 3 414 36. 700.-750. 1 152 27. 750.— 800. 1 62 0. 800.-850. 12, 28, 32, 46. 850.-900. 4 4928 20, 37, 52. 900.-950. 3 1387 26. 950.-1000. 1 104 48. 1000.-1050. 1 90 10, 11. • 1050.-1100. 2 836 0, 1100.-1150. 55, 1150.-1200. 1 119 53. 1200.-1250. 1 52 _T^ 1250.-1300. 1 454 55 Districts Totals 55 15952 Median assessed valuation per district for each pupil $540.62 Lowest assessed valuation per district for each pupil 100.55 Highest assessed valuation per district for each pupil 1291.00 Upper 25 per cent lies about 856.25 Number of pupils involved below median step are about __. 5,706 Number of pupils involved above median step are about --10,246 Total 15952 54 WiNTHROP Bulletin bly true that other properties less tangible than land, houses and lots are escaping ^ith as \o-w or no valuation at all, Note the property valuations back of each pupil as shown in Table VIII. It is very proper to ask what tax is now paid by professional people, salaried and wage classes who make no returns other than polls, street or road, and a little personal property? One who farms and makes 20 bales of cotton on his land must pay several times the tax that one pays who is paid $1200. for work. Such a condi- tion seems to attach a penalty to ownership and independent op- eration. If we take the median assessed valuation per district ($31,071.00 per teacher) and levy on that property the. total tax permitted for current maintenance — 15 mills — it it would raise only $466.07.Suoh a district will be entitled to its tax of $1.25 per head on dogs, $1.00 per capita polls, its percentage apportioned per enrollment of the 3 mill tax, and will probably draw from the State under the term equarlization act, rural graded school act, etc., but after reckon- ing ajl sources of receipts one will find it difficult to discover suffi- cient revenues to pay a competent teacher's salary, and the amount obtained will be far short of providing a good school plant and its upkeep. In 1915, York spent $17.48 per capita white enrollment and $1.22 per capita negro enrollment, and in 1919, $15.19 per cap- ita white and $1.67 per capita negro; the average for the State was 1915, white, $16.22, colored $1.^3; 1919, white. $20.43, col- ored, $2.31. In the comparison of these years, York fell behind the State average of expenditures for whites, and expenditures for negroes remained below the state average. BETTER SUPPORT OF TOWN SCHOOLS. The following data show the averages for a five-vear period for York County for the'years 1915, 1916, 1917, 1918 and 1920. DAYS SCHOOLING 5 year average days of school For 1\915 For 1920' Town 167.4 170. 161 White Country 135 140 134 Town 114.2 117 111 egro Country 74.4 70 79 SALARIES PAID TEACHERS 5 year average annual salary paid teachers For 1915 For "51920 Men $668.03 584.00 883.00 Women $338.65 384.65 522.00 Men $141.83 11«.00 200.00 Women $ 92.51 70.00 1 44:00 The above tabulations bring out the contrast between the strong and weak schools financially, as the average terms for town and country disclose it. The low salaries of teachers and the small in- crease are shown by the second tabulation. The teaching force of white sbhools of 1915 compared with 1920 is as follows: WiNTHROP Bulletin 55 MEN WOMEN •a l^ u bO M) bo < ■o ■3 H •■Ti CO o 1915 1920 21 30 23 C-i to be ■ < -o ? 1 th C-I CO 109 18 1 128 127 27 10 164 The average salary increase of men teachers for 1920 over 1915 was about 66%; for women, about 73%. There were 7 less men teachers in 1920 and there were 36 more women. There were 29 more white teachers employed in 1920 than in 1915, and the white enrollment increased from 5,497 to 7,397, a gain of 1,960, or about 34%. It appears that the teachers of York were just about enti- tled to their salary increase on a basis of increased enrollment, re- gardless of the increased cost of living. If we may judge teachers by the grade of certificate held, the certificate rank of the men em- ployed in 1920 was higher than that in 1915, while the opposite is true of the body of women teachers. There were two teachers holding third grade certificates who taught in the city or special district schools in 1920. the remaining ones, holding lower than first grade certidcates, taught in the county _supervised schools. Another fact which indicates greater city school progress than country school progress in York County is the greater investments being made in school buildings. In Ihe three special district schools, Fort Mill has completed quite a large addition to its school building; York has been making considerable repairs on its pres- ent building and is planning a bond issue for the erection of an elementary school building to cost about $125,000; Rock Hill has six buildings with estimated value of $239,000 and will soon let the contract for another $75,000 elementary school; a building for the negroes of Rock Hill was recently completed at a cost of $45,000. In the county-supervised schools three buildings were erected in 1915 at a total cost of $6,150.00, six in 1916, at a total cost of $7,100.00, two in 1917 at a total cost of $2,500.00, two in . 1918 at a total cost of $3,500.00, one in 1919 at a total cost of $1,452.00; none in 1920. The total invested in new school build- ings in county-supervised schools since 1914 is $20,700.50. The bonded indebtedness in those schools, issued since 1914, is only $1,600.00 (in District No. 1). Other county-supervised districts ha.ving outstanding bonds are districts 20, 21, 37. and 40 — the total amount being $22,250.00, issued from 1910 to 1912. It is true that the county has been conducting its business very largely on a cash basis and county-supervised schools have a very small bonded indebtedness. EXPENDITURES FOR WHITE CHILDREN. The best way to get an understanding of the expenditures for education in the county-supervised schools of York is to study Table IX. TABLE IX. Average cost whites per day's schooling in 54 count.y-supervised schools of York for six years 1915-1920, and the costs per day's school- ing for 1920. Obtained from total expenditures divided by days of school multiplied by average attendance. ;] "^ aua g S w w " W en Q y i 2g |s 4 2 ■< ShZ g gg Is El ^s „ gg ^ ^g - 5g ^g s|g H «S 5^ z< J g < 33 S 3S M <3 SS ^ "< ;;^f->. »< ^o- P» 61 «'0 S og 5 oJ gig S<>: Q X Hi/-' fc<; fa^ a OPQ >-i Hh o hS iJn.l.KTlX 59 cost in tho. county schools is 30.8% greater tlian the cost in Rock Hill; and tlie cost in 13 (it tlie counly schools is 51%- greater. The average per pupil cost in the seNcn lnwn sclumls see census; ot ttie county is \().2% less than the iiieiliaii ccjst lor Ihr 51 districts; an,i the average cusl in the seven town schddls .l.")8 is I'l'/r greater than tho cost in Unci; Hill. Therefui'e. the ciiuntr\ scIkmiIs pa\ niui'h' more for elenicnlary education tlian does Rock Hill or the seven small towns of the counly, and they do not maki> as good pi'ovis- ions for their schools. It is also a striking tact that 13 (d' tin; county-super\)sed districts paid less than the median cost of the six year average for the session of 1920; in other words, nn higher costs of educatioa reached these schools in the peiiod of greatly advanced prices. In the comparisons abov(\ the fact that the county-sufiervised schools have a small high school enrollment included is a negligi- ble factor, and does not render the comparisons unfair. EN ROUTE TO SCHOOL ^^'ayne ( ilotor-Driven). ii children, not counting Jri\er and teacher. 6o WiNTHROP Bulletin CHAPTER VI. A PROGRAM OF CONSOLIDATION I'rograms of development which have been planned with vie^v to what should take place in the future are indispensable to right growth in a county's system of schools. Without such a program the school cannot be expected to reach the highest degree of ef- liciency nor will it be possible to prevent many unwise expendi- tures.. The thing of prime importance in good school administra- tion is to map out the best course and policy for the improvement of the schools, otherwise what ought to be done will not be done because so many things have been done contrary to what should be and at no little expense. It is, therefore, proposed to discuss in this chapter a scheme of consolidation for the schools of York County which it is thought would greatly facilitate their development into schools which can offer far better educational advantages to country children. In arranging this scheme of consolidation three important things have been kept in mind: (1) to provide a sufficient number of children for the profitable and economical operation of a school, (2) to provide a taxable area which would involve sufTioient prop- erty to maintain the school, and (3) to select what appears to be the most natural and feasible point of location for the school. If this presentation shall result in provoking thought upon the part of the people in the areas involved so that they may study and determine what kind of school can be operated by the proposed plan, and if it costs more, whether or not it will pay to have the jiroposed school and to pay the difference in costs to secure addi- tional and superior service then the purpose of the program will have been realized. LARiGER TERRITORIAL