Cornell University Library The original of this book is in the Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924032720520 COPPER ETCHING PRODUCED AT THE TECHNICAL SCHOOL FOR CHEMIGRAPHY (ZINC ETCHING) AND PRINTED AT THE TECHNICAL SCHOOL FOR PRINTERS IN MUNICH VOCATIONAL EDUCATION IN EUROPE REPORT TO THE COMMERCIAL CLUB OF CHICAGO BY EDWIN G. COOLEY 1912 THE COMMERCIAL CLUB OF CHICAGO CHICAGO Copyright 1912 BY THE COMMERCIAL CLUB OF CHICAGO Trade Supplied by The Commercial Club of Chicago 50 S. La Salle St., Chicago and A. C. McClurg & Co., Chicago FOREWORD IN 1910, The Commercial Club of Chicago employed Edwin G. Cooley, former Superintendent of Chicago Schools, to make an investigation of the vocational schools of Europe, devoting special attention to the study of German systems. Mr. Cooley spent about a year in Europe, and presents in this report the result of his obser- vations and investigations. No subject has interested the members of the Club more than practical education. They founded, and for many years supported, the Chicago Manual Training School at Twelfth Street and Michigan Avenue; they raised endow- ment funds for the Illinois Manual Training School at Glen- wood and the St. Charles School for Boys; they presented the United States Government the site for the Naval Training School at Lake Bluff; for many years they con- tributed to the support of classes in practical subjects in the evening schools of Chicago. It is the hope of the Club that through the investigations recorded in Mr. Cooley's report, some assistance will be afforded to the movement for supplying more direct and more practical schools for the betterment of our youth — especially taking into consideration those who are compelled at fourteen years of age to undertake the burden of self- support. While the Club is interested in all forms of practical education, it is particularly interested in the boy and girl of fourteen who must become wage earners before they have attained their full physical, mental and moral development. They believe that no problem is of greater importance at the present day, and submit this report as a contribution to its solution. PREFACE THIS report undertakes to describe some of the typi- cal vocational schools observed by the author dur- ing his year in Europe. The major part of the report is devoted to the educational institutions of Germany. Some special institutions in Austria and Switzerland are described on account of their relations to the general problem of vocational education. The report does not profess to be a complete study of the industrial schools of Germany, but merely a sketch, with some mention of such institutions as seem to be of interest to students of the problem in America. The author has not attempted to write a criticism of German institutions, but merely to record experiences and observations that seem likely to be helpful. It would be easy to select schools and courses in Europe that could be justly criticized from an American point of view, but such criticisms would be of little or no value to the American student. The author has not included in this volume three articles he has written for the Vocational Magazine on The Con- tinuation Schools of Crefeld, The Pre-Apprentice Schools of London, and The Continuation Schools of Edinburgh. They will be appended to the report of the Educational Committee of the Commercial Club of Chicago, printed in a separate volume. The author wishes to thank the members of the Commer- cial Club for the generous support they have given to this investigation; in this, the Club has only followed its usual policy of backing up every enterprise that seemed likely to be for the benefit of the general public. The author begs the indulgence of the reader with regard to errors which will imdoubtedly be found in this report, and invites suggestions and criticisms. Edwin G. Coolet. March 27, 1912. [3] ACKNOWLEDGMENT THE thanks of the author are due to the following persons: Dr. Georg Kerschenstemer, Director of the Schools of Munich; Dr. von Seefeld and Dr. Hermann Muthesius, members of the Royal Prussian Commission for Industrial Education; Oberburgomeister Reicke of Berlin; Dr. KnOrk, Director of the Commercial Schools of the Berlin Commercial Club; Mr. Franz Vilmar of Berlin; Mr. Kirsten of Hamburg; Dr. Heinrich Back, Director of the Industrial School of Frankfort; Dr. C. A. Gropp, Director of Oberrealschule of Charlottenburg; Dr. C. Matchoss of the Society of German Engineers; Ritter von Mastoff, Director of the Central Bureau for Industry and Commerce in Stuttgart; Dr. H. Raydt, Director of the Commercial Institute of Leipsic; Dr. Muller, member of the Ministry of the Interior in Karlsruhe; Dr. F. Zollinger, Secretary of the Educational Commission in Canton Zurich, Switzerland; Mr. Theodore Kautny of Cologne; Minister- ialrat Ernst Pliwa, member of the Ministry of Public Works in Austria; Dr. Edward Vetter, Director of the Department for the Promotion of the Handicrafts in Vienna; Chevalier A. von Stibral, of the Post-Office Department of Austria; Dr. Ludwig Erhard, Director of the Industrial Museum of Vienna; Dr. Jindry Maly of Prague; Mr. Robert Blair, School Officer of the London County Council; Sir John Struthers, Secretary of the Scotch Education Office, London; Mr. Edward McNally, Organizer of Continuation Schools in Edinburgh; Mr. Robert Best of Birmingham; Mr. A. J. Pressland of Edinburgh; Mr. Garnett of the London County Council; Mr, Cloudesley Brereton, Inspector of Schools for the London County Council; Mr. L. C. Horsfall of Man- chester; Prin. J. H. Reynolds of the Manchester Institute of Technology; Mr. George Fletcher, Assistant Secretary in respect to Technical Education in Ireland; and the Ameri- [S] VOCATIONAL EDUCATION can Ambassadors and Consuls in Vienna, Berlin, Paris, Dresden, and Munich. The author also wishes to include directors and teachers in the various industrial schools visited. They were uniformly courteous and helpful. His thanks are also due Dr. Kerschensteiner of Munich and Dr. Heinrich Back of Frankfort for the fine collection of drawings and school material presented by them to the Commercial Club of Chicago. [6] BIBLIOGRAPHY Verwaltungsberichte des KSniglich Preussischen Landes-Gewer- beamts. 1905, 1906, 1907. Grundfragen der Schulorganisation. Dr. Kerschensteiner. Staatsbiirgerliche Erziehung. Dr. Kerschensteiner. Organisation und Lehrplane der Fach-und Fortbildungschulen in Miinchen. Dr. Kerschensteiner. Bericht tiber Gewerbliche Erziehungseinrichtungen ausserhalb Bayern. Dr. Kerschensteiner. Jahresberichte der mannl. Fortbildungs- und Gewerbeschulen Munchens fiir das Schuljahre 1908-09, 1909-10, and 1910-11. Dr. Kerschensteiner. Fortbildungschulen fiir Madchen. Dr. Otto Lyon. Die Entwicklung des Gewerblichen Unterrichtswesen in Oster- reich. Rudolf Freiherr von Klimburg. Jahrbiicher des Unterrichtwesen in der Schweitz. 1907, 1908. Lexis das Unterrichtswesen im Deutschen Reich. Die Deutsche Fortbildungsschule im Jahre 1909. E. Baar. Zentralblatt fiir das Gewerbliche Unterrichtswesen in Osterreich. 1910. Das Gewerbliche Fortbildungs- und Fachschulwesen in Deutsch- land. Simons. Die Fortbildungs- und Fachschulen in den Grosseren Orten Deutschlands. Germer. Handbuch des Deutsche Fortbildungschulwesen. Pache. Das Deutsche Unterrichtswesen der Gegenwart. K. Knabe. Der Unterrichtspolitik im Industriestaate Osterreich. A. von Dumreicher. Das Kommercielle Bildungswesen in Osterreich. Dlabac u. Gelcich. Das Kommercielle Bildungswesen im Deutschen Reiche. Zolger. Die Gewerblichen Forbildungsschulen in Osterreich Landwirt- schaftliche Jahrbiicher XXXIX Band, Erganzungsband II. Dr. H. Thiel. Fortbildungsschulkunde. Max Mehner. Sechsunddreiszigster Bericht der Gewerbeschule-Kommission in Wien iiber Ihre Wirksamkeit. L'Enseignement Technique Industriel et Commercial en France et a L'Etranger. Astier and Cuminal. Eighteenth Annual Report of the United States Commissioner of Commerce and Labor. Evolution of Modern Germany. Dawson. Reports of various industrial schools. [7] TABLE OF CONTENTS I. General Introduction 11 II. Survey op Vocational Education in Germany 31 III. Industrial Evolution and Apprenttice- SHiP 56 rV. Outline of the School System op Ger- many 74 V. Continuation Schools 78 VI. Vocational Guidance ...... 130 Vn. Secondary Technical Schools 138 Vm. Building-Trades Schools 141 IX. Machine-Trades Schools .... 147 X. Art-Trades Schools 153 XI. Textile Schools 165 Xn. Technical Schools por Woodworkers . 168 Xm. Technical Universities 172 XIV. Training op Independent Handicrafts- men 176 XV. Commercial Schools 200 XVI. Industrial Schools for Girls . 218 XVII. Training op Vocational Teachers in Germany 229 XVni. Agricultural Schools 271 XIX. Industrial Education in Austria . 276 XX. Commercial Education in Austria . . 306 XXI. Industrial Education IN Switzerland . 314 XXII. Conclusion . . . . ' 329 [9] z o o z o z CHAPTER I GENERAL INTRODUCTION WE have conquered upon the field of battle in war; we are now conquering upon the field of battle in commerce and industry." Such was the watch- word which Crown Prince Friedrich gave to Germany at the inauguration of the Museum for Industrial Art in Berlin the day after the treaty of Frankfort, closing the Franco- Prussian war. Since 1871, the struggle for commercial supremacy has succeeded the struggle for military su- premacy, or perhaps one might say: Germany's military supremacy has become but a means to her deeper purpose of commercial and industrial leadership.* After the consolidation of the results of the Franco- Prussian War, Bismarck, then all-powerful, undertook the direction of the Ministry of Commerce and Industry. In a little while, everything was transformed, almost created anew. He provided for everything, and some years later one saw with astonishment the mills and factories of Ger- many enter upon a period of feverish activity, while at the same time German engineers and chemists revealed them- selves to the world by a series of remarkable discoveries in the applications of science to industry. The development of technical education has not been the only cause for Germany's progress. Other factors have contributed; the multiplication of railways; the opening up of the German ports, making communication with the in- terior of the country easier; the improvement of the canals and rivers; the encouragement given to the merchant ma- rine; the reduction in the cost of transportation; the better utilization of their natural resources; the legislation pro- tecting and stimulating industrial enterprise., The German ' From Aatier et Cuminars L'Enseignement Technique. [11] VOCATIONAL EDUCATION technical schools, however, have taken a principal part in the marvelous extension of that country. These schools have called out improvements of all sorts, answering to the needs of the public, and have made it possible for those other agencies to operate successfully. It may be hard to separate cause from eflfect in this matter. It seems clear, however, that there is a close connection between the enor- mous development of Germany's application of science and art to industry, and her astonishing industrial and com- mercial prosperity. Mr. Dawson, in his book, "Evolution of Modem Ger- many," sketches the remarkable changes that have taken place in Germany since the Franco-Prussian War, including the development of the German cities, the changes in oc- cupations of the inhabitants, and the growth of special industries. "In 1871, Germany had eight large towns of over 100,000 inhabitants; in 1880, the number was fourteen; in 1890, there were twenty-six such towns, yet only seven whose population exceeded a quarter of a miUion; in 1895, the number of large towns had increased to thirty; in 1900, it was thirty-three, and, in 1905, there were forty-one towns of over 100,000 inhabitants, of which eleven had over 250,000 inhabitants, and five had over a half-million. The entire town population in Germany in 1871 was 23.7 per cent of the whole; in 1900, 42.26 per cent. "The occupation censuses of 1882 and 1895 furnish further significant evidence of the economic transition through which Germany is passing. It was estimated that in 1843 the population engaged in agriculture, forestry, gardening, and fishing (one of the census units) formed 61 per cent of all the persons earning a livelihood. When the first great occupation census was taken in 1882 it was found that the proportion had fallen to 43.4 per cent and that at the next occupation census of 1895 there was a further decline to 37.5 per cent. The percentage of the entire German population actually dependent upon agriculture, forestry, gardening, and fishing declined between 1882 and [121 GENERAL INTRODUCTION 1895 from 42.5 per cent to 35.7 per cent. On the other hand, the occupation census of 1882 shows that 33.7 per cent of all persons earning a Uvelihood were engaged in industry and mining, and that of 1895 shows a percentage of 37.4 per cent, while during the same period the percentage engaged in trade and transportation increased from 8.3 per cent to 10.6 per cent. Thus, while between these two enumerations the share of agriculture in the earning section of the population decreased by 5.9 per cent of the whole, the share of industry increased by 3.7 per cent, and that of industry and commerce together by 6 per cent. "Even numerically, in spite of the growth of population, agriculture, forestry, gardening, and fishing have only just maintained their position. In 1882, agriculture, forestry, gardening and fishing employed 8,236,496 persons in the whole of Germany; in 1895, 8,292,692, an increase of 56,206 persons, or .7 per cent. During the same period the number of persons employed in industry and mining increased from 6,396,465 to 8,281,220, an increase of 1,884,755, or 28.5 per cent, and those engaged in trade and transportation in- creased from 1,570,318 to 2,338,511, an increase of 768,193, equal to 48.9 per cent. "An examination of Germany's output in special branches of production during the last thirty or forty years wiU help us to realize the changes taking place there. In Prussia, the coal industry has multiplied sixfold during the past forty years. The coal syndicate estimated in 1905 that about 70 per cent of its total output in coal was used directly for industrial purposes. While Germany still im- ports some 9,000,000 tons of coal, she exports twice this amount. The output of iron ore is four times as great as it was thirty years ago. The number of persons employed in the iron and steel industries and manufactories of these metals has increased between 1875 and 1895 from 732,382 to 1,114,506. "In 1882, Great Britain was first in the production of pig iron for the world, the United States second, and Ger- many third. In 1909, the United States was first, Germany [13] VOCATIONAL EDUCATION second, and England third. The larger part of this increased production has been needed for home consumption. Thirty years ago German production of steel was barely half a million tons a year. It now exceeds twelve million tons. "Germany's growth in the electrical and chemical trades is even more remarkable. The number of electrical works in 1904 in Germany was 1,028. One electrical com- pany had a capital of $25,000,000, with loans and reserves of $20,000,000, and with 34,000 employees. In 1903 there were over 150,000 work people employed in the chemical industries of Germany." Another writer, Mr. Barker, adds that: "Four-fifths of the dyes consumed in the world are made in Germany. Her chemists are replacing indigo with indigotin, vanilla with vanillin, camphor with synthetic camphor, madder with alizarin, etc. In 1848, the output of Germany in raw sugar was 12,500 tons. In 1905 and 1906, there were in operation 425 manufactories and re- fineries, whose entire production of raw sugar was 2,400,770 tons. The German chemists in twenty years have more than doubled the percentage of sugar obtained from beets." Mr. Dawson goes on to say: "Every year manufactured goods form a larger propor- tion of Germany's exports and a smaller proportion of her imports. In 1905, 46.5 per cent in value of the imports consisted of raw materials for industrial purposes, compar- ing with 42.5 per cent in 1895. The imports of manufac- tured goods formed 17.9 per cent of the whole in 1905, as against 21.8 per cent in 1895. Food, luxuries, and cattle represent 31.5 per cent of the imports of 1905, as against 32.7 per cent in 1895. Of the exports in 1905, 24 per cent consisted of raw materials for industrial purposes, as against 21.1 per cent in 1895. Manufactured goods formed 63.7 per cent of the total exports in 1895, and 64.5 per cent in 1905, and the proportion that fell to food, liixuries, and cattle declined from 12.4 per cent in 1895 to 8.7 per cent in 1905. In 1874, Germany's share in the mercantile ma^ [14] GENERAL INTRODUCTION rine of the world was 5.2 per cent; in 1894, it was 6.5 per cent; in 1905, it was 9.9 per cent." According to Mr. Barker's recent book on Germany: "Until a few decades ago, Prusso-Germany possessed no navy. In 1848 a navy was started, largely by private subscriptions. In 1852, four years later, it was sold by public auction. In 1849, the Prussian navy consisted of two gunboats and twenty-seven row boats, with sixty-seven guns, thirty-seven officers, and 1,521 men. The commander was a Dutchman. In 1857, when the North German Lloyd Steamship Company was established in Bremen, it began its work with a steamship bought in Scotland. A few years ago, M. Lockroy, Minister of the Marine in Prance, stated that the German fleet was the best organized in the world, and could hold its own against any navy except England. In 1906, Sir Charles Maclaren, M. P., presiding at the yearly meeting of Palmer's Shipbuilding and Iron Company, held at Newcastle, said that Germany was building a greater tonnage than all other continental coimtries put together." Mr. Barker North, President of the British Association of Teachers in Technical Institutions, makes the following statement of the changes in the chemical trades of Eng- land and Germany: "In 1907, the gross value of the output of the chemical trade in the United Kingdom was 233^ millions sterling, and of this amount a little over one-third of a million rep- resents the total value of the coal tar dyestuffs. Geraaany, in 1909, produced aniline colors alone equal to fifteen mil- lions sterling in value, approximately two-thirds of the whole of our chemical trade. The imports of coal tar dyes into England in 1909 increased by sixteen per cent, and in 1910 by ten per cent. The irony of the whole situation is that we celebrated, a few years ago, the jubilee of Perkins' epoch-making discovery of the first aniline dyestuff. "Ten years ago, practically all the indigo put on the market was of natural origin and supplied by British pos- sessions, but certain German firms set out to capture the [15] VOCATIONAL EDUCATION indigo market by the production of artificial indigo. In spite of the statement that the natural product possesses certain intrinsic valuable properties not possessed by the artificial variety, and despite the attempts of the English Government to bolster up the Indian indigo trade, in ten years the annual value of indigo imported into this country from India has fallen from a million sterling to less than 150,- 000 pounds. Germany, in 1909, exported to Asia alone, the home of the natural indigo, indigotin to the value of 1,900,000 pounds. This, again, is now being followed up by the production of vat dyes, many of them products derived from artificial indigo. These colors being ex- tremely fast, in many cases even to bleaching agents, may yet revolutionize our cotton-dyeing industry. We have not only lost our indigo trade, but in these developments our color, manufacturers are again allowing the German firms to forge ahead. "This forward movement is not confined to the color trade alone, for the adoption of new processes of manufac- ture often reacts advantageously on older processes, creat- ing an increasing demand for other products, notably in the heavy chemical trade. At one time, Lancashire produced practically all the sulphuric acid of the world; some ten years ago about one million tons were said to be manufac- tured annually, principally in this part of the country, where- as, according to the recent census, the total amount manu- factured in the United Kingdom in 1907 was 473,000 tons. This was largely due to the commercial development, in Germany and other countries, of the ' contact process ' for the manufacture of sulphuric acid, the initiation of which is principally due to the demands created by the dyestuflf in- dustries. It is again interesting to note that the first patent for this process was taken out by Dr. Squires, an English chemist, though the process has been converted into a commercial success in other countries." Mr. North concludes: "This is typical of the advancement and development which has been such a marked feature of the chemical trade [16] GENERAL INTRODUCTION of other countries. Examples might be multiplied to prove that in England we are engaged to a large extetit in tinker- ing up the old processes of manufacture, while other countries avail themselves of new lines of thought and experiment. The great German industrial cohferns, know- ing the value of the scientific expert, will oncn wait for years for the filial results of researches which tteey realize may ultimately revolutionize an industry, or may provide entirely new industries. "Germany has developed a scheme of practical educa- tion of the masses, which will provide her industries with an army of well-trained workers, and at the same time she has developed to the highest pitch the scientific training of original technologists. It may be that we require more Dreadnoughts, but no number of battleships will prevent our being left far behind in the race of industrial progress, if we continue to rest self-satisfied on the laurels of the past." Mr. Dawson claims that industrial Germany is largely the child of industrial England. It was Englishmen, he urges, who first took hold of the construction of railways, gas works, tramways, and machine shops in Germany. In 1838, Mr. Richard Cobden foretold the day when the weapons which English enterprise and example were then placing in German hands would be turned against them- selves with fatal effect. Those were the days of Germany's apprenticeship. Since completing this apprenticeship, Ger- many has been doing business on her own account and appears to be outstripping her master. Germany has pro- ceeded to supply other nations, and England has lost con- trol of markets which she had held almost undisputed for generations. What Englishmen are trying to find out to- day is: "How has this been done?" Mr. Dawson's con- clusions are: "1j The Germans work harder for a longer number of hours a day than the Englishmen. " 2. The Germans regard commerce and industry as a science and an art, while the Englishmen treat it as purely [17] VOCATIONAL EDUCATION a matter of rule-of -thumb; the German is attempting to apply trained intelligence to the practical affairs of life. "3. The German standard of living is less pretentious than the English; the German manufacturer is contented with less profit than would satisfy an Englishman, and pays smaller salaries and wages." (He admits, however, that the German workmen enjoy substantial compensations for their low scale of wages in the three great insurance benefits — sickness, accident, and old age. It might be added also that low wages and long hours are on the wane in Germany.) "4. The best of German industrialists avail them- selves more fully of modern improvements than they do in England; e. g., in 1905, there were fifty fewer blast furnaces in Germany than in Great Britain, yet Germany was able to produce no less than 2,000,000 tons more of pig iron than Great Britain. "The German technical schools for the engineering trades have created a science of heating. In their begin- ning, the German textile and engineering industries and even the chemical industry, in which Germany especially excels, all owed at least as much to foreign ideas and influence as to national talent. The loss of industry from England's neglect to recognize the commercial value of chemistry is incalculable, and can never be made good. The German chemical industry owes its expansion and prosperity to science and scientific methods. It is estimated that in the chemical manufactories of Germany there is an average of a university-trained chemist to every forty work-people. The large manufactories have well equipped laboratories for scientific research. Nowhere is the alUance between science and practice so intimate as in Germany. "Another secret of Germany's success is that of the study of the needs and wishes of their customers. They recognize that the buyer has a right to have what he wants if it can be made, and that it is a manufacturer's business to supply it. It is impossible to say how much trade has left England owing to obstinate refusal to recognize this not [18] GENERAL INTRODUCTION unreasonable principle. Both German and English writers ascribe a part of Germany's success in foreign and domestic commerce to the training given the German business man in the commercial schools. These business men can speak the language of the customer, and they understand the goods they handle and the needs of their customers. "The larger technical agencies apart, however, invaluable results are often achieved in Germany by the simplest and most inexpensive means — by the humble village class con- ducted in the winter evening hours by the light of the oil lamp in the low-roofed schoolroom; by the traveling exhi- bition of samples of skilled handicrafts which sets provincial ambitions aglow; by the itinerant teacher, who carries a vitalizing store of rudimentary technical knowledge from hamlet to hamlet and from farmhouse to farmhouse in the sequestered mountain districts where home industry is the main support of the population during half of the year. For the most impressive fact about technical education as developed in Germany is its comprehensiveness; it is sup- plied to every occupation in which it is better for a work- man to have it than to be without it. "With this change there has been a striking growth in the concentration of capital and the multiplication of large undertakings. Germany, however, has not yet entirely gone over to the factory system of production. The handi- crafts contend tenaciously with the oncoming tide of capital- ism; the house industries stUl employ about a half -million workers of both sexes, not succeeding very well except in centers like Solingen and Remscheid, where the supply of electrical power by the municipal authorities and private companies and the establishment of Government schools have given a new lease of life to hundreds of independent families and individual workshops, which otherwise would have disappeared long ago. The same thing applies in a lesser degree to the home weaving in Crefeld and Elberfeld districts and to cotton weaving in some of the rural districts of Saxony. "In Prussia in 1861 there were 28.9 per cent independent [19] VOCATIONAL EDUCATION handicraftsmen to every thousand of the population. In 1895, the ratio was 26.7 per cent; now it is about 18 per cent, some of the handicrafts being as good as dead. The State, by means of technical education and other forms of support, is striving to postpone the extinction of the handicrafts. The rural house industries are also making a resolute stand and striving to avert extinction by the factories. The State endeavors to assist them by every means in its power — by offering technical instruction of a kind suited to each local- ity, both by schools and traveling teachers and by liberal grants of money in special times of misfortune. In Bavaria, traveling teachers are supplied by the State whose duty it is to go from place to place in the rural districts where hand weaving is still a staple industry, supervising the work done, advising as to new designs, and imparting instruction to beginners. The teacher, too, negotiates between weavers and dealers of the town who purchase the goods, thus assist- ing in the commercial end of the enterprise." It is admitted that Germany, with poorer land, with a more unfavorable climate and situation, with poorer iron and coal mines, with originally less ingenious and efficient machinery and business methods, is now crowding her competitors to the wall, by employing better trained men. Mr. Barker says that: "It cannot be doubted that under equal conditions the competition of German manufactured goods with English manufactured goods would be impossible anywhere outside of Germany, owing to the unfavorable geographical po- sition of Germany's coal-fields and industrial centers. Germany is competing largely on account of her system of industrial education." The opinions just quoted from Frenchmen and English- men express the conviction that Germany has deliberately set about the industrial conquest of the world. Mr. Dawson says : "Germany is devoting her undivided strength to a struggle for sheer mastery in the realm of matter and for political ascendency among the nations. In the struggle with natural forces which has been carried on with such [20] GENERAL INTRODUCTION wonderful perseverance and deserved success; in the strengthening of the Imperialistic spirit; in the irresistible advance of industry and commerce; in the striving after an inviolable military power; in the eager and jealous glances which are now turned toward the sea; in all these things the underlying thought is the thought of subdual; and subdual is the spirit of modern Germany, now in the first blush of a new life; its capacity still but partially developed; its resources but partially discovered." While one cannot resist the conclusion drawn as to what is happening, it is possible to ascribe somewhat different motives for the course pursued by Germany in recent years, motives which show a broader conception of Germany's necessities, and a less materiahstic and brutal method. Many German thinkers, while admitting Germany's aggres- sive policy in industrial and commercial matters, give a broader and a better reason than mere desire for the sub- jugation of others. They point to self-preservation as the fundamental fact in Germany's policy, both in military and in industrial matters. They iu"ge that by the Austrian and Franco-Prussian wars Germany attained political unity, the unity required by her position, surrounded as she was by enemies who for centuries had profited by her dissensions. She has forged to the front on account of this until she is now perhaps the foremost nation of Europe. She has not, however, attained internal unity. She is divided into hostile factions on internal questions, and has her problems with the Poles, the clericals, and the social democrats. This lack of internal unity has not, up to the present time, prevented all parties from dropping all differences in times of national danger, as was shown recently in her trouble with France and England. It is a question, however, whether she can continue to present a solid front against external dangers unless she succeeds in softening the animosities now dividing her people into warring classes and parties. The nineteenth century was the century of the rebirth of the Fatherland. The problem which presented itself to German leaders was the creation of a true national spirit [21] VOCATIONAL EDUCATION based upon ideals common to the entire people. The outer breakdown of the State presented itself to them as a result of its inner incompetence. They recognized the real cause in the lack of self-activity in the people produced by the old system of government. According to the doctrine sanctioned by absolutism, the State is not an affair of the people, but of the dynasty and of the public oflScials employed in its service. The duty of the subject is to obey, to pay taxes, and to furnish human material for the army. The effect of this system is a spirit of pure passivity. The subject did nothing which he was not obliged to do; public spirit died; the spirit of indolence and selfishness grew ever greater. Whenever the motive power at the head of the State relaxed, the whole stood still like a dead mechanism; a push from the outside and it broke into pieces. A revival of the down-trodden State could take place only through the development of the powers dormant in the people. The new State must be based upon the self- activity of all its members, if it was to become a Kving organism with the powers of resistance and readjustment peculiar to a living organism. Freedom for the individual within his circle was the first requirement; a freedom given by loosening the bonds with which the old State had limited his rights to personal freedom, and freedom of industry and property. Then as a citizen of the new State he must be permitted to participate in the control of the pubUc business of the community, district, and State, not only as a matter of right, but as a means of educating him into power and insight into public affairs. It has been said above that the nineteenth century was the century of the rebirth of Germany. While Germany has secured outer unity, she still lacks the only adequate guaranty of the permanence of this State unity — the unity of the people themselves. To produce this unity of the people is the problem of the twentieth century. This can be solved by the binding together of all the mem- bers of German society into a complete national personality [22] GENERAL INTRODUCTION achieved by a system of education that is national and based on broad principles. A new education was necessary for a State founded upon these new principles, an education based upon the principles of self-activity and self-responsibility, a training for the head, the hand, and the heart. This new education must not be mere leisure-class education — education for leaders and for professional men — but must be a broad system, taking into consideration the needs of all the individuals in the State. With the formation of the new political relations of Germany came a great economical development of the young Empire. One aspect of her present problem, then, was economic. She must succeed as a commercial nation, and must solve the questions of production and distribution. Her technical schools are a most important factor in solving these problems, including her great technical colleges, her technical middle schools, and her industrial continuation schools, but if she is not to fail in her larger problem of in- ternal unity, this industrial school system must keep upper- most training for citizenship, using the economic motive as a point of attack. Those familiar with Dr. Kerschensteiner's book on "Education for Citizenship" know how thoroughly he appreciates this fact. Mere technical training will lead to national selfishness, and not to true patriotism. Ger- many must, therefore, educate the man and the citizen as well as the workman. One will fail to catch the full significance of the German continuation school unless he keeps this in mind. The principle of economic utility demanded recognition in the new system of schools; both utility and culture must be included in the general schools for the people. Both aims — the cultural and the useful — have their justifica- tion; each taken by itself is one-sided, and inadequate to meet the demands made upon the modern citizen. The German has, therefore, reorganized his entire system of educational institutions with a view to developing all his powers, not only for the struggle between individuals [23] VOCATIONAL EDUCATION in the German state, but in his struggle for supremacy in the industrial and commercial fields of the world. It was, then, not merely the motive of subdual that led to this move- ment, but self-preservation, as in matters of this sort there is no such thing as standing still. Germany was compelled to move on to new conquests after the completion of the war with France, and she made use of German thoroughness in her campaign for industrial supremacy. There are only four great manufacturing nations in the world: France, England, Germany, and the United States. In volume of products, the United States is far in the lead. According to H. E, Miles, Chairman of the Educational Committee of the National Manufacturers' Association : The total production of mine, soil, and factory in the United States is of the yearly value of $26,000,000,000 The production of manufactures only is about 15,000,000,000 Of this $15,000,000,000 of manufactures we exported in the year 1907-08 a total of 1,082,000,000 Of this $1,082,000,000, the greater part, or 63 per cent, consisted of crude and semi-crude materials to the total of 680,000,000 There is left as our exports of more highly finished manufactured products 402,000,000 This is only one-sixtieth of our total production, and about one-fortieth of our manufactured product. These semi-crude materials included the following: Foodstuffs partly or wholly manufactured, flour, etc $331,968,382 Manufactures of copper in bars, wire, etc 104,064,580 Manufactures of iron and steel, like bars, billets, and rails 48,118,682 Petroleum and other mineral oils 97,651,326 Crude manufactures of wood 62,706,191 Crude manufactures of leather, furs, and fur- skins 34,682,482 Hi] GENERAL INTRODUCTION Mr. Miles continues: "We are not in the race. As a people we are ignorant of foreign trade. Lost in the by-places of England, I have learned more of world trade from notices on the walls of little postoflBces than I could from the officials of some of our largest cities. "It has been aptly said that America is little else than a huge stevedore, bearing down to the ships of the sea crude and semi-crude materials for the employment of the capital, labor, and intellect of foreign nations. Exportation of these partly manufactured materials is a depletion of our natural resources, the heritage of the ages in mine, forest, and soil fertility, never to be restored. Those who are best informed see within a period, which to the far-sighted is only as a day, our wonderful country importing these same materials, and our producers handicapped by excessive cost. "We have been proud of our great agricultural expor- tations, but our scientists now give us reason to question to what extent even these exportations have permanently enriched us. We are told that every bushel of wheat ex- ported carries 27 cents worth of phosphorus, every bushel of corn 13 cents, and each pound of cotton 3 cents. These figures fairly represent the supposed profits. To-day our best agricultural states, even those only fifty years under cultivation, yield only half as much per acre as the thousand- year-old soils of Europe. We have been capitalizing soil values to an extreme and hurtful extent, where we thought we were making real and substantial profits. There were reasons in the past for these exportations of various raw and semi-crude products, and we have, on the whole, splendidly prospered; but those reasons are no longer effective. "Now, we must use every effort to send our products abroad ready for consumption, carrying the maximum and not the minimum of American labor and skill. Think of the difference in the amount of labor carried by a typewriter and a bar of iron; a planer and a billet. We ship our cotton abroad raw at 14 cents per pound. We buy some of it back in fine handkerchiefs from the thrifty Swiss, at [25] VOCATIONAL EDUCATION $40.00 per pound, all labor. The exports of England, Ger- many, and France are finished products, mostly labor; most of ours carry only enough labor to make them fit for ship's cargo. "Our labor is in many respects the most efficient in the world. We are proud of our 'men behind the gims'; their brothers, the men behind the machines in our factories, have no less of ability and the courage of accomplishment. There is brains in a Remington typewriter, in a Singer sewing- machine, and in American shoes. These are already ex- ported in volume, and point the way for tens of thousands of other products, which can be made as welcome in foreign markets. These show, too, that high-paid American wages are cheap wages. "As then-President Roosevelt said to the writer three years ago : ' We have become an industrial nation, and must acquire world markets for our finished products.' Such markets broaden the industrial base of operations, and will infinitely lessen the hurt of domestic stringencies and panics, which in the world sense are often local." It is evident from Mr. Miles' figures how far we are from Roosevelt's ideal. We are producing goods because we can produce cheaply; because we can capitalize our national resources rather than make profits; we are producing goods we can sell to the world because we have cheap raw material and ingenious labor-saving machinery, and our business men have capacity for organization. The cheap raw material, however, is becoming constantly dearer; Germany and other nations are modeling their machinery after ours, and are studying our methods of organization. There is a general admission that the market for American machinery in Germany is falling away, and that .the Germans are provid- ing their own machinery. By the development of special skill among her workmen, Germany is making up her lack of national advantages. She began the problem of conser- vation of her national and human resources many years ago. Conservation of our national resources has attracted [26] GENERAL INTRODUCTION the attention of the public for the last two or three years. We recognize that we have been wasting our national resources, but not so clearly that we have wasted our human resources. We are making attempts to preserve our forests, our mines, our fisheries, and our water power, but are only beginning to appreciate the conservation of our human resources. Professor Carver of Harvard University puts the case in this way: "In the present conservation movement it is highly important that we realize two things : 1. That our most valuable resources are our people; and 2. That we are wasting people more than we are wasting anything else. "If we forget either of these things, we shall probably find ourselves trying to save at the spigot while we are wast- ing at the bung-hole. "That our most valuable resources are our people may be inferred from certain large facts of economics. Commu- nities have grown rich in the midst of poor geographical surroundings by reason of the simple fact that they have developed the latent energy of their people and applied this energy intelligently. Scotland and New England are conspicuous examples of this kind of success. These com- munities have, in the past at any rate, developed their human resources and directed them more intelligently than most other communities. Modern Germany may also be mentioned because — though not poor in geographical resources — it has only been since she began training her producers in a superior way that she has risen to pre-emi- nence as an industrial nation. Other nations have grown poor in the midst of rich geographical resources by reason of the simple fact that they have wasted their people, not simply in war, but by allowing their latent energy to remain undeveloped, or to be imintelligently utilized. Speaking generally, one is safe in saying that no nation ever did pros- per as compared with other nations except by reason of its superior conservation of the human factor in production. In view of these large facts, it is reasonably safe to say that [27] VOCATIONAL EDUCATION the most destructive form of waste is the waste of labor- power. "If one will look carefully about he will see, in any community, so many ways in which labor-power is being wasted as to convince him that here is the greatest of all forms of national waste, though it is much greater in some communities than in others. One will find, for example, four characteristic forms of waste labor-power, all of them of considerable magnitude. There are: 1. The army of the unemployed, or the involimtary idle. 2. The imperfectly employed, or the untra;ihed. 3. The improperly employed, the acquisitively rather than productively employed. 4. The voluntary idle, commonly known as 'the leisure class.' " The industrial school deals directly with the waste due to the imperfect employment of labor on account of the lack of training, and indirectly with the waste due to in- voluntary idleness. Professor Carver's convincing analysis is familiar. If by means of training "you can transfer unskilled labor into the scarcer and more needed work of management, you provide a demand for the army of un- employed and increase the productive power of the com- munity. Upon the redistribution of labor-power upward from the unskilled and over-crowded occupation toward and into remunerative occupation depends, more than anything else, the expansion of our industries. It takes no miracle to see this; it requires only education." Germany has shown us the way, and Scotland is follow- ing after. They are the two countries of the world that really believe in education as a factor in human efficiency and human happiness. The Englishman of to-day com- plains, not only of the competition of the Germans, but also of the competition of the Scotchmen. They are both dangerous competitors for him, and for the same reason: they carry on commerce and industry as a science and an art and not by rule-of -thumb; they both have made pro- vision for training their workmen. [28] GENERAL INTRODUCTION It seems natural for the student of industrial education to turn to Germany. There, such educational insti- tutions have made greater progress and have been more successful in the attempts to apply science to industry than those of any other country. In no country will you find the problem taken up in so thoroughgoing a manner; in no country will you find an attempt made to cover, by means of industrial schools, the occupations of everyone from the lowly laborer to the director of the great manufacturing establishment. As has been stated: "The State provides industrial training for every person who will be better off with it than without it. No occupation is too humblff to receive the attention of the German authorities; and the opinion prevails there that science and art have a place in every occupation known to man." Dr. Reynolds, Director of the Manchester Institute of Technology, said in his address to the Imperial Educa- tional Conference last summer: "Whether we are tired of Germany as a model or not, she is too formidable an an- tagonist in the sphere of world-politics, in the domain of high learning, in the field of manufacturing industry, and in the world's market, for us to ignore her rapid advance, or to be indifferent as to the cause. "Within a generation of living men her sun has risen above the horizon, and has blazoned forth, as it is rising towards the zenith, with a splendour that compels our admiration, even though it may fill us with alarm. "It is hardly more than a hundred years ago since Prussia lay 'a bleeding and lacerated mass' under the heel of Napoleon, but she fortunately had men with long vision and keen insight as to the true principles by which the nation should ultimately find salvation, and they founded the University of Berlin, now with 13,827 students, 'to supply the loss of territory by intellectual effort.' "In short, it was to education, thorough and far-reaching, that these wise counsellors looked for the means whereby their nation should regain and enhance its position in Europe and the world, and the faith and hope which inspired them has, as we all know only too well, been more than justified. [29] VOCATIONAL EDUCATION "In no other way can the phenomenal advance of the German nation be explained, and the evidence of this advance is seen in her enormous output of fine chemicals, which has enabled her to put the whole world under toll, in her great mechanical and electrical engineering develop- ments, and in her mercantile marine." The lines of William Watson, in his "Coronation Ode" of 1902, are instinct with prophecy: "Time and the Ocean and some fostering star In high cabal have made us what we are. * But now the day is unto them that know And not henceforth she stumbles on the prize; And yonder march the nations full of eyes. Already is doom a-spinning, if unstirred In leisure of ancient pathways she lose touch Of the hour, and overmuch Recline upon achievement, and be slow To take the world arriving, and forget How perilous are the stature and the port that so Invite the arrows, how unslumbering all The hates that watch and crawl." [SO] CHAPTER II SURVEY OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION IN GERMANY INDUSTRIAL TECHNICAL EDUCATION INDUSTRIAL technical education in Germany is not carried on under imperial laws. According to article four of the imperial constitution, the regulation of in- dustries is within the jurisdiction of the German Empire. It is only so far as this regulation of industries touches upon technical education that imperial legislation controls. At the present time there are three points of contact: 1. The trade regulations of the Empire, prescribing the qualifications of persons who wish to carry on some particular industry. 2. The laws prescribing the powers and duties of the guilds. 3. The laws requiring young workers to attend a con- tinuation school where such schools exist. These three points are governed by imperial legislation. The laws of the individual states control in all other matters which concern industrial education. In consequence of this the technical school systems in the various states of the Empire have developed each in its own way, both as to substance and as to form of education. There are certain points of resemblance, but in most particulars so extraordi- nary a variety is presented that to give a complete account involves a separate analysis of the conditions in each indi- vidual state of the German Empire. A description of the German system of industrial education must, therefore, consist chiefly of a series of outlines of what is being done in [31] VOCATIONAL EDUCATION the various states. One can point out only a few general principles that govern everywhere. In Germany the doctrine is firmly established that the maintenance of a complete system of graded schools is part of the business of the State. In accordance with this prin- ciple, the general educational institutions of the whole Empire are almost without exception under public control, but in the case of industrial and commercial schools the principle is only partly realized. In consequence we find, in addition to public educational institutions, numerous educational enterprises which are carried on for economic gain by groups of private individuals. In addition, we see co-operation of such groups with the public authorities. In the case of a great number of public institutions perma- nent contributions are made to the cost of support by cor- porations of manufacturers of the particular class interested, or great unions undertake the entire support of special tech- nical schools. Even in the case of institutions supported entirely at public expense there are wide diflferences. The technical universities, in contrast with commercial universities, are everywhere maintained by the individual states, although even here in special cases the local authorities or industrial corporations make financial contributions. But in the case of the secondary and lower school systems the local community, the district, and the larger independent asso- ciations take part, in varying proportions, the diflferences appearing both in the control and in the contributions made for the support of the institution. With this consideration in mind, we can divide the schools into; 1. State institutions: (a) those which are supported entirely by the State, and (6) those for which private cor- porations furnish a share of the cost; and 2. Local community institutions — either pure com- munity institutions or those to which either the State or local organizations contribute. There is a third class of institution, supported by asso- ciations and unions, which is not carried on for gain, but [S2] SURVEY OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION IN GERMANY which requires considerable financial assistance from both the State and the city. Turning to institutions which are maintained for private profit, we find that, as such institutions in the course of the year bring considerable money into a town, it is the custom for cities to contribute towards their support, mainly in the way of providing school buildings, either without cost or with only a moderate return of interest on the capital in- vested. There are many transitional forms between these types of public and private schools, as the stream of educational development in Germany is in full flood. A comparison of public and private institutions in point of numbers is possible only to a very limited degree, on account of the lack of exact statistics. The development of private institutions is greatest in the field of the building- trades and machine-trades schools. Compared with seventy eight public institutions of this kind in 1904, having about 13,000 day school pupils, we have about twenty-five private institutions, most of them "Technika," or, as they have recently been called, "engineer schools," of which the twelve greatest have a total of 7,000 pupils. The organization, courses of study, and work of these private institutions vary as much as the numbers in attend- ance. In addition to a few which existed during a part of the last century, and have attained in consequence a repu- tation based upon the actual results of their instruction, there are others which behind large claims conceal very inferior work. As indications of this we can point to the low entrance requirements, the high rate of tuition, the great inequalities of school equipment, the crowded classes, the teachers, often changing, insufficient in number and in preparation, with high-sounding diplomas, but poor salaries. In contrast, experience has shown that, generally speaking, education which really advances the pupUs, and which will satisfy the rapidly increasing demands upon the tech- nical man, can be provided best in State institutions, or institutions receiving considerable assistance from the [33] VOCATIONAL EDUCATION State to supplement the income received from tuition fees. In this way it is possible to secure an excellent staflf of teachers, with adequate salaries. As a result, more and more public institutions have been called into existence during the last hundred years, and the representatives of those interested in the special industries have constantly recommended and promoted such State or State-assisted schools. In spite of this and of their narrower scope of work, the private institutions — especially at an earlier date, but to some degree now — have had considerable popularity. This is explained in part by the great promises which they make in their public announcements, the shorter time within which the pupils will be able to complete the course of study, and the greater freedom permitted to the pupils. In part the explanation lies in the earlier lack of good tech- nical schools, and the high requirements of the public schools for entrance and at the final examinations, a disadvantage now to some extent overcome by the establishment of pre- paratory classes, as well as by the combination of schools of this type with the more elementary kinds of schools; and finally, in the fact that in public institutions the preparation of officials for the public service is an element that is likely to hinder any systematic adaptation of the coiu"se of study to the demands of practical industrial life. The experience gained in the schools is of help in the overcoming of these defects, and the public schools, with constantly growing expenditures, are now able to satisfy all legitimate demands. The following explanation has reference only to public educational institutions: The aims of institutions engaged in industrial education differ according to the positions for which their students are being prepared. The subject-matter of instruction and the methods of instruction must differ correspondingly. These again are governed by the degree of general and tech- nical preparation the pupil possesses on entering the school and by the time at his disposal for instruction. It makes an essential difference in the course of teaching whether the [34] SURVEY OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION IN GERMANY pupil can devote his entire strength to attendance at classes for a considerable period, or whether he must divide his time between instruction and a practical vocational activity that makes greater or less demands upon his power of work. In the organization of the school these things must be taken into consideration and a kind of educational work must be provided that is within the pupil's possibilities in the way of school attendance. The result of this series of circumstances is that these technical educational institutions cannot always be assigned to their proper classification. In the same in- stitution the same teacher may have entirely different aims for different groups of pupils. Four main classes of insti- tutions may be distinguished: 1. The technical university, which trains independent leaders and subordinate officers of the great enterprises to make intelligent use of existing methods of work and to discover for themselves new technical processes. Between these technical universities and the middle industrial schools next mentioned stand a few rather loosely organized institutions which, so far as the qualifications of students as to previous preparation are concerned, are inferior to the technical colleges, but which likewise prepare students for independent positions in industrial life. It is usual to call their graduates "engineers," unless some special designation naturally occurs. In this class are included the Royal Industrial Academy at Chemnitz, the Higher Technical Institute at Cothen, and the highest and perhaps the next to the highest, classes of a few middle industrial schools. These institutions could be most suit- ably designated as "industrial academies." 2. The middle technical schools aim to train managing officers for the greater industries, and persons who initiate and manage the lesser industrial undertakings and need to know how to follow independently the advance in technical processes. As a condition for admission to these schools a general education is universally required, corresponding at least to that which is set as the educational qualification for the one year's voluntary service in the German army. The [86] VOCATIONAL EDUCATION requirements of practical experience are not uniform: in some cases from one to two years' experience is required; in others a substitute for this practical workshop training is offered in the workshop of the school itself, or in specially selected workshops; on the other hand, in a few industries where a training in the entire business is not possible, one sees practical workshop training carried on at the same time as attendance at school. The instruction is scientific, including lectures, class- work, and practice; the advance of the pupils is regulated carefully, and promotions are made to a higher course only after the lower course has been com- pleted satisfactorily. Supplementary practical experience is given the pupil regularly in places where workshops or business institutions exist. The length of the course in most cases is from two to three years. The passing of the final examination answers part of the requirements for admission to the technical colleges. In former times these middle technical schools were often united with general educational institutions, and this is still found in some cases. 3. The lower technical schools attempt the education of the middle and lower oflScials, the foremen of the great industries, and the managers of independent plants in the handicrafts or small industries. These schools are partly able to prepare for higher work, in the case of students who have either a better general education or longer practical experience, or who can return to school after additional workshop training. In some cases, special upper courses are added to lower technical schools. The requirements for admission are: 1. A preliminary general education such as is given in a good elementary school. 2. The training, especially in drawing and arithmetic, given in the continuation schools or the preparatory course of the technical schools. 3. Several years' practical experience in a trade, and at least the completion of apprenticeship. Where in exceptional cases this latter requirement is not [36] SURVEY OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION IN GERMANY complied with, practical work in a business institution or the school workshop takes a foremost place in the program of the school. Instruction is carried on sometimes more on the theoretical side and sometimes more on the practical side, but attention is always given to the principles of mathematics and science and the technology of the branch of the industry concerned, and to technical drawing. The courses of study sometimes show very wide variations. This is due in the first place to the difference in the duration of school attendance, which is sometimes only for months, sometimes for years, and which is interrupted partially by practical work in the trade. Besides, there are differences in the aims of the schools, as different degrees of dexterity in the practice of the trade are sought. Some lower tech- nical schools, especially those with a two years' course, show in the upper classes the characteristics of a middle technical school; for example, the upper classes of the min- ing schools and the upper classes of the navigation schools. Others, at the very opposite extreme, for example, many textile schools, have for their aim only the thorough training of an artisan. 4. The industrial continuation schools give all the workers in the industries and handicrafts, whether appren- tices or journeymen, an opportunity to acquire, without giving up their practical work in the shop, a knowledge and skill in drawing, which is absolutely necessary for effi- ciency in their occupations. The requirement for admission to an industrial continuation school is only the completion of the elementary school course. In no case is more required than attendance at a general continuation school in which certain subjects of instruction in the elementary schools — German, mathematics, and drawing — are reviewed and finished. The aims of the various schools are different. The special features of the particular industry can be taken up more or less thoroughly, according to the number of hours available in the week — which for the most part will not exceed eight or ten, in the evening, on week-days, or on Sunday forenoons — and according to the length of school [37] VOCATIONAL EDUCATION attendance, which at best can extend over only a few years. In consequence of these conditions, the continuation schools must of necessity confine themselves within narrow limits, and their success is accordingly often less than is expected. While some study of bookkeeping and business calculations, in addition to technical instruction, is often introduced for handicraftsmen and persons engaged in small independent businesses, the worker in a factory has little interest in these subjects. Long attendance and satisfactory progress in a continua- tion school often serve as preparation for the lower technical schools, or as a substitute for their lowest grade. The grouping of the various classes of schools is very different in the individual States. These differences are the result of a long course of historical development, modi- fied to meet changing conditions. Thus the individual states have no thoroughly worked out plan, established from the beginning, and the present state of the schools does not satisfy either fimdamental demands or the practical needs of the present day. The distribution of the schools is often bad; in many industries certain grades of technical institu- tions are lacking; whole fields of education — for example, the technical training of handicraftsmen — are only now beginning to be fully covered. If this is true in the individ- ual states, these disadvantages come into view still more plainly in the German Empire as a whole, where through lack of uniform direction no systematically concerted effort is possible, except in rare cases. In the field of mining production, we have various types of schools for mining — advanced technical schools, lower technical schools, middle technical schools, and continuation schools; the latter being established chiefly as preparatory schools for the lower technical institutions — mining acad- emies, departments of mining in the technical college of Aachen, mining schools with upper classes, and preparatory mining schools. All these schools train mining oflGicers and State technical officials. In the field of industrial production, we distinguish three [38] SURVEY OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION IN GERMANY groups — the mechanical trades, the chemical trades, and the building trades. Under the mechanical trades the metal and the electro- technical industries are included. Besides the divisions for engineering, ship machinery construction, shipbuilding, and electrotechnology in the advanced schools and in the technical academies, we have middle technical schools (known in Germany as "Hohere Schulen"), lower technical schools, and continuation schools for the machine and electrotechnical trades, as well as a large number for the various branches of metal work. The textile industries are not represented in the advanced technical schools, but for this branch there are middle and lower technical schools, and an extensive system of continuation schools and schools for weaving and the other house industries. In the wood- working trades, besides continuation classes, there are found only cabinet-makers' and industrial art schools, in combina- tion with other lower technical schools, especially those for wood-carving. In the field of the chemical trades there is a very highly developed scheme of instruction, including the universities, the departments of chemistry and foundry work in the technical colleges, the mining academies, and agricultural high schools, and the industrial academies. On the other hand, middle technical schools of this kind, if we leave the agricultural schools out of account, are found only for the brewing and artificial coloring industries. Instruction in the chemical trades in the lower groups of technical schools is less frequent, being confined mainly to two trades — smelting and ceramics; in the continuation schools this class of instruction is almost entirely lacking. The educational arrangements in the building trades are better developed. The departments for architects and building engineers in the technical universities, together with the middle and lower technical schools and the continuation schools, provide for the architect and the civil engineer a system of educational institutions of all grades. The different grades of instruction in the art-trades [39] VOCATIONAL EDUCATION schools cannot be distinguished so clearly from one another. In the higher schools pure and applied art constantly sup- plement each other; in the lower schools differences in artistic advancement, due to differences in education, make a strict classification of students impossible. From old tradition, no longer of any force, technical schools for the handicrafts are closely allied to the lowest grade of the art-trades schools. The technical school systems for the training of handi- craftsmen in the smaller industries have not kept pace with those established to meet the needs of the great industries. We find, however, the various types of schools above described — the lower technical schools and the continua- tion schools for the metal and electrotechnical trades, the building-trades schools with their departments for foremen, stonemasons, and cabinet-makers, and the art-trades schools. In addition, there exist in a few cities independent schools equipped with workshops offering day-time classes for several handicrafts, as well as evening classes. There are also a few technical schools which the great union of hand-workers (Handwerkerverein) has instituted for the general handicrafts of Germany. In the case of artisans who have finished their apprenticeship, special courses are offered; for example, the blacksmiths have schools of horse- shoeing. The only schools that are universally found are the industrial continuation schools, with special technical courses for handicraftsmen. It may therefore be said that the educational arrangements for the handicrafts are at present only beginning to be organized into anything hke a system. In the carrying trade, there has been developed for ocean commerce a systematic scheme of lower schools for masters and machinists. Some of the work in these schools is of a more advanced nature, as a result of the imperial regulations for the examination of applicants for licenses as masters, pilots, and machinists. As for the traffic on inland waters, the States on the banks of the rivers main- tain a great number of masters' schools, which are largely [40] SURVEY OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION IN GERMANY of the nature of continuation schools, especially adapted to the needs of this branch of commerce. The field of technical training for women in the industrial and commercial branches, and in the work of housekeeping, has been unoccupied until very recently, but now consider- able advance is being made. At present there are two distinct plans for establishing and carrying on the different kinds of technical schools : 1. Under the first plan, the technical schools are entirely separate from the general educational institutions and de- vote their attention exclusively to technical training. Each type of school offers courses of technical training of different grades, but in the same general line of work, and each is complete in itself. Students finish their entire course at one school, and do not advance from a lower to a higher school, except when they enter a technical university. 