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 UNIVERSITY 
 
 LIBRARY 
 
 Given to the 
 COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING 
 
Cornell University Library 
 TA 681.U58 
 
 Proceedings, conference of farmers insti 
 
 3 1924 003 970 880 
 
Cornell University 
 Library 
 
 The original of this book is in 
 the Cornell University Library. 
 
 There are no known copyright restrictions in 
 the United States on the use of the text. 
 
 http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924003970880 
 
PROCEEDINGS 
 
 I J Hit! ill! I' I'M FUJI II 111 II 
 
 Conference of Farmers Institute 
 
 and Short Course Workers on 
 
 Permanent and Sanitary 
 
 Farm Improvements 
 
 Held Under the Auspices of the 
 
 Information Bureau 
 UNIVERSAL PORTLAND CEMENT CO. 
 
 Chicago — Pittsburgh — Minneapolis 
 
 HOTEL SHERMAN, CHICAGO 
 August 18-28-1918 
 
Copyright 1914 
 
 by the 
 
 UNIVERSAL PORTLAND CEMENT CO. 
 
 First Edition 
 
 7-H4-5M-HA 
 
TABLE OF CONTENTS 
 
 Foreword ... 4 
 
 Get-Together Luncheon, Hotel Sherman 7 
 
 Opening Address, by C. W. Boynton. 
 
 Address of Welcome, Edward E. Gore and Hon. A. N: Abbott. 
 Response, Dr. Richard S. Hill and Forest Henry. 
 Remarks, Richard L. Humphrey. 
 
 Monday Afternoon Session, Lewis Institute 17 
 
 Selection and Proportioning of Concrete Aggregates, C.]K. Arp. 
 
 Presence of Dirt in Concrete Aggregates, C. D. Franks. 
 
 Effects of Consistency upon the Strength andJDensitylof Cement Products, 
 
 W. B. Dunning. 
 Concrete Silo Forms, A. J. R. Curtis. 
 Concrete Dairy Barn Floors, E. S. Fowler. 
 
 Monday Evening Session, Lewis Institute. . . 45 
 
 Cement Drain Tile Manufacture, /. H. Libberton. 
 
 The Theory of Reinforcing, W. B. Dunning. 
 
 Concrete Fence Posts, Prof. H. H. Musselman and C. K. Arp. 
 
 Homemade Tools for Concreting on the Farm, G. H. Reiter. 
 
 The Proper Care of Cement Sacks, C. S. Fletcher. 
 
 Tuesday Evening Session, Hotel Sherman. . . 71 
 
 Prof. L. R. Taft, presiding. 
 
 Round Table Discussion of Workers' Supplementary Materials. 
 
 Wednesday Evening Session, Hotel Sherman. . . . • 82 
 
 Prof. G. W. Randlett, presiding. 
 
 Feeding Floors and Pavements, Prof. E. A. White, Hon. C. C. Penrier, J. H. Chubb. 
 Concrete Manure Pits, Dr. H. E. Horton and G. L. Codman. 
 Farm Sanitary Systems, E. C. Sargent. 
 Tanks and Troughs, /. E. Freeman. 
 
 Thursday Evening Session, Hotel Sherman 113 
 
 Oliver Kline, presiding. 
 
 Farm Building Economics, J. H. Libberton. 
 
 Farm Building Construction, D. P. Witter and E. S. Fowler. 
 
 Silos, Prof. C. A. Ocock, Prof. L. W. Chase and Joseph E. Wing. 
 
 Conference Dinner. 
 Program and Songs. 
 Resolutions. 
 
 For List of Delegates see pages 172-176 
 
LINKING MEN are begin- 
 ning to appreciate the need 
 for building once and build- 
 ing right. This enthusiasm for 
 permanent construction— new in 
 the United States but not new in 
 older civilizations— has forced its 
 way by sheer weight of necessity 
 into the mind of the American 
 farmer. For sometime past an 
 insistent demand has existed for information 
 about farm improvements which will not wel- 
 come quick destruction by lightning, fire or 
 wind — fall to pieces without assistance in a few 
 years nor yield to the slow, sure action of rain 
 and rot, frost and decay. 
 
 At first the demand was partially supplied 
 by engineers from the Information Bureau of 
 the Universal Portland Cement Co., at local 
 Farmers* Institutes and Farmers' Short 
 Courses, but finding this inadequate, a Con- 
 ference was called for the purpose of educating 
 a number of State speakers on "Permanent 
 and Sanitary Improvements." The quick 
 response to the call indicated a wide-spread 
 interest in this work. On the morning of 
 
4&J^h&£& 
 
 Q^-32 
 
 August 18th, Institute speakers 
 arrived in Chicago on almost every 
 train, and apparently from all direc- 
 tions. From that day, and until 
 midnight of August 23d, every minute of 
 the time was employed either in study or on 
 tours of inspection; some of the most modern 
 farms in the United States being visited. Not 
 only was construction work carefully studied, 
 but. the pedigreed stock aroused considerable 
 interest. 
 
 The pages which follow are the records 
 of the Conference. The illustrations of stock 
 and of buildings, with but few exceptions, were 
 taken by photographers with the party. Every 
 phase of permanent building was presented by 
 experts in each department and these pages 
 are a permanent record of a 
 week of hard work and valu- 
 able study. The Proceedings 
 should be of considerable 
 value, not only to the 
 speakers who attended, but 
 to those who contemplate 
 work of this kind, or who are 
 interested in farm betterment. 
 
Concrete Silo and paved barnyard on the Hartwood Farms, Barrington, 111. 
 
"Get Together Luncheon" 
 
 Hotel Sherman, Crystal Room Monday, August 18, 1913 
 
 C. W. Boy nton,' Presiding 
 
 ADDRESSES OF WELCOME 
 
 Mr. Boynton : I am pleased to see so many here today. We hope to 
 make this Conference interesting and instructive. The meetings will be 
 decidedly informal, and each person will get out of them an amount of 
 information in proportion to the interest he puts into them. I can wel- 
 come you in the name of our Company, but that hardly is sufficient. Chi- 
 cago is a big town, and it has a big welcome. I have asked Mr. Edward 
 E. Gore, Vice President of the Chicago Association of Commerce to speak 
 a word in behalf of the Association and of the city. Mr. Gore — (Applause) . 
 
 Address of Welcome : On Behalf of the Citizens of Chicago. 
 
 Mr. Gore : Gentlemen, it is altogether fitting that a meeting of those 
 who are interested in agriculture should be held in Chicago. Chicago owes 
 to agriculture, more than to any other one thing, its permanence in trade. 
 Chicago is not unappreciative of the fact that her great growth, her present 
 importance, is very largely due to the commerce that has flowed from the 
 farms of the West through this great, lake port.' She realizes, too, that her 
 permanence, if it is to continue, must be based upon the prosperity of the 
 surrounding country. Chicago, therefore, feels a deep and abiding interest 
 in the matters which appeal most strongly to you in your daily lives, and is 
 most anxious that any advance which can be made in agriculture, shall be 
 made. 
 
 It is in Chicago that you must look for the outlet of much that you 
 produce, as it is the great market for all of the Northwest this side of the 
 mountains, and a very considerable portion of the Southwest. We feel that 
 our interests are mutual, and we are entirely sincere in offering you a hearty 
 welcome to the city of Chicago. We welcome you to everything that we 
 have to give. We trust that every moment of your stay in our city may be 
 fraught with pleasure, and that you may look back upon your visit feeling 
 that it has been one of profit, and one that you will cherish in your memory 
 in the years to come. 
 
 It is a wonderfully significant thing that one of the great manufacturing 
 industries of the world should be foresighted and farsighted enough to 
 have brought about this meeting. Chicago has always been proud of the 
 Universal Portland Cement Co., and is doubly so today. It is a mark of 
 wonderful enterprise, and yet if you get a dyed-in-the-wool Chicago man 
 to thinking about it he will conclude, to himself at least, that it is not 
 unnatural that such things should be done in Chicago. It is a fact, you 
 know, that some Chicago people are not afflicted with modesty. We are 
 quite willing to take unto ourselves considerable credit for most everything 
 that has ever happened. 
 
 Gentlemen, I don't know that there is much more that I can say. I 
 simply wish to emphasize and impress upon you the fact that if there is 
 
8 
 
 Permanent and Sanitary Farm Improvements 
 
 anything in Chicago that you want, if there is any privilege that you think 
 you ought to enjoy which does, not seem to be. forthcoming, if you will 
 have the goodness to call on the Chicago Association of Commerce, we will 
 try to deliver that particular thing you want. (Applause) . 
 
 Mr. Boynton : Chicago does occupy a big part of Illinois, and to hear 
 Mr. Gore tell it, one might be justified in believing Illinois is more depend- 
 ent on Chicago than Chicago is on Illinois. However, there is an outlying 
 district that has a very large influence on the business of Chicago and 
 upon the agricultural interests of our whole country. Hon. A. N. Abbott, 
 President of the Illinois Farmers' Institute, will welcome you in the name 
 of this State. (Applause). 
 
 Address of Welcome : On Behalf of the Farmers of Illinois . 
 
 Mr. Abbott : I was agreeably surprised at the consideration shown by 
 the gentlemen who prepared this program, who apparently thought that 
 outside of the city limits of Chicago there is a part of the State. Most of 
 the people of Chicago with whom I have been intimately associated, 
 would lead a stranger to believe that Chicago is Illinois, or that Illinois 
 is not very much except Chicago. So it is, indeed, an agreeable surprise 
 to know that there are people in Chicago, who will concede that outside 
 of the confines of this city, there is a people with interests and problems 
 to be solved. I have been selected on behalf of the farmers of the State 
 to welcome you to this convention. The farmers, you know, as a class, 
 are quite hospitable in character, particularly when approached in the 
 right direction, and more especially so when somebody else pays the bill. 
 (Laughter). You are as welcome, gentlemen, to our "Prairies, verdant 
 growing", to our "Rivers gently flowing", as the hang-bird is to the elm 
 
 Delegates to Conference on Permanent and Sanitary Farm Improvements, ready to start on first 
 day's tour of inspection which includes various farms in the vicinity of Lake Forest and 
 Barrington, 111. 
 
Universal Portland Cement Co. 
 
 tree's bough or as the flowers that bloom in spring. It is with genuine 
 pleasure that we greet a body of men like you who are interested in the 
 same problems in which we are interested, and who come together to 
 solve questions that interest all alike, whether they be from the north, 
 south, east or west. I sometimes think that the general public is laboring 
 under the delusion that the only problems connected with agriculture 
 are those incident to getting up early in the morning and working hard 
 all day. There are, however, many great questions and hard problems to 
 be worked out in agriculture. We have the problems of soil fertility to 
 meet, of good roads to consider, and the marketing of our crops, while 
 the great field of economic agriculture is as yet unchartered. 
 
 We have met here to consider one of the important problems, that of 
 obtaining a suitable building material connected with rural life — that of 
 a building material. Heretofore, we have relied upon timber for our 
 building material, but we are admonished that we must soon look else- 
 where. It may be interesting to know that the annual consumption of 
 timber in the United States is more than three and a half times the 
 annual production. The end is in sight. The building material of the 
 future must be iron and concrete. Owing to its characteristics the iron 
 must be prepared at the mill where the furnace, the smelter and coal 
 are factors; and owing to its characteristics the concrete must be made 
 on the farm — largely by the farmer himself. Whether there is success or 
 failure will depend upon the farmer. We are here to see that success, 
 and not failure, is the result. 
 
 The "Good Roads" movement, which is sweeping over the United 
 States, like a cyclone, admonishes us that we must make a particular study 
 of road construction. Brick or concrete, it seems, must be the future 
 building material on all our roads. And so, gentlemen, it is an important 
 problem that we are to consider here, and it is my great privilege and 
 high honor, on behalf of the farmers of Illinois, to welcome you to this 
 convention. (Applause) . 
 
 Mr. Boynton: We have asked Dr. Richard S. Hill of Maryland to 
 speak to us at this time. Dr. Hill comes from a State where agriculture 
 was old before Illinois was on the map; before Illinois was producing, as 
 she is today, a large portion of the agricultural wealth of the United States. 
 Dr. Hill probably has problems in Maryland that we have not approached 
 yet, such as exhausted soil and dilapidated buildings, not that we do not 
 have dilapidated buildings in Illinois, but the conditions in an older 
 country must be even worse than ours, unless they have m some way, 
 met the problem. Dr. Hill — (Applause). 
 
 Address of Welcome: Reply on Behalf of the Farmers of the East. 
 
 Dr. Hill: Mr. Toastmaster, farmers of the east and west, the north 
 and the south, and you representatives of the City of Chicago. I shall 
 not plead that I did not know I was to be called upon to say a few words 
 today, because I did know it. I didn't have the opportunity to decline, 
 because I was away from home on Institute work when the invitation 
 came, and my good wife received the letter for me. She was so proud 
 to think that she had a husband who would be asked to talk at a meeting 
 like this in the great city of Chicago, that she accepted on my behalf at 
 once. This is the first time I have had an opportunity to get as far west 
 as this. I will qualify that in this respect, that I did take a trip to St. Louis 
 at the time of the World's Fair, but at that time I don't know whether 
 I saw any of the farming country. 
 
] Permanent and Sanitary Farm Improvements 
 
 We have had problems to meet in Maryland, and last winter the 
 Universal Portland Cement Co. was good enough to send a young man 
 to help us meet some of them. 
 
 When I reached home after receiving this invitation, I was very busy 
 on the farm. It was just a little after wheat-cutting time. I had been 
 busy cutting wheat, and I was getting ready to thresh. I raised a very, 
 very large crop of wheat; I sowed just one bushel last fall, the first bushel 
 of wheat I had sowed for five or six years. Now, a party of us Marylanders 
 got together a few days ago and consulted as to the cost of growing a 
 bushel of wheat this year. Up in Frederick county last week, where I 
 was doing some missionary work among the farmers, we had a nice meeting 
 of a number of bank directors, — and, by the way, let me tell you they are 
 not called agriculturists up there, they are real agricultural farmers, but 
 they have made money enough on their farms to become bank directors — 
 and they figured it out that the crop of wheat they were selling in 1913 
 at eighty-five cents a bushel cost them just ninety cents to grow, as a late 
 frost in May seriously damaged the crop. Now, you all understand why 
 we don't grow wheat. I found that condition sometime ago on my farm. 
 Wheat is not the crop for us to grow in the section of Maryland that I 
 come from. We grow other things. I was proud of the yield of that 
 bushel that I sowed, because it was a prize bushel and gave a fine yield, 
 and I sowed it in a peculiar way. I am not going to tell you the yield 
 I got from that one bushel; I would not mind telling you the general yield 
 I got, but I would not like to tell you the yeild I got from that bushel. 
 I would like to have a little better reputation and I am afraid that I would 
 lose some of my reputation if I told you what that bushel yielded. I was 
 also engaged in working my tobacco crop. That is another big crop we 
 have in Maryland. I became enthused last winter about putting in 
 concrete work, and so was also busy building gate posts in order to improve 
 the appearance of the farm. You know we Institute men are proud of 
 our farms; we want to have everything looking right and up-to-date. So 
 I was using a little Portland cement in building gate posts. Then I found 
 that some of the sills in one of my tobacco barns had rotted out, and I 
 was busy putting in concrete sills, and altogether I was head over heels 
 in work. I had to take time to prepare myself for a speech here. It 
 has always been my duty to introduce speakers and to answer questions 
 when called on, but not to make speeches, so I looked up the history 
 of Maryland, and I prepared a grand address, gentlemen, one that would 
 have taken about three hours to deliver, on the history of the Great 
 Commonwealth of Maryland. At the time I was so busily engaged in 
 this work we were having pretty warm weather, it was pretty hot and 
 I must have had a little touch of it. My wife sent for the doctor. The 
 doctor came and talked over my trouble. Then I showed him the speech 
 and asked him what he thought of it. After he had looked it over, he tore 
 it up and threw it into the waste basket and said: "Why, it isn't sun- 
 stroke, this is a case of delirium, that's all!" 
 
 Well, I am satisfied that we are going to be very much surprised at what 
 we shall see here in and around Chicago. I don't know whether I dare 
 say, "The West" or not. I am afraid of stumbling over trouble if I call 
 you all "Westerners." The gentleman sitting here might say that he 
 lives in the west, and that Chicago is the center. Now, where I live we 
 
Universal Portland Cement Co. 
 
 11 
 
 speak of Baltimore all the time. That is the only city in the United 
 States. Where I live we sometimes refer incidentally to Washington, but 
 Baltimore is the great city. But now, if I make a few little mistakes in 
 that regard you will please excuse me. But I say, we do expect to be 
 surprised. I am very much pleased with the program that is laid out for 
 us, and I am also glad to see that we have got a lot of Marylanders here; 
 I see several sons of Maryland here today. Only a few of the great number 
 who are registered here have actually lived in Maryland, but almost all 
 claim an allegiance to Maryland. My friend here, (Referring to Mr. 
 Gore) claims his grandmother came from Maryland, and I see several 
 others who make claims of a similar nature, and I am glad to see so many 
 that have the good old Maryland stock in them, for it makes me feel 
 very much at home. (Applause). 
 
 Mr. Boynton: There is another section of the country we want to 
 hear from today, the great Northwest, and we are fortunate in having 
 with us Mr. Forest Henry, who has been an active Institute worker in 
 Minnesota for a number of years. Mr. Henry is not only widely known in 
 his own State, but is well known in other States. Last year, I believe, he 
 spent a good deal of time in New York helping the New York farmers with 
 their troubles. I take pleasure in introducing Mr. Henry — (Applause) . 
 
 Address of Welcome : Reply on behalf of the Farmers of the West. 
 
 Concrete Manure Pit at the Soldiers' Home, Washington, D. C. The litter carriers which travel on 
 the trolley above may be dumped either into the concrete manure pit, or into the manure spreader 
 to be delivered directly to the field. 
 
12 
 
 Permanent and Sanitary Farm Improvements 
 
 Mr. Henry: Mr. Chairman and Gentlemen: I can assure you I was 
 not a little surprised when I got an invitation from Mr. Boynton to eome 
 and talk here at this time. I could not help but feel that Mr. Boynton 
 had made a mistake, but I had no opportunity of refusing, for he said that 
 they were taking the liberty of placing me on the program, and it went 
 without an acceptance. Consequently, about the only thing that I 
 could do was to keep still and come. When my wife saw the invitation — 
 and I speak of this because my friend from Maryland here referred to his 
 wife — she looked it over, and I was a little surprised when she said she was 
 glad I was invited. She said: "I think it is a mighty good tiling!" Now, 
 it is the only invitation that I have ever had to go anywhere that she has 
 not objected to. She always objects to my going away from home. 
 But at this time she did not object, but she said: "I think it is a fine 
 thing, but they have made one mistake down there, and that is, they 
 should have invited the women." 
 
 Well, one of the first feelings that came over me after receiving this 
 invitation can be illustrated by what a certain darkey once said. A 
 northern man was down South, and went into a store to make a few pur- 
 chases. The proprietor couldn 't make change, so this- northerner turned 
 to a darkey that happened to pass and held out a ten dollar bill and 
 said to him: "Can you change this ten?" The darkey looked up in 
 surprise and said: "Massa, Massa, I surely thank you for the compliment 
 you pays me. but I am just a little bit short of change." Now, that is 
 how I felt when I got the invitation from Mr. Boynton to say something 
 here this afternoon. It is one thing to talk to a body of farmers along the 
 
 D anf Vanl^vfe^^^"" VX™* th « C ° Untry ta the vkinity ° f E1 * in - >»- '-pectin* permanent 
 
 and sanitary farm improvements 
 
Universal Portland Cement Co. 
 
 13 
 
 *— A 
 
 It is but natural that the farmer who still uses old wooden 
 drinking troughs and 'neglects the use of a concrete 
 apron to prevent the formation of mud holes, should 
 give his valuable farming machinery just as little 
 attention. Bxposing machinery to the elements rather 
 than housing it in a permanent structure is hardly 
 economy. 
 
 lines of agriculture, something that we have been interested in from boy- 
 hood, and it is another thing to address a body of men like this, and to en- 
 tertain them, but now that I am here this afternoon,^ wouldn't feel that 
 I was doing justice to my- 
 self or the West that I repre- 
 sent, if I didn't say a few 
 words to you this afternoon 
 along this line. 
 
 A great deal is being done 
 the country over along the 
 lines of agricultural educa- 
 tion. Wherever I go in my 
 work I find this line of edu- 
 cation is prominent, east, 
 west, north or south. It is 
 the one thing that the city 
 man, the man from the vil- 
 lage, and the country man 
 are alike interested in, this 
 matter of agriculture, and 
 we are spending, east, west, 
 north and south, vast sums 
 of money in the way of agricultural education. But it is a new departure 
 for a manufacturing firm like the Universal Portland Cement Co., to 
 invite a hundred or more of us agricultural workers to a conference 
 here which is to last for a week, and to foot the bill while we are here in 
 Chicago. That is a new departure, and I couldn 't help but feel that we had 
 reached the climax of agricultural education in this movement. Now, I 
 have a little different conception of that term "climax" from what I used 
 to have, and I am going to tell you how I got it. 
 
 I was up in the northern part of New York State last winter,' doing 
 agricultural work, and I met there a Canadian who explained this word 
 "climax" to me in a way that I had never heard it explained before. He 
 said that in his neighborhood one of the young ladies that was brought 
 up there in the country married a young man from an adjoining neigh- 
 borhood, and in the course of a year or two a pair of twin boys came to 
 their home. Now, the question that confronted them was as to how they 
 were going to name those boys. They wanted names that would 
 harmonize, and after searching through the dictionary and calling the 
 neighbors in, and failing to light on anything that just suited them, it was 
 finally decided that they would leave it to the mother, and she said: "Why, 
 that is an easy matter. We will just call one ' Pete ' and the other 'Repeat, ' " 
 and so they did. But the end was not yet. In a couple of years more a 
 pair of girls came to bless that home, and the same question was raised 
 again. And again they left it to the mother. "Why," she said, "that is 
 very simple. We will call one 'Kate' and the other 'Duplicate,' " and so 
 it was. And in a few years another pair of twins blessed that home, and 
 again they were boys, and there was a greater problem before them as to 
 the naming of the children, but again the question was left to the "good 
 wife," and she was equal to it. And she said: "We will call one 'Max' and 
 the other 'Climax.' ' Now, I got a conception of that word "climax" 
 
14 Permanent and Sanitary Farm Improvements 
 
 that I never had before. And it is so today, when a company like the 
 Universal Portland Cement Co. will invite a body of us farmers who are 
 agricultural workers, here in a conference for a week, to educate us along 
 this line— I must say that I am surprised, but agreeably surprised. 
 
 There are three great expenses to be met on the farm. First, this 
 initial cost of the home, of the land. Then there is the livestock on the 
 farm. And the third, and not the least expense, and not the least impor- 
 tant, either, is the farm buildings. 
 
 And I want to say, in my experience as I have gone over the country, 
 this is the one that is least considered. Many a farmstead that I go onto 
 is well equipped with stock and good machinery, but the buildings are 
 in a dilapidated condition. In the first place, there hasn't been sufficient 
 thought put into the planning of these buildings, neither has there been 
 the labor bestowed on them in their erection that should have been. 
 
 They lack permanency. The idea of permanency is something that the 
 American has very little conception of. They have given it a little more 
 consideration across the water. The sanitary condition of our farm build- 
 ings is another thing that we need to consider, and that is why I was so 
 glad that we were invited to come here in Chicago and talk these matters 
 over for a whole week. This matter of comfortable, sanitary and lasting 
 farm buildings is a matter that we want to give our careful consideration. 
 I am certain that during the week to come we shall get many good point- 
 ers along this line, many things that will be helpful to us on our farms, 
 many things that we, as Agricultural workers, can carry out to brother 
 farmers in the section that we represent. This will be a lasting benefit to 
 them. And further, I believe that the good from this conference is not 
 going to end there. I believe we shall get good ideas, one from the other, 
 as workers. I believe that we shall form friendships here that will be en- 
 during, that will last to the end of time. There is something that is even 
 stronger than Universal Portland cement, and even more lasting, some- 
 times, and that is Friendship. Then again, I find that there is that, which 
 is even more strengthening than steel reinforcement, and that is Charity. 
 And I believe that here in this conference, during the week to come we 
 shall form bonds of friendship, and we shall be so filled with charity, 
 one for the other, and so enthusiastic about our work and labors on the 
 farm that when we go to our respective farming communities we shall be 
 better able to face them, better able to carry out new ideas, and better 
 ideas that will be helpful to us and to the communities that we represent. 
 
 Now, in behalf of the great West that we represent, I want to say to you 
 that we appreciate this opportunity. We appreciate it most heartily, and 
 gentlemen, we thank you most cordially. (Applause). 
 
 Mr. Boynton : We have with us today a guest who is a particular friend 
 of concrete, Mr. Richard L. Humphrey, a consulting engineer from Phila- 
 delphia. Mr. Humphrey happened to be in town, and we invited him to 
 come over and lunch with us, and I am going to ask Mr. Humphrey to say 
 a few words to us at this time. Mr. Humphrey — (Applause). 
 
 Mr. Humphrey : Gentlemen, it is usual for a man who is called upon 
 to speak unexpectedly, especially when he is sitting back enjoying watch- 
 ing the other fellows perform, to say that he is not prepared to speak. 
 But your worthy presiding officer has well said that I was a friend of 
 
Universal Portland Cement Co. 
 
 15 
 
 concrete, and that is a sufficient cue for me, because under no condi- 
 tions would I refuse to say a good word on behalf of concrete. It has 
 been a particularly interesting and surprising experience to attend this 
 conference today, and I want to compliment the company that had the 
 foresight and good judgment to arrange for this gathering, because I 
 believe it is one of the most progressive, and at the same time the most 
 beneficial step that could be taken. It is an undertaking in which the 
 company has sunk its individuality, its "selfishness," if you please, in 
 its efforts to help in a very good work. 
 
 Personally I believe that there is no greater industry in this country 
 today than the farming industry. The development of scientific farming, 
 the increasing of the productiveness of each acre of land, which as the 
 population of this country increases, becomes a vital necessity, is one of 
 the most commendable fields of labor that anyone can start on. 
 
 The buildings and outhouses and all structures and parts that go to 
 make up the farm, should be made permanent. There is certainly no 
 material better suited for permanency on the farm than is concrete, but 
 it is highly essential that concrete shall be used properly. Those of us 
 who have been used to cement and have been interested in the develop- 
 ment in the use of cement are constantly brought face to face with its 
 misuses. The effort of all who are really interested in the development 
 of this great modern industry is to see that it is properly used. I feel 
 that no information can be attained so readily concerning the proper 
 use of cement as for you to mingle together, ask questions, and see the 
 materials manipulated under your own eyes. This is far more instruc- 
 tive, far more beneficial — than merely reading dry matter on the subject. 
 I think that in the modern development of concrete; the fences; the use 
 of the concrete in fence posts which is getting to be more and more com- 
 
 Judging horses at Dunham Stock Farm. 
 