UMTS. It is perfectly clear from presentations made elsewhere in this study that our small districts cannot establish and maintain schools which give the children of the district anything like equal oppor- tunities with town and city children, therefore, this program con- siders education from that point of view and seeks the realization of that worthy aim by adequate consolidation and transportation. TJie scheme of consolidation may be seen by a study of Map I .1^^^ shows the present location of the school's of the countv and 01 Map 11 which presents a plan of forming larger territorialunits. A few schools have been left out of the program because there are some instance^ where transportation would prove too great an un- dertaking in the beginning. The disposition of such schools can be made after experience is gained. Consolidation to the point recommended would be a signal achievement W'lNrllRdP IJn.LETIX 6i, CATAWBA T(JWNSHIP USED FOR ILLUi^TRATION. One of the most feasible propositions in Yorlv Cuuntv would bd to bring all the children of Catawba Townslnii to one point— prob- ably A'eeley's Creek Churcli. The area of this district would bo about 82.60 square miles. The point suggested is of considerable common interest; the roads of the township can be put into condi- tion for the purpose without very great expense; according td past school enrollment' there would be about 400 children and witliout doubt good high school facilities would cause an increase to 450. At the present rate of assessments the area thus consolidated would have an assessed vahiation n[ aboul $923,869. The white scliools included made expenditures during the year 1920 of $8,164.06. Ten ti'achers were employed. The special taxes levied that year were: No. 5, 2 mills; No. 4.5, 8; No. 46, 4; No. 50. 4; No. 52. 4. About 45% of the total expenditures for the school year ending in 1920 came from the special tax levy, which would be approximately $3,700.00: about $4,46'i.00 of the 1920 expenditures were derived from other sources. Had the special tax levy been 15 mills or had the as- sessed valuation been raised to make the ei|uivalent. about $13.- 850.00 could have been secured from that source and the total reve- nue would have been about $18,300.00. This amount would suf- fice to employ a principal at a salary of. $2,400.00 and 14 teachers at an averaa:' salary of $1,000.00, and leave a balance of $1,900.00 for operating expenses. W.V'lNK iniHSi; UHAWlX SCMIIDI. CAI! 62 WiNTiiRop Bulletin Again the presfnt plan ul' giving staff aid would enable such a school to secure quite a large sum from the state under the several plans of state aid, and such a school could soon qualify for aid un- der the Smith-Hughes act. If we assume that all of the children except 250 could walk to this point atiout as coiiveuientiv as they now do to tiieir present schools, there would be a proposilion of transporting in autobusses and school wagons 250 children. The number of children to be trans- ported can be accurately determined beforehand, and it may also be determined a.* to how many motor trucks and how many horse hacks would be required. Dei)reciation of the transportation equi|)ment must be ligured as cost. WAYNE AUTO BUS BODY Oldsmobile Truck Chassis THE COSTS. The following costs are given for transporting 285 children to the Jackson School in Randolph County. Indiana, where the term was eight months and 12 horse hacks were used: Depreciation anil repairs on hacks at 10% $ 60.00 Drivers' wages 724.00 Interest on in\eslment — 0% on -$4,800.00 36.00 Total cost per monlh S820.00 Total cost per day 41.00 Cost per child per day .144 WiNTHROP Bulletin 63 The larger consolidated districts in the states of the Middle West range from 36 to 46 square miles. The cost of transporting 210 pupils at the Jackson Township School in Preble County, Ohio, where four autobusses and one horse hack are used, amounted to $1087.00 per month or .259 cents per child per day. Some of the districts in Colorado are very large. The Sargent school of that state enrolled 397 (50 in high school) transported 390 at a per pupil cost of .208, maintained 10 motor truck routes of an average distance of 14 miles, the district had an assessed valu- ation of 13.749,130, and a levy or 7.5 mills. The Center School of the same state enrolled 409; (63 in high school) transported 184 at daily per pupil cost of .301, maintained six motor truck routes with average distance of 18 miles — farthest 22; area of distriot is 153 square miles, assessed valuation $3,119,000, and the levy 8.5 mills. A school budget of this school was $28,000, and about 22% of it was spent for transportation. The building was erected by bond issue and cost $112,000. The building was dedicated March. 1920, and it is located in a town of 800 people. Just what would be the cost of transporting 200 to 250 pupils in Catawba township can not be accurately determined until it is tried out. We feel safe in estimating that transportation can be arranged cheaper than what many consolidated schools are paying. The cost for eight months at, 20c would be $6,400.00 for 200 and $8,000.00 for 250 pupils. Such a school as proposed can probably secure state aid suflicient to increase its current maintenance fund to $20,000.00 which would require only $1,700.00 from the state, were 15 mills special tax levied. Besides, the law permits 4 mills high school tax, which would yield $3,695.00, if it proved necessary to levy it. Possibly $6,000.00 would be required to transport the pupils; il' so $14,000.00 would remain for other operating expenses. It doys seem reasonable, however, to believe that 20% of such a budget could be made to pay the expense of transportation. It must be remembered also that there are many ways of reducing costs, sucli as using high school boys for drivers, having some teachers to board out on the routes and come in by motor truck; having a motor truck to make a long haul and a short one, etc. An account in The State, February 5, 1919, of a comprehensive report on the results of the consolidation of rural schools in South Carolina by the State Supervisor of Rural Schools, which was to be embodied in a report to the department of superintendence nf the National Educational Association, gives the following excerpt: "Of the consolidated schools, 129 provided conveyances to haul the pupils to school at public expense. The average salary paid to drivers of these vehicles was $22.91 per month. The salaries varied from $6.50 paid in Barnwell County to $43.84 paid in Rich- land County. The number of pupils conveyed in the wagons was 1,723' at a cost of 10 cents per day per pupil; the cost per pupil varied from 2c per day per pupil in Dillon County to 21 cents in Greenwood County." Of course, not all of the schools mentioned in this report are consolidated schools, as the term is used in this survey, hence somewhat greater transportation costs should be expected. 64 WiNTHROP Bulletin If the means of "transportation are owned by the school it will iH'obably simplify the management and enable many economical arrangements for drivers. The necessary transportation equip- ment should be viewed as a part of a school's equipment, just as the' building, furniture, etc. A district should count the cost of the entire plant and equipment before making an issue of bonds or providing for the original inveslrnent. MORE FUNDAMENTAL PLANNING NEEDED P'OR COUNTRY SCHOOLS. The general school law of the state does not quite contemplate such a truilding situation as would bo demanded for a consolidated school of this type, since it provides for the issuance of bonds not to exceed 4% of the assessed valuation. However, this consolidat- ed district would be able at the present assessed valuation to issue under the law $36,954 in school bonds. That amount would have been sufTicient to provide a school plant for such a school a few years ago, but not so at the present costs. However, prices are rapidly becoming more normal and within a few months it is probable that $50,000 to $60,000 will build a good building and furnish it to accommodate 400 to 500 pupils. One who compares the estimated expense of this school with the present cost of operating the six schools in the township may say the cost to the people is more than twice as much. Tne answer is that they will receive more than twice as much. Let the proposition be viewed from that angle. The additional costs are very largely due to the maintenance of a high school, which usually costs from two to three times the per capita cost in the elementary school. A good high school is a 'pressing need of the Catawba community and the proposed plan provides a good one which would receive the respect and support of the people. Suopose the people of that township should choose to patronize the Rock Hill High School, and suppose that school should be in position to receive as many as 50. Someone must bear the ex- pense, either the people must pav tuition or the state must give Rock Hill enough to cover the tuition charges. The averase per capita cost of high school education in Rock Hill for the past three years was $75.12. If Rock Hill were naid tuition fn cover cost. 50 outsiders would pay as much as $3,750. It would be necessary to have conveyance tn school or fo pay board. Boardins: the 50 pu- pils, if arrangements could he made, would cost $13,500 for the nine months. Beside?, tbere , are many , additional exnenditures for patrons' which such a situation would cause. The actual cost? to the people by such a nlan would be $17,256 for tuition and board. Compare that with, the..