2. The second system, on the contrary, combines the middle and lower technical schools with schools of general education (Realschulen) and the technical schools them- selves may include two or more different lines of technical training. The first system prevails in Prussia; the second has been preferred in Bavaria. The technical school system of Saxony in its various forms is based upon the first system, but the industrial academy is inserted between the technical college and the middle school, and students who complete successfully the course in the industrial academy are ad- mitted to the technical college. Other states of the Empire follow this same plan, but often with this difference, that schools organized to serve the needs of different industries are combined in one institution, which thus may contain a middle and a lower technical school under one direction, as in Wiirttemberg, Bremen, Hamburg, and Alsace-Lor- raine. For these combination schools the name "Techni- kum" is used. A statistical comparison of the technical school systems of individual states of the Empire is difficult, because the different institutions are so differently organized, and vary [41] VOCATIONAL EDUCATION so considerably from each other, not only in respect to their work, but also in respect to their financial resources, Prus- sia, of course, and the larger States — Saxony, Wiirttemberg, Baden, and the Free. City of Hamburg — have technical school systems fully organized. The other States, on the contrary, with the exception of Brunswick, which has a technical college, are surprisingly backward in this regard, a defect which is not supplied by the numerous private schools found in the smaller States. The organization and maintenance of a system of technical education calls for a great expenditure of money. In this, as in other respects, the technical school differs widely from the continuation school. The technical school requires at the very start a large outlay for buildings and equipment. The school building must contain class-rooms, rooms for the display of collections of apparatus and materi- als, drawing-rooms, laboratories, workshops, and a machine plant. In order to follow the advances in methods of work, this equipment must be kept in good condition, and new and modern equipment must be added from time to time. However, these constantly recurring problems on the physical side are less serious than the equally pressing personal problem presented by the lack of good teachers. Germany has not always taken to heart the lesson that in a technical school, as in any other school, satisfactory and permanent results are possible only when teachers of a high standard of excellence can be secured. Ever since men have been convinced of the importance of having good teachers, special attention has been given to the question of financial remuneration: as the industries offer splendid rewards to efficient workmen, the technical teachers, from whom we expect not only thorough technical knowledge and practical skill, but also teaching ability, must occupy as favorable a position as possible, in order to meet with the opportunities presented in the world of industry. The technical teacher is generally protected from being over- loaded with teaching duties in order that he may be given an opportunity, in addition to his work as a teacher, to [42] SURVEY OF VOCATIOyAL EDUCATIOX Ds GERMANY keep in as close touch as possible with actual practice in industrial life, and to supplement his salary by outside work. At the same time the salaries of teachers ate being advanced and an adequate pension provided, increasing with years of service and including a provision for wife and famfly, as iu the case of other State o£Scials. From all this, it may be seen what an extremely heavy burden must constantly be borne by the State. On the other h^d, the income derived directly from the technical school system is always small. It is rarely that an industry carried on in a school, or a school workshop, returns any profit, and careful calculation is much more likely to show a deficit. The tuition fees fall considerably short of covering the cost of maintenance. The question consequently arises, who shall furnish the supplementary amount required.^ Shall it be contributed from public funds or by private individuals and organizations? It often happens that great industrial or school associations organ- ized locally for the purpose will undertake the entire support of an institution, or at least the principal part of the cost, but for the most part the choice lies between the two great governmental agencies — the State and the local commu- nity. The participation of both agencies in this field of education has grown considerably in the last twenty years. The division of the problem between them is not carried out uniformly. In general, it may be said that the indi- vidual cities have their own school organizations, and that schools are established by the State to serve larger districts. No doubt the ciiy also derives much advantage from the opjwrtimity of sending its students of middle and higher school grades to the district institution, and to this extent it is fair to call upon the city for some part of the initial cost of founding the school, or for regular contributions to the expense of maintenance. On the other hand, the State is not without interest in the success of technical schools of a local character, not only because in this way the State is relieved of the necessity of providing for the training ^^^^!W T I! 1 ? l>v^ i ■m ' li CHAET SHOWING SYSTEMS OnWHis ^^^^mM'yn//' 4 *8 si 5^ 1. S ^ (c^^taAfH^U^im^ ^ ■* IN THE UNITED STATES AND GERMANY Prepared by the Educational Committee of the Society of German Engineers, Berlin OUTLINE OF THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF GERMANY is given in two classes until the number of children exceeds 120, when a third class is provided. The third class has only twelve hours a week instruction, the second class twenty- four, and the first class twenty-eight. The school in which there are several teachers provides for three or more classes. In the cities the usual number of classes is seven or eight, organized much as they are in the cities of America. The children in the lower grades are supposed to receive twenty-two hours of instruction a week; in the intermediate g/ades, twenty-eight hours a week; in the upper grades, from thirty to thirty-two hours a week. In the year 1910 there were in Prussia: Desoription of the In the City In the Country In General School OrEBnizatioa Schools Pupils Schools Pupils Schools Pupils One-dass schools . . . 410 16.516 13.205 687.893 13.615 704.409 Half or tliird of a day schools 79 6,332 7.794 662,701 7.873 669.033 Two-class schools. . . 226 24,556 8.750 463,274 3.976 487.830 Three-class schools. 404 78,759 4,864 832.230 5,258 910,989 Four-class schools.. 432 132.094 1,402 371.491 1,834 503.585 Five-class schools.. 362 131.161 606 213.386 968 344.547 Six-class schools . . . 1.118 645.908 495 264.217 1,613 910,125 Seven-class schools. 1,118 757,138 218 154.141 1.336 911.279 Eight-class schools. 265 212,670 18 16.403 283 229.073 Total 4,414 2,005.134 32.342 3,665.736 36.756 5.670.870 Twenty-four per cent of all the school children attend the one-class or a half or a third of a day school, 34 per cent a two to four class school, 22 per cent a five or six class school, 16 per cent a seven, and only 4 per cent an eight-class people's school. This situation has improved during recent years, as more class divisions have been instituted and children remain in school longer. The number of pupils to a class was: In the year In the year 1901 1906 In the cities 56 54 children In the country 54 53 In Prussia as a whole 55 53 77] CHAPTER V CONTINUATION SCHOOLS THE movement to continue the instruction given in the elementary school dates back to the establish- ment of Sunday schools in the sixteenth century. As early as 1803, Bavaria passed a law requiring the attendance at such Sunday schools of all persons of both sexes until they reached their sixteenth year, unless they were still attending another school. The main purpose of such supplementary schools was originally moral and religious instruction. This purpose has never been lost sight of in the continuation schools of Germany, although many of them do not, at the present time, give definite religious instruction. In some parts of Germany, however, a definite portion of the time of the continuation school is given to religious instruc- tion, usually under the direction of clergymen. Even in cases where the school authorities do not set aside time for re- ligious instruction they still encourage clergymen to give it in the school buildings but not during the hours set apart for continuation school instruction. The industrial revolution of the first half of the nineteenth century made very radical changes in the position and powers of the guilds. These institutions declined in importance and number, and with their decline came a great deteriora- tion in the quality of the instruction given to apprentices in the industries. The master's shop did not provide the kind and quantity of practical and theoretical instruction required by modern conditions, so the Germans attempted to use the continuation school as a supplement to shop in- struction. In many parts of Germany — especially in South Germany — many of the ordinary Sunday and even- ing schools were turned into vocational evening and Sunday schools. There was a general feeling that, while the elements [78] CONTINUATION SCHOOLS of culture should not be entirely neglected, greater attention should be given to vocations. In 1869, the North German Confederation introduced into the trade regulations a provision requiring the attendance of all workmen under eighteen years of age at contiuuation schools wherever these existed- Under these regulations, compulsory continuation schools are found in aU the larger communities of Germany. In fact, twelve of the twenty-six German states have passed laws requiring them. In the remaining states, local author- ities acting under the trade regulations are permitted to establish compulsory schools if public opinion justifies it. With the establishraent of the German Empire new demands were made upon the continuation school. Man- hood suffrage was introduced in all Imperial matters, and better civic instruction was needed for those who were to exercise the franchise. The ordinary elementary school could not provide its pupils with this kind of instruction, largely on account of their immaturity. From this difficulty arose the third ftmction of the continuation school: train- ing for citizenship. These three main lines of influence — religion, economics, and social politics — are marked in the modern continua- tion school. No one of them, as Mr. H. A. Clay says, has ceased to operate, although the relative importance of each has not been settled in exactly the same way in any two countries of Germany. Indeed, within the limits of a single state are to be f oimd wide differences in the emphasis placed upon one or another of them. Dr. Kerschensteiner, Director of the schools of Munich, has been a pioneer in the movement to harmonize the moral and religious, the vocational and the civic points of view. In 1902, a prize was offered by the Royal Academy of Science of Erfurt for the best essay on the "Training of Youth for Citizenship during the Years between Fourteen and Twenty," that is, in the interval between a boy's leaving the elementary school and the time when he enters upon military service. Dr. Kerschensteiner's essay won the prize, and has since exercised a wide influence upon the develop- [79] VOCATIONAL EDUCATION ment of continuation schools both in Germany and in the other countries of Europe.* In this essay Dr. Kerschensteiner takes the following ground: 1. That the work of the primary school cannot be regarded as an effective means of training for citizenship, as the boy's experience in social matters is too limited, and he is mentally too immature. For these reasons the train- ing of the elementary course of study fails to exercise the desired influence upon the pupils. 2. That for the child of fourteen who leaves school to become a breadwinner all systematic education practically ceases. This takes place just at the time when the influence of the family begins to weaken, and where the lack of con- trol over the boy may have a most baneful effect upon his moral character. These considerations have led Dr. Kerschensteiner and all the leading educators of Germany to insist that the State should provide compulsory instruction in continuation schools for all boys between the ages of fourteen and eighteen. He points out that it is inconsistent for the State to provide compulsory elementary schools and let the youth go just when he most needs help and when character-building is most necessary. "Is it not strange," he urges, "that at- tendance at school up to the age of eighteen or nineteen is required for the small fraction of our people destined for the liberal professions, although they spring from f amiUes which possess both the means and the intellectual qualifications for performing their educational duties, while we expose the majority of their future fellow-voters, when they are little more than children, to the dangers of everyday life? The little that we are able to give in the elementary school leaves them as open to the evil tendencies of everyday life as to the good. As it is impossible to give definite direction to the character of the boy at the ages of thirteen and four- ' It has been a part of (be work of the Commercial Club of Chicago to make this essay available to all American and English students of this question. The Club has secured the American and English rights to this book, and has had it translated. It is published by Band, McNally & Company, of Chicago. [80] CONTINUATION SCHOOLS teen by means of the elementary school, and as young people at that age are, without exception, selfish, our primary edu- cation is for the individual, and still more for the masses, a gift of the Danaides rather than a bounty from heaven. We give the people aU too readily a fire which they cannot tend, a hanuner which they cannot wield, and a cast of mind in which the demagogue who promises everything can work more easily than the leader who remains faithful to high principles." Dr. Kerschensteiner declares that the main purpose of the continuation schools is training for citizenship. The securing of personal and vocational efficiency is to be regard- ed simply as a means. Training for vocational efficiency is made the first step toward securing all-round efficiency, on account of its appeal to the boy as well as to the practical man. But besides the personal vocational efficiency secured by this training there are developed the civic virtues which are the real foundation of all higher moral training: con- scientiousness, perseverance, seK-restraint, devotion to a strenuous life. These are the real things that we are after. We must lead men to think and act under the guidance of ideals that iuclude something more than self-interest. In this training, attempts are made to give insight into the relations of individuals to one another and to the State; to extend knowledge of the laws of health, and to employ the knowledge gained in the school in the exercise of self- control, justice, and devotion to duty, and iu leading a sen- sible life, tempered with a strong feeling of responsibility. According to Dr. Kerschensteiner an education devoted exclusively to technical training for an occupation is not worth much as a preparation for citizenship. It is quite as likely to encourage selfishness as to encourage altruism. "The school which devotes not a single moment of the day to any other interest than that of personal gain or the desire to become an expert worker so as to gain the greatest possible advantage over competitors ia the economic struggle is hardly a suitable nursery of civic virtue." Other educators emphasize the idea of pure technical [81] VOCATIONAL EDUCATION training, and not a few regard these schools as mere institu- tions for reviewing and perhaps supplementing the training of the elementary school. In other words, there are schools still under the domination of the old-fashioned pedagogy which regards trade instruction as utilitarian and barbarous. But the weight of governmental authority is laid upon the training for citizenship and manhood through and in con- nection with vocational training. What Is a Continuation School? In the widest sense of the word, all educational institu- tions which devote themselves to the further training of young people who have outgrown the elementary school are continuation schools. We may include under the term all sorts of secondary technical schools, such as schools for the building trades, machine trades, and wood-working trades, but such a classification is not usual. The term also does not include trade schools, which are a substitute for apprenticeship and which undertake to give the education of both the shop and the continuation school. These schools are day schools which take the whole time of the pupil so that he cannot be employed at the same time in the school and in the workshop or establishment of his master. Continuation schools proper are schools which young people attend only a few hours a week, most of their time being spent in business or the workshop. All schools which give young people in apprenticeship or in employment of any kind the general civic, social, and vocational training which forms the necessary supplement to the workshop or business are continuation schools. These continuation schools are schools for the peo- ple in the fullest sense of the term — schools which at- tempt to deepen the general education already obtained, to apply it to lifework, and to supplement it by developing industrial intelligence. Many of the special technical schools founded by guilds and associations, such as the cabinet-makers' schools, commercial schools, and shoe- makers' schools, are continuation schools, although they [82] CONTINUATION SCHOOLS emphasize technical instruction too much, and fail to con- tinue and deepen the general education obtained in the elementary school . Problem op the Continuation School It has been pointed out that at least two purposes lie behind the movement for technical schools: one economic and one cultural. In the case of the schools for the promo- tion of handicrafts — the secondary technical schools — the economic motive is more prominent, but the cultural motive demands equal consideration in the continuation school. Young people who at the age of eighteen or twenty volun- tarily enter a secondary technical school must often devote their entire efforts to the attainment of technical skill. The case is different with the youth of fourteen. He needs both culture and vocational knowledge and skill, — per- haps culture through vocational knowledge and skiU. At' this most important age character-building should be the main purpose. The youth from fourteen to eighteen is not a child, but an adolescent with different interests, powers, and experi- ence. He is not simply a larger child, and the instruction for him, at this age, should not be a mere repetition of what he has learned before, but must take into consideration his newly-developed capabilities, his special interests, and his special needs. It cannot be instruction that merely repeats or enlarges the work of the elementary school, but must have a different ideal and employ different methods, which are in harmony with his new experience, interests, and powers. The life of the child of elementary school age lies in general within the narrow limits of his family, the neighbor- hood, and the school. These form his world, and upon them he projects all his impressions so that they represent the center of his interests and of the experiences which con- dition his view of the world. This experience must form the basis of all instruction of children in the elementary school, as their world of ideas can be built up only around these centers of experience. [83] VOCATIONAL EDUCATION Ninety per cent of the young people who leave the ele- mentary school at fourteen go into some employment. They go into shops and factories or perhaps become ser- vants; they establish new relationships and come into new surroundings which are usually not in harmony with their former experience and views of the world. The newly- gained ideas and experiences, on account of their special freshness and clearness, dim and to some extent crowd out earlier ideas and ideals, and dominate the consciousness of the developing youth. Unless wise guidance and instruc- tion can be furnished him at this time, there is danger ahead — a danger which is now apparent to tliinkers all over the world. Some attempt must be made by society to furnish him guidance and assistance in finding himself at this most important stage of his career. The continuation school is an attempt to provide such help at this critical time. The experiences of the boy in his vocation form the natural center for continuation school instruction, because his interests, his dominating ideas, are connected with his vo- cation; and these ideas and interests, clarified, rationalized, and moralized, can be used to good purpose in building up a moral individual and a citizen. But can these interests and fundamental ideas be class- ified so as to make them the basis of instruction in the con- tinuation school.'' This question is not very difficult with boys who are so fortunate as to enter into an apprenticeship to prepare for a specific trade. Their trade forms the natural center of their interest, and furnishes them the most of their experience, and this makes very clear the lines along which instruction should be given. But besides these, there are many young persons who enter factories, become house-servants or messengers, or perform all sorts of odd jobs of the community. What shall we do with them? Is there a center of ideas around which we can organize their instruction? These young persons cannot have any deep personal interest in their job, except as a means of earning a living for themselves and perhaps for those dependent upon them. [84] CONTINUATION SCHOOLS They realize that they must often change their positions; they are interested in other similar establishments of the community in which they may be called to serve. Their center of ideas lies in the economic conditions of the neigh- borhood. The young man is interested in earning money, and as much money as possible, to support himself and his family. His interests, then, are largely economic. He can therefore be interested in everything pertaining to the business of the community he lives in: its production of goods, its commerce and trade, its capitalists, and its work- men. He is also interested in the government of his little community. He has to pay taxes; he votes; he racks his brain over the question as to what becomes of the money contributed by tax-payers. Unscrupulous men undertake to encourage suspicion as to the fairness of the governmental regulations under which he lives. As in the elementary school, it is still the home which demands his interest, but the home in a new aspect — in its economic and social relations. The girls who leave the elementary school may be employed in housework, as servants, saleswomen, or factory hands, or perhaps in some skilled trade, such as tailoring or millinery. It is not difficult to arrange a school program with a definite center for such young persons. Germany, however, believes that all girls, even those entering skilled trades, are especially interested in the idea of a well-con- ducted, well-regulated household, and that all girls feel instinctively that they are destined eventually to manage such a household. Household economy may then easily be made the center of interest for a great majority of the girls. A school making household arts its center of interest and work not only succeeds in interesting its pupils, but plays a very important part in working out a great social problem. Further, as the life of the feelings and will of men is closely associated with their controlling ideas, through which their feelings arise, it seems clear that apprentices or boys in the factories must be reached through the mass [85] VOCATIONAL EDUCATION of ideas which interest them and control them, and which are usually connected in the closest manner with their trade or occupation. In this way we may hope to influence their wills and characters; in this way we may hope to de- velop feelings of duty, of joy in work, of self-respect; in this way we may hope to bring out their steadiness and endurance in following out ideals; diligence, loyalty, and conscientiousness in carrying out work; energy for overcom- ing difficulties, dislike for idleness and slovenly work. With these moral ideas may be developed such national ideals as patriotism and loyalty. We may sum up the problem of the continuation school as fourfold: 1. It must strengthen and deepen the moral ideas of the youth and give him further moral ideas developed out of his new surroundings and new experiences. 2. It must put him into social relations with the community and State. 3. It must advance his vocational training, and, in connection with this, develop his general education. 4. It must fill up the gaps in general training which seem likely to be detrimental to success in the vocational world. From an ethical point of view, it may be hard to justify taking the third ideal as the center and grouping the others about it. There is, however, no question but that the third ideal is the pedagogical center of all the instruction in the continuation school; through it we may strengthen the other three ideals. Through their desire to become efficient vocationally, these boys are brought to see their relations to society and the State and to realize the advantages of a broad intellectual development. Organization and Akbangement The demand that the vocation stand as the central point of the entire organization of the continuation school determines its course. The assignment of pupils to these schools and to the individual classes cannot possibly be [86] CONTINUATION SCHOOLS based upon age or the grade of school from which they come, but must be based upon the vocation they follow. The leading objection to this system is that it makes gradation and methodical advance diflScult; but gradation is not an end in itself, as it sometimes seems, but only a means to be employed as long as it is helpful. In this case it is not helpful, but demorahzing. The following illustration shows this: K you take a class in a continuation or evening school grouped according to age or to the grade reached in the elementary school from which the pupils come, you will have, perhaps, shoemakers, tailors, bakers, butchers, black- smiths, carpenters, masons, all in the same class. Suppose you imdertake to teach them mathematics. The problems will deal either with generalized experience or, if specialized at all, with commerce. As very few of the class will be engaged in this pursuit, the appeal of the book will be very limited. The body of experience referred to in its problems will be strange and will make the work difficult for nearly all the pupils. Commercial arithmetic itself is, it is true, a step in the right direction; but, if we were logical, we should have an arithmetic for tinners, an arithmetic for shoemakers, one for carpenters, etc. The kind of mathematics needed in the continuation schools is mathematics as appUed to particular occupations, and not the general treatment of the subject that passes current at the present time. Suppose you should undertake to teach this same class bookkeeping. You would compel the shoemaker to note down in his blanks the sausage-selling of the butcher, the mason to attend to the customers of the barber, or the blacksmith to serve the guests with the waiter. This means that the bookkeeping wiU be confined to one industry and all other pupils must work through this bookkeeping whether they know any- thing about the industry or not, whether it can serve as a model for them in any way whatever, and whether the work in general be useful or useless. Much has been sacri- ficed to the principles of gradation in the elementary schools, and infinitely more will be sacrificed if we keep the same [87] VOCATIONAL EDUCATION notion in organizing and managing the continuation schools. The logical thing is to organize them according to vocation; then the experiences dealt with will always be real and vital and imiform with the pupils. There will be, of course, many opportunities for gradation within the vocational groups themselves and these opportunities will be utilized in larger cities. The point is that gradation is a secondary, not a primary, consideration in the organization and man- agement of the continuation schools. The continuation schools are divided into: 1. Industrial Continuation Schools. 2. Commercial Continuation Schools. 3. Agricultural Continuation Schools. In cases where numbers will not permit organization into the three groups above mentioned, but where one continua- tion school must provide for aU, this general continuation school must not be regarded as a school merely for giving general instruction. It is a vocational school working under somewhat peculiar conditions. In these schools the idea of the vocation as the center controls in every relation and in every group. In the commercial continuation schools, on this principle, the pupils are all from industries so nearly alike that the classes can be organized and managed without any special trouble. The organization of the industrial continuation schools is not so simple a problem. If there are enough represen- tatives of every handicraft to form a class, as there may be in the larger towns, there is no diflSculty. We simply or- ganize as many cabinetmakers' classes, shoemakers' classes, etc., as are required, and may, in addition, undertake some gradation based upon abiUty and experience. In other cases, we have to group into one class pupils coming from related trades. We can solve the problem in a large number of schools by the group method of organization. We may divide the pupils, for example, according to the materials in the shops in which they work; or according to the articles that they produce. We may have, according to the first [88] CONTINUATION SCHOOLS principle, the following group: metal-workers, wood- work- ers, stone-workers, workers in cloth, etc. According to the second principle : workers in the building trades, workers in the clothing industries, workers in food industries, workers in metal trades, workers in art trades, etc. We may have to combine the principles, and organize classes which wiU recognize both : e. g., we may have metal- working classes, wood-working classes, building trades classes, classes for the clothing industries, classes for food industries, and art-trade classes. In every case the problem must be studied with the view of finding one or more points of contact in the experiences of the groups of young people to be classified. There is always some point of resemblance or center of interest that can be seized upon as a basis for classification. Difficulties notwithstanding, this is the only organization that can make the instruction real, vital, and useful. There are cases where pupils come in from elementary schools in which the work is so poor in quality and so small in quantity that they are imable to work profitably with the others. It is sometimes necessary to provide introductory classes for such young people, if we are not to waste their time and interfere with the progress of the other members of the classes. It is not wise to be too rigorous in this matter of classification. It is not wise to consider too closely the record of the boy while he was stiU a child in the elementary school. With his new development, new interests, and new powers, he often makes a record in the continuation school radically different from that entered against him in the elementary school. It is better to give him a chance than to settle the question of his classification on the basis of what he has accomplished or failed to accomplish in another sort of a school. The subjects taught in the continuation school are: mathematics, including geometry, German, the theory of business, bookkeeping, and drawing, all taught from the in- dustrial point of view. To these is added vocational theory; and, in many schools, civics and hygiene. [89] VOCATIONAL EDUCATION In vocational theory, the attempt is made to give the pupils theoretical instruction, and, where there are work- shops in the school, practical instruction in their vocation, with a view to developing industrial intelligence rather than skiU. This amounts to a kind of technology of their trade, and some knowledge in detail of the processes of the work- shop, some acquaintance with the historical development of the trade they are in, of its social position at the present time, of the trade r^ulations governing it; in general, knowledge which they will find practical afterward. The theory of the trade (Berufeskunde), accordingly, is instruction which ap- pKes the results of natural science, mathematics, technology, geography, economics, and law. All these are valuable for the general training of the pupils and all are presented as projected upon their vocation. Vocational theory is the center of all the teaching, and aU instruction in other sub- jects is carried on in connection with it. If , as in Munich and many other cities in soutliem Grer- many, the schools have workshops, aU this theory of the trade is taught in connection with practical work in the shops, where the theoretical instruction is tried out, and the master's instruction is supplemented and improved. The school shop is not used as a place to teach the boy the whole trade, but simply to supplement and explain the work done in the master's shop. Many German educators are coming to believe that the attempt to teach the theory of a trade or vocation without the use of the school shop is a mistake. At the present moment, the movement for school shops is gaining ground very rapidly in all parts of Germany. The instruction in mathematics in the continuation school turns entirely upon the business of the handicrafts concerned. The future handicraftsman learns to apply his mathematics in the right way to his field of work- In his class in the continuation school he must have practice in those kinds of mathematical work which will come up in the trade itself. Gjst estimates stand as the center of instruction in arithmetic. The competitive ability of the handicraftsman will depend not only upon his skill, but [90] CONTINUATION SCHOOLS also upon his abiUty to estimate the cost of the article he is producing. In teaching the mother tongue, the same principles apply. It naturally follows that in composition work a business vocabulary and business forms are used. A large part of this instruction is business correspondence con- nected with the system of bookkeeping — a system adapted to the needs of the trades represented. The continuation school takes advantage of the oppor- tunities presented in the study of the mother tongue for strengthening the moral and patriotic ideals and feelings of its pupils, and for educating them in conmion sense and dvic virtues. This demands the reading and careful dis- cussion of suitable selections of prose and poetry. The work may be so arranged that home reading is required on the part of the pupils; and the work done at home and in the school can be unified by means of the discussions with the teachers. In this way is developed an interest in good reading which will be a continued soiu-ce of joy and profit. Drawing is the very alphabet of the industries, and must be thoroughly taught in almost every class in the continua- tion school. On accoimt of the limited time available, it is impossible to train aU pupils thoroughly in all fields. Instruction must be divided between freehand and mechan- ical drawing. The pupils must receive training in the kind of drawing which their trade especially requires. For example, painters, lithographers, and engravers need free- hand drawing; cabinetmakers, machinists, and blacksmiths need mechanical drawing. At the same time, it is advisable to give the student of freehand drawing some little skiU in mechanical drawing, and the apprentice taking mechanical drawing some skill in freehand work. In connection with this work in drawing some instruction can be given as to style, historical development, etc. The drawing is based upon practical work in the work- shop and is executed there whenever possible. The sketching, planning, and careful drawing of working plans is always related to their execution in the shop and [91] VOCATIONAL EDUCATION no attempt is made to teach drawing as a separate subject. The aim is to develop taste and practical ability to read and work from a drawing or blue-print. This can be acquired only by practice in making a drawing and then executing it in the shop. In classes in the art trades, the problem is very different. The work is of a more elaborate technical character and is often followed by courses in the art trades school. In fact, most, if not all, of the art-trades schools have continuation classes in the evening for young people who intend later to enter the secondary art-trades school, or who wish more ad- vanced work than can be given in the ordinary continuation school. Size of Classes and Hours of Instruction The classes are smaller than in the elementary schools, seldom including more than 30 pupils. The method of instruction is quite largely individual. All grades of cultural and practical ability are found in classes of boys from one trade. Each pupil is permitted to take the work most important for his purpose, and to accomplish as much as possible in it in the time at his disposal. His neighbor may be working on an entirely different problem at an entirely different rate of speed. Unwillingness and inability to provide this individual instruction are the cause of much unsatisfactory work where the school-masters try to put in the same classes pupils of unequal attainments and ability. The number of hours of instruction a week given to continuation school work varies from two to ten or twelve. The usual number in Prussia is six hours a week during forty weeks of the year. In Munich, Wiirttemberg, and Baden a larger amount of time is often given. In some cases communities are permitted to crowd all the work into five winter months of the year, increasing the number of hours per week proportionately. This scheme meets with strenuous opposition on the part of men who really believe in the continuation school as a means of culture. They [92] CONTINUATION SCHOOLS insist that continuity through the larger part of the year counts greatly for effectiveness, which depends not upon knowledge so much as upon the training of the will and intellect, and that lumping the work into less than half of the year is Kkely to prove unsatisfactory from this point of view. Toce: op Instbuction As has been shown, the instruction was formerly given on Sunday forenoons and on the evenings of week-days. Most of the work for persons over eighteen is stUl given at these times, but much of the teaching for persons between fourteen and eighteen is now done on week-days before eight o'clock in the evening. In fact, it is given as far as possible in the forenoon, when mind and body are fresh and genuine educational work can be done. The proportionate amount of this evening and Sunday instruction is decreasing steadily. Some of the States have declared by law that the instruction must be given before eight o'clock in the evening; and sev- eral other States, Prussia among them, have refused to sub- sidize continuation schools giving instruction in the evening only. Statistics will be given later to show the percentage of instruction given at different times of the day. The Germans tried for many years to supplement daily work in the shop by evening school instruction, but found that the strain was too great for young people between fourteen and eighteen to bear. The boy whose energies had been exhausted by a hard day's toil suffered in health from the added strain imposed by the evening school, and accomplished little or nothing there. He had had as much of the ordinary academic instruction as he wanted in the elementary school, and he was inclined to regard the im- position of sis hours a week of continuous instruction in the evening, taken out of his free time, as a bit of tyranny. It required the support of fines, corporal punishment, and imprisonment in the school prisons to keep even his body at school. The recognition that the school work was a legit- imate use of the boy's time and the proportionate reduction [93] VOCATIONAL EDUCATION of his working hours have caused a change of attitude on his part. Where the schools have become more practical in character, by grouping the instruction about the trade, and where the boy's rights are recognized by giving the instruction during the day, there is an excellent spirit and great interest. On the other hand, the author has seen evening continuation schools in which the discipline was maintained only by terror — schools in which the work was practically worthless, and the moral effect upon the pupil even worse. The boys began with the feeling thar'they were being imposed upon by having double work forced on them. The best thinkers are agreed that the teaching must be done during the day for young people during the age of development. While some employers oppose this at first, reasonable men can be shown that it is to their advantage to have in the continuation schools efficient teaching which is carried on under conditions that do not outrage the feelings of their young employes. With day school instruction, of course, comes the prob- lem of adjusting the school hours to the convenience of the employers. Great care must be taken to disturb shop arrangements as little as possible. Programs of work must be made only after thorough consultation with the em- ployers concerned, and the instruction must ]ae fixed at such hours and in such shifts as will suit their convenience. Late afternoon and evening hours are out of the question, and special buildings for the continuation schools are necessary. All schools must be in session during the usual hours given to labor: from seven in the morning until six or seven in the afternoon. Usually it is advantageous to both master and school to have the instruction continue for two or three hours at a time, and one hour is the minimum. In many cases masters have wishjed to have it all given during one day. This makes a hard program — especially if to the six hours of school four hours more of work in the shop are added. Under such conditions, any school man will recog- nize that the boy is being overworked. With special buildings open all the time, there must be [94] CONTINUATION SCHOOLS special corps of teachers. It is a distinct advantage to these schools to get away from the system of employing only teachers whose main work and main interest are in the day schools, and whose methods are based upon their experience in the other schools. In the continuation school, the mathematics, drawing, English, etc., must all be applied in the most direct and practical way to the vocation. The ordinary teacher is not capable of giving this sort of instruc- tion without special training. The continuation school system must build up an organization of its own with a certain percentage of the teachers employed continuously and with other teachers of special subjects engaged to supple- ment their work. The teachers employed continuously should be teachers who have received special practical training in the shops, and practical men selected on account of their interest in teaching, who have been given special training in pedagogy. It will take time to build up a sys- tem of training for such teachers. In Germany there is only one special school for this purpose. Most of the special training is taken by teachers and practical men during vacation. The Government often provides courses of instruction running from four to six weeks during the summer months and diuring other vacations of the school year. StrPPLEMENTABT ORGANIZATIONS In connection with these schools the ideal is to provide a system of cooperative institutions, such as homes for apprentices, excursion clubs, systems for the use of play- grounds, public baths, special libraries suited to their special purposes, and evening entertainments. In the best organized systems buildings used for continuation school work have rooms to which the pupils may come evenings and Sundays, or as they can, for preparing work, reading, for amusement, music, etc. Each of the continuation schools of Frankfort, for example, is provided with a club room, which is in great demand. Excursion clubs are formed as in the other schools, and the boys are encouraged to visit places of [95] VOCATIONAL EDUCATION interest under leaders chosen by themselves, who wiU be responsible for their conduct. In this way or with their teachers they can both advance themselves in their trade and have a good time together. By systematic arrange- ments continuation schools in Germany are able to secure the use of pubUc playgrounds and public baths at certain times. These are used very frequently and very success- fully, and public-spirited citizens have undertaken to secure effective supervision for them. The work in the mother tongue can be managed in such a way as to encourage the use of Kbraries containing special tech- nical books which bear on the subjects the boys are studying. This habit of reading books bearing on their technical employment is of great use to the boys during their entire life. Evening entertainments are provided in these schools at which lectures illustrated by lantern sUdes are given; the pupils are encouraged to get up programs themselves, and pupils, parents, and teachers can meet for the better- ment of conditions in the school. Many such agencies are employed in Germany in connection with the continuation school. They tend to build up a feeling on the part of the pupils that is immensely helpful to such schools. The old boys come back to these entertainments, and take part in supporting school enterprises. The continuation school becomes an individual factor in the life of the community, just as distinct and well marked as any other school. StrppoRT AND Management Continuation schools are organized and supported by guilds, by associations of workmen, by manufacturers, and by commimities. Sometimes they are assisted by State contributions, sometimes not. The tendency is becoming greater every year to have the State make substantial contributions and take a very decided part in the man- agement. While the guilds probably control about five himdred schools in Germany to-day, the number is dimin- ishing, and the influence of the State is becoming constantly greater. Many of them receive some assistance from the [96] CONTINUATION SCHOOLS State, and each year the habit grows and the State is ex- pected to pay more. There is a good as well as a bad side to this. In the case of schools managed by the guilds, the instruction tends to be too narrowly technical, and to confine itself to the training of the mere workman, while with the assumption of authority over these schools by the State has come a demand for training for citizenship. There are over fifty continuation schools in Prussia, con- ducted by manufacturers within the factory. The manufact- urer feels that he saves valuable time by having the school in the factory, and better discipline can be maintained and more practical results secured. The manufacturers support these schools, but are required to submit their plan of work to the Government for approval. These schools are made up of carefully selected boys who are very thoroughly instructed in technical lines, quife commonly being given one full day every week for this work. In the school of Ludwig Lowe in Berlin about eighty boys are instructed by five teachers, who are allowed one full day every week for this purpose. The school building is very much better equipped than the ordinary public school building. The teachers are mainly engineers with some pedagogical training. Such schools, however, on account of the limitations as to admission, can hardly be classed as public schools. They tend also to be more narrowly concerned with technical training than with making men and citizens. In the larger towns special boards of officials who repre- sent employers, employes, and educators assume the gen- eral direction of the school. Each school has its own director and the system of schools often a director who is a member of the managing board. It is a general custom to have this board distinct from the board controlling the elementary and secondary schools. Each individual school, and sometimes each division that devotes itself to a particular trade, has an advisory committee composed of employers and employes in the trades concerned. They are encouraged to visit the school, to make contributions of material for its use, and to make recommendations for courses of study and technical [97] VOCATIONAL EDUCATION teachers. In this way the practical men of the community become interested in the work of these schools, and assist in keeping them eflScient and practical. A general feeling of confidence in the school and interest in its work prevails wherever this takes place. The director of the school may be either a technical man or a teacher who has had a tech- nical training. He must be a man who has the confidence of the practical men in the community, or his school will lack the backing necessary for success. The attitude of employers is almost universally favor- able to these schools. The employes are almost a unit in supporting them. Some employers whose work is disturbed to a small degree by the day school programs make some complaint, but these men are the exception, not the rule. It may be fairly said that the industrial communities of Germany are agreed as to the importance of the continuation schools; that they recognize the absolute ne- cessity of supplementing the old apprenticeship system by such schools; that, as a rule, they are satisfied that such schools must be made compulsory, and that the instruction must be given during the working hours of the day. Continuation Schools op Munich The system developed in Munich, in many respects the most interesting one in Germany, is the creation of the present superintendent or director of schools, Dr. Georg Kerschensteiner. His fundamental aim is character-building; and he denies that any teaching of words, whether of history or religion, is worth much in character-building unless accompanied by the action that is inculcated in the lessons. This opinion has led him not only to add laboratories, gardens, kitchens, and workshops to the schools of Munich, but also to make these the central point in the instruction given in other lessons. Instead of beginning the work of the school with analysis of words and sounds, and drill in word and sentence formation, the child begins his school life with the observa- tion of the things in the school, in the home, and on the street, [08] CONTINUATION SCHOOLS which form the basis of the oral and written language les- sons, of the lessons in drawing and mathematics, and of the lessons in history and geography. Books, of coiu-se, are soon introduced; but they are books that can be connected with the real life and interests of the child, that will illuminate and enlarge the instruction given in the school. From the time he or she starts school the boy or girl is regarded as an active Kving being and not as an automatic machine that registers things set down in books, to be committed to memory. Through observation lessons, through lessons in science and industry, the child through- out the grades is treated as an active being. It was inevitable that a man holding such opinions should be dissatisfied with the AUgemeine, or General Con- tinuation School, that was in existence in Munich when he took charge of the schools, and is stiU the common form of continuation school in Germany. Instruction in those schools was a mere repetition and enlargeifient of the bookish work of the elementary schools and had little interest for the youthfxil apprentices. He accordingly proposed a new program for the continuation school, the central point of which was the work of the shop. He believed that the trade was the center of interest for the young workman and there- fore he introduced many different kinds of shops into the schools for apprentices, in which the typical processes of the various trades were carried on under the direction of com- petent workmen. He connected the work in drawing, in mathematics, in civics — in fact, all of the work — with this shop practice. He believed that only in this way can appren- tices become interested in the various subjects taught in the schools — only in this way can a genuine joy in the work of the school and shop be produced. He believed that dexterity must be based on insight; and if the boy is to become an efficient workman he must comprehend his work in all of its relations to science, to art, and to society in general. Efficiency in work will lead to joy in work and joy in work will lead to good citizenship. The young work- [99] VOCATIONAL EDUCATION man who understands his trade in its scientific relations, its historical, economic, and social bearings — who compre- hends the inner connection that must exist in the work of all members of society — will take a higher view of his trade, of his powers and duties as a citizen and as a member of society. No instruction in what is commonly called civics, and no shop training that leads to mere mechanical eflSciency, can make good citizens. The school must do the following things : First — It must teach skill in work and out of this joy in work; for true joy in work can grow only out of real capacity for work. Second — It must teach the student to use skill and joy in work in the service of his fellows. Third — It must teach insight into the aims of society and the state. Dexterity and insight demand moral character, for neither men nor industries nor states can live isolated lives. Dr. Kerschensteiner lays down, as the first fundament- al principle of the rightly organized continuation school, that it must extend to the eighteenth year of every boy and girl who is not being educated in the secondary school. He urges that the elementary school does not afford sufficient preparation for citizenship, as it leaves off just where the education for a calling begins. He points out that the struggle for life as well as for practical education begins with milhons at the age of fourteen; that we cannot educate a man with- out reference to a special calling; that the useful man is the predecessor of the ideal man. To leave the youth at this most critical age without adequate educational opportuni- ties to become an efficient and therefore a contented mem- ber of society is not the act of an educational statesman, and is most inconsistent with the philanthropic claims of modern school systems. The schools for the masses should not close where those for the favored few begin. Dr. Kerschensteiner, as well as practically everybody else in Germany, is convinced that voluntary continuation schools will not suffice for the educational needs of modern society. Employers may not allow their youthful work- men to attend the continuation school unless it be in the evening, when both mind and body are too fatigued to [100] CONTINUATION SCHOOLS profit much by its instruction. Under such conditions the eflSciency and joy in work, so necessary for training for citizenship, are out of the question and the boy soon learns to hate the continuation school. This means failure in our aim. Then, too, only the boy and girl with the exceptional physical and moral power will attend voluntary evening continuation schools. These are not the boys and girls who need its assistance most. There is, too, a tendency in vol- untary continuation schools, even when held in the daytime, to limit the training too narrowly to the mechanical side of the trade. A large majority of the schoolmen of Germany demand compulsory continuation schools, carried on during weekdays, closing before seven o'clock in the evening. Most of the states of Germany already have them. In 1900, the two city councils of Munich authorized the reorganization of the continuation schools in accordance with the principles laid down in Dr. Kerschensteiner's prize essay. His first step toward improving conditions was to connect practical industrial instruction with the trade and continuation schools. Thousands of boys have only a one- sided apprenticeship, and thousands more lack even this. He wished to inspire them through the delight that springs from thoroughness of work — to teach them to appreciate the moral effect of good work on their personalities. He urged that, if we make practical industrial training instead of textbooks and mere words the first form of instruction, we gain at once the interest and good-will of the pupils. There is then no diflSculty in leading them to appreciate the aUied branches of schoolwork — drawing, arithmetic, book- keeping, technology and knowledge of materials, tools and machinery. The interest aroused by practical work will be transmitted to all these aUied subjects. His second step was to enlist the active sympathy of employers and the trade guilds. He was assisted at the outset by the school workshops. The employers, seeing the apprentices taking an increasing interest in their work and finding them more eflScient, gave the schools the credit for it. Dr. Kerschensteiner invited these associations [101] VOCATIONAL EDUCATION to inspect the schools, to advise regarding their progress, and to assist in the choice of foremen and journeymen as teachers. He also consulted their wishes as to time-tables and asked them to give their opinion regarding the course of study. In return, he was able to secure from them models, tools, machinery, and some raw materials. Through their interest in his schools he was able to secure attendance during a better part of the day and to put pressure upon the apprentices to take advantage of the classes. His third step was regarding the time-tables. The quan- tity of work was increased to from seven to nine hours a week. The instruction of the apprentices on Sundays and in the evenings was given up. Every apprentice was compelled to attend a continuation school the whole time of his appren- ticeship, or until he had reached his eighteenth year. The schools continued to give instruction on Sunday and in the evenings to masters and journeymen, but not to apprentices. The reorganization has proceeded step by step, the whole plan of instruction receiving its present form in the course adopted in 1910. The courses of study were given a thorough-going examination and discussion by all the teaching bodies of the different industrial schools on the basis of the experience gained during the previous nine years. Forty-six of these conferences were held under the supervision of School Inspector Schmid, who has imme- diate charge of this part of the school work of Munich. The courses of study so discussed and the amendments recom- mended were then studied in forty-six further conferences, under the immediate supervision of Dr. Kerschensteiner. In these conferences the masters and journeymen of all the individual trades took part. Where an industrial union did not exist the most important employers of labor and repre- sentative journeymen of special trades were invited to the discussion. School Inspector Schmid and the directors and heads of departments of various industrial schools were also present. The present course of study is the result of these conferences and has the approval of teachers, employ- ers, and employes. [102] CONTINUATION SCHOOLS Munich is a city of five hundred and eighty thousand inhabitants, with seventy thousand children in the elemen- tary schools. The obligatory boys' continuation schools in 1909-10 enrolled about nine thousand pupils. The obliga- tory girls' continuation schools enrolled about seventy-five hundred. The voluntary girls' continuation schools, in- cluding the eighth grade classes for girls, enrolled thirty-six hundred pupils. Altogether there are about twenty thou- sand pupils in the continuation schools of Munich. If we add to this the number in the elementary schools, and about ten thousand pupils of the secondary schools of the city, we have one hundred thousand children who attend the public schools of Munich, about eighteen per cent of the popidation, and ninety-three per cent of all the boys and girls between the ages of six and eighteen. This is a remarkable showing. The nine thousand boys in the obligatory continuation schools of Munich are distributed in fifty-two industrial or commercial continuation schools, studying forty-six differ- ent trades, and in twelve general continuation schools for boys who are not apprenticed to a trade. The seventy-five hundred girls in the obligatory continuation schools are divided into forty different schools and receive instruction in the household arts. Of the thirty-six hundred girls who attend the voluntary continuation schools, twelve hundred are in the eighth grade, thirteen hundred in the household arts division, nine hundred in commercial schools, and two hundred in other industries. They are instructed in twenty- one different schools. There are twenty-five hundred pupils in one himdred and thirty classes in the voluntary industrial schools for journeymen and masters. Industrial continuation schools are introduced for every industry that has twenty apprentices. Industries having a greater number of apprentices are distributed in several schools in the city in order to shorten the distance the pupils have to travel. The twelve hundred commercial apprentices are, however, all instructed in a single building. The industrial continuation schools, together with the divisions [103] VOCATIONAL EDUCATION for journeymen and masters, are for the most part distrib- uted in seven school buildings specially equipped for in- dustrial and commercial education. One of these contains only boys engaged in commerce; another, the diflFerent branches of the decorators; a third, the diflPerent branches of the building trades; a fourth, the printing trades, the fine mechanics, and machinists; a fifth, the different branches of the woodworking trades. The school for butchers' ap- prentices is connected with the slaughter-house of the city, and the school for gardeners has its own building and equip- ment. Six of the fifty-two industrial continuation schools are carried on in elementary school buildings to avoid making the pupils travel too long a distance. Every apprentice takes from his week's work one whole day or two half-days for the industrial continuation school. In some cases he does not lose his wages on this account. In most casesi he does. These schools employ one hundred and ten regular teachers and three hundred teachers who devote a part of the time to other occupations. It is believed that there is an advantage in having shop teachers still con- nected with the industries outside. The yearly expenditure for the continuation schools of Munich for apprentices and journeymen amounts to about nine himdred thousand marks, without considering the cost of the buildings. The expenditure for the corresponding continuation school for girls amounts to about four hundred thousand marks. Every continuation school pupil costs the city about eighty marks a year. The pupils in the regular elementary schools cost about ninety-three marks a year apiece; the pupils in the secondary schools about two hundred marks. As has been pointed out, the practical instruction in the workshops, laboratories, kitchens, and gardens stands in the middle point of the instruction in every industrial continua- tion school. The instruction in drawing and arithmetic is united with the practical instruction in the closest possible way. Nothing is drawn that is not worked out in the workshop, and nothing is worked out or made in the work- [104] c Z z z CONTINUATION SCHOOLS shop that is not drawn. The whole process of work is ac- companied by arithmetical calculations, both in estimates of cost and in final settlements. With the practical instruc- tion is united in the closest way the subject of the materials, tools, and machinery used in the industry. The pupils learn about these things through practical use. Where, how- ever, the process of work makes a scientific knowledge of physics and chemistry necessary in order to enable the pupil to understand the reason for his methods of work, such special laboratory instruction in science is in- troduced. The lessons in the mother-tongue, together with the reading of good books from the school libraries and the instruction in civics, aim at the developing of moral insight. In his instruction in civics the student traces the historical development of the industry to which he belongs and is shown, in the struggles of his fellow- workers, the continually growing interdependence of all the citizens of a community. The great examples of devotion to a common cause are placed before him; and by degrees he recognizes the problems that cities and nations have to deal with and learns the rights and duties of the individual within the state. The association of the scholars into work- ing groups, especially during the last school year, leads to a certain disposition in the pupils to consider others, to work together, and to devote themselves to a common purpose. In Munich all young men engaged in commercial pur- suits are obhged to attend a commercial continuation school unless they have completed a six years' course in a secondary school. Attendance is compulsory until the course is fin- ished, or at least until the student has completed his eighteenth year. The course comprises three years' work, with a preparatory class for pupils whose acquirements are insuflacient to enable them to profit by the regular instruc- tion. The instruction is carried on for eight hours a week, every class having one forenoon period and one afternoon period of four hours each. The school runs from September fifteenth to July fourteenth, with two weeks' vacation during the Christmas time. 105] VOCATIONAL EDUCATION To make it possible to specialize, the pupils are divided into four groups, according to the branch of business fol- lowed by them. To the first group belong all those engaged in the food and provision business; to the second, those in banks and insurance offices, and booksellers; to the third, those handling drapery, textiles, leather, and the like; to the fourth, those in shops handling porcelain, cutlery, and hardware. This arrangement makes the work of conducting classes in bookkeeping and the study of commercial wares easier and more practical. Special commercial teachers are employed in giving purely commercial instruction, but specially trained teachers from the elementary schools do most of the teaching. The director of the school and several of his teachers have been in business, some of them still continuing their business connections while teaching a few hours a week. This enables them to keep in touch with what is going on in the business world. In the middle point of the instruction stands the business. The various subjects are taught in the closest possible relation to business. Mathematics, business correspondence, bookkeeping, and study of wares, as well as civics, are treated in their relations to the business. Only such mathematics is taught as can be related to the business, and much of it is taken from the transactions recorded in the bookkeeping or connected with exchange. The system of coinage used in Europe affords material for considerable arithmetical work. Calculations of inter- est, biUs of exchange, stocks and securities, and so forth, call for constant practice in practical mathematics. The customs and laws regulating the use of checks, bills of exchange, and accounts current are studied in bookkeep- ing. Practice is given in Italian, French, and American systems of bookkeeping. In connection with this there is constant practice in busiaess correspondence, the materials being taken from the transactions recorded in the book- keeping. In connection with the study of commercial geography there is a careful study of commercial wares. These articles [106] CONTINUATION SCHOOLS are handled by the pupils where possible. In connection with this is a careful study of commerce and trade — both . domestic and foreign — of transportation by land and sea, of the industrial productions and industrial efficiraicy of the various nations of the earth. The climate, productions, and industries of surrounding nations are studied. In the study of commercial wares their origin, their production, and their characteristics are taken up. The pupils are taught indi- cations of genuineness and adulterations, and the methods of packing and preserving. In connection with this study, numerous visits are made to the factories and warehouses. The course in hygiene is in general character the same as that given to, other apprentices in the other trades, with such modifications in details as the trade makes necessary. Drill in writing is given with a view to developing a plain, pleasing, and fluent handwriting. It affords an opportunity for drill in the use of foreign words and abbreviations, as well as in letter forms. Courses in foreign languages and in stenography are offered and are taken by a large number of pupils. The pupils write well, but very slowly. The writ- ing is plain, with a slight slant. There was no vertical writing in evidence. The Germans have had their experience with vertical writing and have got over it. There was no drill in movement and no pupils employing what we in America call the muscular movement. I was especially interested in the two classes I saw in the study of commercial wares. These recitations are held in rooms containing collections of commercial wares fur- nished by the merchants of Munich. On the walls are numerous charts, picturing the processes employed in pro- ducing the various articles of commerce, and cases contain- ing articles of commerce were in evidence. The first class was studying wool. About thirty boys, under the direction of a teacher who was in the textile business, were examining some ten or twelve samples of wool produced in different countries. In front of the class were charts showing the structure of the fiber and methods of preparing it for the market. The teacher divided the [107] VOCATIONAL EDUCATION dass into groups, giving each group samples of wool. TTie pupils were taught how to discriminate between them. The mercantile value of the different wools was discussed and samples of cloth — all wool, part wool, and shoddy — were examined. The importance of this industry to Glermany was pointed out and a short history of the woolen industry was given by the teacher. I took pains to consult union men, business men, and teachers, and found that the pupils and working men and most of the employers approve of the work of the continu- ation school. The conservative dass are against them and have fought Dr. Kerschensteiner's measures for years. They object to the e^)ense. They r^ard his shopwork as inadequate and say that the few hours spent a week in a school-shop cannot be made the center of the entire coiu-se of instruction. In some quarters, too, one can hear criticisms of his civics work as apt to lead to Sodal Democracy. He pays