16 P ermanent and Sanitary Farm Improvements 
 
 mon; and which is producing a permanent fence, which cannot be gotten 
 in any other way; the use of concrete for flooring; in making silos; and 
 in feeding floors of various kinds — are all along the line of replacing 
 these temporary affairs which rot and decay, and substituting therefor 
 a thing which is permanent. And it produces what is far more essential, 
 sanitary conditions on the farm. And there is nothing more that this 
 country is growing into than sanitary conditions in every line of human 
 endeavor. It is a great pleasure, gentlemen, to be with you here 
 today, and I think you will gain much from this conference. The farmer 
 is notably progressive, and he is always trying new things, even though 
 he doesn't quite understand them at first. I am reminded of a little 
 story of a farmer in the great Northwest who bought an automobile, and 
 in answer to an inquiry from the agent as to how it was going he said it 
 was going fine, but that there must be something wrong with the machine, 
 because it went up the hill as fast as it went down hill. And so I think 
 it is with many of the things you use; that you use them and get good 
 results without knowing why. I am quite sure that this week will be 
 most instructive and profitable. I am glad to have had the opportunity 
 to be here and see you gentlemen, hear these addresses, and take part in 
 this conference. I thank you for the opportunity of speaking. (Applause). 
 Mr. Boynton: It is now time that we leave this room and take our 
 machines for Lewis Institute, where the afternoon program will be car- 
 ried out. I wish to say to you while you are here and before we start in 
 on the real work of the Conference, that we have two objects in view: 
 One is to show you what many farmers are doing with concrete toward 
 getting permanent and sanitary structures ; the other part of our program, 
 you will note, is intended to show how to make concrete right, and to 
 make concrete structures right. We are not going into the design of 
 structures; but the principles of producing concrete which is satisfactory. 
 We hope to show you the difference between right and wrong methods 
 this afternoon, and carry it out further in our evening meetings during 
 the week, so that you can scatter this information abroad in your institute 
 and extension work during the winter. 
 
Universal Portland Ceme nt Co. 17 
 
 Afternoon Session 
 
 Lewis Institute Monday, August 18, 1913 
 
 C. W. Boynton, Presiding 
 
 Mr. Boynton: You will note the first thing on the program is a 
 demonstration of the "Selection and Proportioning of Concrete Aggre- 
 gates." We find it a very common practice among rural contractors 
 and farmers, when making concrete, to assume that they can safely 
 use bank-run material, and know pretty well what they are doing. We 
 believe this is quite impossible and insist that it is just as important 
 that the ratio of sand to gravel be right as it is that the ratio of cement 
 to the total aggregate be right; it is not economy to guess at the aggre- 
 gate. The proportions should be definite, and without observing this 
 rule it is impossible to get the results which one should get. Mr. Arp 
 will demonstrate to us some of the principles governing the proper 
 proportioning of concrete aggregates. (Applause). 
 
 Selection and Proportioning of Concrete Aggregates 
 
 Discussion led by C. K. Arp, Chicago 
 
 Mr. Arp: Although concrete may be called a comparatively new 
 building material, the modern farmer has immediately appreciated its 
 application in the solution of many of his more serious problems. But 
 contrary to expectations, our modern farmer often accepts cement as a 
 magic binding material, which, when mixed with gravel and water and 
 tossed into a form, produces concrete. Much to his surprise, the results 
 anticipated often remain unrealized. 
 
 Proper mixing and proportioning is of great importance, but of little 
 value if the aggregates (the technical term for sand, gravel and stone) 
 are not suitable. Portland cement is made by thoroughly standardized 
 processes, checked by chemical and physical analyses, guaranteeing a 
 uniform product. To this, the farmer adds a material of which he knows 
 nothing, possibly has never scrutinized carefully, is probably entirely 
 unsuited for his purpose, and expects to obtain concrete. After several 
 failures, he is generally in a receptive mood and will accept suggestions 
 for the improvement in his construction. Happily, engineers and others 
 having to do with building operations are paying more and more atten- 
 tion to the selection of such material, with the result that there has been 
 a general improvement in the quality of concrete produced, and in this 
 the farmer should share. 
 
 Portland cement is a manufactured product, sold in a condition to 
 act immediately when mixed with water, and is usually packed in cloth 
 or paper bags weighing 94 pounds net each, four such sacks making a 
 barrel of 376 pounds. For easy means of measuring by volume one sack 
 of cement is considered one cubic foot. Portland cement is somewhat 
 like lime in that it has an attraction for moisture, and for this reason 
 must be carefully protected when stored. If it gets damp or wet it 
 
18 Permanent and Sanitary Farm Improvements 
 
 becomes lumpy or hard. If these lumps become so hard that it is impos- 
 sible to crush them easily, it has become worthless so far as a cementing 
 material is concerned. Crushing these hard lumps to a powder will not 
 restore life to the cement, for in changing from a powder to a hard state 
 the same changes take place as when cement, water and gravel or stone 
 are mixed together, forming concrete. As this action, or hardening of 
 cement will take place but once, it can readily be seen that the cement 
 must be properly protected until ready for use. 
 
 Concrete aggregates are classified according to size of particles, fine 
 and coarse. Fine aggregate is referred to as material which will pass a 
 screen having } 4-inch diameter holes, and generally consists of sand or 
 stone screenings. Coarse aggregate consists of material larger than %- 
 inch and may be screened gravel, crushed stone or in fact any hard, durable 
 material meeting the requirements which are mentioned later. 
 
 The fact that so wide a range of material, limited so far only by size, 
 may be used in making concrete, makes it very important that a thorough 
 knowledge be had regarding its properties in order that the best results 
 may be obtained economically. The old idea that strength and durability 
 depends entirely upon the cement, and that only a superficial examination 
 of the other materials is necessary, is a great mistake. The man who 
 understands his aggregates and mixes them in proportions which have been 
 shown to be the best by tests or actual experience is the one who will have 
 the best results. 
 
 It may well be stated that more care must be exercised in the selection 
 of fine than of coarse aggregates, because in looking at coarse aggregates 
 one sees the individual particles, while it is the mass in case of sands or 
 screenings. A knowledge of the proportions in the selection of fine aggre- 
 gate will apply equally well to coarse aggregate with few exceptions and 
 when necessary the difference will be noted. 
 
 Although sands differ widely in chemical constitution and miner- 
 alogical composition, these properties are for the expert to investigate, 
 and at this time we will only consider the physical characteristics. There 
 are often impurities contained in sands which have an injurious effect upon 
 the setting and hardening properties of the cement, and upon the strength 
 of the concrete. These impurities usually consist of clay, loam or organic 
 and vegetable matter, existing in different conditions. If the foreign 
 material exists as a coating to the different particles it prevents a perfect 
 adhesion between the cement and the surface of the aggregate. When 
 existing as a powder, well distributed, these impurities act as an adulterant 
 to the cement and affect the strength accordingly. Clay or loam in the 
 form of large lumps, or vegetable matter in the form of roots and decayed 
 wood, will cause weak spots in the concrete. Authorities have generally 
 agreed that sands containing more than 5 per cent of foreign matter or silt 
 should only be used with extreme caution. 
 
 The quality of concrete is also affected by the hardness or crushing 
 strength of the aggregates, their durability or resistance to weather, grading 
 or relative proportions of the different sized particles and by the shape and 
 nature of the surface of the particles. The aggregate should be hard, 
 because the concrete cannot be any stronger than the material which goes 
 
Universal Portland Cement Co. 
 
 19 
 
 into its make-up. It should be durable, that is, remain hard, since the 
 lasting quality of the concrete will be so affected. 
 
 The size and gradation of the different particles will materially affect 
 the strength of the concrete. The size of the sand grains has a decided 
 influence upon the strength and is elearly illustrated by the following 
 diagram, in which the solid columns represent the relative areas for the 
 same volume of spheres of different sizes (which may be considered as sand 
 grains) and the open columns represent the effect of size of sand grains 
 on the strength of cement-sand mortar. As the making of a first-class 
 concrete necessitates the perfect covering of every particle of sand with 
 cement, and every particle of the coarser aggregate with the cement- 
 sand mortar, it is apparent that materials with an excess of fine particles 
 should be avoided. The same line of reasoning is applicable to the com- 
 bined aggregate in the concrete. 
 
 Relative areas for the same volume of spheres 
 of different siz.es , and Ihe effecf 
 ^Jt of Size of sand grains on __ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 the 
 
 sipength 
 
 of morfar 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 472- 
 
 
 r 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 zo 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ■n 
 
 ,2* 
 
 322* 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2.8 
 
 f 
 
 ■ ... 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 72 
 
 1 
 
 
 1 
 
 >3* 
 
 Z02* 
 
 177* 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 
 zi 
 1 
 
 
 5 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ~4 
 
 t 
 8 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 I 
 zo 
 
 •1 1 
 
 30 
 
 / 
 
 40 
 
 
 1 
 50 
 
 & 
 
 o K 
 
 r « 
 o 
 
 SOLID DIAGRAMS RePKESE NT AECA5 
 OPEN DIAGRAMS REPRESENT STKEMG.TH 
 
 It does not necessarily follow, though, that because coarse particles 
 have the smallest area per unit of volume that the aggregate should all 
 be large, since particles of the same size have a large amount of open space 
 between and consequently require a maximum of cement fill. The open 
 spaces between the particles of aggregate are technically called "voids" 
 and naturally have an influence upon the amount of cement required. 
 The voids in sand will average around 33 per cent, while in stone or gravel, 
 the open space averages in the neighborhood of 45 per cent. In propor- 
 tioning concrete for maximum strength and density, it is necessary to use 
 more cement than that actually required to fill the voids in the sand and 
 more mortar than necessary exactly to fill the voids in the stone. 
 
 Many are of the opinion that when a 1:2:4 mixture is required it is 
 possible to obtain this by taking one part of cement and 6 parts of mixed 
 aggregate or bank-run gravel. As previously stated, bank-run gravel 
 
20 Permanent and Sanitary Farm Improvements 
 
 does not occur in the proper proportions of fine and coarse material, but 
 assuming that it did, it can very easily be demonstrated that the 1 :2 :4 
 mixture is much richer in cement than the 1 :6. 
 
 Take, for example, 2 cubic feet of sand to which we add 1 cubic foot 
 or one sack of cement. When mixed together the cement is practically 
 contained in the voids or open spaces in the sand, so that the resulting 
 mortar is very little over 2 cubic feet in volume. If, now, we add this 
 mortar, which is the 1:2 portion of our 1:2:4 mixture, to 4 cubic feet of 
 screened gravel or stone, the same condition is repeated and the mortar 
 is practically contained in the voids in the stone. As a result the volume 
 of mixed concrete is little more than 4 cubic feet. 
 
 Likewise in adding one sack of cement to 6 cubic feet of bank-run gravel, 
 the cement is contained in the larger amount of open space between the 
 particles, the concrete resulting being 6 cubic feet, the volume of the bank- 
 run gravel. Thus, it should be clear that in one case we have 4 cubic feet 
 of concrete with one sack of cement, and in the other 6 cubic feet of con- 
 crete with a like amount of cement, which means that the latter is a leaner 
 and weaker mixture. 
 
 To make a bad condition worse, bank-run gravel inyariably contains 
 an excess of sand, which assists further in weakening the concrete. There- 
 fore, it is always better to separate the sand and gravel by screening and 
 afterward remixing the two in the proper proportions. 
 
 For minimum voids and the best concrete, the size of the fine aggregate 
 should grade from J^-inch in the largest dimensions, down to the finest, 
 with the coarser particles predominating, and in no case should fine aggre- 
 gate be used, of which more than five per cent passes through a sieve having 
 100 meshes per linear inch. 
 
 The size of the coarse aggregate depends largely upon the character 
 of the work in which the concrete is to be used, and should also be such 
 as will insure a reasonably smooth surface with proper precautions in plac- 
 ing. For plain concrete work, one-half the thickness of the wall of the 
 structure is often given as the maximum size of the coarse aggregate and 
 in no case should it be larger than 1 x /i inches. In reinforced concrete 
 work, the maximum size of the coarse aggregate should be such that can 
 be worked readily around the reinforcing metal. A maximum of from 
 1 to \y<L inches is usually specified in such cases. 
 
 The proper proportioning of concrete materials increases watertight- 
 ness and the strength obtainable for any given amount of cement. It is 
 generally recognized that for maximum strength the concrete should be as 
 dense as possible, that is it should have the smallest practicable percentage 
 of voids. Other physical characteristics which have been outlined here- 
 tofore should, of course, not be lost sight of. 
 
 Methods of aiming toward this result are as follows : 
 
 1st. Arbitrary selection, for instance, l:l}/£:3, 1:2:4 or 1:2J^:5. 
 
 2nd. Careful determination of voids in the coarse aggregate and fine 
 
 aggregate and proportioning of materials so that the amount of cement used 
 
 will fill the voids in the sand, and the amount of cement-sand mortar thus 
 
 used, produce sufficient to fill the voids in the coarse aggregate. In order 
 
Universal Portland Cement Co. 
 
 21 
 
 to play on the safe side, and make allowance for improper mixing, it is 
 usually advisable to use a little in excess of that required to fill the voids. 
 
 The best concrete engineers of the day are directing their attention 
 more to the scientific selection and proportioning of materials in order to 
 obtain the best possible concrete economically. This, however, requires 
 the services of an experienced man, and in the case of the small user, it 
 would doubtless be cheaper to use the arbitrary method of proportioning, 
 bearing in mind the physical properties of aggregates, already explained. 
 
 The unit of measurement and the method of measuring should always 
 be uniform. The cubic foot unit is very convenient and is generally used, 
 as 1 sack of cement (94 pounds net), is considered equivalent to 1 cubic 
 foot in volume. A measuring box of 1 cubic foot capacity or multiple 
 thereof should be a part of the equipment of every cement user. 
 
 Assuming that we use the arbitrary proportions mentioned above, 
 it will now be necessary to decide upon the relative amounts to be used 
 for the character of the work in question and the table given on page 
 22 should be of assistance. 
 
 To determine quantities of materials, first figure the quantity of 
 concrete required for the work in terms of cubic yards. The 
 quantities of cement, sand and gravel or crushed stone are then determined 
 by multiplying the number of cubic yards of concrete or cubical contents 
 
 The impossibility of obtaining proper and uniform proportions from this average gravel bank is 
 self evident. 
 
22 
 
 Permanent and Sanitary Farm Improvements 
 
 of the work by the number under the proper column and opposite the 
 required mixture in the following table: 
 
 Quantities of Sand and Gravel or Stone Required for a One-Bag 
 Batch of Mortar or Concrete, and Volume of Re- 
 sulting Compacted Mortar or Concrete. 
 
 MIXTURES 
 
 MATERIALS 
 
 Vol. in Cu. Ft. 
 
 Cement 
 
 Sand 
 
 Gravel or 
 Stone 
 
 Cement in 
 Sacks 
 
 Sand 
 Cu. Ft. 
 
 Gravel or Stone 
 Cu. Ft. 
 
 Mortar 
 
 Concrete 
 
 
 1.5 
 
 2 
 
 2.5 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2.5 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 4 
 4 
 5 
 
 1 
 1 
 1 
 1 
 1 
 1 
 1 
 1 
 
 1.5 
 2.0 
 2.5 
 3.0 
 
 2 
 2 
 
 2.5 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 4 
 5 
 
 1.75 
 2.1 
 2.5 
 2.8 
 
 3 
 4 
 
 4 
 5 
 
 9 
 5 
 
 8 
 8 
 
 Quantities of Cement, Sand and Gravel or Stone Required for 
 
 one Cubic yard of Compacted Mortar or Concrete. 
 
 Example. 
 
 MIXTURES 
 
 QUANTITIES OF MATERIALS 
 
 Cement 
 
 . Sand 
 
 Gravel or 
 Stone 
 
 Cement in 
 
 Sacks 
 
 Sand 
 
 Stone or Gravel 
 
 Cu. Ft. 
 
 Cu. Yds. 
 
 Cu. Ft. 
 
 Cu. Yds. 
 
 
 1.5 
 
 
 15.5 
 
 23.2 
 
 .86 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 12.8 
 
 25.6 
 
 .95 
 
 
 
 
 2.5 
 
 
 11.0 
 
 27.5 
 
 1.02 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 9.6 
 
 28.8 
 
 1.07 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 7.0 
 
 14.0 
 
 .52 
 
 21.0 
 
 .78 
 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 6.0 
 
 12.0 
 
 .44 
 
 24.0 
 
 .89 
 
 
 2.5 
 
 4 
 
 5.6 
 
 14.0 
 
 .52 
 
 22.4 
 
 .83 
 
 
 3 
 
 5 
 
 4.6 
 
 13.8 
 
 .51 
 
 23.0 
 
 .85 
 
 Stone and gravel = 45 per cent voids (average). 
 
 1 sack cement =1 cubic ft.; 4 sacks = 1 bbl. 
 
 Based on Tables in "Concrete, Plain and Reinforced" by Taylor & Thompson. 
 
 To find the quantities of materials to build a concrete feeding floor 30 
 feet long and 27 feet wide, the floor to be 5 inches thick and the concrete 
 composed throughout of a mixture of 1 part Portland cement, 2 parts 
 clean, coarse sand, all of which will pass a 34-inch mesh screen, and 3 
 parts of clean, hard, screened gravel or crushed stone. First find the 
 number of cubic yards of concrete in the floor; 30 feet by 27 feet by T V foot 
 equals 337^ cubic feet; divided by 27, the number of cubic feet in a cubic 
 yard, gives 12}/£ cubic yards. From the table it is found that using the 
 proportions 1:2:3 the following quantities of materials are required for a 
 cubic yard of concrete. 1.74 barrels of cement, .52 cubic yards of sand, 
 .77 cubic yards of gravel or stone; multiplying these unit quantities by 
 12J4 the number of cubic yards in the floor, we find that the materials re- 
 quired for the construction of this feeding floor are approximately 21?4 
 barrels of cement, 6^ cubic yards of sand, 9% cubic yards of stone or 
 gravel. 
 
Universal Portland Cement Co. 23 
 
 Presence of Dirt in Concrete Aggregates 
 
 Discussion led by C. D. Franks, Chicago 
 
 Mr. Franks : Due to the fact that so much time was taken up in the 
 previous lecture, I will attempt to discuss this subject as briefly as possible. 
 It has been clearly demonstrated that screened and well graded aggre- 
 gate is a necessity for making good concrete. However, no matter how 
 well your material may be graded, if it contains foreign material, such as 
 silt, loam or clay, the effect of good grading is partially lost. The presence 
 of silt or dirt in sand or gravel materially affects the success of your con- 
 crete work. 
 
 Sometime ago my attention was called to the construction of a con- 
 crete foundation wall. This particular wall had been constructed of a 
 1:2}^:5 mixture, that is, for every sack of cement, lYi, cubic feet of sand, 
 passing a J^-inch screen and 5 cubic feet of gravel from 34 inch to 2 inches 
 in size were used. The sand had been screened from the gravel and the 
 material properly proportioned, mixed with cement and water and placed 
 in the forms. About 7 days after the wall had been completed, the forms 
 were removed. The outside surface of the foundation wall appeared very 
 hard, but when the forms had been entirely removed the wall partially 
 collapsed and an examination of the interior of the concrete showed that 
 it was very weak and porous. It was a natural thing for the contractor 
 to place the blame on the material, which had least to do with the failure, 
 the cement. However, the engineer who had superintended the con- 
 struction of the wall became suspicious and began an investigation to 
 determine the true cause of failure. His investigations showed that the 
 thin film coating which appeared on the outside and inside of the founda- 
 tion wall was silt. In the concrete this same silt had coated the particles 
 of sand and gravel, and as a natural consequence prevented the cement 
 from adhering to the surfaces, resulting in weak concrete and the failure 
 of the wall. 
 
 The examination of sand for silt or for foreign material really be- 
 longs to the laboratory properly equipped for making analyses. The 
 examination or analysis which is sometimes performed on the job, does not 
 show accurate results. As a rule, the samples of sand or gravel are given 
 both a physical analysis and in the case of the sand, a chemical analysis, 
 in order to give the contractor or engineer a thorough knowledge of the 
 quality of the material that he is to use. Such laboratory methods cannot 
 be adopted, however, by the ordinary contractor or farmer who wishes to 
 do good concrete work and his work is just as important to him as the 
 construction of large buildings. I would suggest, then, when you are 
 selecting material for your concrete work, that you investigate thoroughly 
 the manner in which the material comes from the pit. The strippings of 
 the pit, that is the clay or loam above the sand and gravel, tree roots 
 and all foreign material, should be removed carefully. Often a close 
 examination of the gravel bank will give a fair idea as to the quality 
 of the* material in question. If you pick up handfuls of sand and gravel 
 from various parts of the pit and allow it to dribble slowly through your 
 fingers, the presence of dirt or silt, evenly divided, will make your fingers 
 and hands feel soapy or slippery. If that condition exists, you can well 
 
24 Permanent and Sanitary Farm Improvements 
 
 look upon the quality of the material with suspicion for it probably contains 
 material which should be removed to insure the success of your concrete 
 work. . 
 
 If you are doing concrete work, it is not absolutely necessary to have 
 extensive laboratory apparatus to determine in a fair way the quality of 
 the sand and gravel. Take a gallon glass jar for instance and select repre- 
 sentative samples from the pit, that is a sample that represents the average 
 material as it ordinarily comes out in wagon loads. Put this sample in the 
 jar as carefully as possible and add to the sample an amount of water twice 
 the volume of the material. Shake it up thoroughly three or four times, 
 allowing the material to settle after each shaking. After a short time the 
 dirt or silt which is liable to affect the strength of your concrete will 
 appear in a layer on top of the clean sand and gravel. 
 
 You can determine quite accurately the percentage of silt in a certain 
 amount of sand and gravel by the use of a graduated glass cylinder with a 
 capacity of 100 cubic centimeters. Fill this half full with the material, shak- 
 ing down well until it has been thoroughly compacted. Then fill the inter- 
 stices of the sand or gravel with water, shake it well, and then fill again. 
 The shaking will give the air a chance to escape from the sand. Shake the 
 cylinder and fill with water until you have a volume of 100 cubic centi- 
 meters. When the material has been allowed to settle the amount of fine 
 material may be read. There will be a distinct division line between the 
 dirt or silt and the clean sand and gravel. Multiply the amount read by 2 
 and you will have the percentage of dirt and silt contained in that sample 
 of sand. Material containing over 2 or 3 per cent of dirt or silt should be 
 washed because we have no way of determining in the field the character 
 of this particular silt or dirt. 
 
 It is not always possible for the farmer or the small contractor to equip 
 himself with a screening and washing plant. However, there are methods 
 which he can use economically and wash his material. For example, I have 
 found by past experience that an ordinary 5^-inch screen set at 45 degrees 
 to the horizontal may be used as part of a washing plant. A stream of water 
 of sufficient strength coming over the top of the screen between two sheets 
 of metal and spreading into a spray, will wash the material thrown on to 
 the screen free from dirt. The gravel will roll off the end of the screen, 
 while the sand will be carried through with the water. If a baffle board 
 is constructed and drainage provided beneath the screen, the water will 
 drain away with a considerable portion of the dirt in suspension. 
 
 The ordinary method of determining the percentage of silt in the 
 laboratory is by taking a certain weight of sand, dried at the temperature 
 of the laboratory, placing this material in a glass provided for the admission 
 of water, from the bottom under pressure, the pressure being reduced so 
 that the running water will wash the dirt from the sand but will not carry 
 the finer particles of sand away over the sides of the glass. The water is 
 allowed to pass through the material until it runs clean and clear over the 
 sides of the glass. The sample is removed then from the glass and dried. 
 From the difference in weight of the sample before and after washing the 
 percentage of dirt or silt may be determined. 
 
 There are several conditions under which the silt may exist in con- 
 crete aggregate, and upon these conditions depend whether or not the silt 
 or foreign material will be detrimental to the concrete when it is mixed 
 
Universal Portland Cement Co. 
 
 25 
 
 and placed in the forms. If the clay for the sample exists in a finely 
 powdered form, well distributed through the mass, it will act simply as 
 an adulterant, that is, if it does not ball up in the mixer and adhere to 
 the particles of sand and gravel during the mixing. If this latter condition 
 prevails then the cement has no chance to adhere to the surface of the 
 particles. On the other hand, if silt or clay exists in layers or chunks 
 throughout the pit, then you will have considerable trouble because from 
 this condition weak places and cracks will in all probability develop in your 
 concrete work. These conditions we desire to avoid in all concrete work. 
 Even though the silt or clay is distributed, it is best to wash the sand and 
 gravel free of this material. 
 
 The strength of concrete depends upon the strength of the material 
 you are using. Comparison tests on blocks of concrete have shown, how- 
 ever, that silt or clay, coating the particles of sand and gravel, reduce the 
 compressive strength of the concrete to a great extent. Test pieces made 
 up of good, clean material, at the age of 28 days, when broken under a 
 testing machine, will, as a rule, show a large percentage of broken particles. 
 On the other hand, compressive test specimens made of dirty aggregate, 
 using the same amount of cement and tested at the same age, will show the 
 particles pulling out from the bed of mortar around them and less strength. 
 
 There is one other thing which should be mentioned in connection with 
 concrete work, that is the effect of finely powdered dust which is present 
 
 In some parts of the gravel bank thelmaterial consists almost entirely of coarse particles 
 
26 Permanent and Sanitary Farm ^P£jjj^[jjfn| s 
 
 in limestone screenings. Experiments have shown that this dust, unless 
 removed from the coarser particles of screenings and broken stone, cause 
 approximately the same effect upon the strength of concrete as does the 
 presence of silt or clay. It is essential that this dust be removed by screen- 
 ing and washing practically in the same manner that silt or other foreign 
 material is removed from sand and gravel. 
 
 Mr. Buchanan : What about taking stones up from the field, that have a 
 little of the soil attached to them. Should they be washed? 
 
 Mr. Franks: You should wash them off if they have any of the soil 
 clinging to them. 
 
 Mr. Henry: To get rid of the dirt coating, we piled up several cords 
 of those field stone and let the rain wash them off for two years, and we 
 used them to very good advantage in our work this summer. 
 
 Mr. Boynton: I was going to suggest, Mr. Henry, that stone of that 
 kind can be washed easily, because when thrown up in a pile there is a 
 great volume of water that flows through, and by flushing them with a 
 hose you can wash them off very quickly. And our friend from Ohio was 
 talking about a porous sandstone. 
 
 Mr. Taylor : Now, where the gravel or sand is elevated from the river, 
 as is done by our sand and gravel companies, is it washed sufficiently? 
 
 Mr. Boynton: Yes, sir. Usually it is very clean. If there are no 
 further questions Mr. Dunning will open the discussion of the subject, 
 "The Effect of Consistency upon the Strength and Density of Cement 
 Products. " 
 
 Effect of Consistency Upon the Strength and Density of 
 
 Concrete Products 
 
 Discussion led by W. B. Dunning, Chicago 
 
 Mr. Dunning: By the consistency of freshly mixed concrete we mean 
 that property which depends upon the amount of water that is added to 
 the mixture, the consistency being the stiffness which the mixture possesses. 
 For convenience we ordinarily speak of three consistencies, damp earth, 
 quaking, and wet. 
 