- estimated costs of maintaining more suitable school facilities at home. Suppose the proposition of transportinar these high school pupils to Rock Hill be. considered. Two motor trucks would be required, and it requires no figuring to see that if they are to be transported, it should be to a school in the home community Enough has been said to show that the cost of high .school edu- cation away from country communities is almost sufficient to W I NT 1 1 RnE> TTOl.LliTI I 65 maintain both tiif cleincntiiiy and liipli scliixil al limne and Iraiis- port the necessary number under the eonsdiidated plan. The only reason it is not costing country people thai now is because but a few of them are gelling high school educalion, and were it not for such opportunities as staying with relatives, etc.. to go to high school, the number would be tewer. It is proliablv true that at present lown and city schools are carrying oulsiijc patrons at a ver>' low charge for eiliicalioii. FARM [.AND CONSOLIDATED R;Lndo]]ih Count>% Indiana It does no( seem necessary to argue that a large consolidated school wlii(di tias tlie advantage id' a good school plant and corijs id' teachers is [ireferahle from every point of view for the educalion of counlry boys and girls Ihan lo rely n|jon town and city schools anil I heir einironmeni foi' education — e% en it such a plan would result in a. satislaclD'y per ceril. in higli school. Possibly the strongest argument for I lie large coTisnlidaled school is the satis- faction which it gives ils patrons. Sevei'al caretul investigations have been made to determine ihe succi-ss ot ttie lar'ge consolidated school and the results show a heart>' a[t|UMval of its advantages and service by 90% of Ihe patrons, aiid the nature of the objec- tions raised do not indicate any sei-ious defects which can not be remedied. The fact that the average attcnrlance at many of these schools is from 95 to 98 per cent, in Ihe primary department, speaks strongly for this type of sr-limd organi/.ation. Thei'e remains an aUernafiM' to consider. It is to li^t these elementary schools remain wliere they an' and consolidate the 66 WiNTHROP Bulletin GREENFORD CONSOLIDATED Randolph County, Indiana high school patronage ol' tlir (owiiship at one of tin? schools. This can he done and schools can be operated as they are now at less expense. Ho\ve^■er, the less expense means the offering of infe- rior school opportunities in both elementary and high school. The difference will be manifest in the school plants provided, the teaching force I'mployed, school enrollment and a\erage attend- ance, and in many phases of the community social life. This plan is known as the centralized high school in South Carolina, and its achie^'ements are not comparable to those of the genuinely con- solidated .scliool. The consolidated .school has every argument in its faN'or over such a plan, but it should be sullieieni to point out its superiority in causing a transition from the elementary school to the high school. In order to ilo this ihe liguri's from Randolph County, Indiana are .subinilteil : BEFOHL Co>'SOLl- DATIUN AFTER Consoli- dation Number of oni'-room schools Number of llrst-grade township High Schools^ Number of township pupils in High School Nvmiber of grade teachers Number of high school and special teachers Per ceid. of 8th grade graduates in high schoid '21-50 ■131 3 1 16 Gl 742 I,--)-'* 86 ,3 62 -50 97 WiNTHROP Bulletin 67 Eighth grade graduates. .. 1915—240.- 1916— 242-. 1917— 253-. 1918— 232-. 1919— 248-. .entered high school -__230 -entered high school 231 -entered high school.- -243 -entered high school 227 -entered high school- --248 Total 1215 1179 Number of pupils transported in 1918-19 3126 Number of horse-idrawn hacks 102 Number of motor busses :. 28 Inasmuch as the consolidated schools of Randolph County, Indi- ana, have been mentioned and used comparatively, one will natu- rally desire more information about that county and the compari- son with York County is carried still further here in order to set forth more of the facts. In order to show the progress made in school buildings where consolidation has taken place, several cuts of buildings in Randolph County, Indiana, and some cuts of buildings in Champaign County, Ohio, are distributed through this discussion. For the photo- graphs of these buildings, we are indebted to Mr. R. P. Crawford, Associate Editor of The Nebraska Farmer. COMPARISON OF YORK AND RANDOLPH COUNTIES TABLE XI Randolph County, Indiana TOWNSHIPS ASSESSED VAL. LOCAL TAX ST.\TE SCHOOL TAX PER 100 PER 100 White River ---10,484,410 .435 .054 Washington _. 6,472.370 .395 .054 Greenford 5,650,420 .355 .054 Stoney Creek. 3,113,080 .78 .054 Battle Creek 3,840,180 .62 .054 West River 4,657,410 .8175 .054 Green-. -- 3,063,400 .58 .054 Ward 6,232,340 .555 .054 Jackson ..- 3,532,460 .37 .054 Wayne 5,859,800 .68 .054 Monroe 5,856,000 .46 .054 Franklin 4,266,870 .35 .054 Total 63,028,740 Average .5331 Average- .054 Randolph County is purely an agricultural county, containing only two small cities and a few small* towns. Its area is 460 square miles, and the area of its twelve townships varies from 24 to 74 square miles. The population of the county was about 29,000 in 1910. The area of Randolph County is about two-thirds that of York County, and its population was approximately 70% of that of York County in 1910. The largest city had 4,226 inhabi- tants; the next largest 3,209. 68 Wlnthrop Bulletin Property in Randolph County is asscssfd at about a true valua- tion. Land averages an assessment value of SISS per acre. The sources of school support are seen in the tabulation given above; there is an additional poll tax of 50c and the interest from the State School Fund.. The per capita expenditure in high school averages $100.95, in grade schools $41.75.- The average wealth back of each teacher is $393,929,625 in the county or township schools; in the city schools, $202,322.26. City schools have boards of trustees of three; township schools are administered by one township trustee, subject to appeal to (he County Superintendent in most cases. STONY CREEK CONSOLIDATED Randolph County, Indiana The census of 1910 gives the total valuation of tin' crops of Ran- dolph County to be $2,980,050; total acreage planted, 139,033; total bushels produced, 4,744,526; bushels of corn. 3,555.231; oats, 951, 4i0 bu.; wheat, 230.516 bu.: tobacco, 837.069 lbs.; potatoes, 65,307 hu.; hay, 47,445 Ions, etc. Compare the total value of crops of Randolidi Coui\tv with that of York County in 19IO^Randolph, $2,980,050. York,' $4,066,666. Randolph's agricultural products amounted to about 75% of those of York. York's land is assessed at $7.91 per acre and Randolph's at $123.00. The net profit from Randolph's crops is doubtless greater proportionately, since cotton is an exiiensive crop to pro- duce, and it is Irue that commercial fei'tili/.ers are used in produc- ing most products in Yorlc Cnuntv. VViNTiiROP Bulletin 69 The thirteenth census gives reports from 593 farms in Randolph County on which $18,875 was expended for fertilizer, and reports from 4,989 farms in York County on which $367,621 was expended for fertilizer. It should be noticed that by the thirteenth census in Randolph County 2,061 (62.6%) farms were operated by owners and 1,223 (37.1%) by tenanis; in York County the same report gives 1,376 (25.1%) farms operated by owners and 4,050 (73.9%) operated by tenants. The contrast in the percentages of tenants existing in the two counties is necessarily a serious factor to educational mainte- nance in country schools, which are largely dependent upon a land tax. Of the 4,050 tenants operating farms in York, 1,156 were white. In the early days Randolph County had 13 1 one-teacher schools and used mud roads; today tliat county has gra\el and macadamiz- ed roads; 6 one-teacher schools remain. Befoi'e consolidation there were 61 pupils in high school; today there are 742 and the popu- lation has not increased much. 97% of their eighth grade gradu- ates in the past five years liave entered high school. Efforts to con- solidate began about 1890, and it is interesting to compare some »{ the cuts of their school buildings witli those where consolidation has not taken place. An examination of the photographs of S(jme of the Randolph County schools will show the extent to which that county has rea- lized its bett(M' school program in plnsical equiiiment. JACKSOX TOWNSHIP CONSOLID.A.TED Randolpli Couiily, Ind. 70 Wlnthrop Bulletin A PLAN OF GONSOLroATION FOR YORK. Map II shows the points proposefl as places for consolidated schools. The following tabulation will give an approximate notion of the size of these schools, were the consolidation to take place, and something of the ability of the enlarged districts to support the schools at the present low assessment rates : TABLE XII g ShS H a w fr. w 5 5!2ri 15 z ggS«g 5^ S Sob [/} N fcH O M .,. ft, H M 3 o o a B,«poa H acM in EXPENDI WHITES THESE E LAST YE ALL *UR i at « m Z ,w < < tj m i-i a Oi" 0." < bu Catawba Twp. 82.65 -( 5, 45, 46, 400 $923,869. $8,164.06 20.41 50, 52 I.owrie Wilson 47.67 1, 6, 14, 29, 246 579,262. 