no attention in his lessons to the question of "the dynasty," or to the imion of church and state. He claims that his teaching will make good citizens of any rational state. At the present moment a coiomission is ia existence to examine the schools of Mun- ich on accoimt of charges made by the conservatives against them. It is very unlikely that an\-thing serious can result from this investigation. The Doctor and his friends wdcome investigation. The "system of Kerschensteiner," as it is called in Ger- many and Switzerland, comes in for considerable criticism from the schoolmen there. They, too, claim it is too expensive; that his teachers are not always well trained; that in his anxiety for results he has advanced too rapidly and has got into his schools many teachers who wiU be a burden later. It is urged, too, that the attempt to base the whole teaching of the continuation school on the shopwork done in them is unwise and will result in poor preparation for the industries. They claim that the whole theory of the trade must be taught and the school-shops used to supplement the work of the master, and to illustrate the other work of the school. I [108 1 CONTINUATION SCHOOLS think some of the criticisms result from lack of thorough acquaintance with his plans. Continuation Schools with Full-day Instruction There are day continuation schools in Bavaria and a similarly organized day school in Aachen, and a commercial and industrial school in Gniessen, which must be mentioned in this connection. These schools aim to provide education before entrance into apprenticeship suited to the needs of industrial life. They differ from the ordinary continuation school in that they admit pupils before their entrance into apprenticeship, and demand their entire time for their school education, excluding work in the workshop of the master; they differ from purely technical schools in paying more attention to general cultural subjects. The course of instruction comprises from twenty-five to thirty-four hours per week during the one or two years* course. The subjects included are: religion, geography, bookkeeping, arithmetic, natural science, history, drawing; in special cases turning, geometry, French, stenography, and music; special courses in voluntary subjects are sometimes included. There are sixteen of these day continuation schools in Bavaria, with about five hundred pupils. Students are admit- ted after finishing six years in the elementary school course; they are, therefore about twelve years of age; but they must pass an examination before admission. The one year course day continuation school replaces accordingly the sev- enth year of the elementary school; while the two year day continuation school replaces both the seventh and eighth years. Apprentice continuation schools and drawing schools for handicraftsmen are united with these special institutions. The schools of Aachen and Gniessen differ from the Bavarian schools in accepting only pupils who have already completed their compulsory education in the elementary school. This regidation is made to prevent shortening the present elementary instruction, and to secure pupils better developed bodily and mentally. [109] VOCATIONAL EDUCATION These schools seem to be successful, as many people believe that their preparation of young people is preferable to that given in the master's shop and in the ordinary con- tinuation school. Students finishing these courses have their usual apprenticeship shortened, as these partly trained boys are of use to the master from the very beginning. The schools do not, however, seem to be increasing in number or popularity. It should be noticed that these schools do not include workshop instruction where students are made acquainted with the most useful tools and machinery, and where they acquire some skill in their use. The instruction is almost purely theoretical. It is not intended to replace apprentice- ship, but to give further preparation for it with the hope of turning out finally a better all-round workman. Advanced Continuation Schools The continuation school is not only a school for youth between fourteen and eighteen years old or during their apprenticeship, but is a school for journeymen, and even masters. A large number of such advanced continuation schools exist in Germany, and are exceedingly popular. Dr. Kerschensteiner has, perhaps, carried out the develop- ment of such advanced continuation schools better than anyone else. Similar continuation schools are, however, organized in connection with the school systems of all the great cities of Germany. These continuation schools enable young people who seek further education in their trade, but cannot make the pecuniary sacrifices required for attendance at a technical school, to go as far as their ability will permit them. They are a kind of industrial academy in which every young man — according to his needs and inclinations — can select those studies for which he has special need. He can here perfect himseK in commer- cial and technical subjects required for passing the mas- ters' examination. The schools, of course, are voluntary, and great liberty is given students in the matter of selecting the subjects pursued. [110] CONTINUATION SCHOOLS Statistics The vocation census of 1907 made it possible to deter- mine the number of youths between the ages of fourteen and eighteen years. It also made possible an estim9,te of their division according to place, sex, and branch of industry. There are in Prussia about three million youths between fourteen and eighteen years of age, of whom one million four hundred and eighty-three thousand are males and one million five hundred and twenty-seven thousand females. Of this number, about two million are employed in a voca- tion — one and a quarter million males and three-quarters of a milhon females. Agriculture employs four hundred and five thousand males, four hundred and nine thousand females, industry six hundred and fifty thousand males, one hundred and ninety-one thousand females, commerce and trade one hundred and foiirteen thousand males, sixty- seven thousand females. The number of females between fourteen and eighteen employed in agriculture is greater than the number of males of the same ages; about half as many females are employed in commerce and about one quarter in industry. Of young people between these ages there are employed in activities requiring a special training: (a) In the industries, 451,000 men and 91,000 women. (6) In commerce, 63,000 men and 35,000 women. The number of unskilled male workers between these ages in the industries amounts to thirty-one per cent, in commerce forty-four per cent, while the unskilled female workers between these ages in the industries amount to fifty-two per cent, in commerce forty-eight per cent. It is impossible to say anything definite about the kind and dura- tion of training received by these young persons. The showing for the females would be still more unfavorable if a systematic training of at least one year was taken as a standard of measurement. It is estimated that there were in Prussia in 1907 300,000 apprentices in the handicrafts. Remembering [111] VOCATIONAL EDUCATION that there are 451,000 boy workers in the industries who receive special training for their work, these figures would show that two-thirds of the skilled boy workmen were in the handicrafts and one-third in the factories. Statistics show that about forty-one per cent of the boy workers in Prussia do not attend a continuation school. The percentage of girls who do not attend is very much greater. The introduc- tion of compulsion has been gradually increasing the per- centage who attend, but this applies only to the larger places. The proposed new law will doubtless increase the percentage still more, but it seems probable that it will be a long time before universal compulsory instruction will be provided for boys and girls between these ages. The following statistics will give some information con- cerning the continuation schools in the more important divisions of Germany. It is impossible to give absolutely accurate statistics for all of the states, but the five selected will give a fairly accurate showing of the situation. [112] CONTINUATION SCHOOLS The Present Condition op the German System OP Continuation Schools 1. Prussia (a) Industrial and Commercial Continuation Schools By order of the Prussian Ministry, every year on the first of December a careful survey of the conditions of the industrial and commercial continuation schools is prepared and published in the report of the Ministry of Commerce and Industry. The 1908 report shows the following figures on the development of the above named schools : NUMBER OF SCHOOLS Indufitzial Schools Commercial Schools Guild and Union Schools With Compul- sory Attendance Without Com- pulsory Attendance Total With Com- pulsory Attendance Without Com- pulsory Attendance Total 1904 1905 1906 1907 1908 1183 1301 1450 1537 1651 107 94 85 74 68 1290 1395 1535 1611 1719 221 254 276 299 327 69 62 58 58 54 290 316 834 867 381 428 423 409 403 402 NUMBER OP PUPILS Industrial Schools Commercial Schools Guild and Union Schools With Com- ance ¥itlioit Com- pulsory Attend- ance Total With Compulsory Attendance Without Compul- sory Attendance Total Men Women Total Men Women Tot'l 1904 1905 1906 1907 1908 174494 202669 240951 265979 286822 27222 23905 20390 18588 17659 201716 226574 261341 284567 304481 27181 29954 34179 36847 927 1240 1842 2693 22603 28108 31194 36021 39540 7208 6655 5811 6262 ieis 1982 1752 1929 9067 8826 8637 7563 8191 31670 36934 39831 43584 47731 28043 28124 23728 24351 22168 [118] VOCATIONAL EDUCATION NUMBER OF PUPILS— Conftnuoi. Industrial Sohoola Commercial Sohoola Froyinoes Total No. Number Eeoeiving State Aid Number PupilB Total No. No. Re- oeiving State Aid Number Fupila Men Women East Prussia a West Prussia o Pomerania a Pomerania b Brandenburg without Berlin o Berlin a Berlin 6 Posen a Silesia a Silesia 6 Saxony a Saxony b Schleswig-Holstein. . .a Schleswig-Holstein. . .6 Hannover o Hannover b Westphalia a Westphalia b Hesse-Nassau o Hesse-Nassau b Rhine-province a Rhine-province 6 Sigmaringen a 67 62 66 6 93 10 16 81 179 4 140 ■96 6 198 7 206 2 211 198 28 6 69 52 65 1 86 "81 167 1 137 79 189 2 180 204 ioi 14 6 9,072 12.548 6.647 726 23.908 30.392 8.140 9.190 34.264 885 27.328 ii,983 742 19,962 336 29,657 68 22,481 44,364 6,762 410 19 8 14 7 44 1 1 16 74 5 33 6 11 4 35 8 31 11 11 1 30 11 'I 8 10 16 60 1 27 2 6 1 17 23 4 6 27 4 1,644 641 706 290 2.676 2.088 1.693 1.250 6,974 161 6,312 262 968 477 3,140 518 3,886 1.071 1.530 560 6.233 1.260 409 "69 23 289 786 128 482 214 118 131 104 101 366 162 467 270 669 Totals Totals b 1.597 68 1,496 18 281,081 17,659 327 64 210 12 86.847 6.262 2.693 1.929 Grand Total 1,665 1,514 298,740 381 222 43,109 4.622 (a)With compulsory attendance. (i)Without compulsory attendance. The 402 schools of guilds and unions which existed on the first of December, 1908, are distributed among the or- ganizations as follows: Barbers and hair-dressers 92 schools Blacksmiths, locksmiths, carriage-makers 61 Painters and varnishers 44 Bakers and confectioners 18 Stonecutters and building-trades men 14 Butchers 8 Saddlers and upholsterers 7 Shoemakers and carpenters 5 [114] CONTINUATION SCHOOLS Chimney-sweeps 4 schools Coopers, bookbinders, glaziers, each 3 " Book-printers, wood and metal handworkers, tinners, tailors, potters, watchmakers, each. . . 2 " Turners, hotel-keepers, basket-makers, stone- masons, each 1 " The united free handicraft guilds and the mixed guilds support about thirty-eight schools. Those continuation schools are to be counted as indus- trial continuation schools which are organized by the owners of great industries for their youthful workers, and bear, according to the direction of the Ministry, the descriptive term " Werkschulen." On the eighteenth of December, 1908, 54 such schools, with 57,141 pupils, existed in Prussia. They are divided as follows by government districts: Oppeln 15 schools Hildesheim 2 schools Merseburg 14 Trier 8 " Diisseldorf 5 " Liegnitz 3 " Amsberg 2 " These "Werkschulen" Berlin .... Cassel .... Frankfurt . Osnabruck. Stettin. . . . are recognized by . 1 . 1 . 1 . 1 . 1 the official authorities as a substitute for the compulsory continuation school. The following table shows the hours of instruction, according to conditions on December 1, 1908: No. of Pupils Time the Pupils have Instruction Number of Hours Eindg of Schools Sunday A.M. Before 8 P.M. Also after 8 P.M. Only after 8 P.M. Entire No. of Hours Sunday Before 8 P.M. After 8 P.M. Industrial continuation schools CoouneTcial continuation schools 2,169 392 1,075 50% 36 9% 1,396 64% 219 56% 609 28% 130 38% 64 3% 38 10% 60,648 14,232 6,747 11% 193 1% 46,455 77% 11,336 80% 7,446 12% 2,704 19% In the same way the number of teachers employed in the continuation schools is also constantly growing. The official figures are as follows: [lis] VOCATIONAL EDUCATION NUMBER OF TEACHEES In Industrial Continua- tion Schoola In Commercial Con- tinuation Schools In Guild and Union Schools FuU Time Part Time Total Full Time Part Time Total Full Time ^ Part Time Total 1904 94 199 331 9,624 12,161 13,712 9,718 12,360 14,043 64 138 206 1,736 2,063 2,272 1,799 2,201 2,478 6 16 12 1,514 1,476 1,377 1,520 1906 1,492 1908 1,389 Changes since 1904 252% gain 42% gain 44% gain 222% gain 31% gain 38% gain 100% gain 9% loss 9% loss REGULAR VOCATIONS OF PERSONS EMPLOYED AS TEACHERS Industrial Continuation Schools Commercial Continua- tion Schools Schools of Guilds and Unions Teach- ers Handi- crafts- men Others Teach- ers Handi- crafts- men Others Teach- ers Handi- crafts- men Others 1904 . 8,532 10,732 12,068 516 644 753 670 984 1,222 1,613 1,997 2,287 147 142 136 39 62 55 607 667 469 691 660 697 222 1906 266 1908 223 Changes since 1904 41% gain 46% gain 82% gain 41% gain 8% loss 41% gain 23% loss 1% gain With reference to the change in the vocations of the teachers which has taken place from December 1, 1904, to December 1, 1906, the official report of the National In- dustrial Commission of Prussia contains the following state- ment: "While the number of teachers belonging to the teaching and the handicraft classes has increased at the same rate, about 26 per cent, the number of teachers belonging to other professions (draftsmen, technicians, engineers) has increased at almost twice that rate (48 per cent), an indica- tion of the stronger emphasis laid on vocational teaching. The increasing tendency to confine the schools of guilds and unions to technical instruction shows itself in the decrease in the number of instructors who are teachers by profession. The conspicuously small number of commercial people giving instruction in the commercial continuation schools is explained by the fact that these schools are steadily going over to day-school instruction, and this makes it impossible for merchants to teach in them and at the same time conduct their own business." [116] CONTINUATION SCHOOLS The figures for 1908 show that the industrial department of the school system of Prussia has made a marked advance in the past two years. The number of practical men who give instruction in the industrial continuation schools of the district of Wiesbaden is extraordinarily great. This is due to the activity of the industrial unions of Nassau, which for the last ten years have warmly encouraged the industrial continuation schools. In the school year 1908-9, in additional to 433 professional teachers, there were 91 craftsmen and 89 technical men — architects, engineers, and merchants — giving instruction in 144 industrial con- tinuation schools conducted under the direction of the executive committee of the industrial unions. The following survey shows the amount of the State grants for the industrial continuation and commercial continuation schools for boys, from 1905 to 1908: Industrial Continuation Schools Commercial Continuation Schools Guild and Union Schools °1 No. of State- assisted Schools Mazimum State Grant No. of Schools No. of State- assisted Schools Maximum state Grant No. of Schools No. of State- assisted Schools Maximum State Grant 1905 1906 1907 1908 1315 1535 1611 1719 1209 1324 1420 1514 1589180M. 1890923M. 2060255M. 2232209M. 316 334 357 381 158 179 201 222 120921M. 139127M. 147725M. 169978M. 423 409 403 402 89 98 2637SM. 25469M. 24529M. 26453M. A comparison of the State grants with the amounts contributed from other sources for the support of industrial continuation schools is given in the following table, which is taken from the third report of the National Industrial Com- mission of Prussia, for the year 1909: SOURCES OF REVENUE Kinds of Schools Entire Cost Tuition Fees Amount con- tributed by Unions, Guilds, Commercial Associations, Districts, etc. Local Tax State Grant Industrial contin- ) uation schools. . . ) Commercial con- ) tinuation schools ) 7309300M. 1452884M. 636104M. 9% 778704M. 54% 159520M. 2% 190228M. 13% 3732307M. 61% 245060M. 17% 2781369M. 38% 238902M. 16% [117] VOCATIONAL EDUCATION (b) Country Continuation Schools The development of the country continuation school system during the last five years is shown by these figures: Winter Continuation Sohools without Technical Instruction Continuation Schools with Experimental Stations for Technical Instruction Halt- Year No. of Schools No. of Pupils Total Estpense in Marks' No. of Schools No. of Pupils Total Expense in Marks' 1904-06 1906-06 1906-07 1907-08 1908-09 2,019 2,617 2,991 3,477 3,781 28,333 37,446 42,607 60,868 66,889 281,024 384,706 432,663 632,932 674,102 6 6 7 8 7 84 100 84 161 171 1,236 1,412 1,667 1,800 1,906 ^ This is exclusive of the cost of heating, lighting, and cleaning the schools. The following table shows the distribution of country continuation schools over different provinces, and the sources of the revenue of these schools, for the year 1908-9: Provinces East Prussia West Prussia Brandenburg Pomerania Posen Silesia Saxony Schleswig-Holstein Hannover Westphalia Hesse-Nassau Rhine-province . . . HohenzoUern Built by 627 106 174 123 334 394 113 202 472 236 730 316 64 26 o 192 12 84 94 166 84 87 32 306 224 730 280 64 11 322 76 88 29 178 283 26 146 83 1 36 Coat of Maintena'ceBome by 420 100 296 266 81 9& 107 4 173 122 38 121 99 119 449 217 706 277 64 No. of Schools Compared with 1907 10 Hesse-Nassau accordingly stands in the first place among all the provinces, with 730 schools. Among these 730 schools there are 687 with compulsory attendance, based on the law of August 8, 1904. The number of compulsory schools increased from 1907-8 about 130, while the number of [118] CONTINUATION SCHOOLS schools with voluntary attendance decreased during the same time about 57. The seven schools organized with investigating stations for technical instruction are not con- tained in this summary. They are found generally in the district of Oppeln, and are supported by the State without contributions from any other source. The following table shows the number of pupils and teachers, as well as the length of courses, as they were in the winter half-year of 1908 : Number of Schools in Of the Teachers No. of Schools which there were: ,°B thera were: having: Provinces S ^ S 1^^ o ^1 ■P 1 S sf .9 3 H^SPh && :i& 6& til's 6 i&^ 0& ^^ ^6 East Prussia 4692 416 100 11 679 6 672 1 521 6 West. Prussia 1037 65 40 1 120 119 1 101 5 Brandenburg 1926 103 57 14 259 30 229 173 1 Pomerania 1579 57 53 13 185 19 166 122 1 3866 8084 1648 170 53 40 153 178 54 11 163 19 375 532 184 1 8 24 374 522 153 2 7 334 390 118 4 Saxony Schleswig- Holstein 2797 149 37 16 283 7 267 9 201 1 Hannover 6685 181 221 70 744 42 689 13 470 2 Westphalia 4086 51 120 65 371 27 334 10 233 3 Hesse-Nassau 12944 208 327 195 1026 11 1015 730 Rhine-province. . . 6020 62 161 93 406 15 386 5 288 28 Hohenzollem. . . . 525 31 20 3 79 79 53 1 The funds for the country continuation schools without technical instruction were obtained as follows: -'Fiscal Year- From 1907 tuition 28,647 Mk. associations other than agricultural 31,441 Mk. agricultural associations 3,144 Mk. community 66,542 Mk. districts 54,767 Mk. Provinces 7,787 Mk. the State 340,604 Mk. [119] 1908 29,288 Mk. 28,481 Mk. 2,778 Mk. 69,209 Mk. 60,701 Mk. 6,557 Mk. 377,088 Mk. VOCATIONAL EDUCATION (c) Continuation Schools fob Gerls The schools of Prussia for the further instruction of girls are of so many diflEerent forms that it is difficult to give an adequate statistical survey. An important reason for this is that the continuation schools for girls have generally been established and maintained by private individuals and unions. According to a report of the Ministry of Com- merce and Industry, there were in the winter of 1908-9, outside of the commercial continuation schools, 106 State or State-assisted technical and continuation schools for girls. These included: I. State institutions: (o) The Royal Commercial and Industrial Schools for girls at Posen, Potsdam, and Rheydt 3 (6) The Royal Embroidery Schools in the govern- mental districts of Breslau and Liegnitz 7 n. State-assisted institutions: (a) Combined commercial and industrial schools . . . 8 (6) Commercial schools 11 (c) Industrial schools with instruction in cooking and household work, the making of undergar- ments, tailoring, drawing, etc 70 (d) Lace-making schools 3 (e) Glove-making schools 3 (/) Artistic embroidery schools 1 This table will give a general view of the situation. In individual cases various institutions are placed together in one group, especially under H (c), and even schools with the same designation are very dissimilar in their educational aims. The State grants for the girls' schools under the in- dustrial authorities amounted in the year 1908 to 465,248 Mk. Exact figures are not available for the girls' continuation schools that do not receive State aid. To this group belong, for example, ten institutions which are supported by the city of Berlin. [120] CONTINUATION SCHOOLS 2. Bavaria In Bavaria young people leaving the elementary school must, according to the school regulations of June 4, 1903, attend a Sunday school up to the completion of their sixteenth year. In the school year 1907-8, 295,901 pupils were in attendance at the Sunday schools. Of these, 73,416, or 24.8 per cent, were in the cities and 222,485, or 75.2 per cent, were in the country. The number of boys was 122,952, or 41,6 per cent; the number of girls 172,949, or 58.4 per cent. Attendance at a continuation school may be substituted for attendance at a Sunday school, though in some communities the authorities require attendance at a special continuation school, in addition to this Sunday attendance. The vocational continuation schools are organized into industrial, commercial, and agricultural continuation schools. The following series of tables, taken from the official report, show the development and the present situation of these different departments: 1. (o) Development of the industrial continuation schools in the five years between 1903-1908: Year Number of Schools Number of Courses Number of Pupils Number of Teachers Amount Eiqpended Klarks Average Amount per Pupil Marks 1903H, 1904-5 1905-6 1906-7 1907-8 301 328 323 340 347 1,511 1,663 1,725 1,917 2,008 41,253 46,202 46,399 61,277 54,774 2,403 2,488 2.622 2,771 2,812 912,118 1,035,305 1.269,189 1,523,681 1,766,981 21.1 22.9 27.9 29.7 32.2 [121] VOCATIONAL EDUCATION (6) Condition of the industrial continuation schools at the end of the school year 1907-8: No. of Sobools No. of Schools with Com- pulsory Courses The Continuation School Includes: Number of Pupils Governmental Districts Day Contin- uation Courses Evening and Sunday Courses In Day Contin- uation Courses In Evening and Simday Courses Ele- ment- ary Di- vision Techni- cal Di- vision Ele- ment- ary Di- vision Techni- cal Di- vision Total Upper Bavaria. . Lower Bavaria . . Pf alz 70 30 28 40 35 32 65 47 65 24 24 35 30 30 52 36 6 2 3 3 16 190 48 91 66 99 340 128 145 459 16 133 65 80 74 40 15 159 18 18 44 318 5069 1394 2975 1699 3706 10004 3956 4359 9170 643 4329 1884 3163 1654 1264 418 13689 1924 7282 Upper Pfalz Upper Franconia IVUddle Franco- 3381 6812 11386 Lower Franconia Suabia 6209 5096 Entire Kingdom 347 296 30 1097 881 557 33160 22415 54777 Forty-four of the 347 industrial continuation schools were united with Realschulen. The other schools were independent institutions, sixteen of them being the so- called day continuation schools. II. Schools for commercial instruction, year 1907-8: Kinds of Schools Total No. of Schools Public Private No. of Number of Pupils Boys Girls Total Public commercial schools . . . 6 6 44 503 976 1479 Commercial department of the six class Realschulen . . 31 31 93 1022 1022 Commercial industrial con- tinuation schools as parts of the Bealschulen 11 11 45 1009 87 1046 Independent commercial in- dustrial continuation schools and other com- mercial technical schools. . . 16 12 4 83 2298 184 2482 Private commercial schools . . 12 12 69 1468 195 1663 [122] CONTINUATION SCHOOLS III. Agricultural continuation schools for five years between 1903-1908: Agricultural Winter Schools ~] Agricultural Continuation Schools Year Number of Expenditures Number of Expenditures Schools Pupils Marks Average per pupil Schools Pupils Marks Average per pupil 1903^ 1904-6 1906-6 1908-7 1907-8 37 89 40 41 41 1.385 1.421 1.452 1,653 1,604 281,800 292,500 302,700 320,400 278,900 203. 6M 205. SM 208. 4M 206. 3M 173. 9M 387 389 390 362 346 7624 7513 7851 6841 6616 52,500 52,200 60,700 46,900 46,700 7.0M. 6.9M. 6.9M. 6.8M. 7.0M. IV. Vocations of the teachers, year 1907-1908 : Number of Total Number of Teachers Kinds of Schools Full-time Teachers Real- Bohulen Teachers Elementary School Teachers Belonging to other Callings Industrial continuation schools 108 "78 210 ie 1,963 435 104 541 5 222 2,812 440 Agricultural continuation schools Agricultural winter schools . 420 V. The expenses of the industrial and agricultural continuation schools and the agricultural winter schools, outside the expense of heating, lighting, and cleaning the school buildings, were defrayed as follows in the year 1907- 1908: For Industrial Continuation Schools For Agrioultural Continuation Schools For Agricultural Winter Schools By communities. . . By small districts . By larger districts . By the State By other agencies . 880,565 marks 20,660 " 602.226 " 108.329 " 82.083 " 5,631 marks 9,777 " 19,582 " 9.780 " 1,962 " 3,646 marks 41.474 " 131.788 ■■ 13.456 " 49.296 " Outside of the above named institutions, the Bavarian schools for women's work had 4,471 pupils in 1907-1908. Among these institutions there are three public schools which, for the most part, are undertakings of numerous as- sociations of women. Finally, there were in that year 170 [12S] VOCATIONAL EDUCATION lower technical schools, organized by the industrial and handicraft unions, guilds, commercial unions, or private individuals, with 6,686 male and 5,036 female pupils. The course includes the subjects of drawing, stenography, and other commercial subjects, cooking, housekeeping, etc. Of these institutions 39 were public and 131 private schools. 3. Saxony In Saxony the boys leaving the elementary school are obliged by law to attend a general continuation school. The community determines whether the girls shall be obliged to attend the continuation school or not. In the year 1909 an inquiry was made by the statistical committee of the Saxon association of teachers, and it wasfoimd that continua- tion schools for boys and men were maintained in 1,886 places, and for girls and women in seven places. In thirty-two cases a continuation school was maintained jointly by two communities, and in two cases by three. In 1,865 places the boys were obliged to attend school three years, in twenty places two years, and in one place part of the pupils three years and another part of the pupils two years. The instruction extended throughout: The entire year in 1,028 places The winter half-year in 802 " The months from October to Jime in ... . 53 " The whole year for the handicraftsmen and throughout the winter half-year for the other pupils in 3 " The hours of instruction were: On Sunday in 23 " On weekdays and Sunday in 31 " On weekdays alone in 1,830 " On Sunday in summer and weekdays in winter in 2 " The weekday instruction took place: In the hours before seven in the evening in 1,218 " In the hours after seven in the evening in. . 62 " In day and evening hours in 575 " [184] CONTINUATION SCHOOLS Vocational classes existed in 216 places. Outside of the classes for the pupils employed in the industries, there were classes for merchants in eighteen places, classes for clerks in ten places, and classes for farmers in sixty-five places. Besides German and mathematics, the following sub- jects of instruction were carried on: Information about the vocation in 803 places Bookkeeping and exchange in 314 Civics (principles of law and economics) in 484 Science in 326 Drawing in 114 Stenography in 21 No tuition was paid in 915 places. In the remaining places the tuition varied from 75 pfennigs to 8 marks. In two places the tuition amounted to more than 8 marks. In addition to the general continuation schools there are a great number of vocational schools in Saxony which cannot be classed as real continuation schools, as they have in part a higher aim. Fifty-six of these institutions are called continuation schools. The number with com- pulsory attendance is quite small — ^bout ten. The pu- pils receive on the average six hours of instruction per week during the two or three years' coiu-se. Of these industrial continuation schools sixteen have been founded by communities, twenty-seven by unions, five by guilds, and two by owners of industrial plants. Most of the technical schools founded by the guilds and a few of the lower technical schools founded for apprentices by the unions and by the communities are to be considered as industrial continuation schools. Of the fifty-six schools of this kind, twenty-one limit themselves to the purely practical instruction of apprentices; while the remaining thirty-five, in addition to this, give instruction in German, mathematics, principles of industry, bookkeeping, etc. The limitation to practical instruction is found principally in the guild schools for barbers, hair-dressers, and wigmakers, and in those for painters and decorators. Of the fifty-six [126] VOCATIONAL EDUCATION schools, forty-six were administered by guilds, four by unions, and five by communities. Besides, there are twelve industrial drawing schools for young men in the industries. These schools are supported in part by the guilds and unions. Instruction in industrial drawing, as a preparation for attendance at the technical schools for the toy industry, is given in eighteen elementary schools in the toy-making districts of Griinhainichen, Olbernhau, Seiffen, and Z6blitz. The sixty-seven commercial schools are either exclusively apprentice schools, usually with a three years' course, or they include in addition higher departments with full- day instruction, and especial departments for pupils who possess the certificate for one year's military service. The instruction of the apprentices covers about ten hours per week. In twenty-five commercial schools there are special departments for girls. The course of instruction for these departments is usually one year. The commercial schools are in nine cases supported by communities, in forty-eight cases by commercial unions or similar organizations, in eight cases by private individuals, and in one case by a chamber of commercOj. The majority of the industrial educational institutions for girls are industrial technical schools. In the summer of 1909 there were twenty-three institutions devoted to general industrial training, twenty-five for crocheting, and two for straw-plaiting. The number of agricidtural schools amoimts to eleven. The instruction in nine schools covers two half-years, and in the other schools three or four half-years. Their pupils are freed from the obligation of attending the general continuation schools. These schools are almost always under the control of the local agricultural unions. 4. WirBTTEMBEKG The following table will show the condition of the Simday and continuation schools, attendance at which is made com- pulsory by the law of August 17, 1909: [126] CONTINUATION SCHOOLS (a) Number of school centers, classes, and pupils 1908-9. School Centers with Schools for Classes for Pupils Kinds of School Men Women Both Sexes Men Women Both Sexes Men's Industrial Schools Women's Industrial Schools Sunday schools General con- tinuation schools 138 i.siie 1,439 293 266 249 138 1,595 1,481 655 269 251 2,590 22,951 30,542 18,797 (&) schools: Time of instruction in the general continuation Only in During the Winter the Whole Half-year 1,708 Year 693 NUMBER OF CLASSES HELD Only Only On Week- Only on Sundays 99 on Weekdays 2,061 Only In Daytime days and in' in and Sundays Daytime Evening Evening 241 869 1,330 202 The vocational continuation schools in 1908-9 included 168 industrial continuation schools, about one-fourth with compulsory attendance; seventeen commercial continuation schools, among which were five independent institutions (three with compulsory and two with voluntary attendance) , and forty-five industrial drawing schools. The first of April, 1909, was the time set for putting into effect the law of July 22, 1906, under which a thorough change in the number and formation of the vocational continuation schools was made. Up to the present time, decrees have been made for the carrying out of the law in the sixty-seven larger communities of the Kingdom. These decrees provide for the establishment of schools as follows : 1909 1910 1911 1912 1913 1914 Industrial schools 29 6 8 7 8 9 Commercial schools 13 2 . 2 In twelve of the industrial schools provision has been made for special departments for persons employed in com- mercial business. In nine other industrial schools, organi- zation of such departments is necessary. At the opening of new schools compulsory attendance will be extended only to those in the first year, so that at the beginning of the [127] VOCATIONAL EDUCATION school year 1916, the new organization will be completed in sixty-seven of the larger communities of the country. In the case of the smaller communities falling under the law, so far as they already maintain continuation schools and industrial continuation schools for girls, the carrying out of the new regulations will be left to the educational author- ities. Among vocational continuation schools of other sorts will be included thirty-three schools for women's work, three country housekeeping schools, three agricultural continuation schools, and eight farmers' winter schools. 5. Baden In Baden the obligation of attendance at the general continuation school for boys extends to two years, and in the case of girls to one year. It is left to the decision of the individual community whether cooking and housekeeping instruction may replace the continuation school instruction for girls. The following official statement shows the con- dition of the general continuation schools on December 1st of the years indicated: Qeneral Continuation Schools Cooking and Housekeeping Schools 1 Boys Qirl3 Men Tenohers Woman Teachers Com- munities with School Kitchens Additional Kitchens Outside No. of PupUs (Oirls) No. of Teaoh- ore. 1905 1906 1908 21,862 21,690 11,475 11,012 1,894 1,887 4 S 106 118 180 97 183 176 6.567 6,147 7.246 112 120 187 The industrial continuation schools are of two kinds: in the larger places they appear as industrial schools, in the smaller (for the most part country places), as industrial continuation schools. Full-time teachers with special training give the instruction in industrial schools, but in the industrial continuation schools elementary teachers do the work as a side issue. According to an explanation in the budget for 1910, the authorities intend gradually to install more and more full-time teachers for the industrial continuation schools. The following table shows the condi- [ 128] CONTINUATION SCHOOLS tion of the industrial schools on December 1st of the school years 1906, 1907, and 1908: Industrial Continuation Schools Industrial Schools i No. of Schools No. of Teach- ers Regular Pupils Irregular Pupils Number of Schools Number of Teachers Regular Pupils Irregu- lar Pupils 1906 1907 1908 127 132 139 171 177 2,615 2,604 2,745 120 142 109 61 63 63 203 220 10,218 11,687 11,879 2,139 2,504 2,140 The commercial continuation schools are either independ- ent city commercial schools or commercial departments of city industrial schools. The following table gives the con- dition of these schools on December 1st of the school years indicated: Independent City Commercial Schools Com. Departments in City Industrial Schools 1 No. of Schools No. of Men Teach- ers Number of Pupils Number of Women Teachers Depart- ments Men Teachers Number of Boys No. of Girls 1906 1907 1908 11 11 11 81 81 2.297 2,369 2,521 776 811 838 17 19 24 44 47 607 563 669 96 158 197 On December 1, 1908, there were six commercial schools and commercial courses founded by commercial unions, with 390 pupils — 185 boys and 205 girls. Finally, there are in Baden a great number of vocational schools for such persons as are no longer subject to the obligation of attendance at the continuation school. The condition of these schools in the school year 1907-8 was as follows: Number of Atten- Kinds of Schools Schools dance Women's work schools of the Baden Women's unions 44 3,891 Women's work schools, supported by other unions, endowments, city communities, etc. 31 2,189 Housekeeping schools of different unions and endowments 9 274 District housekeeping schools for daughters of peasants 5 163 Agricultural winter schools 14 518 [129] CHAPTER VI VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE IN November, 1908, over 10,000 boys in Berlin attending the continuation schools were in unskilled labor. There were not enough apprentices by 4,000 to supply the demand because of the rush into the iinskilled employments due to higher wages. This situation, which can be dupH- cated in many large cities like Berlin, without a system of vocational guidance, calls for public attention and assistance. The continuation school forms the best point of support for the various organizations for guiding youth between fourteen and eighteen. There should be a real and organic connection between the continuation and the day school on the one hand, and the trade and industries of the com- munity on the other. In German cities there is usually a labor bureau for boys and girls, whose officials have first-hand knowledge of the labor market and of the qualities of health and strength needed for each vocation. They avoid placing children with employers of unsatisfac- tory character, and strive to foster skilled manual labor, by preventing the drift into casual and unskilled occupa- tions. The bureau co-operates with the elementary school in giving counsel and advice to young people choosing a vocation; and with the continuation school in protecting children against their parents and themselves, and some- times against individual employers. The educational authorities of the diflferent German States are devoting considerable attention to this question but many cities in Eastern Germany have done nothing. Munich, Strassburg, and other cities of Western and Southern Germany have well organized bureaus. Alsace-Lorraine has seventeen such bureaus of vocational guidance. In Scotland the movement for vocational guidance has assumed a definite [ISO] VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE direction, and Boston has worked out an excellent scheme for this purpose. The plan in operation in Strassburg and Munich will be of interest. The materials are taken from Mr. Clay's Compulsory Continuation Schools in Germany. In Strassburg, the boy, while still at school, has been in touch with the Municipal Labor Bureau, which has separate departments for boys and girls. He has been advised as to his choice of a vocation and has decided what he wishes to do. This Bureau, an intermediary between boys leav- ing the elementary school and the employers of skilled labor, co-operates with the Chamber of Trade and the Chamber of Commerce. From this Bureau information can be obtained as to the character of employers, and as to the likelihood of their fulfilling their responsibilities towards the boys. When about to leave school, the boy must visit the Labor Bur- eau, with the parent, and fill out a card of details. Here they will receive information and advice as to the best course to pursue in seeking employment. The Bureau endeavors to prevent the drift into the overcrowded ranks of errand boys and clerks, and to prevent the unscrupulous exploiting of child-labor. The purpose of this Bureau is to enable the boy to become a skilled laborer, and this is treated as a matter of public interest rather than one con- cerning individuals only. A health officer co-operates in this work. The boy is examined on leaving school as to his physical health and soundness, and the details are entered on his card, together with his school record. Whenever a vacancy occurs, this card is consulted, and the boy is advised as to his fitness for the position oflfered. The Labor Bureau in Germany experiences the same difficulties that we have in America. Families often are anxious to put their children where they can earn some- thing immediately, rather than into apprenticeship, where little or nothing can be earned for some time. The Bureau makes a special effort to avoid sacrifices of the boys by encouraging them to enter into skilled labor. The ordinary [131] VOCATIONAL EDUCATION laborer can earn as much for a short time as the ordinary skilled workman. This, however, only lasts during the few summer months, but long enough to attract the inexperi- enced boy. The following is the procedure in detail: 1. The teacher distributes cards to be filled in by all boys and girls leaving the elementary schools, and the parents are summoned some evening to have the purpose of the authorities explained to them. The cards stating the occupation desired must be taken to the Bureau in the next few days. The children have already been medi- cally examined as to their fitness, and a list has been issued by the school authority showing all the trades which can be learned in or near Strassburg. 2. The employers meanwhile have sent to the Bureau their applications for apprentices and clerks. These cards are marked confidentially for approval or otherwise by the Chambers of Trades and of Commerce. 3. The children are seen at the Bureau and the officials put them into communication with the employers. Thus, automatically, provided they are fit, they tend to fall into the occupations where there are most vacancies. 4. All boys and girls must take control cards back to the teacher to show that they have been to the Bureau and had their names entered. The teacher exercises pressure until the card shows that they have found employment. It should be mentioned that the initial steps are taken by the teachers some four months before the children leave school. The feature in Strassburg that immediately strikes the observer is the earnest interest taken by the Chamber of Trades in the continuation schools and in the Labor Bureau, and the resulting vital connection of these latter with the industries of the town and district. The following showing will explain the opportunities presented to these boys for selecting occupations: 1. The branches of industry in Strassbiu-g, with the numbers of the workmen engaged, in June 1907, were: [ 132 ] VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE Commercial Clothing. Food, drink, and tobacco Building Hotels and inns Machine tool and instrument-making . Woodwork and carving Cleaning Metal-working Male Female 7.147 3.434 2,537 3,730 3,465 2,157 5,531 SO 1,597 2,582 2,747 66 1,821 347 703 1.304 1,664 68 2. The total population of the town of Strassburg between 14 and 18 years of age was: Males 5,356 Females 6,110 3. Of boys from 14 to 18 years of age there were: (o) Unemployed (belonging to families without definite occupation) 1,380 (6) Employed in unskilled labor 758 ADVISORY EXPERT COMMITTEE (FACHSCHULKOMMISSION) OF THE GENERAL AND TRADE CONTINUATION SCHOOLS IN STRASSBURG, CONSISTING OF MEN ACTUALLY ENGAGED IN THE VARIOUS TRADES (IN OFFICE FOR THREE YEARS) Number of Groups No. of Members 1. Bakers 7 2. Confectioners 4 3. Butchers 4 4. Cooks and waiters 8 5. Tailors 6 6. Shoemakers 9 7. Farmers and gardeners 4 8. Hairdressers 7 9. Printers 7 10. Compositors 3 11. Bookbinders 5 12. Druggists 6 13. Grocers 1 14. Cabinetmakers 8 15. Carpenters 2 16. Wheelwrights 1 17. Coopers 2 18. Masons 5 19. Stove-setters 2 20. Sweeps 2 Number of Groups 21. Stonedressers 22. Locksmiths 23. Smiths 24. Machine-constructors 25. Coppersmiths 26. Electrical engineers 27. Instrument-makers 28. Watchmakers 29. Tinsmiths and plumbers . . . . 30. Plasterers 31. Painters 32. Upholsterers 33. Goldsmiths 34. Saddlers 35. Engravers 36. Surgical bandage-makers . . . 37. Photographers 38. Lithographers 39. Wood-engravers 40. Color-printers No. of Members 1 4 3 3 1 2 2 1 1 3 6 4 3 2 2 2 1 3 1 2 [133] VOCATIONAL EDUCATION STATISTICS OF CONTINUATION CLASSES EST STRASSBURG Occupations Number of Boys Number of Classes Hours per Week (o) Unskilled 517 19 4 (6) Bakers 82 71 21 42 40 20 43 20 47 72 69 28 4 3 1 2 2 1 2 1 2 3 4 1 5 Confectioners 7 6 Cooks 6 Waiters'. 6 8 6 Shoemakers 6 Tailors 6 8 Printers 8 6 6 Total 560 26 76 28 24 68 81 24 91 57 19 67 18 36 41 19 20 3 1 1 3 3 1 4 2 1 3 1 2 1 1 1 8 8 Carpenters and wheelwrights 8 8 8 8 Machine-fitters 8 8 8 8 Plasterers 8 8 8 8 8 Total 669 28 (d) Commercial 414 18 9 Sum total (a) . (6). (c). Pupils Classes 517 19 560 26 669 27 414 18 2,160 90 The Municipal Labor Bureau of Munich was able to place apprentices from the elementary schools during 1907 as follows: Applications Vacancies Placed Boys 1,829 2,345 1,560 Girls 279 452 241 The greater number of the boys became mechanics, locksmiths, joiners, bakers, printers, dl: clerks, or went [134] VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE into cafe employment. They are m^edicaUy examined here as at Strassburg, before they leave school. Xo domestic servants or nurse girls are included in the above statistics. The girls went mainly into dressmaking or the printing or business houses. The general procedure by which this bureau carries on its work is similar to that already described as in force at Strass- buig, so that it is not necessary to repeat it here. The purpose is to avoid a loss of the r^ults of the education of the elemen- tary school, and this is achieved by close co-operation be- tween the Bureau, the trade societies (including the indi- vidual employers), and the school authorities. While the Labor Bureau endeavors to put the right boys in the right places, and to prevent boys who are well able to take up a skilled trade from passing into unskilled work, the master, on his side, must be a suitable person, entitled to take appren- tices. A guide book of the industrial occupations open to youth, explaining the work, the necessary qualifications, the prospects, the health conditions, the cost of training, etc., has been prepared. The services of the Bureau are gratis, and it is made clear to the parents that its only object is to bring boys and employers together, and that they — the parents — are free to choose the calling. ST4TTSTTrS OF TTTF. T.AROR RrRF.ATT OF MT-NTrH A-^ TO PI.^fTNa BOYS AND GTKT.S AS APPRENTICES SINCE 1S96 Tear Applications 1 "acancies Placed Boys Girls Total Boys Giris Total Boys Girls Total 1896 523 40 563 727 126 S53 261 16 277 1897 365 74 439 634 104 73S 243 35 278 1898 447 90 537 731 108 839 250 47 297 1899 252 88 340 658 154 SU 172 61 233 1900 334 114 448 700 167 867 240 71 311 1901 337 110 447 629 130 759 196 45 241 1902 1.377 137 1,492 1.342 191 1,533 738 67 805 1903 2,610 309 2,919 2.381 440 2.S^1 1,493 191 1,684 1901 2,823 396 3,219 2,426 535 2.961 1,765 208 1,973 1905 2,698 440 3,138 2,510 5&4 3,094 1,888 256 2,144 1906 2,628 302 2,930 2,535 505 3,040 1,947 230 2,177 1907 1,829 279 2,108 2,354 452 2.806 1,560 241 1,801 Total 16^01 2,379 18,580 17,627 3,396 21.123 10,753 1,468 12,221 [185] VOCATIONAL EDUCATION LABOR BUREAU FORMS (1) STRASSBURG MUNICIPAL LABOR BUREAU (o) Card to he filled in by the intending apprentice. Name Elementary School Date and place of birth Religion Address Name and occupation of father or guardian Occupation chosen by the apprentice . . , Can the parents maintain (him or her) during the apprenticeship? Can they pay a premium? May the apprentice take a place in the country? What employer (if any) has he chosen? His exact address [On the reverse side.] Medical Cbetipicatb 1. Build 2. Height and weight 3. Appearance and condition 4. Chest measurement 5. Organs of the chest and abdomen 6. The senses 7. Remarks Remabks of the School Staff School year Ability Conduct Industry The apprentice was referred by the Labor Bureau: Date To: Is he still in the place found for him? If not, since when? Conduct of the apprentice Checked (date) (b) Card to be filled in by the employer Date Group Section Name of the employer or firm Trade Exact address Number of apprentices desired Length of apprenticeship What premium is asked for? What have the parents to provide? Is board and lodging given? Is the apprentice to receive pay? When is the apprenticeship to begin? How many assistants and apprentices do you employ? (Stamp.) Remarks. [On the reverse side.] Apprentice referred to (date) Remarks (c) Control card. 1. Name of the Pupil i. Date of first application at the Bureau S. Dates of further applications 4. Case settled on the: (date) (by) (Stamp) [136] VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE (2) MUNICH MUNICIPAL LABOR BUREAU (o) Card to be filled in by the intending apprentice. School Class Christian and surname Parents 1. Will the boy attend the eighth class the next year? 2. n not: Has the boy already a definite place in view? If so, with whom? 3. What occupation does the boy wish to take up? i. If he wishes to be apprenticed: (a) Can he pay a premium? (6) Can he have his meals at home? (c) Can he sleep at home? Signature of father (or mother) N. B. The town Labor Bureau undertakes to give information about all kinds of posts free of charge. The parents of the children who apply to the Bureau are alsolutely free to make their choice of their futiure occupation. The Labor Bureau only attempts to bring the applicants into touch with the most suitable posts. The drawing up of any contract is left entirely to the two persons concerned. (6) Application for post as apprentice. Christian and surname Address Age Height Name and trade of father or guardian Place of birth Which school last attended? Which class? To what trade does he wish to be apprenticed? Will a post outside the town be accepted? Can the boy sleep and have his meals at home? Can a premium be paid? When can he begin? Remarks Signature of 'the applicant [137 ] CHAPTER VII SECONDARY TECHNICAL SCHOOLS GERMANY'S higher technical education is given in - eleven technical universities. These schools (to make use of a figure of speech of Dr. Kerschensteiner's) provide the captains of industry. In Germany a large number of secondary and lower technical institutions under- take to train the subaltern officers and the rank and file of the industrial army. These technical secondary schools are very numerous in Germany, while they are almost unknown in England and America. They are divided into two groups : the higher and lower secondary technical schools. The higher group generally requires of candidates for admission the completion of the course in a six-year secondary school, or its equivalent, and from one to two years of practical outside experience. The lower group usually admits pupils who have completed the elementary school and their apprenticeship in some trade. The work of the higher group usually extends over two and a half years or more, and, on account of better preparatory training, is more severely mathematical and scientific than the work of the lower group. The work of the lower group usually includes from one and one-half to two years. Most of these secondary technical schools may be classified according to their work, as building-trades schools, machine-trades schools, art-trades schools, textile schools, agricultural schools, etc. There are, however, a large number of special technical schools that would not be covered by this classification. The Germans have attempted to supply schools for every industry that would be benefited by them, and systems of classification that have stood in the way have been sacrificed. These technical secondary schools have been extremely [188] SECONDARY TECHNICAL SCHOOLS important and useful in Germany, Director Peters of the Association of German Engineers stated "a few years ago that, while there was a surfeit of engineers turned out by the technical universities, engineers of a lower grade and technical experts who were fitted for the positions of machine constructors, technical engineers, mechanical engineers, chemists, superintendents of departments, building experts, etc., were in great demand. He stated that of 3,281 engi- SECONDARY TECHNICAL SCHOOLS IN GERMANY States of Germany ■i to ss II 'it d % •si QQO} 1 s 1 "O ID -a 1 §§ a 1 H n 1 CQ i □9 "o 1 1 ll .at) I2 8 '3 1. 1 II ■3 ■a ll Otn ■1 1 Prussia 24 10 10 i 3 2 1 2 2 1 2 1 i i 1 9 4 4 '2 i i 1 i 1 i 1 53 '2 i 5 3 1 1 36 2 56 6 i i i 1 7 7 1 '7 i 3 2 i 21 2 3 1 2 4 i 1 17 16 3 47 7 5 1 1 35 2 i i 1 37 11 7 '3 2 '2 3 1 23 i 2 i i i 290 56 93 7 20 11 4 1 6 3 1 2 3 4 i 1 '2 1 4 6 7 Bavaria (^ 19 WUrttemberg Baden Hesse s MecklenbuTg- 1 Mecklenbiirg- Strelitz 1 Saxe-Weimar Oldenburg 1 1 Rmnai^r-lr Saxe-Meiningen Saxe-AItenburg Saxe-Coburg-Gotha. . Anhalt i i SchwarzbuTg- Sondershausen .... Sehwarzburg- Rudobtedt Waldeck Reuss junior line .... Reuss senior line .... Schaumburg-Lippe. . . Lippe-Detmold LUbeck 1 i i 2 Bremen Hamburg 1 '2 ■ • i 1 1 1 1 Alsace-Lorraine Total 63 26 58 10 104 24 6 37 36 61 40 52 43 515 46 :i39] VOCATIONAL EDUCATION neers employed in 105 of the most prominent German indus- trial firms only 1,124 (or 34 per cent) were from technical universities, while 2,137 (or '64 per cent) were from secondary technical schools. The Minister of Commerce and Industi^ in his recent report has stated that, while Germany is well supplied with engineers of the kind turned out by the technical universities, she could use ten times as many of the grade turned out by the secondary technical schools. English authorities seem also to believe that England's inferiority in technical instruction, as compared to Ger- many, is not in the university grade of engineers, but in the secondary grade, which is almost unprovided for in England. THE MIDDLE TECHNICAL SCHOOLS (HOHERE) Middle Industrial Technical SclioolB Com- mercial Agri- cultural Schools With Several Departments With One Department Higher Art- Provinces Civil Engineer- ing Schools Textile Technical Schools i 1 Trades Schools Public Private Public Private Public Prussia Bavaria Saxony WUrttemberg.. Baden Hesse 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 4 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 7 1 4 1 5 7 10 i i i ? 1 6 3 i i 1 i 18 2 1 i i 1 i 7 2 2 1 2 1 Saxe- Weimar. . . Oldenburg Brunswick Anhalt Reuss I. L LUbeck Bremen Hamburg Alsace-Lorraine 2 1 i 1 1 Tables after R. Knabe's Das Deutsche Unterrichtswesen der Gegenvart. These tables are several years old (1902). [140] CHAPTER VIII BUILDING-TRADES SCHOOLS FOR no other industry in Germany has the necessity of industrial educational institutions been recognized so early and so generally as for the building trades. In every place where systems of industrial education began to develop, the technical training, and particularly in draw- ing, of those engaged in the building trades was given special attention. This was provided for either by de- partments for those in the building trades in the general industrial drawing and art schools, or by special technical institutions for this purpose, such as architectural schools, building academies, or building-trades schools. Formerly, the departmental method was preferred, and it is still employed in Austria and South Germany, but at the present time Prussia is establishing separate building-trades schools. With the growing extension and development of sys- tems of industrial education in the larger states of Germany, greater attention is given to technique; and the division of labor required by this has resulted in splitting up the existing general schools into special schools for single subjects or for only a few related subjects. This specializing has a great advantage in that it makes possible a thorough training that meets the comprehensive demands for technical knowl- edge and power in persons carrying on dififerent branches of industry, but if it is pushed too far it leads to an unnecessary increase in the cost of industrial training, and to a one-sided- ness which is an obstacle to later development. The German feels that adaptability to changing situations must not be crushed out. The oldest existing technical school for the building trades in all Germany is probably the one in Munich, which was founded in the year 1820 by Mitter and Shopf, first [141] VOCATIONAL EDUCATION as a private undertaking with State and city support, and later, on the 10th of April, 1823, as a public institution. Holzminden followed in 1832; Saxony, with Chemnitz, Dresden, Leipsic, Plauen, and Zittau, in 1837-1840; in 1845, Stuttgart, and many others soon after. The aim of these building-trades schools was originally very modest. They undertook to teach the knowledge of materials used in construction, architectural drawing, and cost estimates, all indispensable both for the practice of the trade and for the master's certificate. The drawing was usually from models. The school attendance covered two winter semesters; the summer was left free for work in building. The teachers were a few practical men who devoted part of their time to this instruction for very small pay. The number of schools and courses was small; the general equipment was meager; the supply of apparatu3 was very incomplete. In spite of this, the instruction satisfied the requirements of most masters in the building trades half a century ago. The methods of building were based upon a few generally known rules; police regulations made very small demands upon the builder; and most of the buildings in city or country could be put up by builders without any thorough-going technical or artistic training. Large and expensive buildings were not often needed until the present crowding into the cities took place. This was changed in the last decade of the nineteenth century; the sciences of architecture and engineering made enormous advances. In consequence of this, arrangements for heating, ventilation, and lighting were perfected; iron construction and electrical appliances were introduced; greater demands, with respect to health and security, made their appearance; the enormous development of commerce, industry, and social intercourse brought the need for new sorts of special and diflBcult building con- struction of all kinds, such as factories, warehouses, business and mercantile houses, and hotels; states and communities required public buildings for government purposes, and for schools and other educational institutions; [ 142] BUILDING-TRADES SCHOOLS the needs of commerce and transportation demanded great constructions for railways, waterways, streets, and canals; increase in wealth made demands on the builders for beauty, convenience, and comfort in a way never known before. As increased demands were made upon the architects and engineers, a special class of technical men of lower rank was required upon whom would fall the task of taking up and carrying out practically the plans of the consulting architect and engineer, men who were qualified to work out in detail the broad outlines of the architect or engineer, to work up the estimates of cost, and to su- perintend the actual construction. On account of this increase in the public demands upon the builders it became necessary to improve, broaden, and deepen the instruction given in the building-trades schools. The time of instruction was, therefore, increased to three, four, or five semesters. As the subjects of instruction soon became entirely too numerous to be handled by all in attendance, special departments were created for the train- ing of architects, civil engineers, and stonemasons. Schools and courses were increased and better equipped, apparatus and methods of instruction were perfected, and there was created a good teaching personnel which devoted its entire time to the school, with better pay and a pension system. In spite of all these improvements, it became more and more apparent that only a limited number of pupils for the building trades were in a position to take up the entire list of subjects, and to work through them thoroughly, and that comparatively few of those entering the building- trades school completed its course. It has become necessary therefore, to increase the demands for admission, and to admit only such young people as have for a long time worked practically as builders, and have received a good elementary school training. In order to make easier the attainment of this preliminary knowledge for those who had been refused admittance, introductory classes were sometimes added to the building-trades school. Finally, the step was taken of founding so-called foremen's schools for the lower workers [143] VOCATIONAL EDUCATION in the building trades — special building-trades schools with lower aims and correspondingly shortened courses of instruction. There are about fifty building-trades schools in Germany, most of them with two departments: architectural (Hqch- bau) and civil engineering (Tiefbau). In this latter depart- ment are included courses for civil engineering, road, street, and railway building, hydraulic engineering and bridge construction, and sometimes irrigation and drainage. The Prussian Ministry states officially that the piupose of these schools is to prepare: 1. Skilled laborers for the building trades who intend to become independent contractors, masons, carpenters, etc. 2. Draftsmen and designers, as well as building fore- men, for architecture and civil engineering. 3. Officials employed in government, military, railroad, and city building, or civil engineering for provincial, county, and communal administration. In these schools men are trained for positions such as architectural secretary, inspector, superintendent of the erection of water works, railroad contractor and construction engineer, building inspector, secretary of military works in the war department, and technical secretary in the naval department. Many of the local departments also require this education from inspectors and contractors for their tech- nical buildings and surface improvements. The course of these schools consists of five grades, each lasting half a year. The three lower grades are the same in the departments for architecture and civil engineering; while in the two highest grades specialization is permitted, these grades being devoted to the special instruction demanded by the two departments. The work of the three lower grades is so planned as to give to students who are compelled to leave, after finishing the first three semesters' work, something definite and substantial that will fit them for lower grade positions, such as foremen. In this way an effort is made to prevent the sacrifice of the interests of [144] BUILDING-TRADES SCHOOLS students who are unable to remain the full five semesters. Students stopping at the end of the third semester might very properly be regarded as students of the lower group of secondary technical schools, while those completing the full five semesters are considered to be members of the higher group of secondary technical schools. The work is carried on both in winter and in summer, and provision is made for interruptions for the benefit of students who cannot put in the two and a half years consecutively. The State regula- tions urge students not to interrupt attendance for more than one-half year in time, and to attend the last two semesters without interruption. Students admitted to this institution must have completed their sixteenth year, and have satisfactorily finished the work of the elementary school. As a rule, they must pass an examination. Candidates of a fully graded elementary school and of a two years' continuation school of six hours a week, or those who have secured the privilege of one year's voluntary military service, are excused from the examination. The examination, however, is only in two subjects, German and arithmetic, and is comparatively simple. In many places a preparatory class is provided for students who fail in the examination. Besides this, twelve months of active work at a building trade is required before admission. There are some modifications in this requirement for stu- dents taking the course in civil engineering. Students are required to pay tuition of about twenty dollars a semestet. In some schools the tuition is higher. Foreign students must pay about five times as much. Besides this, there is a small fee for accident insurance. The students are required to furnish their own books and materials. Some pupils who are poor are excused from the payment of tuition if they prove to be good students in every sense of the word. The rules governing these schools are rather strict. The course of study in the architectural department (Hochbau) is as follows: [145] VOCATIONAL EDUCATION Number of Houra per Week in each Subject Subiects German, business, and law Arithmetic Algebra Plane geometry, solid geometry, and trigonometry Natural cience Building materials Surveying and leveling Projection Statics Building construction Architectural drawing Theory of architecture and building regulations Designs for buildings Architectural forms Freehand drawing Estimates and bookkeeping Total Optional Courses Modeling Class V CIbsb IV 44 4 44 4 Class III 44 4 Clasi II 2 3 6 4 3 12 6 4 44 2 Class I 2 5 4 4 4 14 5 4 2 44 Total 19 8 4 2 12 15 32 32 18 26 19 14 6 220 14 The course of study in the department of civil engineer- ing (Tiefbau) is as follows: Subjects (Classes V. IV, and ni as above) Number of Hours per Week in each Subject Class II Class Total I German, business, and law Arithmetic Algebra Plane geometry, solid geometry and trigonometry . Natural science and bmlding materials Surveying, leveling, and working drawings Projection Statics Freehand drawing Architectural forms Building construction and architectural drawing .. . Theory of architecture and building regulations . . Ground, street, and city improvements Hydraulic engineering Bridge building Railroad building Railroad architecture Principles of machinery Estimates and bookkeeping Total Optionai, CouBSEa Modeling [146] 44 7 7 5 6 2 2 44 9 4 21 14 12 10 16 6 8 54 11 11 12 10 12 2 2 6 220 14 CHAPTER IX MACHINE-TRADES SCHOOLS THE organization of schools of mechanical engineering has proceeded along lines similar to those of the build- ing-trades schools. At first the training of engineers, constructors, foremen, machine draftsmen, etc., was given in the technical departments of various industrial schools. This combination of departments in the technical schools is continued up to the present time in many states of Ger- many, and must be retained where economy is necessary, and where the number of pupils is small. Prussia has developed an enormous iron industry during the last twenty years, and has followed the policy of founding special schools for mechanical engineering, some of which are secondary schools. These train machinists, mechanical draftsmen, and technical officials of middle rank, and others preparing for positions that require a less highly developed technical ability, both in industries and in the service of the State. To both these classes of engineering schools are often added evening and Sunday courses for workmen who cannot afiEord to give up work entirely and attend school. These evening and Sunday courses furnish them an opportunity to supplement their technical knowledge, and increase their skill as draftsmen. The last step has been to add courses of two or three semesters to the technical schools, for the training of efficient workmen in the machine industry for positions as managers, foremen, etc. As in the case of the building trades, we find in the machine trades a great number of private technical schools, usually called "Technika." They are generally less efficient than the public institutions mentioned above. In addition to these, various handicraft and art-trades schools and the large continuation and guild schools frequently offer oppor- [147] VOCATIONAL EDUCATION tunities in their courses for the training of lathe-men, blacksmiths, locksmiths, and other metal workers. Train- ing in such courses, however, is usually confined to technical drawing. There are two grades of such machine-trades schools in Prussia. The one called Hohere is a secondary school requir- ing greater academic preparation and a longer course of study than the other and preparing for higher positions in the industries as well as in departments of government service. Students may be admitted to one of the higher group of schools on compliance with one of the following sets of conditions : I. The higher of these two grades of the machine- trades or engineering schools (Hohere Maschiaen- bauschulen) is a real secondary technical school, which means in Germany a school requiring as a condition for admission the completion of six years of the course in the academic secondary school. These schools require, further, that the applicant must possess the required skill in drawing, and must have been employed practically in a workshop or factory for a period of two years. II. Students may be admitted who show that they have attended for two years the preparatory class of any machine-trades school, and can present evidence of satisfactory work there. For admission to these preparatory courses a good elementary education and two and a half years of apprentice work in the work- shop are required. III. The applicant may furnish proof that he possesses the certificate for one year's military service, and that he has the required skill in drawing and has completed two years of practical work in the shop or factory. IV. He may present a report of successful attendance at any vocational school approved by the Ministry of Commerce, first showing that he possesses the required skill in drawing and shop practice. [148] MACHINE-TRADES SCHOOLS V. He may enter on passing an examination for ad- mission and proving that he has had three years of practical experience in the shop or factory. The director of any institution may, with the consent of the local board of trustees, reduce the requirement of three years of experience. This higher mechanical engineering school provides for the instruction of engineers, inspectors, and oflBcers of engineering works and allied industries, as well as for draftsmen in the offices of the same; it also pro- vides future owners and managers of such industrial plants or allied industries with the technical knowledge that they need. The lower group of mechanical engineer- ing schools (Maschinenbauschulen) is intended for lower technical inspectors and overseers and foremen. For some years the higher group seemed to be most in favor with the German industrialists, but later reports show a renewed interest in the lower group of schools. At present the policy is not to build more of the higher group, the last schools in Frankfort and elsewhere being schools of the lower group. These are often combined with departments for smelting and foundry work. The difference between these two groups of schools is not merely in the preliminary qualifications required, but also in the instruction given. The one requires two-thirds of the course in a German secondary school, which means about one-half of the work covered by an American city high school; the other takes pupils directly from the ele- mentary school. The one requires only two years of work in shop or factory; the other requires not less than four years of such work. Students come to the higher school better prepared academically; students come to the lower school better prepared practically. The instruction given varies according to the preparation. The higher school, with students more thoroughly trained in mathematics and science, can carry the work further and develop it in a more scientific manner; the lower school must turn its attention more closely to the practical side of the work. [ 149] VOCATIONAL EDUCATION An indispensable condition for admission into either of these schools is some practical experience. In this respect they differ from the schools of Austria and Switzerland. Without this practical work the student lacks the interest that comes from the practical understanding of his problem. "Practical work" means employment in shop or factory under actual shop conditions, including employment in fit- ting, at the turning lathe, in modeling, in forming in the foundry and smithy, and in driving and attending to machinery. The student must put in the full number of hours of work, and submit to the rules and regulations of the work like any other workman. The graduates of these schools may attend the technical universities as visitors, but cannot study for a degree, as they have not completed the full course of a nine years' secondary school. The purpose of these schools is to furnish a certain amount of technical instruction, without encroach- ing upon the work of the technical universities. The build- ings in which the schools are held are well equipped with drawing-rooms, laboratories for physics, chemistry, and electricity, and workshops for practical work. The follow- ing table will give some idea of the later occupations of graduates of these schools. The first column shows the occupations of graduates of the Duisburg mechanical en- Occupations Duisburg Graduates from Sept. 29, 1883 to April 10, 1898 Dortmund Graduates from Sept. 29, 1892 to April 10, 1898 Heads of establishments Other officers of establishments Machine builders and foremen Owners of establishments or shops Wage-workers Draftsmen and technical experts in offices . . Assistant chemists Students at other schools Other than technical work Military service Deceased Unknown Total [150] MACHINE-TRADES SCHOOLS gineering and smelting school, a school of lower rank; the second column those of graduates of the Dortmund com- bined mechanical engineering and higher mechanical en- gineering school. The positions occupied by the graduates of these schools give a pretty good idea of the usefulness of the instruction given there. The course for the higher school of mechanical engi neering is five semesters in length, and that of the lower four. The following tables show the studies taken in the two divisions of the Dortmund combined school for mechanical engineering and higher mechanical engineering, giving the number of hours per week for lectures and practical exercises : STUDIES OF THE HIGHER MECHANICAL ENGINEERING SCHOOL IN DORTMUND Subjects of InstTuctioD Cl.V 1st Half- year leo. ex. 01. IV 2nd Half- year lec. ex. 01. Ill 3rd Halt- Year lec. ex. CI. II 4th Half- year lec. ex. 01. 