 In the first, the concrete is mixed with just enough water to give it the 
 texture of loose earth which has been thrown out of the ground. To make 
 it stand up and adhere it has to be pressed tightly in the hands. By pack- 
 ing hard a little water can, with difficulty, be brought to the surface. 
 
 The quaking consistency is obtained by the use of considerably more 
 water. Concrete of a quaking consistency when heaped up in a pile and 
 struck with a shovel will quake like jelly and will settle down and form 
 a rounded pile. 
 
 In the. wet consistency still more water is used. In this condition con- 
 crete will flow. As a wheelbarrow of concrete is emptied it will flow over 
 a floor and stand at a thickness of three or four inches. 
 
 Damp earth consistency is used in the manufacture of concrete prod- 
 ucts. Care must be taken that enough water is used in the mixture so 
 that when the concrete is tamped into the forms by the machines a thin 
 
Universal Portland Cement Co. 
 
 27 
 
 Engine and Pump-house on the farm ot John F. Jelke, 
 Elgin, Illinois. 
 
 film of water is brought to the surface of the product. There is a very 
 definite way of telling when enough water has been used to do this. On a 
 drain tile, web-like markings show over the outer surface when enough 
 water has been used in the 
 mixture. 
 
 A tile made of concrete in 
 which insufficient water has 
 been used will be smooth on 
 the outside and will show 
 no marks where the water 
 has caused little web-like 
 ridges of cement. A tile 
 made of concrete of this 
 character in which a defi- 
 ciency of water is used is of 
 inferior quality. This is 
 also true of all other con- 
 crete products. 
 
 Made with enough water 
 and given proper care after 
 being removed from the 
 molds, that is, protected 
 from evaporation and sprin- 
 kled — or better steam cured — these products may be quite impermeable to 
 moisture. A good pipe can be cemented up on the bottom and filled with 
 water without dampness showing on the outer surface. The writer has 
 seen a pipe 23^ feet long made of concrete mixed to damp earth consistency 
 which had been standing full of water for two months and the pipe was quite 
 dry on the outer surface. It is also essential that the concrete blocks used 
 in the construction of buildings which are to be dry inside be made in the 
 manner described, that is with enough water to give this impermeable 
 quality. 
 
 The writer has seen concrete drain tile so porous that when they were 
 laid on the side and a glass of water was poured oyer them not a drop 
 would flow around the tile to the bottom, but all the water would be 
 absorbed by the concrete, some even passing through and dropping from 
 the inside upper surface. A concrete drain tile made in this manner is 
 absolutely worthless so far as I am able to learn. Samples of such pipe 
 have been sent to us which have gone to pieces in a short time in the ground 
 due to the fact that the cement was never allowed to harden properly, not 
 having been supplied with sufficient water. In that condition the cement 
 has about the same value as so much fine clay; what water the mixture 
 originally had having been allowed to evaporate before the cement could 
 use -it. Cement products must first be given enough water and then the 
 water must remain in the concrete until taken up by the cement. 
 
 In the ordinary process of manufacture, a drain tile is taken from the 
 machine in a jacket, placed upon a shelf or on a car, and the jacket is 
 removed in a few seconds from the time the damp concrete was pressed 
 into the form, and the tile stands up by virtue of the adhesiveness of the 
 concrete. Concrete which permits of such handling best defines the damp 
 earth consistency. 
 
28 Permanent and Sanitary Farm Implements 
 
 The quaking consistency should be used in ordinary concrete work such 
 as in the walls of a barn, plain floors, pavements, foundations and all 
 work not reinforced. Such concrete may be handled and compacted much 
 more readily than concrete of a damp earth consistency. It can be spread 
 around easily and requires little tamping. When such concrete is placed 
 in large masses it should be deposited in layers about 6 inches in depth, 
 and each layer should be puddled or rammed with a spade or scantling in 
 order to remove whatever air may be contained in the mass. There is 
 practically no danger with the quaking consistency of working the fine 
 material to the surface and permitting the coarse material to settle to the 
 bottom in the construction of floors or the other concrete work for which 
 it is recommended. 
 
 The amount of water required to produce this consistency cannot be 
 expressed in terms of so much water by weight of cement used because 
 different cements, different aggregates and different weather conditions 
 require the use of different percentages of water to produce the same 
 consistency. The term can best be defined by the use of such expressions 
 as "quaking like jelly," or "that mixture which will not flow without 
 breaking" that is, when dumped out of a wheelbarrow a portion will flow 
 out then break away from the remainder. 
 
 Concrete used in reinforced work should be mixed to a wet consistency. 
 When a network of reinforcement is used in a slab or when a silo is being 
 constructed with considerable steel reinforcement in the walls, the mixture 
 must be so fluid as to flow into place without tamping and without permit- 
 ting the possibility of air pockets being formed around the intersecting 
 reinforcement. Concrete of a wet consistency as was said before, when 
 dumped out of a wheelbarrow will flow of its own weight and spread 
 itself over a floor to a thickness of three or four inches. 
 
 In using concrete of a wet consistency there is a danger that too much 
 water may be used. When the concrete is too wet to give good results, if 
 a wheelbarrow load is dumped on a floor, the coarse gravel or stone all 
 stays where the mass is dumped and the fine material and mortar spread 
 about in a puddle around the coarse material, separating from it. It is 
 evident that such a condition cannot produce uniform, dense, strong, 
 concrete. In building walls with concrete mixed to a wet consistency, a 
 layer of fine material sometimes accumulates on the surface of the concrete. 
 When a wall has been carried up five or six feet in a day and is allowed 
 to harden over night, this fine material forms a layer on the surface which 
 must be removed before proceeding with the depositing of concrete in 
 order to prevent a porous ring or seam in the wall. This seam can be 
 done away with by removing this fine material to such depth as to expose 
 the coarse aggregate in the concrete, afterward bonding the new concrete 
 thoroughly to the old. 
 
 Ten years ago many engineers specified that concrete in all work 
 should be mixed to a damp earth consistency and required that thorough 
 tamping be done, but today all authorities agree that the quaking consist- 
 ency gives the strongest, densest concrete. In the manufacture of concrete 
 products where power tampers are used to produce the required density 
 of concrete the damp earth consistency gives the required strength and 
 density. With proper care in preventing the use of so much water as to 
 
Universal Portland Cement Co. 
 
 29 
 
 A Concrete Block Milk House properly provided with 
 cooling tanks, screened doors and windows assist 
 materially in making the business of dairying pleasant. 
 The illustration above shows the milk house on 
 Mooseheart Farm. 
 
 cause the separation of the different sizes of material in the concrete mixture 
 into layers the wet consistency gives strong, dense concrete without the 
 use of tamping and without danger of air pockets or improperly bonded 
 reinforcement. 
 
 Concrete which is made 
 with either wet or quaking 
 consistency will be water- 
 tight if the materials are of 
 good quality and enough 
 cement has been used in 
 the mixture and the con- 
 crete has not been allowed 
 to dry before thoroughly 
 hardened. Concrete made 
 of damp earth consistency, 
 to insure water-tightness, 
 must be thoroughly com- 
 pacted. This can ordinarily 
 be done sufficiently only by ' 
 the use of power tamping or 
 compacting devices. 
 
 To insure the proper hardening of concrete products, either of two 
 methods of curing may be used, natural or steam. In case natural curing 
 is used the products should be placed in rooms shut off from all draft. 
 As soon as the concrete has hardened sufficiently to permit of the appli- 
 cation of water, they should be sprinkled, being kept wet for from four to 
 seven days during summer temperature, or when the work is done indoors 
 in the winter time at the ordinary factory temperature of about 60 degrees 
 for a period of not less than seven days. The time required for curing 
 depends upon the temperature, a longer period being required at lower 
 temperatures. In case steam curing is used the products should be placed 
 in a steam chamber and cured for a period of about forty-eight hours. 
 After curing as described they may be placed in the yard and in dry 
 weather kept wet for about a week. 
 
 Good drain tile may be quite impermeable and the best cement drain 
 tile are those which offer the greatest resistance to the passage of water 
 through their walls. It is a common notion that drainage is assisted 
 through the walls of porous tile. That this is entirely wrong may be 
 demonstrated by noting the amount of water which will pass through 
 the walls of even the most porous tile which is capable of being used 
 satisfactorily in a drain. It has been calculated that ordinary porous tile 
 would not drain one-quarter inch of water from an acre of ground in 
 a week if drains were laid with water-tight joints. All drainage is done 
 through the joints in the tile. 
 
 Concrete made with clean, well graded aggregates, thoroughly mixed 
 with water enough to permit the thorough hardening of the cement, and 
 protected from evaporation until the hardening is well advanced, is 
 impermeable to water even under high pressure. The permeability is 
 affected by the amount of cement in the mixture and the workmanship 
 
30 
 
 Permanent and Sanitary Farm Improvements 
 
 in placing, puddling or compacting and finishing the surface; and concrete 
 can be made practically non-absorptive and damp-proof by the proper 
 use of these means without any special so-called waterproofing preparations. 
 Prof. Chase: I would like to ask the speaker if he thinks concrete 
 tile made as that is, would be safe in the ground above the frost line 
 where it would be frozen? 
 
 Mr. Dunning: Yes. The only danger comes when the tile freezes 
 when full of water and consequently bursts. A cast iron pipe under such 
 circumstances would do likewise. But as far as freezing of the tile is 
 concerned it has been found that this is one of the favorable arguments 
 for cement tile. 
 
 Mr. Pervier: What effect does steam curing have on the concrete tile? 
 Mr. Dunning: Steam curing accelerates hardening. A tile which is 
 cured in a steam chamber, having a temperature of a hundred degrees, 
 will have the strength at the end of forty-eight hours of approximately, that 
 which a tile cured in a curing chamber at ordinary atmospheric temperature, 
 say from 60 t.o 70 degrees, would have in ten days. But the principal advan- 
 tage of steam curing is the water vapor atmosphere which prevents any evap- 
 oration of the water that was mixed in the tile. Acceleration of hardening 
 is a secondary proposition, permitting earlier shipment of tile. I have 
 known many manufacturers to put them aboard cars and ship them in a 
 week, when steam-cured for two days, with very low breakage; thirty 
 days is ordinarily required with natural curing. 
 
 Mr. Jacobs: I want to ask in regard to the moisture in the building 
 of a wall, and tamping it in, and water stands in the top when we tamp 
 it in, is that evidence that there has been sufficient water added, or would 
 it be too much water? 
 
 Mr. Boynton : It is according to how much water stands in it. If you 
 have free water you certainly have plenty. If you have puddles of water 
 over the entire surface you have too much, I should judge. You would 
 not need any more than a film of water. 
 
 Mr. Franklin : The statement was made about this tile that any tile 
 that the water would pass through would be worthless. Now I don't 
 know whether we want to talk that on clay tile or not. I am afraid our 
 farmer friends who have been using clay tile that water passed through 
 
 would be rather hard to talk 
 to. The arguments in its 
 favor would be very plausible. 
 The only place we would have 
 any difficulty would be where 
 the outlet is, where they freeze 
 and would disintegrate. You 
 don't mean to say that clay 
 tile are not useful? 
 
 Mr. Boynton: I don't think 
 that Mr. Dunning should be 
 understood as discussing clay 
 tile. That remark would hold 
 good to a very large extent in 
 reference to a cement product, 
 
 Concrete 'Watering Trough on Jelke Farm, near Elgin, 
 111., with partial cover of concrete. 
 
Universal Portland Cement Co. 31 
 
 because you cannot get the strength and have it porous. That is what 
 Mr. Dunning meant. If you can get a clay tile burned and of the strength 
 required and have it porous, no one would object to it. But you must 
 have strength, and you can- 
 not get strength in a very 
 porous cement product. I do 
 not say that there are not sat- 
 isfactory cement tile through 
 which some water would pass, 
 but the passage of water would 
 be very slight. 
 
 Mr. Franklin: Couldn't you 
 make a tile that would be 
 porous and have it made like 
 some of those products you 
 have been showing there, 
 where the water would pass 
 
 thrOUffh ^ In One of those Guernseys making use of the concrete watering tank on 
 
 . ° ' . . the Hartwood Farm, Barrington, 111. 
 
 that were broken the speaker 
 
 said, I believe, that the water would pass through readily. If you have 
 
 the strength, wouldn't it be just as good as the other? 
 
 Mr. Boynton: Frost will not hurt porous cement tiling. That is 
 one of the most curious things you have to contend with. They are safe 
 from frost, but you don't get the strength. It is a question of strength and 
 not protection against frost. A porous cement tile can freeze and thaw 
 a number of times without being destroyed, whereas a porous clay tile 
 would be destroyed possibly in one such operation. But a porous cement 
 tile has not sufficient strength to carry the load that it has to carry safely. 
 Now we must remember that any product, cement, stone or clay or what- 
 not, is reduced in strength when it is wet, and the loss of strength is very 
 largely in proportion to the amount of water it absorbs. So we contend 
 that a product dry, well made, and of sufficient strength will carry all we 
 want it to carry. But we are deceiving ourselves unless we test that after 
 it has been soaked, because we are going to lose a considerable portion of 
 our strength by filling the walls with water. The object of this was to 
 show the difference in texture between a dry product and a wet one. 
 
 Mr. Henry: In regard to the point that was made as to the clay tile. 
 We carried out quite an extensive experiment along that line, and we found 
 this : We made the tests by taking tile, those that the water would soak 
 through readily, (clay tile I am speaking of now), and others that very little 
 water would pass through, practically none would pass through, and be- 
 tween the two we found invariably that those tile through which very 
 little water passed stood up against the weather conditions, being exposed to 
 freezing and thawing outside, better; they were in the ratio of about one 
 to two. In other words, those that took very little water stood up, and the 
 weather had no effect upon them, standing two or three years in the open, 
 while those that the water passed through readily went to pieces in one 
 year. 
 
 Prof. E. A. White : We don't want drain tile that the water goes 
 through a channel and right out, we want a solid and perfect drain tile, 
 and we want to tell the farmer to get a solid, hard tile that is not porous. 
 
32- Permanent and Sanitary Farm Improvements 
 
 Mr. Franklin: The simple fact that the water comes in does not 
 make them so they are not practical to use. It is simply a question of 
 whether they ought to use that kind of tile. We have got tile manufactur- 
 ers all over the country selling this kind of tile, and they have been selling 
 them for a number of years, and the farmers are satisfied with them, and we 
 cannot go to the farmer and argue against them, unless we can show him 
 that the other kind is much more practical. I am not trying to argue that 
 water does not go through the tile. I have studied civil engineering enough 
 to know that is true. But the question is whether they should use those 
 tiles. And I simply raised the question that we should be careful not to 
 put those things out to the farmers and make the statement that they are 
 not good, when they are getting results from them. That is something 
 that is the trouble with these Farmers' Institutes; we are making state- 
 ments that the farmers don't believe. Now that is what we are here for. 
 These people are giving us something that we need, giving us some valuable 
 information, and we want to go back to our farmer friends and tell them 
 something they will believe. 
 
 Mr. Boynton : I think you are right. The point is this that you can 
 buy a porous tile that experience has demonstrated is serviceable, but if 
 you can show him something that is denser, and that will do the work 
 better, you are foolish not to do so. 
 
 I think, gentlemen, we will stop on this part of the program now, and 
 drop down to the subject of silos and dairy barns. So if you will pass down 
 into the yard, Mr. Curtis and Mr. Fowler will direct the demonstration. 
 
 (Thereupon adjournment was taken to the school yard, where an open 
 air demonstration on silos and dairy barns was given.) 
 
Universal Portland Cement Co. 33 
 
 Silos and Dairy Barns 
 
 Discussion led by A. J. R. Curtis and E. S. Fowler, Chicago 
 
 Concrete Silo Forms 
 
 Mr. Curtis : All we shall undertake this afternoon is to point out the 
 essential features and the proper use of a good steel form. It is planned 
 to take up and thoroughly discuss the subject of silos during one of the 
 evening sessions. The form you see exhibited is a typical steel form such 
 as is used by contractors. Wooden forms are cheaper to build and are 
 suitable for the farmer's use, but they can seldom be used for over seven 
 or eight silos, while a form of this kind is practically indestructible. I 
 have known them to be used over a period of three or four years, building 
 possibly 50 silos. 
 
 Forms of this type must necessarily be constructed so rigid that they 
 can be used for but one diameter. You will notice that the complete 
 equipment consists of inner and outer wall forms, inner and outer chute 
 forms, a device for elevating and supporting the form and elevating the 
 concrete and the clamps and bolts by which the various parts are held 
 together. The pole, which you will have a chance to examine, is called 
 the center pole, and is used on several types of commercial forms. Its 
 functions are to provide the means of elevating and leveling the forms, 
 to carry the scaffolding (which is all on the inside of the structure), and 
 to form a mast for the derrick by means of which the concrete is elevated 
 and deposited within the forms. This small semi-circular form is used 
 in making the chute. If the farmer desired a silo with a concrete chute, 
 this semi-circular chute form is attached to the silo wall form, but in case 
 he does not desire the chute, an extra segment of wall form is substituted. 
 
 In starting to build a silo, the excavation is first made of sufficient 
 depth to get below frost. A footing 12 to 18 inches in depth is then put 
 down and the top is made as nearly level as possible. This footing will be 
 shaped like a ring, its width depending upon the size of the silo and the 
 character of the soil. The silo wall forms may then be placed in position 
 on the footing, great care being taken to have them exactly level and to 
 keep the inner and outer forms at uniform distances apart all around 
 by means of small wooden spacers. The center pole should be erected 
 in position. Great care should be taken to have it perfectly vertical and 
 securely guyed. Twenty feet or more of center pole is ordinarily put up 
 at the start, but practice varies somewhat with the different types of 
 forms. The center pole is made in sections as you see and can be length- 
 ened as desired. 
 
 The derrick for elevating the concrete, swings from the center pole. 
 It carries a small trolley which after the bucket is elevated, carries it 
 upon the derrick arm until it is directly over the wall, where it can be 
 dumped conveniently. You will notice this bucket tapers conveniently 
 to a width slightly less than the distance between the forms which pre- 
 vents loss of concrete when it is spouted from the bucket. Although with 
 due care it is entirely possible to build a good silo with steel forms of this 
 type without the center pole, this feature has come to be looked upon as 
 
34 
 
 Permanent and Sanitary Farm Improvements 
 
 very essential and certainly is a great convenience and labor saver in 
 keeping the whole construction true. If the center pole is not used, the 
 workmen must carefully level and plumb the forms at every raising. 
 
 Within a day or two, we shall inspect some silos made with forms of 
 this kind, which I do not believe vary an eighth of an inch from bottom 
 to top. That is a great deal more exact than is required for farm con- 
 struction. 
 
 All sections of the outer form are clamped together as you see here. 
 To remove the segments of the lower section, the clamps securing these 
 segments are first knocked off. The clamps attaching the lower segments 
 to the upper ones are then removed from one of the segments, and it is 
 lifted up by means of two long hooks operated by two men standing on 
 the top of the wall. The men then lift up the other segments in the same 
 manner. As each segment is lifted up to its new position, it is securely 
 clamped in place. If no center pole is used, the lower inside forms may 
 be removed in the same manner and placed in a new position on top. 
 If the type of center pole shown here is used, the center forms may be 
 loosened from each other and then raised by the center pole. One of the 
 other systems raises both the inner and outer forms by means of the center 
 pole. 
 
 Mr. Henry : Then, Mr. Curtis, there are only three feet of wall built 
 at a time? 
 
 Mr. Curtis: With a form of this kind, contractors commonly put up 
 three feet of wall in the morning, and three feet in the afternoon, making 
 
 Concrete Dairy Barn and Silo at Wakefield Farm, Barrington, 111., belonging to George E. Van Hagen. 
 The cow barn proper is 38x157 feet, houses 79 L Holsteins and provides about 600 cubic feet of air 
 space per animal. 
 
Universal Portland Cement Co. 35 
 
 six feet a day. The form which is filled in the morning is removed on the 
 following morning, and again filled. The form which is filled in the after- 
 noon is removed on the following afternoon and again filled. 
 
 Mr. Henry : Each time the concrete is allowed to harden for sometime 
 before the next is put on. Does it adhere properly to that previously 
 placed? 
 
 Mr. Curtis: When the concrete is placed in the forms and allowed 
 to stand over night it hardens somewhat, but the surface is generally so 
 rough that a good bond is formed to the concrete subsequently placed on 
 top of it. 
 
 If the surface has dried out to any extent, it is a wise precaution to 
 make a mixture of cement and water about as thick as cream and to paint 
 it over the top of the wall with a broom or a brush before filling the forms 
 again. One must be very careful to see that dirt, leaves and other 
 matter are removed, as the presence of any matter of this kind will prevent 
 a proper bond between the old and new concrete. 
 
 Mr. Henry: Is it well to have reinforcing run through from the old 
 to the new concrete? 
 
 Mr. Curtis : The reinforcing almost always extends through. At any 
 rate there is no great danger of the structure being materially weakened 
 at this point. The only trouble which might occur would be the seeping 
 through of a small amount of moisture in cases where the water pressure 
 on the inside is high. 
 
 Prof. Chase: How about your reinforcement, where, when and how? 
 
 Mr. Curtis: Monolithic silos are reinforced with steel rods or metal 
 fabric. There is a piece of the mesh over here on the ground you will 
 be interested in. This material comes in rolls and is cut off to the proper 
 length to extend around a silo; or in silos provided with a concrete chute, 
 each band of reinforcing extends around the silo and also around the 
 chute. 
 
 Prof. Chase: Is not wire fencing of equal cross-section just as good? 
 
 Mr. Curtis: Any type of mesh which would have an equivalent 
 cross sectional area in both directions would probably be suitable in place 
 of the type of mesh shown here, although fencing has a tendency to 
 stretch and is not as carefully made as the reinforcing mesh. I do not 
 wish to discuss the size of reinforcement to be used, because it varies 
 with each size of silo, and it would be impossible to cover the matter 
 satisfactorily within a short space of time. 
 
 Mr. Wagner: How do you get this reinforcing to pass a door when 
 you have a continuous door? 
 
 Mr. Curtis: A vertical steel rod is run up a short distance to either 
 side of the door opening. One end of the mesh is fastened by twisting 
 around one of these rods, and the mesh is then taken around the silo and 
 fastened to the other end. Then the stress is taken up across the doorway 
 with 1-inch horizontal rods, spaced 30 inches apart, with ends hooked 
 over the vertical rods and at either side of the door, or run straight back 
 into the concrete a distance of 50 inches or more to develop a good bond 
 with the concrete. 
 
36 Permanent and Sanitary Farm Improvements 
 
 Prof. Chase: How do you release the inner form? 
 
 Mr. Curtis: If the inner form is bolted together, as you see it here 
 and the concrete placed between it and the other form, the pressure of 
 the concrete on the inner form wedges it in so tightly that it will be practi- 
 cally impossible to remove it when desired. To get away from this trouble, 
 take a strip of soft wood one by two inches and place it between two 
 segments of the inner form, planing it off slightly to make it fit as a key 
 or wedge. To release the inner forms this strip is knocked off, giving 
 about an inch play between adjacent segments, which will make their 
 release an easy matter. 
 
 Prof. Chase: Which forms do you raise first, the inner or the outer? 
 
 Mr. Curtis: It is very much easier to raise the outer form first, be- 
 cause then the inner one is not in the way. Understand there is no staging 
 on the outside. 
 
 Prof. Chase: It is perfectly safe to do that, is it? No danger of 
 breaking your wall? 
 
 Mr. Curtis: Not with proper care. 
 
 Prof. Chase: How do you keep the concrete from sticking to this 
 form? 
 
 Mr. Curtis: There are several materials you can use to prevent 
 sticking. The most common is axle grease, but crude oil or any substance 
 of that kind, painted on the form every day, or every other day, will gener- 
 ally do it. I have seen soft soap used for that purpose, and in a few places 
 they use whitewash but this is objectionable because it is apt to stick to 
 the walls and makes the surface look dirty. 
 
 Mr. Buchanan: What is the approximate cost of a twelve by thirty- 
 foot silo? 
 
 Mr. Curtis : That all depends on where you build it, and what it costs 
 you for labor, cement, sand and gravel. 
 
 Mr. Buchanan : Assuming that you have the sand and gravel on the 
 ground. 
 
 Mr. Curtis: I imagine it will cost you two or two and a half dol- 
 lars per ton capacity, with a silo of that size, if it were equipped with 
 a concrete roof. It might run a little higher than that. But that is a 
 question that no one can answer definitely, without knowing the exact 
 conditions. 
 
 Mr. Buchanan: Ours cost $240 and it is a one hundred ton silo, 
 which would be $2.40 per ton capacity. 
 
 Question: What kind of doors are usually used? 
 
 Mr. Curtis : One of the best doors used by contractors is the three- 
 ply white pine door. A good many use a door made of two-ply one-inch 
 white pine. Some are making a steel door, which is a little more expensive. 
 Many farmers simply take two-inch plank about twelve inches wide, 
 and make their doors and sections just 12 inches high. But such doors! 
 of course, are not as practical or as easy to handle as the larger ones. 
 We advise sealing the doors with soft clay, to keep air from entering through 
 the cracks. A roll of building paper, run up vertically on the inside of 
 continuous doors, helps materially to keep out air. The paper should be 
 a foot wider than the door for best results. 
 
Universal Portland Cement Co. 
 
 37 
 
 Prof. Chase : How do you clean one of these forms, if you get it stuck 
 up with concrete? 
 
 Mr. Curtis : It is a very difficult matter to get the concrete off, if you 
 let it stick to the forms for any length of time. This is a thing no one 
 should do. Don't let a form go even for a day without cleaning. Concrete 
 stuck to forms is hard to get off. 
 
 Prof. Chase: Is it necessary to keep a concrete silo sprinkled, or to 
 wet it during the curing process? 
 
 Mr. Curtis: It is an impossibility to do much along that line. We 
 have to get our mixture into the forms pretty wet and let it go at that. 
 
 Prof. Chase: How expensive are these fourteen foot forms? 
 
 Mr. Curtis: That depends upon the forms. We are showing the 
 "Monsco" form as typical. There are half a dozen different types of 
 silo forms in use. I can't tell you the exact figure on this, but I would 
 be glad to place you in touch with the different manufacturers and get 
 you prices. The idea is not to show the goods of any particular manu- 
 facturer, but to show a form which possesses all the essentials, without 
 being too expensive. 
 
 Mr. Scott: Will they let those out for use, to farmers building silos? 
 
 Mr. Curtis: These forms are not let out. The manufacturers have 
 found that it is a poor business proposition for them to loan out equipment. 
 
 Question: Are the reinforcing rods that you place across these door- 
 ways used for a ladder? 
 
 Mr. Curtis: Yes. 
 
 If concrete is to be placed economically, all materials, such as cement, sand and gravel must be 
 arranged to be handled with a minimum of labor. The above illustration shows the construc- 
 tion work on the silo for the Kane County Farm. A batch mixer is shown in the background and 
 the water barrel at the side. 
 