6,232.01 25.33 McConnellsville 62.83 13, 51, 33, 16. 244 448,575. 4,201.65 18.80 Bullocks Twnp. 48.25 10, 15, 56. 145 319,485. 2,703.36 18.64 If with Sharon 59.75 10, 15, 56, 20. 289 595,375. 4,664.67 16.14 Hickory Grove 56.57 (40, ( 9. 44, 18, 38. 408 471,031. 4,720.76 11.57 Bethany 48.25 2, 41, 24, 54: 355. 289.090. 3,904.79 11.00 Filbert 40.40 21, 49, 47, 53. 247 308,095. 4,582.63 18.56 Brandon, 48.62 22, 30, 23. 305 311,575. 5,970.92 19.58 Tirzah 45.35 35, 8, 31, 43. 301 517,112. 5,010.15 16.66 Ebenezer 38.75 36, 32, 7, 183 871,161. 4,392.56 16.82 (Omitting Carhartt No. 2) (Carhartt 78) Ft Sim Twnp. 30.50 26, 39, 55. 175 340.364. 2,933.59 16.76 NOTE: Two schools of Chester County could probably very well join in with McContiellsville ; viz : Armenia and Lowryville. The children of district 4 could be transported to Fort Mill, dis- tricts 34 and 42 to York, district 27 could join with Brandon con- solidated, and district 47 seems to have an alternative of consoli- dating at Filberjt or of going to York; it would probably be the bet- ter tjan to join -^ith consolidation at Filbert. The schools remain- ing as they ■^^ere for a time are 19, 54, 17 and Carhart No. 2 in district 7, and possibly Cannon Mill (No. 8.) It would probably be better- for consolidation in Bullock's township to take place at Sha- ron on a good site and on the opposite side of town to the present Sharon building, being conveniently located on the road leading up from Bullock's Creek and the other schools involved. This would le^ve four schools not included in this scheme of consolidation and there would be (counting city schools) fifteen or sixteen large schools in the county. These schools could offer good "high school advantages. There would possibly be two or three that would htnit the high school training offered to two years at least for a WiNTHROP Bulletin 71 ESTIMATED COSTS What expenditures would be necessary in carrying out the school program involved in Table XII? The expenses should not be underestimated; it is better to overestimate, since it is due the public to know in advance how great the costs will be. The peo- ple can then decide if they are willing to pay the differences in cost in order to obtain better school advantages. The first item is the providing of adequ&te school plants, located on suitabe sites. Eleven buildings would be required for the con- solidations. The six smaller ones could, probably with right planning and good economy, be erected for $25,000.00 each when prices have reached a normal level and adjustment; the three next in size $35,000.00 each, and the two largest $45,000.00 each. Eigh- teen motor busses and eighteen school hacks would probably do the necessary transporting, and their probable cost would be about $35,000.00. Add to these amounts of the original investment $20,000.00 for unforseen costs and the total amount would be $400,000.00. This would represent a per capita school enrollment of $133.00, which would not be too large, comparatively speaking. There is sufficient evidence given in this study to show that such a school bonded indebtedness would not be viewed as excessive, provided equalization and true valuation of property were made. 'EigM- por cen t, of $50,000,000 assessments would cover the sum total; the necessary changes in assessments would have to be made before the proposed program could be realized. The situation now is filled with handicaps which must be removed preliminary to action by the people, who are able to do for themselves, if given a chance; and it is altogether probable that a study of the facts will cause the people to dispose of the obstacles within a short while in order to advance their vital interests. The cost of operation arises next in this school program. A study of Table IX is helpful in understanding the estimates made here. By that table 13 schools have been paying above .20 per day per pupil in average attendance; on that basis the cost of maintain- ing eight months school* with the present teaching force in the eleven schools would be $86,400.00 plus transportation costs, but this gives no consideration to the reduction of the number of grade teachers," to the employment of more special and high school teachers, and to principals. Furthermore, it does not consider in- creased salaries for the teachers. A consideration of the costs of transportation given elsewhere, in Chapter VI, for places without and within this state will show *Some may think an eight months compulsory attendance session too long for the Southern cotton farmer. In opposition to that idea are the facts : (1) that it does not pay the farmer to deprive his children of education in order to grow cheaper cotton, (2) to diversify crops more will prove of great financial advantage to the cotton grower by the growing of some more valuable crops when properly marketed and by the improvement and conservation of the soil, (3) school can be opened later by minimizing Christmas holidays, and (4) the planting of early and improved varieties of cotton will facilitate the early gathering of the crop which would be greatly appreciated by all who have engaged in cotton picking in cold weather. 72 WiNTHROP Bulletin that the costs are necessarily. large, and that their reduction so as to be kept within a reasonable percentage of school budget expen- ditures requires good business management. Ownership of the equipment by the school will undoubtedly prove a means of econo- mizing in the main costs for drivers, gasoline, etc. The number requiring transportation would have to be deter- mined by a study of each individual school unit, and in doing this to the advantage of a scheme of transportation it should be re- membered that many of the children now walk from 2 to 3 miles in the present system of small and convenient school units. This study might raise the question of more advantageous location of one or two schools in the interest of a practical scheme of trans- portation. If it be assumed that 60 % of the children would require trans-, portation and that it can be done for 15 cents per day per capita, the cost for 1800 pupils for 160 days would amounSt to $43,200.00. Increase the expenses of operating by the present plan ($86,400.00) by 25% ($21,600.00) and allow $20,000.00 to supple- ment and care for the additional expense of inaugurating the oper- ation of a high school system, and the total cost of operation would be approximately $170,000 annually for the eleven schools. Dur- ing the first year or two this would probably mean a per capita average attendance expenditure of $63.00, which is not exorbitant but reasonable when compared with expenditures in -many places. The per capita per enrollment would not exceed $57.00 in the be- ginning, and would doubtless be as low as $50.00 within a short time. The average cost per capita average attendance in Rock Hill (by Table X) was $54.78. ■ if the valuation of $50,000,000 be used as a basis .34 per hundred tax or 3.4 mills would produce $170,000 for current maintenance. Compare with the local tax average given in Table XI of .5331 per hundred. However, the schools are not to be supported entirely by local tax. The costs to carry a $400,000.00 bond issue at 6%, and to tdke up a $20,000.00 bond annually so that the indebtedness would be liquidated at the expiration of 20 years would be $44,000.00 for the first year, and this sum would decrease annually by $1,200.00 due to the reduction of the principal. The tax required to carry this amount, using the estimated valuation, would be 00084 or less than one mill. The total levy to finance the program, independent of state or national aid with this assessment basis would be 4 24 mills The rate would necessarily rise in proportion to any lowering of as sessed valuation of property. These expenditures for the number of children involved are not excessive. The program is a vei>v moderate one and some would regard the outlay too small how- ever, we are thinking of unit-cons(ruction of buildings arid other plans which would enable a saving through experience, rather than a large initial outlay and possible waste. BETTER FACILITIES WILL MEAN INCREASED EXPENDITURE'-' i^ut fh"**^ "f »l"^ tahulalion of the consolidated grouos will show that the „ro,p„s..,| s.'iKiol.s ,.nuld nnl inainlain th ■ srhoni pr,.gram MAP II. — Showing proposed school consolidations. Compare with Map I. o 'J X 'J •A 55 O J O ■Tl o u O O P-, o O. en rt —1 74 WiNTHROP Bulletin outlined ■'^ith property assessments ks they are now. No such claim is made; However, fshould property be assessed at a true valua- tion and the system improved so as to reach all property the poor- est group would probably have taxable assessments approximating $2,000,000 to 13,000,000, which would support the school at a fairly