1 5th Half- year leo. ex. Total leo. ex. Civics. DrinciDles of law . 1 .. 8 .. 4 .. 4 2 .. 3 .. 6 .. 2 . . 4 . 18 .. Phvsica 6 .. Chemistry 4 .. 1 1 Descriptive geometry .. 10 6 .. .. 6 .. 10 6 .. 6 8 6 .. 18 .. Principles of machinery Studv of motors 4 8 10 22 4 8).. 2^22 2) 18) 6^32 ElectrotechnolofTV .... 4 .. w\ Srifinpfi nf KnilrliTiP . . 4 10 .. 2 8 2 .. 4 12 TechnolofiTV 10 2 .. 4 1 .. 24 Experiments in the laboratories.. ._. . Prevention of accidents and in- dustrial hvinene. .... .. 10 4 .. Total 40 40 42 42 41 205 [isi] VOCATIONAL EDUCATION STUDIES OF THE MECHANICAL ENGINEERING SCHOOL Subjects of Inetruction CI. IV let Half- year leo. ex. CI. Ill 2nd Half- year c. ex. CI. II 3rd Half- year lee. ex. CI. I 4tli Half- year leo. ex. Total lee. ex. German and principles of busi- ness Arithmetic Mathematics Physics Chemistry Geometry and projective draw- ing, technical freehand draw- ing, and exercises in lettering. . Mechanics Principles of mechanics Study of motors Study of lifting-machines Electrotechnology Theory of building Technology Experiments in the laboratory . . . Prevention of accidents and in- dustrial hygiene 12 6 19 6 2 17 10 11 7 13 4 10 17 is 8 5 Total. 42 i 10 4 1 19 .. 10 1 42 42 43 169 Both of these schools include departments for evening and Sunday work for persons who cannot give their full time to the school. The work done in these evening and Sunday classes covers, in part, the work done in the day. schools, and may be accepted in place of it. Below are given the classes in the evening and Simday schools of the Engineering and Smelting School of Duisburg: Subject of Instruction German, business, and civics, I, II, III Arithmetic, I, II Mathematics: Algebra I, II, III Geometry I, II Calculation of surfaces and solids Physics . Electrotechnology I, II, III Principles of machinery Theory of machinery (steam-boilers, derricks, and steam-engines) Drawing: Geometrical drawing Technical freehand drawing and projective drawing I, II, III Mechanical drawing I, II Penmanship No. of Hours per Week 2 3 2 2 2 4 Total 40 kl52] CHAPTER X ART-TRADES SCHOOLS THE art-trades schools of Germany owe their existence in the first place to the London Exposition of 1851. The productions of the French art-trades far sur- passed those of Germany, Austria, or England, and their superiority gave them a commanding position in the markets of the world. All three countries attempted to increase their competitive power in these lines by founding art-trades schools, England founding the South Kensington Museum. The others soon followed her lead. Germany was also influ- enced by the gradually growing conviction that by introducing the element of art it was possible to save the handicrafts, which were fighting for their existence, so hard-pressed by the machine that in the '70's their complete downfall was prophesied as very near. Academies of drawing and art and industrial schools had been founded in the eighteenth century and the beginning of the nineteenth century for training in industrial drawing. They had included in their programs, in the '20's and '30's, the promotion of the industries by the founding of numerous industrial and polytechnical unions for the preservation of the artistic handicrafts. The diflficulties at this time seemed to lie not so much upon the artistic as upon the technical side. It seemed to be better first to provide for the men in the industries the mathematical, scientific, commercial, and economic knowledge required by modern production; to teach new and better ways of doing business, to introduce new branches of work into the country. Ac- cordingly, the furthering of the artistic interest, the train- ing of the taste, seemed to be of less immediate importance to the worker than scientific and technical training. This was only natural, as the German people after the Napoleonic [153] VOCATIONAL EDUCATION wars were so poor that it was necessary for them to abandon almost every attempt to cultivate the beautiful by means of art study and to satisfy themselves with the simplest modes of living. England, herself, drew the first lesson from the exposi- tion in 1851, and founded Departments of Science and Art and the South Kensington Museum in London to care for and promote the art-trades. This was to be brought about by model collections of artistic objects, through lectures on the history of art and technology, by teaching in work- shops, by far-reaching care of instruction in drawing and modeling, by prizes for excellent artistic work, and similar measures. Nearly all later museums of industrial art and the art-trades schools connected with them on the Continent have arisen in a similar way; first, Vienna, 1863; Berlin, 1867; next Munich, Nuremberg, Karlsruhe, Dresden, Leipsic, DUsseldorf, and others. It should be mentioned that the basis for an industrial museum in Stuttgart was provided as early as 1850 through the erection of a "Wiirt- temberg model collection." The schools giving instruction in industrial art at the present time are divided into four groups: 1. Industrial continuation schools for the art trades. 2. Schools for handicrafts. 3. Schools for industrial art and handicrafts. 4. Industrial art schools. They teach the applications of art to the industries. The industrial art schools are chiefly day schools. The in- dustrial art and handicraft schools are open during the day, but have evening courses for craftsmen and sometimes for apprentices. The handicraft schools and the continuation schools for the art trades are largely for evening work. In each and every case they endeavor to adapt their program of study to the peculiar industrial conditions of the locality, and offer opportunities for instruction in all kinds of skilled labor in all branches of the art trades. The program of study consists sometimes of individual courses in particular art trades, sometimes of groups of [1S4] ART-TRADES SCHOOLS courses, all related to a predominant local industry. In the latter case a fixed course of study is provided, but in no school is the course of study so rigidly enforced as to prevent gifted pupils from branching out into individual work. In connection with most of these schools there are preparatory classes which give instruction to students deficient in drawing. In all schools there are classes in which pure artistic work, or designing, or general technical education is given. Courses of lectures on designing, draw- ing, and the history of art are provided, and at present shopwork is universal. In almost all schools instruction is given in mathematics, mechanics, physics, and knowledge of materials. The different branches of drawing are carried on, both as general courses and as technical courses dealing with artistic de- signing. Special courses leading to the local industries are the most important part of the instruction in the industrial art schools. While the schools of the country have no uniform program, there are always courses for decorative painters, furniture-designers, sculptors, modelers, lock- smiths, and jewelers; while most of the schools offer further courses for engravers, etchers, enamelers, lithographers, and book-designers. In most cases there are courses for wall-decorating, ceramic arts, bookbinding, and women's artistic handicrafts. In all special vocational courses the student is, as far as possible, prepared for his occupation, so that he is able not only to sketch or design artistic work but to execute practically in the workshop, in the material proposed, the designs or plans prepared. Besides this, there are lectures in technical subjects, such as knowledge of metals, the science of construction, estimates, and business rules. The length of the course varies from two to four years. All these schools have workshops. The tendency is to increase the number. Shops most frequently seen are those for decorators, chasers, engravers, enamelers, and wood-carvers. There are often workshops for lithographers, [ 155 ] VOCATIONAL EDUCATION jewelers, and printers; and occasionally shops for artistic bookbinding, gilding, the ceramic arts, hand- weaving, stone- cutting, women's art work, leather work, and photography. The schools attempt to use the workshop as a safeguard against its students becoming mere draftsmen. In these shops not only can the designer acquire manual dexterity, but he can test the practicability of his designs and learn to keep his feet on the ground. The evening and Sunday instruction is a very important part of the work of all industrial art and handicraft schools. Here the instruction is practically all for the trades. Many apprentices are admitted, although the work done is not always accepted as a substitute for that of the ordinary continuation school. Students are usually allowed to choose the subjects that interest them, if they are prepared to carry them on properly. These schools make an effort to have the art grow out of the industry, so that workshops, knowledge of materials used, and drawing are required. They endeavor to apply art to industry, and to train their students to utilize the gracefulness and harmony of nature in the production of objects for the trades. To durable and useful objects they try to add grace of form and harmony of color. Formerly the study of classical and mediaeval art made up the greater part of the instruction. Dxiring the last few years great attention has been given to the study of surroundings, to landscapes, and to local coloring. Much attention is devoted to the study of plants, animals, and men, and efforts are made to develop the individuality and originality of the pupils. While the study of the old styles of art has not been discontinued, it does not occupy the position it once had. Students in the architectural department of the schools make models in cardboard or gypsum, or by saw- work; the furniture-designers and cabinet-makers work out their designs as sketchmodels in clay or plastilina, and receive in- struction in wood-carving, veneer-cutting, etching wood, and other artistic features of carpentry. The art-trade [156] ART-TRADES SCHOOLS designers and lithographers etch in copper and zinc, engrave ornaments of various materials, make copper printing-plates from their own designs and sketches, print with the same in the copper printing-press, and practice drawing on stone; they model in clay and plastilina, or emboss, punch, and cut leather, and execute work by the etching process. The ceramic designs of the pupils are also executed in the actual workshops, either in school or outside. In no two schools is there the same course of study; but everywhere there is practical adjustment to local conditions. Below is a sketch of the Art-Trades School at Diisseldorf , taken from an English Government report written by Dr. Rose, formerly British Consul at Stuttgart, which will give an idea of the work of one of these schools : "The art-trades school at Diisseldorf aims at training eflScient craftsmen for the requirements of the art handi- crafts and industries, and endeavors to exercise a stimulating and supporting influence upon the home art-trade industries in general. The school proposes to attain these objects by the following means: — (1) By systematically instructing the pupils in good taste and sentiment for the artistic in con- struction and arrangement. (2) By initiating the pupils in the principles of drawing and plastic representation. (3) By closely connecting the instruction given with manual work and by penetrating into the essential principles of construction, with special regard to the properties of materials. (4) By awakening and developing the artistic creative faculties of the pupils and training them in initi- ative and independent work. (5) By imparting artistic advice to persons engaged in the art-trade branches of Diisseldorf and the neighboring district, and to all persons desirous of artistic effect in the arrangement of their environ- ment. Pupils for the preparatory and evening schools must be at least 15 years old, have passed through the elementary [1S7] VOCATIONAL EDUCATION school, and have definitely decided upon the choice of an art-trade branch of occupation. Pupils for the special school must have passed through the preparatory school or produce suitable proofs of a degree of instruction corresponding to the measure of instruction imparted by the same; it is also desired that they should have undergone a full term of apprenticeship in some branch of the art-trades. 'Outsiders' are such persons attending the school for a limited time or only a part of the instruction. They are admitted only to the special school, must produce proof of suitable preliminary instruction, have completed a term of apprenticeship, and be engaged in art-trade work. The fees, which are payable in advance, amount to £l 10s. per half-year for the preparatory and special schools, and to 10s. for the evening school. 'Outsiders' pay £l per term and foreigners £7 10s. Dispensation from the payment of fees and small scholarships are granted to indigent pupils who have attended the school for at least one half-year and have distinguished themselves by talent, great dihgence, and good conduct. The scholarships are administered by the advisory committee of the school upon the recommendation of the Masters' Council. The school is divided into two principal sections, the preparatory school and the special school. The former aims at imparting the measure of artistic and technical knowledge necessary for the successful prosecution of studies in the latter. Subjects of Instruction Scope of the Instruction Exercises: 1. Freehand drawing from nature subjects. i. Composition drawing from nature subjects in a limited time as introduction to drawing from memory. 5. Geometrical drawing. 4. Modeling simple articles. 6. Ornamental exercises, using prescribed or self- designed forms of ornamentation. [158] ART-TRADES SCHOOLS Arcliitectural class: Sculpture class: Chasing class: Class for flat and graphic art: Class for decorative paint- ing: Class for figure-drawing: Supplementary instruc- tion: Subjects: The Special School. Aims at imparting that measure of artistic and tech- nical finish necessary for the successful prosecution of an art-trade branch, after completion of the school course. Designing and detail drawing for all parts connected with architecture and the arrangement of interiors. Modeling figures and ornaments; plastic designs; stone-working; wood-cutting; stucco and cement- applying. Chasing; embossing vessels; making patina. Designs for special techniques and given materials, such as weaving, ceramics, bookbinding, etc.; poster designs; lithography; wood-cutting; temp- let-making. Exercises and designs in wall- and ceiling-painting. Drawing from animals, drapery from head and posed models; painting decorative still life. Pose-drawing; flower and plant life; instruction in technical construction and style; perspective and shade construction; sign-writing and lett jr-printing. Modeling in clay and wax; drawing from the nude, and anatomy; technical drawing for joiners and locksmiths; black and white exercises for decorative painters. The composition of the staff of masters is as follows : Professors, Masters, eto., for Sculpture Historical painting Chasing. Number Decorative painting Ornamental forms and designing of flat decoration Ornamental plant-drawing, flower-drawing, and painting Geometrical drawing, shading, and perspective Anatomy and drawing from the nude ._ Freehand drawing, ornamental forms, and supervision of the library . Geometrical drawing Flat and graphic art Painting. Architecture Moulding and forming . Total 16 The attendance for the scholastic year 1903-4 was: Number of Pupils in Department Summer Term Winter Term Preparatory school 30 49 Special school 67 96 Evening school _91 183 Total 188 278 : 159 ] VOCATIONAL EDUCATION These figures show that the attendance during the summer term is about one-third less than during the winter term. Of the winter total of 278 pupils 109 were below and 169 above 18 years of age. An analysis of the occupations of the 278 pupils gives the following results: Number of Occupations Pupils Architects .' 71 Sculptors, modelers in clay, workers in stucco .' 34 Book printers 1 Chasers, engravers, and modelers in wax 14 Decorative painters 76 Decorators 2 Garden architects 1 Glass-stainers 8 Gold and silversmiths 3 Workers in artistic door fittings 5 Art-trade draftsmen 17 Vamishers Lithographers 9 Masters 1 Painters 6 Porcelain painters 2 Photographers Carpenters, furniture draftsmen 18 Xylographers 2 Future drawing masters S Various 3 Total 278 The following is a list of the subjects of the prize com- petitions for the year 1903-4 : Branches of the Art Trades Subjects of Prize Competition I. Architects, cabinet-makers, art 1. Simple sideboard, workers in metal: 2. Mural fountain. 3. Design for a summerhouse. 4. Design for garden furniture. 6. Interior of the reception room of the Director of an art-trade school. 6. Designs for banisters of wrought iron or of bronze. 7. Skylight grating. II. Decorative painters: 1. Mural decoration of a Protestant church. 2. Ceiling decoration of a sitting-room. 3. Passage decoration of a, house upon the occasion of a golden wedding. 4. Painted frieze work of the garden dining- room of an hotel. [160] ART-TRADES SCHOOLS III. Modelers in clay: 1. Design for a stone frieze. i. Simple vase. 3. Tombstone. IV. Modelers in wax: 1. Set of table knives and forks. 2. Buckle of a girdle. 8. Set of writing requisities. 4. Set of smoking requisites. V. Lithographers, draftsmen, 1. Money box. glass-stainers, etc.: 2. Book title to 'Fairy Tales.' 8. Water jug. 4. Tile patterns. 5. Bill-posters. 6. Large earthenware jug. 7. Panels for cupboard. 8. Set of smoking requisites. 9. Knot-work carpet. 10. Ornamental heading and tail-piece of a pamphlet. ' 11. Set of wine glasses. 12. Cruet stand. The Diisseldorf art-trades school is still adding to and developing its scope of instruction. Special attention is now beiag devoted to drawing from the nude, to the study of plants, and to animal studies from nature. For the last- mentioned subject the pupils of the sculpturing class and of the divisions for flat and graphic art attend the Zoological Garden for two afternoons per week. These studies are considered to be of the greatest importance, as they school the eye to seize and retain the forms and movements of the animal world; they are supplemented by lectures delivered by the Director of the Zoological Garden. The greatest stress during the past two years, however, was laid upon the alterations in the plan of instruction of the preparatory school, which is regarded — and rightly so — as the foundation of the entire artistic and art-trade education of the pupils. During a two years' course the preparatory school strives to give the students a general education embracing all branches of art-trade work, and in particular to make them acquainted with all forms of art-trade creative work. In the opinion of the school authorities, the art-trade branches require at the present time not so much specialists with a limited field, as artistically versatile and generally [161] VOCATIONAL EDUCATION : educated men capable of seeing beyond the limits of the narrow circumscription of their own particular branch. After undergoing a thorough course of instruction in the preparatory school, which also covers such subjects as con- struction, perspective, etc., pupils can decide more easily and with greater certainty as to the choice of the special art-trade branch to which they wish to devote themselves. To whatever branch their special talents and inclinations may impel them, the pupils will always regard their work as a branch in organic connection with other equally important branches, and not as a separate entity specially entitled to independent existence. They will acquire some idea of the harmony effected by the intermingling of all the arts, and will employ their influence after leaving school in the direction of the production of more purely artistic objects and surroundings. The relations between the Dusseldorf school and the art trades of the town and district are of the most satis- factory nature. I was informed that the demand for pupils who have passed through the school often exceeds the supply. It is greatly to the credit of the school that they are unwil- ling to recommend pupils who have not completed the full courses, both in the interests of the pupils themselves and of the art-trade branches concerned. The school building, which is situated on the bank of the Rhine, is large, spacious, and well-lighted, but does not seem particularly adapted to the purposes of instruction; the erection of new and more suitable buildings is contemplated. The instruction given at the school is greatly facilitated by the presence of the Dusseldorf Industrial Museum, opened in 1896, which, although not one of the largest, is certainly one of the most practically arranged and best equipped in Germany. The expenditure for erection and equipment amounted to £28,000, of which the State contributed £5,000, and in return exacted various privileges in order to gain some influence upon the construction of the building and its working organization. [162] ART-TEADES SCHOOLS The collections include textile fabrics, ceramic objects, wood-work, metal-work, drawings, charts, a library, and various other objects of interest to art-trade students and manufacturers. The collection of textile fabrics is especially fine and surpasses those found at the best textile schools, as it contains specimens of the textile fabrics of all countries and ages, with the exception of those of Greece, which are extremely rare. The specimens of cloth woven at Almeira, Lucca, Palermo, and Florence during the thirteenth, four- teenth, and fifteenth centuries are the finest and most com- plete in Germany. The total number of objects amounts to over 20,000. Of these a large number have been presented and other purchased at an expenditure of £9,000. For the latter pur- pose an art-trade specialist was sent abroad for several years to make the necessary purchases at reasonable prices. It is most noteworthy that one of the special objects of the industrial museum is the encouragement of the export trade of the art-trade branches, and that special facilities have been provided and agents appointed in foreign coun- tries in pursuance of this purpose." The most important handicraft and art-trades schools of Prussia are as follows (the names will indicate to some degree the difference in the character of these, rang- ing from the art-trades school of Berlin or Diisseldorf to the wood-carving school in Warmbrunn) : In Prussia: Bunslau Royal Ceramic Technical School. Cassel Royal Art-Trades and Industrial Draw- ing School. Hanau Royal Drawing Academy. Hohr .Royal Ceramic Technical School. Konigsberg Royal Provincial Art and Industrial School. Aachen Industrial Drawing and Art-Trades School. [ 163 ] VOCATIONAL EDUCATION Barmen Handicrafts and Art-Trades School. Elberf eld Handicrafts and Art-Trades School. Erfurt Handicrafts and Art-Trades School. Halle a. S Handicrafts School. Hannover Handicrafts and Art-Trades School. Magdeburg Handicrafts and Art-Trades School. Altona Handicrafts and Art-Trades School. Berlin First Handicrafts School. Bielefeld Handicrafts School. Breslau Handicrafts School. Charlottenburg. .Art-Trades and Handicrafts School. Cologne Art-Trades and Handicrafts School. Cref eld Handicrafts and Art-Trades School. Danzig Commercial and Industrial School. Dortmund Handicrafts School. Diisseldorf Handicrafts School (technical school for handwork and industry). Diisseldorf Art-Trades School. Elbing Industrial School. Essen Industrial School. Flensburg Art-Trades School Technical School. Frankfurt Art-Trades School. Gnesen Commercial and Industrial School. Hildesheim ...... Handicrafts School. Kiel Handicrafts School. Solingen Technical School for the Steel Industry. Trier Handicrafts and Art-Trades School. Warmbrunn Wood-Carving School. In Bavaria: Munich, Nuremberg, and Kaiserslautern. The art-trades schools in other portions of Germany are as follows: In Saxony: Leipsic, Dresden, and Plauen. In Wiirttemberg: Stuttgart. In Baden: Karlsruhe and Pforzheim. In Hesse: Darmstadt, Mainz, OfiFenbach, Worms. In Oldenburg: Oldenburg. In Weimar: Weimar. In Alsace: Strassburg, Hamburg. [|164 ] CHAPTER XI TEXTILE SCHOOLS THE first technical schools for the textile industry were the spinning schools, erected in great numbers in the eighteenth century and in the first half of the nineteenth century for the improvement of hand-spinning. With the decline of hand-spinning, on account of the in- troduction of mechanical spinning-machines, these schools gradually fell away. Instead of these, attention was then turned to the promotion of hand-weaving, which it was hoped might be made eflScient by perfecting the technique of the workers and by introducing more diflScult weaving in artistic designs over against the mechanical weaving which at first limited itself to simple styles of material produced on a large scale. For this purpose a large number of weaving schools have been organized since 1830, of which the most important are the ones at Elberfeld (1844), MUlheim on the Rhine (1852), in Prussia; Miinchberg in Bavaria (1855); Reut- lingen in Wurttemberg (1855); and Chemnitz in Saxony (1857). In accordance with their aim, the instruction in these schools extended only to hand-weaving and, of course, to the technique of weaving, as well as to model-drawing or designing. In Elberfeld a chemical department was erected for coloring, stamping, bleaching, and manufacturing colors and drugs, but this department was poorly attended from, the very beginning. When mechanical weaving had advanced further and had begun to include the preparation of the finer kinds of yarn and the production of artistic materials, hand-weaving in the schools declined. It became necessary to give greater attention to the study of mechanical weaving in addition [165] VOCATIONAL EDUCATION to design, the importance of which was still not fully appre- ciated. At first this instruction was given only by lectures. With the advance in technique, the need of practical in- struction was better appreciated, as the factory-owner, on account of increasing competition and specialization, could give less attention to the systematic and thorough training of his apprentices. In consequence of this, all great weaving schools now are equipped with mechanical looms of different kinds. The weaving schools are divided into higher or lower institutions, according to their aim. In a few poor regions, especially in Silesia and Saxony, where hand-weaving is still maintained to supplement other occupations, there are a few teaching institutions, usually called weaving school workshops, which, by means of a simple, but most prac- tical instruction, provide assistance for these house indus- tries. Similar institutions exist in Hannover, where weaving as a house industry has formed for a long time a helpful if not a very important side-employment for the country people. The textile industries, like all other branches of industry, have been compelled to take into consideration in the textile schools the principle of division of labor, which is perhaps especially powerful in the textile industries. It became more and more impossible to solve the problem placed upon the weaving schools, of giving adequate instruction in all branches of the weaving industry. Prussia, followed by other states, has limited the field of work of the individual institutions, which now take into consideration only those branches of the textile industry which are home industries in the place where the school is located or in its immediate surroundings. Other branches of the textile industry are taught jOnlyfso far as"they fit into the special work of the school and can be carried on with their existing organiza- tion. Special schools for the woolen, linen, cotton, and silk industries have been organized where local conditions demanded them. The needs of other branches of the textile industry have [166] TEXTILE SCHOOLS gradually been taken into consideration on account of the increased demands upon the technical knowledge and dexterity, as well as upon the good taste, of the workman. In the textile schools there are now divisions for spinning, rope-making, coloring, finishing, embroidering, lace-making, hand and machine embroidery, and making of under- garments, cloaks, and mantles; or special schools have been created for them. [167] CHAPTER XII TECHNICAL SCHOOLS FOR THE WOOD- WORKERS THE technical training of carpenters and joiners in the theory of materials, construction, drawing, cost estimates, etc., is seen in its best form in the building-trades schools. Outside these schools all handi- crafts and art-trades schools, as well as the greater con- tinuation schools, contain special departments for joiners and cabinet-makers, turners, and other wood-workers, in which, as well as in the guild schools for wood-workers, training in drawing is provided. The first independent technical schools for wood-work- ing (Schnittschulen) were established in the great forest territory of Bavaria. They have been models for other similar schools elsewhere. As early as the year 1838, the Bavarian authorities had considered granting assist^aUce to the wood-carvers in Berchtesgaden and Oberammergau, by means of education, especially by instruction in drawing. It was hoped in this way to promote the production of more artistic work. The wood-carving which had been carried on there for centuries had fallen into decay because of unfavorable tariffs and other conditions. A technical school, with of course only a loose organization, was decided upon in the year 1858. In two poor rented rooms with one teacher the work of instruction in wood-carving was begun. The institution received its first definite organization through a program of work provided February 21, 1866. Instruction in elementary drawing in two classes, each with two divisions, was provided for modeling, and later wood-carving from drawing and models was added. Prac- tice in reading, writing, and arithmetic was usually provided [168] TECHNICAL SCHOOLS FOR WOODWORKERS to fix and extend the work of the elementary school. A model workshop was added to the school, in which, under the guidance of the teacher, articles were prepared for sale, the teacher being responsible for the proceeds. He was required to furnish the materials for the work, and to pay the pupils for their work. A pupil could not work in the workshop longer than four years. The instruction was free. In the year 1884, there was added to the school an exhibition hall, which stood open to visitors from the middle of June to the middle of September to permit the public to see the work of the pupils. This exhibition of pupils' work in the hall enabled them to submit the course of instruction in the school to public opinion. Pupils in the third and fourth years were permitted during the hours of work to prepare, under the inspection of the teacher articles for sale outside the country. A council, composed of twelve members for the supervision of the school, under- took to secure for poor pupils the profits of their work. Out of this plan in the course of years a comprehensive business has developed. According to the present constitution of the school, which has been in operation since 1884, the course of in- struction includes preparatory courses in drawing, with four hours a week for elementary school pupils in two divisions, and a regular course with three divisions for regular students. The subjects of instruction are: drawing from models, mathematical and technical drawing, model- ing in clay and wax, molding, and carving from models. The number of hours' instruction per week is fifty, of which thirty hours are given to carving in the first and second division, and thirty-eight hours in the third division. The apprentices' course is four years long; and evening and Sunday instruction is given in the school. A collection of plaster of paris and wood models, of drawing models, graphic work, and a few antiques stands at the disposal of the school as a part of the educational equipment. There is an affiliated school of drawing in Schellenberg, where on Sundays instruction is given by an elementary teacher [169] VOCATIONAL EDUCATION under the supervision of the head of the carving school. A great number of similar institutions have arisen, built on the model of the school at Berchtesgaden, sometimes, of course, with broader programs of work, which take into consideration not only wood-carving, but the manufacture of furniture, turning, and sculpture. The industrial wood-workers of the region were at first defiant, even hostile, to the institution, which they thought was likely to aggravate their embarrassment by imduly increasing production, but to-day they are almost unanimous in recognizing the usefulness of these schools, and dispute for the honor of taking part in their organization, WOODWORKING SCHOOLS IN GERMANY In Bavaria: Bischofsheim on the Rhine (in the year 1861 removed from PoppenhaUsen, where it was founded in 1853) ; Partenkirchen (founded in 1869 and imited with an art cabinet-makers' school^ in 1899); Oberammergau (where, for the purpose of promoting wood-carving, practical wood-carving was taken up in the drawing school founded there in 1834) ; Neuhammer (1884), Kotzling (1897); Furth, where an institution was erected in order to support the important industries represented there (cabinet-making, sculpture, and turning). In Baden: The technical school for turners and wood-carvers. In Leipsic: The wood-carvers' school at Warmbrunn in Silesia. In Flensburg: The technical school for art cabinet-makers and wood- carvers; In Berlin: The cabinet-makers' school. The basket-makers' schools constitute another kind of wood-carving school. These were founded in the second [170] TECHNICAL SCHOOLS FOR WOODWORKERS half of the nineteenth century in Prussia, Bavaria, and Baden, for the betterment of the technique and for the elevation of the taste of persons in the basket-making industry. The most important schools are in Heinsburg, in the Rhine province, and at Lichtenfelds in Bavaria. The straw-plaiting schools have been organized in diflEerent mountaia regions, first in Odenwald (since 1845), later in Saxony, and in the Black Forest, where the manufacture of straw hats has gone on for a hundred years. [171] CHAPTER XIII TECHNICAL UNIVERSITIES (TECHNISCHE HOCHSCHULEN) THE technical colleges stand at the head of the system of industrial and technical education in Germany. These schools are practically great scientific univer- sities, which give the highest possible training in the sciences, and apply them to the industries. They are great schools for engineering, architecture, chemistry, and general science. At the present time, there are eleven such institutions in Germany : Brunswick, founded in 1745 Berlin, founded in 1799 Karlsruhe, founded in 1825 Munich, founded in 1827 Dresden, founded in 1828 Stuttgart, founded in 1829 Darmstadt, founded in 1868 Aix-la-Chapelle, founded in 1870 Hannover, founded in 1879 Danzig, founded in 1904 Breslau, founded in 1905 The largest of these schools is the one in Berlin, located in the suburb, Charlottenburg. It traces its origin back to the old Royal Architectural Academy, founded in 1799, to which a technical institute was added in 1821. In 1879 the two institutions were converted into the present tech- nological institution. The other technical colleges have modified their schemes so as to conform in general to the Berlin type. The appended programs of Berlin and Karls- ruhe show the differences in their courses of study. The United States Commissioner for Education in a report for 1897-98 says: "The new imiversities (technische [172] TECHNICAL UNIVERSITIES hochschulen) thus developed have the purpose of aflEording higher instruction for the technical professions in State and community service, as well as in industrial life, and have cultivated science and art, which are intimately connected with the field of technology. They prove themselves equal to the university in the following points: they claim from their matriculated students the same preparatory education required by the old university, namely, nine years at a classical high school; they grant and insist upon perfect freedom in teaching and learning, and are under the direc- tion of electors elected for one year instead of having prin- cipals chosen for life, as in secondary schools." The Berlin institution is organized in five departments: I. Architecture 4 years II. Civil Engineering 4 years III. (a) Mechanical Engineering 4 years (6) Electrical Engineering 4 years IV. (a) Naval Architecture 4 years (6) Naval Engineering 4 years V. Chemistry and Metallurgy 5 years The Karlsruhe institution is organized in six departments : I. Science in general 2 years II. Architecture 4 years III. Civil Engineering 4 years IV. Mechanical Engineering 4 years V. (a) Chemistry .4 years (6) Pharmacy IH years VI. Electrical Engineering 4 years These universities are generally situated in places of considerable importance, and are not usually founded in cities having populations of less than 100,000 inhabitants. They enjoy at the present time an extraordinary prosperity and attract numerous students from other countries. No other institutions seem to have been more important in promoting the great industries of Germany. They illus- trate Germany's patient toil and tenacity in seeking success in the industrial world by rational means and scientific methods. They are institutions devoted to the adaptation [173] VOCATIONAL EDUCATION of science and education to the necessities of economic life. Emperor "William takes a very active interest in them. At the inauguration ceremony for the school in Dantzic, October 6, 1904, after praising the magnificent installation, he expressed his determination "to increase the number of these schools," because of the importance of the departments of technical science in the struggle among the nations for , industrial supremacy. The following table shows the attendance at these schools through a period of years, and also shows their continuous progress : , Number of Pupils Years Universities Universities Schools Schools H. Schools H. Schools Classical Technical Forestry Mining Veterinary Aericultural 1870 13,673 2,928 261 144 267 357 1873 15,201 4,163 317 168 271 298 1876 16,726 5,449 269 264 284 269 1881 21,210 8,377 394 262 436 353 1886 27,265 2,549 394 344 735 468 1889 29,057 2,887 386 343 962 483 1892 27,398 4,209 255 389 1,047 694 1897 29,476 7,747 830 523 1.140 1,070 1900 32,834 10,412 278 763 1,343 890 1910 52,851 16,072 342 788 1,316 1,861 In 1870, the ratio of the number of students of the classical universities to that of the technical universities was four and one-half to one. In 1900, it was a little more than three to one. The number of technical students has increased more rapidly than that of classical students. If one limits the comparison to the period from 1889 to 1900, . the time during which German industry took the first place on the continent, the figures are still more eloquent. The classical students have passed from 29,057 to 32,834, an increase of 133^ per cent, while the technical students have passed from 2887 to 10,412, an increase of 264 per cent, without including the irregular students. Statistics pub- lished in September, 1907, by the Ministry of Public Works give for the year 1903 the number of technical students as 13,464. From this it appears that in the three years from [174] TECHNICAL UNIVERSITIES 1900 to 1903 the increase was even greater than in the three years immediately preceding. The ratio of pupils to professors is always small. The average is: Prussian schools 9 Darmstadt schools 16 Dresden schools 12 Karlsruhe schools 13 Munich schools 24 Stuttgart schools 9 Brunswick schools 9 [175 J CHAPTER XIV FURTHER TRAINING OF INDEPENDENT HANDICRAFTSMEN THE opening years of the nineteenth century saw the dissolution of compulsory guilds in Germany, and the beginnings of industrial freedom. With these came the great reforms and improvements called forth in all fields of work by the advance of natural science, and above all by the development of machinery and the perfec- tion of means of transportation, by which competition with foreign countries, especially with England and France, was made easier. Out of all this development arose the deep conviction, even in the earliest decade of the century, that the further education of the independent industrialists was an absolute necessity. This educational problem was first undertaken by the industrial and handicraft unions which soon came into existence in all parts of Germany. One of the first of these organizations was the one founded by Beuth in Berlin in the year 1822 — the Union for the Promotion of Industry. This was followed by similar foundations in all the Prussian provinces, as well as in Hannover, Oldenburg, Saxony, Nassau, Hesse, and South Germany. The unions sought to attain their object through the dissemination of useful knowledge among their associates, by arranging for lectures, organizing technical libraries and reading rooms, publishing technical journals, collecting standard models, holding exhibitions, furnishing advice and instruction on technical questions, bringing together specifications and drawings of patents, and all such means. These unions work to-day in a similar manner, although they have partly lost their earlier importance, especially in North Germany, at first in consequence of the revival of the guilds, and later through the organization of Chambers of Trade and Com- merce. [176] TRAINING OF INDEPENDENT HANDICRAFTSMEN The authorities have sought to promote the independent activity of these unions by the founding of technological and industrial art museums, in which models of home and foreign manufacture are placed on exhibition, and new machinery and tools are shown in actual operation. The Royal Wurttemberg Central Station for Industry and Commerce, organized in 1848, has become a model for these institutions. Its constitution gives as the aim of the center the securing of useful models, tools and methods of operation, and their application to the home industries. Out of this center has grown the present National Industrial Museum. Other museums, modeled after the South Kensington Museum in London, have been established in Karlsruhe, Nuremberg, Berlin, Munich, Leipsic, Dresden, Plauen, Breslau, Dusseldorf, Cologne, Hannover, Hamburg, Frank- furt-am-Main, Wiesbaden, Crefeld, and other places. These, however, besides technological museums, include museums of industrial art. The needs of the independent industrialists for technical and art-trade instruction are served further, especially in Saxony and South Germany, by public drawing halls — often united with the industrial schools — which are open on Sunday and on definite day and evening hours once or twice a week. A teacher of drawing is present to advise the industrialists about the preparation of the working plans required in their occupations. The close relations thus established between school and practice have been of immediate service to the industries. Such open drawing halls are found in the industrial school at Plauen (with a total attendance of 9,500 in 1899), in connection with the technical and industrial continuation schools of Munich, in twenty-eight Wurttemberg industrial continuation schools, in the great industrial continuation schools of Baden and Hesse, and in other places. Similar arrange- ments in the industrial continuation schools of Posen a few years ago proved themselves very helpful to the industries. The older industrialists often wish to share in the instruc- tion of the technical schools. In the winter half-year of [177] VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 1902-3, for example, a large number came to the Berlin Industrial Hall, a great continuation and technical school for metal-workers. The distribution of ages is interesting. There were 193 pupils from 21 to 25 years of age, 101 from 26 to 30, 26 from 31 to 35, and six above 35, of whom four were between 42 and 48. A new form of further training for industrialists may be seen in the so-called "masters' courses," which were first introduced in Baden in the year 1884 in order to give the masters an opportunity to learn of the advances in their industry, especially of new processes and methods of investi- gation. The suggestion came from the Chemical Technical Testing and Investigation Institute in the Technical Uni- versity in Karlsruhe. At first, the technical investigations were carried on in a severely scientific way. Later there was added purely practical work, which in the course of time has nearly supplanted the earlier methods. The first courses were for soap-boilers, tanners, and dyers. The soap-boilers were instructed in simple methods of investigat- ing the raw and auxiliary materials to be used in the industry, as well as in methods of production — partly by lectures, partly by practical work. Instruction for the tanners was divided into a theoretical and a practical part. The former comprised discussions about the structure of animal hides and explanations of the chemical and physical processes used in tanning and of the use of tanning materials. The practical instruction consisted of practical exercises in tanning. For the dyers, lectures were given on the compo- sition of fluids, plant and animal fibers and their peculiari- ties, coloring materials, tanning materials, and soaps. The lectures were illustrated by practical work in the tanneries. Courses for persons engaged in installing gas and water plants came next. These include the economics of gas lighting, the operation of engines, the handhng of the material used in the manufacture and piping of gas, gas-meters, devices for regulating pressure, apparatus required in con-' nection with the use of gas for lighting, heating, and power; the requirements of good drinking-water and ways of [178] TRAINING OF INDEPENDENT HANDICRAFTSMEN securing it, the conveying and measuring of water, appara- tus for various applications of water, the care of water- pipes, especially in winter; estimates of cost, inspection of plants for water and gas, installation, and practical testing of raw materials. The government also provides courses for watch-makers, workers in etching and ornamenting metals, locksmiths, electrotechnical mechanics whose business is the installation of electrical wiring and the placing and examination of lightning-conductors; shoemakers, who study the anat- omy of the foot, and the production of plaster of paris models : painting — different kinds of painting, newest technique of painting, different colors, their mixing, the permanency of color, poisonous qualities, methods of test- LQg, adulteration, wood and marble painting; upholsterers; tailors — measuring, cutting, making of models and pat- terns: cabinet-makers — polishing and planing, coloring of furniture, staining of wood, inlaying; manufacture of pottery. All these courses are not given every year, but according to the demand for them. Between the years 1884 and 1897, inclusive, there were given two courses for soap-makers, one for dyers, four for tanners, four for shoemakers, six for upholsterers and saddlers, nine for tailors, two for cabinet-makers, nine for painters, two for watch-makers and refiners of metals, three for jewelers, two for gas and water installers, seven for electricians, etc. The length of these courses varied from five to fourteen days. The entire attendance upon all courses in this period of time amounted to over eight hundred. The number of those in each indi- vidual course averaged about fifteen; the most popular courses were those for gas and water installers, painters, upholsterers, tailors, and electricians. In the year 1902 there were given two cutting courses for master tailors (each of twelve days, with a total of eighteen persons in attendance); one course for master painters, in wood and marble painting (twelve days, fifteen in attendance); two courses for master cabinet-makers in each of two [179] VOCATIONAL EDUCATION divisions (first division, polishing of furniture, each course three days with twenty in attendance; second division, veneering and recoloring of wood, each three days with twenty-six in attendance) ; two courses for the arranging of electrical equipment for houses and commercial establish- ments, and plans for the installation of lightning-conductors (each six days, thirty-one in attendance); one course for saddlers, in the manufacture of horse-collars (twelve days, ten in attendance); one course for workers in ceramics (three days, fourteen in attendance). Almost all the courses were given in Karlsruhe, usually in the rooms of the National Industrial Hall and under its direction. The courses for dyers were conducted by the Chemical Technical Testing and Investigating Institute, which besides this took part in the course for tanners. The course in galvanic refinement of metals was held at Pforzheim in the institute for testing the finer metals. The cost of the trip to attend the course was refunded to all masters who were unable to meet the expense, and a small daily allowance was granted in some cases out of the State treasury. While the courses just described had as their aim the technical instruction of the industrialists, other courses for further training in business methods, and especially in arithmetic, were provided. Many handicraftsmen were not equipped to take charge of a set of account books or to draw up an estimate of cost, even in the simplest way. In the year 1891, therefore, the Ministry of Baden em- ployed an industrial teacher to prepare a very easily understood manual of simple industrial bookkeeping and cost calculation, for the use of industrialists, and furnished about two thousand copies free of charge to the industrial- ists, guilds, unions for the education of workers, and other industrial associations of the country, with the request that they consider the establishment of practical courses in book- keeping. In order to encourage still further the holding of such courses the Government undertook wholly or partly [180] TRAINING OF INDEPENDENT HANDICRAFTSME N to pay the salaries of such teachers as asked compensation for their services. The action of the authorities in regard to these courses was very popular in the circles concerned, and during the course of the next year courses in book-keeping and cost calculation were given by all the industrial unions of Baden. Since this time, instruction in book-keeping and calcula- tion is usually included in all technical courses. The policy of the Ministry of Baden was imitated in Witrttemberg, where the authorities, besides providing for the Central Station for Industry and Commerce, organized with the help of the industrial unions itinerant courses for industrial bookkeeping, correspondence, calculation, ex- change, etc., in thirty cities. The industrialists, with the wives and daughters of the officials, merchants, and artisans, took part in these courses. The Austrian courses, which were first given in the Technological Museum in Vienna and afterward in other places of the Monarchy, such as in Reichenberg, Prague, Brunn, Graz, and Innsbruck, differ from the Baden and Wurttemberg courses in this respect — the Austrian system aims not only at the instruct- ing of masters in special technique, but also at the building up of the entire technique of a handicraft. This system, therefore, includes comprehensive practical instruction in schools equipped with the newest and most up-to-date machinery and tools. The Vienna course not only lasts longer than the Baden one, but demands a more expensive teaching faculty and a more complete equipment, which is also very much more expensive. The master-courses of Vienna have served Prussia as a model. In the Prussian budget for 1900, the sum of 97,000 marks was appropriated for the organization and support of master-courses, and for exhibitions of machinery and tools for the commercial industries of Hannover and Posen. In the next budgets still further appropriations were made, especially in the budget of 1902, which provided for the establishment and maintenance of courses in Cologne. The [181] VOCATIONAL EDUCATION courses in Hannover and Posen were opened iri the begin- ning of 1901 ; the one in Cologne in the fall of 1902. In them, shoemakers, tailors, smiths, locksmiths, joiners, and cab- inet-makers were trained in technical drawing, commercial arithmetic, calculations, knowledge of materials, book- keeping, and principles of law, and above all, in practical work in workshops organized especially for this purpose, and equipped with the newest power, machinery, and tools. At the same time, by means of excursions, those in attend- ance became acquainted with model business plants of different kinds. Permanent exhibitions of all sorts of raw materials, half and fully manufactured materials, tools and special sorts of work, and motors and machines, mounted and ready for use, are found in many cities. Skilled directors of these institutions are always at hand to give information con- cerning the capacity of work of these machines and their consumption of materials, as well as how and where to procure them. These directors with their assistants also conduct the master-courses. In these courses are usually about ten masters and older journeymen. The masters have the preference, but any vacancies are given to the journey- men who are most likely soon to become independent masters. The majority of those attending these courses receive some pecuniary support, contributed by the State, province, city, and chamber of commerce. Where there is a permanent industrial exhibition, as ia Hannover and Cologne, the directors are also in charge of the technical courses. The teachers are experienced masters of the subject taught in several courses. The work is inspected by special commissions consisting of representa- tives of the State, of the province, of the city in which the course is given, and of the chamber of commerce and trade of the province, as well as by the directors of the course. The Prussian government contributes Kberally to the sup- port of these organizations and courses. The appropriation for 1908 for the eight great institutions giving master- courses amounted to 767,698 marks; for shorter courses [182] TRAINING OF INDEPENDENT HANDICRAFTSMEN for the same year 40,790 marks; for special master-courses held in the technical schools 32,261 marks. The Govern- ment also contributed to the support of exhibition halls the amount of 142, 246 marks. In addition, considerable money was contributed for the promotion of associations of small industrialists for the purchase of machinery and raw materi- als, and for providing exhibitions of the work of appren- tices. The Prussian scheme is more comprehensive than the one in Baden, and calls for more time, the greater master- courses requiring at least from four to six weeks. Prussia gives also shorter courses for masters, lasting from ten to fourteen days, for the purpose of teaching special technique, but only masters are admitted. In addition to this, special courses are given in many of the great secondary schools. Altogether, there are many thousands of older workmen who are provided with an opportunity of perfecting them- selves in technique. The cost is borne by the State, and the workmen often receive traveling expenses and wages while they are engaged in this work. Short courses without practical work are sometimes instituted by chambers of trade in the special industrial schools. The aim is to teach bookkeeping, calculation, commercial arithmetic, and other commercial subjects on the theoretical side, with here and there a little instruction in special technique, such as decorative painting, model drawing, and measuring and cutting for shoemakers and tailors. The business courses are often attended by wives and daughters of masters who assist their husbands and fathers in business. Within the last few years there have been established in Prussia extensive institutions modeled after the Depart- ment for the Promotion of Handicrafts in Vienna. The ones at Cologne and Dortmimd are especially interesting. In Cologne a building has been provided at a cost of 600,000 marks. In this building are held the master-courses for tailors, shoemakers, cabinet-makers, and locksmiths, each lasting eight weeks. There also are given short courses for [183] VOCATIONAL EDUCATION masters, usually only about two weeks in length, as well as courses whose duration is not exactly defined. Lately, longer courses have been provided in the installation of water, gas, and electricity, the science of heating, plumbing, and coppersmithing. Some of these courses are three or four months in length. In other courses small handicraftsmen are taught the principles of association. In these courses the workmen are informed about the Prussian laws govern- ing such associations, the best methods of organization, and the advantages to be gained through union. Such asso- ciations of handicraftsmen are formed in Germany for the purpose of securing machine tools, purchasing materials at wholesale, and selling the products. A very interesting feature of the institutions just de- scribed is the exhibition of machinery, which is provided by manufacturers and installed in a great hall ready for use. In the industrial hall of Cologne one hundred and forty-two manufacturers have their machinery on exhibition, includ- ing all kinds of small tools, machine tools, and models, suited for use in shops of small and medium size. Skilled men are at hand to set the machinery in motion, and to explain its operation to visitors, and workmen in the courses held in the institution are given instruction in the use of these machines. Manufacturers find it to their advantage to submit their machinery to the test of the institution, and to the inspection ,of the visitors. More than fifty thousand people visited the Cologne exhibition in the space of two years. In connection with such institutions bureaus are often established for communicating information and giving advice to handicraftsmen about new methods, new ma- chinery, and the organization of associations. This advice and information are given without charge. Usually a good library of technical books will be found, with reading-rooms for the use of visitors and students. Lectures by technical men are given at regular intervals, some at the institution itself, and many in other parts of the province. In connec- tion with these institutions itinerant teachers are provided [184] TRAINING OF INDEPENDENT HANDICRAFTSMEN who go from place to place giving instruction in the handi- crafts. It is apparent that Germany is not willing to see the great factories entirely supplant the handicrafts. Many of the other states of Germany have provided master-courses and other means of advancing the education of the handicraftsmen. The courses, usually two or three weeks in length, cover a large number of subjects. Some of the courses in the art-trades are especially interesting. Such courses are given in connection with the Bavarian Industrial Museum, in Nuremberg, where they have a permanent exhibition of machine-tools and other equip- ment. The art-trade courses generally last a month, and are combined with workshop instruction. This provides a comprehensive theoretical and practical training for the masters. Not only ordinary instruction in drawing is given, but systematic artistic training. Such training classes pre- suppose that the industrialists have already acquired con- siderable skill in drawing. The aim of the advanced courses is to deepen the feeling for the artistic in production, and to suit the forms of decoration to the material and pm-pose of the object decorated. In some of the museums an effort is made to develop systematically the taste of the public. In connection with the Nuremberg Museum the merchants have built a shop which handles the products of the Nurem- berg art tradesmen. No article produced in the art-trades is sold unless it has been approved as worthy of the museum. There has been a feeling in some quarters that the efforts to advance the handicrafts by means of art training and instruction in the use of machine tools and motors is sure to fail; that, for example, factory methods of production have come to stay. Prof. Bucher of Leipsic, in a chapter devoted to the subject in his book, "Evolution of Industry, " concludes that in many places and many industries such efforts are useless. He admits, however, that the smaller handicrafts have more than held their own in large sections of Germany and Austria. On the other hand, the men in charge of the great industrial plants have come to look with more favor upon the efforts made to educate the [185] VOCATIONAL EDUCATION individual handicraftsman. A large percentage of the skilled workmen in the great factories must come from the handicrafts. The money that is spent for promoting educa- tion in the handicrafts is to a considerable degree money spent for the advancement of the industries in general. A recent study of the question shows, however, that the proportion of skilled workmen in the great factories who come from the handicrafts is decreasing. The great fac- tories are finding it necessary to train their own skilled workmen, by factory schools and in other ways. The outcome of the present situation is extremely uncertain. It seems clear, however, that the efforts to promote the education of the individual craftsmen have contributed largely to Germany's industrial success during the last twenty-five years. THE PROMOTION OF HANDICRAFTS IN AUSTRIA The modern inventions of machine tools of various sorts and of gas, benzine, and electric motors have furn- ished sources of motive power that make possible less highly centralized methods of production. For example a small steam engine uses about four kilograms of coal an hour to one horse-power, while a great steam engine of one thousand horse-power consumes only 0.5 of a kilogram of coal an hour to one horse-power. Economy in production, under these circumstances, of course compels workers to unite in great organizations, and to buy materials and sell products by wholesale methods. The small gas, benzine, and electric motors, however, work almost as economically as the greater ones; and, thanks to the divisibility of the electric current, they furnish a cheap and convenient source of power for the smaller industries. Then, too, a large num- ber of machine tools are now available for the small shops and are suited to their needs. These machine tools do not destroy the rich treasures of skill in handwork, but conserve it by freeing it from unnecessary drudgery and [186] TRAINING OF INDEPENDENT HANDICRAFTSMEN by furnishing opportunities for new forms of skill, A way thus seems to open for assisting these smaller producers, an opportunity which has been utilized in Austria by the Department for the Promotion of Crafts. A consistent and systematic" effort has been made during the past eighteen years to furnish the smaller industries means of production that will give them a fair opportunity of competing with the factory. This, of course, is possible only where there are natural resources of power and skill that can be drawn upon. It has been said that "Austria is a museum of obsolete forms of production." This is true in some portions of the empire. In the Bohemian forests and in the Alpine lands you can find forms of hand labor that date back to the Middle Ages. You can, of course, find different con- ditions in other places. The Austrian census of those em- ployed in the industries for the year 1902 showed 1,317,116 persons employed in small industries: less than ten persons in 587,677 shops or plants; 11,704 plants of middle size employing from eleven to twenty persons; 30,428 large plants employing more than twenty persons. Germany, with about twice the population, has 35,774 plants of middle size, a much better showing than Austria makes with its 11,704 plants. There is a general feeling in Austria that something should be done to build up this middle-class industry; and the creation of the Department for the Pro- motion of Crafts is one of the direct results of this feeling. The necessity of a better mental and material equip- ment for those engaged in the industries has led to the founding of numerous industrial schools in Austria, to the devoting of greater care to the management of the continua- tion schools for apprentices, and finally to State action in the organization of the present department, whith is at once a source of educational and of material aid to those engaged in the smaller industries. In 1891 the Ministry of Commerce provided an appro- priation of twenty thousand kronen for the promotion of the smaller industries or crafts. In the following year a [187] VOCATIONAL EDUCATION commission appointed by the ministry discussed the best ways of spending this appropriation. They finally left the carrying out of their plans to the Technological Museum of Vienna. At the same time the ministry provided for a council to have general charge of this work. Since 1898 there has been a special department of the Ministry of Commerce which has devoted its time to carrying out the plans of the council. In the year 1908 the whole service was transferred to the newly created Ministry of Public Works, and the Department for the Promotion of Crafts was organized. There are two general divisions of the work of this department; one educational — instruction in technical and economic subjects; the other material — providing assist- ance in the way of machine tools, motors, and loans of money to those engaged in the smaller industries. In both, the department means to offer help only as a means to "Self- help" — the motto of the institution. As a school, it teaches workmen up-to-date methods of doing work; the best machine tools and how to use them; the best ways of supplying, using, and caring for materials; the best ways of running a small business, including the technique of pro- duction and the sale of the product; and, perhaps most important of all, the value of co-operation. The department also interests itself in the formation of associations of commerce and of industry, assists them in laying out good industrial or business plants, supplies industrial machinery to them on long-time loans without interest, grants them small loans of money to stimulate their enterprises, and assists them in securing large commissions or orders for work, especially for the Austrian army. A new service, recently created for looking after the loans to craftsmen, remains in the central institution in Vienna and acts in harmony with it. It is now proposed to ask crafts- men to pay interest on machines furnished, as the department