38 Permanent and Sanitary Farm Improvements 
 
 Question: Doesn't it take a long legged man to use a ladder with 
 rounds thirty inches apart? 
 
 Mr. Curtis: With those horizontal reinforcing rods spaced thirty- 
 inches apart, every other step is on the door. The handle of the door is 
 used as a step, which is so placed that it is just midway between the 
 horizontal bars across the opening. 
 
 Prof. Chase: Is there any regular system that these contractors 
 carry out in getting the forms from one job to another? 
 
 Mr. Curtis: I don't know of any regular system in use. The manu- 
 facturers have endeavored to make these forms so they can be shipped 
 as compactly as possible, but I don't know of any regular system used by 
 contractors for moving them. We have been discouraging contractors 
 from moving around, trying to keep each one busy in his own vicinity. 
 When a man establishes a business, we try to help him develop it right 
 locally. It is not economical to move heavy equipment over long distances. 
 
 Question : Will it pay to put on anything but a wooden roof? 
 
 Mr. Curtis: Yes, I think a concrete roof is generally the most eco- 
 nomical to build for the reason that you have all your equipment there for 
 making concrete, and when you get to the roof it is a simple matter to 
 build the form, place the reinforcing and put on the concrete. The roof 
 forms are often made of wood, very much like a wooden roof, without the 
 shingles. The roof must be properly reinforced, preferably with mesh, 
 and the manufacturers will furnish directions as to how to place the 
 reinforcing properly. Is it possible to withdraw the wooden form from 
 under the roof, if you want to return for it, but it generally is not worth 
 going back after. It would have to be left in position until the roof 
 hardened sufficiently to permit removal which would generally be a matter 
 of a week or ten days. 
 
 Question: What is the value of having a roof on any but a wooden 
 silo? What is it for? 
 
 Mr. Curtis: There is considerable difference of opinion as to the 
 need of building roofs on silos in moderate climates, but I think Prof. 
 Randlett, Prof. C. W. Chase, and some of the men from up in the north- 
 west would be strong for roofs. Even in this moderate climate, the farmers 
 like them very much for they don't fancy the job of going up in an exposed 
 silo during stormy weather. When the weather is very cold the roof 
 undoubtedly keeps the silage from freezing. 
 
 Prof. L. W. Chase: I believe from my observation in the last three 
 or four years, that in the warm climates the roof is more valuable than in 
 the northern climate. We have three to five tons more loss in silage on 
 the top where we don't have a roof than where we do. The sun shines 
 down and dries it out and then it rains and soaks it up again, and then it 
 dries out again. Sometimes the spoiled silage would run down five or 
 six feet on one side, in the center about two feet, and on the other side 
 about three feet. We had two silos that stood one year without a roof, 
 and we threw out twice as much spoiled silage as we did on the other one 
 with a roof. 
 
 Mr. Henry: Wouldn't you have decidedly better silage if the silo 
 wall was coated on the inside? 
 
Universal Portland Cement Co. 
 
 39 
 
 Mr. Curtis: From our observation we do not feel that a coating 
 of any kind is necessary. The Dairy Division at Washington has been 
 advising the coating of the inside of silos, but there is no reason if the 
 concrete is properly mixed, 
 deposited fairly' wet, and 
 properly spaded about the <*: «* 
 
 edges, why you cannot make ^ 
 
 a wall that will be water-tight , " 
 
 and airtight. If this is done, 
 there is no need for a coating 
 of any kind on the inside of ^| 
 
 the silo. 
 
 Mr. Henry : Well, is it not 
 a fact that the more nearly 
 water-tight it is, the better 
 silage will keep? 
 
 Mr. Curtis: Yes, but it is 
 also a fact that a silo without 
 coating can be made tight 
 enough to be used as a water 
 tank. It is better to make 
 your silo tight by the use of 
 proper materials and proper 
 mixing of the materials, than 
 it is to try to accomplish the 
 results with a thin coating, 
 which may wear or peel off. 
 
 There is certainly no objection to coating or plastering the walls with 
 some mixture that will stay there, but this should seldom if ever be neces- 
 sary. Some interesting tests have been made recently — I have in mind 
 some made by the University of Wisconsin, in which silage that had lain 
 next to the concrete wall was compared with silage taken from the middle 
 of the silo. The analyses of these samples were so close together that 
 there was no perceptible difference. I understand that unmarked sam- 
 ples were submitted to a distinguished professor of dairying in one of our 
 colleges, and that he chose the silage from next to the wall as the best 
 sample. 
 
 Question: Are many of the contractors prepared to build water 
 tanks on top of silos? 
 
 Mr. Curtis: Many contractors are engaged in building water tanks 
 on silos at present. 
 
 As our time has passed, we will close this discussion now, and Mr. 
 Fowler will take up a discussion on Dairy Barn Floors. 
 
 The barnyard of F. C. Dunning, at Dundee, 111., is 
 provided not only with a concrete silo, but a trough of 
 the same material which is so arranged as to serve 
 two yards. 
 
40 
 
 Permanent and Sanitary Farm Improvements 
 
 
 o 
 
 03 
 
 raft* I 
 
 -*4f 
 
 Q 
 
 o: 
 
Universal Portland Cement Co. 41 
 
 Demonstration of Section of Model Dairy Barn Floor 
 
 Mr. Fowler : This model is a section of a dairy barn floor. It is built 
 the full width of a cow stall and half the width of a thirty-six foot barn. 
 
 One of the earliest uses of concrete on the farm was for barn floors. The 
 first floors were constructed in a careless way; little time being given to 
 their design. But recently, considerable study in the design of concrete 
 floors for dairy barns has entirely done away with the objections raised 
 against this type of floor and the comforts for the cow have been 
 improved. 
 
 At the present time there are two methods of construction. In the 
 old method two-course pavement is used; making a sub-base of concrete 
 and covering it with a finishing coat about 1 inch thick made of one part 
 cement and two parts sand. The other method is known as one-course con- 
 struction in which the concrete is made richer in cement and wetter in 
 consistency. By the use of the wooden float coarse material is crowded 
 down and enough finer brought to the surface so that it is possible to finish 
 to the desired surface. The section illustrated was made by the one- 
 course method. The concrete is 6 inches in thickness, as you will observe, 
 and was made in the proportion of 1 :2 :3, that is, one part cement, two 
 parts sand and three parts gravel: In mixing this concrete enough water 
 was used to make it of the "quaky" consistency, so that when the surface 
 was struck with a straight edge but a slight amount of water appeared on 
 the surface. By the use of the straightedge and wooden float the floor is 
 left with the desired smoothness and is one which will not wear slippery. 
 
 The dimensions of this stall are as follows : starting with the alley behind 
 the cows this should be at least 4 feet wide with a slope of a quarter of an 
 inch to the foot toward the gutter. The gutter is 20 inches wide with a 
 slope of 34 inch towards the alley just mentioned. It is made with a 3-inch 
 depression below the alley behind the cows and 8 inches below the stall. 
 The 3-inch drop from the alley keeps the litter and liquids in the gutter 
 and the animals live in cleanliness. Moreover, it permits sunlight reaching 
 a greater portion of the gutter than would be the case if it were the same 
 depth as on the side next to the platform of the stall. This also assists the 
 cow in entering and departing from the stall. The reason for giving the 
 gutter a slope of 34 of an inch is to cause all liquids to drain to the farthest 
 distance from the animal, resulting in greater cleanliness and better drain- 
 age. 
 
 The platform of the stall is 4 feet 8 inches long, which is the average 
 length recommended for general cow stalls. Starting at the manger 
 there is a depression of % of an inch for a distance of 14 inches from it. 
 From this point to the gutter it has a slope of one inch, the object of which 
 is obvious. The aim of the small depression under the front feet of the 
 animal is to retard the bedding from working backward. It has been 
 claimed that with a flat floor the bedding works from under the cow's feet, 
 leaving the floor bare; when the cow reaches for food, often losing her foot- 
 hold, slips and falls to the floor, bruising her knees. By means of this 
 depression, the bedding and fine material are held in this small pocket 
 Moreover, the slight ridge affords a toe hold to brace against and there- 
 fore does not cause her to slip as often as on a level floor. 
 
42 
 
 Permanent and Sanitary Farm Improvements 
 
 The greatest height of the concrete curb above the stall platform is 10 
 inches. The top of the cut-out above the platform is 6 inches. At the low- 
 est point of this cut-out, the hook to which the chain of the stanchion is 
 fastened, is set before the concrete hardens. In constructing this stall care 
 should be exercised to secure a very smooth surface both on the manger 
 side and on the side next to the stall and also to insure smooth, round corners. 
 
 The lower part of the manger is 8 inches below the stanchion curb; 
 10 inches below the feed alley and the total width is 2 feet with a general 
 curve from the stanchion wall towards the feed alley. The surface of this 
 manger should be troweled as smooth as possible. The surface of the feed 
 alley should be the same as that of the cow stall platform which is obtained 
 by means of a straightedge. 
 
 Mr. Buchanan: I thought you had to build a form for making this 
 stanchion wall. If you do not, you cannot make it of a "quaky" con- 
 sistency, such as you suggest. 
 
 Mr. Fowler : You do have to use forms for the stanchion wall and they 
 should be removed as soon as possible and the surface worked with a 
 smooth trowel. In putting in a cow stall the first operation should be the 
 construction of a platform behind the animals; next the construction of 
 the stall platform and the stanchion walls. At this stage of the work 
 it is necessary to assemble your steel stanchions and thoroughly brace them 
 in position. As soon as the forms can be removed from the manger wall, 
 the concrete manger and feed alley can be built. The last operation is the 
 
 Interior of the Cow Barn at the St. Charles Boys' School, St. Charles, 111 
 
Universal Portland Cement Co. 
 
 43 
 
 Jersey Bull, 
 Geneva, 111. 
 
 "Ocean [Blue," owned by Nell Fabyan, 
 
 construction of the gutter. In regard to giving the manger wall and man- 
 ger a plaster coat, this ought only to be done in case you have failed to ob- 
 tain as smooth a surface as desired by the former method. 
 
 Mr. Buchanan : Is it neces- 
 sary to dry fill under your 
 concrete floor so that the cold 
 and dampness will not come 
 through from the ground ? 
 
 Mr. Fowler: It is best to 
 make a fill under the floor if 
 the ground underneath it is 
 low and saturated with ground 
 water. By the use of the mix- 
 ture just advocated, that is 
 1 :2 :3 mixture, we have water- 
 tight concrete through which 
 water will not penetrate. 
 However, wherever it is pos- 
 sible, it always pays to use a 
 sub-base made either of crushed cinders or gravel from 6 to 8 inches 
 deep, which makes a porous substance that affords drainage and does not 
 permit water to accumulate directly under the concrete. 
 
 In regard to the dampness that occurs on concrete floors, this is due to 
 improper ventilation. The moisture thrown off by animals enclosed in 
 the stable must be removed or it will condense upon the exposed surface 
 of the stable. With proper ventilation this should not occur. 
 
 Mr. Buchanan: Have you any method that you advise to stop the 
 conduction of cold through the floor? 
 
 Mr. Fowler: Some advocate the installation of tar paper in the con- 
 crete platform but I am not personally in favor of this. I believe if you 
 make a water-tight floor such as I have suggested with sufficient bedding 
 upon it, that there will be no detrimental effects to the animals from cold. 
 It is certain that a concrete floor is warmer than wooden floors a foot or 
 two from the ground. 
 
 Mr. Van Pelt: How about an adjustable stanchion? 
 
 Mr. Fowler : This equipment was furnished by the Louden Machinery 
 Co. of Fairfield, Iowa. They furnish adjustable stanchions to buyers 
 who insist upon having them, but I undertand, they do not advocate 
 them. Personally I think the principle of adjustable stanchions is wrong. 
 In the first place you place the food of the cows in the manger, and then 
 you provide a mechanical device to prevent her from getting to it. A 
 logical way, in my estimation, to accommodate all lengths of cows, is to 
 vary the length of the platform. 
 
 The best way to do this, is to build the stalls on a bias ; making them 
 5 feet 4 inches at one end and 4 feet 2 inches at the other. This will give 
 you an opportunity to place the shorter cows on the shorter platform and 
 the longer cows on the longer platform, and grading the rest according to 
 the intermediate distances. 
 
 Mr. Van Pelt : Do you provide any partitions in the manger or let the 
 cattle all feed together? 
 
44 Permanent and Sanitary Farm Improvements 
 
 Mr. Fowler: The concrete should not be formed into manger parti- 
 tions for sanitary reasons, since if corners are formed, places are provided 
 where germs can lodge and breed. 
 
 Prof. Chase: How do you roughen the floor after it has worn smooth? 
 
 Mr. Fowler: Floors will not wear into that condition because there is 
 no top coat. It is the same material from top to bottom. This is the ad- 
 vantage of one-course mixtures. 
 
Universal Portland Cement Co. 45 
 
 Evening Session 
 
 Lewis Institute Monday, August 18, 1913 
 
 C. W. Boynton, Presiding 
 
 Mr. Boynton : The first topic on the program this evening is " Cement 
 Drain Tile Manufacture," the discussion of which will be led by Mr. Lib- 
 berton. We have two different types of machines here, which we shall 
 undertake to demonstrate, but cannot afford to give them much time on 
 account of the topics left over from this afternoon. 
 
 Cement Drain Tile Manufacture 
 
 Discussion led by J. H. Libberton, Chicago 
 
 Mr. Libberton: Since the program is printed showing the demon- 
 stration first in order, we may as well begin that way. Mr. Dunn will 
 demonstrate his machine now. The two machines before you 
 will be demonstrated; the one, the Dunn drain tile machine, the other 
 the Farmers' cement tile machine. Both machines make tile by what 
 now seems to be a common principle, that of the rotating packer 
 head, which while revolving, is fed up and down, packing the concrete. 
 The Dunn tile machine makes tile in sizes from 3 inches up to 12 
 inches, the other from 3 inches to 8 inches. It is not considered good 
 practice, however, to make or lay a 3-inch tile, with all due deference to 
 the men who manufacture the machines; you are all familiar with the 
 fact that even a 4-inch tile clogs too easily in a drain. . The Dunn machine 
 will make about 1,500 tile per day, operating with three men. The Farmers' 
 tile machine does equally as well, making 1,000 to 1,200 tile with two men. 
 
 Mr. Boynton: Here are some samples of tile that were made at 11 
 o 'clock today. We shall pass them around and you may examine them. 
 
 Mr. Libberton: You are all good judges of concrete products, after 
 the discussion of this afternoon. You can tell by looking at the water- 
 marks on the inside and outside whether or not these are good tile. I 
 looked over these tile beforehand and I believe some were made with a wet 
 mixture, and some with a dry mixture. The watermarks, by the way, are 
 generally easier to see on the cured tile than on the fresh tile, for the 
 reason that the watermarks, containing more cement, show light against 
 the darker surface. You also can detect them more easily in the daylight. 
 
 The packer head in the Dunn tile machine makes thirty-three revolu- 
 tions going up and seventeen coming back. The packer head of the Farm- 
 ers ' cement tile machine makes thirty-two revolutions going up and drops 
 back. The main difference between the two machines is in the fact that 
 the Farmers' cement tile machine uses a flexible extra jacket, which is left 
 on the tile after the outer jacket is removed. You see it locks in by a 
 simple device, and is kept on until the tile is partially hardened. By 
 this method you can make a very wet tile. In addition to that the tile is 
 protected from air currents during the curing. 
 
 I want to give you a brief summary of the cement tile situation 
 in the United States. It was not, I believe, until the year 1871 
 
46 
 
 Permanent and Sanitary Farm Improvements 
 
 that Portland cement was made in this country to any extent. Quite 
 an amount of the cement was manufactured at South Bend, Indiana; and 
 at this point we have discovered some of the first tile which were made of 
 Portland cement in this country. We have on exhibition one of those old 
 tile. At that time drain tile were not made in any large quantities 
 out of Portland cement. Many more of these pipe are in service at 
 South Bend today, and give mute evidence of the fact that Portland ce- 
 ment, when properly made into impervious concrete, will make a very sat- 
 isfactory tile or pipe. 
 
 It was not until about the year 1905, that the idea was conceived of 
 making drain tile commercially out of Portland cement and sand; and in 
 that year we had one small plant which was started in Iowa. From 1905 
 on to 1913 is only eight years, but in that time we have had a wonderful 
 development in the cement tile industry. In the year 1911 authentic 
 records show that there were about 150,000,000 feet of cement tile manu- 
 factured in this country, the value of which was something like $5,300,000. 
 Therefore, you can see that the industry has grown to wonderful propor- 
 tions. 
 
 Starting with the first tile which were manufactured, the manufacturer 
 of the machine, wishing particularly to sell his machine, and not the prod- 
 uct, told his prospects of the wonderful possibilities of this new applica- 
 tion of concrete; and on the strength of the representations of its recognized 
 advantages in other lines, he led the people to whom he sold the machines to 
 believe that it was possible to make satisfactory concrete out of a mix- 
 ture of one part cement and seven or eight parts, or even more, of sand. 
 Further, tile with this mixture were said to possess extreme porosity. 
 In order to prove his claim, after making the first tile, and letting it stand 
 for a day or so, he could almost blow tobacco smoke through the wall. 
 Mr. Dunning told you this afternoon of pouring a cup of water over an 8- 
 inch tile, and seeing, inside of a quarter of a minute, all the water absorbed. 
 
 13-inch Concrete Pipe in use at Mishawaka, Ind., for over 25 years. 
 
Universal Portland Cement Co. 
 
 47 
 
 Pingree Grove Cement Tile Plant inspected by the 
 Conference Delegates. 
 
 I dare say that this tile could not compare with some of the original cement 
 tile which, have been manufactured in the manner and of the mixture 
 described. 
 
 Naturally enough, when such tile were placed in the drain, unsat- 
 isfactory service resulted. The 
 opponents of concrete were 
 quick to appreciate the oppor- 
 tunity which this offered them, 
 and immediately dug out a 
 few; and it was not very hard 
 digging. A great many of the 
 tile were hardly in such shape 
 that they could be dug out 
 whole. These were held up to 
 the public as proof of the fact 
 that ground water would wash 
 the cement all out of the tile. 
 To tell the truth there was 
 practically no cement in the 
 tile to begin with, so that when they were dug out of the ground they were 
 naturally in worse condition than when placed. I have one of these tile 
 here. Notice its porous condition. You may argue all you want about the 
 value of porous tile for draining land, but when you have a practical lesson 
 like this before you, argument ceases. Porosity, can be obtained in two 
 ways. It can be obtained either by limiting the amount of cement which 
 you use, or by limiting the amount of water. Neither way makes for good 
 concrete. 
 
 An excellent way to tell whether or not you have good concrete is to 
 strike it with a piece of metal. If it gives forth a clear, bell-like sound, 
 you are pretty sure it is good concrete. 
 
 With the idea in mind of improving the manufacture of concrete, we 
 sent a special representative through the country, in an effort to educate 
 the different manufacturers of concrete pipe to the necessity of care in 
 manufacture. On this we were very successful, but, after all, the real 
 test of the pudding is the eating thereof, as they say, and we had no ac- 
 curate standard by which to judge the finished tile. In other words, by 
 merely looking at a tile you cannot tell by what method it was made. 
 
 We consequently designed a testing machine, and in determining the 
 ability of the tile to withstand various loads, we are enabled to rely 
 largely on specifications; so that it is now possible to buy drain tile un- 
 der a strength specification — not as to their manufacture, nor as to the 
 amount of cement which was used in them — but upon the strength 
 which they will support. 
 
 The subject was discussed this afternoon as to why concrete tile 
 will stand up under frost where other tile will not. I cannot give any ex- 
 planation but, in traveling through the country I noticed many instances 
 where the manufacturer of concrete tile was replacing old drain tile out- 
 lets with concrete pipe, and at his own expense, merely as an advertising 
 proposition. It was found to be a pretty good scheme, because concrete 
 tile do withstand frost in the ground or on the surface. 
 
48 
 
 Permanent and Sanitary Farm Improvements 
 
 As to the question which was raised this afternoon, as to whether or 
 not a porous clay tile can be placed in the ground and work satisfactorily, 
 that depends on the conditions. The element which has the greatest 
 effect upon clay tile is frost. If clay tile, then, are below the frost line, it 
 will make no difference whether they are hard or soft burnt, because there 
 is rarely any disintegration below the frost line. But if frost is to be en- 
 countered, the only tile material which will withstand it successfully is 
 concrete or hard burned clay. 
 
 Mr. Henry: You spoke a while ago of testing the tile, of their being 
 made under a specification. Do you mean, the test these tiles are put 
 to is a test of their crushing strength? Would that test be in pounds? 
 
 Mr. Boynton: I -would say that no tile should test, regardless of its 
 diameter, under 600 pounds, and you could not consider a tile satisfactory 
 if the strength, up to a thousand pounds, or up to 10 inches, did not in- 
 crease 100 pounds to the inch above 6 inches. That would make it 800 
 pounds for the 8-inch size, and so forth. 
 
 The loading is done on two supports, 2J4 inches apart, just enough to 
 separate them, applying the load on a half-round strip along the top. 
 
 Now, let. us proceed to the next part of the program. If any of you 
 gentlemen feel we are running along too rapidly, and want to ask ques- 
 tions,just make a note of them, and we shall have a chance to come back and 
 review all of them. As we go out over the country tomorrow to the dif- 
 ferent places, we shall undertake to show you the material that we are 
 demonstrating here tonight in actual use. Mr. Dunning will now discuss 
 
 Trolley Dump from the Cow Barn at the St. Charles Boys' School 
 
Universal Portland Cement Co. 49 
 
 The Theory of Reinforcing 
 
 Loading Test on Concrete Beams, Reinforced and Not Reinforced. 
 Discussion led by W. B. Dunning, Chicago 
 
 Mr. Dunning: In a reinforced concrete beam, steel is placed in that 
 part of the beam which is put in tension, to take the tensile stress. In a 
 wooden beam, which is supported at the ends and loaded in the ordinary 
 manner, the fibres in the lower part of the beam are said to be in tension, 
 and in the upper part of the beam in compression. There is a tendency 
 for the beam to pull apart at the lower side, and compress together at the 
 upper side. Concrete of ordinary proportions and materials will fail in 
 compression at a stress of about 2,000 pounds per square inch, at the age 
 of twenty-eight days. But in tension it will ordinarily break at a stress not 
 over 300 or 400 pounds per square inch, hence the concrete beam is not 
 economical without reinforcement. It pulls apart at the bottom long 
 before the material in the upper part of the beam has been stressed up 
 to its safe working load. Therefore steel is placed in the lower part of 
 the beam to take the tensile stress; that is, to resist the tendency to pull 
 apart, the concrete being then allowed to develop a very much higher 
 resistance in compression than it could develop otherwise. 
 
 We made up some beams which measure 3 inches by 5 inches, in cross 
 section and 5 feet in length. They have been supported at points 1 feet 
 apart. One beam was made out of concrete, without any steel in it. The 
 other beam was reinforced with a percentage of reinforcement which 
 amounts to about eight-tenths of one per cent. The plain beam was load- 
 ed with a load suspended from the middle of the beam. When a load of 450 
 pounds had been put on the middle of the beam, it broke. A reinforced 
 beam was supported in the same way, and carried about 1,450 pounds 
 and the beam showed no sign of fracture, and showed no noticeable 
 deflection. The beams were made of the same kind of concrete; they are 
 the same age, and contain the same amount of cement. 
 
 Mr. Boynton: It might be interesting to know, Mr. Dunning, that 
 the concrete for those two beams was mixed up in one batch. Part of 
 it was put in a mold without reinforcement, and part of it was put in a 
 mold in which reinforcing had been placed. The beams are about three 
 weeks old. The concrete is identical. 
 
 Mr. Dunning: In all places where the concrete is subjected to bend- 
 ing stresses such as described, it is economical to use steel in the concrete. 
 For instance, in beams supporting roofs, supporting floors over basement 
 excavations, or supporting second stories in barns, in lintels that go over 
 doorways and windows, and in the bottom of tanks, reinforcement is 
 economical. I say it is economical because a plain beam strong enough 
 to carry the load with any degree of safety would require the use of so 
 much more concrete that the work would become very clumsy, and very 
 unsightly and more expensive. In the case of a beam like the one described 
 with eight-tenths of one -per cent of reinforcing material, the reinforce- 
 ment costs about half as much as the concrete material in the beam; 
 and in this case the reinforced beam carries four times the load that 
 caused the failure of the plain beam. 1 
 
 Mr. Henry: What size reinforcement is in there? 
 
50 Permanent and Sanitary Farm Improvements 
 
 Mr. Dunning: In that beam there are two J^-inch round rods. 
 
 Mr. Becker: Mr. Dunning, you have spoken several times about 
 the amount of reinforcing being eight-tenths of one per cent. I think 
 it would be a good idea to explain what you mean by "eight-tenths of 
 one per cent." 
 
 Mr. Dunning: I spoke of the percentage of reinforcement. That 
 is the only way that the amount of reinforcement can be expressed, and 
 that statement will hold true in any case. For instance, take the cross 
 section of this beam. This beam is 3 inches wide, and it is 4j/£ inches 
 deep down to where the steel is. The steel is Yi inch from the bottom, 
 that gives an effective area of W/i square inches. I know that if I put 
 eight-tenths of one per cent of reinforcement, I will haye enough steel 
 so that when the breaking point of the concrete in that beam is reached, 
 the reinforcing steel is also taking all the load that it may safely carry. 
 In other words, I have developed both of them up to their full working 
 value. The beam is then economically designed. The eight-tenths of 
 one per cent of 133^ square inches gives the required cross section area of 
 steel. That is to be figured, then, on every different sized beam. If I 
 said that a J^-inch round rod in a beam could be used, say 4 feet long, 
 that would be true only for certain loads. The amount of steel required 
 depends entirely upon the cross section of the beam. It can only be 
 expressed as a percentage of the cross sectional area of the beam. 
 
 Mr. Lindley: Then the percentage is determined by the area? 
 
 Mr. Dunning: No. With given qualities of steel and concrete the 
 percentage is constant for all sizes of beams, and the amount of steel 
 varies with the cross section of the beam. 
 
 Question: Do I understand you to say that the reinforcement 
 strength is equal to the concrete strength? Do you mean the crushing 
 strength of the concrete in the body of your beam is equal to the tensile 
 strength of the steel? 
 
 Mr. Dunning: The beam is so designed that the strength of the 
 concrete will at least be equal to the strength of the steel; in other words, 
 so that there is enough concrete there to resist in compression the same 
 stress that the steel will resist in tension. 
 
 Mr. Bassett: Is that steel smooth steel? 
 
 Mr. Dunning: Plain, round, smooth steel. 
 
 Mr. Bassett: Is there anything against using corrugated steel of 
 the same diameter? 
 
 Herd of Pure Bred Holsteins, raised by the boys of the St. Charles School 
 
Universal Portland Cement Co. 51 
 
 Mr. Dunning: No. Corrugated steel is used by some engineers. 
 By "corrugated steel" you mean in general, deformed bars of any size? 
 Mr. Bassett: Yes. 
 