low tax rate for education. No one can expect such an equaliza- tion and raising of assessments until it is done by the State as a whole; nor can agreement be reached on a larger uniform county tax until a system of taxing provides for all to share the bur- den. The difference in taxes for education under such an ar- rangement for the people of these areas would be very largely the expense of securing high school education for which they are now totally dependent on the city schools, if it be obtained. In addition, one would expect increased expenditures to pro- vide suitable school plants and something for greatly improved and efficient eleihetary education. NEGRO SCHOOLS SHOULD BE IMPROVED. The question of disposing of the present school buildings arises, and it is probable that in many instances it would prove an op- portunity of rendering a generous and rhore effective aid to the education of negroes by having them use these buildings. Those not properly located for the purpose could be removed. Not much has been said of negro education in this report. It may be true that negro school receipts exceed the taxes paid by them. Certainly there should be a system of book-keeping which makes it certain that they get all the money they pay into the treasury for education. Furthermore, there is little doubt but that the majority of the white people wish to be as generous, as possible in the matter of helping the negroes to ' improve theriiselves. ,; Most of the negro schools which are operated in the county now are in church buildings, and the like. ' Few of the buildings belong to the county; , Those schools are under county supervision, and the districts should own negro school buildings, as is the case in many other counties. The suggestion, therefore, of properly placing many of the buildings now used by whites, remodeling and repairing where necessary, and converting them into negi'o schools owned by the public appears to be practical in many in- stances at least. In connection with all estimates and calcula- tions, the public expense of negro education must be kept in mind. During the school session of 1910-20, $19,962.29 of the pub- lic school expenditures of the county was for negro education. The number of pupils on which this amount was expended was 8.759. 'Tliis was a per capita' expenditure per enrollment of about $2.28. School districts 6, 53 and 54 did not make any ex- penditures for negro schools in 1919-1920. WILL IT PAY? The question very properly arises as to wherein are the gains which are sufficient to justify such radical changes in the plan for education. One may ask, why not, provide a better school WiKthrop Bulletin" j'^' plant where it is now located, since the plan involves a raising of assessments so as to provide better support for education? . The answer to this query as relates to the Centralized High School versus the completely consolidated school has been given. In the matter of costs for providing school plants, one central plant for a larger area of patronage can be erected more economi- cally and right provisions for its care and maintenance can be more easily made, than if six smaller but good school plants are con- structed. There is a way to build six small houses cheaper than one large and good house, but it will be because of cheapness in the structures and by omitting many advantageous facilities. There is also quite a difference of costs in operation of one school and several, such as for supplies, janitor's' service, fuel and incidentals. It is true that the majority of schools in York have not been spending much under such heacis, except possibly fuel. But operation and maintenance costs are necessary to well kept schools; the up-keep of a school plant can not be neglected any more than the up-keep of a public road, and some observers may conclude that we have both lessons to learn. ADVANTAGES TO SUPERVISION A great gain in the conduct of schools by adequate consolidation is to be had in supervision of instruction. York County schools now. except in the Special Districts, cannot be said to have super- vision at all since there is no supervisory force, except for school attendance. Our law makers when formulating the duties of the County Superintendent, either did not understand the purpose and work of school supervision or they were not ready to provide for having it done. It is entirely out of the question for any county superintendent to do more than attend to the administrative du- ties of his offlce, and in most counties assistance is required to at- tend to the business of administration. The dut;i,es of administra- tion alone are sufficient to keep a competent superintendent in the field practically all the time. In order to properly supervise over one hundred white and ne- gro schools of the county, the superintendent would need several supervisors. At present there would be no need for other than elementary supervisors, but the county is so large and the schools so numerous that one supervisor could scarcely scratch the surface of suuervision. Jefferson County, Ala., is cited in a bulletin of the United States Bureau of Education as having the best organization to attain pro- fessional supervision of schools and teachers, and the plan of that county is given here in outline that one may sep the working force required to adequately supervise a county which contains a large number of small schools. The following is the summary: 1 Subdivision of the county into 11 districts containing about 18 schools each. In charge of each of thpse districts is a super- vising principal who devotes his entire time to supervision. He travels among the schools, directs teachers' meetings, reading circle work makes requis'itions for his supplies, conducts sample lessons. 2^- OS z o P2 o~ u '" It o ^ < i ?^ u E 3 C" 2 i WiNTHROP Bulletin -jy acts as critic teachor, etc. These supervisors made 6,605 visits last year. 2. An assistant superintendent is placed in charge of the de- partment known as "Teacher Training in Service." He has meet- ings with his teachers on Saturdays, selects reading matter for them, has charge of the reading circle work for the county, as- sists m the employment of teachers, and determines the standard of employment. 3. The professional requirements have been increased until now it IS necessary for one employed to teach in this county to hold a normal-school diploma or its equivalent, or, in lieu of this, a high school -diploma with two years' successful experience else- where. 4. There are 12 consolidation schools, to which pupils are con- veyed at public expense. There are also about 40 union schools; that is, schools made by the consolidation of two smaller schools, but without transportation. Of the 130 white schools, only 28 are one-teacher schools: of the 75 colored schools, only 35 are one- teacher schools. 5. During the year 64 night schools were conducted in rural districts for six weeks, using the teachers employed in day work, these teachers being paid at public expense; 1,230 pupils were en- rolled in the high schools. 297 of these being illiterates, and 457 i^(?ar-illiterates, as it was necessary for them to begin with the primer. ,6. The county has two agricultural instructors under Smith- Hughes work, with a salary of $2,400 each. 7. Four new eight-room consolidated schools have been built during the year, three of these being on the one-story extensible- unit plan. Fifteen other buildings have been remodeled or en- larged. Five acres of ground are required for each of these new buildings. More adequate consolidation would unquestionably simplify and improve supervision. The larger schools can afford to employ better principals who are competent to do supervising work, and who can give part time to it, as is now done by principals in many town and city schools. The fact that the supervisor teaches part tipie is an advantage rather than a disadvantage to the supervisor, and this plan cares for a good part of the work of supervision. sAprain, note the tabulation of teachers employed in Randolph County. The number of grade teachers was reduced in that county from 154 to 86 by consolidation and the number of special teach- ers was increased from 3 to 62. These special teachers, under a piincipal's direction, teach subjects which the ordinary grade teacher can not very well teach successfully, even though a super- vi.sor pays an occasional visit to assist and encourage. 'The idea is not to dispense with a general supervision — such supervision is necessary — but the consolidated school renders ef- fective supervision more feasible and enables the reduction of the number of general supervisors. A general type of supervision has no value comparable to that more specific tyne of supervision where there is a close and sympathetic touch between supervisor and Ihe supervised. 78 VVlNTHROP BULLETIN SUMI ' OF ADVANTAGES OF CONSOLIDATING The advantages may be summarized : (A) Advantages which can not be had in the organization of small schools : 1. Close and effective supervision. 2. Excellent high school education with an easy and natural transition from the elementary school and a greatly increased high school enrollment. 