aims to give nothing away but advice and education. The present practice of furnishing tools on long time with- out interest is a violation of their motto, "Self-help." [188] TRAINING GF INDEPENDENT HANDICRAFTSMEN The department acts in harmony with all organizations in Austria which interest themselves in the promotion of the crafts and assists such institutions with small grants of money. Examples of such institutions are the Industrial Museum in Briinn, the Technological Museum in Prague, the Institution for the Advancement of Commerce and Industry in Innsbruck, the Institution for the Advancement of Commerce and Industry in Cracow — in all, about twenty institutions. The task of all is to change the obso- lete methods of work into up-to-date forms of production and sale, and to do this by stimulating self-help by means of education and by furnishing material assistance. The central institution in Severingasse 9, Vienna, in- cludes offices for the officials of the department, workshops for the model courses, and halls for exhibitions of tools and machines. The main hall is about eighty feet square and has an anteroom with about one thousand square feet of floor-space. These two halls serve as a place to exhibit materials, tools, and machines of all sorts which are especially useful to smaller shops, as well as investi- gatiag stations for testing the machines furnished to the association out of the funds of the department, and machine tools and mechanical contrivances exhibited by manufac- turers who are looking for sales. Here are carried on investi- gations in the management of motors of various sorts, their special uses, value, and consumption of power. The depart- ment encourages manufacturers to exhibit their wares by supplying them with floor space, by furnishing most of the expense of installing them, and by providing the power transmission and motive power free of charge. Visits to the machine halls are encouraged, and no entrance fees are charged. About twelve thousand persons visit them every year. Bodies of workmen who give notice of their visit have a special guide provided for them. Handicraftsmen of limited means, living outside of Vienna, will be granted an allowance to enable them to visit the machine halls if such a visit seems desirable. If the visit is for the purpose of learning the best methods of using the [189] VOCATIONAL EDUCATION machines exhibited, information will be given by a specialist from the department. Special exhibitions are given from time to time in the machine halls. In the year 1906 there was given an ex- hibition showing the technique of tempering steel, with seventeen thousand visitors; in 1907-8 an exhibition of handicraftsmen's technique, with twenty thousand visitors. These exhibitions offered opportunities for improvement to small craftsmen, whose visits were made easier by the granting of allowances for expenses. Special lectures and practical exercises in the use of the machines exhibited were united with the exhibitions. Information and advice were given freely with reference to the motors and machine tools exhibited in the halls; also instruction in up-to-date methods of production and the supply of raw materials. Advice was given with reference to the building of workshops and the founding of associations. The machines exhibited were from all countries, Austria of course being favored. Twenty-one exhibitions have been held in other parts of the empire, some of the exhibits being transferred from the central institution in Vienna, the remainder being contributed by the local organizations. Exhibitions were also made of the work of this department in the World's Fair in Paris in 1900, in the exhibition in Cork in 1902, in Cracow and Trieste in 1904, and in London in 1906. The department endeavors to provide special advanced technical and business training for ambitious handicrafts- men. Methods must be employed entirely different from those used in the training of apprentices, as the training required involves not only the use of tools and mechanical contrivances but knowledge of better ways of conducting a business of moderate size. This demands knowledge not only of technical but of economic progress, which must be communicated to these men under special and practical conditions. The department, therefore, conducts model courses which aim at making the workmen familiar with the best industrial tools and machines, with a well-arranged shop, [ 190 ] TRAINING OF INDEPENDENT HANDICRAFTSMEN with the latest technique of handwork, and with instruction in bookkeeping, business arithmetic, and other special sub- jects. It strives to arrange its work in these subjects so as to present a picture of the economic unity and system which will be found in a well-conducted workshop. These courses are, in respect to their materials and management, models of a business of middle size, in which, in addition to the regular department officials, the visiting masters and workmen must each take part. The workers will complete their technique in handwork in these courses and, at the same time, learn to manage a business in a scientific anj economical way. At the present time there are eight such model busi- ness shops or courses in the central institution in Vienna: namely, for shoemakers, tailors, cabinet-makers, electro- platers, electric installers, bookbinders, sheet-iron workers, and plumbers. Other courses are in preparation. These courses run from six to twelve weeks; and, as the workmen called in are deprived of an opportunity of earning wages, the needy ones receive an allowance, which amounts to twenty kronen a week for masters and seventeen kronen a week for journeymen, in addition to the cost of trans- portation to Vienna and back. Provision is made for handworkers who wish special instruction in the use of some particular mechanical contrivance, and also for persons who need a longer period of preparation than the normal one. Up to 1909 there had been 245 work courses with 3,932 participants: Courses Enrolled For shoemakers 74 1,215 For tailors 67 1,109 For cabinet-makers 47 635 For locksmiths 32 377 For carpenters 6 389 For electro-platers 11 124 For electric installers 4 43 For lightning-rod men 3 28 For bookbinders 1 12 [191] VOCATIONAL EDUCATION The model courses serve also as experimental workshops. Such shops must keep pace with the technical progress of the industry for which they are instituted and must utilize, so far as possible, such progress themselves. They must interest themselves in the investigation of materials, and must prepare models, sketches, and drawings. This last phase of the activity of the department has assumed great proportions in the past few years. The department arranges for courses of lectures for the workingmen and excursions to manufacturers' establish- ments in the large cities of Austria. Special masters and foremen in the different crafts accompany the teachers in these traveling courses and are employed in practical demonstrations. The department has such courses conduct- ed for shoemakers, tailors, cabinet-makers, coopers, lock- smiths, electric installers, and stonemasons — in all, five hundred and twenty-five courses, with eleven hundred and fifty members. Technical and economical subjects which are of interest to the tradesmen are discussed either by the officials belonging to the department or by specialists taken from outside. A partial list of the subjects discussed in these lectures is as follows: Bakers' machines; the carpenter's trade at this period; the development of women's hats from the beginning of the eighteenth century to the present time; bookbinding; the art of graining and marbling; the shoe-last; gas and benzine motors; plumbing in America. Sometimes the department undertakes the conduct of a series of lectures in order to make the masters more thor- oughly acquainted with the industrial novelties than they could be by a single lecture. The department also prepares lectures for the general public, with the aim of giving the technical knowledge of products which the consumer should have in order to form a correct estimate of their value. The department believes that it is not sufficient to train workmen to produce goods in better ways and in more highly artistic forms; you must also teach the consumer to appreciate the better and more artistic forms and lead [192] TRAINING OF INDEPENDENT HANDICRAFTSMEN him to make his choice after considering quality as well as price. One of the topics discussed at a recent meeting of the officials of this department was Production for Quality and The Education of the Consumer. The production of goods at the present time demands cheaper and greater mechanical power than formerly, and must be carried on by the use of machine tools and motors. Handicraftsmen can not solve their problems in opposition to the general laws of economical life; they must make use of mechanical devices in their work. The department therefore strives to equip handicraftsmen with up-to-date tools and machines, requiring the craftsmen to pay back the cost of the equipment in installments without interest, the pay- ments being extended usually over ten years. To use such machines profitably they must be used constantly and the product must be disposed of in a business- like way. The department encourages the organization of imions or associations for the purpose of utilizing fully the common industrial plants. An additional reason for encouraging the formation of such associations is the enor- mous expense that would be entailed upon the Government if it undertook to furnish motors and machine tools to all the individual handicraftsmen demanding them — and the fact that this, too, would inevitably lead to overproduction. The department, for this reason, has interested itself in the formation of industrial associations for the common use of tools and machines. As these associations lack both technical knowledge and capital, outside assistance is necessary — first, for the supplying of industrial helps; and second, for industrial and commercial education. These associations of workers consist principally of hand- icraftsmen of the same or related branches of industry. Their purpose is the common utilization of motors and machine tools in a special central workshop, where raw materials are partially worked over or prepared. The finishing of the product is usually done in the workshops of the individual members of the association, whose economical independ- ence thus remains undisturbed. Such associations can be [193] VOCATIONAL EDUCATION formed only where there are sufficient numbers of hand- icraftsmen of the same industry who are disposed to unite themselves into an association. Where this is not the case, and where the necessity for the use of machines exists, another sort of association must be formed. This is the so-called machine association. Machine associations are free unions of handicraftsmen that aim to secure for their members the use of mechanical helps, which will be set up in their individual plants and used in common by the members of the association. Such associations are especially important in places with a cheap electric current. The department will supply such asso- ciations once only under a contract for payment in install- ments; later, mechanical help must be cared for from the private funds of the association itself. When a little community undertakes the role of a machine association, trying to provide industrial helps for its handicraftsmen without profit to itself, the department will gladly furnish an equipment without the forming of a machine association. As a result of the supplying of machines by this de- partment, thousands of people in the industries are en- abled to have the use of thorough industrial equipments suited to the production of goods in a competitive indus- try. In many cases these associations have developed into independent up-to-date business plants — flourishing co- operative institutions. A few examples may be men- tioned here. The carpenters and cabinet-makers' association of Salcano produced wares in 1908 to the value of 1,262,776 kronen; in Mariano, to 165,885 kronen; ia St. Veit, in Seiback, to 385,813 kronen; the workmen's association in the Stubaier small-iron industry in Pulpmes, to 554,542 kronen; the association of nailsmiths in Kropp, to 361,271 kronen; the workmen's association of shoemakers in Judendorf, to 14,600 kronen; and the stonemasons' association in Pucisce, to 211,676 kronen. The members of these associations pay for the use of the machines, the sums paid being used for furnishing additional industrial helps to the members of the association. These [194] TRAINING OF INDEPENDENT HANDICRAFTSMEN payments, amounting in some cases to a large sum of money, enable the association to provide itself with valuable industrial machinery. In a place where such a showing as the above cannot be made on account of smaller oppor- tunities for work, the furnishing of machines has often enabled the handicraftsmen to establish their independ- ence. They have not sunk out of their class, but have remained in independent business. Of course, it is admitted at once that some of these ex- periments have been failures. The greatest prudence and technical knowledge can not always prevent the downfall of co-operative undertakings. There are certain circum- stances jthat no council or administrator can influence or control. The number of industrial and commercial associations organized and partially supported by the department since 1892 is 282; 202 for the production of goods and eighty for selling or handling them. The value of the machinery taken back amounts to 256,300 kronen, or fourteen per cent of the value of the machinery furnished. Most of these returns took place in the early history of this movement. The returns of machines were almost always the result of the dissolving of the associations. The ma- chines were not by any means a dead loss, as most of them were turned over to other associations after a fair discount for use — about seven per cent. The business of furnishing these machines to associations calls for extraordinary prudence on the part of the de- partment and for great care in following up with edu- cational work. It is of little use to provide handicrafts- men with up-to-date machines, to make it possible for them to secure adequate capital, and then leave them to their own resources. The enterprise demands technical knowledge and economical judgment on the part of the men placed in control. Neither the ordinary course of industry, the train- ing ofifered the handicraftsmen up to this time, nor the course of events of the last century, has contributed much to the development of such personal qualities. This technical knowledge and business judgment must be awakened; and [195] VOCATIONAL EDUCATION the result of the work of the department will depend finally upon the intellectual influence it will be able to exercise upon the handicraftsmen. The problem is an educational one, a problem bristling with difficulties and perhaps disappoint- ments. In some way the department must provide technical and commercial education for a generation of men who will thus be qualified technically and economically to contend successfully against the supremacy of the factory. The department believes that this is a legitimate work for the government and that it can be accomplished. The department has endeavored to utilize its educational opportunities at every step of the way. It has sought to advise these organizations, through its promotional work, as to methods of calculating the profitableness of enterprises; as to the best plans for erecting workshops; as to the best machines for given purposes and the best and most econom- ical methods of using them. A workmaster is sent out from the department to conduct the installation of new machines and to instruct the members of the association in their use. Experts in bookkeeping assist the officials of the associations in introducing business books, give them advice about the control of the undertaking, and conduct the inspection of their plants for a time. The officials of the department always stand ready to assist the societies in carrying on their business. As has been stated, the machines will be furnished by the Ministry of Public Works, to be paid for by installments in ten years without interest on the debt. These payments of the associations, up to the year 1909, were made to the finance minister. After 1908 they were placed to the credit of the Department for the Promotion of Handicrafts as a means of creating a permanent fund. This means, it is hoped, that the state will appropriate a constant sum for the use of the department; and that the department will have, in addition, after 1909, all the sums paid back by the associa- tions, these amounting in one year to seventy thousand kronen. Two things are secured by this arrangement: First, an ever-increasing amount of money for furnishing [196] TRAINING OF INDEPENDENT HANDICRAFTSMEN machines and other assistance; second, the moral responsi- biUty of the associations is increased because, under this arrangement, every neglect on their part in making their payments to the departments means not only an injury to the fiscal interest of the country but also an injury to their own class of workers. With the exception of the machine associations, all the industrial unions need a certain capital for carrying on the business, the amount of which depends upon the kind and extent of the association's undertakings. The unions are seldom in a position to satisfy this need from their own means. The system of credit for industrial enterprises is not much developed in Austria, although schemes for government credit associations have been discussed. The Ministry of Commerce in 1898 included, in its program for advancing the crafts, loans at a small rate of interest. As this year's estimate for both loans and machinery amounts tp only two hundred and ten thousand kronen, it follows that the associations could be granted only very small loans or bounties, while for greater demands for money they must deal with the ordinary moneyed institutions. The loans granted by the department serve only as a supple- ment to the capital required for the enterprise. The de- partment, however, undertakes to assist the associations in their dealings with the moneyed institutions. Its traveling agents, in addition to advising the department about loans to associations, advise banks as to the financial standing of the associations and thus aid them to secure loans from or- dinary credit institutions. Forty-three associations have been loaned money for the purpose of purchasing raw material. Not much has been spent in this way, as it has been difficult for the hand- icraftsmen, for personal reasons, to give up old sources of purchase, and because the conduct of common warehouses demands special knowledge and personal ability. The experience of the department, however, shows that these difficulties are not insurmountable and that such organi- zations for the purchase of materials are extremely helpful. [197] VOCATIONAL EDUCATION Loans have been made to associations organized for the purpose of conducting common warehouses for the sale of their products. The conduct of such enterprises requires even more capital than the raw-material warehouse and still greater business ability. At present there are compar- atively few such selling associations, but some show good results. Since the year 1898, loans have been made to 114 asso- ciations, amounting to 729,900 kronen. Of this, up to now, 58,100 kronen have been written off. This has been the result, for the most part, of the dissolution of associa- tions. Oh this the department has lost eight per cent of the entire sum loaned. The associations pay three per cent interest on loans. The department has done much to stimulate the better training of apprentices. For this purpose it has promoted exhibitions of the work of apprentices. The department prepared a guide and later a treatise on the subject of exhibitions of apprentice work, which are furnished to all persons interested in the subject. The department has assisted in the organization of such exhibitions by advice as to the best ways of preparation, by lectures on their ends and aims, by free supplies of printing, by money, and in other ways. In the year 1908 there were not fewer than six hundred such exhibitions in the Empire, in which about forty thousand apprentices took part. Be- sides these six hundred local exhibitions, there were in the same year over forty central exhibitions, with prizes, open only to those who had won prizes in the local exhibitions. The contributions of the department were, as a rule, four hundred kronen to the central and two hundred kronen to the local exhibitions. The last catalog shows three hundred and forty-nine associations in Austria and Bohemia — forty-three in Vienna, seven in Prague, six in Briinn, six in Kratz, four in Innsbruck, and smaller numbers in smaller cities of the empire. Taking them by districts, we have ninety-two in Bohemia; twenty -three in the Tyrol; thirty-five in Stein- [198] TRAINING OF INDEPENDENT HANDICRAFTSMEN mark; fifty-two in Mahren; eighteen in Silesia; twelve in Upper Austria; fifty-seven in Lower Austria; twenty in Galicia; and the remainder in other provinces of Austria. The distribution is over nearly all parts of the empire, although the industries in some localities appear to have been too primitive to be stimulated in this way. In more favored localities we find seventeen associations that are to-day exporting their products to other lands. The record of the grants to these associations shows that in thirteen cases the oflicials of the community in which the associations carried on business took over the property of the asso- ciations and conducted the business for the benefit of the community as a whole. The Department for the Promotion of Handicrafts knows no cure-all for satisfying the needs of the handicraftsmen. Its methods of promotion possess at least the merit of con- taining no impossible demands on human nature and human resources. They are not pure theory, but have grown out of the immediate observation of economic life and have been applied by specialists who stand close to industrial practice. The different means of advancing the crafts are organically bound together and their picture in historical series shows exactly the development. The department seems to have succeeded in its efforts to increase the number of industries that are large enough to permit of the use of modern machinery and modern methods of production. By a combination of education and co-opera- tion the smaller industries have been able to make use of modern machine tools and motors, and thus make some headway against the capitalistic competition which threat- ened to overwhelm them. The future work of the Depart- ment for the Promotion of Handicrafts promises to be even more fruitful than the past. Plans are now under consid- eration that will furnish it in the future even greater opportunities for influencing the industries. [199] CHAPTER XV COMMERCIAL SCHOOLS THE special training of tlie mercantile classes of Ger- many is cared for in two ways: first, by organizing technical commercial courses in connection with some general educational institution, such as the "Realschule"; second, by organizing independent commercial schools. Commercial education in Bavaria is generally provided in the commercial departments of the "Realschulen." These departments are organic parts of the school. The work of all the classes in the school from I to IV is the same. In class V three hours of drawing are dropped by the commercial pupils and replaced by three hours of theory of commerce and commercial arithmetic and one hour of drawing. In class VI four hours of drawing, two hours of descriptive geometry, and one hour of arithmetic are dropped, and replaced by four hours of theory of com- merce and commercial arithmetic and one hour of penman- ship. The commercial instruction is quite largely theoretical and lays but little stress upon counting-room work. The pupils of the commercial department take part in the final examinations of the school, but are permitted to substitute a problem connected with the science of com- merce for a problem in descriptive geometry. Students who pass the final examination are granted the certificate for one year's voluntary military service, the same as the other students of the school. They are also eligible to entrance into higher commercial schools. Commercial technical departments are to be found in the "Realgymnasia" or "Ober-realschulen" of Aachen, Altona, Flensburg and Mainz. The work is of a somewhat more difficult character than that of the Bavarian schools mentioned above. [200] COMMERCIAL SCHOOLS There are a number of independent commercial schools in Germany which devote considerable attention to general cultural subjects as well as to commercial instruction. Schools of this kind are to be found in Berlin, Cologne, Osnabriick, Munich, and Nuremberg. They are, as a rule, composed of six classes and have in general the same course of study as the commercial departments of the Real- schulen mentioned above. The general cultural subjects are treated from the standpoint of their application to the work of the merchant. The passing of the final examination of these schools gives to the students the coveted certifi- cate for one year's voluntary military service. There is a much more numerous class of commercial technical schools in Germany where less or perhaps no general cultural instruction is attempted. These are either com- mercial continuation schools which give practical commer- cial work to young people already in commercial occupations for a few hours a week in addition to their work, or they are commercial technical schools which require the students to devote their entire time to school. It is very common to find both systems of instruction combined in one institu- tion. There are many advantages in this arrangement, as the full-time school is usually better supplied with material, apparatus, and teachers than the independent commercial continuation school. The organization, courses of study, aim, conditions of admission, and time of training in these schools are differ- ent in different places. Some are conducted by the State; some by communities; many by commercial corporations or by associations of other sorts; and a large number by private persons for gain. Elementary school training usually satisfies the requirement for admission, but there are schools of secondary rank requiring as a condition for admission the possession of the certificate for one year's voluntary military service. Such institutions are usually called "higher commercial schools." The course of instruction varies from one to three years, with from four to twelve hours of instruction in the com- [201] VOCATIONAL EDUCATION mercial continuation school, and from twenty to forty hours of instruction in the full-time commercial school. The subjects of instruction are usually: Penmanship, business correspondence, bookkeeping, commercial arith- metic, theory of commerce and exchange, commercial geography, knowledge of wares, stenography, typewriting, foreign languages. The great commercial associations of Germany play a very prominent part in the organization and maintenance of commercial education. A majority of the special commer- cial schools in Germany are supported and managed by these organizations, usually assisted and supervised by the city and State governments. These commercial as- sociations and chambers of commerce are supporting schools, training teachers, building school buildings, and organizing systems of commercial education to fit young men and women for their needs. Up to the present time the State has given these schools less attention and support than it has given to the industrial schools. In 1895, the business men of Germany founded an organization for the following express purposes: 1. To awaken and to promote an interest in and understanding of the importance of systematic commercial education for persons engaged in commerce and for those in authority; 2. To provide by means of periodical communications, as well as by conferences, for the regular exchange of experi- ences between institutions belonging to the Association; 3. By erecting a central office to provide a rallying point for their common efforts, where those engaged in the movement could obtain counsel and advice; 4. To work for the production of suitable textbooks and other school material; 5. To provide a special institution for the training of teachers of commercial subjects. This Association holds annual conferences and publishes a journal of commercial education. The membership of the Associa- tion includes a large number of the prominent commercial men of Germany. In 1899 there belonged to this Associa- tion thirteen prominent State officials, seventy-nine cham- [202] COMMERCIAL SCHOOLS bers of commerce, forty-six city corporations, one hundred and eleven commercial associations, one hundred and fifteen commercial schools, and one hundred and twenty-four firms and private individuals. The Association still continues to increase in interest and importance. Long before this Association was organized, however, isolated bodies of business men had attempted commercial training for the young merchant. The partial success of one or two of their attempts paved the way for the present organization. The commercial organizations of several cities of Germany have from time to time attempted to provide schools or instruction for commercial apprentices. The first really successful school of this sort in Germany owes its existence to the action of the business men of Leipzic, who founded a commercial school in 1831 known as the Commercial Institute. In 1831, the date of the founding of this school, the merchants as well as craftsmen were still organized into guilds. Whoever engaged in commerce found it advisable to join one or the other of these guilds. These guilds tried to secure thorough business training for their apprentices and helpers, to encourage upright and honest dealings in commerce, to guard against infringement of the rights of members in the circles of industry, to prevent the bankrupt- cy of members engaged in commerce, and when bankruptcy really occurred to provide assistance for the unfortunate members and their families through the support of the property of the guild. Class feeling, in a good sense, as it suited the citizen-life of the middle ages, expressed itself in the guild organization. A sharp limiting of the rights and duties of all appeared to be the best way to make pos- sible a peaceful living together of the different members of society. There were two generaL mercantile guilds in Leipsic, the Guild of Retail Merchants and the Corporation of Whole- sale Merchants. There were a number of commercial men outside of these two organizations who were permitted to have apprentices, but their supervision of these boys was [203] VOCATIONAL EDUCATION left to the guilds. The Retail Merchants' Guild was the oldest of these corporations, dating back to the fifteenth century. A considerable number of the wholesalers be- longed to it, as through their membership they secured many advantages to their business. The conduct of the business of the guilds was entrusted to a board of nine shop-masters, chosen for life, of whom three were entrusted with the conduct of the money matters of the organization. The affairs of the wholesale dealers were also looked after by a board of nine, chosen for life. For any business which concerned the common welfare, it was not unusual for the two boards to act as one corporation. These two corpora- tions were the founders of the Commercial Institute of Leipsic. It was a part of the business of the guild officials to see that the members did not employ more apprentices than they could suitably train and supervise. The length of the apprenticeship was four years, at the end of which the yoimg apprentice, if he had been industrious, received a certificate, showing that he was ready for promotion to the ranks of helpers or assistants. Then followed another period of four years for the assistant, at the end of which time, if his record was good, he received a certificate of good standing entitling him to carry on an independent business as a retail merchant. These arrangements seem to have been meant to provide a thorough vocational training for the young merchant, but they did not work out well. The practical training was one-sided and incomplete, while the theoretical training was utterly inadequate. The training given in the elementary schools was not a satisfactory foundation for the practical business of the shop. During his early years in the shop the apprentice was employed in the simplest kinds of work. What he did learn was very seldom the sort of information that would enable him to carry on a business for himself. Very rarely did a systematic advance of the apprentice from the simple to the more important part of the business take place. The shop-keeper was more inclined to employ [204] COMMERCIAL SCHOOLS his apprentice on the same piece of work as long as possible in order to avoid the trouble of the constant instruction of an inexperienced boy. The apprentice was employed mainly in the warehouse, which afforded few opportunities for instruction in the business, so that the opportunity to acquire more theoretical knowledge was lacking. This is a description given of the situation eighty years ago, and might be made to-day of many institutions where apprentices are employed. The old guilds continued to take the principal part in the management of the school down to the time of the new industrial law of October 15, 1861. This law, which provided for the formation of Chambers of Commerce and Industry, greatly weakened the importance of the mercantile corpora- tions. The corporation of wholesale merchants was changed into a commercial association in 1866 and dissolved in 1869. Its property, amounting to about 30,000 thalers, was trans- ferred to the Chamber of Commerce. In place of its deputies, three members of the Chamber of Commerce took part in the management of the school. The Retail Mer- chants' Guild, after a long discussion, dissolved at the end of 1887. The Chamber of Commerce took over its property of about 850,000 marks with an agreement to develop the Commercial Institute further, and to fulfill the other obligations of the Guild. A new building was erected at an expense of 700,000 marks, and the salaries and pensions of the teachers were organized on a more satisfactory basis. In 1897, the present Director, Dr. Herman Raydt, took charge of the school. In addition to his duties as Director of the Commercial Institute, he now holds the position of Studien Director of the Handelshochschule in Leipsic, the first College of Commerce established in Germany. The Public Commercial Institute is now governed by a board of six members, selected by the Chamber of Com- merce of Leipsic, and the Director of the school. The aim of the school is: First, to give the commercial apprentices of Leipsic an opportunity, during the time of their apprentice- ship, to acquire the general and special training demanded [206] VOCATIONAL EDUCATION by their vocation; second, to give to young men, who intend to devote themselves later to commerce or related industry, the general and scientific preparation needed. The Institute is divided, accordingly, into two principal divisions : A. The Apprentices' Division, and B. The Scholars' Division. The Apprentices' Division (A) is organized into two parts : 1. The ordinary three years' apprentice division, which constitutes the general continuation school for apprentices of the commercial houses of Leipsic, attendance at which frees the pupil from the obligation to attend the city con- tinuation schools, and 2. The one year's special course for apprentices, to which only those apprentices are admitted who have secured the certificate for one year's voluntary military service, or, in case they are foreigners, can prove a corresponding degree of education. The Scholars' Division (B) consists likewise of two divisions : 1. The higher division, which gives full-day instruction for three years, and whose leaving certificate entitles the owner to the certificate for one year's voluntary military service, and 2. The one year's scholars' special course, which is to enable young men who already possess the certificate for one year's voluntary military service to prepare for the mercantile profession. In case they are foreigners they must prove a corresponding degree of education. A. Apprentices' Divisions 1. Only apprentices of Leipsic mercantile houses, who can pass an entrance examination, are admitted into the three years' apprentice division. These boys must have fin- ished their fourteenth year and have the amount of education given by an elementary school. The written examination in the German language and in mathematics must show [206] COMMERCIAL SCHOOLS at least the equivalent of the first (upper) class of such a school. The instruction is twelve hours a week for three years, distributed as follows : Subjects of Instruction 3d class 8d class 1st class 1. German language 2 1 1 2. English language 2 2 3. French language 2 2 2 4. Commercial arithmetic 4 3 2 5. Commercial science 1 1 6. Counting-room work 1 1 7. Bookkeeping 0. 2 8. Commercial geography 1 1 9. Penmanship 1 10. Stenography 2 1 1 Total 12 12 12 Apprentices who are sons of former members of the Retail Merchants' Guild pay seventy-five marks per year; others, one hundred marks. All pay a matriculation fee of three marks. As has been stated, only apprentices of Leipsic commercial houses who possess the certificate for one year's voluntary mihtary service can be admitted into the special apprentice course of one year, which is as follows : Hours per Week 1. German correspondence and counting-room work 1 2. English correspondence 2 3. French correspondence 2 4. Commercial arithmetic 2 5. Commercial science 1 6. Bookkeeping 2 7. Commercial law 1 8. Economic geography 1 Total 12 The tuition fee is the same as for the other apprentices. [207] VOCATIONAL EDUCATION B. The Scholars' Division 1. This division is composed of three classes, each with one year's instruction. Pupils admitted to the lowest classes must have finished their fourteenth year. On admission, the pupil must bring evidence of the date of birth, together with certificates showing the training he has had and his conduct. He must also pass an examination to show whether he possesses the education given in an elementary school. Subjects of Instruction 3d cl. 2d cl. 1st cl. 1. German language 5 4 5 2. English language and correspondence .545 3. French language and correspondence.. 5 4 5 4. Mathematics 3 3 3 5. Commercial arithmetic 4 3 2 6. Physics 2 2 7. Chemistry 2 2 8. Technology and Warenkunde (study of commercial wares) 2 9. General and commercial geography. ... 2 2 2 10. General and commercial history 2 2 2 11. Commercial theory and commercial law 2 1 12. Counting-room work, correspondence, and bookkeeping 3 3 13. Political economy 2 14. Penmanship 2 1 15. Gymnastics 2 2 2 16. Stenography 2 1 1 Total 34 35 37 Electives 1. Spanish 2 2. Italian 2 3. Russian 2 The tuition fee is 500 marks a year for foreigners, in all classes, for people living in the German Empire 240 marks [208] COMMERCIAL SCHOOLS in the third, 300 marks in the second, and 360 marks in the first class. For sons of members of the former Retail Merchants' Guild the tuition fee is 25 per cent less. The matriculation fee is ten marks for all. 2. Only young men who possess the certificate for one year's voluntary military service will be admitted to the special one year's course. This course seeks to prepare young men, by the scientific study of the principal branches of commercial life for positions in the counting-room, wholesale establishment, factory, or bank. Foreigners can be admitted on proof of an equivalent preparation. The course of study is as follows: Subjects of Instruction Hours per Week 1. English language and commercial correspondence. . 5 2. French language and commercial correspondence . . 5 3. Commercial arithmetic 4 4. Commercial law 2 5. Bookkeeping 4 6. German correspondence 2 7. Economics 2 8. Commercial theory 1 9. Commercial history and commercial geography. ... 3 10. Warenkunde (study of commercial wares) 3 11. Penmanship 1 Total 32 Electives 1. German for Foreigners . 2 hours 2. Italian 2 hours 3. Spanish 3 hours 4. Russian 3 hours 5. Stenography 2 hours The tuition fee for Leipsic students is 300 marks per year; for foreign students, 500 marks; for sons of members of the shop-keepers' guild, 225 marks. The matriculation fee is ten marks for all. The school employs a Director, twenty-six principal [209] VOCATIONAL EDUCATION teachers, one special teacher, and three assistant teachers. The number of pupils in 1909 was 957, of whom 703 were in the three years' apprentice division, 57 in the special one year's apprentice course, 153 in the scholars' division, and 44 in the one year's scholars' special course. Out of the 199 pupils in these two scholars' divisions: 71 were from Leipsic, 67 from other parts of the German Empire, 2 from Bulgaria, 1 from Denmark, 4 from Eng- land, 2 from France, 1 from Guatemala, 4 from Holland, 6 from Russia, 1 from Servia, 2 from South America, 2 from Sumatra. Between the years 1878-1879 and 1896 and 1897, inclusive, 2,328 pupils went through the three years' scholars' course. Of these 482 were from Leipsic, 866 from other parts of the German Empire, 178 from Austro-Hungary, 118 from England, 28 from France, 8 from Spain, 4 from Portu- gal, 38 from Italy, 21 from Switzerland, 13 from Belgium, 98 from Holland, 1 from Denmark, 45 from Norway, 9 from Sweden, 221 from Russia, 108 from Rumania, 4 from Servia, 1 from Bulgaria, 8 from Turkey, 5 from Greece, 19 from the United States, 33 from South America, 5 from the West Indies, 14 from Asia, 1 from Australia. These figiu:es are interesting as showing something of the reputation of the school in the past and present. During the same period of time the school trained 6,911 apprentices of the commercial houses of Leipsic. The teachers are selected by the Board of Control, and their salaries correspond closely with the salaries given to teachers in the Gymnasia and Realschulen. Arrangements have been perfected for pensioning old teachers of this institution. The qualifications of the teachers can be shown best by a copy of the information-sheet filed in the bureau of the school, concerning one of the last four teachers employed. "Edward Weber, teacher of Arithmetic, Commercial Science, German, and Stenography, was born on the 11th of February, 1884, in Brunswick. After studying at a middle 'BUrgerschule,' he worked from 1898 to 1899 in the lottery and bank business; then served his three years' commercial [210] COMMERCIAL SCHOOLS apprenticeship in a cigar factory and wholesale house, studying at the same time in the commercial continuation classes of the commercial school of Brunswick. At Easter, 1903, assisted by the German endowment for the prepara- tion of young merchants, and by the authorities of his home, he began his academic preparation in Leipsic. He com- pleted his course in the Commercial Institute in 1904, and entered the College of Commerce of Leipsic. In 1906, he passed the diploma examination for merchants and a special test in english commercial correspondence. From Easter, 1906, to 1908, he was a commercial teacher in the Higher Commercial Institution for Girls and in the Com- mercial Continuation School of the Chamber of Commerce of Brunswick. In 1908, he passed again the teacher's examination for the Commercial High school. Since this time, he has been an instructor in the Commercial School of the Chamber of Commerce at Hagen, Westphalia." These statements give one an idea of the qualifications of teachers in this school. They must have general educa- tion, practical experience, and special training as teachers. The school possesses a magnificent collection of articles of commerce, 6,265 pieces, all contributed to the school by various commercial bodies or by persons interested in its welfare. It is under the care of the special teacher of Com- mercial Wares, and is carefully classified into thirteen dif- ferent divisions, with something like forty groups of objects. In the divisions you will find foodstuffs, luxuries, fats and oils, drugs (in a wide sense), useful plants from the tropics, technically manufactured animal and vegetable materials, fertilizers, materials used in the textile industry, paper and graphic art, tanning materials, coloring materials, products of mining and chemical industry, glass of different kinds. There are also special collections of wares from the German colonies, composed of 1,623 articles. (These are the figures for 1903.) The use of this collection makes easier and more interesting the subjects of Warenkunde, technology, the history of commerce and commercial geography. Warenkunde, one of the two or three most important [211] VOCATIONAL EDUCATION special studies in a commercial school, concerns itself with the important commercial wares. In it is taught the nature, the historical and geographical origin, the preparation, the constituent parts, the chemical and physical peculiarities of wares, the evidence of goodness and genuineness, the ordi- nary adulterations, the means of detecting the same, and the packing and preservation of wares. It is based upon and closely connected with the natural sciences. Technology is concerned with the production of useful articles by man. A scientific treatment of Warenkunde and technology is possible only when the pupil possesses a certain amount of knowledge of the natural sciences and has access to a com- mercial museum. The collection also lends itself to the use of the teachers of other subjects, such as commercial geography. Of course, it is impossible, as well as unnecessary, to study systematically and thoroughly all or any great num- ber of the subjects found in a commercial museum. Some the student is actually to handle, and some he is to observe^in a merely casual way. Articles which are handled by the mer- chants in their natural state, such as coffee, tea, and other raw materials, need not be systematically studied, as the young merchant will have plenty of opportunities to inspect them in the shop. It is entirely different with wares which in their preparation for the market have undergone a thoroug going change in material or form, or both, so that it is im- possible to determine how they have been produced and out of what materials. The ordinary young merchant has a very insufficient knowledge of the methods of producing such articles. It is the province of the instruction in War- enkunde in a commercial school to equip the pupil with this knowledge. The chemistry, physics, and Waren- kunde are therefore studied in the closest union in a com- mercial school. Some microscopic work is done in con- nection with this study. Tests are made, as for in- stance with textiles and other raw materials. Investiga- tions which require comprehensive apparatus and a great [212] COMMERCIAL SCHOOLS degree of chemical knowledge and practice must be left to the commercial schools of higher grade. In technology an attempt is made to enable the pupil to see the production of a ware from the raw stuff through all the stages of its development into a finished product. You can see this attempted in the collection in the museum with many articles of commerce. In connection with technology excursions are made to different manufactories where the pupil is given an opportunity actually to see many useful objects produced. During the year 1909, the Professor of Warenkunde in the Commerce Institute and his class visited nine industrial plants, the Manufactory of Machinery in Leipsic, the Cocoa and Chocolate Factory in Leipsic, the Royal Procelain Factory at Meissen, the Chemical Factory in Leipsic, the Glass Work Factory in Corbietha, the Bibliographical Institution in Leipsic, the Sugar Factory in Schwichz, the Factory for Worsted Yarn in Greitz, the Wool- Weaving Mill in Greitz, and the Dye Works and Finishing Institution in Greitz. Bookkeeping, which divides the honors with Waren- kunde as one of the central points of the special commercial instruction, is taught here very thoroughly, sensibly, and with a view to definite mental and moral results. I cannot do better than to quote Director Raydt's statement of the end and aim of this instruction: "Goethe, who was perhaps the wisest and greatest man of all time, called double-entry bookkeeping one of the most beautiful dis- coveries of the human mind. It is also one of the best means for the education of the pupil. Through an unbroken course of business of weeks and months the pupil must carry on his work with the greatest diligence and the most minute accuracy if he hopes to secure correct results. A single bit of carelessness places the success of the whole work in question. Instruction iu bookkeeping leads, therefore, to earnest reflection and care, and, what is more important, the pupil himself experiences how fatally a single error brings its own punishment. At the end the facts [213] VOCATIONAL EDUCATION must agree, and the worker must often seek for a long time before he discovers his own mistake. This training leads to a careful foresight, which is so diflBcult for the youth and is still so necessary for the man. Finally when all the different books taken together agree to a penny, what a satisfaction does the pupil feel over his work! His self-consciousness is heightened and a joy of creation comes over him, not known before. His purpose to do something correctly is strength- ened and his sense of economy, accuracy, and order is developed. Out of such simple elements are formed the character of man, and bookkeeping instruction has contrib- uted an element to character-building that the young men of our time especially need. 'To know is good; still, to be able to do is better.' Here the pupil sees that he has done something. "And then what cultural elements lie in the instruction in bookkeeping and the closely united instruction in correspondence and counting-room work! 'Dry, horrible things,' say the laymen. The men who see nothing but the dry figures see little. The one, for instance, who sees in a bale of Guatemala coffee, which is to be booked and about which so many letters are to be written back and forth, only a sum of money, overlooks a source of ideas which flow in the inspiring instruction of a capable teacher. Some- times such a teacher will let the thought of the pupils wander, perhaps to Hamburg, to the counting-room of the great merchant who meditates as to whether he will risk the prevailing course of the markets and set in motion, with a flying word, a great ship with captain, pilot, and sailors to bring the valuable cargo through the storms of ocean safely to the home harbor. "Before the fancy of the pupil will display itself long trains of mules bringing the heavy sacks over the coast mountains to the sea. Before his eyes arise plantations, among the primeval forests, where sun-browned men and women cherish and protect the delicate plants until the wonderful harvest. The busy clang of the machines which shell, clean, and sort the fruit rings in their ears; in short, [214] COMMERCIAL SCHOOLS a wealth of pictures unite themselves in this bale of coffee, whose burnt beans, brought to her door by the small shop- keeper, the mother grinds in a lonely hut in the Erzge- birge mountains, smiling with pleasure in anticipation of the brown, refreshing drink. The union into a harmonious whole of the pictures bound up with the sack of coffee gives the spirit of the pupil a salutary satisfaction, and he recognizes gradually that a man can get satisfaction out of life in proportion to the educational elements he can make his own." This picture may seem fanciful, but no one can become a great merchant without imaginative power, without the ability to think in pictures as well as in figures. The cultural value of the instruction in commercial theory, commercial law, and economics is exceedingly great, and is usually either overlooked or treated as something for the university only. In these subjects are treated the fundamental ideas of commerce, its division, persons, objects, usages, commercial associations, character and meaning of exchange in mercantile intercourse, the German laws of exchange, banking, credit papers, question of money, credit, and instruments of exchange, and the most impor- tant questions of the commercial politics and revenue of a people. A skilful teacher has here, step by step, opportu- nities to make clear the great importance in our economic Ufe of the mercantile calling. If he can compel the pupils to earnest reflection over the commercial phenomena of the present time, very much will be gained for their spiritual education. The teacher can show the pupils that all these dry facts of economical, political, and legal life are penetrated by great moral ideas, if they can be made to recognize as the most important of commercial morals, only the one truth — that a business is only right when all parties, buyers and sellers, gain advantages thereby. There will come in the course of the instruction, first uncon- sciously, perhaps, the conviction that honor, right, truth, and faith form the immovable foundation of commercial intercourse; that not chance, but honesty, diligence, and perseverance lead to lasting results. [215] VOCATIONAL EDUCATION Time will not permit me to follow up the analysis of the other subjects of instruction. I have selected those peculiar to the programs of commercial schools. That they are practical and also possess cultural value will be admit- ted by all who have followed the work of the Commercial Institute. I believe that the work in this institution is carried on in a spirit of fairness, good sense, and devotion to lofty educational ideals that has enabled the school to give thorough special training without sacrificing general culture. This point is all-important. It is admitted by all that good general education for the merchant of to-day is not only valuable but indispensa- ble. It is generally admitted that if we begin the special education of the merchant or anyone else too soon, without a solid basis of training, we shall not raise the class, but leave it on a lower level. Men to-day are not only subjected to a severe professional competition, but they are forced into public life and into poUtics. They have duties not only to themselves and the corporations they serve, but to the community and the State. There is, too, a general feeling in Germany that the present development of commerce and industry demands a special training in then- many-sided technique. The modern commercial school, therefore, must rest upon the union of general and special education. What is the "irreducible minimum" of general training required in such a scheme.'' It wiU be hard to answer this question to anyone's satisfaction. Some would demand so much general training that special training would be impossible. I have attempted to give Leipsic's answer. It will be observed from this outline that commercial schools in Europe are, too, to some extent, technical schools. It is also true that every lower technical school teaches commercial subjects. In other words, a man trained for commerce is trained to know not merely reckoning, book- keeping, and stenography, but must have some general scientific training and a knowledge of the theory of com- merce that includes more than buying in the cheapest places and selling in the dearest. He must study technology, and [216] COMMERCIAL SCHOOLS must know his wares, and be prepared to guide, in some degree, the purchaser in his choice of means for gratifying his wants. On the other hand, the technically trained man needs to know something about the laws of trade and com- merce. He needs to know commercial reckoning and bookkeeping. He must be a business man as well as a technician. Every good commercial school, then, must lay great stress upon science, including physics, chemistry, biology, geography, technology, and Warenkunde, — the study of articles of commerce, their historical and technical development from raw material to finished product. This study must be carried on in laboratories and museums of commercial articles and be supplemented by visits to factories and business plants. With the higher technical and artistic training of the producer must come the corre- sponding technical and artistic training on the part of the business man who sells the product. [217] CHAPTER XVI INDUSTRIAL SCHOOLS FOR GIRLS UP to the middle of the nineteenth century Uttle or no attempt was made to provide technical school training for girls. As a rule, only the daughters of the poor were under the necessity of supporting themselves. As these were employed in domestic service, or as wash- women, seamstresses, saleswomen, or factory workers, there seemed to be no need of special schools for them. The so- called industrial schools of the time were charitable institu- tions rather than schools for technical instruction. The children received training in handwork of various sorts, with a little instruction in the subjects taught in the elementary school. The higher and middle classes of Germany finally began to feel the need of securing economic independence for their daughters. Many of these women remained unmarried, and almost the only means of self-support open to them was work as teacher or governess. This field was overcrowded and wider opportunities were necessary if girls were to enter into vocational life prepared to support themselves properly. In the sixties commercial schools for girls began to arise in the great cities of Germany. In 1865, the Central Asso- ciation for the Welfare of the Working Classes published a memorial, urging the opening of new sources of industry for women. This memorial led to lively discussion, and finally to the founding of the famous "Lette-Verein" of Berlin. This Association set before itself the following objects : 1. The removal of obstacles and prejudices in the way of the employment of women. 2. The fostering of industrial institutions for the commercial and industrial education of women. [218] INDUSTRIAL SCHOOLS FOR GIRLS 3. The furnishing of information regarding oppor- tunities for learning trades and securing situations and help, in so far as existing institutions were inadequate. 4. The establishment of women's exchanges for the exhibition and sale of women's handwork and other artistic products. 5. The protection of working women against harm, moral and otherwise, especially by giving them infor- mation regarding suitable lodging houses and by organiz- ing credit societies to enable them to secure sewing- machines. The institution of the "Lette-Verein" is a large one, with over three thousand students. It includes a com- mercial school for girls, with a two years' course, and a so- called "industrial school," with courses in handicrafts, machine sewing, tailoring, history of costumes, dressmaking, millinery, hairdressing, embroidery (both hand and ma- chine), industrial design and composition, washing and ironing, lacemaking, cooking, diet for the sick, sewing, preserving of fruits and vegetables, ordinary housework, and simple bookkeeping. There are also divisions for kindergarten work, training teachers for industrial schools, training servants for houses, tailoring, bookbinding, and photography. An employment bureau is maintained to assist women in securing positions. The same year, 1865, in Leipsic, the German Association of Women organized a similar school, and began a steady campaign for the better education of the female sex and for the freeing of industrial work for women from the things that were fettering its development. They agitated through women's unions and the press for the founding of productive associations, the establishment of industrial exhibitions of the products of women's work, the founding of industrial schools for girls, the building of homes for girls, and, finally, for schools for the higher scientific training of women. Many cities have taken up the work of women's educa- tion, and great progress has been made in the commercial, industrial, and art training of girls under the direction of [219] VOCATIONAL EDUCATION the public authorities. The private schools formed at this time were generally poorly organized, with incompetent teachers and insufficient equipment. Somewhat different in character from the technical schools are the housekeeping schools, which are intended, as the name indicates, for girls from the working classes who have been compelled immediately on leaving the elementary school to enter into practical life in a business house or factory, and are thus left without opportunity, before marriage, to acquire the knowledge and skill needed for the systematic management of a household. Family life is destroyed in many cases on account of the wife's lack of skill in ordinary housekeeping. For this reason, during the past thirty years, great numbers of housekeeping or home-making schools have been established for women who are engaged in factory work, sometimes by pubhc- spirited unions, sometimes by employers and owners of factories for their own women workers. The conviction finally made its way into wider circles that this training in home-making is needed not only for the daughters of the poor, but for the daughters of well-to- do citizens. As a result, most of the higher schools for girls now include cooking and home-making in their courses of study. During the last twenty years it has become necessary to provide commercial and industrial training for girls of both the higher and the middle classes, and for this purpose industrial and commercial departments are combined with the housekeeping schools, or in some cases special industrial or commercial schools are provided for girls who have finished the elementary school. The task, however, has long since become so difficult, so comprehensive, and so costly that the public organiza- tions — State, province, and community — have been called upon for assistance. The State has granted increas- ing appropriations to women's schools established by the unions, and finally has itself undertaken to provide special schools, which shall include cooking and home-making courses, together with industrial and commercial training [220] INDUSTRIAL SCHOOLS FOR GIRLS for life outside of the home. Prussia has founded three State home-making, industrial, and commercial schools, in Posen, Rheydt, and Potsdam, and a fourth has been begun in Thorn. These schools also include a department for the training of teachers for the vocational courses in the elementary and the continuation schools for girls. They are intended to serve as model institutions for women's vocational training and are wholly supported by the State. Most of the elementary schools in the towns of Germany provide instruction in home-making and women's trades in the latter years of the course. These courses are not always popular with the elementary teachers, but this opposition is diminishing. Many good school men, however, insist that this is not enough and that the elementary school cannot solve this particular problem, which is not a problem of educating children, but of educating adolescents. Dr. Otto Lyon, Director of the schools of Dresden, urges the importance of a continuation school for girls which shall be neither a continuation of nor a supplement to the elementary school instruction, but rather an independent institution with its own peculiar character. Continuation schools for girls are not very numerous in Germany, but there is a decided tendency to increase them in number and efficiency. The leading school men, such as Kerschensteiner of Munich and Lyon of Dresden, and the leading women in the schools, for example, Helene Mentzel and Helene Lange, are insisting upon greater opportunities for women in the vocational schools. Great organizations of women throughout the Empire are agitating for industrial schools of all sorts and are supporting many by their own contributions. The movement is sure to succeed eventually, but the way the concessions are made, and the reasons therefor, may be interesting. In the introduction to the report of an industrial school for girls in one of Germany's most famous cities you may see the following: "Nature has created two kinds of beings and has united the perpetuation and development of the human race with [221] VOCATIONAL EDUCATION their lives and activities. This fact can not be denied. It must make itself manifest in the aim of education. It will be generally admitted, and the history of the ages confirms it, that marriage forms the foundation of civilized society, that the care and education of the new generation is at first the part of the mother, and that a well-ordered family forms the best foundation for a prosperous community and na- tional life. It will also be admitted that a different problem has been assigned to the two sexes, and that this must be expressed in the aim of their education. One must consider the mother as the most important factor of family life, because her mother's love, given by nature, chains her to her child and causes her to be interested above all in its progress and well-being. "It follows that the position of the wife and mother in the home can not be considered as one of inferior importance. Public and home life are two equally valuable factors in the life of a people and each part contributes in its way to the content of the life of a people; the home in the form of the natural personal intercourse, the public life in the relations established by forms of law. "Different but equal opportunities must be provided for the two sexes. The various vocations open to women must be taught in schools, with the constant thought that each woman is a member of a family and will be the center of a new family. In vocational education it must be remem- bered that the boy is to be a citizen as well as a workman. In the education of girls it must be remembered that they are centers of family life as well as workers in industries." The inference is that the boy must be taught civics and the girl housekeeping. There seems to be a necessity for looking deeper. In the first place, there are 866,414 more women than men in Germany. Early marriage must be given up, as the modern home offers less opportunity for work or occupation than formerly. Better education leads the girl to other aims, and makes her less willing to be a household drudge than formerly. The German vocation census of 1907 shows a [222] INDUSTRIAL SCHOOLS FOR GIRLS great growth in women's work in the industries. The number of women who are in the industries has doubled in twenty-five years. In 1882 it was 4,200,000; in 1907, 8,200,- 000. Almost one-half of the grown-up women of tbe country are at work in the industries. According to the Prussian vocation statistics of 1895, of the 1,259,000 girls between the ages of 14 and 17, there were 661,000, or 51.9 per cent, who were actually engaged in earning a livelihood. Of these, 218,000, or 17.2 per cent, were engaged in domestic service, and 443,000, or 34.7 per cent, in the industries. In 1901, there were in the 603 Prus- sian public and private schools for girls, including 339 commercial, trade, industrial, cooking, and household arts schools, and 204 sewing, embroidery, and weaving schools — all together — only 24,313 pupils, leaving in Prussia 638,687 girls without any continuation school instruction. These figures prove that only about three per cent of the girls now receive vocational instruction in the schools. In an address delivered in June, 1911, before the Asso- ciation of Industrial Teachers, held in Eisenach, Helene Mentzel, a teacher in the State School for Girls in Posen, presented the following picture of the situation in Germany: "The girl of fourteen who leaves the elementary school is just beginning the period when the mind hungers after nourishment. Before she can learn her capabilities and gifts, she is compelled by circumstances to earn money. Without supervision, without a guiding hand, she goes from school into life with its dangers and temptations. She must undertake a battle for which she is not prepared. Much as one may appreciate the work of the elementary school, it cannot be denied that its influence ceases exactly at the time when character-building begins. "Our physicians daily have the experience that the most careful nursing and supervision in the sick-room proves fruitless if the sick lack suitable care at home. One of the saddest phenomena of our times — the under-nourishment of our children — is to be traced back to the household incompetence of so many women. My own experience in [ 223 ] VOCATIONAL EDUCATION the care of the poor has taught me that this calamity, for the great part, is the fault of the woman. She has not been taught before marriage to handle time, money, and power. She lacks the sense of economy; she lacks the feeling of preserving things and of frugality. In her girlhood, which has passed between employment and enjoyment, she has never had to care for her own needs. The task now falls to her of looking after the greatest part of the family in- come. Here careful, systematic relations can be established only where the woman has learned to abandon unnecessary things in favor of the necessary. On the difficulty of house- keeping is shattered the happiness of many a workingman's family. "It is still more to be deplored that the woman often undertakes the duties of a mother without a suspicion of the holiness and responsibility of the task. The statistics of the cases where the inexperience or carelessness of the mother has caused injuries and infirmities never to be cured would reach alarmingly high figures. A sound and happy race will grow up only when the full responsibility to the future race is appreciated by the maidens of all classes; when every woman regards it as her holiest task to found the happiness of her children upon the transmission of sound physical and mental gifts. The bodily and mental peculiarities of children can no longer be regarded as matters of indifference. "Mothers undertake the same responsibility for the moral education of their children. 'The hand that rocks the cradle rules the world ' — this holds true for all mothers. The comprehensive literature of children's psychology of the present day teaches the great importance of children's impressions in character-building. These impressions are as lasting in the thatched roof and in the cellar as in the hygienic and artistic rooms of the rich. 