 Mr. Dunning: Some engineers use deformed bars exclusively, but 
 in general the plain steel supplies all the requirements for reinforcing con- 
 crete beams. 
 
 (19) I should think a corrugated, twisted, steel rod would be all right. 
 
 Mr. Dunning: Tests do not show any marked advantage for the de- 
 formed bars over the plain bars. There are certain places where there is 
 an advantage in using deformed bars, but for ordinary work, such as you 
 will have to do on the farm, it is not likely that the advantage of deformed 
 bars amounts to anything over the plain bars. In these beams the quarter 
 inch bars are bent up, at the end of the beam, and then bent back; in other 
 words, they are hooked. The steel is bent up at the end, and bent back, in 
 order to give the bar anchorage. That prevents the steel from pulling out, 
 and should be done in all cases where the ends of the beam are near to the 
 supports. If you have a lintel over a doorway or a window, the reinforc- 
 ing rods can be made long enough not to require bending to get the anchor- 
 age. 
 
 Mr. Larson : Is there any difference in the tensile strength or rather, 
 is it necessary to emphasize the difference in the tensile strength in the 
 different bars that can be used, or can we go on the market and buy any 
 piece of steel? 
 
 Mr. Dunning : It is safe to assume that ordinary plain, mild or medium 
 steel will safely carry a stress of about 16,000 pounds per square inch of 
 cross section, and it is not well to assume that certain kinds of steel will 
 give you more strength than other kinds. It is true there are steel rods 
 that develop 20,000 and 25,000 pounds safely; I do not mean they break 
 at that stress, but they will carry it without sign of failure. But the con- 
 ditions in the concrete are such that the best engineering practice is to use 
 a stress of not more than 16,000 pounds for all steel. The deformation of 
 the steel is such that it is not advisable to use a higher stress for any kind 
 of steel. 
 
 Mr. Lindley: I was wondering what the effect would be of using 
 gas pipe for reinforcement, in place of a solid bar. 
 
 Mr. Dunning: I do not think it would be economical, ordinarily. 
 I have often been asked that question and how it would do to use old barb- 
 ed wire fencing that has been lying in the field, old wagon tires, gas pipe and 
 all that sort of thing. Steel costs two or three cents a pound. It is not ex- 
 pensive. The cost of the steel in the reinforced structures that you will 
 have to build on the farm is a small part of the cost, and it is not worth 
 while to use old iron, which may have a crack or hole, which will make 
 a weak place in the steel. For instance, suppose that a beam were rein- 
 forced with old wagon tires and in the middle of the beam the old tire had 
 a hole in it. Then the value of the reinforcement is gone. The steel in 
 the ends will not compensate for this weakness, as the steel in the beam 
 at the ends has practically no stress upon it, the greatest stress being in the 
 middle of the beam. The use of old material of that kind is not advisable 
 where you expect to have good and lasting results. If it is a question of 
 
52 
 
 Permanent and Sanitary Farm Improvements 
 
 just simply getting a whole lot of steel into the concrete in order to get 
 rid of it, all right; but I would never use junk, and expect to get the same 
 results that I would get if I used good steel. 
 
 Question: Does that estimate of eight-tenths of one per cent of the 
 cross section area hold regardless of the dimensions of the beam? For in- 
 stance, take a beam 3x4. That would have a cross section area of 12 
 inches. Would the reinforcement be the same in a beam 2x6? 
 
 Mr. Dunning: Economical design of reinforced concrete beams in- 
 volves the proportions of the beam, breadth and depth, as well as reinforce- 
 ment. There is only one ratio of breadth to depth for materials of given 
 strength for maximum economy of design and only one percentage of rein- 
 forcement, regardless of the size of the beam. This economical ratio is 
 automatically provided in the design of slabs by the use of the proper 
 percentage of steel. When the dimensions of a beam are fixed by other 
 considerations than economyof steel and concrete the amount of steel must 
 be calculated for each case varying with the depth of the neutral axis of 
 the beam. 
 
 Mr. Bassett: I would like to ask, will this reinforcing steel deteri- 
 orate in this beam? 
 
 Mr. Dunning: No. If the concrete is made of the consistency that 
 was called this afternoon "damp earth consistency" and steel is placed in 
 it, the steel will never be properly coated with the concrete, and the bond 
 will never be what it should be. Water may penetrate through the con- 
 crete, and there is a possibility of the steel rusting. In any event, you do 
 not get the bond between the steel and the concrete that you should have. 
 For reinforced concrete work it is absolutely essential that you use a wet 
 mixture. Then the steel is coated with a cement grout, and the concrete 
 bonds to the steel. Reinforced concrete work has been dug up that had 
 been in a sewer for 15 or 20 years, and the steel has come out in the same 
 condition that it was put in. 
 
 Concrete posts are good to look at. Farm of O. F. Arp, Elkhorn, Wis. 
 
Universal Portland Cement Co. 53 
 
 Mr. Chase: What is the relative cost of a concrete beam as against 
 a steel beam? 
 
 Mr. Dunning: Well, I would say the cost of the concrete beam is 
 very much less than the cost of a steel beam. For instance, the concrete 
 frame for a building costs at the rate of not over $20 a cubic yard, which 
 is, say 50 cents per 100 pounds. Structural steel, with the shop work on it, 
 costs five cents a pound. That would be $5 per 100 pounds. The finished 
 cost of a reinforced concrete building is usually about 15 per cent less than 
 the cost of a fireproofed steel frame structure. 
 
 Mr. Seass : I know a contractor who will not use his steel unless it is 
 rusted. He says the rust makes a better binding surface. 
 
 Mr. Dunning: A light coating of rust does not do any harm, but it 
 probably does not do any good. Steel that is rusted, but not pitted or 
 scaled is found to adhere perfectly in concrete, and never rusts any more; 
 but if the steel has a coating of scale, or is pitted, of course it is injured to 
 some extent. 
 
 Mr. Chase: I have had this argument put up to me by reinforced 
 concrete fence post makers : they would say that smooth reinforcing steel, 
 after being used about seven or eight years would not adhere to the con- 
 crete. Is there anything in that? 
 
 Mr. Dunning: I do not think there is, if the concrete was properly 
 made and properly placed around the steel. Reinforced concrete struc- 
 tures have been used in this country for forty years, and we have no knowl- 
 edge of any deterioration of the steel in these structures. The reinforce- 
 ment is used for two different purposes; in beams such as we have here, 
 and to resist the tendency of large concrete structures to crack. The 
 cracking is caused by the contraction, either while hardening, or due 
 to low temperatures; and if walls are to be built 30 or 40 feet long and over, 
 without joints they should be reinforced to resist cracking. In structural 
 work in frame buildings the steel should be used over doorways, over 
 windows, in beams and slabs, in roof work, and places of that kind. The 
 point is to get your concrete properly mixed and placed, so that it will 
 adhere to the steel, and the steel properly placed, as shown on the drawings. 
 It must be in the place where it is called for, where it is shown to be on the 
 drawings; otherwise it would probably do no good at all. Steel in the top 
 of a beam, loaded in the ordinary manner, would do absolutely no good. 
 The placing of the steel in its proper position, and the getting of the con- 
 crete around it of such consistency as to adhere to it properly, are the two 
 things that have to be attended to. Of course, reinforced concrete work 
 must be done according to plans which are supplied by an engineer, in most 
 cases. 
 
 Mr. Boynton : Gentlemen, we are running beyond our schedule, so we 
 shall pass on to the next subject, "Concrete Fence Posts," which will be 
 discussed by Professor Musselman. 
 
54 
 
 Permanent and Sanitary Farm Improvements 
 
 Concrete Fence Posts 
 
 Discussion led by Prof. H. H. Musselman, Michigan, and C. K. Arp, Chicago 
 
 Prof. Musselman: The problem of concrete fence posts, is right in 
 line with what has already been said regarding reinforced concrete beams. 
 It is almost, strictly speaking, a problem of reinforced concrete. I pre- 
 sume that what you want are a few facts to tie to, and concrete fence posts 
 are pretty good things for that purpose. Perhaps I ought to mention that 
 an anchor post or corner post of concrete would also be a good thing to 
 hang a gate to; but I hope that none of you gentlemen will be in a posi- 
 tion where it will be necessary for you, yourselves to hang to anything 
 of that kind. 
 
 There have been a number of errors made in concrete fence post con- 
 struction. The farmer has gone after it, in a sort of rough handed way, 
 without understanding very clearly the principles with which he is dealing. 
 Nearly every farmer who starts building a fence post, especially a corner 
 post, will put in some kind of old steel, and invariably he will put it in the 
 center of the post. Where, to use the steel and the concrete both eco- 
 nomically, is the worst place he could put it. ' We have figured out that if 
 you reinforce a concrete post, an anchor post, with pipe, the cost of the 
 steel would be perhaps over a dollar, whereas, if you reinforce that post 
 by putting one round bar in each corner of the post, you do it economically 
 for the cost of the steel would be not over 50 cents. 
 
 As I said before, there have been some failures with fence posts; 
 I do not know that it is necessary for me to reiterate the fact which has 
 already been mentioned but the failures have been due in a great many 
 cases to lack of cement, poor aggregate, and, perhaps more than anything 
 else, too little and improperly placed reinforcement. The problem of the 
 concrete post is strictly one of reinforcing, as in the case of the reinforced 
 concrete beam. You have seen how in the reinforced concrete beam to 
 which stress is applied from the top, the reinforcement separated at the 
 
 Concrete Posts on S. H. 'Wallace's Farm near Ashland, O. 
 
Universal Portland Cement Co. 
 
 55 
 
 Heavy Concrete Gate Posts. 
 
 bottom. Since a fence post may expect stress from all directions, it 
 
 follows that it should be reinforced to resist stress from any direction. 
 
 Consequently we will have to use, perhaps, more reinforcing in a concrete 
 
 post than we would 
 
 have to use in a beam 
 
 in a building, where 
 
 the stresses are likely 
 
 to come only up and 
 
 down, or from one 
 
 direction. 
 
 I had occasion one 
 day last spring to ex- 
 amine a line of cement 
 fence posts in which 
 about 25 per cent had 
 failed; I found all of 
 the causes I have men- 
 tioned contributed to 
 the failure. Dry, lean 
 concrete, doubtless 
 mixed by the "damp 
 earth process," and not very carefully tamped at that, was used. One 
 No. 12 reinforcing wire was placed at each corner of the post, and the 
 post, having been made uniform in section had not sufficient cross sec- 
 tional area at the ground line, where the greatest stress occurs. The posts 
 consequently failed, although the line had been in use perhaps but three 
 or four years, with about 75 per cent of them still standing. If there is 
 one piece of advice I would like to give in the matter of construction of 
 this kind, it is this : if you build reinforced concrete fence posts, either 
 build them right, or else do not build them at all. The posts are subjected 
 many times to rather severe strain, shocks that they receive from an- 
 imals running against the fence, or brushing along the fence, or by hav- 
 ing the tongue or hub of a wagon driven against the post. 
 
 Perhaps the first use to which the concrete posts were placed was as 
 anchor or corner posts; and we have seen demonstrated today their 
 strength and their usefulness in that regard. Of course, they often have 
 contained a great deal more concrete and a great deal more reinforcement 
 than was necessary; but, ordinarily, the corner post, for the sake of 
 appearance at least, should be made not smaller than 10 to 12 inches 
 square at the top, and from 12 to 16 inches square at the bottom. This 
 gives the post a good appearance, and gives a post, that, with proper 
 reinforcement, will prove entirely satisfactory. 
 
 I have noted down some points regarding the advantages and dis- 
 advantages of concrete posts. I am not going to take your time now to go 
 into all of them but will speak for a few minutes on what you might call 
 "The Design of Reinforced Concrete Posts." We are limited, in a way, 
 in the design of the posts, by the weight, viz.: it is not economical to 
 build a post that is heavier than one man can handle conveniently. Of 
 course, it is understood here that corner posts are preferably built near 
 the spot where they are to be used. Line posts may be built at one place, 
 and moved to another, of course; but we are limited, to some extent, by 
 
56 
 
 Permanent and Sanitary Farm Improvements 
 
 Concrete Fence Posts Plant on Mr. Barner's Farm. 
 
 the weight even there; and consequently we should endeavor, in building 
 posts of this kind, to build them as economically as possible, with regard 
 to the use of the steel and the concrete. A post measuring, say five inches 
 
 square at the bottom, 
 three inches square at 
 the top, and seven feet 
 long, will weigh be- 
 tween 100 and 115 
 pounds. That post, 
 however, might be 
 made a little bit larger 
 than this to good ad- 
 vantage. Now, with 
 regard to the concrete 
 post compared to a 
 beam, as suggested be- 
 fore, it may be sub- 
 jected to stresses from 
 all directions, that is, 
 from running against 
 either side of the fence, 
 or stresses set up in the fence itself; so that it will be necessary to rein- 
 force it to bear stress from all directions. The figure of eight-tenths of 
 one per cent was given here as being about the minimum of reinforce- 
 ment to be used in other forms of reinforced construction. It will be 
 necessary in this case, perhaps, to use a little higher per cent of steel in 
 the concrete posts than in ordinary beam construction. I have figured 
 the percentage of some posts, and might say that for a post of the size 
 mentioned, even if you have a good aggregate, and your post was care- 
 fully made, it would not be economical to use less than four No. 6 wires 
 in each post. For a post of the length mentioned, about seven feet, it 
 will require about three pounds of reinforcement. I am inclined to 
 think, that even heavier reinforcement than this should be used. You 
 might increase this to a quarter inch rod, one placed in each corner of 
 the post, as near to the outside as possible. I found, in figuring this up, 
 that the per cent of steel necessary counting two rods as taking the 
 stress, would be only one per cent, or about nine-tenths of one per cent; 
 and I think I would be on the safe side, to use that amount of reinforc- 
 ing. With regard to the placing of the reinforcing material in the posts, 
 we are caught between two fires. One suggestion is to get the reinforc- 
 ing rods as near to the outside as possible, so that they will take the 
 greatest stress. We have all understood, from what has already been 
 said with regard to reinforced beams, that, the deeper the beam, the more 
 effective will be the reinforcing steel. The same is true of a post. Con- 
 sequently the farther apart we can put the reinforcing wires, the more 
 effectively they will act as reinforcement. But we are given another 
 problem when we attempt to do that. If you put the wires too close to 
 the surface of the post, then the corners of the post are liable to be chip- 
 ped out, and subject the steel to corrosion, which, of course, should not 
 occur. Then there always may be some difficulty in placing the con- 
 crete around the reinforcement. The most economical distance was found 
 
Universal Portland Cement Co. 57 
 
 to be from one-half to three-quarters of an inch from the corners, or from 
 the outside of the post. It is important to have these rods placed in 
 that manner, also. A good many farmers, in starting out to make posts 
 by hand, have put in the required amount of steel; but they have been 
 very careless as to where it has been placed in the post. Consequently, 
 as stated before, it either came too near the surface of the post to be 
 effective, or it was all on one side, so that the post would only take stress 
 in one direction. With regard to the method of making, the method of 
 the wet mixture appeals to me, largely because of the ease of placing 
 in the posts, and because it insures a perfect bond between the reinforce- 
 ment in the post, the reinforcing wire in the post, and the concrete. At 
 times barbed wire, as has been suggested here, has been used as reinforce- 
 ment; but I would simply like to corroborate what has already been said, 
 and say that the time consumed, especially in putting reinforcing material 
 of this kind in the post, will be found to be a very large per cent of the 
 cost of the post; and where you are making an article that will cost from 
 25 to 35 cents, two men, say, working at the job can not spend very 
 much of their time used in making posts to place the reinforcement. 
 Bulletin No. 461, I believe, of the United States Department of Agricul- 
 ture gives the average cost of a cement post as about 30 cents. I think 
 it is possible, in some cases to make it for less than this, but I would 
 place the average as running from 25 to 35 cents. 
 
 Mr. Boynton : Gentlemen, I suggest we hear from Mr. Arp, and save 
 our questions until he has finished. I think we shall save time in that way. 
 
 Mr. Arp: Prof. Musselman has covered the subject of concrete fence 
 posts pretty thoroughly, but a few points I might emphasize. 
 
 The advantages of using concrete for fence posts in preference to any 
 other material are so apparent that they need scarcely be mentioned. 
 Probably the most important consideration is permanency, and it is no 
 exaggeration to say that a properly made concrete post with proper usage 
 will last forever; it will neither rot, burn nor corrode. 
 
 Concrete posts hold a wire fence more securely than any other type. 
 They will not heave from frost nor pull up easily from line tension, when 
 the fence runs across hollows. Concrete posts never need to be painted 
 and cannot be destroyed by worms, insects and other pests. To sum up 
 then, concrete posts form a permanent asset, thus increasiug the value 
 of the property and furnishing a good index of the owners' thrift. 
 
 Scarcely less important than durability is the matter of cost. Fortunate- 
 ly concrete posts can generally be made within the price of wooden posts 
 and in many places at a considerable saving. 
 
 The choice of materials is important in any kind of concrete work, 
 and especially so in the making of posts. It will be sufficient to say that 
 the sand should be coarse and clean, and if a coarse aggregate is used it 
 should be hard, clean and of a size that will work in the forms and about 
 the reinforcement used. 
 
 A farmer who has a good gravel bank on his place is in a position to 
 make concrete cheaply, but as the bank-run usually contains too large a 
 proportion of sand, it should be screened and remixed in definite pro- 
 portions. If sand and gravel or crushed rock have to be purchased, only 
 clean, hard and well-graded material, should be accepted. The sand 
 
58 
 
 Permanent and Sanitary Farm Improvements 
 
 should all pass a one-quarter inch screen and be free from dust, while the 
 gravel or crushed stone should all pass through a three-quarter inch 
 screen and be retained on a one-quarter inch screen. 
 
 Experience has shown that the most economical mixture which can 
 be used in the manufacture of concrete fence posts consists of one part 
 cement, two parts sand and three parts of screened gravel or crushed 
 stone of the size mentioned. If thoroughly mixed with sufficient water, 
 these proportions give a very dense, strong concrete. If sand alone is 
 used the proportion should not exceed three parts sand to one part cement. 
 The amount of water used in the concrete is very important. There is 
 sometimes an inclination to mix the concrete with scarcely enough water 
 to dampen the materials, in order to be able to remove the mold and use 
 it again immediately. Posts made with so dry a mixture are not likely to 
 prove satisfactory. No amount of tamping, applied pressure or sprinkling 
 will make up for an insufficient quantity of water in the mixture. 
 
 If only one mold is at hand it is preferable to use a wet mixture, even 
 though one post a day is all that can be made. The proper consistency 
 will be obtained when enough water is added to make a mixture which 
 cannot be tamped, but which will be forced into every part of the mold or 
 form by churning, puddling, or vibrating, yet not so thin that standing 
 water will collect above the solids. 
 
 The principles of reinforced concrete are the same, regardless of the 
 application. This subject has been taken up by previous speakers and it 
 will not be necessary to go into details at this time. 
 
 I wish to emphasize again, however, that reinforcement at the center 
 of a post is of little value unless used in extensive quantities. A small 
 quantity of metal distributed near the surface is much more effective 
 
 than a larger amount 
 improperly placed. 
 
 Assuming that 
 the reinforcement is 
 placed in the proper 
 position — that is, 
 
 Concrete Fencing on a 
 Curved Road on Col. 
 Fabyan's Farm. 
 
 near the surface, the 
 economical amount 
 will develop the com- 
 pressive strength of 
 the concrete just at 
 
 Typical Bracing of Concrete Gate Posts on Col. Fabyan's Farm. 
 
Universal Portland Cement Co. 
 
 59 
 
 Concrete Posts Beautify Lincoln Park, Chicago. 
 
 the time the metal has been strained to its elastic limit. If insufficient 
 
 metal is used, the post will fail by the metal pulling in two without the 
 
 concrete crushing, while if an over amount is used the concrete will crush 
 
 before the metal pulls 
 
 apart. Assuming that the 
 
 cost of reinforcing metal is 
 
 fifty times that of concrete, 
 
 volume for volume, it can 
 
 readily be seen that an over 
 
 amount !of metal only adds 
 
 cost and not strength to the 
 
 post. It has been found that 
 
 from six-tenths of one per 
 
 cent to one per cent of metal 
 
 will develop the compressive 
 
 strength of concrete, the 
 
 variations depending upon 
 
 the quality of concrete. 
 
 There are a large number 
 of different types of reinforc- 
 ing used in the manufacture 
 of concrete fence posts, all 
 of which are claimed to have their particular advantages, usually based 
 on the ease with which they can be placed in a particular kind of mold. Too 
 often this point has been the factor governing the amount of metal used. 
 
 Probably the most common reinforcing recommended consists of single 
 strands of Nos. 10, 9 and 8 gauge wire placed in each corner of the post, 
 but this is only from one-fifth to two-fifths of the amount of metal re- 
 quired in the ordinary post of average four by four-inch section. Some 
 have twisted two or more strands together, the object being to intro- 
 duce additional metal and also to reduce the tendency of slipping, but the 
 expense is hardly justified. 
 
 It will be found that in the average post of 4 x 4-inch cross section at 
 least four reinforcing rods, one-quarter inch in diameter, or equivalent cross 
 section, placed in each corner of the post are necessary. 
 
 Probably no point in the manufacture of reinforced concrete fence 
 posts has been discussed more than the method of fastening line wires, 
 and a large number of schemes have been adopted by post and post mold 
 manufacturers. In any case a method should be adopted which is simple 
 and cheap, and which can be easily renewed at any time. Various forms 
 of fasteners, such as wire staples and straight wires anchored in the post 
 at the time of manufacture have been recommended. These types, 
 however, are only temporary as they will rust off and sooner or later 
 some other means of fastening will be necessary. The trouble encountered 
 in placing the fasteners in the proper position and protecting the staples 
 while the concrete is green, together with the fact that the position of the 
 line wire is governed by the position of the fastener, are also a serious 
 objection to these methods. 
 
 Another means of fastening line wires which is sometimes recommended 
 is to form holes in the posts at the time of molding. Wire loops are 
 
60 Permanent and Sanitary Farm ^mp^vmimts^ 
 
 passed over the line wire, through the hole in the post and the ends brought 
 around and attached to the line wire at the other side of the post. The 
 position of these holes must conform with the type of fence used or with 
 the desired position of the line wires. This and the trouble in forming 
 the holes seem to be the only disadvanatges. 
 
 Without doubt the most common, most satisfactory and most eco- 
 nomical way of attaching a fence to concrete fence posts is to tie_ the line 
 wire to the post with a short piece of light wire in a manner similar to 
 that used in fastening telephone wires to insulators. One end of the tie 
 wire is twisted around the line wire, the other end being brought about the 
 post and attached to the line wire on the opposite side. 
 
 If the post is tapered and the tie wires put on properly, there is little 
 danger of the line wires slipping out of position. The ease with which this 
 fastener can be renewed makes it a favorite, and when neatly applied it 
 does not detract from the appearance of the fence. Some recommend that 
 small grooves be made in the face of the post, others, that coarse gravel be 
 sprinkled on the face of the post, if it is cast horizontally, forming small 
 projections in which the line wires are allowed to rest. The only objection 
 to this method of fastening a wire fence to concrete fence posts is perhaps 
 the appearance. 
 
 There are a few points which should be considered regarding the manu- 
 facture of concrete fence posts. There seems to be little choice between 
 horizontal and vertical molds, inasmuch as excellent posts can be made in 
 both if proper methods are followed. The importance of correct propor- 
 tions, wet consistency and thorough mixing has been emphasized; another 
 point to bear in mind is small batches. When separate molds are used, the 
 size of the batch should be' no larger than can be placed within 30 minutes 
 from the time the water is added to the mixture. Where the size of the 
 batch will not permit of the use of one or more whole sacks of cement, 
 the fractional part of a sack should be determined by weight and not 
 guessed at. 
 
 To make a dense post with a smooth surface it is necessary to force the 
 air out of the concrete. When posts are cast on end this can be done by 
 repeatedly raising and dropping the mold during the process of filling. 
 Where the posts are cast on the side, or horizontally, the mold may be 
 shaken, jarred or rapped, thus working out the air bubbles. 
 
 The proper placing of the reinforcement in the manufacture of fence 
 posts is the hardest problem. The method to be followed will depend some- 
 what upon the kind of reinforcement used, whether wires, rods, flat strips, 
 woven wire or some form of truss, and also upon the type of mold used and 
 manner of operating it. It has been assumed in every case that reinforce- 
 ment be placed in the corners of the post from 3/£ to % of an inch from the 
 sides. 
 
 When the post is cast horizontally, two rods may be held away from the 
 bottom of the mold by small chairs made of wire twisted around the rein- 
 forcing rods, the ends allowed to rest on the bottom of the mold. The 
 mold is then filled with concrete and smoothed off, and the remaining two 
 rods forced down into their proper position. 
 
 In making a post in a vertical position it is best to assemble the rein- 
 forcing metal in the desired form, placing and holding it in the proper 
 
Universal Portland Cement Co. 
 
 61 
 
 position in the mold while the concrete is being placed. Some claim that 
 the reinforcing metal can be forced down through the concrete whether the 
 post is cast vertically or horizontally, but in reality the rods or wires are 
 apt to be deflected in one way or the other, it being impossible for the 
 operator to control their position. 
 
 A post should not be disturbed by removing the mold before the con- 
 crete has hardened for several hours, say over night, and even then care 
 is necessary to avoid injuring the post. Any strain brought upon the green 
 concrete is almost sure to crack it, although sometimes the cracks do not 
 show immediately. A careful investigation has shown that otherwise 
 excellent posts have failed due to strains brought upon them at the time of 
 removing the molds and curing which caused small ci acks which did not 
 make their appearance until the post had been placed in use. 
 
 After the post is made it must be given time to harden and gain strength 
 before being set in place. It must be remembered that cement requires 
 water in order to harden. If insufficient water is originally used in mixing 
 the concrete, or if sufficient water is used and then allowed to be evapo- 
 rated at the time of hardening, the concrete can never obtain satisfactory 
 strength. 
 
 Curing of concrete posts, or in fact, any type of cement products, con- 
 sists in keeping them damp at a temperature considerably above freezing, 
 until they have thoroughly hardened. This may be done by covering them 
 with sand, hay or straw and sprinkling frequently during each day for at 
 least a week, and better still, two weeks. Concrete fence posts may also be 
 cured in a steam chamber, but steam curing is only possible in connection 
 with established factories. 
 
 The weather has considerable to do with the curing of concrete. The 
 rate of hardening is much more rapid in midsummer than at other seasons, 
 while at times when the temperature is near the freezing point the rate of 
 hardening is very slow and curing takes a much longer time. Posts made 
 during cold weather must be protected from freezing until thoroughly 
 hardened. This precaution should be particularly noted as the logical time 
 for the farmer to make 
 his fence posts is in 
 the winter when he 
 has more time avail- 
 able for this purpose. 
 
 Question : What 
 design and size do you 
 figure for an end post? 
 