3. Superior school attendance without exposure in bad weather. 4. A large reduction of classes in recitation per teacher, longi^r reciting periods and more supervised study. 5. More specialized instruction because of a better plan for division of labor in teaching. 6. A richer and more adapted course of study. Special subjects taught. 7. Good laboratory and library facilities. 8. The stimulus of larger social contact and participation in a large variety of beneficial activities which only a large group ren- ders possible. 9. Great increase of talent for leadership which the school may develop. 10. A reduction of costs in proportion to the amount and quality of service rendered. 11. Increased amounts of aid from the state for vocational training, and the like. .Tuition money kept at home school. 12. Children under supervision on the way to and from school. (B) Improvements not so likely to be had in small schools: 1. A good modern school building, with regulated temperature and good ventilation. 2. Janitor service. Good sanitation and comfortable indoor toilets. 3. More permanency in term of teachers, and trained teachers. 4. A reduction of pupils per teacher. 5. Teacherage, and continuation of certain phases of school ac- tivities all the year round. 6. Beautiful school surroundings, playground equipment, and prepared playgrounds. 7. An appreciation of country life to a degree which satisfies more of the young and old. CAN IT BE REALIZED? Without doubt the realization of a plan of consolidation as out- lined, or as amended by the people concerned, is an undertaking of several years' duration, because of the needed preliminary changes and a proper knowledge to be had of the advantages by the peo- ple. However, the consolidated school movement is moving with great rapidity in many states. Iowa is one of the states which began early to consolidate, and seventeen years were required to secure the first seventeen consolidations: but in the next six-year period three hundred consolidated schools were obtained and the rate of consolidation in that state has for quite a while been one per day. WlNTHROP BuLLETIX 79 There will doubtless be some districts that are more ready to lead the way, and their success will cause others to follow. One of the main incentives for speedy action is that country children may have access to high schools, but it is equally necessary that the elementary school facilities be improved. The program of school development for York which is advo- cated in this chapter may appear to some to be championed with- out giving due consideration to the possible advantages and achievements of the smaller district organizations where much more money is put into these schools. However, it does not seem helpful to prolong the discussion when anyone competent to judge in scli'Ool matters may visualize and make the needed comparison. If the attainment of both elementary and high school education for country children under the best conditions be the object, the large consolidated school appears to be the one big chance. Therefore, the plan of consolidated high school interests merely (Centralized High School) and the maintaining of manv smaller schools, while it may result in considerable improvement if prop- erly financed, cannot realize the aims of equalization and such a policy should be abandoned as rapidly as possible, since it becomes a means to set back and to interfere with programs of adequate consolidation. When the situation is viewed in this lit;ht, it is fortunate for York County that a cash policy in building has been pursued, since a disposition of the present school plants will not be a diffi- cult problem to solve. In other words, the time is ripe for large consolidation in the county. It involves a surrender of the old idea that the small district is the convenient plan of operating public schools in the country, and the adoption of a larger pro- gram of education which will result in a superior functioning of the schools. 8o WiNTHROP Bulletin CHAPTER VII. SOME OMITTED PHASES Snveral phases ordinarily found in school surveys are not con- sidered in this study of the schools of York. The topics selected and to which much space has been given are thought of most im- mediate importance and should have first attention. The purpose has been kept in mind to present some useful tabulations which will enable citizens to become bett.er acquainted with the needs of education in the county, since it is believed that the welfare of children will proVe a sufficient incentive to cause better provis- ions to be made for them, and this statement has reference to their future economic and social interests in meeting the demands of a more exacting and complete democracy. THE COURSE OF STUDY AND TEACHING The curriculum of the schools is provided by the State Board of Education and that board makes a revision every five years, haying the right to change at each revision as many as 50% of the adopted texts. Special districts are not required to use the uni- formly adopted texts, but in many instances the state-adopted texts or a part of them are used in special districts which have textbook adoption privileges. The state-adopted course of study is available in printed form, and the board will doubtless m.'.asure up to its task of modernizing and improving the course of study. What appears to be a vacancy now in the high school curriculum is in social science. History has a good recognition, but as is true in many other states no place in the high school curriculum is given to practical social science having a direct bearing on con- munity life and citizenship, as applied economics, sociology paid ethics should; such teaching seems of vital iinporf.ance to the state, for without doubt attention to these instructional interests will function as a safeguard and protection for the public and prove a means of removing obstacles to progress. The chief difflculty lies- in securing teachers with sufficient training to conduct an efficient process of learning. The' simole measurements commonly employed by both school officials and the public do not show a very high appreciation of good teaching, per- manence of tenure, etc.. and it is often true that a really good teacher whose success is well established is compelled to make a change, though preferring not to do so. The loss sustained is of such technical nature as not to be generally understood. The vital part in the functioning of the school curriculum is a teacher hav- ing the requisite training and ability to teach it. The lack of this necessarily means small achievement in the transmission of social experience, and the limitation of what is embodied in the course of study; in small or large schools, the possession of barely certlfi- WiNTHROP Bulletin 8i cated teachers strips the curriculum of its richness, so that Ihe bare necessities of life scarcely remain. While these truths may be patent and elemental to the good teacher whose responsibility IS the conducting of the process of learning, they have not become. Unfortunately, such controlling factors in school administration as dollars saved, small 'costs, etc. Improvement here is not merely better pay for classroom teachers, but increased training of teach- ers m primary essentials and more adequate provisions for com- petent school supervision. RECORiDS AND REPORTS The discussion of this important topic has been omitted, since it is the function of the State Department to prepare the necessary reports and to require their transmission by county superinten- dents of education. Reference was made to financial records in the footnote in connection with Table X. It is a matter of regret that age-grade tables" for the children of this county are not given in this study. Such tables disclose facts relating to the progress of children in school which are very es- sential in judging the school's work, but it was not practical to devote the labor required to secure this data from the census cards. The information to be had from such tables pertaining to over- age, under-age, and normal-age pupils will be of more definite value when the compulsory attendance law has been extended to include the full school term instead of four months, from 8 to 14 years of age. Such facts thus secured support the contentions for compulsory education. SCIENTIFIC MEASUREMENTS It has been entirely impractical to undertake the necessary traveling over the county, and to do the other work entailed in testing pupil achievement in the schools by use of scientific meas- urements. Besides, tabulations such as Table IX will probably have more practical value at this time, as an inspection of the av- erage attendance and other columns will show. OTHER INSTITUTIONAL LIFE York County impresses one as being a good county in climate ♦PUBLIC EDUCATION IN NORTH CAROLINA— (19'20) will prove in- teresting to anyone who desires information such as is revealed about the progress of pupils by age-grade tables and -scientific measurements.lt is prob- able that results obtained in South Carolina schools would not vary greatly from those of North Carolina. The average age of seventh grade children in the larger city schools of North Carolina is about thirteen and a half years, that in one-teacher schools about fifteen years and three months; in reading achievements, the seventh grade children of the one-teacher school are about one year behind those in the city schools. The achievements of pupils in the city schools of North Carolina which were measured for fifth and sev- enth grades reading were two years below city schools in general, hence the pupils of the one-teacher school were about three years backward in read- ing. A somewhat similar backwardness was shown in other subjects, and little difference was noted in the achievements of pupils in one, two, and three teacher schools. 