'As the green tree takes up every beam of sunshine; as the thirsty field sucks up every drop of rain, so stand the senses, the mind, and the heart of children — open to every influence.' The highest happiness of earth and its heaviest sorrows grow [224] INDUSTRIAL SCHOOLS FOR GIRLS out of the education given to children by their mother. To train the girls of the people to become efficient house- keepers and mothers, worthy of their task, is the common interest of the State and of the community." Fraulein Mentzel urges that modern conditions also demand special training of women for the industries and for commerce. About 9,000,000 German women old enough to be so employed are in vocations of one sort or another. The number in the handicrafts and industries increased from 1,500,000 in 1895 to 2,100,000 in 1907. She deplores the fact that these women are going into the unskilled occupations. She states that only 5.8 per cent of the womfen are in skilled vocations, while 38 per cent of the men em- ployed are employed in skilled vocations. The work of these women bears the stamp of cheapness and worthless- ness. She urges that it is short-sighted social politics for Germany to assign its women to unskilled labor only; that the moral effect of such a situation is unwholesome and dangerous; that the low wages gained by unskilled women laborers leads to insufficient nourishment, unsanitary dwel- lings, and immoral practical results of every sort. There is a movement now in progress to offer girls better opportunities for vocational instruction in the con- tinuation schools. Dr. Otto Lyon of Dresden is one of the leaders in this movement,. In a monograph he has written on this subject he states: "There are many in Germany who deny the necessity of such schools, and argue that no such institution existed in their youth and still they got along in the world. They forget the development in conditions brought about by modern economic life. Formerly, when both father and mother performed their work at home, when the conditions of life were simple, when food, shelter, and clothing were cheap, they were able to support and educate their children, and to equip them with the little practical training they needed for life. To-day things are vastly different. Both man and woman are economic factors. In many cases both must earn their livelihood outside of the home. House and [225] VOCATIONAL EDUCATION children are largely left to themselves, and if they do not perish, as happens in many cases, they suffer greatly. "When the children leave school they take positions in the strange new world. Young girls of fourteen, while developing in mind and body, are obliged to leave home, are cut off from education at a time when they are highly capable of being trained and eager to learn, and are left without counsel, without the true guidance and direction of those who have their welfare at heart. "Servant girls who enter a well-ordered household and are guided by an efficient woman fare the best, but most girls shun such a position because it offers so little freedom; they prefer the free life of the factory worker, or the sales- woman — positions in which they easily fall victims to temptations, immorality, and finally disease and misery. These positions outside of the home would be a source of happiness and a blessing to these girls if they were supplied with good food, and technical and ethical education, if they were advised in the time of their inexperience by a true, experienced teacher of a continuation school, who would watch over their pleasures and enjoyments and arrange for them evening entertainments, excursions, visits to the concert and theater, thus cultivating and purifying not only love of work and study but also pleasure and joy in life. "If the young girl between fourteen and eighteen years of age is thus placed under mental and moral guidance and schooling, while at the same time she is thoroughly and specifically prepared for a vocation that will enable her to rise through her own strength to an independent existence. Not only her education, but her personality and her mental and bodily efficiency for life, are greatly augmented, and her social and economic position is placed on a more solid basis, and many a social evil of our age remedied. The continuation school for girls is not only a pedagogical, but also a social and economic ideal, the realization of which must be aimed at under all circumstances. "The vocation which the girl has chosen or wants to [226] INDUSTRIAL SCHOOLS FOR GIRLS choose should be the center of the continuation school. The education must, however, be an all-round one. It must not keep in view only the technical side, but it must include the commercial and economic side. It must not emphasize the extent of knowledge, but the grade of efficiency. It must lead the growing girl into the consciousness that in her vocation she does not live for herself alone, but that everywhere she is a part of a larger whole and while she receives protection and benefit from this larger whole she also her has duties toward it. She must be acquainted with her relations to family, community, and State; she must learn that she is to be an example to others by conscientious, irreproachable conduct and by helpfully acting with the whole. The school should implant high ideals in her heart, make her emulate the character of great women, and con- vince her that aside from intelligence and above it, the wiU and the heart are the foundation of every vocation and the true masters of it. "The girls must be prepared for the ideal side of their vocation by instruction in the German language and litera- ture, studies which must hold up the models of true human greatness, and cultivate the love for nature and art in a simple but impressive manner. A practical and vocational side should also be given to German by means of exercises in business composition, letters, and descriptions of vocational work and products and of their manner of production. Some instruction should be given in civics, as to the economic conditions influencing the vocation. It should be made clear that every girl should prepare for a twofold vocation, the domestic and the industrial or commercial. Household arts must be studied by every girl in the continuation school. There must also be instruction in industrial branches; classes must be formed for dressmakers, clerks, milliners, designers, bookkeepers, etc. Every girl must learn a trade in order to enable her to lead an independent life. Along with the knowledge she must acquire the power to do which will enable her best to protect herself against misery and temptation." [227] VOCATIONAL EDUCATION Dr. Lyon and Dr. Kerschensteiner, as well as the leading women of Germany, urge compulsory industrial continuation schools for girls with day instruction grouped about their vocation. They insist that Germany cannot longer ignore this problem in the face of the present situation. Already a few German communities have established such industrial continuation schools, and girls are admitted to many of the courses in the art-trades, textile, and commercial schools. The ladies in the Royal family of Prussia are supporting industrial schools in Berlin and other places, and better opportunities for the vocational training of women are in sight. A further evidence of this change is the admission of women to many of the university courses and their increasing share in the work of teaching. [228] CHAPTER XVII TRAINING OF VOCATIONAL TEACHERS IN GERMANY THIS chapter was written for the Annual Report of the United States Bureau of Education, for 1910-11, and is reproduced here by permission of the Bureau. In this article is described the training given to teachers of German vocational schools of middle and lower rank, in- cluding the continuation schools and the various special trade schools — the building and machine trades, the art- trades, the commercial schools, and vocational schools for women. No mention is made of the training of teachers for the highest class of vocational schools, as there is no pro- posal for the training of such teachers. These teachers are selected directly on the basis of scholarship and personality, qualities that are invaluable in all grades of teachers. When, however, schools and teachers become numerous, teachers must be employed who are not to the manner born; who are not necessarily distinguished by profound scholarship or strong personality, but who must be trained. In the beginning of any movement for a new class of schools, trained teachers are lacking, and positions in such schools are quite commonly filled by persons with more enthusiasm than knowledge of the business, as well as by inefficient persons from other occupations who seek an asy- lum in the public school service. In Germany, as in other countries beginning to install vocational schools, the instruc- tors have been largely part-time teachers from other schools or from industrial vocations, to whom the vocational teach- ing has been a side-issue. This is almost invariably the case in America, where our evening schools are taught either by elementary or secondary day school teachers or by persons struggling to gain professional standing in some other field. [229] VOCATIONAL EDUCATION In some cities, as in Chicago, would-be lawyers, doctors, etc., are no longer eligible to positions, but these positions are reserved for trained teachers. This, however, is only the first step. These professional teachers should also be technically trained in the vocations followed by their pupils and employed for full time in the continuation school work. Under no other condition can we secure the esjyrit de corps so necessary to the complete success of a system of schools. In Germany great emphasis is laid, and in my opinion rightly, on what they call "corporate (or school) spirit" — the feeling that one's school is an independent and important organism, worth while for its own sake, and not merely an appendage to something else. Accordingly, there is now a general movement towards organizing vocational schools on an independent basis, with their own corps of teachers, their own special school buildings, and, finally, their own arrangements for training teachers for this new sort of work. The standard for such teachers is constantly rising in Germany, and at the present time the teaching of vocational subjects there has been elevated to the dignity of a profes- sion, demanding thorough preparation, general and special. The situation is different in different parts of Germany, the south German States being distinctly in advance of their northern neighbors. Everywhere, however, it will be found that people are discussing the question of securing better trained and more efficient teachers for the vocational schools. VOCATIONAL SCHOOLS IN PRUSSIA The vocational schools, except the technical universities, in Prussia are under the management of the Ministry of Commerce and Industry. For a number of years the Prus- sian authorities have been struggling with the question of training vocational teachers for the continuation and middle schools. The measures they have taken, with the exception of those for training teachers for women's work, seem to me fragmentary and insufficient. They are interesting, how- ever, to Americans who are just beginning to think about [ 230 ] TRAINING OF VOCATIONAL TEACHERS IN GERMANY the problem, and may furnish helpful suggestions as to first ways of meeting emergencies. The fundamental need in Prussia was to induce persons to accept teaching positions who were both theoretically schooled and familiar with the practical side of industrial life. In the first instance such persons were very rare, and it became necessary to make provision for training them. The government has endeav- ored to fix the standards for this preparation, as well as to provide for the internal management of training schools. In 1885 only a few of the teachers in the vocational schools of Prussia could lay claim to a pensioii. Their average salary was very small, and their social position was inferior to that of teachers in other schools. The Prussian government ^ has endeavored to change this, and to-day not only are the salaries of the principals and teachers of the schools wholly paid by the State, but the city vocational school teachers are appointed for life, with the right to pensions for them- selves as well as for their widows and orphans. Those teachers of the State vocational schools who have a univer- sity education receive also a dwelling, or a cash compensa- tion for rent. While the salaries are smaller than those paid in America, they approximate those given in the best aca- demic institutions of Prussia. The Prussian government has also undertaken to award titles and official positions to teachers in vocational schools, especially to teachers of State institutions of this kind. The eflEect of these two regulations is to make it easier to induce a high class of persons to undertake the training necessary for successful service in the vocational schools. The difficulty, however, in Prussia has been only partly overcome. The training of vocational teachers for girls' industrial schools seems to have advanced the most. The steady advance of the movement for the emancipation of women in Germany and the increasing difficulty of preparing them for self-support under modern social conditions have finally induced the Prussian government to make systematic arrangements for the training of women for work. In Janu- ary, 1907, the Prussian government decreed that a normal [231] VOCATIONAL EDUCATION department should be established in connection with every school of domestic science subsidized by the State. The decree also prescribed the course of study in the department. A detailed account of this organization will be given later. In the Prussian schools for the building trades and schools of mechanical engineering, no special arrangement for the preparation of teachers has been made so far. There is no institution in Germany for training such teachers, and, so far as I know, no system of examinations to test whether applicants have the requisite knowledge and skill. It seems to be quite the fashion to employ in such schools graduiites of higher technical institutes who have seen successful ser- vice in the industries and have an interest in teaching. Very few of the ordinary academic teachers are to be found in these schools, even as teachers of the academic subjects. In the effort to keep in touch with modern industrial con- ditions, the school authorities have almost invariably se- lected practical men from the industries as teachers. As a further measure for securing this close relation with ia- dustrial life, many of these men have been encouraged to devote a part of their time to work in the industries. This is in striking contrast to the regulations of many school boards in America which penalize any teacher who endeavors to engage in practical work outside of the school room. It must not be assumed that the Prussian authorities utterly neglect the matter of industrial training for this class of teachers. As has been stated, such teachers are required to have an advanced education obtained in the university or the technical school, and especially to have had adequate experience in industrial life. Further opportunities are given for the professional education of such teachers by means of visits to other cities, leaves of absence (with pay,) for fur- ther study, and permission to engage in private occupations along the general lines of their teaching actiAdties. The younger teachers are also encouraged to employ their sum- mer vacations in further special preparation. The Prussian government is especially concerned about the training of teachers for the art-trades schools. Such [2S2] TRAINING OF VOCATIONAL TEACHERS IN GERMANY teachers must keep in touch with the progress of art; for example, by becoming familiar with new fields of activity in industrial design. Courses of instruction have been ar- ranged for teachers in different fields of industrial art during the last few years. As for instance, by Architect Riermer- schmidt in Munich, dealing with designs for furniture and interior architecture; courses in flat ornamentation at the Industrial Art and Trade School of Magdeburg; in lettering in the school of design in Diisseldorf under Professor Behrens; in mural painting and decorating for teachers in technical schools under the direction of Professor Mohrbutter in Charlottenburg; and finally a course in mural decoration under Professor Hammel in Hannover. Mention may also be made of courses in plant designs in 1901-02 and in 1909, conducted by Professor Meurer in Rome and Berlin, which were attended by fifty Prussian teachers and directors. Such teachers are assisted by grants given by the State or municipality for teachers' study journeys. Similar journeys are encouraged by grants to teachers of the textile branches. TRAINING FOR TEACHERS OF THE CONTINUA- TION SCHOOLS The professional preparation of teachers for these schools is more urgent and more important than that for any other class. In earlier times, this continuation work was generally intrusted to teachers of elementary schools, who were seldom suflBciently prepared to give the proper instruction. It has been found necessary to give special training to all teachers employed in the continuation schools, and very thorough training to those employed to teach drawing and technology. When the whole continuation school system of Prussia was transferred to the Ministry of Commerce and Industry, twenty-five years ago, one of its first moves was to train teachers for these schools. During the years from 1886 to 1894 professional drawing courses were given in Berlin, Diisseldorf, and Hannover, where the sum of $2,284 was set aside annually. These were attended by 400 teachers. [233] VOCATIONAL EDUCATION In consequence of the steadily increasing number of con- tinuation schools, the number of these courses was then increased, courses in commercial instruction, language, and arithmetic being added. In 1905 the sum appropriated for this purpose amounted to $30,940, and in 1909 to $47,600. The number of teachers employed in the continuation schools in 1904 was 11,517, of whom 549 were employed in day continuation schools, and, therefore, were compelled to sever their connection with the elementary schools. The number of such day continuation schools is rapidly increasing, and with it the necessity of making larger provision for the preparation of teachers for this work. The Prussian government is now feeling the necessity of preparing teachers in elementary schools who have a normal school training to begin with and need technical knowledge of a vocation, and also skilled workmen in a variety of industries who require professional school practice in handling classes and ability to teach according to peda- gogical principles. The Prussian government is still strug- gling with the problem, but, so far as the writer can see, has not worked out a thorough system for meeting the demands of the present-day vocational school. TRAINING OF VOCATIONAL TEACHERS FOR GIRLS' SCHOOLS As has been pointed out, this class of vocational schools is in better condition, so far as the training of teachers is con- cerned, than the other vocational schools of Prussia. Since 1907 the Government has endeavored to deal directly and adequately with the problem. Some detailed account of this may be of interest in this connection. There are three groups of teachers for vocational work for women in Prussia: 1. Teachers of women's handwork (such as needlework, and crocheting). 2. Teachers of household arts. 3. Teachers in schools for women's handicrafts. [234] TRAINING OF VOCATIONAL TEACHERS IN GERMANY Careful provision is made for training teachers for each of these classes. The first group of teachers are prepared to teach children in elementary, middle, and higher schools- to do some handwork, such as knitting, crocheting, sewing, and embroidery. The teachers of the second group give instruction in school kitchens of the elementary schools where cooking and other ordinary housework is taught. In the third group the teacher is prepared to teach older girls in the special continuation schools to do more diflBcult work, such as tailoring, dressmaking, and millinery. It has been usual, but not universal, for teachers in this group to qualify first as teachers of women's handwork and household arts, and then build upon this for the more advanced work. At first, vocational teachers were trained in private schools. Since 1890, the State has founded three state schools for girls, one at Posen, one at Rheydt, and one at Potsdam. One of the main purposes of these State schools is the preparation of women teachers of vocational work. These teachers are required to have a thorough training in several special subjects, based upon the general education given in a fully developed higher girls' school or girls' middle school of Prussia, or proof of an equivalent. After this comes the mastery of the technique of women's hand- work in special vocational schools. The course of study for these teachers of women's handwork is a good preparation for the training of teachers in schools for women's handi- crafts. Such teachers, in the future, must put in a year in women's handwork and household arts as a preliminary, in order that they may not be inferior in their technical knowledge and skill to the ordinary teacher of these branches. The decree for the training of teachers of the third group, issued in January, 1907, provides that industrial teachers must not only attend an institution for the training of such teachers, but must also serve at least a half year in actual industrial life and a probationary year as teachers before receiving a certificate to teach. The knowledge provided by the theoretical training is not considered sufficient. [235] VOCATIONAL EDUCATION This must be supplemented by practical application of the theory in the industries themselves, which no school train- ing can replace. Finally, the training in methods of instruc- tion can be successfully carried on only when a candidate both is trained in theory and has had experience in the indus- try itself. To sum up, the entire training consists of three stages: theoretical instruction in the training school; prac- tical experience in the industry; and probationary teaching. The Government permits the experience in the industries to be gained either before or after attendance at the training school. On the contrary, the probationary year must fol- low the instruction in the school, and, in no case, can the probationary year be used for ordinary teaching; it must be reserved for the training of the yoxmg teacher. For this reason, only a small number of probationary students are sent to any one school. Several different kinds of certificates are given to teach- ers, depending upon the specialty they select. As has been stated, a teacher of the third group is qualified to teach a class in handwork or in household arts, Ateacher of milhnery must be able to give instruction in other vocational subjects. In order to accustom themselves to the various types and sizes of schools, every teacher must be able to handle more than one vocational subject. The Ministry exercises great care in the admission to the training school of candidates from middle schools. Only schools of equal grade with the higher grade schools are ac- cepted. The policy of basing the training of teachers in schools for women's handicrafts upon the training of teachers of handwork and household arts has given rise to many ques- tions. There is some doubt as to whether such candidates should be required to pass the examination required of teachers of handwork and of household arts before entering upon the advanced courses. It seemed to many that the time taken in preparation for such examinations could be better employed for further training. On the other hand, all the girls who would pass the first examination [236] TRAINING OF VOCATIONAL TEACHERS IN GERMANY would not pass the second one, and would be required to give up study before the completion of their training. If they had passed the first examination, all would not be lost, as they could teach handicrafts and household arts in the elementary or higher girls' school. The interests of the girls, themselves, then seemed to demand that they be re- quired to take the first examination before entering upon the advanced courses. Admission into the seminary (or training school) for teachers of the third group requires not only the passing of an examination as teacher of household arts and women's handwork, but also that preparation be made in a women's educational institute, approved by the Ministry of Com- merce and Industry. The school conducted by the Lette- Verein is permitted to prepare teachers for everything except drawing. The Pestalozzi-Froebel House trains teachers for cooking and household arts. The Victoria School in Berlin trains teachers for dressmaking and milUnery. The three state institutions at Posen, Rheydt, and Potsdam all undertake the training of teachers for women's vocational work. Each of these three schools has four divisions : a school of household arts; a school of handicrafts; a commercial school; and a seminkry for training teachers. Everyone is urged to take the course in household arts, in which is taught an outline of all that an experienced house- keeper must know. The students receive instruction in cleaning and other household tasks, cooking, baking, sewing, mending, science of nourishment, care of children, and care of the sick. Special optional courses are given, such as courses for continuation school work and simple handwork, dressmaking, sewing, millinery, drawing and painting, cooking, baking, washing and ironing. It is also proposed to add a training course in kindergarten work. The hour plan for the various teachers' courses in these State schools follows: :237] VOCATIONAL EDUCATION TRAINING OF TEACHERS OF HANDWORK Weekly Number of Hours Total Subjects of Instruction 1st Half 2nd Half Number of Year Year Hours Handwork 9 12 420 Machine sewing, cutting and preparing linen articles of clothing 8 6 280 Study of materials 1 1 40 Drawing 4 2 120 Pedagogy..,.. 2 1 60 Practice teaching and method 2 5 140 Hygiene 1 1 40 German and civics 2 2 80 Arithmetic 1 .. 20 Total 30 30 1200 Singing and turning 4 4 TRAINING OF TEACHERS OF HOUSEHOLD ARTS Weekly Number of Hours Total Subjects of Instruction Ist Half 2nd Half Number of Year Year Hours Cooking 10 10 400 Handwork 3 . . 180 Housework, including washing and iron- ing 6 3 60 Natural science, including instruction about food ' 3 3 120 Domestic economy, keeping of house- hold accounts . . 1 20 Pedagogy 2 1 60 Practice teaching and method . . 7 140 Hygiene 1 1 40 German and civics 2 2 80 Arithmetic 1 20 Drawing 2 2 80 Total 30 30 1200 Singing and turning 4 4 TRAINING OF INDUSTRIAL TEACHERS OF COOKING AND HOUSE- HOLD ARTS Weekly Number of Hours Total Subjects of Instruction 1st Half 2nd Half Number of Year Year Hours Cooking 12 12 480 Housework 6 120 Washing and ironing 6 120 Machine sewing 3 . . 60 Natural science, including foods 2 2 80 Keeping of household accounts 1 1 40 Pedagogy 2 2 80 Practice teaching 1 5 120 Civics and pohtical economy 1 20 Drawing 2 2 80 Total 30 30 1200 Singing and turning. 4 4 [238] TRAINING OF VOCATIONAL TEACHERS IN GERMANY TRAINING OF INDUSTRIAL TEACHERS OF HANDICRAFTS AS WELL AS MACHINE SEWING Weekly Number of Hours Total Subjects of Instruction 1st Half 2nd Half Number of Year Year Hours Handicrafts and machine embroidery . . 14 li 520 Machine sewing 5 5 200 Science of machine sewing 1 . . 20 Study of materials 1 1 40 Study of style 1 1 40 Technical drawing , . 4 4 160 Pedagogy 2 2 80 Practice teaching 1 5 120 Civics and political economy 1 . . 20 Total SO 30 1200 Singing and turning 4 4 TRAINING OF INDUSTRIAL TEACHERS OF DRESSMAKING Weekly Number of Hours Total Subjects of Instruction Ist Half 2nd Half Number of Year Year Hours Making dresses 21 19 800 Art of machine sewing 1 . . 20 Study of materials 1 1 40 Technical drawing 3 3 120 Pedagogy 2 2 80 Practice teaching 1 5 120 Civics and political economy 1 . . 20 Total 30 30 1200 Singing and turning 4 4 TRAINING OF INDUSTRIAL TEACHERS OF TAILORING Weekly Number of H-ours Total Subjects of Instruction 1st Half ^nd Half Number of Year Year Hours Tailormg , 19 17 720 Art of machine sewing 1 . . 20 Study of materials 1 1 40 Technical drawing 4 4 160 Art of making suits 1 1 40 Pedagogy 2 2 80 Practice teaching 1 5 120 Civics and political economy 1 . . 20 Total 30 SO 1200 Singing and turning 4 4 TRAINING OF INDUSTRIAL TEACHERS OF MILLINERY Weekly Total Subjects of Instruction Number of Number of Hours Hours Millinery 18 360 Study of materials 2 40 Drawing 8 160 Study of costumes 2 40 Total 30 600 [239] VOCATIONAL EDUCATION TRAINING OF INDUSTRIAL TEACHERS OF THE ART-TRADES Weekly Number of Hours Total Subjects of Inatruotion Half- Year Terms Number of 12 3 4 Hours Artistic handwork 14 16 14 10 1080 Art of machine sewing 1 20 Study of materials 1 1 . . . . 40 History of the textile arts 2 2 80 Study of style 1111 80 Drawing 12 12 10 10 880 Pedagogy 2 2 80 Practice teaching . . 1 5 120 Civics and political economy . . 1 . . . . . . 20 Total 30 30 30 30 2400 Singing and turning 4 4 4 4 The Prussian plan of preparing vocational teachers is followed in most parts of Germany, academic teachers and men trained for the industries being employed in varying proportions, with more or less special preparation for their vocational teaching. Nothing, however, that can be called a system exists in Prussia, or anywhere else in Germany outside of Munich, Wurttemberg, and Baden. Classes may be found sufifering from instruction by a teacher who does not know the industries he attempts to teach, and others becoming demoralized under a mechanic who cannot teach or govern. THE MUNICH PLAN At the annual conference of the Association of Teachers in Technical Institutions of Great Britain held in Southport, 1911, Thomas J. Burnett, Master of Method for the Edinburgh school board, discussed the question of training of teachers for the continuation schools. In his address he gave a translation of a communication he had received from Dr. Georg Kerschensteiner, Di- rector of Education of Munich. In this communication Dr. Kerschensteiner says: "The training of trade teachers in Germany is carried on, properly speaking, in only two towns — in Karlsruhe and Munich. In the rest of Germany trade teachers are mainly [240] TRAINING OF VOCATIONAL TEACHERS IN GERMANY chosen from the certified students of the different technical day schools. Vienna has an excellent school for trade teachers in its technological industrial museum. "In regard to Munich in particular, the town in which trade teachers are more generally employed in continuation schools than in all Germany and Austria, we train our trade teachers ourselves. Every year, when need arises, we issue a notice that first-class men engaged in trade are wanted for the different branches of woodwork and metalwork. As soon as applications have been received, we decide whether the candidates are to be admitted to the examination. The examination includes the execution of a piece of practical work, the drawing of the plans of that work, an estimate of the expense entailed, and a written description of the steps involved. If the examination is passed, the candidates must next practice for six months, without pay, in the workshops for instruction provided for that purpose. In the second half-year he must continue his practice, but receives a wage of $0.75 per day. In the meantime he has also to complete his training by attending a course of lectures on the theory of education, on technology, on tool-and-machine construction. After the course of a year he has another examination to pass, which includes the same things as the first examination, and in addition the lectures heard in the course of the year. Besides, he has to stand a test of his teaching powers before a class of pupils. If this examination is passed, he is appointed trade teacher at a salary of about $535.00. It may be added that excellent candidates come from the metal and woodworking industries. "As trade teachers for other different trades we choose direct from the workshop men who can show very good testimonials, and we watch whether they are successful in teaching. At first they get but a few lessons to teach at so much per lesson; if they approve themselves they get more and more, and if they do very well, are then finally placed in a responsible position. This policy has throughout proved successful." [241] VOCATIONAL EDUCATION WURTTEMBERG PLAN In Wiirttemberg and Baden the governments have grappled with the problem and have evolved a method of training vocational teachers that can claim to be systematic and thorough. The following is a description of the organi- zation of the Wiirttemberg system. Wiirttemberg has had vocational schools of high, mid- dle, and lower rank for many years. The lower schools were entirely reorganized by the law of July, 1906, which provides for: 1. Placing the entire organization of such schools on a vocational basis. 2. Special support of these schools independent of the general system. 3. Compulsory attendance between the ages of fourteen and eighteen. 4. Time and duration of instruction given to appren- tices. 5. Training of teachers and inspection of these schools. 6. Obligation of employers with reference to these schools. 7. Discipline and regular attendance. 8. An industrial school council to manage these schools. The law is comprehensive and is well worth the study of Americans interested in the subject. Mr. Albert A. Snow- den has written a full description of the industrial schools of Wiirttemberg, which is published in the Teachers' College Record of Columbia University. In the vocational schools the vocation dominates not only the course of study, but also the entire organization and administration, including the special training of the teachers. The law prescribes three successive years of instruction to apprentices in continuation schools between the ages of fourteen and eighteen, paralleling the years of apprenticeship. Within these limits the school is to be organized in the way that seems best adapted to secure training for the vocation. [242] TRAINING OF VOCATIONAL TEACHERS IN GERMANY The vocational school works under diflSculties compara- tively greater than those of the elementary school. The pupils of the elementary school are all prepared in the same general way, and advance through successive grades with- out a break. In the vocational school the material is not all trained in the same way nor to the same degree, many of the pupils having left the elementary school after finishing the fifth, sixth, or seventh grade, and eighty per cent of them without completing the entire eight grades. The vocational school must, therefore, build upon a somewhat narrow basis of experience, must deepen and widen this experience, and bring about a way of looking at things that will go beyond immediate observation, and aim at the understanding of both the "how" and "why" of the prac- tice in the vocation. The teacher is compelled to give up the ordinary notion of progress through the various subjects, and must constantly repeat his instruction in the essentials with an ever wider application to the experience gained in vocational life. In other words, he must employ what used to be called in America "the spiral method." In the vocational school, correlation of subjects is especially important. The subjects of instruction must grow out of each other. Industrial work and a certain amount of commercial work must be taken together. Technical instruction must be given in the closest connec- tion with everything else in the course. All the work of the school is related to the vocation and tested by its use- fulness in the vocation. In most cases this close correlation among all the things given in the school can be best secured by having teachers each of whom can teach all the com- pulsory subjects of the general division to which he is assigned. Four divisions are recognized in the Wiirttem- berg plan: the machine-trades division; the building-trades division; the art-trades division; and the commercial division. Every teacher must be prepared to teach all the subjects included in one of these divisions. Such an arrangement is inevitable in all but the largest places, but in any event is best suited to the securing of the correlation of subjects [243] VOCATIONAL EDUCATION necessary in a vocational school. The organization for the large places only might be different, but there are advan- tages in having all of the vocational schools organized on one general plan. The vocational teacher must, therefore, possess a wide and extended training in technology, com- merce, the art-trades, and pedagogy. Such teachers, engaged all the time in their own divisions, can do more to build up an esprit de corps than any number of teachers of special subjects. The effort to secure teachers by the ordinary methods of advertising and examination has failed. Teachers must be trained for this special task. Now the two classes of persons who can be trained are the experienced academic teacher and the trained technical man from the industries. Of these two, the academic teacher lacks technical and business knowledge and must be trained technically and commercially; the technical man has technical knowledge, but must gain power of control and skill in presentation. Every well-organized school should have representatives of both classes. Only those who have mastered one of the vocational groups technically, commercially, and peda- gogically are permitted to teach in a vocational school in Wilrttemberg. As has been stated, the work of the vocational schools can be divided into four groups: (1) the machine-trades group; (2) the building-trades group; (3) the art-trades group; (4) the commercial group. The Wilrttemberg plan provides for the training of technical teachers thoroughly equipped in some one of the four main groups and in the rudiments of business theory and methods of instruction. The employment of teachers whose technical knowledge is limited to one of these groups, or a part of it, would be possible only in the largest schools, and their employment even there would be bad for the school system. In small places, where perhaps only a single teacher is employed, that one should be thoroughly trained in the leading industry of the locality; and he must know in addition the rudiments of other trades or vocations if he [244] TRAINING OF VOCATIONAL TEACHERS IN GERMANY is to perform his function fully. In larger places some divi- sion of labor among the teachers is possible. In Feunbach, a suburb of Stuttgart, with about thirteen thousand in- habitants, the writer visited a vocational day school with two divisions, one for the building-trades group and one for the machine-trades group. One of the teachers was trained in the building-trades school at Karlsruhe and one in the machine-trades courses at Stuttgart, described later in this article. In still larger places, I found the division of labor among the teachers carried much further. In one instance, I found one teacher caring for a division consisting of printers' apprentices only. In each case the division of labor did not extend within the main group of subjects, but one teacher was required to care for his entire division, and often was promoted with it at the end of the year. Part-time teachers were employed usually to teach the optional subjects only, full-time teachers caring for the compulsory ones. Such teachers of optional subjects are not included in the general scheme for training teachers, but take short special courses of from two to six weeks' duration. The full-time vocational teachers of Wurttemberg are trained in extended courses carried on in special schools for training teachers of this class of work. The teachers who specialize in the building trades are now sent to Karlsruhe, in Baden, the best school for vocational teachers in Germany, Here they take a course of three and one-half years. The students in this course are drawn from the class of experi- enced and efficient elementary and secondary teachers, who have already had the pedagogical training of the teachers' training school. They have been through at least six years of a secondary school before going to the training school, so that they are well grounded in ordinary cultural subjects. Wurttemberg grants them an allowance of $240.00 per year while they are at Karlsruhe. After finishing the course there, they are required to spend from six months to a year in actual shop practice in the indus- tries. The course in Karlsruhe will be described in connec- [245] VOCATIONAL EDUCATION tion with the discussion of the training of vocational teachers in Baden. In 1907, there were some forty or fifty candi- dates from WUrttemberg in the Karlsruhe training school. The teachers for the commercial continuation schools are sent to commercial colleges, where special courses for training such teachers are provided. Leipsic, Manheim, Cologne, Berlin, and other cities have such courses, the one at Leipsic being especially good for this purpose. Besides this, preparatory courses of one and one-half years' dura- tion were established in Stuttgart in 1907. Candidates for such courses are selected from elementary and secondary teachers of exceptional ability. Similar provisions are made for candidates for positions in the art-trades group. Such candidates are usually sent for their training to an art-trades school such as the ones at Stuttgart and Munich. The selection of so many elementary teachers for these courses is, for the most part, based on reasons of expediency. Skilled technical and business men are equally desirable, but harder to get. In fact, most thinkers regard them as better material for teachers of vocations. It is, however, difficult to attract efficient architects and engineers to the teaching profession, while it is dangerous, as we know in America, to employ men from the industries who have been misfits in their profession and who often seek an asylum in the industrial school service. WUrttemberg is, however, finding it necessary to train some men from the industries for its service, and has organized special courses for the pur- pose The course is one and one-fourth years in duration. Candidates must have had the training of an industrial school of middle or higher rank and successful experience in their profession, but for this course they receive no schol- arship allowance, as many are likely to fail to meet the demands of the new profession. The course is mainly pedagogical for one year, with a review for the examination for the remaining three months. On account of the demand for vocational teachers, it has been urged that such practical men be allowed to teach [246] TRAINING OF VOCATIONAL TEACHERS IN GERMANY their own specialties without much preparatory training, at least in the larger cities, where it would be possible to find places for men who can teach only one subject. This proposition was rejected for several reasons. It would prevent the formation of an institutional interest and pride in , the vocational school — a general interest in training boys rather than in teaching subjects. It would destroy esprit de corps in the teaching force by filling the most important positions (those in the larger cities) with teachers of the least special preparation, and thus lead to indifference on the part of better-trained teachers whose opportunity for advancement would be cut off. Merit would cease to rule, and lack of training would bring special privileges. Wurttemberg preferred to wait, and frowned upon all attempts to organize industrial schools before properly trained teachers could be provided. The law of 1906 was, therefore, to be put into operation in 1909, after teachers had been trained, special buildings erected, and a complete organization perfected. This is not the American system, where in our haste to reach the end we are apt to overlook the means necessary for success. The demands made upon students at the Karlsruhe traiaing school have been adopted for the training course for the technical men in Stuttgart. The man's specialty is reviewed and he receives some training in the rudiments of other trades. He is given some training in business subjects, as his pupils are likely later to become independent business men. His main training, however, is pedagogical; this is thorough and comprehensive, extending over a full year, and including both the theory and the practice of teaching. Mastery of the subject-matter is not a suflScient prepara- tion for teaching it. Highly trained technical men often fail when put before a class. While the Wurttemberg school takes all possible care to make sure that the teacher knows his subject, it also insists upon a training in theory and in the practice of class-room work. The teacher must be [247] VOCATIONAL EDUCATION taught how to use his material, how to sift out essentials and treat them in a systematic way, and how to handle a class, secure attention, and preserve discipline. The lecture method is not employed in these courses, except in a very few subjects, the seminar method being the favorite one. Observation of good teaching in voca- tional schools is one of the features, and students make excursions to the best industrial schools of Baden to observe the work done there. Characteristic problems are worked out in the seminar and students are encouraged to attack similar problems themselves. The seminar attempts care- ful treatment of the subjects of the "question" and the "explanation." The instruction is not, however, limited to mere matters of detail, but goes into the general theory of education, with a historical survey of its development and of its leading representatives. Special divisions of the general subject are given thorough treatment. The technical man is shown the interworking of social science and pedagogy and the necessity of a knowledge of methods of instruction. He is made to feel the responsibility of the teacher and en- couraged to make a wider research into the educational questions of the time. The course for such technical men is shown by the program given below: 1. The course is one and a quarter years in length, of which one year is devoted to the study of pedagogical questions and three months to a review before the service examination. Those who pass the examination are imme- diately assigned to temporary work in the schools. 2. The number of students in each course is twenty. This allows for the dropping out of some before the end of the course. There was at first some disposition to lighten these requirements, in view of the great demand for vocational teachers. The authorities, keeping in mind the importance of the function these teachers performed, decided not to place the minimum too low. The vocational teachers must [248] TRAINING OF VOCATIONAL TEACHERS IN GERMANY form a contingent of the public service equal in rank to the general body of officials, if these schools are not to lose the confidence of the people. This is important, in view of the prominent position accorded to the German teacher. The vocational teacher must be the equal of the academic teacher in culture, salary, and professional ability if the vocational schools are to sustain themselves. High demands as to general culture are made upon the vocational teacher. These men teach business and cultural subjects as well as technology. Such teachers must possess the general trainiag indicated by the completion of the first six classes in a secondary school. Along technical lines these technical men must possess a technical training equivalent to that of the architect who has obtained the State master-builder's certificate, or, in the case of the mechanical engineer, to that of one who has passed the diploma examination. In the case of an art- trades teacher, he must show the qualifications necessary for the drawing teacher's examination. Technical men who wish to become vocational teachers and who have passed none of these examinations must prove their technical qualifications by a preliminary examination. The course requires thirty-six hours per week. At Karls- ruhe students spend an average of forty -five hours a week and commercial students twenty-eight hours a week. More can be exacted of the technical men than of the commercial students, because a large part of the time in the former courses is employed in drawing and in practice work, which do not require so much outside preparation. The subjects of instruction are as follows : HoTiBS PEH Week Subjects op Instbuction 1st Semester 2nd Semester 1. Industrial arithmetic and calculations of cost 1 1 i. Business correspondence and business calculations .... 1 1 3. Geometry and plane trigonometry 2 4. Physics (with mechanics and electricity) 2 2 5. Chemistry and theory of materials 2 2 6. Technology (teaching of working tools, machinery, and technique of work) — a few especially important in- dustries 1 1 [249] VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 7. Bookkeeping and theory of exchange 2 2 8. Theory of political economy 1 1 9. Legal principles Z 10. Introduction to industrial school practice 2 2 11. Pedagogy 1 1 12. Teclmical special instruction: A. Freehand drawing 2 2 B. Theory of projection, theory of light and shade, perspective 2 2 C. Technical drawing and modeling: (o) For the machine technical-trades: Instrument-makers Machine-makers 3 Pattern-makers, wagoners, and smiths .... 2 (6) For the architectural callings: Masons 4 Stone-cutters 4 Carpenters 4 Glaziers and joiners 4 Locksmiths, plumbers and installers 3 (c) For the art-trades: Sculptors 4 Painters 4 Harness-makers and decorators 2 Total 38 34 Practice teaching 4 38 The above course is planned for mechanical engineers who are preparing to become vocational teachers. For this reason, a comparatively short time is given to techni- cal instruction in engineering, as it would offer nothing new for the candidate. If men from the building trades or art trades enter these courses, the number of hours in 12 C 6 or c can be reduced in favor of more work in the mechanical engineering subjects. If the technical man is especially qualified in one division, he can give special attention to some other in his vocational course. The management and supervision of the course is in the hands of the Royal Industrial Council. Teaching halls are opened in localities requiring a course of this sort. Such halls are well-lighted and provided with the necessary equip- ment, and with drawing-rooms and laboratories. As in- struction in technique and drawing demands the use of material which is found only in special technical institutions, courses will be offered in the Royal Building-Trades School [250] TRAINING OF VOCATIONAL TEACHERS IN GERMANY of Stuttgart, and the teachers of this institution will be available to conduct them. As already stated it has not seemed wise to make State grants to technical men carrying on studies to prepare for work as teachers in vocational schools. The situation is not the same as with the teachers studying in Karls- ruhe. The Karlsruhe candidates are already in the State teaching service, and are on a leave of absence for advanced work. The State support is only a partial compensa- tion for their loss of salary. These teachers have already proven their qualifications in work for the State, and it is reasonably sure that they will be successful in their new school work at Karlsruhe. They have already dem- onstrated their ability in the class-room. With the tech- nical man the case is different. He is required to change his calling, and enter into a profession, not knowing whether he will "make good" or not. No one can guarantee that a State scholarship awarded to such persons will be a good investment. It seems, therefore, not to be wise to encourage such men to enter the profession by a money scholarship, except in the special case of unusually capable men who have already demonstrated their ability in the class-room of a continuation school. TRAINING OF VOCATIONAL TEACHERS IN BADEN The Grand Duchy of Baden was one of the earliest European states to take up the systematic training of its youth for a vocation. Their vocational schools are well organized and the teachers are exceptionally well trained for their work. Baden has had, since 1882, a well organized school in the city of Karlsruhe for the training of vocational teachers. For this reason, a full statement of the require- ments for such teachers in the Grand Duchy of Baden, together with a transcript of the program of work carried on in the school for the training of vocational teachers, may be of interest and value. I shall omit unimportant details. [251] VOCATIONAL EDUCATION TRAINING OF COMMERCIAL TEACHERS The Ordinance of 1907 with reference to the training and examination of commercial teachers provides as follows: An appointment as a commercial teacher depends upon the passing of an examination which is given every year by a committee of the National Industrial Commission. Ad- mission to the examination depends upon proof of — 1. Citizenship of Baden. 2. Acceptance as a candidate for the position of teacher in the elementary schools or the completion of the seventh year of a secondary school. 3. A certain amount of experience in mercantile business, as given below. 4. At least two years' attendance at an educational institution designated by the Ministry of the Interior for the training of commercial teachers. Elementary school teachers must furnish evidence of practical service in a mercantile business of at least one year, and candidates who have finished the seventh year of a secondary school must put in two years in such service, all of which service must be completed before attendance at the school for training commercial teachers. The examination is divided into a written and an oral part. It covers the following subjects : 1. German cpmposition. 8. General economic geog- 2. German business cor- raphy. respondence. 9. Political economy and 3. Commercial mathemat- science of finance. ics. 10. Legal principles. 4. Bookkeeping. 11. History of commerce. 5. Foreign languages. 12. Lectures on teaching 6. Stenography. and theory of method. 7. Typewriting. The requirements in these twelve subjects are as follows : 1. German composition: Written treatment of some subject lying within the circle of observation of the candi- date. [252] TRAINING OF VOCATIONAL TEACHERS IN GERMANY 2. German business correspondence: The ordinary commercial correspondence and counting-room work. 3. Commercial mathematics: Ordinary business arith- metic; equations of the first and second degree with one or more unknown quantities; logarithms; arithmetical and geometrical series; calculations of compound interest and stocks; theory of combinations; binomial theorem; calcula- tions of loans and insurance. 4. Bookkeeping: The most common system of book- keeping for banks and manufacturing establishments, with accuracy in preparing final statements. 5. Foreign languages: English or French (according to choice of candidate). Knowledge of grammar, phonetic training, facility in oral use, oral translation into German of letters and essays written in foreign languages, and written preparation of a translation of German matter relating to commercial affairs into the foreign language. 6. Stenography: Mastery of the system of Gabels- burger or Stolze-Schrey ; writing of at least one hundred and fifty syllables per minute. 7. Speedy writing on a typewriting machine. 8. General economic geography: Thorough economic geography of Germany with reference to the most important branches of industry; the ways and means of commerce; production, peculiarities, and uses of the most important articles of commerce. 9. Political economy and science of finance: (o) Fundamental conceptions of political economy with special attention to money, coinage, banks, markets, and joint stock affairs; commerce and trade politics, the labor question, insurance, the historical development of special economical movements or tendencies. (6) Science of finance in relation to tariff and taxes; community and State finances. 10. Legal principles : Commercial law, laws of exchange, and maritime law, as well as the provisions of the civil code most important for the merchant; civil processes and trade regulations; patent rights; trade-marks; bankruptcy law; [253] VOCATIONAL EDUCATION outline of constitutional, administrative, and international law. 11. History of commerce: Outline of the history of commerce in ancient times and in the middle ages, with a thorough study of the history of commerce in modem times, especially since 1900. 12. Courses on teaching and theory of method: Skill and ability in handling a given problem in school instruc- tion; knowledge of the course of study of commercial schools and the treatment of the special subjects of instruction. Every candidate is permitted to undertake an examina- tion in one or more modem languages (English, French, Spanish, or Italian, in addition to the one aheady chosen by him). This further examination may be taken after the candidate passes the examination as a commercial teacher. A candidate who fails may repeat the examination after the expiration of a year; if he does not pass at the second trial he will not be permitted to try again. The fee for the examination amoimts to twenty marks, and for the further examination on special languages five marks. Upon request the fee of persons without means may be wholly or partly remitted. The ordinance contains an emergency clause to the effect that so long as Baden does not have a sufficient number of teachers at its disposal measuring up to these requirements, persons may be employed as commercial teachers who have gained the necessary knowledge in other ways, and have proven their fitness by instruction in a commercial school. TRAINING OF INDUSTRIAL TEACHERS The ordinance concerning the preparation and examina- tion of teachers in industrial schools is as follows : Applicants for appointment as teachers in industrial schools must pass a special examination. This is divided into a preliminary examination and a principal examination. The examination is held every year under the direction of a committee of the National Industrial Commission. Ad- [254] TRAINING OF VOCATIONAL TEACHERS IN GERMANY mission to the preliminary examination depends upon proof of: 1. Citizenship of Baden. 2. Acceptance as a candidate for the position of teacher in the elementary school or the completion of the seventh year of a secondary school. 3. Attendance in the first three classes in the industrial teachers' division of the Building-Trades School of Karls- ruhe. To be admitted to the principal examination, candidates must have passed the preliminary examination, must have attended from the fourth to the seventh class in the in- dustrial teachers' division of the Building-Trades School in Karlsruhe, and must bring proof of the prescribed prac- tical experience in industrial life. This practical experience must amount, in the case of elementary teachers, to at least one year, and, in case of candidates who have finished the seventh class of a middle school, to at least two years. It must be finished before the candidate enters upon the fourth class in the industrial teachers' division of the Building- Trades School in Karlsruhe. The time spent in industrial operations or in vacation work for the Building-Trades School will not be reckoned in this practical experience. A more detailed account of the nature of the practical work will be given later. The examination is divided into an oral and a written part. In the preliminary examination there is also a test of the teaching ability of the candidate. A. The preliminary examination covers the following subjects : 1. German composition. 2. Mathematics. 3. Descriptive geometry. 4. Physics. 5. Chemistry. 6. Elements of mechanics. 7. Freehand drawing and painting. B. The principal examination includes the following: [255] VOCATIONAL EDUCATION I. For the building-trades department: 1. Theory and design of building construction in stone, wood, and iron. 2. Elements of the theory of mechanics. II. For the machine-trades department: 1. Theory of mechanics. 2. Elements of electro-technology. 3. Elements of the theory of building construction. III. For both architectural and machine-trades department: 1. Grammar of form, and elements of the history and technique of industrial art. 2. Science of materials and mechanical technology. 8. Applied drawing and painting. 4. Modeling. 6. Political economy and legal principles. 6. Bookkeeping and calculation of cost. 7. Courses on teaching and theory of method. Requirements for the Examinations The following are the requirements in the individual subjects of examination: A. For the Preliminary Examination 1. German composition: Written treatment of a theme within the circle of observation of the candidate. 2. Mathematics: General arithmetic; industrial and business calculations; equations of the first and second degree with one or more unknown quantities; logarithms; arithmetical and geometrical series; calculations of com- pound interest and stocks; theory of combinations; binomial theorem; elementary theory of maxima and minima; plane geometry; solid geometry; plane trigonometry; selected chapters from the elements of analytical plane geometry. 3. Descriptive geometry: Straight lines and planes in space; curved and warped surfaces; penetration of curved surfaces by planes (conic sections); penetration of opposite curved surfaces; tangents and tangent surfaces; determina- tion of the true size of projected surfaces and plane figures; [250] TRAINING OF VOCATIONAL TEACHERS IN GERMANY development of curved surfaces; development of irregular surfaces; application of descriptive geometry to important practical examples; theory of light and shade; perspective. 4. Physics: Knowledge of physical phenomena and laws, with simple proofs, especially of the theory of light, heat, magnetism, and electricity; knowledge of physical apparatus, and practice in the use of apparatus commonly employed in school instruction. 5. Chemistry: Knowledge of the fundamental con- ceptions of chemistry, and of the appearance and pecu- liarities of the most important elements and their combina- tions in the fields of organic and inorganic chemistry so far as they are of special importance for the industries; the most important points in chemical technoolgy; practice in experimentation. 6. Elements of mechanics: Theory of specific gravity and of the movements of solid, liquid, and gaseous bodies; the simple machines; graphic statics; strength of materials; application to simple construction in the fields of architect- ure and engineering. 7. Freehand drawing and painting: Skill in the technique of the different kinds of drawing and painting: sketches of simple natural objects; elements of grammar of form. B. For the Peincipal Examination I. For the Architectural Department 1. Theory and design of building construction in stone, wood, and iron: (a) Knowledge of brickwork: Brickwork bonds, plans for chimneys, slating or shingling, openings in walls (win- dows, doors, and the like), construction of arches, plans for toilet-rooms, steps in stone, wood, and iron, wood-joints, position of beams, partition walls, truss-work and strut- frames; roof construction. (6) Knowledge of inner architecture, especially of the work of the cabinet-maker, glazier, and locksmith. [267] VOCATIONAL EDUCATION (c) Knowledge of simple construction in iron, e. g., of columns and ceilings. (d) Working out of problems and sketches pertaining to parts of buildings of stone, wood, and iron. 2. Elements of the theory of machinery: (a) Description of the elements of machines and of simple kinds of machines. (6) Reproduction of parts of a machine in sketches and upon this basis a complete drawing of the same. (c) Treatment of simple problems in the field of engineer- ing. II. In the Technical Engineering Department 1. Theory of mechanics: Calculations and construc- tion of the elementary machines, including the crank, transmission, pump, lifting apparatus, steam boiler, steam engine, and hydraulic motor; knowledge of gas motors and of machine tools; calculation of gearing, velocity, etc. 2. Elements of electro-technology: General principles; calculation of simple transmission for house installation; the best known applications of the electrical current; knowledge of simple electrical machines for direct currents and their methods of operation. 3. Elements of architecture: (a) Knowledge of simple building construction. (6) Treatment of simple problems in the field of archi- tecture in stone, wood, and iron. III. For Both Architectural and Mechanical Departments 1. Geometry and elements of the history of artistic handwork and of the technique of the art-trades : Sketches of stone, wood, and metal forms. Historical survey of the development of industrial art and of the most essential technique. 2. Theory of materials and mechanical technology: The most important materials met in the industries, their peculiarities, uses, and treatment. The most important tools and machine tools. [268] TRAINING OF VOCATIONAL TEACHERS IN GERMANY 3. Applied dravring and painting: Sketches of simple decorative forms, with and without application of color. IV. Modeling ModeUng of simple ornaments accordiag to a given drawing. V. Political Economy and Legal Principles The most important points in political economy with special regard to the industrial needs and the existing organization of the industries and the social institutions of Baden; the constitution of the Empire and of Baden; the state and community governments; the most impor- tant provisions of the civil code and of the laws of com- merce and exchange; organization of justice and judicial procediu-e; the most important trade regulations, especially the organization of handicrafts and the protection of workingmen; workingmen's insurance; nature of associa- tions; the building ordinances of Baden; the elements of the tax legislation of the Empire and of the Grand Duchy of Baden. VI. Bookkeeping and Calculations of Cost Elements of double-entry bookkeeping, of calculations of cost, and of the theory of accounts current. VII. Courses on Teaching and Theory of Method How to treat a given problem in school instruction; knowledge of the course of study in the industrial schools; discussion of special subjects of instruction. Practical Industrial Work The authorities of Baden lay down explicit rules con- cerning the natiwe and extent of the practical industrial work to be done before entrance into the fourth class of the department of industrial teachers in the Building-Trades School of Karlsruhe. A. Persons who intend to devote themselves to the calling of an industrial teacher and who have been accepted [259] VOCATIONAL EDUCATION as candidates for the elementary schools must take the following course of work in the industry : Masonry work 2 months Carpentry work 1 Building and artistic iron work 1 Work of joiners and furniture-makers . 13^ Tinsmiths' work 1}/^ Whitewashers' and decorators' work . . 1}/^ Mechanical engineering work 1}/^ Optional work 2 Total 12 months B. For those who enter from the seventh class of a middle school the work is as follows : Masonry work 4 months Carpentry work 2 Building and artistic iron work 2 Work of joiners and cabinet-makers ... 3 Tinsmiths' work 2 Whitewashers' and decorators' work . . 2 Mechanical engineering work 23^ Work in the graphic industries 13^ Optional work 5 Total 24 months It is recommended that the optional work be done in one of the following fields : Stone-cutting, glazing, plumbing, paper-hanging, electro-work, lithographing, bookbinding. It is not expected that candidates will acquire great mechan- ical dexterity by means of this practical activity in indus- trial life, but it is hoped that a clear and comprehensive survey of the whole industrial world can be made, and attention be paid to the different processes of work. During the time of practical work in the industry, which is included in the preparation for the profession of industrial teacher, it is especially important that the candidates comply exactly with the same methods of business and times of [260] TRAINING OF VOCATIONAL TEACHERS IN GERMANY work as the ordinary worker in the industry. At the close of this work, the candidate must present a certificate given by the manager of the business he has been in. In some cases State support will be granted to facilitate this train- ing in the industries. Vacation Employment A certain amount of vacation employment is demanded of students ia the Karlsruhe school, although this is not reckoned as practical experience in the industries. This vacation employment includes: Mason work 13^ months Building and artistic iron work 1 J^ " Work as joiner and furniture-maker .. . 