 Mr. Arp: On ac- 
 count of the weight, 
 corner or end posts 
 are often molded in 
 place. This method 
 saves much labor in 
 handling and setting 
 and is advisable where 
 the post can be cured 
 
 properly before any . Concrete Fencing on Edgewood Stock Farm. 
 
62 
 
 Permanent and Sanitary Farm Improvements 
 
 strain is put upon it. When the sides of the earth will stand without cav- 
 ing a form below the ground is unnecessary. In such a case, the hole 
 should be made the same size and shape of the post with vertical sides, 
 enlarged somewhat at the bottom for anchorage. The method of bracing 
 shown in the illustration is recommended. The brace should be molded 
 and cured sufficiently for safe handling before placing. The anchor is cast 
 in place. The size of the post is generally made about 8 inches, which is 
 ample for supporting any ordinary line of fence. Sometimes the braces 
 are omitted, in which case the dimensions of the post must be increased. 
 I know of two end posts, 12 inches square, placed about 5 feet in the 
 ground and extending above about 4 feet 6 inches, which support a woven 
 wire fence about 500 feet long, without the use of any braces. They 
 have been in place for 4 years and no cracks have developed. 
 
 Design showning forms in place for corner post and method of bracing 
 and anchoring. 
 
 Mr. Boynton: It is simply a matter of distributing the load over 
 enough surface and providing enough weight to make the bracing unneces- 
 sary, and the additional concrete may even be cheaper than the work 
 necessary in placing the braces. 
 
 Mr. Reiter will now talk to us on 
 on the Farm." 
 
 'Homemade Tools for Concreting 
 
Universal Portland Cement Co. 
 
 63 
 
 Homemade Tools for Concreting on the Farm 
 
 Discussion led by G. H. Reiter, Chicago 
 
 Mr. Reiter : In the little time we have left tonight I cannot discuss 
 all of the tools which may be used in concreting but will consider the few 
 which should be of interest to every farmer. 
 
 You have heard a good deal 
 ' this afternoon about the im- 
 portance of screening bank or 
 pit-run gravel to separate the 
 sand from the coarser parti- 
 cles of the aggregate and then 
 remixing the two in the proper 
 proportions. Consequently, 
 one of the first tools needed is 
 the sand screen. We have 
 brought one here to show to 
 you. Such a sand screen can 
 be homemade. The frame 
 
 A slanting screen can be made to separate the sand can J-^ constructed bv any 
 
 from the coarse material in bank-run gravel, making . j . *> " 
 
 possible a great improvement in the quality of the man Who IS handy With tools, 
 
 concrete produced. The wire gQ ^ eR jj^ {g uged 
 
 on the frame may be of several varieties. The usual type is the mesh screen 
 having wires running 
 perpendicularly to 
 each other at equal 
 distances apart, but a 
 slotted screen has 
 meshes longer than 
 they are wide; this 
 screen has several 
 advantages .. It facili- 
 tates the screening of 
 the material for the 
 reason that no matter 
 
 Mixing .Platform 
 
 at what angle it is 
 placed with the 
 ground it will pass 
 particles the size of 
 the openings between 
 the vertical wires. 
 On the other hand if 
 you place a square 
 mesh screen having 
 one-quarter inch 
 openings, in an inclin- 
 ed position it will not 
 pass particles one- 
 quarter of an inch in 
 size but will pass 
 smaller particles. 
 
 Measuring Box. 
 
64 Permanent and Sanitary Farm Improvements 
 
 After the aggregates have been prepared, the next tool that will be 
 necessary is the mixing platform. The platform illustrated is a very serv- 
 iceable one for farm use. It is made of 2-inch lumber, surfaced on one 
 side and both edges and nailed to three 4x4 stringers. The two outside 
 stringers project about 6 inches beyond the platform and have devices 
 in the ends for moving from one place to another about the farm. 
 The reason that the lumber for the floor should be surfaced is to facilitate 
 the shoveling and the work of mixing. The board platform should be 
 tight and for that reason is usually made of matched lumber. The plat- 
 form must be tight so that the water which is added to the concrete mixture 
 will not escape. A platform 7 x 12 feet, which is the size of this platform, 
 is a very convenient size for mixing a one or two bag batch. By a "one 
 bag batch" is meant a batch that contains one sack of cement; a "two bag 
 batch" is one that contains two sacks of cement, etc. 
 
 I think you will appreciate that the materials entering into a concrete 
 mixture must be accurately measured and never guessed at. For that 
 purpose a measuring box is recommended. It is simply a wooden box 
 open at both top and bottom, made of lumber 12 inches wide and having 
 strips nailed on either side to act as handles. This box has inside di- 
 mensions of 3 feet in length, 1 foot 4 inches in width and 1 foot in depth, 
 and holds 4 cubic feet. Every 3 inches in depth of the box, therefore, will 
 represent one cubic foot. The method of using this tool is as follows: 
 we shall say that we are making a 1 :2 :4 mixture. The box is placed on the 
 mixing platform and filled half full or to a depth of 6 inches with sand; men 
 then take hold of the handles at either end of the box and remove it from 
 the platform leaving the two cubic feet of sand on the mixing board. One 
 sack (one cubic foot) of cement is added to the sand and the two are thor- 
 oughly mixed together. The box is then put back on the platform and 
 filled level full with screened gravel or broken stone and again removed 
 leaving the 4 cubic feet of coarse aggregate on the platform. This box can 
 be used for any mixture. If more than 4 cubic feet of coarse aggregate is 
 required, the box can, of course, be filled more than once. A wheelbarrow 
 with a sheet iron body is the best for handling concrete for the reason that 
 there is no possibility for the escape of any mortar from the concrete as it 
 is being wheeled to the work. The body should be higher in front than in 
 the back so that a laborer wheeling a wet mixture will not spill any of the 
 material. 
 
 When the concrete is placed in the forms for a wall or similar structure, 
 it is desirable that the coarser particles of the aggregate be forced back 
 from the face of the wall in order to provide a dense and impervious surface. 
 This is done by spading next to the form with 
 some flat tool. It is not necessary to have a 
 special tool for this purpose; a garden spade or 
 an old hoe flattened out may be used and make 
 an admirable tool. 
 
 When concrete must be tamped into place, a 
 home made tamper may be constructed from a 
 block of wood and the handle made of 1 inch 
 gas pipe. I do not believe that this tool needs 
 any further explanation. The steel tamper should 
 weigh about 20 pounds. 
 
 Steel Tamper 
 
Universal Portland Cement Co. 
 
 65 
 
 Homemade "Wooden Float 
 
 Steel Trowel 
 
 For holding mortar, a mortar box is usually provided. It is merely a 
 tight wooden box of a size depending upon the amount of mortar used. 
 For the mixing an ordinary garden hoe serves the purpose admirably. 
 
 The single course type of construction is to be recommended wherever 
 possible in placing sidewalks or floors since it involves the mixing of only 
 one kind of concrete, and in addition gives a wearing surface of the same 
 texture from top to bottom. It is only necessary 
 after filling the form to rod off the concrete with 
 a straightedge, using the side forms as guides. 
 After being brought to a level surface in this 
 manner, the surface is finished with a wooden 
 float, Such a float can be made easily from two 
 pieces of lumber, cut as shown. The dimension 
 of the floating surface should be about 4^ x 
 10 inches. A wooden float of this kind gives the 
 best surface obtainable for general use in build- 
 ing floors and sidewalks, although for some 
 work, such as the interior of mangers, and 
 gutters, the finish obtained with a steel trowel 
 such as is illustrated, is desirable. For general 
 work about the farm, however, the steel trowel 
 finish is not to be recommended, since the surface resulting from its use 
 is extremely slippery and is dangerous to the farmer as well as his stock. 
 Two other finishing tools are the only ones which need be purchased. 
 The one is a groover, which is used for marking off the top coat in a two- 
 course pavement for the sake of appearance, 
 and in order to provide a division between 
 adjacent slabs. Since the two-course pavement 
 will rarely be placed, the necessity for the pur- 
 chase of a groover is doubtful. The edger, 
 however, is practically a necessity. In building 
 single course floors the best way of obtaining 
 divisions between adjacent slabs is to alternate 
 the sections. The first operation consists of placing first one slab then 
 missing one, and filling the next. After the alternate slabs are in position 
 the remaining are filled in, using only the side 
 forms and removing the cross form. For finish- 
 ing off the corners the edger is required. 
 
 Mr. Henry: Would you cut the concrete 
 for the blocks in laying? 
 
 Mr. Reiter: To' lay the base for a two- 
 course pavement place cross forms between and 
 perpendicular to the side forms at every block. 
 
 Where the cross forms join the longitudinal forms, mark with wax crayon 
 on the top of the longitudinal forms. A number of these cross forms 
 ■ are put in place before concreting is commenced and after the concrete 
 for the first block is placed and tamped the first cross form is removed 
 and the concrete continued up to the next cross form, being careful not 
 to break down the joint left by removing the form. After the mortar 
 for the top coat is placed on the concrete base, a straightedge is put 
 across the walk between opposite chalk marks and the groove in the top 
 
 Edger 
 
66 Permanent and Sanitary Farm Improvements 
 
 ll'J-J II U I II MM I i - i • ' ; : I ., i < I" « ""I '« I' "" 
 
 coat thus marked through exactly over the joint in the base. With this 
 method, every joint extends entirely through the walk or floor for the 
 joint in the top coat is directly above the joint in the concrete base. 
 If any unequal settlement occurs in the foundation, the crack will come 
 at that joint where it cannot be noticed and is not objectionable. 
 
 Mr. Boynton: We shall now hear from Mr. Fletcher on the "Proper 
 Care of Cement Sacks." 
 
Universal Portland Cement Co. 
 
 67 
 
 The Proper Care of Empty Cement Sacks 
 
 By C. S. Fletcher, Chicago 
 
 As it is getting well along toward adjourning time, and since most of 
 those present have been taken over the hurdles at a pretty rapid gait the 
 
 last few days, I do not propose to take 
 up a great deal of your time on the 
 sack question. 
 
 Every cement manufacturer in the 
 United States ships most of his product 
 in cloth sacks. This necessarily means 
 a considerable outlay of capital as the 
 sacks are not, by any means, received 
 from a charitable institution. During 
 the last year there were eighty-five 
 million barrels of cement used in the 
 United States. It is only fair to assume 
 that seventy-five million ' barrels were 
 shipped in cloth sacks. This represents 
 $30,000,000 in hard cold cash and I 
 assure you that no company, cement or 
 otherwise, would show any anxiety to 
 assume such a gigantic loss. 
 
 When cement is sold, the price of 
 the sack is included in the price of the 
 cement. The cement company will 
 
 A sack of cement as it leaves the mill. 
 
 re-purchase such sacks as are in good, 
 sound, serviceable condition when deliv- 
 ered to their mill, freight prepaid. As 
 a great number of the sacks are so badly 
 abused, the cement company is obliged 
 to reject them. Such rejections are 
 bound to bring about differences of 
 opinion between the customer and the 
 manufacturer. For instance: a man 
 returns 400 sacks, naturally he wants 
 $40.00 for them, irrespective of their 
 condition. When we are obliged to 
 inform the shipper that we can only 
 pay him for the good sound sacks, which 
 in this case amounts to $30.00, the fur 
 begins to fly. 
 
 Not long ago the purchasing agent of 
 a company which uses a lot of our 
 cement,, complained bitterly of the large 
 number ' of rejections from their sack 
 shipments. The situation grew so acute 
 that the purchasing agent finally 
 
 , r . -..'i • 'a. l j. A returned sack made useless through 
 
 accepted our invitation to visit our plant wetting. 
 
68 
 
 Permanent and Sanitary Farm Improvements 
 
 A poorly mended cement sack show- 
 ing the use of other material in 
 making the patch. This sack was 
 probably opened by the use of a 
 shovel or knife. 
 
 and watch the count and inspection of his 
 own individual sacks. When the next ship- 
 ment reached our plant I notified this 
 gentleman and we both started for the 
 scene of action. As the bad sacks were 
 being thrown aside the grieved party 
 picked up a couple of them and asked me 
 why we were throwing such sacks away. I 
 suggested that he try and open some of 
 them. He found this impossible as the 
 fronts and backs of the sacks were cement- 
 ed together. I asked him if he thought it 
 possible to put ninety-five pounds of cement 
 in such sacks. Then a great light dawned 
 over the purchasing agent — "These are the 
 sacks that we have been using for covering 
 some newly laid concrete work." If the 
 men on the job had only realized that they 
 were losing money by such work they 
 would not have done it. 
 
 That purchasing agent was made to 
 realize that cement sacks must be taken 
 care of. It's the same way with the dealer, 
 small or large; he must not expect to 
 receive full 
 
 credit from 
 the cement 
 company for abused sacks that he has 
 bought back from his customers. It is up 
 to every dealer to stand firmly on that 
 part of the contract which reads "Cement 
 sacks will be paid for when returned in 
 good, sound, serviceable .condition." 
 
 It is hard to impress upon the ultimate 
 cement consumer that he should stand the 
 sack loss. The whisky distillers and the 
 breweries charge you for the bottles and you 
 have no recourse whatever. In the cement 
 business the buyer has the edge; he has 
 the privilege of returning the sacks and 
 receiving the same price that he paid for 
 them. Then, why should that man kick 
 when a few sacks go to pieces on his hands? 
 
 In order to show you how careless some 
 people handle sacks I have brought along 
 a few actual samples. 
 
 The first one we have is a sack that has 
 been allowed to get wet; you can see, the 
 cloth is hard and rotten. Water is, without 
 a doubt, as dangerous to cement sacks as a 
 spider is to a fly. Just as soon as a sack 
 
 Extreme care is taken in mending 
 sacks at the Universal Plants. Be- 
 fore making the repair, the cloth is 
 tested to insure sufficient strength, 
 so that often a mended sack is bet- 
 ter than one which has passed 
 inspection without needing repair. 
 
Universal Portland Cement Co. 
 
 69 
 
 becomes wet and begins to dry out, the cement dust in the fibres of the 
 cloth hardens and leaves the sack in a weak and worthless condition. 
 
 The next sample is a sack that has been used for covering newly laid 
 concrete. The contractor laid these sacks down on new work and sprin- 
 kled them with water, overlooking the fact that he could purchase a tar- 
 paulin much cheaper and do the work just as well. This sack, like the 
 one I just showed you, is hopelessly gone; the sides are cemented together, 
 leaving the cloth as hard as a board. 
 
 This sack has been badly repaired. If this customer had left the 
 sack alone and sent it to our mill, he would be ten cents to the good. 
 We would have repaired this sack, just as we do thousands of others, 
 and paid full value for it. 
 
 Here you see a sample of our repairing. This sack was badly torn 
 when received by us but the cloth was in good sound shape. The repair 
 was made and the sack is now just as good as the day it left the factory. 
 
 This object that I am holding was a good sack once, but, after carrying 
 several loads of wet sand, lamp black and other materials it has graduated 
 to a prominent place in the rogues gallery. 
 
 The Universal Portland Cement Co., has spent a considerable amount 
 of time and money every year educating customers to realize that a cement 
 sack is worth ten cents and ought to be handled accordingly. I am 
 pleased to say that our campaign has been productive of good results, 
 but we still have a lot to do. One of the first lines of education taken 
 up by us was the handling of sacks for shipment. 
 
 This bundle that you see here 
 contains fifty sacks tied with three 
 stout ropes, tagged and ready for 
 shipment. We have found from 
 watching thousands of shipments 
 received at our mill that this bundle 
 stands up better than any other. 
 It has several advantages over a 
 larger bundle, chiefly because it 
 can be handled much easier by 
 freight handlers. It is altogether 
 different with a bundle of one 
 hundred sacks; such a bundle will 
 be dragged over a rough floor where nails tear large holes in the sacks, 
 and very often this method has a 
 tendency to loosen the bundle con- 
 siderably. The chances, therefore, 
 of all the sacks in such a bundle 
 reaching destination are very slim. 
 Sometime ago the railroads put 
 through certain regulations govern- 
 ing the shipment of returned empty 
 cement sacks. In order to famil- 
 iarize our trade with these regula- 
 tions the illustrated sack placard 
 
 that yOU See here Was Sent broad- A bundle of 50 cement sacks laid out flat with 2 
 
 . , 1 1 . ropes 40 inches long under the pile, with 
 
 Cast to each and every CUStOmer longer rope ofabout 8 ft. resting on top. 
 
 Bundle of 50 cement sacks tied and tagged 
 ready for shipment. 
 
70 
 
 Permanent and Sanitary Farm Improvements 
 
 The first operation in bundling is to bring 
 two of the ropes over the pile, as shown, 
 tying tightly. 
 
 on our books. In the figure on page 
 69 you see fifty sacks laid out 
 flat with two ropes 40 inches long 
 under the pile and a longer rope 
 about 8 feet resting on top of the 
 pile. In the figure to the left, 
 the two short ropes have been 
 brought over the pile of sacks and 
 tied tightly. The last figure shows 
 the bundle turned over and the long 
 rope brought around it and crossed 
 in the middle of the bundle. 
 We leave very little room for a 
 
 man to say that he does not know how to ship sacks. As already stated, 
 
 each customer has received one of these sack placards, and a supply of 
 
 linen tags is sent out in every car 
 
 that leaves our mill. Furthermore, 
 
 we have made arrangements with 
 
 all railroads that a sack placard is 
 
 to be placed in each and every. 
 
 railroad freight house throughout 
 
 the country, so that if a man asks 
 
 his agent how to ship sacks the 
 
 agent will know what to tell him. 
 As I have used up more time 
 
 than Mr. Boynton allotted me, I 
 
 shall conclude by extending a 
 
 hearty invitation to any of the 
 
 gentlemen present to visit our Sack 
 
 Handling Plant, with me when I shall be able to go into this important 
 
 end of our business in a more thorough manner. 
 
 After the short ropes have been tied, the bun- 
 dle is turned over and the long rope brought 
 around and crossed in the middle of the bun- 
 dle, engaging first the shorter ropes. 
 
Universal Portland Cemtnt Co. 71 
 
 Evening Session 
 
 Crystal Room, Hotel Sherman Tuesday, August 19, 1913 
 
 Round Table Discussion of Workers' Supplementary Material, 
 Lantern Slides, Charts, etc. (Illustrated) 
 
 Prof. L. R. Taft, Superintendent Michigan Farmers' Institute, Presiding 
 
 Mr. Boynton: Our program tonight provides for Round Table Dis- 
 cussion of Workers' Supplementary Material, Lantern Slides, Charts, etc. 
 That refers particularly to material that would be used in discussing before 
 agricultural audiences the subject of permanent and sanitary farm im- 
 provements. Three or four years ago we appreciated that there existed 
 strong demand for information on the use of cement on the farm. This 
 reached us very largely through the Farmers' Institutes. Last year we 
 made a proposition to a number of states that we would furnish them a 
 speaker, turning the speaker over to the State Institute organization to be 
 handled as they saw fit. We had eight men out during a large part of the 
 season of 1912-13, working part of the time in one State and part in an- 
 other. These men were not turned over to the State for the whole sea- 
 son, but for sixty or ninety days. While in the State work they were 
 under the direct supervision of the State organization, and we had nothing 
 to do with them excepting to see that their expenses were taken care of. 
 That work resulted in very general interest wherever the men appeared. 
 Before the end of the season we were asked by one State in particular 
 what we could do for them. We suggest that some provision be made to 
 give such instruction through the State workers. As we had gone far 
 enough to prove positively that the farmer wanted information of the 
 character we were giving, and also to satisfy ourselves that we were not 
 in a position to furnish the large number of speakers that would be re- 
 quired the following season, we felt that if given a little instruction and 
 other help the regular corps of Institute workers could take care of this 
 work and finally we made the proposition which resulted in this Confer- 
 ence. 
 
 In following this matter to a definite end it is necessary to provide, or 
 to offer to provide the State or individual, as the case may be, with ma- 
 terial to use in addresses before the Institutes. I would suggest that you 
 use, so far as you can, the information you will gather on this trip. We 
 shall furnish you with photographs or slides of any object or structure you 
 may see on the inspection trips into the country, we shall also furnish 
 you complete sets of slides covering any phase of construction on the 
 farm. These slides have been reproduced in prints, and are displayed on 
 the cardboards at the back of the room. These will be left here the re- 
 mainder of the week. Each photograph is numbered. Beside the slide 
 prints there are a number of original prints that have not been repro- 
 duced in the slides, but each photograph is numbered. If, in looking 
 over the list, you find a picture, or a number of pictures that appeal to 
 you, let us know what they are and we shall furnish you with the slides. 
 We don't propose to give you these slides but to loan them to you for after 
 
72 
 
 Permanent and Sanitary Farm Improvements 
 
 H 
 
 Delegates at Arcady Farm. 
 
 using a set one year you will doubtless desire to exchange the set for 
 another, a detail which will be provided for. 
 
 Slides can only be used at night or in a darkened room, and as it is 
 
 often desirable to talk on a 
 subject of so much importance 
 in the day time, because the 
 crowd is usually larger, it will 
 be advisable to have a few 
 charts illustrating in a general 
 way the principal points to 
 be made. 
 
 So far as it is possible for 
 us to do so, we shall furnish 
 charts illustrating any subject 
 you may desire to present, pro- 
 vided, of course, that it relates 
 to our general subject of per- 
 manent and sanitary farm im- 
 provements. I have told you 
 what we want to do and I shall 
 ask Prof. Taft to conduct the meeting, and open the discussion, endeav- 
 oring to develop how we can best use the information and material that 
 will be available for this work. I think you all know Prof. Taft, if not 
 personally, at least by reputation. He is in charge of Institute work in 
 Michigan, and to show you his enthusiasm in Institute work I need only 
 to say that I had to tell Prof. Taft he must stop assigning men to this 
 Conference because we could not find automobiles enough to take care 
 of them. Prof. Taft — (Applause). 
 
 Prof. Taft will now take charge of the meeting. (Applause). 
 
 Prof. Taft : Some few months ago Mr. Curtis called upon me regarding 
 a conference upon cement construction, and it seemed to be a pretty good 
 thing, but a few days ago I read a story which impressed me with the 
 danger of concrete, and since then I have had some little doubt about the 
 safety of "monkeying" with this cement subject. If this story is true, you 
 ought to be very careful. The story was in a paper, and seeing that it 
 was in a paper it must be true, because all the editors I have ever met have 
 assured me that anything I see in the paper is surely correct. A lady had 
 fallen on a cement sidewalk and was rendered unconscious. Later she 
 said that she slipped on the "consecrated" walk in front of the Methodist 
 Church, and became unconscious for half an hour. And if in merely pass- 
 ing by a church she was made unconscious for half an hour by cement, how 
 would it be here in Chicago with us where we are talking of cement and 
 looking at cement for full five days, and sixteen hours a day, and dreaming 
 of cement, perhaps, the other eight hours of the night. Therefore, I 
 think it is a dangerous subject for us to discuss. 
 
 But so far as the subject tonight is concerned, it seems to me we can 
 very well spend the evening in considering the methods of presenting this 
 subject, and also the apparatus and slides and so on that we can secure 
 from the company, with no danger to ourselves, and as this is to be a round 
 table discussion, I want everyone here to express his idea regarding it. 
 
Universal Portland Cement Co. 
 
 73 
 
 You may have had, as Mr. Boynton has told us, help from the cement 
 people themselves. They have furnished Michigan, I know at different 
 times, two or three speakers, and other states have had four or five more 
 of their men to talk on this subject, and I would like to hear just a word 
 from them regarding the way they have found best to deal with the subject. 
 I would first ask Mr. Curtis to offer any suggestions he has regarding cement. 
 
 Mr. Curtis: I do not feel that I am qualified to offer suggestions 
 to a body of men who have done so much with this subject as you have, 
 inasmuch as the number of meetings I have addressed is really very small, 
 but there are two methods of presentation which appeal to me: First, by 
 means of slides, and the other by means of charts. The former, probably, 
 is the more effective method. Consideration of lantern and slides is limited, 
 of course, to places where they can be used. Occasionally we cannot get elec- 
 tric power or gas to run a lantern, and in such cases we turn to the charts. 
 
 One thing that I have noticed which has often made me feel that the 
 chart has an advantage over the slides, is that when you put up a good 
 chart the audience has to look at it from the start of the thing to the 
 finish. It leaves an impression upon their minds greater than they might 
 get by seeing the slides, which are often placed in the lantern and taken 
 out after a short period. I am really impressed with the desirability of 
 using charts whether or not we use the lantern. Lots of good will result 
 from putting up the charts around the room, the same method being used 
 as in the handling of other subjects. Good charts, I believe, always assist 
 in the work. 
 
 There is one other way 
 can be of help, and regarding 
 which nothing has been said 
 so far. We often find a man 
 coming up to the speaker at 
 the close of the meeting and 
 saying: "You have a very 
 good chart there. It shows 
 something that I would like 
 to know about." For instance, 
 it shows a sectional view of a 
 dairy barn floor, with dimen- 
 sions, but the man who is look- 
 ing at the chart may desire to 
 take notes from the chart but 
 not be a good hand at sketch- 
 ing, he doesn't get the dimen- 
 sions just right, and is apt to 
 overlook some important de- 
 tail. In a case of that kind we 
 can supply him with a blue 
 print, which he can study at his 
 leisure, giving him a perma- 
 nent record of the thing in 
 which he is interested. 
 
 in which the Information Bureau 
 
 The delegates to the Conference had the opportunity 
 at "Wayne, III., of looking over some of M. Dunham's 
 prize stock. The three year old Percheron stallion 
 illustrated above has never been shown, but will 
 appear at the 1914 International Live Stock Show. 
 
74 
 
 Permanent and Sanitary Farm Improvements 
 
 The various State colleges, the U. S. Department of Agriculture, and 
 also a number of commercial organizations have issued helpful bulletins 
 on various subjects. If we can arrange in some way to provide the farmer 
 with these bulletins, dealing with subjects which they are interested in, I 
 believe that this service will be valuable. 
 
 Last year we prepared some small cards which were circulated in some 
 of the meetings. On these cards were printed a list of subjects which 
 the speaker mentioned, for instance, stalls, tanks, floors and so on, and 
 cards were given to all persons present. If a man was especially interested 
 in any of the subjects and wanted information he simply made a cross 
 opposite the subject and gave his name and address. 
 
 Most of the State colleges have a department of agricultural engineer- 
 ing or farm mechanics well qualified to handle that kind of work. It is a 
 great mistake to go into a meeting and to tell a man how to do something 
 in a rather general way and then leave him without definite help, be- 
 cause we are obliged to go somewhere else the next day. Of course, we 
 can do good even in this very general way, but it would .be much better 
 if we could connect the man up with some individual or organization cap- 
 able of giving him the information desired. 
 
 Mr. Bassett : I think you have missed one point. If we are going to 
 present a subject and describe it we want to have only one chart up at a 
 time, because if you use a lot of charts all your ammunition is spent. I 
 think it is a mistake to have a number of charts up at the time you are 
 speaking. Direct the attention to that, and as you proceed and come to 
 another line, put up another chart illustrating that point. I don't like 
 this idea of showing all you have in your hand, for then you have 
 nothing to say when you get up. 
 