82 WiNTHROP BuLLETliJ and p.raductiveness. There are many evidences of good and pro- gressive farming, and science has much in store for further progress. Many farm homes are typical in general design of the hoiiie- makers' period. A great many, however, have not been converted into modern horties in point of beauty, comfort, and conveniences. The time when many of these changes should have begun logically was in a period of low level of prices, and many owners left tbciir farms. Numerous homes were pointed out as the birthplace of citizens now living in towns and cities. If these homes have not passed into the hands of owners who operate them it is to be hoped that they soon will, unless a very liberal policy of tenantry is pursued, so that instead of appearing dilapidated they may be made fresh, modern, and convenient. The only way to preserye boyhood's tracks is in the imagination; the farms should be utilized for both individual and social welfare which means better farming and better homes. The seriousness of the effects of so large a per cent of tenantry with such limited advantages in education to agricultural advance- nient will manifest itself in a tendency to continue to plant largely one crop, rather than the adoption of variety and diversification in crops, the success of which depends upon better educational pre- ' paredness. The remedy, in order to enable our farming people to liberate themselves, is an adapted and adequate type of education arid a larger operation of farms by owners or an exceptionally lib- eral policy of tenantry. In no other way can the standard of liv- ing of our farm population be raised and maintained, so that in the future our farmers will be in position to compete successfully with the country at large. THE CHURCH The study of this institution is omitted that it may be surveyed independently by those better acquainted with its aims and needs. WiNTHEOP Bulletin 83 CHAPTER VIII. SOME CONCLUSIONS 1. York County is one of the early counties organized and it n^8 much of historic interest. Its early educational development was probably of more significance than any of the up-country counties. 2. It is a good county— ranking high among the counties of the state in agriculture aud other industries. 3. Its towns and cities are growing; the country population has suffered loss within the last decade; the percentage of tenantry is large; the gaps between good and "poor school situations is widen- ing. 4. Its educational development within the past few years has been rapid, and its public schools rank among those 6t the better countiBS of the state. Since 1915 the number of one-teacher schools h^s decreased: white, 40 to 33; colpred, 81 to 71; two- teacher schools have increased: white, 20 to 22; colored, 2 to 4. Eleventh grade work began in 1920 with an enrollment of 57. Two districts have transported pupils by wagon, — Nos. 7 and 37. Dis- trict No. 7 has transported since 1915, and No. 37 in the year 1917. The yearly average transported was 21 at an annual cost of 1498.40 or $23.73 per capita. The small number transported prob- ably made the per capita expense larger. 5. Within the past few years the school buildings have been greatly improved. A large per cent of the county-supervised schools have built by Glemson College plans, but many have modi- fied the plans in order to economize and at a loss to efficiency. School sites are genera,lly too small, and some are very poor. Small expenditures for buildings, the pursuance of a cash policy, too great dependence on local authorities, small school districts, and the need of a county architect are the main explanations of the low rating of school buildings of the county. 6. The disadvantages of small districts are seen in the follow- ing selected situations in white schools in 1920: 4 schools, one teacher teaching 5 grades. 1 school, one teacher teaching 6 grades. 12 schools, one teacher teaching 7 grades. 5 schools, one teacher teaching 8 grades. 8 schools, two teachers teaching 9 grades. 7 schools, two teachers teaching 10 grades. As the size of the school increases this teaching situation im- proves, but there is not much tendency to keep down the number of grades taught. 3 schools, three teachers teaching 9 grades. 3 schools, three teachers teaching 10 grades. 1 schoal, four teachers teaching 8 grades. 1 school, four teachers teaching 10 grades. 84 WiNTHROP Bulletin The centrajized high school finds it difficult to obtain place among the thriving two to iivp-teacher scoools so as to limit the work attempted by them. 7. Compulsory attendance is now in its second session of opera- tion. Glover. Fort Mill and Rock Hill have their own attendance offilcers, and the remaining schools of the county are served by two officers. There were nine convictions last year for non-compliance with the law. The county officers visit the schools once a month, sometimes oftener. Teachers mail reports every two weeks giving all ab- sences, 8 to 14 years old, and the reasons Sf.nt with the original excuse. A doctor's certificate is required for more than one day's absence for sickness. The census cards contain the following information: Full name, date of birth, age at last birthday, sex, school attend- ed last session, grade, name and address of parent or guardian, and name of school district. The first year of the law's operation is not sufficient to judge accurately the improvement made, since school attendance suffered so much from influenza and other contagious diseases. The main difficulties with the enforcement of the law are the length of time elapsing between the absence, the reporting of it, and giving attention to it; some time records in a well organized city system are for the absence to have received attention within 24 hours. Another obstacle to securing the best results is that the compulsory period is for only a part of the session ;and again where there is no ability to pay the fine, no sentence is imposed. The most important factors in the success of the law will be the keep- ing of records convenient and up-to-date, and promptness in at- tention to absences. In the present situation a wholesome senti- ment among the people will prove of greatest value. 8. The per capita costs per day per pupil are greater in the oounty-suporvised schools than in the elementary schools of Rock Hill; similar costs in town schools are greater than in Rock Hill, and costs in open country schools exceed either town school or Rock Hill elementary school costs and the facilities are not so good. Consolidation and transportation are the best means of equalizing in all respects. 9. The total expenditures in the county-supervised schools are very small and there is practically nothing expended under sev- eral headings of important and legitimate school expenditures. Instructional costs are small and while the per cent, of a total school budget may be almost large enough, the smallness of the to- tal amount expended nullifies what may appear large in a budget per cent. It would prove advantageous should reports be made of school expenditures showing the various per cents, expended un- der the several headings of General Control, Instruction, Opera- tion Maintenance, Auxiliary, Miscellaneous, and Capital Outlay, and if budgets for expenditures were made in a similar way. Fur- ther differentiation should be made between costs for elementary and high school education, and local reports should reveal the per capita expenditures for the teaching of special subjects, and the like. Such exact and definite presentation of costs enables a clear- WiNTHROP Bulletin 85 er comprehension on the part of the general public and facilitates just comparisons with expenditures in many other places. 10. No matter what may be the future policy for the further development of the schools, more than twice the present amount of expenditures must be made before educational facilities become at all adequate and on a parity with what is being done in many states. There is no disposition whatever in this survey to criti- cise what has been accomplished with the amount expended, since there is every evidence of economy on the part of officials and patrons, and of sacrifice] on the part of teachers to get the best re- sults for the money and means employed. A common comparative measure applied to schools is the per- centage of seventh grade pupils retained in high school, and this- measure shows the schools of York ranking high among the other counties., ' The average seventh grade enrollment in York County for the years 1917, 1918, and 1919 was 455.3, that of the tenth grade 243.6, or 50% of the seventh grade. The average enroll- ment for the same years in the seventh grades of the State was 9052.6, that for the tenth grades was 2682 or 29% of the seventh grades. Taking all things into consideration it is a fairly safe conjecture that the educational rank of the white schools of York is well up among the leading counties of the State. 