1}^ " The Director of the school prescribes the kind of draw- ing and practical work to be done during the vacation. Those attending the industrial teachers' department of the Building-Trades School of Karlsruhe are further required to attend all excursions prescribed by the Director of the school to industrial plants of the neighborhood. When necessary, some pecuniary assistance will be given to those employed during the vacations or taking part in the excursions. All students in the school are required to take part in the seminar practice. Each one in the Depart- ment must prepare one or two tasks, each semester, and, after the expiration of the time given for working it out must present it for approval. Kablsrtjhe Building-Trades School A brief description of the Karlsruhe Building-Trades School follows, which states the general purpose of the institution and provides a detailed description of the work of the department for the training of industrial teachers : The Karlsruhe Building-Trades School was founded in the year 1878 as a State institution. Its purpose is to train eflScient men for the building, machine, and electrical trades, to prepare for work on a building or in the factory, [261] VOCATIONAL EDUCATION as well as to prepare technicians of middle rank to act as officials in the State and community. The instruction in theory must depend upon the practical needs of the in- dustries. The Building-Trades School also undertakes the educa- tion of industrial teachers. The learning of industrial handicrafts depends upon the practice of the building operations and the workshop, and must, in the case of all pupils of the Building-Trades School, precede their admission into the institution. Accordingly, the practical exercises which are carried on in a few classes in the institu- tion are handled so as to lay the principal emphasis upon the theoretical development of lie trade, and upon the solution of difficult problons. The successive classes last one-half year each. They may, with a few exceptions, be attended either in summer or winter, according to the personal convenience of the pupik. Atw and Obganizatiok of the IxsTiTunox The school consists of the following five divisions: I. BuUding-Trades Division. — This division has the task of training State master-builders for the city and country, superintendoits of buildings, draftsmen, and master-workmen, certificated by the State, as well as engi- neers of middle rank for State and community offices. The instruction is imparted in six classes, each of one-half year's duration. The sixtli class, attended mainly by those who wish to take the State master-builders' examination, is carried on only in winter. H. Road-building and Hydraidie Engineering Ditision. — The training of students in this division is given in six suc- cessive classes of one-half year's duration each. This division aims, first, at training engineers in the road and hydraulic service as officials for both State and community, as well as for industrial undertakings. While those fini.shing this division of the school are admitted to the State master- buflders' exanunation, the under dasses provide the necessary training for road-masters for the passing of their theoretical [ 26ii TRAINING OF VOCATIONAL TEACHERS IN GERMANY examination. The building superintendents and draftsmen, as well as the street and dyke masters, find suitable oppor- tunities for vocational education as soon as their introduc- tory training and practice comply with the conditions of admission to the examination. The fifth class is carried on in summer, the sixth only in winter. III. Machine-Trades Division. — This division imder- takes to train machine engineers for the State bureau of construction and for the workshop. The instruction is im- parted in five classes, each one of one-half year's duration. Those attending this division go later into various sorts of private industrial plants or apply to railway authorities of the country in order to devote themselves eventually to service as railway engineers, foremen, or master-workmen. Those finishing this course are qualified to take the State foremen's examination. IV. Electrical Division. — The training of students in this division also falls into five successive classes, each of one-half year's duration, and during the first three semesters it is the same as that of students in the machine-trades di- vision. The purpose of this division is to train electrical engineers for the bureau of construction and for the work- shop, as well as for conducting the business of smaller electrical establishments and individual plants. After finishing this division they go either into the production of electro-technical products, or into the State or community offices, or into private electrical business. This division also offers to those young people who wish to establish themselves as independent workers in electrical installation opportunity for gaining the necessary knowledge. Those finishing this division are qualified to take the State foremen's or master- builders' examination. V. Division for the Training of Industrial Teachers. — This division aims at preparing teachers to give the indus- trial and technical instruction prescribed by the laws of the country for the industrial schools, and is, of course, attended mainly by students who intend to devote them- selves to the teaching profession. Candidates for positions [283] VOCATIONAL EDUCATION as industrial teachers must attend the institution seven semesters, and then pass the regular State teachers' exami- nation. Candidates who seek admission into the lower classes of the first four divisions of the school must have finished their sixteenth year. At the time of admission, candidates must pass an examination in German, arithmetic, and the theory of projection. Besides this, previous practical experience in the industries is demanded under all circum- stances for admission into the lowest class of any of these four divisions. This practical experience must amount to at least two full years (twenty-four months), in which service in an office is not to be counted. The experience must be obtained as follows: (1) for the architectural division, in actual building operations; (2) for the road-building and hydraulic division, in actual work of this class; (3) for the machine engineer, in the machine shop; (4) for the electrical division, also in the machine shop, in the following proportions : for students with predominatingly machine-engineering training, the vocational work must take, from the minimum requirements of two years' experience, at least nine months in an electro-technical manufactory, in electro-technical business, or in fitting up electrical plants; students, oil the contrary, who attend this division with predominatingly electro-technical experience must complete at least nine months' practice in general machine-building trades. Besides this two years' practice or apprenticeship at entrance into the lower classes of the architectural, road- building and hydraulic work, machine trades, or electro- technical divisions, proof of attendance at an industrial school must be produced, if proof is not furnished of the finishing of the fifth class of a middle school. Students from an industrial continuation school can, only in excep- tional cases and on account of especially good work, gain admission. It is important that pupils who possess the certificate for one year's military service or who have finished the classes of a middle school, mentioned above, should receive additional instruction in an industrial school [264] TRAINING OF VOCATIONAL TEACHERS IN GERMANY along with their practical work before their entrance into the building-trades school. If a candidate for admission into the first class has taken some other preparatory course, he must prove a corresponding degree of knowledge by the passing of a special entrance examination. If students who expect to enter the first class of the architectural division (or who in the future will enter the profession of building contractor, superintendent of buildings, and the like) have had prac- tice only as stone-cutters or carpenters, they are urged in their own interest to arrange for a longer period of prac- tical experience in the mason trade before entering into business. Those, who have worked as cabinet-makers, glaziers, and the like, must, before entering the second or third class, show a longer practical experience in the mason trade. In general, it is recommended that no long interruption of school attendance be permitted. Students who have dropped out of attendance at the institution for a longer period than three semesters, and who wish to re-enter on account of the new course of study, have to pass an examina- tion in mathematics and constructional subjects to prove that they are qualified to attend higher classes. The division for the training of industrial teachers is open only to those who bring proof of having been accepted as candidates for positions as elementary teachers or of having finished seven classes of a middle school. Applicants must be seventeen years of age, and must have finished at least three months' practical work in some large building business before entering the institution. Before attending the fourth class, elementary school teachers must complete at least a year of further practice, while those coming from the seventh class of a middle school must put in two years in practical work. It is recommended that students of the middle school finish one year of this practice before they enter, instead of the above named three months minimum amount. During their vacations, or during the period of their [ 265 ] VOCATIONAL EDUCATION absence from school, in order that they may advance in their education and increase their understanding of national methods of building, students of the architectural division are directed to prepare photographs and drawings of fine old buildings and their parts. This serves as a preparation for subjects of instruction which form the substance of the course in the next higher class. The examples chosen are sketched under the direction of the teacher. The students of the industrial teachers' division are required to make use of the great autumn vacation for some of the industrial handwork mentioned above. The Easter hohdays, on the other hand, are used for the taking of photographs of buildings and artistic objects of all kinds. State assistance is at the disposal of both divi- sions to defray the expenses of visits to manufactories and the like, as well as to pay for well-prepared photographs. Candidates in this division pay a matriculation fee of five marks. The tuition fee is forty marks for citizens of the Empire, and eighty marks for foreigners. At the opening of every semester, instruction in hygiene is given to the new students, by the conductor of the so- called " Samaritan course." This course covers the principal points a student should know in order to preserve health of body and mind. In order to promote acquaintance with graphic subjects, all students, from the lowest classes on, have to prepare sketch-books in an orderly way. The sketches in these books and photographs are, so far as possible, made use of in the instruction. EXCURSIONS For the encouragement of nature studies, and for syste- matic training in observation, excursions to investigate available objects are undertaken, and wherever possible, sketches are prepared, to be worked out later in the classes. Saturday afternoons are free from class-room work for the students, both in summer and winter. On these after- noons, as occasion arises, excursions are undertaken by [266] TRAINING OF VOCATIONAL TEACHERS IN GERMANY all divisions and dasses in the school, for the purpose of inspecting buildings in course of construction, workshops, manufactories, roads, exhibits, and the like, as well as for practice in drawing in the open and in photographing agricultural buildings, monuments, and other objects worth reproducing. Students of all divisions and classes take part in excur- sions in the week after Whitsuntide, which, as far as possible, cover all subjects which come under their attention in the course of study. These excursions are carried on so far as possible in the neighborhood of Karlsruhe, and, as a rule, extend over two days. In case of greater distances, three days are used. State aid is given to students to meet the cost of these excursions, and considerable reductions made in transportation rates. All students concerned must take part. The course of study of the division for the training of industrial teachers is as follows : FiKST Class Mathematics 4 hours Physics 3 Mechanics 2 Geometrical drawing 2 Descriptive geometry 7 Grammar of form, with sketches 2 Freehand drawing and painting 22 Second Class Mathematics 3 Physics 4 Chemistry 3 Mechanics 2 Descriptive geometry 6 Theory of building construction 11 Grammar of form and mechanical drawing 4 Freehand drawing and painting 9 [267] VOCATIONAL EDUCATION Third CiiAss Mathematics 2 hours Chemistry » 4 Theoretical mechanics 2 " Descriptive geometry 2 " Theory of building construction 9 " Building models 7 " Elementary mechanics 1 " Grammar of form and mechanical drawing 4 " Freehand drawing and painting 9 " Fourth and Fifth Classes Mechanics 1 " Technology 2 " Theory of building construction 7-9 " Industrial technical models (building forms of wood and stone) 2 " Technical drawings of parts of buildings and furniture 5 " Practical geometry 2 " KJiowledge of machinery 1 Elementary machines 2 Machine drawing 3 Applied freehand drawing and painting. ... 8 Bookkeeping 4 Political economy 3 Introduction to industrial practice. .Time not fixed (This item includes visits to workshops of different in- dustries, and attendance at courses given for masters of different industries.) Introduction to industrial school practice. . . 1 hour (This item includes a survey of the development of in- dustrial education and of its organization in Baden and Wiirttemberg; the rules and decrees concerning manage- ment, organization, and instruction in industrial schools; general introduction to educational theory and practice; thorough treatment of instruction in mathematics, includ- [ 268 ] TBAINING OF VOCATIONAL TEACHERS IN GERMAN Y ing both arithmetic and geometry; study of materials; industrial correspondence and bookkeeping; written work; practice teaching in classes.) Sixth and Seventh Classes Technology 1 hour Theory of the consumption of fuel 1 " Theory of building construction, with working drawings 9 " Theory of construction in iron 2 " Technical models of metal, clay, class, and textiles 3 " Industrial technical plans 9 " Drawings of machinery 3 " Electro-technology 2 " Applied freehand drawing and painting .... 8-9 " Knowledge of Baden (considering artistic buildings and monuments, and their pre- servation) 1 " Building regulations of Baden, with con- sideration of its relation to Wiirttemberg .1 " Theory of exchange 1 " Legal principles 1 " Political economy 3 " Introduction to industrial practice. .Time not fixed (This includes visits to workshops of different industries, and attendance at courses given for masters of different in- dustries.) Introduction to industrial school practice 1 hour (This provides for methodical teaching of the theory of projection; practical methods of construction in the differ- ent industries; technical drawing and modeling in the most important industries; written and graphic work; prac- tice teaching in the Building-Trades School of Karlsruhe.) Conclusion: These demands upon vocational teachers in Wiirttemberg and Baden will seem very high to an American. Our American demands are not as a rule as exacting even as those of Prussia. In both Prussia and [269] VOCATIONAL EDUCATION America practical men and acadenaic teachers are prepared for service in vocational schools by means of short courses. On the whole, I believe that Prussia demands more of such teachers than America. The training of vocational teachers for the lower grades is more highly developed in South Germany than in Prussia or anywhere else in the world. In South Germany they have passed through the period when half -prepared teachers are permitted to undertake educational work of any sort. They have experienced the results of permitting misfit mechanics with little or no pedagogical training, and ordi- nary academic teachers with no technical training worth mentioning, to undertake the preparation of the youth for practical life. It is now realized that neither the half- trained mechanic nor the mere academic teacher can be in touch with actual industrial conditions. The South Germans endeavor, therefore, by their courses to train the teachers technically and the mechanics pedagogicaUy. They encourage these vocational teachers to keep in touch with actual industrial and business conditions, both by constant visits to industrial plants and business operations, and by permitting them to carry on industrial and business occupations as a side issue. This practice is usually frowned upon in America, but in Germany it is believed that this will aid in keeping these schools practical, and will prevent them from developing into institutions that are completely out of touch with the needs of the time. [270] CHAPTER XVIII AGRICULTURAL SCHOOLS THE jfirst lower agricultural schools in the German Empire received their inspiration from Switzerland, where Pestalozzi and his friend Wehrli had organ- ized an educational institution for poor orphan boys where, during their intermission from instruction, they were employed in agricultural work. A prominent reformer of German agricultural systems learned of these institutions during his repeated visits to Switzerland. When he founded the agricultural academy of Hohenheim in Wurttemberg in 1819, he united with it a lower agricultural school after the Swiss model, which undertook the education and in- struction of ten orphan boys of fourteen years old. Similar institutions were called into life in Bavaria and Prussia, some of which were called "Wehrlischulen." With the improvement in methods of cultivation the need arose for providing educational institutions for the sons of farmers in which they could learn a rational agri- cultural practice and at the same time receive some theo- retical instruction in agriculture. Accordingly, since 1840, quite a number of lower agricultural schools have been founded which generally bear the name of "farmers' schools" (Ackerbauschulen). The schools already mentioned (Wehr- lischulen) were gradually changed into these farmers' schools, which undertook the education of the sons of peasants whose ages ranged from 16 to 20. The farmers' schools were united with the management of a middle-sized farm. The pupils worked upon this farm, and formed a house commu- nity with the director and his family. The instruction was partly practical, partly theoretical; the practical instruction being given in the summer; the theoretical in the winter. The courses were usually two years in length. [ 271 1 VOCATIONAL EDUCATION In 1858, a purely theoretical farmers' school was founded in Hildesheim. Other schools have been organized on the same plan, until at present there are about eighteen such schools in Prussia. The reports of the last few years, how- ever, show that the number is diminishing. The course of instruction in these schools usually consists of three classes corresponding to the three upper classes of a Realschule, often with a three-class preparatory school in coimection. In other cases, these schools are combined with the Real- schulen. Their diploma, since 1895, has been equivalent to that given by the Realschule, Their course of study is of corresponding length and difficulty, and the students grad- uating receive the certificate for one year's voluntary military service. The elementary forestry schools, included among these technical schools, train foresters. The first forestry school in Prussia was founded in Gross-Schonebech in 1878 and was taken over by the State in 1883. A State apprentice school for foresters was opened in 1882 in Proskau. Besides this, since 1880, various forestry continuation schools for rangers employed for protecting the forests have been f oxmd- ed. Since October 1, 1905, several forestry continuation schools under the supervision of the higher schools of this kind have been opened, and one year's attendance in these has been made obligatory for all apprentices in the Prussian forestry service who have been in appren- ticeship for a year. Almost at the same time with these schools the first agricultural winter schools were founded. They attempted to make it possible for young sons of peasants to acquire a theoretical training without taking time from their sum- mer's work. Instruction was given only in winter, but during this period all the time and strength of the pupil were demanded. As they required comparatively little expense from the parents, and were very successful in improving the agricultural work, their numbers increased very rapidly, until now there are over two hundred agri- cultural winter schools (201 in 1908). [272] AGRICULTURAL SCHOOLS In addition, numerous agricultural courses are given to train teachers for the agricultural continuation schools, and to instruct farmers and landlords in such special subjects as the science of agriculture, fertilization, the care and feeding of stock, horticulture, woodcraft, and the preserva- tion of fruit. The winter schools commonly offer two courses, which give the sons of peasants opportunities to acquire the knowl- edge demanded by a rational up-to-date system of farming. In the first course the following subjects are taught: Political science, with composition ... 4 hours Arithmetic, including mensuration ... 4 Surveying 2 Chemistry of plants 6 Science of agriculture 6 Flower and fruit culture 4 Care of horses and swine 4 In the advanced course the following subjects are taught: Law and equity 4 hours Chemistry, as applied to the food of animals 4 Cultivation of meadows 2 " Care of animals and their diseases . . 10 " Business management and book- keeping 2 The following places in Prussia have agricultural schools : Bitburg, Bojanowo, Brieg, Cleve, Dahme, Eldena, Flens- burg (combined with the Ober-realschule), Heiligenbeil, Herford (combined with the Realschule), Hildesheim, Liegnitz, Ludinghausen, Maggrabowa (combined with the Realschule), Marienburg, Salzwedel, Samter, Schivelbein, Weilburg. The agricultural schools in other German states are similarly organized. Bavaria has two institutions of this kind, one in Lichtenhof, near Nuremberg, and one in Pfarrkirchen, in lower Bavaria. The Saxon agricultural school is combined with the Royal Realgymnasium in Debeln, as the Hessian is with the Grand-Ducal Realschule [273] VOCATIONAL EDUCATION in Gross-Umstadt. In addition there are well-known agricultural schools in Barel (Oldenburg), Helmstedt (Brunswick), and Rufach (Alsace-Lorraine). Forestry academies, forestry colleges, or forestry insti- tutions of other sorts exist in Prussia in the district of Hannover, in Miinden and in Eberwalde; in Saxony in Tharandt; in Bavaria in Aschaffenburg; and in Saxe- Weimar in Eisenach. In addition to this the science of forestry can be studied in the universities at Giessen, Tubingen, and Munich. Prussia has an agricultural college in Berlin, com- bined with institutions for the sugar industry and for the manufacture of yeast and starch, and one of Bonn-Poppels- dorf; Wiirttemberg has one in Hohenheim, and Bavaria one in Weihenstephan. The universities of Breslau, Got- tingen, Konigsberg, Leipsic, Halle, Giessen, and Jena are equipped with agricultural departments. In these schools farmers receive scientific training in farming, surveying, and the cultivation of land. Veterinary colleges exist in Berlin, Hannover, Munich, Dresden, Stuttgart, and veterinary science is taught in the university of Giessen. By the year 1903, the following elementary agricultural technical schools were established in Prussia: Revenue in Marks From Provincial District, Com- munal Funds, From from Societies, Institutions the from Endow- (and their number) Teachers Pupils State ments, etc. 1. Agricultural Schools (16) 189 2,366 397,656 175,858 2. Farming Schools (21) and Courses 147 896 8,610 114,959 3. Agricultural Winter Schools (128) 931 4,823 50,450 518,910 4. Schools for Meadow Cultivation (5) and Practical Courses 44 565 5,800 29,380 5. Pomological Institutes and Schools for Gardeners (3) 36 106 178,219 3,024 6. Schools of Horticulture, Viticulture, and Fruit-growing (15), Courses 245 3,665 25,784 77,780 7. School for Sugar Manufacturing in Berlin 6 28 8. Distillery School of the Society of Spirit Manufacturers in Berlin 12 200 9. Students' Courses in Distillery at Schweidnitz 5 33 800 10. School for Brewers of the Society "Exper- imental School of Brewery in Berlin" 13 158 [274] AGRICULTURAL SCHOOLS 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. Schools for Dairy-farming and Domestic Economy (64), Courses 263 Schools for Farriers (64), Courses 100 Schools for Beemasters (2) and Courses of Apiculture 11 Seminaries for Teachers of Agriculture (2) ;... 14 Courses for Training Elementary Teach- ers for Rural Continuation Schools. . 11 Lecture Courses for Agriculturists, and Courses on Knowledge of Soils, Man- ures, Cattle-breeding, and Feeding. . 21 Courses in Bookkeeping 7 3,278 747 181 697 260 73,700 6,100 1,600 88,640 9,680 560 12 4,100 68 13,760 Federal State Kingdom of Bavaria Kingdom of Saxony Kingdom of WUrttemberg Grand Duchy of Baden Grand Duchy of Hesse Royal Province of Alsace-Lorraine. . . . The other Federal States, with the exception of Prussia Number of Agricultural Schools (Schools of Agricul- ture, Farming-Schools, Winter Schools and similar Schools) with a General Agricultural Curriculum in 1902-03 43 10 12 15 11 12 25 Number of Pupils Attending these Schools in 1902-03. (Only Students of Agricultural Subjects are in- cluded.) 1,634 603 285 566 382 345 1,043 The report of 1908 shows the following situation: 8 2 2 3 18 Agricultural Academies Forestry Academies Veterinary Colleges Higher Gardening Schools Agricultural Middle Schools Lower Agricultural Winter Schools 201 Lower Speoiai, Schools: Meadow Culture Schools 5 Garden, Fruit, and Wine Schools 16 Dairy Schools 14 Schools for industries related to agriculture 4 Beekeeping Schools 3 Horseshoeing Schools 66 Poultrykeeping Schools 7 Forest Apprentice Schools 4 Housekeeping Schools: Stationary 50 Itinerant 40 Country Continuation Schools 3,781 [276 ] CHAPTER XIX INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN AUSTRIA INTRODUCTION INDUSTRIAL education in. Austria began with the call- ing in of experts from foreign countries to give instruc- tion to workmen. Dutchmen, Italians, Frenchmen, and , Swiss were called in to give instruction in the glass and clothing industries. The first real provision for industrial education appears to have been the founding in 1758 of a manufactory drawing school in Vienna. In 1770, a com- mercial academy was founded in Vienna^ but it did not meet with much success during the early years of its history. Trade and industry were hampered by restrictions and monopolies. In the 70's, the Government endeavored to stimulate industrial education by the establishment of industrial schools of various sorts. These schools met with consider- able success, and in 1790 there were 232 of them in Bohemia, mostly textile schools, but the whole movement declined during the closing years of the century. In 1804, practical secondary schools were organized, "Realschulen," one of the objects of which was to educate pupils who expected to enter practical life. Later they also prepared candidates for the technical university or poly- technical school. Schools of this sort were established in Vienna, Reichenberg, Prague, Brunn, etc. In 1812, an art-trades institution for women's work was estab- lished in Vienna, and supported by private contributions. In 1806 a polytechnical institute was founded in Prague and in 1815 a similar institution was opened in Vienna, the first schools of the kind in central Europe, and the first, but one, in Europe. (The first was the polytechnical school in Paris, opened in 1795.) [276] INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN AUSTRIA Austria led all European nations in the founding of technical colleges. Berlin followed Vienna in 1821, Baden in 1825, Bavaria in 1827, Saxony in 1828, Wurttemberg in 1829, and Hannover in 1831. Austria was, however, behind Germany in the number and efficiency of her technical schools of lower and middle rank. From 1851-67 the "Realschulen" increased in number and importance. These practical secondary schools provided some opportunity for industrial training. They offered instruction in freehand, mechanical, and ornamental draw- ing, geometry, natural science, business composition, com- mercial arithmetic, technology, machine and building trades, study of commodities, and technical chemistry. Between these years Austria possessed a system of secondary tech- nical schools, but they did not seem to satisfy either the practical man or the polytechnical school. In 1867 these schools were reorganized with especial view to making them better preparatory schools for the polytechnical school at Vienna. They became more scien- tific in their character and gave less attention to practical preparation for the industries. One important result of the change was that it made clear the necessity of a new type of industrial school. In 1863, the museum for art and industry was founded in Vienna, modeled after the South Kensington Museum in London. About the same time, the reorganization of the old industrial drawing school of Vienna led to the founding of the Technological Museum and School in Vienna, which became a State institution in 1870. The various polytechnical schools serve principally the great industries. After the reorganization of the "Real- schulen" in 1867 the necessity for secondary technical schools became more and more apparent, and Austria, in the 70's, set about the organization of a system of lowei and middle schools, including continuation schools, technical schools for special industries, and State industrial schools. A system of industrial schools was inaugurated that provided for every grade of industrial training. State industrial schools [277] VOCATIONAL EDUCATION were established and connected with the organization of local continuation schools. These central schools, by pro- viding teachers for the continuation schools, by inspecting their work, and by maintaining a model school as one of their departments, give direction to the work of the con- tinuation schools of the province in which they were located. A system of schools has been organized between the State Industrial Schools and the continuation school, including handicraft schools, and special technical schools for the various industries, in accordance with the needs of the local communities. THE PRESENT ORGANIZATION OF THE INDUSTRIAL SCHOOL SYSTEM OF AUSTRIA I. The Central Management The entire industrial school system of Austria is imder the management of the Ministry of Public Works, and is directly controlled by a Department of this Ministry, as- sisted by oflBcials and commissions from the Department of Education and Commerce. The agricultural technical schools are under the control of the Ministry of Agriculture. The management of the technical schools of Austria is centralized to a greater degree than that of Germany. Boards and commissions of various kinds and of dif- fering degrees of authority co-operate with the central authorities in the work of managing the industrial schools, the whole system being directed to a common purpose. It is, however, recognized that modifications must be made in the various divisions of the Monarchy on account of the character of the occupations and state of development of the various peoples, as well as on account of the differences in race and language existing in Austria. In some cities industrial schools have to be duplicated on account of the problem of language. In most of the cities of Bohemia you will find both German and Bohemian industrial schools. In Hungary the system of schools is independent of that of Austria, but the general outline of work is simi- lar to that of Austria. [278] INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN AUSTRIA The industrial schools under the control of the Ministry of Public Works are classified in the following groups : Institutions 1. Central industrial educational institutions i. Schools for important groups of trades (Staats- gewerbeschulen) 3. Bmlding and art-trades schools 4. Special schools for single branches of industry 5. Teaching workshops 6. General handwork schools 7. Industrial continuation schools 8. Schools for the girls in industrial callings Total Number of Institutions Number Attending 9 24 6 128 13 7 1,137 1,056 2,379 20,663 16.946 2.444 15,167 382 2,242 148.446 32.968 238,238 The central industrial educational institutions are all located in Vienna except the art-trades school in Prague. They are as follows: I. Bureau of Apparatus and Supplies for Industrial Educational Institutions. The purpose of this Bureau is to provide a constantly increasing supply of adequate apparatus for the industrial educational institutions of the Empire. The Bureau in- vestigates all new products in the field of apparatus and school supplies, testing their utility for school use, manu- factures new apparatus itself, and stimulates other indus- trial educational institutions to manufacture such apparatus and submit it to their approval, provides traveling exhibi- tions of apparatus and supplies, organizes courses of lectures on industrial subjects, arranges for prizes for the best plans submitted for manufacturing such apparatus, gives general instruction as to methods of producing drawing models and other work, and acts as a bureau of information and advice for those choosing educational apparatus. The school supplies, including models, plans, maps, publications, engravings, etc., are secured: 1. By purchase. 2. Through periodical prizes given for the best pieces of apparatus or sketches of the same. [279] VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 3. Through the preparation of apparatus in the Bureau itself; and in the State industrial educational institutions.' The workshops or studios provided by the State indus- trial institutions are obliged to co-operate in the production of apparatus and supplies suited to the purposes of the Bu- reau, so far as it is possible without interfering with the ordinary work of the school. The production of this appa- ratus by the pupils themselves is often a part of the program of workshop instruction, and teachers in charge of such workshops, master-workmen, and foremen may undertake such work and receive remuneration therefor. The materi- als for the apparatus are usually supplied free of charge by the school management, but in some cases the authorities will substitute for this money payment for the material used. All apparatus and supplies must be prepared accord- ing to approved models or plans. All State industrial edu- cational institutions are further obliged to assist the Bureau in every possible way in its plans for obtaining apparatus, by supplying it with duplicates of apparatus in their own collections, etc. The furnishing of apparatus not produced by private establishments is sometimes free of cost, sometimes on pay- ment of the actual cost of material. Petitions for the supply of apparatus for various continuation schools must be sub- mitted to the inspector of such schools, who collects and investigates these petitions and forwards them to the Bureau with his recommendations twice a year. The dif- ferent departments of the Bureau, art trades, textile, industrial continuation schools, and chemical-technical, carry on their work, having in view the especial needs of the educational institutions of the Empire. 1. Art-Tbades Department This department secures apparatus for the art-trades school or art-trades departments of other schools. 1. It provides apparatus suited for instruction in artistic forms 'The State Industrial School of Beichenberg manufactured in the regular course of instruction in its shops 142 pieces of apparatus, which were forwarded to the Bureau in Vienna. r 280] INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN AUSTRIA of production, taking into consideration home art (including church art), inner decoration, wood-carving, sculpture, furniture, glass, artistic bronze smith-work, production of artistic textiles, ornamentation of gold and silver, ornamen- tation of books, heraldry and script. 2. The production and pubUcation of patterns for inner decoration of churches and other buildings. The sketches or plans are partly obtained by purchase, partly prepared by the Bureau of Schools to meet the needs of individual classes. 3. The preparation and publication of model collections of objects generally useful in art-trade decoration, together with descriptions of the best processes. 4. The procuring and distribution of model collections, and of new raw materials applicable to the art-trades. 5. The periodical arrangement of traveling exhibitions of art-trade objects. 6. The holding of tech- nical courses and lectures in art-trade subjects. 7. The preparation of candidates for the position of teachers of art-trade subjects as well as the further training of teachers already employed. 2. Textile Department This department provides apparatus and supplies to industrial schools for the textile industries. It supplies apparatus and sample supplies for spinning, hand-weaving, and machine- weaving, for teaching of geometry and drawing, for finishing cloths, models of machinery for weaving, and for optical and photographic apparatus useful in the textile industries. 3. Department for Industrial Continuation Schools The success of an industrial continuation school depends largely upon its supply of material and apparatus. Every good continuation school must have at its disposal a col- lection of models and apparatus sufficient to enable the teachers to give the pupils the vocational training provided for in the course of study. This department supplies schools with all sorts of models for drawing, including constructions in stone, wood, and metal, smith-work, ornaments of doors [281] VOCATIONAL EDUCATION and windows, joints for masonry, sheet-iron work, connec- tions of piping, measuring instruments, tools, ornaments, parts of watches, ornaments of carriages, joinery, electrical devices, smith-work, furniture, drapery, etc. It also procures maps and demonstrating models for instruction in the technology of working wood and iron and in the use of motors. It provides a collection of articles for instruction in teaching the subject of knowledge of materials used by masons, by producers of foods and manufacttu-ers of clothing, etc. The Department also provides for traveling exhibitions, for supplying the articles needed in establishing a new continuation school, the publication of technical books and pamphlets, and the institution of lectures. 4. Chemical-Technical Department This department procures apparatus and materials needed in the field of chemical technology, and the publication of technical writings pertaining to this subject. It also holds technical courses and lectures and arranges for traveling exhibitions. The department supplies to the schools appara- tus and materials needed in the field of the chemical tech- nology of metals, woods, horn, ivory, tortoise-shell, amber and mother-of-pearl, stone, glass, and pottery, as well as for the chemistry of textiles and of the various processes used in decorative art. In connection with its work in providing apparatus and supplies, the Bureau holds courses of instruction for wood-carvers, designers, textile industrialists, chemical cleaners and finishers, cabinet-makers, in coloring and staining of wood, courses of lectures for technical teachers in basket-making schools, courses for wagon-varnishers and painters in testing of colors, courses in methods of instruc- tion in freehand drawing for teachers in the continuation schools, and T technical courses in knowledge of materials used by bakers, and by teachers of this subject in the technical schools, technical courses in perspective for those [282] INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN AUSTRIA belonging to the trades of house-painting and decorating, and in the art of staining and varnishing violins. COURSES CARRIED ON BY BUREAU OF APPARATUS AND SCHOOL SUPPLIES Subject Taught Students BUBEATJ OP ApPAHATtrS AND ScHOOL SUPPLIES. (o) Technical course for wood carvers 8 (i) Technical course for designers — textile industry 10 (c) Masters' course in chemical cleaning and finishing 66 (d) Course for joiners in the cutting and dyeing of wood 16 (e) Preparatory course for special teachers in basket-making schools 7 (J) Course in wagon varnishing 30 (j) Course in methods of instruction in freehand drawing for men and women teachers in the continuation schools 24 (h) Technical course in the science of materials for bakers, and for teachers of these subjects in industrial technical continuation school for bakers 16 (t) Technical course in perspective for relations of the room and decorative painting 10 (j) Technical course in staining and varnishing violins 1 Total 177 II. Austrian Museum for Art and Industry, in Vienna. The Austrian Museum for Art and Industry was founded in 1863. It attempts to elevate and ennoble the taste of the industrialist and the general public both by instruction in the art-trades and by exhibitions of models. It is open to every- one. The permanent exhibitions of this museum include collections of plaster casts, pieces of weaving, lace and em- broidery, leather work, ceramic objects, glass work, gold- smiths' work, jewelry, enameling, and metal work. In addition to the permanent exhibitions of art-trade prod- ucts, temporary exhibitions have been instituted which present to the public sample products of the art industry. The articles exhibited are sold to the general public by the museum authorities at such exhibitions. The copying and reproduction of the models are permitted in order to promote the formation of artistic taste. The institution furthers the same aim by holding courses of lectures on art-trade subjects and by the publication of art-trade journals. The museum is equipped with machinery for making [283] VOCATIONAL EDUCATION plaster casts of the originals in the museum of art curiosities, ornaments of sculpture, etc., in order to make it easy for individuals and schools to secure models for their instruc- tion in drawing. An art-trades school opened in 1868 in connection with the museum trains industrialists for the art-trades and teachers in the art-trades schools. Abt-Teades School of Vienna Subjects Taught Number of Pupila Complete Begistration At CloBe of School Year or Courses Remaining Students Visitors Total Stud. ViaitorB Total A. Department for — (a) Ornamental and figurative drawing (5) General department for model- ing B. Technical schools for — (a) Architecture (5) Painting (c) Sculptures C. Special departments for — (a) Casting (b) Wood-carving (c) Enameling (d) Carpet and Gobelin tapestry. D. Chemical laboratory work E. Practical ceramic course F. Visitors in related subjects G. Five special courses for masters and journeymen Total 33 11 23 25 13 77 1 5 1 5 30 38 11 26 29 15 8 6 2 11 1 5 30 77 31 11 23 23 12 8 6 1 6 68 4 24 35 11 26 26 13 8 6 2 10 5 24 203 56 259 190 44 234 Art-Tkades School of Prague The art-trades school in Prague was founded in 1885. This school aims at the development of artistic power for the art industries, and the education of teachers for art- trade instruction, as well as for instruction in the secondary schools. It includes the following departments: [284] INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN AUSTRIA Subjects Taught Number of Pupils Complete Registration Students Visitors Total At Close of School Year or Courses Remaining Stud. Visitors Total A. General school for drawing and modeling B. Girls' schools for — (a) Drawing and painting (6) Artistic embroidery C. Special schools for — (o) Decorative architecture (6) Decorative modeling (c) Decorative drawing and paint- ing... Industrial art for metal work- (d) (c) ers (e) Plain patterns D. Industrial art evening and Sun- day courses — (a) Evening course for figure drawing Evening course for ornamental drawing Evening course for architec- tural drawing (d) Evening course for modeling . . (e) Sunday course for geometry. . . Total Total of the art-trades schools 108 89 7 16 24 27 2 8 37 31 40 37 18 13 14 2 121 43 9 16 26 28 2 9 37 31 40 37 18 103 25 7 13 21 24 1 8 31 23 23 23 13 11 13 2 114 38 9 13 23 25 1 9 31 23 23 23 13 384 587 33 89 417 676 315 505 30 74 345 679 4. Teaching and Investigating Station for Graphic Arts, in Vienna This institution teaches the most important methods of photography and other forms of reproduction used in printing and the illustration of books. Practical work in these lines of printing, photography, and other processes of illustrating is carried on in shops and laboratories. It includes the following departments: SUBJECTS TAUGHT Sections and Divisions Students Visitors Total I. Section. (School for photography and reproduc- tive processes), first course in connection with the technical course for lithography and stone etching, preparatory class, 2 years 194 125 819 II. Section. (School for making and illustrating books) 2 years 13 15 28 [285] VOCATIONAL EDUCATION Special courses, I. Sections : (o) Retouching for illustrative aims 15 ... 16 (6) In photographic printing and its artistic and industrial application 22 22 (c) In photographic apparatus and supplies 32 32 (d) In methods of enlarging photography 33 .. 33 Special course, II. Section: (o) In composition 18 18 (6) In sketching 41 41 Technical continuation school for apprentices in the trade of photography 70 70 Total 277 140 417 5. Technological Industrial Museum, in Vienna This museum was founded in 1879. It is perhaps one of the most complete and best equipped institutions for industrial education in Europe. The following table shows the departments and work of the school : SUBJECTS TAUGHT Sections and Teaching Divisions of the Institute. Students Visitora Total I. Section. Special course for the paper industry 7 2 9 II. Section. Seminary and special course for the chemistry of foods: (o) Seminary for chemistry of dyes 26 26 (6) For chemistry of foods 6 . . 6 III. Section. Technical school for building and machine locksmiths: (a) Lower technical school, 4 years 206 14 220 (b) Higher technical school, 2 years 48 2 50 (c) Special course for artillery masters, 2 years. . . 30 . . 30 ((^ Special course for chauffeurs 4 . . 4 («) Special course for firemen and stationary en- gineers 75 . . 75 IV. Section. Technical school for electrotechnology: (a) Lower technical school (preparatory class), 3 years 205 5 210 (6) Higher technical school, 2 years 43 4 47 Nineteen special courses with evening and Sunday instruction 467 . . 467 Nine special courses of the Gremial commercial school of the Vienna merchants 383 . . 383 Special teachers' course in industrial technique 38 . . 38 Total 1,538 27 1,565 6. Teaching and Investigating Station for the Leather Industry This was opened in Vienna in 1874. It attempts to carry out severe methods of scientific investigation in the [286] INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN AUSTRIA field of leather products, and to transfer the results gained into practice. It tests the usability and value of new materi- als and recipes used in the industry; it carries out all sorts of investigations at the request of the authorities, unions, or private individuals. It circulates the results of its in- vestigations by word and writing, and communicates advice and instruction to all persons in the leather industry. The instruction consists of both theoretical and practical courses. 7. School for Artistic Embroidery The school for artistic embroidery was erected in Vienna in 1874, for the purpose of training female art workers in embroidery. The school strives to furnish training in all branches of embroidery, to revive the old methods of art embroidery and to introduce new ones, and to promote the preparation of more artistic patterns. The training of the taste is secured by connecting art embroidery with the study of art in general. The course is five years in length. Those who complete it are prepared to work and teach artistic embroidery in other schools. A course has recently been added for the restoration of carpets and Gobelin tapestry. 8. Institutions for Women's Industries The central institution was opened in Vienna in 1879. It aims to train needle-workers, already possessing some skill in the use of the needle. The course has three divi- sions: for sewing, for pillow-lace making, and for embroi- dery, each lasting ten months. Connected with this central institution there are 37 associated institutions in the Empire for pillow-lace making with 10,726 students, 8 associated institutions for sewing with 881 students, and 6 other associated institutions for embroidery with 315 students, aflaiiated associations for crocheting with 3,270 pupils, 20 for pillow-lace making with 991 pupils, 3 for embroidery with 120 pupils, 113 courses in all. [287] VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 9. Model Teaching and Investigating Station fob Basket- Weaving This model workshop was erected in 1886 for the train- ing of basket-makers for efficiency. In the school they pro- duce patterns for the basket-making schools of the Empire. Connected with the school is a model willow garden, which serves as an instrument of instruction for the workmen in the school, and as a station for the investigation of materials. The central station is composed of a masters' school and a course of instruction for visitors. There are associated with it 3 technical schools for basket-makers, 5 appren- tices' work-shops, and 20 itinerant courses for basket- makers. These central institutions set the pace for Austria, and are, as a rule, schools of remarkable efficiency. The Bureau for apparatus and school supplies is especially interesting for two reasons: First, it undertakes to furnish all schools with the best apparatus available for their purpose and prevents their being exploited by fraudulent concerns. Second, the arrangements provide a market for the vast quantities of work done in the school shops, without getting the school into trouble with the industries. One of the difficulties of the ordinary school shop is that its products must be stowed away in spare rooms and treated merely as a curiosity. A student making articles for this purpose never has the feeling that he is producing something under commercial conditions, and the result is unfortunate from the standpoint of pedagogy as well as economy. The Austrian scheme utilizes this material in a very systematic way, and stimulates the very best kind of work on the part of the pupils and teachers who make the apparatus. As every piece must pass the inspection of experts, everyone will do his best, and the school workshop will become an efficient agent in industrial education. Similar attempts to utilize products of pupils' work are made in many German schools, but, on account of the lack of a central organiza- tion, the attempts are not so successful as in Austria. [288] INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN AUSTRIA State Industrial Schools These schools, like the "Technika" of South Germany, undertake to furnish secondary industrial education in the group of industries represented in any large section of the Empire, including some combination of the following groups of trades: building-trades, machine-trades, art-trades, tedi- nical-trades, electrical-trades, and chemical-trades. The school undertakes to cover the particular trades most in demand in the section where the school is located. There are twenty-three of these schools in Austria, located in the various capital cities. They always include, besides the above mentioned groups of trade schools, model continuation schools which have the advantage of the trained industrial teachers,^ and a technical school building and equipment. The State Industrial Schools, besides training youth for the industries, train teachers for the lower industrial schools of the section, and to some extent act as supervisors of the lower industrial school work. These State Industrial Schools are intended to serve the whole circle of industries of a district. Their entire apparatus, teaching personnel, and equipment, must be more comprehensive than those of an industrial technical school for a single branch of an industry. Such schools can only be founded where there is a great center of indus- tries related to each other. Such schools may be regarded as a combination of several technical schools for special industries, the name "State Industrial School" expressing an administrative, not a pedagogical, idea. The pedagogical centers of these schools are the technical schools of various industrial groups included in the school. There is a great advantage in combining these groups in one State school, as they may easQy use one building and much of the general equipment and organization will serve for all. The instruc- tion within the groups remains entirely separate. The individual technical schools within this State * These model continuation school:^ are ertreniely important in the Austrian scheme, as they demonstrate what a continuation school can and ought to do. [i89] VOCATIONAL EDUCATION Industrial School are divided into a higher and a lower group, depending upon both the preparatory training required and the general purpose of the school. 1. The higher technical department admits only pupils who have received a good elementary school educa- tion. The course is four years in length, and includes both theoretical and practical training. Students are urged to put in time during the vacations in actual work in the indus- tries, in addition to the laboratory and workshop instruction of the school. In the building-trades section the student must put in a semester in building operations between the first and second semesters of the third year of the course. The purpose of this school is to prepare pupils to fill prom- inent, responsible, well-paid positions in the great industrial undertakings, or to enable them to carry on the independent practice of an industry. The art-trades department trains workers in responsible positions of the art-trades and teach- ers for art-trade instruction. The building department trains future master-builders or contractors, etc.; the mechanical-technical department prepares manufacturers and managers of factories for their work; the technical department instructs leaders for the spinning and weaving establishments; the chemical-technical department attempts to educate managers and technical assistants in coloring, printing, and bleaching, as well as for the manufacture of sugar, glass, and chemicals generally. The course of instruction varies according to the aim of each department. During the holidays the pupils are given opportunity for practical work in the trade chosen by him. Practical instruction in the mechanical-technical department is provided in the mechanical workshops and laboratories, while the chemical department has both general laboratories and laboratories for special instruction. Under the new regulations places must be provided in the basement of the school or on the school grounds for practical work for'those in the building trades, in addition to their out- side work during their vacations. The students completing the four years' coiu-se in one of these departments receives the [290] INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN AUSTRIA MECHANICAL-TECHNICAL DEPARTMENT OF THE STATE INDUS- TRIAL SCHOOL. HIGHER DIVISION - „ Hours per Week SubjectB 1st lyLASa Winter Sem. Summer Sem. German 6 6 Geography 3 3 Physics 4 4 Chemistry 3 3 Mathematics (algebra and geometry) 7 7 Geometrical and projective drawing (2 hours lectures, 4 hours drawing) 6 6 Technical freehand drawing (2 hours lectures, 4 hours drawing) 6 6 Stenography (1.5) (1.6) ToUl 34(35.5) 34(35.5) 2d Class German 3 3 Greography and history 3 3 Physics 4 4 Chemistry 4 4 Mathematics (algebra and geometry) 10 6 Theory of projection (3 hours lectures, 4 hours drawing) 7 7 Elements of machinery (2 hours lecture, 4 hours draw- ing).. 6 6 Mechanical technology 3 Mechanics 4 4 Stenography (not obligatory) (1-6) (1-5) Total 41 (42.6) 40 (41 .6) 3d Class German 3 3 Geography and history 3 3 Chemical technology 2 2 Mathematics (algebra and geometry) 6 3 Mechanics 6 5 Machine building (6 hours lectures, 9 hours drawing) . . 14 14 Mechanical technology 3 4 Electrotechnology 2 2 Bookkeeping 2 2 Theory of building 2 2 Total 42 40 4th Class German 8 3 Geography and history 3 3 Medianics 5 3 Machine building, Ist division (4 hours lectures, 7 hours drawing) 11 11 Machine building, 2d division (4 hours lectures, 8 hours drawing) 12 12 Mechanical technology 4 4 Electrotechnology 4 4 First aid to the injured (not obligatory) (1) Total 42(43) 40 [291] VOCATIONAL EDUCATION BUILDING DEPARTMENT OF THE STATE INDUSTRIAL SCHOOL. HIGHER DIVISION Subjects of Instruction Number of Hours per Week 1st Sem. Yrs. 2 Yrs. 2nd Sem. IK Yrs. 2 Yrs. 3d Sem. 2 Yrs. 4th Sem. 114 Yrs. Ist- 4th Sem. School Year Language Geography and history Mathematics Physics Chemistry Geometrical and projective draw- ing, study of projection and perspective Freehand drawing Theory of materials Architecture Drafting and plan drawing Building forms and architecture . Theory of mechanics Theory of construction Theory of machinery Theory of road surveying Fundamental principles of build ing and hydraulics Business correspondence and bookkeeping Practical exercises in building in the school yard Sanitation ■+3 3g 12.5 12 14.5 7.6 4.5 10 18.5 1 13 27 8 6.5 3 1.5 2 Total. 39 39 39 39 39 39 39 39 156 coveted certificate granting the privilege of one year's voluntary military service. 2. The lower division of these schools, formerly called master-workmen or foremen's departments, includes usually two years of instruction, but in the case of the building- trades department three semesters only, one a preparatory course for those deficient in theory or practice. As has been pointed out, the master-workmen's school may cover the same technical departments as the higher technical school, but usually has only two, the building-trades and the mechanical-technical. The pupils are recruited from young persons who have already fully or partly learned the trade, and who seek to acquire the theoretical knowledge [292] INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN AUSTRIA SCHOOL FOR BUILDERS OF THE STATE INDUSTRIAL SCHOOL, FOREMEN'S DIVISION Subjects of Instruction Language and busi- ness correspond- ence Geography Arithmetic Geometry Natural science Technical drawing and study of pro- jection Freehand drawing. . . Study of materials and stone Architecture, tech- nique Plans and structure of buildings Drafting, technical drawing, plan drawing Building forms, ar- chitecture Theory of machinery. Theory of construc- tion Building mechanics . . Bookkeeping Civics Sanitation Theory of surveying . Practical exercises for masons. Workshop instruction for caipenters Workshop instruction and modeling for stonemasons. Fundamental prin- ciples of road-build- ing and hydraulics Total Optional Subjects Second language. . . Gymnastics Number of Hours per Week in Prepar- atory Course 10 8 40 2 2 1. Technical Course for Masons 10 Car- penters 46 2 2 Stone Masons 10 46 2 2 10 2. Technical Course for Masons 46 2 2 18 Car- penters 46 2 2 18 46 Stone Masons 18 10 46 [293] VOCATIONAL EDUCATION and skill necessary for the independent industrialist or master-workman. Applicants must have completed their sixteenth year, have completed the elementary school, and have put in at least two years in practice in the building or other trades. The course accordingly is extremely practical. The theoretical part is reduced to the minimum required for the intelligent practice of the trade. The master-work- men's school in connection with the art-trades, the me- chanical-engineering trades, and the chemical department has the use of special laboratories, the same as students in the higher department of the school. The teachers of the State industrial schools are partly per- sons trained in the technical universities or art-trades schools, and partly teachers from the ranks of the middle schools. The teachers are required to be in close touch with the indus- tries, and to take a definite interest in the industrial work of the district surrounding the school. They are usually employed during a portion of the year in practical work in the industries, the authorities believing that in this way the teachers can be kept up to date. Teachers are encour- aged to travel, and to engage in special study of the special industries. Technical Schools for Single Branches of Industry These technical schools serve to promote production in the individual industries prevailing in special localities. They are needed not only in the great industrial centers, but in small, out-of-the-way places, outside of the great current of the commerce of the world, where some definite industry has attained a very great importance. These schools are divided into six branches, as follows : 1. Technical schools for lace work and artistic embroi- dery; 2. Technical schools for weaving and embroidery; 3. Technical schools for the wood and stone industries; 4. Technical schools for fancy wares, ceramics, and the glass industry; [294] INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN AUSTRIA 5. Technical schools and investigating institutions for the metal industry; 6. Technical schools and investigating institutions for general purposes. A second problem of these schools consists in the revival and improvement of the house industries, which are still actively carried on in many regions of Austria, and offer a supplementary means of earning a livelihood. By keeping these industries in touch with modern demands, the iadustrial school confers an important service upon the community in which it is situated, and often enables the house industries to compete in the markets of the world. These special schools form centers of a local industry in a way not easily comprehended by an American. It is sometimes hard to believe the statements made with ref- erence to the practical assistance of one of these schools to the iadustries surrounding it. It took a practical demonstration of this fact at Gablonz in Austria and at Solingen in Germany to convince the author of the very close relations existing between such a school and the industries. The organization of these technical schools is very simple. Their main consideration is keeping in touch with the local industry, and supplying this industry with every possible aid through the applications of science and art. There are schools with one teacher and six pupils, and schools with twelve or more teachers and hundreds of pupils. Local conditions and the importance of the branches of production will determine the organization, which must be suited to conditions of production. One common character- istic can be observed in all these schools: they devote especial care and attention to the work in drawing. The duration of instruction varies from six months to four years. Applicants must usually have received an ele- mentary school education or its equivalent, and have com- pleted their fourteenth year. The final certificate of the best of these schools authorizes the persons leaving them to carry on the trade learned in the school without serving an appren- ticeship. The Minister of Public Works designates the [296] VOCATIONAL EDUCATION institutions whose certificate confers this privilege. The teachers of these schools are both pedagogically trained teachers and practical men from the industries. The practical men have usually taken the course in a State industrial school. The management of the school is usually entrusted to persons who have been trained at a tech- nical university. In many cases they are architects or engineers. Teachers in the art-trade subjects are for the most part selected from those who have been trained in the art-trades school connected with the Vienna Art- Trades Museum. The work-shops are under the charge of master-workmen who are often former students of the school itself or have been long employed in some great industrial establishment as foremen or master-workmen. Through these shops under this competent instruction the COURSE OF STUDY OF THE ART-TRADES SCHOOL EST GABLONZ. Subjects Ist Year Metal Work- ers Ceram- icWork- ers 2nd Year Divisions for Metal Work- ers Ceram- icWork- ers 3rd Year Metal Work- ers Ceram- ic Work- ers Freehand drawing Geometrical drawing and geometry . Descriptive geometry and light and shade Industrial-art technical drawing .... Decorative painting Decorative painting of flowers Modeling in clay and wax Forms ot ornaments Heraldry Lettering German and business correspond Industrial arithmetic and book- keeping Commercial geography Workshop instruction — Engraving of castings and emboss- ing of lead Engraving Trinkets Painting on glass, porcelain, and majolica 12 6 10 i 2 2 17 6 l\ 20 13-14 20 25 J^ 28 Weekly . 50 hours [296] 50 hours 50 hours INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN AUSTRIA •school attempts to offer a substitute for apprenticeship. Quite a number of schools seem to be fairly successful. General Handicrafts Schools The technical schools above mentioned take pupils after the completion of their fourteenth year, when the majority of the individuals from the industrial classes enter an industry or an advanced school. These advanced schools, industrial or otherwise, are open to only a small portion of the working people. The general handicrafts school takes pupils at the completion of their twelfth year, therefore, during the compulsory school age, and offers them an opportunity for industrial training preparatory to appren- ticeship. The training is not directed towards any one industry during the first year, but later the pupils are permitted to specialize. The school resembles the London pre-apprentice schools, and seemed to Dr. Kerschensteiner in 1900 destined to take an important place in any complete system of industrial schools. At the present time, however, the special school at Linz, described by Dr. Kerschensteiner, has been changed to a State Industrial School, and the ones at Tetschen and Klagenf ort have been changed into building and art-trades schools, including, however, the above men- tioned "handicrafts" department. Students completing the handicrafts school seemed to have been unable to secure any concession from their masters, but were required to put in the same amount of time in apprenticeship as those who had remained in the elementary school. As a result, these boys went into the great factories or, if circumstances per- mitted, went further in industrial school work. The only schools remaining in Austria" of this type are the Bohemian schools. All of the German schools have been changed into some other type of industrial school. The course in the general handicrafts school is from two to three years, continuing some of the elementary school subjects, but adding a number of technical subjects. Great attention is devoted to drawing with manual training work. The shops I saw were especially good. Usually [297] VOCATIONAL EDUCATION industrial continuation schools and open drawing halls are combined with the general handicrafts schools. Teachers are either technically trained or they are teachers from the elementary schools. The schools are regarded as expensive, and do not seem to have met with the approval of the employing class. They are especially interesting to Ameri- cans and Englishmen, as there is a strong tendency at present to turn the seventh and eighth grades into the sort of a school called by the Austrian "the general handicrafts school." The school I am most familiar with in Austria was an excellent one, and it was a great surprise to me to learn through the Director of the State Industrial School at Reichenberg the reason for modifying the experiment in Tetschen. GENERAL HANDICRAFTS DEPARTMENT IN SCHOOL IN TETSCHEN. Number of Hours Couraes of Study let Class 2nd Class Obmgatort Coubbe — Religion 1 1 Study of languages 4 Business correspondence and general industrial laws .... 3 Geography 2 1 Natural science 2 3 Study of materials 2 2 Industrial arithmetic 3 3 Industrial bookkeeping 1 Freehand drawing 6 4 Geometry 2 1 Geometrical and projective drawing 4 3 Technical drawing 6 Penmanship 1 Modeling . . 4 Workshop instruction 9 10 Total 36~ 88 Optionai. Coubse — Second language 3 3 Gymnastics ._ 2 2 Building and Art-Trades Schools This is practically the master- workmen's division of the State Industrial School with art-trade courses added. In the building trades they have, as in the State Industrial School, three semesters of work, including the preparatory year. In many schools they include special courses for masons, carpenters, cabinet-makers, blacksmiths, and house- [298] INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN AUSTRIA painters. In those that were formerly general handicrafts schools a department for boys under fourteen is included, with only two years of work. The building-trades depart- ment of the school, however, is the most prominent and important. Continuation school courses are added for apprentices in the building and art-trades. The school in Tetschen contains the following depart- ments: 1. Department for "general handicrafts" for boys under fourteen. 2. Building and art-trade courses for (a) Builders and painters (house). (6) Cabinet-makers and locksmiths. 3. Special courses for firemen and stationary engineers. 4. Special courses for electricians of lower grade. 5. Open drawing hall. 6. Industrial continuation school. Apprentice Workshops Austria has thirteen apprentice workshops, with 339 pupils. Ten of these apprentice workshops are in the Polish districts, and three in the German districts. These shops train apprentices in various trades, and entirely replace the usual apprenticeship to a master, usually during a term of three years. In Austria there are such shops for weav- ers, wagon-makers, blacksmiths, joiners, basket-makers, small iron industrialists, shoe-makers, and watch-makers. These shops are also found in Switzerland and Germany, but do not seem to be increasing in number or popularity. They are somewhat expensive, and usually are unpopular with the labor unions. They correspond roughly with what are commonly called "trade schools" in the United States. I found little or no interest in such institutions, with the possible exception of the ones at Bern and Winterthur in Switzerland, and the ones at Augsburg and Fiirth in Ger- many. None of these, however, seem to be making much progress so far as development in number of pupils and popularity is concerned. [899] VOCATIONAL EDUCATION Continuation Schools The continuation schools of Austria are very much like those of Germany. They are divided according to their purpose into two principal groups: A. General industrial continuation schools; B. Technical continuation schools. A. The general continuation schools take into consid- eration in their course of study the general industrial situa- tion of the place where they are located. They usually consist of two or three classes, with a preparatory class where such is necessary. The preparatory class attempts to give instruction in the elementary school subjects of reading, writing, and mathematics to pupils who are defect- ive in these branches. The instruction lasts from seven to eight months, and is given usually in the evening before eight o'clock and on Sunday forenoons. Efforts are now being made to transfer the instruction to the usual hours of work during the week. The Austrians find the same difficulty in educating tired and COURSE OF STUDY OF THE GENERAL INDUSTRIAL CONTIN- UATION SCHOOLS Number of Hours Per Week Subjects of Instruction Prepar- atory Class I. Claaa n. Class HI. 2 1 2 2(3) i 3(4,6) '2 2 4 (5. 