 J. W. Nicodemus : We have had considerable experience in chart work, 
 especially regarding draft animals and colts, and have used charts for 
 horses. The gentleman who just spoke touched a point that I want to 
 
 C. W. Boynton and H. Stillson Hart addressing the Conference on August 19, 1913. 
 
Universal Portland Cement Co. 
 
 75 
 
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 nbnu^a 
 
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 ■■;■ "|- : j?-''.:-.'5 
 
 -.■A^;<3&$fab 
 
 snul ssfs^* I 
 
 ^• ;% 
 
 ... . 
 
 
 emphasize, we should not allow the audience to see a chart until the 
 psychological moment. I don't allow the audience to see a chart until 
 the psychological moment when I am ready to begin to talk about it, and 
 the very second that I am 
 through with that chart and 
 want to take up another sub- 
 ject I immediately either turn 
 the chart or put it out of sight. 
 There is considerable of art in 
 using a chart, and I would not 
 be in favor of hanging a chart 
 on the wall that must be dis- 
 cussed later on. 
 
 Mr. Curtis: I feel that 
 there is something in what 
 these gentlemen say, but what 
 I meant to bring out was that 
 the charts might have some- 
 thing on them that somebody 
 might want to see later on dur- 
 ing the recess of the meeting; 
 some idea might be given by 
 looking at this chart that they 
 might want to make note of 
 and take with them. 
 
 Mr. Boynton: I believe 
 there are two sides to this 
 question. I have had considerable experience with these charts, but gen- 
 erally in presenting a subject like the use of a building material or reinforc- 
 ing or the construction of forms, it would seem to me that the audience 
 could get a great deal out of those charts if they were hung up and dis- 
 played during the whole time of the talk. It does not detract from the 
 other subjects if you display them during the whole meeting. I do not 
 care how the speaker handles the subject, the audience will take some- 
 thing of value home. We learn much from pictures, and we can keep 
 learning even though we see them time and time again. And I believe 
 we would be very much surprised, and the individuals in the audience 
 would be surprised, when the speaker reaches the charts, if he would not 
 point out some lesson which has not been observed before. For instance, 
 you will show a cross section, let us say, of a fence post where the reinforc- 
 ing is placed in the corners. The man sees that cross section and ap- 
 preciates possibly that it is reinforcing, but he does not know why it is 
 in that particular position. He sees it there and it makes an impression 
 in his mind, and when the reason is made clear by the speaker I believe 
 it makes a more lasting impression than if it simply be flashed before his 
 view for a moment and then taken off out of sight. 
 
 Mr. Jacobs : I am very much interested in what has been said, and I 
 would like to take both sides if I could. I see the object my friend has in 
 turning those charts to the wall when he is through with them, and after 
 the audience has looked at them for a while, but I think any such arrange- 
 ment as that would apply more especially to a set lecture. In our work we 
 
 Pink Marabella, American Champion Percheron, Inter- 
 national Live Stock Show, 1913, on the Dunham Stock 
 Farm, "Wayne, III. 
 
76 
 
 Permanent and Sanitary Farm Improvements 
 
 were supplied with a roll of charts by the State, and those could only be 
 displayed one at a time. I have found by using the charts, and hanging 
 them around the room, as Mr. Curtis says, and as Mr. Boynton has said, 
 that we get a great deal of good out of them. Some of us get pretty dry 
 during our talks sometimes, up in Wisconsin, and if they have got some 
 intelligent kind of charts to look at it bridges over that moment. In our 
 meetings we sometimes get short of time. Somebody has told a long 
 story, and we have to cut short something to catch up to schedule. Very 
 many times the lesson that some man in the audience wants to get he can 
 get from that feeding floor chart, and there are a great many things that 
 we are not able to present to him which he can get by looking at the chart. 
 
 Mr. Witter: I rather think the charts are all right but I believe it 
 makes a great deal of difference what the chart is. Now I have carried 
 for years a chart that gives facts concerning poultry raising at Cornell, 
 for instance, and it hangs there on the wall and is copied from at every 
 Institute by a great many people. I see no harm in that chart being placed 
 there from the time we open that meeting until we get through. Pos- 
 sibly it is something that is not presented at all. It does a lot of good. 
 Then there are charts, I believe, which should not be shown publicly until 
 the subject is taken up. And oftentimes you have a number of subjects 
 to deal with, and you hang up charts dealing with each subject, you have 
 a row of charts hanging on the wall; I think in such a case all the charts 
 except the ones dealing with the subject in hand should be turned over 
 until we come to use them. I think it makes all the difference in the world 
 what the chart is and what it is intended for while being exhibited to the 
 audience. 
 
 Mr. Martindale : I use charts. I have used them both ways. I have 
 used them by exposing all of the charts that referred to a subject at the 
 same time, hang them around the room, and then I have used them by 
 exposing them one at a time. I prefer the latter method, because of the 
 fact that if you have all of your charts exposed for every sub-division in 
 your topic, some of your audience will look at one chart and some at another 
 chart, and you are not getting the concentrated thought of your audience, 
 and you will not have your subject as logically outlined in their minds when 
 you get through as you will otherwise. But I would say use them, use them 
 whatever way you can use them best. 
 
 General View of the Dairy Barn and Silos at Wakefield Farm, Barrington, 111. 
 
Universal Portland Cement Co. 77 
 
 I want to suggest two or three things here, because I have carried 
 charts now for five or six years. Don't put too much on your charts. Use 
 only what is absolutely necessary. When you put too much on a chart you 
 confuse the minds of the audience. When you have too much on your chart 
 they get confused. And you must remember that these big boys and 
 girls that are going to school here now — and this is a school — have lost 
 somewhat the ability to look at these charts and ask questions from them. 
 
 I have a way of hanging charts that is my own. I have a contrivance 
 which is simply a heavy music rack, such as a fellow uses who is going 
 to blow a musical instrument, but I give only chin music. I take 
 the charts and hang them by a stick that is cut in two in the middle, with 
 a little hinge on top, and a hole through, that has in it an iron pin. Then 
 you can expose one chart at a time. 
 
 Mr. Anderson (Of Indiana) : I have not had as much experience as 
 my friend Mr. Martindale, yet I feel that the chart plays an important 
 part in our Institute work. As he said, and I wish to emphasize it, we 
 don't want very much on the charts. We want the meat, of course, of 
 our lecture. Now, in addition to that, I think it would be well if we could 
 have some little chart that would express some very important thing in 
 regard to the use of cement. For instance, you take in our talks on wheat; 
 we have scattered all around on the walls little short cut remarks by so 
 and so, who is an authority. Now, for instance, you are discussing a sub- 
 ject; it may be brought out on the chart in a different way as it hangs on 
 the wall. Now, the farmer will see that as he goes in and out, and that 
 simple, short expression that is contained comes to his mind and it im- 
 presses itself strongly when referred to in your lecture. But we have a 
 great many charts which are quite lengthy, have a great many items on 
 them, and are burdensome and heavy; not only burdensome for the Insti- 
 tute worker, but confusing, as has been said, to the audience. 
 
 Prof. Taf t : I think we all agree it depends a great deal on the subject 
 we are discussing and the character of the charts as to when we should 
 expose them on the wall and when we should not. I shall ask Mr. Henry 
 to tell us what he thinks can be done in the way of furnishing us charts and 
 slides, and what we need along that line. We shall let him take up the 
 other side of the question. Mr. Henry of Minnesota. 
 
 Mr. Henry: I am favorably disposed toward the use of charts. I 
 have found this, that the eye will carry an impression to the brain more 
 quickly than will the ear, and such an impression is decidedly more lasting. 
 
 It is not always practical to talk on concrete at an Institute. I think 
 under those conditions it is very nice to have some charts to hang around 
 on the wall, and if a person is thoroughly interested along that line, or along 
 any particular line, when he sees those charts he has got something to 
 think about and his interest is aroused. A few wall charts, which will 
 emphasize some particular thing, and in a good, plain manner, not putting 
 too much on the chart, but bringing out some one thought, will assist con- 
 siderably. 
 
 I am strongly in sympathy with the idea that Mr. Curtis brought out, 
 I think that those who are most interested will come and ask us for help, 
 for instance, with a cement floor, a silo, or this or the other, and if we can 
 have the blue prints to hand out they will be very helpful. The measure- 
 
78 
 
 Permanent and Sanitary Farm Improvements 
 
 
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 Secretary of Agriculture, M. B. Critchfield of Penn- 
 sylvania, at Hawthorn Farm.Libertyville, 111. 
 
 ments given could then be gone over in detail. Often two or three men 
 have come forward after the meeting and asked me to describe a cement 
 floor in a cow barn — for instance, how it should be constructed. I have 
 
 given them the measurements 
 during the meeting; there is 
 not one out of twenty that 
 would retain it. I believe in 
 leaving something definite 
 with them, something that will 
 be of value after they return 
 home. 
 
 Prof. Taft: Before we go 
 on with this subject, I want 
 to call on Mr. Fowler. 
 
 Mr. Fowler: I have list- 
 ened to the ' discussion, and 
 there seems to be a general 
 feeling in favor of charts. I 
 have noticed, however, that 
 farmers can understand a 
 picture much more easily than 
 a drawing. Drawings are 
 plain to us, who are familiar 
 with them and have studied 
 them out; the ordinary farmer cannot grasp so readily the details of a 
 drawing. If you have a picture, for instance, the interior of a dairy 
 barn, it makes a decided appeal. It is "true to life." You then explain 
 all of the dimensions, etc., and give him the opportunity to come to you 
 after you are through to get a drawing, and he will do it. He can take 
 that drawing with him, with all of the dimensions on it, and when the 
 time comes he can take it to the field and construct his work. 
 
 I have tried to talk without pictures, and I have felt that fifty per cent 
 of what I have said might as well have remained unsaid, as far as any good 
 it may have done. But just as quick as you get a picture upon the screen, 
 nearly every man in the audience leans forward and if you have something 
 to follow up with, they will take it home gladly. 
 
 I am glad to see the State of Pennsylvania this year is installing a 
 stereopticon lantern in every Institute corps. I believe in presenting the 
 subjects so far as possible with stereopticon slides so the farmer can better 
 grasp the idea. 
 
 Prof. Taft : Anything more now regarding the question of stereopticon 
 
 views? 
 
 Mr. McClintock: The work that I have done has been largely on 
 feeding and fertilizing. I oftentimes arrange my charts before the meeting 
 begins. I would let them study those charts to see what they were for. 
 If there was anything there that interested them they were prepared to 
 ask questions after the talk. We also had a set of feeding and fertilizer 
 charts. Those are the two main subjects in our state, tbat I would take 
 up. I placed those charts around the room, but collected them just before 
 the talk, put them on a wire or string turning them over as I wanted them. 
 
Universal Portland Cement Co. 
 
 79 
 
 I feel satisfied that by putting them out before the people and letting 
 them look at them, they were prepared to ask questions that they would 
 not have been prepared to ask if they have been covered up until just 
 the time that you wanted them. 
 
 Another method which may be old and out of date now is in having 
 what we call "A Farmers' Help Leaflet" which is a single leaflet, and we 
 have one on a subject such as "Feeding Cows" or "Spraying Trees," 
 whatever the subject may be, but just one subject only. We use this 
 leaflet in answering letters, but we can always supply them at meetings 
 and Farmers' Institutes. We have found that they are of great help 
 both to ourselves and to the farmers. 
 
 Prof. Taft: One more suggestion on the question of those leaflets. 
 I want to know if we could have leaflets from the office here, leaflets 
 regarding silos and other things? 
 
 Mr. Boynton : Yes, that can and will be done. 
 
 Prof. Taft : I am satisfied, from the talks we have had, that the charts 
 are all right and the pictures are all right, but one thing that we must depend 
 on, every one of us, is the man that is going to present these subjects. From 
 the way in which each one has spoken he is the man to handle that subject 
 in his own way. I would suggest that we let Mr. Boynton fix up a list of 
 what he wants us to take; I believe it is for Mr. Boynton and his assistants 
 to think it out now, and they have thought it out, if I have been informed 
 correctly, as to what they wish us to do. We shall get it better this way 
 than though we undertake to do it ourselves. 
 
 Mr. Curtis: The whole point is this: The Information Bureau is 
 glad to do everything it can to make the presentation of the work easy and 
 effective. If you have any suggestions to make, we want them, for they 
 are needed. We have thought this matter over for a long time, trying 
 to prepare something which will be effective, but we are sure that^we^can 
 make the work more effective with the suggestions that you gentlemen with 
 your experience can give us. 
 
 Prof. Taft: Are there any further suggestions? 
 
 Dr. Hill: If you will ex- 
 cuse me a minute. I don't 
 want to impose on the audi- 
 ence, but this is a subject 
 that is particularly dear to us 
 in Maryland. I heard Mr. 
 Fowler say that Pennsylvania 
 was going to take the initia- 
 tive next year and have 
 lanterns in each section of the 
 state. Maryland has already 
 blazed the way for that. We 
 found that the charts did not 
 reach the point at the Insti- 
 tutes that we wished to reach, 
 and we had some very good 
 charts, some very pertinent 
 ones. Last year lantern slides 
 
 Cow-judging at Arcady Farm. 
 
80 Permanent and Sanitary Farm Improvements 
 
 were used almost universally, possibly 97 per cent of our Insti- 
 tutes were lantern slide lectures, and we saw the effects of it. They 
 were particularly beneficial, so much so that our Board has this year 
 decided that every lecture must be illustrated. It is a little harder work 
 to do it in this way. We have to darken the halls during the day, and 
 we have to take lanterns with us, but take my word for it, gentlemen, and 
 the word of those who did the work, that it reaches the point. As Mr. 
 Henry, I believe it was, remarked the eye carried to the brain very, very 
 much quicker and more emphatically what was being done at those Insti- 
 tutes than the words of any speaker could possible do. 
 
 I want to call your attention to one Institute which we held. Many of 
 you may have heard of Elijah Harris, the great nursery man. He had 
 attended a week's conference at Cornell University in New York, and he 
 came to his home town to attend our Institute. He heard an illustrated 
 lecture on fruit, with which, of course, he was very familiar. He also heard an 
 illustrated lecture on poultry, an illustrated lecture on cement, and after 
 the meeting was over he said to all of us workers that he had learned more 
 from the few lectures he heard there illustrated, than at the week's con- 
 ference at Cornell, at which conference they had the best workers in this 
 country to lecture. I mention that simply as an example of the effect 
 of the illustrated lecture. 
 
 I had a little experience in Frederick County where we had some old 
 men listening to a corn lecture. Two or three of them got up with tears 
 in their eyes and said they had at last seen what they had never learned 
 in all their experience before; that was a lantern slide lecture. I 
 wanted to give my reasons for using lantern slides, and I think it is of the 
 greatest assistance in presenting our lectures. 
 
 Mr. Curtis : I would like to show you some slides at this time. 
 
 (At this point a number of stereopticon views were thrown on the 
 screen by Mr. Curtis.) 
 
 Mr. Buchanan : Could we, as farmers and Institute workers, present 
 pictures of some of the improvements around our own homes? 
 
 Mr. Curtis : We would be very glad to help you do that. That is a 
 point I had overlooked. We feel that the work would be much more 
 effective in every case with local views. We shall make an effort to do this, 
 and if you will send in photographs showing local subjects we shall prepare 
 slides for you. 
 
 Mr. Buchanan : Can you make those slides better from the negative 
 than you can from photographs? 
 
 Mr. Boynton: It is much better to make them from the films, be- 
 cause you may have a very good negative and a poor print, and every time 
 you reproduce it you will lose something and if any of you send in photo- 
 graphs to convert into slides, so far as possible, send in the negative. 
 
 It has been suggested here that we are working too hard, and that has 
 occurred to us often in preparing the program. I wish to say right now 
 that we are ready to quit whenever you are. This is your meeting. We 
 are simply here to assist. Further, if you wish to omit tomorrow night's 
 program, or any evening program, we shall do so. In such case we shall 
 try to cover the points that are missed in some other way. I would like 
 for you to express yourselves right now in reference to tomorrow night. 
 
Universal Portland Cement Co. 81 
 
 (It was the sense of the meeting that no part of the program be omitted.) 
 Mr. Arp : This is the machine to which we were referring previously 
 and is carried in this case. (Exhibiting machine and case). It weighs 
 in the neighborhood of fifty pounds, including the Prest-O-Lite tank. The 
 machine is provided with a rheostat, built in connection with the hood, 
 a little bit larger than the ordinary stereopticon hood. We also have a 
 connection for a Prest-O-Lite tank. Or you can use the tank from an 
 automobile. This case will accommodate 150 lantern slides besides extra 
 condensing lenses, and two objective lenses for different distances from the 
 screen. 
 
 Mr. Henry: What is the expense of an outfit of this kind? 
 
 Mr. Arp: This is a full leather case, which will stand abuse. We 
 started out this year with a canvas case reinforced with leather corners, 
 which did not last well. This leather case alone costs in the neighborhood 
 of $7.00. This outfit would cost from $25 to $30. The Prest-O-Lite 
 tank, costs the same as a motorcycle tank — about $6.00. The outfit com- 
 plete with tank costs in the neighborhood of $40.00. 
 
 Mr. Boynton: You can carry about 150 slides. The idea of getting 
 up closer to the curtain with the machine is that with a small machine you 
 have only half the size lens, and the man that wishes to do the talking can 
 operate his own lantern, unless you are operating in a corps, where the 
 men will assist each other. Especially with a Prest-O-Lite tank, which 
 does not carry the same light and illumination as you get from electric 
 power you have to get up close to the screen in order to get as strong a 
 picture as possible. 
 
 (Whereupon the meeting adjourned). 
 
82 Permanent and Sanitary Farm Improvements 
 
 Evening Session 
 
 Crystal Room, Hotel Sherman Wednesday, August 20, 1913 
 
 Professor G. W. Randlett, North Dakota, Presiding 
 
 Mr. Boynton : The hour is now pretty late, and I have asked every 
 one on the program to be as brief as possible. I think we can get through 
 in a way without keeping you here very long; Mr. White. 
 
 Feeding Floors and Pavements 
 
 Discussion led by Prof. E. A. White, Urbana, C. C. Pervier, Illinois 
 and J. H. Chubb, Chicago 
 
 Prof. White: Mr. Chairman, Ladies and Gentlemen: The few re- 
 marks that I have to give tonight on feeding floors, will be confined chiefly 
 to the necessity for them. I shall try to put the argument before the 
 house as to whether we should or should not have the feeding floors 
 and I shall leave it to the gentlemen following to take up any points I 
 leave out, and also to discuss with you the types, etc., of feeding floors. 
 
 In getting together this material, I have endeavored to find references 
 to accurate work that has been done on feeding floors, and also to get 
 the opinion of any feeders, etc., who are interested in this subject and 
 have expressed themselves. I have found two rather reliable sources of 
 information in college Experiment Bulletins. Illinois Bulletins 98 and 
 110, and Ohio Bulletin No. 183 contain the best work that I can find 
 upon the necessity and requirement for feeding floors. 
 
 We might enumerate briefly the advantages and then see what proof 
 we can find of their benefits. We would first expect to get greater gain in 
 our cattle and hogs. Second, we would expect under all conditions to 
 effect a saving of feed. This is especially true in feeding swine. Further, 
 we may expect to find a great saving of the elements of soil fertility in 
 our manure. Next, we should be able to do our feeding with consider- 
 ably less labor and with more convenience to ourselves. And perhaps last, 
 they should improve the sanitary conditions of our farms and feed lots. 
 In regard to the last point, I do not wish to overlook the fact we are 
 beginning to realize sanitary conditions on our farms are not what they 
 should be. If you will study the death rates furnished by the Boards 
 of Health or if you will study the warnings issued to city people coming to 
 spend their vacations on the farm, you will wake up to the fact that in a 
 great many instances, the country is not as sanitary and is not as safe a 
 place to live in as is the city, in spite of the fact that the country has pro- 
 verbially been known and considered to be the more healthful of the two. 
 And you don't want to overlook the fact in regard to our feeding floors. 
 
 To sum up, I wish to read two quotations, which I think express and 
 sum up the whole proposition. Here is what a prominent buyer of cattle 
 in one of the leading markets has to say in regard to feeding floors : 
 
 "You can tell the farmers and feeders of this country, that in feeding 
 cattle there is nothing more certain than that dirty hides from allowing 
 cattle to wallow in manure is sure to make a big loss, no matter how well 
 
Universal Portland Cement Co. 83 
 
 bred or well fed the cattle may be. I visited the farm of a man who has 
 fed market toppers and international prize winners, who allowed his cattle 
 to stand in manure knee deep. Nevertheless, I will wager any man either 
 dollars or doughnuts that any such man by putting part of his cattle 
 where they could keep clean, would be able to put on 100 pounds more 
 weight with the same amount of feed. And this is not all. The cattle 
 with manury hides will have to sell ten to fifteen cents, and sometimes 
 twenty-five cents per hundred pounds less than those with clean hides." 
 
 General statements like the foregoing should be taken perhaps with a 
 little consideration, because this man is an enthusiast, but I think it em- 
 phasizes very well, his regard for feeding floors. 
 
 Here is a quotation from the Breeders' Gazette : 
 
 "If your subscriber will secure Bulletin No. 183 of the Ohio Experi- 
 ment Station, Wooster, Ohio, he will read therein that the saving in manure 
 from 52 head of cattle, 28 on hard earth floor and 24 on cement floor, was 
 $50 more on the cement than on the earth floor. It is also stated that half 
 the cost of cement floor was saved in six months feeding. So one sees it 
 is not only practicable but will pay big returns in saving manure, to say 
 nothing of having the cattle wading knee deep in mud. ' ' 
 
 "A concrete yard floor can be put down directly on the earth after 
 scraping off the top soil, until a hard level floor is obtained; but it is best 
 to excavate 10 inches or 12 inches and fill in with 6 inches or 8 inches of 
 gravel or cinders, so that water will not stand under the concrete, and cause 
 it to heave by frost. A curb or wall of concrete 18 inches deep should 
 be built all around to keep out rats, and also from being undermined by 
 hog wallows. For cattle, the floor had best be 6 inches thick and for the 
 hog floor 4 inches. A mixture of 1 cement, 2 sand and 4 parts of crushed 
 stone passing through an inch mesh, will make a good floor. If pit or 
 creek gravel is used, our custom here is to use one barrel (4 sacks) to one 
 yard of the gravel. All this work can be done by farm help, if some one 
 with knowledge or experience can be had to superintend it. The Ohio 
 Experiment Station people said theirs cost only six cents per square foot, 
 but it does not seem to the writer that a good job can be done for that." 
 Now the two quotations just read seem both reliable and to the point on 
 this situation. 
 
 I just want to review briefly the experience and results which Illinois 
 has obtained in feeding floor 
 experiments. They have con- 
 ducted quite a number of ex- 
 periments down there, with 
 and without paved lots. One 
 year much better gains were 
 secured on the cattle on the 
 paved lot; the next year as 
 far as gains were concerned 
 the unpaved lots were better. 
 They made, I think, about five 
 or ten pounds of gain on the 
 whole, but it was practically 
 
 equal. They assigned as a Pure Bred Holsteins at Barrington, 111. 
 
84 
 
 Permanent and Sanitary Farm Improvements 
 
 reason that the cattle were provided with a well bedded, clean shed; 
 that although going down in the mud, they returned immediately to the 
 shed to lie down. The other cattle liked to wander around on their 
 pavement since it was clean and out of doors. The difference in weight 
 was thus not appreciable. But the Illinois authorities are unanimous, 
 as far as we can find out, in recommending feeding floors on account of 
 saving the manure; on account of their convenience; on account of their 
 sanitary conditions; on account of the fact that in the long run, they be- 
 lieve the hogs and cattle make better gains. (Applause). 
 
 Mr. Boynton : In my eagerness to get this thing started I overlooked 
 the fact that we had a Professor from the Northwest to preside. With all 
 apologies to him, I will turn the meeting over to him. (Laughter and 
 applause) . 
 
 Prof. Randlett: I think when Mr. Boynton brings around the next 
 regular quota of cigars we shall call the matter square. 
 
 Mr. Boynton : They are yours. 
 
 Prof. Randlett: It is now quite late, as you are all aware, and the 
 program is quite long. Therefore, I am going to ask those who partici- 
 pate in this program to make their discussion as short as possible. The 
 principal speakers should not occupy, if we are to get through, more than 
 six or seven minutes. And, therefore, I shall ask the speakers to confine 
 themselves to something like six or seven minutes. I shall call the next 
 speaker, Mr. Pervier, of Illinois. 
 
 Mr. Pervier: Mr. Chairman and gentlemen: It is pretty hard to 
 discuss any question in six or seven minutes, but I shall try to be just as 
 brief as possible in the discussion of this question. I notice that we are 
 
 -■SffeV— ' 
 
 - '■7*j**-'* 
 
 £*""***— "**»m. 
 
 ' 
 
 Concrete Floors and Barnyard at Barrington, 111. 
 Hart, showing calf barn in the left background. 
 
 visited by the Conference, belonging to H. Stillson 
 
Universal Portland Cement Co. 85 
 
 confronted with the subject of "Feeding Floors." I want to say that back 
 some seven or eight years ago, we began to realize the necessity of having 
 more permanent construction on the farm, and naturally turned to concrete. 
 We first began by making a 
 concrete storage tank, and two 
 concrete stock tanks. We 
 liked them so well that we fol- 
 lowed up with a concrete feed- 
 ing floor for hogs, and then 
 after that a hog house with 
 concrete floors. We next built 
 a corncrib with concrete floor, 
 the first that was built in my 
 
 vicinity, and although all my At Mooseheart Farm they are particularly proud of their 
 
 neighbors told me that the corn er s lres ' 
 
 would spoil in it, I was perfectly satisfied. Needless to say, it did not 
 spoil. But while that is out of the question, I want to say just one thing 
 about the floor of the corncrib. Farmers generally get in a hurry about 
 husking their corn, and this is done sometimes before it is fit to crib, and is 
 occasionally spoiled. If corn is put into the crib under proper conditions, 
 waiting until the proper time, there is no trouble whatever. If you put it 
 in green you will have trouble. 
 
 When corn is put into the crib rather green, a string of 4 inch drain tile 
 should be laid through the center, from end to end of the crib, on top of 
 the concrete floor. Cut a hole in the crib at each end of the string to 
 permit a free circulation of air through the tile, at the point of greatest 
 danger, and there will be no trouble at all about spoiling. Corncobs 
 should be laid on each side of the tiles to keep them in place until covered 
 with corn. 
 
 The next thing we did was to build a concrete dipping tank for hogs, 
 and then we followed that up by putting concrete floors in our stables, so 
 that our horses and cows now stand on concrete floors, and we are well sat- 
 isfied with that work. 
 
 Now I come to the subject of concrete feeding floors, and I want to 
 emphasize a little more what Mr. White said by saying that any man that 
 will feed a carload of hogs on concrete floors, will get the expense and cost 
 of putting in the floor back in one year. When you feed your hogs on 
 concrete floors, the waste disappears, and you get the full value out of the 
 corn that is consumed, and I say that a concrete floor pays for itself in one 
 year for any man feeding hogs. 
 