11. A careful study by the people of the possibilities and any necessary modifications of the Program of Development through consiolidation is recommended._ Not many of these consolidations could be realized without vital preliminary changes in equaliza- tion and raising of assessments, and the general law needs change to permit the formation of larger districts. The changes should not be made withoiit providing for both elementary and high school education, which would necessarily demand increased school ex- penditures. Sufficient statistical information is presented herein to enable citizens residing in the localities of the proposed consoli- dations to determine the advantages, and if they wish them for their children sufTiciently, to pay for them. The opinion and be- lief advocated here is that such a program can be realized in every instance if the people in the communities involved so desire, and that all obstacles are only temporary; furthermore, that the peo- ple of these communities will become interested in acting for the permanent interest and welfare of their children as people have done elsewhere. 12. It is true that the present tax rates for education may seem high, but it is not true that the people of York are paying much for education in comparison with what is being expended in many, states and counties; nor is it due to poverty. The people of York Oounty are able to maintain far better educational facilities. The money value of their crops taken on an average are evi- dence of an ability to support their schools well, and a failure to do so would be poor economy. The quickest and surest way of, making communities which are satisfying to the people because of an intelligent prosperity is the establishing of an efficient and adequate system of schools. A certainty which must be reckoned with is that money is being made and that it is not being invested as it ought to be in education. There are numerous dangers, 86 WiNTHROP Bulletin lurking in such a soeial condition where education is not equiva- len), to the state of economic prosperity, and such a menace must be counteracted by the satisfactions which right education affords. The injperatjve demand for the preservation and advancement of thjs social state is the right direction of the better instinctive ten- dencies by means of education. 13. Owing to the fact that this is a limited study, no attempt has been m,ade in this study of York County to suggest changes per- taining to the state as a whole for better administration and or- ganization where it could be avoided. The gtdniinistration of the schools in the county would be great- .ly improved for such ^ program as has been outlined by: (1) A County Board of Education of five, elected from the county at large by the qualified electors of the county-superyised qlistricts; the thrae receiving the highest number of votes to serve fior four years and the two next highest to serve for two ye^ij; after the first election, all elections to be for four-year terms. TJtiis board sh-ould he vested with power of general control of ihfi schools, subject to appeal to the State Board, the arrangement of school districts, the levying of school taxes up to a poin,t of limi- tetion. the employment of a County Superintendent of Education on the same terms and conditions of better city school adminis- tPiation, in which the superintendent is vested with authority and held responsible for the progress of the schools and is required to make an accurate showing annually 'of the progress of the scboojs in the form of a published report. The qualifications of the County Superintendent should meet all state requirements, and if the state superintendent should become an appointee of a State Board then that ofli'cial might well nominate county superintea- dionts to County Boards. (2) The County Board should have the appointment of district biOiardiS .afld power to supervise and review their acts. The Dis- trict B(j^rds should have general local control, and s-hould elect principt^s on nomination of the County Superintendent and teach- ers foiP the schools on nomination of the principal. 14. On examination, the proposed program of increased expen- ditures may seem large in contrast with present expenditures, but not much investigation of the needs will be required to reveal the fact that the proposed program of expansion in both school planla and currfint maintenance is moderate. The strictest economy and skiliiEial administration would be required for its realization, and it wouM be unwise not to provide for greater growth in building capacity and for any needed increase in maintenance as the schools develop. 15. This study shows the pressing need for a general revision of t-he laws relating to taxation and. assessments, but it is self evi- dent that little can be accomplished until this matter is undertak- en by the state as a whole. The last report (1920) of the Comp- troller General gives York County a total taxable property of $18,18'3,551, rank nine among the forty-six counties; aggregate of taxes for all purposes $606,039,152, rank seven; number of dogs taxed 4,007, rank three. There is no doubt that York is bearing WiNTHROP Bulletin 87 its proportionate share of state tax, and the land of York is ro- turned at about $1.91 per acre above the state average. 16. In all probability the lack of simplification in plans for school support is largely due to not having first obtained a just basis of assessments for taxation. When this difficulty has been removed the needed adjustment between state, county and local support of education can be made in accordance with prescribed principles to secure better equalization. The principal equalizing fund at present is the 3 mill tax, which is apportioned per enrollment within the county within which i( is collected. The basis of apportionment was pronably the best before compulsory attendance, but consideration should be given tQ levying a much larger and uniform tax by counties for school maintenance, and a better basis of apportionment would be a com- bination of per teacher employed and per average daily at- tendance of pupils. An adequate per cent of this uniform tax fund should be set aside for a reserve of County Board Fund, to be employed mainly for further equalization in those districts having less than a stipulated assessed valuation, or less than a minimum per capita per child of $30.00 after a stipulated special tax is levied. The smalln^ss of the bonded indebtedness in the county-super- vised schools of York should make it feasible to initiate a building program by bonding all districts concerned, but if that be found impracticable the County Board should be able from its fund to co-operate with districts to secure adequate buildings and the County Board should have a supei-vision of their erection. Equalization between strong and weak counties is a function of the state, and were the county emphasized as the unit of support, as ill the general plan outlined, state appfopriations ttiight be largely directed to equalization between counties. Appropria- tions to equalize school opportunities and appropriations to stim- ulate local taxes are quite different, and the latter will not serve the purpose of the former. Index to Tables, Figures, Illustrations and Maps TABLES PAGK I. — Population 5 ■ II.— Scores for Rural School Buildings of York County ^ ^ opposite 32 TIL — Summary of Total Scores 38 IV. — Detailed Scores for City Buildings 40 V. — Total Scores for City or Town Buildings ^ il 'VI. — ^Township Valuations 43 Vlt and VIII.— Vk^ealtli per l.^acher and Pupil 52,53 IX — Six Year Average of Costs 56,57 X. — Thr^e Year Average of Rock Hill Costs -. 53 XL — Randolph County Assessment and Taxes 67 XII. — Statistical Facts Relating to Proposed Consolidation 70 FIGURES I. — Scores of City and Rural Buildings — 33 II.— Size of School Sites 34 III and IV.— Special Tax Levies 46, 47 V and VI.— School Revenues, 1919-1920 48, 49 VII. — Unequal School Terras .. 50 VIII and IX. — Unequal Expenditures for White Children and ^■ Ability to Maintain Schools ' ' 51 (The names of schools may be associated with the numbers used in the figures by referring to the tables opposite page 32 and following.) ILLUSTRATIONS New Types of School Buildings and Other Improvements 28-37 School Building Development in York's County-Supervised Schools I 12, 44 Modern Means of School Transportation 59, 61, 62 Randolph County, Indiana, Group of Consolidated Schools 65, 66, 68, 69 Champaign County, Ohio, Group of Consolidated Schools— 73, 76 MAPS I. — Location of Roads and Schools in York County, opposite 8 n. — Showing Proposed School Consolidations -.„ opposite 12