6) 1 (1,5) 3 Penmansliip ^ Geometrical projection and freehand drawing 4 (5,6) Industrial arithmetic and industrial bookkeeping. . . . Theory of materials, and the like — (6) For bricklayers and stonemasons 3 Technology and theory of motors — (o) Technology for wood-working industry . . . ' (b) Technology for metal-working industry . . . (c) Theory of motors, the same for both groups Civics 3 1 [300] INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN AUSTRIA worn-out children as the Germans and others have experi- enced. B. Technical continuation schools provide apprentices and journeymen of special industries or groups of industries opportunity for further education. Commercial continua- tion schools may be counted as schools of this type. The best of these technical continuation schools are found united with the industrial day schools of the country. In the larger cities there are numerous other technical continua- tion schools of this type, but, taking the country as a whole, they constitute a very small minority. Of the 1,137 con- tinuation schools of Austria, 180 are reported as being technical continuation schools. This, however, appears to omit the technical classes united with the day industrial schools above mentioned. Many of these technical continua- tion schools have school workshops in connection with their other instruction. This, of course, is true of those combined with the industrial day schools. The tendency is strongly in favor of having shop instruction to supplement the instruc- tion obtained outside of the school. These continuation schools are supported largely by local authorities, but about one-third of their yearly ex- penditures are contributed by the State. The State mani- fests its interest in these schools in other ways : 1. By its support of the model continuation schools in the State day continuation schools; 2. By the production and supply of apparatus, men- tioned in connection with the Bureau of Apparatus and School Supplies; 3. By training teachers in courses given usually in State Industrial Schools. The trade regulations of the State oblige employers to provide for their employes, up to the completion of their eighteenth year, the time required for attendance at the continuation school. The master is required to watch over the morals and conduct of the apprentice, and to supervise his school attendance. Within certain limits, the schools may be called compulsory. [301] VOCATIONAL EDUCATION Below is a program of the technical continuation schools for apprentices : COURSE OF STUDY OF THE TECHNICAL CONTINUATION SCHOOL Technical Continuation Schools without Workshop Instruction Technical Continuation Schools with Workshop Instruction SubjeotB of Inatruction Number of Hours per Week Number of Hours Per Week 1 Special ClaBses 1 1 o i P* Special Classes 1 a 6 I II III I II III & 3 3 2 3 "s 2 2 4 2 1 1 4 2 3 3 6 1 13 6 9.4 9.4 18.8 3.1 40.6 18.7 3 3 2 2 3 3 2 2 2 3 2 3 1 1 3 2 3 3 3 6 1 11 6 10 7.5 Arithmetic 7.S Industrial-commercial instruction (business correspondence, arith- metic, calculation, bookkeeping) Civics Technical drawing .... Natural science, theory of machinery, me- chanical technology of the study of metals and motors Workshop instruction. . 15 2.6 27.5 15 25 Total 8 8 8 8 32 100 10 10 10 10 40 100 There are quite a number of continuation schools for girls in Austria. The Austrian report shows 1,055 industrial schools for women, with 32,968 pupils. A large portion of these are continuation schools. These schools give instruc- tion in housekeeping, as well as the various industries followed by women in Austria. They are mostly erected by private local authorities, but are given some assistance by the State. Conclusion My general impression of the Austrian continuation school is unfavorable. It does not seem to me to be as effi- cient as corresponding schools in Germany and Switzerland. There is one exception I must make to this statement. The technical continuation classes carried on in the State In- [302] INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN AUSTRIA dustrial Schools of Prague and Brunn were doing as fine work as I saw anywhere in Europe; in fact, they are model schools of this type, as they were intended to be. The "Vorschulen" (preparatory schools), mentioned above, exist in considerable numbers in the cities. They are made necessary quite largely by the influx of country youth who often speak another language than the one in common use. In 1900, there were 14,000 of such pupils in Vienna. Their knowledge of reading, writing, and mathe- matics was defective, and many of them were unable to speak German. Before doing satisfactory work in a general continuation school, it is necessary for these students to review carefully the elementary subjects. Teachers in the continuation schools of Austria, with the exception of those found in the industrial day schools, are usually elementary teachers. Some of these have received some special training for this work. As a rule, they are teachers whose main interest and employment are elsewhere. This is true even of the Directors. These two facts together constitute one of the most serious criticisms of the system. A further criticism is the apparent unwillingness of the Austrian employer to provide the apprentice with a mod- erate amount of daytime for his industrial education. The Ministry of Public Works is striving to secure a greater amount of day instruction; and in Vienna an enormous building, which will care for 10,000 apprentices, is being constructed for continuation school purposes alone. This, of course, will be used at all hours of the day. A final criticism is the one mentioned at the beginning of the chapter: the lack of intimate connection between the associations and guilds and the various industrial continuation schools con- ducted by the state. The students completing the State industrial schools are, of course, freed from the obligation of learning a trade in a master's shop. As has been stated, the same thing is true of a large number of the special schools for individual industries. Those completing the building-trades schools [S03] VOCATIONAL EDUCATION and art-trades schools have the same privilege. Those completing the apprentice shop instruction will be prepared for entrance into the industries. Graduates of the State Industrial Schools and many of the special government schools are, however, not likely to enter the ranks as skilled workmen. They will aspire to administrative positions. Statistics furnished in this report show that the great majority of the workmen obtain their training in the master's shop and the continuation school. The Austrian officials, however, insist that while the trades can not usually be taught in a school, in these days of specialization they can not usually be taught in the workshop alone. As one Austrian puts it, "Trades can not be taught in a school, but trades can not be taught without a school." This, I think, expresses their point of view. They point out that when an apprentice's education is confined to a workshop, there is danger of his following the conventions of the workshop, and of learning no theory, no drawing, nothing of the value of materials or of the ap- plicability of certain materials to certain work. By means of a skilful system of education, supplementing workshop practice, he is supplied with this information. He then has both the workshop practice for actual production of objects, and the school theory to provide him with industrial inteUi- gence. It is urged, further, that in the school which attempts to teach the whole trade, the apprentice is employed only as an apprentice, and his orderly systematic training is the only aim; here his training will be more systematic than can be possible in an ordinary workshop; here he will have an efficient teacher who will carefully supervise his work; and here he will be preserved from many of the moral dangers surrounding workshop apprenticeship. It is urged, on the other hand, that the business side of the industry — the intercourse with customers, the considera- tion of the needs of the trade, the habits of application and rapid work, the proper use of material, manual skill, and the careful consideration of the value of the product from a commercial point of view — can only be learned in appren- [ 304 ] INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN AUSTRIA ticeship. The Austrian authorities have carefully balanced the arguments on the two sides of the question, and take the position that apprenticeship in its present weakened form is not sufficient for the training of the apprentice, but that the school is not in a position to offer a complete substitute for the apprenticeship. Both the school and apprenticeship are required for the proper kind of industrial education. This means the further development of the technical con- tinuation school. [305] CHAPTER XX COMMERCIAL EDUCATION IN AUSTRIA INTBODUCTION AUSTRIA has developed a system of commercial /-\ schools, including: first, commercial continuation schools with a three years' course for commercial apprentices; second, a one year's commercial coiu"se for boys and girls; third, a commercial sdiool with a two years' commercial course for boys and girls; fourth, a commercial academy with a course of four years, including a two years' course for girls; fifth, a one year's course for graduates of the secondary schools; sixth, the Export Academy of the Imperial Austrian Commercial Museum, and the commer- cial colleges (Revoltella), at Trieste; seventh, lectures and courses for the training of candidates for positions as teachers in the higher commercial educational institutions. These dififerent types of commercial schools have been provided to care for the varying needs of persons engaged in special branches of commerce. The commercial instruc- tion undertakes to suit itself as closely as possible to the special conditions of the country or territory in which the school is located. It attempts to provide both a general foundation in the technique of commerce and also the skill demanded in special situations. The courses of study, therefore, are as various as the needs for which they provide. The more specializing there is in commerce, the greater is the need for special information, for commercial instruc- tion corresponding to the demands made upon the merchant. The Austrian commercial schools of all sorts are provided with libraries for teachers and pupils, and with collections for instruction in economic geography and knowledge of wares and the scientific subjects. In connection with the [306] n ■ nr > VIENNA COMMERCIAL ACADEMY COMMERCIAL EDUCATION IN AUSTRIA use of the collection practical exercises are introduced. Inspections of industrial and commercial plants, as well as excursions, form an important part of the ' training given. Every effort is made by means of these practical exercises to provide an instruction that will enable the student to make himself useful in the counting-room or shop at once. The subjects of instruction are much the same as those in the schools of Germany, and the course of study shown in connection with the special institutions described in this report will give an idea of their character. Development op Commercial Institutions in Austria The first commercial academy in Austria was founded in Vienna in 1770 by John George Wolf, formerly professor of mathematics in the University of Strassburg. The course at first was one year in length, but was quickly increased to two. The results were striking, and the school continued to exercise a great influence in Austria until the death of the founder in 1796. This success led to the introduction of commercial instruction in other institutions, and also to some opposition on the part of the clericals, who generally controlled the secondary schools. In 1804, the commercial academy was changed into a Realschule. In the new charter it was provided that the director must be a clergyman. The school became a general educational institution, includ- ing a commercial department — much like other Real- schulen which included an industrial department. Like other institutions having a dual aim, its career as a commer- cial school was not as successful as was expected. The experience of both Germany and Austria in such institutions with dual aims has been rather discouraging. During the first half of the nineteenth century, a large number of private commercial schools arose and commercial continuation schools were established by commercial organ- izations in the larger cities of Austria. Many of these are [307] VOCATIONAL EDUCATION still in existence, although they are now under State in- spection, and receive considerable assistance from State funds. During the years following the death of Wolf, many of the commercial classes of Austria sent their sons abroad for preparation in commercial lines. After the founding of the Commercial Institute in Leipsic, many of them attended this school. About the middle of the century, the protest against this practice led to the founding of a number of commercial academies; the first one being in Prague in 1856, the second in Vienna in 1857, the third in Gratz in 1863. It is interesting to note that the one in Prague was founded by one of the pupils of Shiebe, the first director of the Com- mercial Institute of Leipsic. It is also interesting to note that he was a Strasburg man. These three academies could hardly be classed as general public schools, as they were founded by the people interested for special purposes. No two of them were alike in their plans of work. They are all still in existence; the one in Vienna occupying a magnificent building, and having a large attendance. Increasing demands led later to the founding of the Export Academy in Vienna, which may be compared with the commercial colleges of Germany, although neither this school nor the one in Trieste is, strictly speaking, a commercial college. In 1905, a new commercial academy was founded in Vienna by the Commercial Club of that city, an organiza- tion which dates back to 1870. In an address given in March, 1908, at the opening of the school in its new building, Herr Popper, President of the Board of Trustees and Vice-President of the Commercial Club, made the following statement: "Our Club counts it a privilege and a duty to devote itself to the spreading of education among those in business. It has concentrated upon giving opportunity for technical and general instruc- tion. Three decades ago we began establishing special courses offering to people in business the opportunity to [308] COMMERCIAL EDUCATION IN AUSTRIA extend their knowledge. Over 30,000 students have taken part in these courses. "In 1894, we founded the two-year course in commerce. As this school was a decided success, we thought it time to found a more advanced school. "For a number of years, the public of our native city has demanded a second commercial academy, established and supported by the Government. We did not believe that we should — or could — wait for that. "In the year 1905, we founded the new Vienna Academy of Commerce, and the large attendance has forced us to construct this building which we open to-day." Educational Institutions op the Vienna Commercial Club In 1910, the following courses were offered by the Academy: 1. Two-year general course, including the prepar- atory course; very rapid and practical. 2. The Commercial Academy proper. Four years' course. Takes students who have finished four years of a Gjmmasium, Realgymnasium, or Realschule, or three years of a Burgerschule. This means that pupils must have completed a course of eight years in the elemen- tary schocd. Gives a well-rounded commercial technical training and general education. 3. Graduate course. One year. Fits graduates of Gymnasium, Realgymnasium, or Realschulen to enter industrial or mercantile careers. It gives those intend- ing to be lawyers or engineers a deeper insight into trade and manufacturing. 4. Two-years commercial course for girls. Fits capable girls for office work, thorough education in commercial branches, German, French, English, geog- raphy, and stenography. Requires three years of Biirgerschule. 5. One-year special course for girls and women. [309] VOCATIONAL EDUCATION Makes students competent to look after the books, correspondence, and oflBce work. Takes students who have finished their compulsory education. 6. Course for students who have. the certificate of one year's voluntary military service or who have com- pleted six years of a secondary school. 7. Special course in bookkeeping, commercial arith- metic, business correspondence, French, English, Italian, Hungarian, Slavic languages, stenography, penmanship, railroads, tariff, etc. 8. Course in commercial technique. One year. 9. Technical course in commerce for graduates of girls' lyceums. One year. Forenoons only. Fits to enter mercantile or manufactiu-ing business by an extensive survey of the field of trade. The subjects in the course of study of the new Vienna Commercial Academy, which are by no means common in our country, are: 1. Political arithmetic, the calculation of armuities of all sorts, interest on investments, discounts, the mathematics of state lotteries, expectation of life, probabilities, insurance of capital, reversions, widows' pensions, insurance calculations. 2. Study of zoology, mineralogy, and botany from the point of view of products. 3. Study of raw materials, partly finished, and finished products. Chemical and mechanical processes in manufacture. Metals, abrasive materials, ornamental stones. Flours, starches, sugar, drugs, rubber, dyes, leathers, paper. 4. Means of business. Study in detail of systems of transportation and communication. Banking, exchange, clearing, etc. Fairs, markets, auctions, warehousing, chambers of commerce, mercantile associations, treaties, consuls, etc. This school was founded in 1905. Attendance has steadily increased, as follows: 1906, 466; (New building, 1908); 1909, 1,014; 1910, 1,181. [310] COMMERCIAL EDUCATION IN AUSTRIA Inspection of the list of graduates shows that the boys are either with commercial houses or in the army. Of the girls, a fair proportion are listed as "at home." Students come from other places to attend this school, though Vienna furnishes most in the four-year course. PROGRAM OF FIRST COURSE OFFERED BY THE ACADEMY — PREPARATORY YEAR Number of Hours Pretiar CoMPULSOBT Studies Religion Languages Arithmetic Commercial correspondence and office work Bookkeeping Commerce and exchange Geography Natural lustory Nattiral science Study of wares Penmanship Stenography French or English Optionai. Subjects Gymnastics Typewriting SECOND COURSE OFFERED- CoupuLSOBT Studies German language French language and correspondence English language and correspondence Commerce and commercial geography General and commercial history Mathematics — (a) Algebra and political arithmetic (6) Geometry (c) Commercial arithmetic Natural history Physics Chemistry and chemical technology Study of wares and mechanical technology . Science of commerce Commercial correspondence Bookkeeping Counting-room work Calculation of exchange Commercial and industrial arithmetic Political economy Penmanship Stenography ' Preparatory I II Class Class Class 2 5 4 3 5 i 3 3 3 4 4 4 i 3 3 8 5 4 S 3 3 3 2 6 1 2 6 27 34 34 2 2 2 2 RAL COURSE I II TTI IV Class Class Class Class 4 3 3 2 4 4 4 4 4 5 5 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 3 4 2 2 2 g 2 2 2 3 2 2 3 i 4 6 2 2 2 2 2 2 [311] 32 32 32 32 VOCATIONAL EDUCATION Optional Subjects Italian and correspondence 3 3 3 Exercises in analytical chemistry i i Practical exercises in the study of wares 2 2 Gymnastics 2 2 2 2 Typewriting 2 THIRD COURSE OFFERED — GRADUATE COURSE FOR BOYS IN THE ACADEMY CoMPULSOBT Studies Hours Commercial arithmetic 4 OflSce work and correspondence 2 Bookkeeping and counting-room work 4 Commerce and theory of exchange 3 Commercial geography and statistics 2 Political economy 3 The important industries 2 Political arithmetic 2 22 Optional Studies French, English, stenography, penmanship FOURTH COURSE OFFERED — TWO YEARS COMMERCIAL COURSE FOR GIRLS Number of Hours CoMPULBOBT Studies I Clasa II Class German 2 2 French or English 6 6 Commercial arithmetic 4 3 Commerce and theory of exchange, first semester 3 2 Single-entry bookkeeping, second semester 3 Double-entry bookkeeping 4 Correspondence and oflSce work 3 2 Commercial geography 2 2 Stenography 2 2 Penmanship 2 1 24 24 Optional Studies Gymnastics 2 2 Typewriting 2 SIXTH COURSE OFFERED — COURSE FOR BOTH SEXES CoMPULSOBT Studies Hours Commercial arithmetic 5 Correspondence and ofiSce work 2 Bookkeeping . , 5 Commerce and theory of exchange 3 Commerce, exchange, and industrial arithmetic 2 Civics 1 Commercial geography and statistics 2 Study of wares 2 22 Optional Studies Stenography 2 24 [3121 COMMEECIAL EDUCATION IN AUSTRIA SEVENTH COURSE OFFERED CoMPuiiSORT Studies Houra Gennan jj Commercial arithmetic 4 Commerce and theory of exchange 1 Bookkeeping 4 Correspondence and oflSce work i Commercial geography 2 Stenography 2 Penmanship 2 19 OpnoNAi Studies French 8 English ! 3 Gymnastics 2 Typewriting 2 NINTH COURSE OFFERED — COURSE FOR GRADUATES OF LYCEUM FOR GIRLS CoMPUiiSOST Studies Hours Commercial arithmetic 5 Correspondence and office work 8 Bookkeeping 5 Commerce and theory of exchange 2 Commerce, exchange, and industrial arithmetic 2 Commercial geography and statistics 2 Study of wares 2 Political economy 2 Civics 1 24 Ofxionai. Studies Stenography i Penmanship 2 Typewriting i 30 313] CHAPTER XXI INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN SWITZERLAND IT is not an easy task to compress into a brief article a sketch of the Swiss educational system, industrial or otherwise. Education is a matter for the cantons, and there are twenty-five of these in Switzerland; some of them German, some of them French, some of them Italian; some of them Catholic, some of them Protestant; some of them country districts, some of them towns; some whose main interest is dairying and agriculture, some watch-making, and some caring for the tourists. Each one of these small divisions acts in accordance with its ideals and with its interests. The result is a situation not easily understood by the stranger. One thing, however, is noticeable. Great attention is paid in most of the cantons to the pubhc school system, and in later years to the industrial school system. In Switzerland the masses decide almost every law by ballot. The adequate education of the masses is therefore a most urgent question. This feeling is made evident by the length of the compulsory period of education, some of the cantons having as many as nine years of compulsory instruction. The Swiss also show their esteem for education by the compulsory preliminary courses for army recruits. Every raw recruit — unless he can show evidence of education beyond that given in the elementary school — must take a compulsory preliminary course, concluding with an examination. These examinations have produced a rivalry among the cantons that has greatly stimulated the development of supplementary and con- tinuation schools. As has been stated, several of the cantons require at- tendance until the pupils are in their sixteenth year. The school year is usually forty weeks long, with thirty-one [3U] INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN SWITZERLAND periods of instruction per week in the upper grades, and twenty-six periods in the lower. In cantons with shorter compulsory periods in the elementary school we usually find compulsory supplementary courses which generally demand fewer hours per week. Manual training for both boys and girls is found almost everywhere in the elementary schools. In a survey of Swiss education. Dr. Kerschen- steiner declares that there are four things of great signifi- cance for vocational training in the Swiss elementary schools: 1. While elementary education in the best cantons is not greater in quantity than that given in most German States, it keeps a hold on the youth from the thirteenth to the fifteenth year, when training in character begins to follow definite lines. 2. In this way, the beginning of apprenticeship is postponed, and the boy is protected, until he reaches years of discretion, from the influences of bad company and the rougher sorts of laboring men. 3. In many cantons the higher classes of the elemen- tary school, or of the finishing school supplementing the elementary school, have a vocational character. 4. Not only has maturity of body and mind become greater during this lengthened school period, but training of the hand has been given by the Swiss schools during the entire course of instruction. There are what they call "Froebel classes" for pupils in the lower primary grades. In many of the normal schools of the country, instruction in manual training is compulsory. In some of the rural secondary schools you will find systematic instruction in agricidture (gardening), as well as manual training. All cantons, without exception, have continuation schools. These continuation schools are usually winter courses with three to six periods a week. They teach languages, arithmetic, writing, and national history. These continuation schools bear different names in different cantons; such as evening review schools, pre- liminary courses for recruits, supplementary schools, etc. [315] VOCATIONAL EPUCATION The continuation schools are compulsory in cantons 'with shorter periods of compulsory education. The tables at the end of this chapter will show the situation in 1908. . Many of the secondary schools have the ordinary academic, technical, and commercial departments. These schools seem to be similar in character to the schools described in Germany as "Realschulen." Every school- master is inclined to emphasize the importance of carrying on all these lines of educational work under one general management. The disadvantages appear when the scheme is put in operation. In Switzerland you find all these lines jumbled together. In the vocational schools you find no trace of the wonderfully simple organization of the cor- responding Austrian schools. If you know one school of a certain type in Austria, you know the rest; this is not the case in Switzerland. Aside from the great polytechnic in Zurich, the higher technical schools are the so-called "Technika," of which there are three — at Winterthur, Burgdorf, and Biel. The author visited the ones in Winterthur and Biel. They are very much like the schools teaching the same subjects in Germany, and include quite a number of industrial schools under one director. In Biel, there is a clock-making institution with a three years' course; a course for electrical and mechanical engineers with a seven years' course; one for fine mechanics' work with a three years' course; a school of engraving with a four years' course; a school of architecture with a three years' course; and a school of railroading with a two years' course. Some of the departments have con- siderable shopwork; some very little. The school is a good one in every respect. There are a number of art-trades schools which are doing excellent work. The one at Zurich has taken upon itself the shop and drawing instruction of apprentices in the art trades, the apprentices receiving their instruction in languages, mathematics, and other subjects in the ordinary evening continuation school. While the instruction in [316] INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN SWITZERLAND shopwork and drawing is excellent, the separation of the other instruction from the vocational work and putting it in the hands of other school agencies seems unfortunate. The continuation schools for apprentices were inferior as a whole to those in Germany. There is little practical shop instruction, except in the case of the art-trades apprentices, and in this case the practical instruction is separated from the academic work. The number of hours is not very great, and too large a proportion of the work is done in the evening under unfavorable circumstances. There is nothing of distinctive value in the Swiss continuation school system for one who is familiar with the German system. The Swiss, however, oflFer a large number of trade and vocational schools which can not be classified, but which are worth seeing. The schools in different cantons vary widely in their efficiency. They differ in the opportunities they offer to teachers. The salaries of teachers in some of the cantons are extremely low; so low that the teacher is com- pelled to gain a good part of his livelihood in some other occupation — perhaps as waiter in one of the big hotels in summer. Apprentice School at Bern One of the most interesting industrial schools in Switzer- land is the apprentice school at Bern. Dr. Kerschensteiner calls attention to this school in his report on the Swiss schools, written in 1900. He in turn had been directed to the school by an article in the Bavarian Journal of Art and Industry in 1898. The writer is indebted to this report for many of the details connected with the management of this school. Dr. Kerschensteiner states that the unsatisfactory results of the instruction given by master-workmen to their appren- tices, and the lack of really skilled artisans, led Architect Tieche to start a vigorous campaign for the establishment of an apprentice shop in Bern. He was at that time chairman of the committee on apprentice shops, government expert, [817] VOCATIONAL EDUCATION and inspector of the industrial schools in French Switzer- land. As a result of his agitation, the council of Bern established an apprentice shop for cabinet-makers and shoe- makers in some old barracks in the town. The prospects of success at first were very scanty. The masters disliked the shop; the shoemakers feared its competition; the quality of the students was poor. They were untrained and poorly prepared in every way. Things took a turn for the better in 1891, when the first students graduating from the apprentice shops were exam- ined by a committee of experts. Gradually a better class of students entered the shops. Entrance examinations were required. The best could be taken, and the defective rejected. In 1894, two new divisions were opened, one for mechanical engineers and one for tinners and plimibers. In December, 1910, arrangements were being made for adding another department, for tailors. In 1895, the institution was moved into a new building, which had originally been built as a blind asylum. This building had many well-lighted rooms and excellent sanitary equipment. The school rapidly developed under these new conditions. At the National Exhibition in Geneva, 1906, the institution received much praise on account of its exhibit; and many doubted whether the work was really done by mere students. As a result, the officials of the Swiss Trade Unions were asked to have the cabinet- makers' apprentices thoroughly examined by experts. This was done. One of the best cabinet-makers was delegated to conduct the examination, which lasted three days. The report of the expert was : "Everywhere I found everything systematic, and ob- served the diligence with which the boys worked; . . . everything is done as prescribed, and by the students them- selves, so that I say to every artisan: 'if you go to Bern, visit the apprentice shops there; no one will ever regret having done so.' I wish that the number of poor fellows having to learn a trade under poor conditions had the good fortune to be in an apprentice shop such as these." [318] INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN SWITZERLAND Description op the Classes Each of the four divisions has an expert leader, who supervises the shopwork, distributes the drawings, manages the departments, purchases the materials, and sells the products. In the shoemaking and sheet metal work instruc- tion is also given in shops. Two of the ablest leaders were German; one had been trained in Stuttgart, and the other in the school at Karlsruhe. The shop teachers are master mechanics. The director of the school is a commercially- trained man; he gives instruction in technical arithmetic and bookkeeping, and manages the business side of the school, which is by no means an unimportant feature. The boys must produce articles of commercial value from the first. The cabinet-making and shoemaking departments fill private orders almost exclusively; the other departments work partly for employers. The director told the writer that they managed to pay about half of the expenses of the school by the sale of the work of the students. When the writer visited the school, the plumbing department was in Grundewald, executing a contract there. The school has a boarding hall, wtih thirty-six boarders. The instruction covers fifty-seven hours a week, from seven a. m. to six p. m., with a mid-day rest of one and a half hours. Forty-seven periods are devoted to shop, seven to drawing, and three to arithmetic, with industrial book- keeping. This seems like an enormous amount of shop- work, but the proportion corresponds favorably with the proportion seen in places where the instruction of the appren- tices is divided between the masters' shops and the con- tinuation school. The boy gets ten hours a week of instruc- tion to supplement the forty-seven in the shop. He receives, after a little preparatory interval, a small remuneration for the work he executes. It is claimed that the boys leaving Bern's apprentice shops are less speedy than those who have been trained in the actual industry, but that they are much more versatile and eventually make better workmen. Only in the theoretical branches are the students divided [319] VOCATIONAL EDUCATION into grades. In the shop each division contains students from each of the three years, with a master. This stimulates competition, enables the young to learn from the older, and reproduces the conditions of real shop life. The course is finished in three, or at the most in four, years, when the students passing an examination are given a diploma. The instruction in arithmetic and bookkeeping begins with simple industrial accounts, and this with practical examples forms the main work of the first year; in the second year cost-estimates are studied with immediate reference to the purchase of materials used in the four trades repre- sented in the school. Later, considerable emphasis is given to estimates of cost of production for which an extremely practical foundation is provided in the shop drawings. Every student has a blue print of these, from which he makes his estimates, which he may keep and incorporate in his portfolios for future reference. Bidding, carried on in a practical way, constitutes an important exercise. A com- plete sectional plan of a buildiag is placed in the students' hands. The teacher writes out the specifications for the competition among the students, who have to submit bids. In the third year, accounting is dealt with very carefully. Calculation of surfaces and volumes is studied. Dr. Kerschensteiner's account of the work in drawing of the cabinet-makers will be of interest. "The course begins in the first year with projection of right angles, pyramids, simple profiles, cones, elevations, and shoulder pieces. These exercises are taken up in geometric as well as in isometric projection from fine models, upon the backs' of which the geometric projection was sketched when- ever possible to help the student to a quicker understanding of it. Applications to consoles, pilasters, piUars, columns, and diagonal panels were given with every theoretical exer- cise. Combined with these more introductory exercises was the immediate undertaking in the shop of the practice work, which the proficient had prepared in the meantime, or were on the point of getting ready: kitchen chairs, corner pieces for glass doors, tabourets, kitchen tables, door corner [320] INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN SWITZERLAND pieces, estimates for doors. Exercises in freehand drawing run through the year. "The same procedure is followed in the second year. Whatever is made in the shop is first drawn on the scale of one to five, then detailed full size; washstands, bedsteads, wardrobes — in short, the simpler articles of furniture. From the individual drawing, details were immediately drawn off full size, finished, and intelligently put together for a draw- ing of an article of furniture. This drawing was sketched one-fifth size and the teacher made blue prints of it. After the blue print and the detail drawings, the work was executed by the student in the shop. Freehand drawing taken at the same time has to do with cabinet-making. Toward the end of the year wood-mosaics after studies of nature are made by the better students. "Not till the third year does the sketching of furniture become most important. Special sketching portfolios are kept for this purpose. Also light and shade (but only after models, as is also right for this school) and the forms of architecture are taught, not to every student, but only to the more gifted. The sketching of furniture in free perspect- ive was not a task that the boys enjoyed, as it seemed, for the portfolios were not very full. At any rate, I observed (master and teacher confirmed it) that the boys come to all the freehand work with but little pleasure. This dislike increases in passing from cabinet-makers to lock- smiths, from these to the plumbers, and reaches a climax with the shoemakers. "The drawing courses of the other departments are similar in character. Four big rooms — among them three large halls in the main building — fifty meters long alto- gether, are used for cabinet-making. The fourth room in an adjoining building is equipped with four horse-power gas engines and with power and speed-lathes. When I was there the first year boys were busy with tasks in sawing, chiseling, putting on zinc, and planing pine. I also saw this last work done by older boys, though with hardwood, since almost all the training is in this material, to give the [321] VOCATIONAL EDUCATION desired accuracy and skill. In the first year the boys are allowed to make foot-stools, tabourets, etc., along with their other tasks, for the satisfaction of it. By the end of the first year the boys are supposed to be able to make little pine tables without help. Older boys were busy making oak beds, and a larger group of boys were working on an interior in Tyrolese Gothic. Some boys skilled in drawing had decorative tasks to execute — burnt wood and mo- saics, the latter in part after their own designs, partly after the designs of the well-known mosaic firm, Spindlers of Stuttgart. Model clockcases for the clock trade were being made on an order from the Bern Museum of Industry. The designs for all work that I saw were those of the head of the department." Dr. Kerschensteiner had unusual opportunities for examining the question of the efifect of seUing articles produced in the shop. This is a burning question wherever there are apprentice shops — at Augsburg, Fiirth, Winter- thur, and some Austrian schools. On the one hand, there are pedagogical and economical advantages in producing directly for the trade; on the other hand, this seems to produce unfair competition which is complained of by the workmen. I will submit Dr. Kerschensteiner's discussion of this question, with the purpose of giving the European point of view: " Goods are sold from the shops. That is the purpose of the work, and the income thus secured is a considerable item in the budget. There is a large number of apprentice schools that refuse to sell goods, and confine themselves solely to making single parts. The question of which poUcy to pursue must be looked at from various points of view — from the pedagogical and the financial, for this institution as well as for the other industrial schools of the country, and from the economic point of view of the men in the trades, as well as of the laborers who have settled in the town where the apprentice school is located. As for the pedagogical side, one will readily admit that shops which are to teach a trade thoroughly cannot get along without making finished [322] INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN SWITZERLAND articles. If the apprentice seeks work after graduation as a journeymen, he must be competent, and it does not help his employer if he must first learn to combine parts accurate- ly. It is in this very assembling that there is the best train- ing in accurate work. Only the completed work shows whether the proportions are tasteful and harmonious; an article of furniture, though well thought out in detail, may give a bad impression as a whole. Above all, one should not overlook the great educational effect on the apprentice of preparing real things to be used, and not things about which they know from the start that they will be stored for eternity in garrets and lumber-rooms. To be sure, in most countries the apprentice shops which make parts and not the completed articles dispose of their product in an easy way to the continuation schools, which they thus equip gradually with excellent models for special drawings, and in such schools there results a cumul^-tive beneficial effect, for the poverty of our continuation schools in such models is lamentable. But in this particular, the time will come when this need will be satisfied. The financial side in relation to the school fully justifies the sale of prod- ucts, for the apprentice schools cannot help being expensive. If such useful, nay even indispensable, schools can support themselves, even to a small extent, the establishment of others will be easier, especially in Germany, where a begin- ning is yet to be made. "The answer now seems different when we view the gen- eral economic side; for the question immediately rises wheth- er there is much competition with the masters. In reality, the fear of this competition everywhere was one of the reasons why the masters at first opposed apprentice schools. In case apprentice schools in the same trade should be started in a larger town, such as Bern, in great numbers, this fear might not prove groundless^ But such an occurrence is impossible from the very nature of the case. For, as I think, apprentice shops ought not to exist to displace masters altogether, but to educate further a small but pre- eminently competent part of the workmen and especially [323] VOCATIONAL EDUCATION to attract intelligent children of the better families back to the handicrafts again. And this latter will be all the surer to happen if there is at hand an apprentice shop to which a child can be entrusted with assurance against moral dangers and confidence of receiving a fundamental, comprehensive training. Apprentice shops in the larger towns are in a position to exclude all incompetent elements and they would hinder their own progress if they were compelled to give up this policy by reason of there being too many of them, or if by crowding the trades they put the individual to too hard a test in the struggle for existence. So I recom- mend that only a few — perhaps one for each trade — be established in a town. In the case of Bern, experience has COMPULSORY ATTENDANCE AT AN ELEMENTARY SCHOOL (WITH- OUT OBLIGATORY CONTINUATION SCHOOL) Cantons Zurich Bern Lucerne Uri Schwyz Obwalden Nidwalden Glarus Zug Freiburg Solothum Basel City Basel Province. . SchaShausen Appenzell A. Rh Appenzell I. Rh. St. Gall GraubUnden . . . . Aargau Thurgau Tessin Waadt Wallis Neuenburg Geneva Beginning of School May May May Oct. May May May May May May May May. May April May May May Oct. May April Oct. April Oct. May Sept. Minimum Age on Entering School 6 6^ 6 en 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6^ 6% 7 Number of School Years All-Day School 8 8-9 6 6-7 7 6-7 7 7 7 (8)9 (7)8 8 6 8 7 7 7 8 8 (8)9 8 8 or 9 8 8 6 Supple- mentary School Minimum Age at Leaving the All-Day School 3 Oorl 2 (3) 2 14 14^ 12M 13 isH 13 13H iuyi) 153^ (13M) 14Ji 14 12 14 13 13M 13 (14) 15 14 UH 14 IS Minimum Age at Leavine the Supple- mentary School 14?i 15 is 15 15 15 is 15 [324] INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN SWITZERLAND shown that there is no real competition and that the mas- ters are at present friendly to the school. They have some of their orders filled by the school. Even the workingmen, except the journeymen tinners, unanimously pronounced for the school in a Socialist gathering which was held when I was in Bern, and took up the question of apprentice schools. One must assume that the school does not do work at a lower price than the masters and so fix its own wages and prices. The net profits, so useful to the school, are trifling for the individual masters of industry in a big town. At the very most, the proceeds from products of the appren- tice school might be used for the guild of the proper trade or for a co-operative store for the same purpose." The writer visited similar apprentice shops at Augsburg, THE ORGANIZATION OF THE GENERAL CONTINUATION SCHOOLS AND THE PREPARATORY COURSE FOR RECRUITS. Continuation Schools Pupil Recruits' Preparatory Course Cantons Obliga- tory or Volun- tary No. of Years or Winter Courses Minimum No. of Hours per Course Obliga- tory or Volun- tary Number of Courses and Hours Zurich Vol. ObU. obii. Vol. Vol.' Obli. Obli. ObU. Vol. Obli. Obli. ObU. ObU. Obli. ObU. ObU. ObU. ObU. ObU. ObU. ObU. Vol. 1-3 2 3 2 3 3 2 2 »-3 3 2-3 2-3 3 3 3-4 3-4 4 2 60 40 about 80 about 60 70 80 about 70 about 60 60 80 80 90 80 50-60 60 60 120 64 from 16 on 15-18 16-19 from 14 on 17-19 16-19 15-18 17-18 17-18 16-18 15-16 16-19 16-18 16-19 16-18 15-18 15-19 15-19 17-18 Vol.' ObU. ObU. ObU. ObU. ObU. Obli. ObU. ObU. Vol. Vol. Obli. Obli. ObU. ObU. ObU. Obli. Bern Lucerne Uri 2 C. of 40 hrs. 1 C. of 20 hrs. 2 C. of 40 hrs. Obwalden Nidwalden Glarus 1 C. of 40 hrs. 1 C. of 90 hrs. Zue 3 days about 20 hrs. Solothum Basel City Basel Province Schaffhausen 1 C. of 36 hrs. 12 hours Appenzell A. Rh . . . Appenzell I. Rh . . . St. Gall.. 80 Thurgau Tessin 12 D. of 4 hrs. Waadt WaUis Neuenburg Geneva 24 hours 50 hours 24 hours 36 hours [325 ] VOCATIONAL EDUCATION FUrth (Germany), and Winterthur (Switzerland). These are much alike, usually turning out good work from the mechanical point of view, having the same sort of difficul- ties, and apparently at a standstill, so far as growth and development are concerned. Everywhere the question of sale of products makes trouble. Everywhere the school authorities insist this is an essential part of the scheme. Such institutions alone do not seem to offer a practicable solution of this problem of industrial education. A. GENERAL CONTINUATION SCHOOLS AND PEEPAEATOEY SCHOOLS FOE EECRUITS General Continuation Schools Prep. School for Recruits Cantons Obligatory Voluntary ObUgafy Volunt'ty 1 1 ■a b 1 1 1 3 1 1 s ■a & 6 f 73 1094 1094 Bern 560 8959 8959 Lucerne 1784 117 798 148 100 Uri 26 374 374 Obwaiden N^idwalden Glarus 18 249 249 Zug 23 301 101 272 3948 2065 272 3948 2065 246 1081 Preiburff 103 4 65 700 Basel Citv 1 219 565 774 78 Basel Province 71 36 82 15 92 20 229 135 156 421 203 1196 284 771 342 1485 225 4657 2516 2810 6010 3208 94 1196 284 771 342 1579 226 4657 2516 2810 6010 3208 502 Schaffhausen . . . Appenzell A. Eh .... Appenzell I. Eh St Gall 139 3 728 26 1221 1949 26 Thurgau Tessin 619 955 993 1100 377 Waadt 202 Wallis 3 290 685 150 280 440 865 72 Geneva 1908 2470 38122 94 38216 237 3190 2206 5396 274 8318 172 1280 [326] INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN SWITZERLAND B. INDUSTRIAL CONTINUATION CONTINUATION SCHOOLS Cantons Zurich Bern Lucerne Uri Schwyz Obwidden Nidwalden Glarus Zug Freiburg Solothum Basel city Basel Province Schaffhausen Appenzell A. Rh Appenzell I. Rh St.GaU Graubttnden Aargau ThuTgau Tessin Waadt Wallis Neuenburg Geneva SCHOOLS. INCLUDING FOR DRAWING 1908 C. Cantons Zurich Bern Lucerne Dri Schwyz Obwalden Nidwalden Glarus Zug Freiburg Solothum Basel City. Basel Province Schaffhausen Appenzell A. Rh . . . Appenzell I. Rh St. Gall GraubUnden Aargau Thurgau , Tessin Waadt Wallis Neuenburg Geneva Schools Boys Girls Total 38 4,670 2,006 6,676 fil 2,657 372 3,029 7 654 52 706 1 70 33 103 14 486 259 745 4 36 27 63 3 361 361 8 417 417 5 189 65 254 12 560 560 17 1,006 1,005 see industrial schools 7 386 2 388 6 537 8 545 12 861 361 3 30 30 32 3,141 8,141 10 665 gi 756 20 ' 1,593 1,598 IS 496 496 25 984 984 26 7 4 220 80 300 1 366 19,884 1,834 4,829 2,200 328 24,713 [AL CONTINUATION SCHOOLS Schools Boys Girls Total 9 1,642 72 1,714 15 748 326 1.069 3 473 130 603 1 1 2 3 2 1 1 2 13 3 8 7 4 12 2 4 1 1908 95 [327] 10 68 45 57 132 814 48 138 439 2,482 167 541 341 327 1,484 116 649 375 10,981 10 18 6 6 49 487 144 is 145 675 29 77 108 2,196 10 68 65 75 132 820 64 187 439 2.969 301 641 854 472 2,069 145 626 483 13,176 VOCATIONAL EDUCATION D. AGRICULTDIIAL CONTINUATION SCHOOLS Cantons Lucerne. . . Nidwalden . Solothum. . Tessin Geneva Schools 2 2 5 1 1 Boys 29 35 101 19 37 Girls Tota 29 85 101 19 37 E. HOUSEKEEPING CONTINUATION SCHOOLS AND COURSES Cantons Zurich. ... . Bern Lucerne . . . Uri Schwyz . . . , Obwalden. . Nidwalden. Glarus .... Zug Freiburg... Solothum.. Schools 117 28 7 1 1 1 1 24 3 33 11 Girls 3,861 32 14 77 711 i.iss 580 1,139 608 929 96 Basel City see women's work school Basel Province 18 1,139 Schaffhausen 11 Appenzell A. Rh 25 Appenzell I. Rh 2 St. Gall 73 Graubiinden 13 126 Aargau 26 608 Thurgau 65 1,199 Tessin .. Waadt 21 Wallis 25 608 Neuenbiu-g see vocational school Geneva see vocational school Courses Participant 1,442 11 22 23 136 22 148 37 1908. 496 12,704 [328] CHAPTER XXn CONCLUSION IT is sometimes contended that the responsibility of the public for the education of the masses ends with the elementary school. Those destined for the professions, the executive positions, and the leisure class may enter the public high schools and State universities, and ob- tain an education leading directly or indirectly to voca- tional efficiency. Not everyone, however, seems to be con- scious of the fact that the great masses who leave school at fourteen — either from choice or from necessity — to enter into vocational life are entitled to as careful consideration in our educational plans as their more fortunate brothers. As a matter of fact, this great ninety per cent need vocational training, and have as good a right to expect it at the hands of the public as their brothers who enter the so-called "higher vocations." We contribute to the support of the public schools on the ground that they are necessary to the perpetuation of our free institutions. We urge that a certain minimum of instruction and training is indispensable as a preparation for citizenship, and that the training in character connected with the acquisition of the minimum is of great importance in this preparation. We are now beginning to see that we are permitting the boys and girls to leave our pubUc schools at fourteen, just at the time when they most need guidance and instruction, just at the time when character-building really begins, and just when they should be objects of special attention in our educational plans. The State can not continue to expend vast sums of money in high schools and universities, and neglect the ninety per cent who now go into vocational life with only elementary school training, without repudiating the reasons usually [329] VOCATIONAL EDUCATION given for having schools of any sort as a public charge. If self-preservation through the training of the character of the future citizen is the justification for spending pubUc money for schools, the State must enter the entire field of vocational education, and provide for all — the artisan, the professional man, the farmer, and the merchant. Justice to the individual as well as self-preservation of the State demands this. It would be diflScult to over-estimate the value of our system of elementary schools. The general education given in them is the necessary basis of all vocations — academic or industrial. While these schools are in need of improve- ment, and probably will in the futiu-e devote greater atten- tion to the training of eye and hand, this training should be given on account of its pedagogical importance rather than of its vocational utility. The eight years of general training of the elementary school system should not be shortened to make room for any scheme of vocational training. Any attempt to substitute for this a training for mere skill and instruction concerning machinery and processes of produc- tion will be fully as apt to hinder as to further the develop- ment of the mental powers. It is sometimes proposed to provide vocational training for the backward children in the elementary schools. While experience has shown that much can be done for these unfortunate children by the introduction of the manual arts, the introduction of pure vocational training may lead to the forming of false ideals in the minds of the pupils in the elementary school. It may lead to the assumption that general training is of little importance for the mechanic, and it is also quite apt to lead to the impression that manual labor — skilled or unskilled — is the proper employment of children of lesser ability, while the gifted may expect work in a profession. This ideal is undemocratic and foolish. It would be better to hold up the ideal that skilled manual labor is just as honorable as work in an oflSce, and more profitable, and that it requires a much higher degree of [330] CONCLUSION character and ability. In short, we should strive to check the rush of our youth away from the shop and the farm into the oflSce. Roughly speaking, the age of fourteen, the beginning of the age of adolescence, marks the end of this general training for nine-tenths of the boys and girls in civilized communities; it marks the end of the period of compulsory attendance, as provided in the laws of civilized countries. The problem of industrial education, therefore, is a problem of adolescence. We are only beginning to recognize our responsibihties to the adolescent, to recognize that he is entitled to our guidance and care, and that he needs it probably more than he has at any previous period of his life. He is at the parting of the ways; he is ceasing to be a child, but is not yet a man; he is beginning to be interested in matters related to his life work, in the problems of society, and of the State. More can now be done towards training his character than at any previous or subsequent period of his life. One of the blunders of civilized countries, a blunder that has led to an enormous increase in the number of youthful vagabonds and criminals, has been to neglect the adolescent, and to act as though there were a sharply defined line separating the child from the man, and that it is feasible and wise to care for the child systematically up to fourteen and then leave him abruptly and absolutely to the tender mercies of the factory and street. If we are to undertake the further training of these boys, we must consider their newly awakened needs and interests; we must recollect, that there is a limit to the amount of instruction along academic lines that they are ready to receive. If we attempt to keep them in a school of any kind, and repeat the sort of instruction they have been receiving during eight years of childhood, we shall disappoint a majority of them, and leave them bored, sullen, and obstinate. If we wish to hold them longer, we must arouse their interests by connecting the school with their vocation. Through this interest, we may hope to succeed in giving them [S81] VOCATIONAL EDUCATION some all-round cultural training — training that will not only make them more efficient bread-winners, but better men and better citizens. In attempting to meet the present-day demands upon our schools, the author would suggest the following con- siderations : I. The changes in the industries due to the introduction of factory production with its minute division of labor brought about a decay of the apprenticeship system through- out the entire civilized world. Germany, Austria, and Switzerland have undertaken with considerable success to preserve apprenticeship, and to care for the industria- education of the youth by a combination of apprentice! ship and the continuation school. In England, France, and America the decay of the system has been accepted as a settled fact, and little or nothing has been done to revive it. There is, however, reason to believe that it is worth our while to revive and to reorganize the system of appren- ticeship. The State of Wisconsin has recently enacted a series of laws providing for the establishment of trade and con- tinuation schools, as well as laws relating to apprenticeship and the labor of minors between the ages of fourteen and sixteen. Such legislation should be included in any plan for the industrial education of youth. A practical scheme for educating our youth should include both school work and practical work outside. Then, too, the principle ought to be definitely laid down by our laws that employers of youth between fourteen and eighteen must assume some respon- sibility for this education — both general and vocational. II. The period of childhood — between the years of six and fourteen — should be preserved for general cultural education, with adequate attention to the training of eye and hand. This does not mean that all children in the eight grades shall do exactly the same work, either in quantity or in quality. We must recognize differences in the ability and interests of children in the elementary school; changes in the quantity of work prescribed for [332] CONCLUSION different childreii and changes in the emphasis given to different portions of it should be a feature in the future elementary school. The cultural ideal, however, should be preserved up to the end of the elementary school period — the age of fourteen. No system of vocational schools should be instituted that will hurry boys and girls out of the elementary school into the vocational schools. m. The most important feature in a plan of industrial education will be the organization of a system of vocational continuation schools which will demand from six to ten hours a week of the time of youth between the ages of fourteen and eighteen. The instruction must be day instruction, given in special schools, managed by specially trained teachers, a part of whom, at least, must be practical men from the industries. In such instruction the vocation will be the central point, and everything will be treated from the standpoint of its relation to this central topic. The subjects of instruction will not be treated as subjects, but in their relation to the vocation. Greneral cultural aims will not be abandoned, but will grow out of the vocational work of the school. The subjects of instruction wiU include, for example, the mother-tongue, civics, and hygiene, as well as the drawing, mathematics, science, and technology required by the vocation itself. Such schools wUl, of course, be equipped with such laboratories and shops as are required in carrying out their plans. Such vocational continuation schools will provide for the instruction of both boys and girls in the mechanical trades, for commerce, and for agri- culture, and courses of study, time of instruction, and methods of management will be modified to suit the needs of the classes to be served. rV. A system of secondary vocational schools open to students from the vocations, even if they have not com- pleted the elementary school course, is a necessary part of a plan for industrial education. Larger communities should establish independent schools of this character; others will be compelled to employ other agencies, such as departments of the ordinary secondary schools of the community. [333] VOCATIONAL EDUCATION The work in these schools or departments must be scientific and practical, the teachers generally being practical men from the vocations. Their purpose should be to afford opportunity for advancement to youth who do not have the academic preparation required by om* secondary schools, but who have — what is perhaps as important — experience in a vocation, and an interest in advancing themselves in it. Perhaps the most important fimction of such a secondary vocational school would be to keep up the standard of the vocational continuation schools in its community. Edu- cational history has shown that each form of school requires stimulation and assistance from above, and the continua- tion school is no exception to this rule. Wherever you find a good system of vocational continuation schools in Europe, you will find them related to higher vocational instruction. Such higher vocational schools, in carrying out this purpose of stimulating and guiding the continuation schools, should conduct model continuation classes with the purpose of showing what a continuation school should do, and what a continuation school can do. With their especially equipped shops and class-rooms and their trained teachers, they can organize continuation classes that will serve as models for all the other continuation schools of the community. Wherever there are schools like the Milwaukee Trade School, or industrial schools like Lewis Institute of Chicago, or schools managed and supported by corporations of business men or by unions of working men, such as the Union School for Painters of Chicago, they may be induced to establish continuation schools to serve as models for the public continuation schools, at least in the purely technical subjects. It is important to recognize and utilize such practical organizations if we hope to keep our vocational schools in touch with modern industrial conditions. It has required a constant fight to prevent academic ideals from destroying the usefulness of the industrial schools of Germany. Another agency which is being used for this purpose in foreign countries, and to a lesser degree in America, is [384] CONCLUSION the technical or art-trades museum. Such institutions offer unusual opportunities for providing model instruction in the technical and art trades, and the system of public continuation schools will be greatly benefited by co-opera- tion with them. V. A well-organized plan of connecting the elementary and continuation schools on the one hand, and the vocations on the other, through a bureau of vocational guidance, is an indispensable part of any plan of industrial education. Plans of this sort can be seen in operation in Boston, Edin- burgh, Strassburg, Munich, and many other places. These bureaus usually have first-hand information about the industries of the community, and are in touch with chambers of commerce and trade, as well as with the school oflScials. Such bureaus form a clearing-house between the boys and girls seeking employment and the employers of labor. They are able to save time and energy on the part of both, and prevent the boys and girls from entering ""blind-alley" jobs. They are able to prevent the employment of children by unscrupulous men who will teach them nothing, and who sometimes require them to work under unsanitary and unwholesome conditions. Such bureaus will prevent an enormous waste of human material in our great cities. VI. Vocational schools must be administered by practical men from the vocations and educators. Without the practical men they will not keep in touch with actual life conditions; without the educators they will waste the time and strength of the pupils by ill-considered methods of instruction, and will be dominated too completely by the vocational aim. We require men and citizens as well as workmen, and we cannot secure them without the united effort of both the practical men and the educators. We must also recollect that both general and technical education is important as a means of prevention of the waste of the human resources of society in its gifted men, born in lowly life and prevented from development on ac- count of want of opportunity. As Mr. Marshall says: "There is no extravagance more prejudicial to the growth [335] VOCATIONAL EDUCATION of national wealth than that wasteful negligence which aUows genius that happens to be bom of lowly parentage to expend itself in lowly work." He points out that it is to the ability of the children of the working classes that we must ascribe the greater part of the success of the cities of the middle ages and of Scotland in recent times. While education cannot add to the supply of genius in art, in science, or in business, it can keep genius from running to waste. Such a system of vocational schools as has been sug- gested will provide opportunities for both the genius and the ordinary man bom in lowly life, and increase the general efficiency and comfort of the world. In justice we can do no less. We can become a true democracj' only when our system of schools ofiFers equal opportunities to all classes and all talents; when we shall be as much concerned aboiut training a good blacksmith as we are about training a good lawyer; when "every man shall receive vocational training who would be better oflF with it than without it." Finally, while we should never give over our ideal of training for general culture, we must not underestimate the educational significance of a man's work as a bread- winner; of the activity he displays in his vocation. Char- acter is largely the result of habit, the result of the continued use of our faculties, of the feelings aroused by our activities, and by our relations to our fellows while engaged in work. !Mr. ^larshall, in his Economics, points out that "Man's character has been developed through all the ages by his daily work. Religious ideals and military and artistic spirit may at times be the most shaping influences, but man's daily work in securing his daily bread has never been displaced from its leading position for any great length of time." If men can be trained to perform their daily work efficiently, and, therefore, with satisfaction and joy, by a well-considered system of education which makes them more efficient and consequently better satisfied with themselves and the world, we shall take a long step towards the millennium. [336] TRAINING OF VOCATIONAL TEACHERS IN GERMANY o o H u o I ^S ^! 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I ^ S /■% 'V' -^ -^ — •— 31 2 -S g'"- = -"" — 12 — ■^^ ■X -■f?£C = X -J ^ — = i _ — Bf - = <4f t =-^- s xxxxx^O X — 0 ss ? _2 ? ^- s J' "5 T b Si ■^ : £l t , ;'5 ■ ^ Si J.¥a ! ^ "y 5 — ^ =: ; i iiji '^.■LC.A [341] VOCATIONAL EDUCATION D a boo 4. ^ ^^'^•O'ff^CO^COCO^^ ml illl^l II III S 9 o SO S -I "2 2 ■■S -^ ^-^-gll' HcccocntS^cco^iJi^c^ ^^ c3 y c3 aassd cJ5 ~ §■3 §S g-a «j Srs"© g S ^ I SLi J B lali^J S ^.s oooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooo i llflll^ § I gl i il sill ll||''J TRAINING OF VOCATIONAL TEACHERS IN GERMANY OqD'««0«9'«'«lQ<9<^«<^'^eD«0<<4lce^CO-4*fiD-^'^0 ■*■*'*'* O'^'^OOOO 0'*'^*0»0^^'*'*'^ QOCD-^ SO.S S r^ U ^ai o tn o_: •gas's mUinH « 3 § S o ■"CO ST _ ="s c^ o ^ o— o g z,a » g.a « o o-^ o 5 § §"« ••^ o •«? •*? CO _^ Q o'V o o TOHoacn o U O ^ abc&CBO&G&o&adCbOftOdoC6Cb030ftOft090&CiaacbAc&C6 ja O u e9 '*^ S a*» C " sj a O >. B ."». " o 9 hTJ o 60 * e9 &0 ■2-3 P-9 J* • H 3 ►* H o o . * "O fi"" •OoSSSioao'O !>l>PQ axnoin K Hen 13 .a g o Mi m c . o JJ5 o « £ BO " ** W "5 ■ 9^ O O B -S on ja D, 4J [343] VOCATIONAL EDUCATION HIGHER EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS OP GERMANY Ntiinbers Attending the UniTeiraties in Winter Semester of 1909-10. 1. Uniyebsities UniTeraitieB, etc. L Total Nomber of Stndents U. Stndents Anthori Tft\ to Attend Lectures I. and 11. Total Number of Begnlar and Inego- lar Student* Men Women Men Women Men Women 1. Berlin 9,242 402 3,652 2,405 2,230 881 2,393 1,290 1,367 1,878 1,906 47 6,537 1,424 1,121 4,761 1,760 1,934 2,167 1,261 1,496 707 1,995 632 135 84 160 49 27 18 46 38 47 183 10 19 59 23 142 86 37 24 3 4,754 272 388 112 96 267 91 199 45 148 16 928 543 135 59 869 143 148 138 157 104 63 188 356 111 195 57 50 88 46 107 31 41 7 348 191 '22 114 68 50 47 64 48 36 122 13,996 402 3,924 2,793 2,342 977 2,660 1,381 1,566 1,923 2,054 58 928 7,080 1,559 1,180 5,630 1,903 2,082 2,305 1,418 1,600 770 2,183 988 la. Kaiser Wilhelm's Acadrany, Army 2. Bonn 246 3. Bteslan 279 6. Gieifswald 217 99 115 7. Ed 64 8. ESnigabe^ 153 , 69 10. Mttaiater. 88 11. Brannsberg, Ly- 7 12. Foaen, Academy. . 13. Munich 14. Warzbnig 15. Efriangen 348 374 10 41 16. L^paic 173 17. Tabingoi 18 Hdddberg 19- Frriburg 91 192 133 20 Giessen 101 21- Jena 72 22 Rostock 39 23' StrassbuTg 122 ToUl 52,851 1,822 9,863 2,199 62,714 4,021 Number Attending the Technics Univetsities in Winter Semester of 1909-10. 2. Technicai. Umitebsities Students Enrolled Total Number of Students Technical Univeraities Begnlar Imgnlar Guests Regular and lar Gueste Men Women Men Women Men Women 1 Aali 420 61 20 10. StnttgaH 285 Total 11,228 20 1,643 288 3,201 1,430 16,072 1,738 [344] TRAINING OF VOCATIONAL TEACHERS IN GERMANY 3. MiNiNQ Academies Students Attending in Winter Semester of 1909-10 Academies Regular Irregular Guests Total Men Women Men Women Berlin 153 85 415 20 15 82 63 5 •• 236 105 447 Clausthal Freiberg Total 653 67 68 •• 788 •• 4. FoRBSTBT Academies Academy or College Students Attending in Winter Semester of 1909-10 Regular Irregular Guests Total 60 67 30 48 65 3 4 21 30 2 i2 63 71 AschaffenbuTg 61 Tharandt 90 Eisenach 67 Total 270 60 12 342 5. Agbicui/tubai. Couleges Students Attending in Winter Semester of 1909-10 Academy or College Regular Irregular Guests Total Men Women Men Women Berlin Bonn-Poppels- dorf Weihenstephan- Mnuich Hohenheim 668 548 184 175 2 192 32 10 52 912 580 194 175 2 Total 1,575 2 234 52 1,861 2 There were versities. also 115 men studying agriculture in the various German uni- 6. Vetekinaht Colleges College Students Attending in Winter Semester of 1909-10 Regular Irregular Guests Total Berlin : 370 227 276 174 106 ii 66 47 8 27 378 238 Munich 342 Dresden 248 Stuttgart 106 Total 1,153 124 35 1,312 [345] VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 7. CoHMEBdAL COUAGES Stodenta Attending in Winter Semester ef 1909-10 Hirh School or Academy Regular Itiegolar Total Men Women Men Women Men Women Beriin 419 458 348 509 9 14 35 1 1.489 1,871 1,345 110 136 75 569 1,908 2.329 1.693 619 145 Cologne Fr)iTikfurta.M. Leiprig 89 604 Total 1,754 59 4,815 780 6.549 839 There were also 364 men and 15 women studying Finance in the various German universities. 8. High Schoois a^o) STMri.tii Public Educahqnal Imuiituiioiib fob Plastic Abts Students Attending in Winter Semeeter of 1909-10 Chanuiter Begnlar Men Women 1. Royal Academic High School for Uie Plastic Arts, Berlin-Charlot- tenbuig 2. 8 Academic Masters' Studio, B«lin-CharlottenbnTg 3. Royal Art School, Berlin 4. Educational Institution. Royal Art Trade Museum, Beriin 5. Royal Art Academy. Eonigsberg, Prussia 6. Royal Art School. Breslau 7. Royal Academy for Plastic Arts, Cassel 8. Royal Drawing Academy, Hanau 9. Art School Frankfurt a. M. . . 10. Royal Art Academy. Dusseldorf 11. Royal Academy for Plastic Arts, Munich 12. Royal Academy for Plastic Arts, Dresden IS. Royal Academy for Graphic Arts and theBook Industry .Leipzig 14. Royal Academy for Plastic Arts, Stuttgart 15. Grand - Ducal Academy for Plastic Arts. Karlsruhe 16. Grand - Ducal Art School, Weimar 179 35 142 345 62 138 185 43 178 545 227 324 105 111 116 76 68 25 37 22 11 28 4 46 Total 2,735 317 383 193 [346] iTTefirolar Men Women 34 70 81 17 108 7 66 46 26 10 50 61 Total Men Women 213 3.118 35 212 122 345 68 62 219 25 63 202 43 178 32 11 545 ... 227 432 78 112 4 111 182 107 510 TRAINING OF VOCATIONAL TEACHERS IN GERMANY 9. High Schooub and Similab Public Edttcationai. Institutions tor Music Character Students Attending; in Winter Semester of 1909-10 Regular Men Women Irregular Men Women Total Men Women 1. Royal Academic High School for Music, Berlin-Charlottenburg. 2. Academic Master School for Musical Composition, Berlin- Charlottenburg 3. Royal Academic Institution for Church Music, Berlin-Charlot- tenburg 4. Royal Academic Institution for Church Music, Breslau B. Royal Academy of Music, Munich 6. Royal Music School, WUrzburg. 7. Royal Conservatory for Music and Theatre, Dresden 8. ROT'al Conservatory of Music, Leipzig 9. Royal Conservatory for Music, Stuttgart 10. Grand -Ducal Conservatory of Music, Karlsruhe 11. Grand - Ducal Music School, Weimar 12. Royal Conservatory of Music, Sondershausen Total 323 26 29 371 291 1,183 663 576 543 166 112 131 1 168 141 728 357 382 360 102 48 9 684 9 22 315 270 323 26 29 380 975 1,183 663 676 868 166 112 131 1 177 163 728 357 382 620 102 48 4,283 2,408 1,008 301 5,291 2,709 [a-t7] wwmm'Xm