 With regard to putting in the floor. The first thing to be looked out 
 for is a solid and well compacted foundation before the floor is laid. If 
 you have to fill in, see that it is hammered down all around, or has plenty 
 of time to settle, and then build your concrete floor and it will remain with- 
 out any danger of breaking. The first that we built was 12 by 48 feet. 
 We drive over it with the heaviest loads of corn and it has been in some 
 three or four years, and there is not a crack in it. 
 
 I want to suggest that in building a concrete floor of any kind, the out- 
 side wall be carried down a foot below the surface in order to keep the hogs 
 from rooting under it. If they get to rooting under, water gets under the 
 floor. The feeding floor ought to have some slope, and it wants to slope 
 
86 
 
 Permanent and Sanitary Farm Improvements 
 
 in the direction in which you wish to push off the cobs. If it is length- 
 ways of the floor you can give it a slope of four inches to the rod, or if it is 
 a 48 foot floor, one foot. It makes the work more convenient. The slope 
 should preferably be toward some point where you have got a drop for the 
 cobs that are pushed off of the floor. 
 
 Mr. Wagner : I want to say this, that rats will not work their way 
 under floors where the outside wall is a foot deep. We have the floor down 
 a foot below the ground and have never had any trouble from that source. 
 
 Mr. Henry: We have had our floor twenty-five years, and we have 
 had a slope of one inch to sixteen feet. We haven't had any trouble 
 about the water draining off. 
 
 Prof. Randlett: I am going to call Mr. Chubb next. Mr. Chubb, of 
 Illinois. 
 
 Mr. Chubb: There is little that I can add to what the two former 
 speakers have said except that for information on feeding floors I would refer 
 you to Bulletin No. 481 of the United States Department of Agriculture. 
 
 Thus far, no mention has been made of concrete paving. The change 
 in traffic conditions from the horse drawn vehicle to the automobile 
 has completely revolutionized pavement construction. Types of pave- 
 ment and methods of construction that were formerly acceptable for use 
 on city streets and heavily traveled highways have become obsolete. 
 Water bound macadam, for instance, has outlived its usefulness, for it 
 
 Concrete in the dairy barn makes the production of certified milk economical and'pleasant. 
 
Universal Portland Cement Co. 
 
 87 
 
 will not and cannot be made to stand automobile traffic. The demand 
 today is for a pavement that can be constructed and maintained at a 
 reasonable cost; one that will withstand the wear and tear of present 
 day traffic, and no type 
 of construction has been 
 found that fulfills these 
 requirements better 
 than the concrete pave- 
 ment. 
 
 Where but one grade 
 of material is available, 
 such as gravel or a good 
 hard stone, what is 
 known as one- course 
 pavement should be 
 laid; that is, a pave- 
 ment consisting for its 
 entire thickness of the 
 same quality of con- 
 crete. Where different 
 grades of material are 
 available, some of which 
 are more acceptable 
 and at the same time 
 more expensive than 
 others, it is often advis- 
 able though more ex- 
 pensive material in the 
 wearing surface only 
 and the cheaper though 
 acceptable material in 
 the base. 
 
 For one-course pave- 
 ment concrete should 
 be mixed in the propor- 
 tion of one part cement 
 to not more than two 
 parts clean, coarse, well 
 graded sand and not 
 more than three parts 
 of clean, screened gravel or hard crushed stone ranging in size from 
 one-quarter inch to a maximum of about one and one-half inch. For 
 two-course work a base not less than four inches in thickness should be 
 used, mixed about one part cement, two and one-half parts sand and four 
 parts gravel or crushed stone, this base to be covered with not less than 
 two inches of a mixture composed of one part cement and not more than 
 two parts suitable gravel or hard crushed stone ranging in size from the 
 minimum permissible up to one-half inch materials. 
 
 The possibilities of concrete for reclaiming lost highways. 
 
88 
 
 Permanent and Sanitary Farm Improvements 
 
 Concrete expands and contracts about the same as steel, so in order 
 to provide for expansion and contraction due to temperature changes, 
 the pavement should be laid in sections about twenty-five feet long, with 
 a one-quarter inch to a three-eighths inch expansion joint between sections. 
 To prevent chipping and spalling at these expansion joints the concrete 
 should be protected by steel plates. 
 
 Pavements twenty feet or less in width should be laid on a flat sub- 
 grade and the required crown obtained by increasing the thickness of the 
 concrete from the sides towards the center. A crown or slope of about 
 one-quarter inch to the foot is ample for a smooth, easily drained surface 
 such as concrete. Pavements over 20 feet in width may be laid upon a 
 crowned subgrade or a portion of the crown obtained by crowning the 
 subgrade and a part by increasing the thickness of the pavement towards 
 the center. To lay a wide concrete pavement on a flat subgrade would 
 require an unnecessary thickness of concrete. 
 
 To insure proper curing and hardening of the concrete the surface 
 of the pavement should be kept wet by sprinkling with water for at least 
 ten days after placing. This is best accomplished on road work by cover- 
 ing the surface with two or three inches of ordinary dirt and keeping this 
 wet. 
 
 The concrete pavement is unquestionably the cheapest permanent 
 pavement that can be constructed. Examples are to be found of pave- 
 ments over twenty years old which have been subjected to comparatively 
 heavy traffic and are today in good condition. We have a good example 
 
 Superior Boulevard, leads from Minneapolis to Lake Minnetonka and is paved with concrete for the 
 entire length. 
 
Universal Portland Cement Co. 
 
 89 
 
 of concrete pavement here in Chicago at the American Steel & Wire Co.'s 
 building just across the Randolph Street bridge. This pavement has been 
 in now for ten years and during this time has been subjected to excessively 
 heavy traffic and is today in first class condition. 
 
 Probably the best example of the concrete highway is to be found at 
 Detroit, Mich., illustrated on page 87 where the Wayne County com- 
 missioners have adopted concrete as their standard type of construction 
 for the heavily traveled, important highways leading in all directions out 
 of the City of Detroit. They have today over eighty miles of concrete 
 roads constructed during the past five years. This work has cost from 
 ten to seventeen thousand dollars per mile for sixteen foot concrete road 
 with a four-foot gravel shoulder on each side. Maintenance cost on 
 these roads has been extremely low. On the first mile constructed five 
 years ago they have expended to date a total of less than one hundred 
 dollars, whereas the reports of highway departments of our Eastern States 
 show from five hundred to over one thousand dollars per mile per year 
 maintenance on various types of macadam. 
 
 Probably the best method of obtaining the information you desire on 
 this subject, since the time is so short, is to ask questions and I shall be glad 
 to try and answer any questions you may care to ask. 
 
 (The following questions and replies were taken from Mr. Frank's 
 discussion of the "Presence of Dirt in Concrete Aggregates" and are 
 placed in this position because of their reference to floors and pavements :) 
 
 Mr. Henry: How long should a cement floor lay before stock can 
 be put on it? 
 
 Mr. Franks: Stock should not be turned in on the floor under ten 
 days if you wish your floor to be successful. If you will cover the floor, 
 
 Near view of curved strike board for giving the crown to the pavement, showing also concrete 
 bucket, mixer, boom, and steel expansion joint in place. 
 
90 Permanent and Sanitary Farm Improvements 
 
 as soon as sufficiently hard, with two inches of sand, and keep it wet for 
 five days, the hardness it takes on will surprise you. 
 
 Mr. Larson: Will not the temperature, to some extent, determine 
 the length of time of setting? 
 
 Mr. Franks: Usually the concrete work is done in the summer time, 
 so that ten days is sufficient. 
 
 Mr. Larson: When we were building our silo it was in the fall and 
 we got some cold weather. The concrete would not harden over night so 
 that we could raise the form in the morning, as was done during the warm 
 weather. 
 
 Mr. Franks: That is the difference in temperatures. The colder it 
 is the slower the concrete hardens. 
 
 Mr. Henry: Seven years ago we built a barn, and put in a cement 
 floor, and we were very careful in keeping this barn closely shut up for 
 some three weeks, didn't let any air into it. We kept the windows tightly 
 closed and the doors tightly shut. It proved to be a very satisfactory 
 job. Now the question is, did I do better to shut it up closely than I 
 I would to have admitted the air? 
 
 Mr. Franks: A hot wind, whether the concrete is exposed to the 
 sun or not, blowing across your concrete surface will take the moisture 
 out of it nearly as fast as the direct rays of the sun, so you did perfectly 
 right. 
 
 Dr. Hill: Under these conditions is it well to sprinkle a cement wall 
 with water a few days after it is laid so as to keep it moist? 
 
 Mr. Franks : If you cannot cover it with sand, or anything like that, 
 always keep it moist by putting on a little water two or three times a day. 
 
 Prof. Randlett: I think perhaps we have occupied as much time as 
 it is policy to spend on this question. Inasmuch as Dr. Horton desires to 
 leave as soon as possible, we will pass the next subject for the present, and 
 go to the subject of "Manure Pits." Therefore, I will ask Dr. Horton to 
 take the floor at this time. (Applause). 
 
Universal Portland Cement Co. 91 
 
 Manure Pits 
 
 Discussion led by Dr. H. E. Horton and G. L. Codman, Chicago 
 
 Dr. Horton : I have prepared and placed on the chairs a leaflet show- 
 ing some of the points connected with the manure pit. I am not going into 
 these ad seriatim, but I wish to bring up two lines of thought in connec- 
 tion with what you have seen during the past two days. 
 
 The subject of farm sanitation is looming up very large at the present 
 time, and bacteriological laboratories in this country and Europe are 
 laying great stress on the influence of the common house fly on farm condi- 
 tions. I don 't have to go into any details on this. You know, for instance, 
 that tuberculosis, diphtheria and typhoid are carried by the ordinary 
 house fly. Recently some one in St. Louis attributed infantile paralysis 
 to the fly. We know from European experience that anthrax, cholera, and 
 bubonic plague, are due to the fly. The first day we were out, at one place 
 we visited, I think we were all disappointed in one thing, namely, in 
 the matter of cleanliness. That was not an ordinary farm, and I looked 
 for something better. Yesterday when we were out beyond Barrington, 
 we saw a barn that is as near perfection as any I have ever seen. There 
 were very few odors; almost no flies. The barn, if you will remember was 
 screened, and beyond the screen were curtains. If you went into the Hart 
 barn you found practically no flies there. There were screens and curtains 
 and a darkened condition. 
 
 There is an idea prevalent in this country that you can build a manure 
 pit in any old way; 2 feet deep, or 10 feet deep. This is not so. If you 
 undertake to store manure beyond a certain depth in the pit you will de- 
 feat your aim. I think every one of us here, perhaps sometime in life as 
 boys, went under the barn and shoveled out the manure, which was carted 
 out by the team into the field. We had three layers of manure; we had the 
 fresh manure on top, we had the rotted manure in the middle, and in the 
 bottom we had a manure of the most offensive smell. This manure had 
 not simply fermented (we want manure fermented), but had decomposed. 
 That manure as it was shoveled from the cellar was not in condition to go 
 on the field and give the best results. 
 
 A manure pit should not be over 3 feet deep at the deepest. Why? 
 The actions which go on in a heap of manure are due to bacterial life. 
 There are two kinds of bacteria, as you know, one living in the presence of 
 air, and the other out of the presence of air. Your manure pit should be 
 deep enough so that both kinds of bacteria have an opportunity to work 
 and cause fermentation — it is not fermentation, but that is a good word 
 adopted to indicate the action which takes place. 
 
 There is another little thing to which I want to call your attention, and 
 that is the necessity for building the manure pit without any sharp angles. 
 The corners should all be rounded. Otherwise you will start up a bad de- 
 composition. 
 
 Manure in a pit, in order to keep perfectly, should be spread evenly, 
 kept moist and well packed. The wetting down is easily taken care of by 
 the use of a pump, preferably one of the diaphragm type used in building 
 sewers. By the use of such a pump the liquid which has separated out be- 
 
92 
 
 Permanent and Sanitary Farm Improvements 
 
 low may be poured over the manure above. This is a valuable suggestion 
 for successfully storing manure. 
 
 The German Government maintains a Department of Agriculture which 
 is very famous. It is used by farmers and by associations all through the 
 Fatherland. A man in the south of Germany wants to know something 
 about building a manure pit. He writes into Berlin. They send him their 
 recommendations and the recommendations they send we have reproduced 
 in the illustration shown on page 100. If you will maintain the depth of 
 the manure pit, as suggested, will spread the manure as fast as it is made, 
 will keep it moist and tamped down, you will have a manure which going 
 onto a field of potatoes, for instance, or sugar beets, will increase the yield 
 of these crops at least 50 per cent. 
 
 The liquid manure which comes from the cow stall directly into the 
 manure pit seeps from the manure as it is added to the pit. This liquid 
 manure is 80 per cent as valuable as Chile saltpetre. This liquid manure 
 may be applied to all kinds of garden truck or potatoes, and is a splendid 
 thing on the meadow, as it possesses this high value. 
 
 As to the construction, I can say very little, but Mr. Codman has had 
 this matter in hand, and he will talk to you for a few moments. I thank 
 you, gentlemen. (Applause). 
 
 Prof. Randlett: After Mr. Codman shall have spoken an opportunity 
 
 Much value is to be found in the liquid manure, and at the Hartwood Farm, provision has been 
 made for a liquid manure tank, from the bottom of which the liquid can be pipedjinto wagon below. 
 
Universal Portland Cement Co. 
 
 93 
 
 will be given to dictate the questions again to the reporter. Mr. Codman 
 will now continue the discussion of this subject. 
 
 Mr. Codman : It seems rather useless to try and add anything to a dis- 
 cussion by Dr. Horton, who has made this and similar subjects a lifelong 
 study. Accordingly I will not attempt to treat upon the theory of or neces- 
 sity for the manure pit at all but to give a few suggestions as to the con- 
 struction. A few requirements influencing the design of a manure pit are 
 as follows : 
 
 1. A manure pit should be permanent and water-tight. 
 
 2. The area of the manure pit should allow 50 square feet for each 
 standard head of stock. 
 
 3. The pit should be built so that the manure may be easily packed. 
 All corners should be rounded instead of sharp and the walls of the pit 
 should be battered toward the outside to facilitate packing. 
 
 4. Surface water should be kept out of the pit. The entrance of the 
 surface water may be prevented by extending the walls 6 inches above the 
 ground to form a curb. 
 
 5. Driveways in and out of the pit should not be steep. 
 
 6. The pit should be built the depth at which bacteriological action 
 in the manure will take place to the best advantage. Preferably the pit 
 should not be built deeper than 3 feet. 
 
 7. A cistern should be built in connection, the bottom of the pit in- 
 clining gently in the direction toward the cistern to allow the drainage of 
 the liquid manure. 
 
 The manure pit of concrete similar to that illustrated on page 94 
 best meets these requirements. If made of concrete proportioned 
 1:23^:4, in the manure pit itself, and 1:2:3 in the cistern, the structure 
 resulting should sup- 
 ply the primal req- WJf3H£.'!L'. i : .'SM&BBtnL.' ' " :X Xf T " 
 uisites of perma- 
 nency and impermea- 
 bility. The necessary 
 capacity per standard 
 head may be secured 
 by maintaining one 
 constant dimension 
 and varying the other 
 to suit the number of 
 stock kept, thus for 
 20 standard head the 
 pit should be 30 x 40 
 
 feet, for 30 Standard Sump Hole or Drain from Concrete Manure Pit through which the 
 i ir.^rtrtP a. £ Art liquid manure seeps into the storage tank below. Hartwood 
 
 head 30x60 feet, tor 40 Farms, Barrington, 111. 
 
94 
 
 Permanent and Sanitary Farm Improvements 
 
 RE/NEORCED CONCRETE MANURE P/T 
 W/TH SCREENS AND CONCRETE ROOT 
 
 STANDARD 
 HCAO 
 
 DIMENSION 
 C 
 
 DIMENSION 
 D 
 
 10 
 
 J 
 
 5 
 
 zo 
 
 S 
 
 6 
 
 JO 
 
 8 
 
 J 
 
 40 
 
 9 
 
 6 
 
 SO 
 
 10 
 
 7 
 
 STANDARL LENGTH 
 HEAD A 
 
 BREADTH 
 3 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 JO 
 
 £0 
 
 40 
 
 JO 
 
 JO 
 
 60 
 
 JO 
 
 ■to 
 
 go 
 
 30 
 
 50 
 
 100 
 
 JO 
 
 s 
 
 mis r#AM£wo#jf or\ 
 
 Z> 4 SCANTLING MLL 
 SUPPORT SCPECN/NG 
 ON INS/QE ANO W/ft£ 
 rCNOMG ON OOTSIOC 
 
 Plan of Manure Pit with Cistern for liquid manure. 
 
 J 6- -Jtf- -w 
 
 STYLE N0J£ TR/ANGULAR M£SH y 
 
 SECTION fi-A 
 
 Sectional View A-A of Manure Pit with Cistern. 
 
 0ROD5 SP4CC0 9«i'0C 
 
 
 ocrAiL or poor slab 
 
 AND BC/IM 
 
 *»fi/ws 7'oc CxrcNOn 
 
 ACROSS BOTTOM £ UP S/OCS 
 
 Sectional View B-B of Manure Pit with Cistern. 
 Figure 28. Reinforced Concrete Manure Pit with screens and concrete roof. 
 
Universal Portland Cement Co. 95 
 
 standard head 30x80 feet, etc. You will notice that the 30 foot dimen- 
 sion is not altered. This design was decided upon so that additions could 
 be made to the pit as desired, each addition being similar in size and 
 amount of reinforcing material to the one before. 
 
 The pit is also designed to meet the other requirements mentioned. 
 The walls are battered on the inside and the corners are rounded to facili- 
 tate packing. There is a curb extending from the ground to keep out sur- 
 face water. The driveways slope gradually to prevent slipping and the 
 floors have a very gentle slope toward the cistern. This design also shows 
 a roof. Although not a necessity, a roof is desirable as it shields the 
 manure from exposure to the rays of the sun and consequent drying out, 
 and as it necessitates building a frame work of beams a fly screen may be 
 fastened upon the frame if desired. On farms where certified milk is being 
 handled a screen on the manure pit is certain to meet with the approval of 
 inspectors. As the building of the roof is more or less optional, whether cr 
 not it is constructed will very likely depend upon the financial considera- 
 tion. 
 
 Blue prints showing the design of this pit may be obtained free by 
 writing the Universal Information Bureau, 208 South La Salle Street, 
 Chicago. 
 
 Prof. Chase: I would like to ask the reason why liquid manure is 
 pumped from the pit and dragged back in? Why not hold it there con- 
 tinually? Furthermore, I would like to ask if anybody who has had ex- 
 perience with manure pits thinks that for us farmers in the West it would 
 be a practical thing, because of the fact, that they cover as much territory 
 for stock as these feeding floors we have visited here cover per head of 
 stock? And if it would not be more desirable to arrange to have the manure 
 delivered from the yard or from the barn right to the fields instead of 
 putting it in the pit? 
 
 Dr. Horton: There are two kinds of soil that we all know about, 
 heavy and light. There are two kinds of manure — fresh manure with long 
 straw, and a well rotted or combusted manure. Now, if you have a piece 
 of heavy, clay land, draw your stuff right out from your barn and put it 
 on, but if you have the other you want the manure to rot and get in shape, 
 so when it goes onto the loam or the sand it is available right away. We 
 know now, that the use of manure is not for its mineral benefit, but 
 rather for the organic portion which is the media for the development of 
 beneficial soil bacteria. The most modern German thought is that 
 manure's great value is in furnishing a media for the development 
 of soil bacteria, and that is the reason why you give it a chance to decom- 
 pose for your light land, but if you have clay land, go right out with it. 
 
 Mr. Henry : I would like to ask Dr. Horton if he would have this apply 
 to manure that is plowed down entirely, or put on as a top covering? 
 
 Dr. Horton: I am talking about plowing under. 
 
 Prof. Chase : I would like to ask Dr. Horton this question in regard to 
 the European method. They take a common, level concrete floor, 30 
 or 100 feet long, put a concrete curb around it a foot high and bring out all 
 the stuff every day from the stable, and pile it on this concrete floor, I 
 have seen it several times 3 or 4 feet high, and higher than that on the 
 floor. Now would that be a safe plan to follow here, that is, have it right on 
 
96 Permanent and Sanitary Farm Improvements 
 
 the surface, no pit except the pit that is formed by the high curbing around 
 the floor? 
 
 Dr. Horton: It is safe to store it right in this country, as well as in 
 Europe. It should not be piled, as I said before, over 3 feet deep. Now, 
 people have an idea that the conditions in the United States are different 
 from those that obtain in Europe; that what will do in Europe will not do 
 in the United States. When you think of the fact that there are all kinds of 
 climate there, ranging all the way from the western shore of France until 
 you get to the Caucasus Mountains, you can see that the conditions there 
 are very much the same as obtain in this country. You see we are likely 
 to meet with similar conditions in Europe as we have here. The same con- 
 ditions exist there as here, and a manure pit on the top of the ground, on 
 the surface, or any other form of pit that has given satisfaction over there 
 can be used here. 
 
 Prof. Chase : The only difference is that we have much heavier rain- 
 falls, tremendous downpours, while they come gently over in Europe. 
 
 J. F. Gordon: I would like to ask a question. Where we follow this 
 system of applying the manure to growing crops, such as grasses, do we 
 need a manure pit, if that manure is hauled out every week and applied to 
 the soil? I am speaking of Ohio conditions. 
 
 Dr. Horton: The best practice is to apply stable manure to the tilled 
 fields which require and demand an abundance of humus and organic 
 matter, and apply only the liquid manure to the grass land which is al- 
 ready supplied with organic matter. All soils do not require the same kind 
 of manure. Well rotted manure (from manure pit) should always be applied 
 to light soils ; long straw manure (fresh manure) should be applied to heavy 
 soils. If manure is hauled out from barn at once, this distinction cannot 
 be observed, and much of the value of the manure is lost. By all means 
 have a manure pit. 
 
 (Syllabus presented by Dr. Horton and Mr. Cod man; 
 
 Why Is So Little Thought Given 
 to Handling Manure? 
 
 1. Ignorance of the value of manure. 
 
 2. Fastidiousness of the farmer or hired man. 
 
 3. Ignorance of the subject of crop feeding. 
 
 What Manure Means to the Farm 
 
 1. Media for soil bacteria. 
 
 2. Physical action on soil. 
 
 3. Contains all plant foods. 
 
 4. Plant foods in right proportion. 
 
 5. Can be used on all soils and for all crops. 
 
 6. Produced on the farm. 
 
 7. Action continues over 2 to 3 years. 
 
Universal Portland Cement Co. 97 
 
 Ways of Handling Manure 
 
 1. Flat stall (throwing outside in a pile). 
 
 2. Deep stall (preserving in situation). 
 
 3. Manure pit (hauling to a pit outside the stall or dropping into the 
 
 basement under the stall). 
 
 The Sanitary Farm 
 
 1. Freedom from typhoid. 
 
 2. Insurance of healthy stock. 
 
 3. Flies do not migrate. 
 
 Economic Aspect of Handling 
 Farmyard Manure 
 
 When manure made in the flat stall (properly handled) is valued at 76, 
 manure made in the manure pit is valued at 116, or 52 per cent more. 
 
 Experience has shown that when the yield of potatoes on an acre, with 
 no farmyard manure, was 249 bushels, the yield using flat stall manure 
 was 308 bushels and using the manure pit 378 bushels per acre. 
 
 Manure should not go to the field any time the farmer or hired man 
 feels like drawing it, rather it should be handled at the time the work 
 best fits in with other work. 
 
 The farmer should be in a position to choose long straw manure or well 
 rotted manure. 
 
 Bad Action of Fresh Manure 
 
 Applications of fresh, long straw manure to a field a short time before 
 seeding usually results in a poor crop. The explanation commonly given 
 for the poor crop is that the manure has upset the physical condition of 
 the soil and the soil must be "set" or "firmed." 
 
 The reason for the poor crop lies deeper. This farm practice of intro- 
 ducing fresh straw into the soil has interfered in the life of the soil bac- 
 teria, the economic balance is disturbed and the growing crop hungers 
 for nitrogen. 
 
 By rotting the straw its injurious effect is greatly reduced. 
 
 Manure should undergo a controlled decomposition. This decompo- 
 sition may be controlled by regulating the access of air (oxygen) and this 
 brought about by (a) depth of the manure in the pit; (b) spreading and 
 packing; (c) keeping the manure moist. 
 
 Standing Causes Weight Loss 
 
 Manure on standing loses weight and takes on a brown or black color. 
 This color is due to the formation of humus. 
 
 Manure in going to a mellow condition loses 20 per cent of its weight, 
 a step further to the spotted condition, 40 per cent; and to complete 
 decomposition, 50 to 60 per cent of its original weight. 
 
 Manure on standing undergoes chemical changes. Some of the car- 
 bonaceous matter is changed to a gas and escapes; a part of the nitrogen 
 
98 Permanent and Sanitary Farm Improvements 
 
 is changed into nitrogen gas and escapes, another part is converted into 
 highly soluble nitrates which are leached out of the soil. 
 
 If manure is to be used for its chemical constituents, the well rotted 
 product acts quickest; if used to improve the physical condition of the 
 soil, the fresh manure is the best and its effects persist the longest in the 
 soil. 
 
 Bacteria in Manure 
 
 Bacteria require for food carbohydrates worked over and ready for 
 assimilation, nitrogenous and ashy matter. They develop with great 
 rapidity at a certain temperature and in the presence of moisture. 
 
 All these requirements and conditions are furnished in an ideal way by 
 stable manure. 
 
 Some bacteria require oxygen in order to live; to a second kind oxygen 
 means death. A third kind of bacteria lives and nourishes with and with- 
 out the presence of oxygen. 
 
 Now, as the manure is subjected to unlimited action of oxygen or 
 deprived entirely of oxygen, conditions best suited to the growth of the 
 different sorts of bacteria are brought about. 
 
 The practical application of these facts is made to determine the depth 
 of the manure pit. 
 
 There is a happy medium of oxygen supply when the manure pit is two 
 to three feet deep, the manure carefully spread, compacted and moistened. 
 
 Handling the Pit 
 
 To start the use of a manure pit, cover the floor of the pit with a layer 
 
 of fermenting manure and fill in the fresh manure on top of the layer. 
 
 Keep a heap of rotting manure to mix with the fresh manure for this 
 
 _ ia" 04" _ i s a splendid way to control 
 
 /m. losses of nitrogen. 
 
 ^f£\ %^Sa Manure as it is made is 
 
 ^^^SS-^^UitmitUmttim **ftw removed every day from 
 
 T"/^MI w » * ne s t a ble to the pit by 
 
 1 It tl 'A ^^ using a stone boat, tip-cart 
 
 iff VI ^ ^L or by overhead rail dump 
 
 I VI 'a \ ^^ run by gravity. If the dis- 
 
 V, tt ^ ^^ ^ tance is not great, a steel 
 
 - 'ft. ^^ X. fork may be used to drag 
 
 ^^ ^^ out the manure. 
 
 ^W Manure should not be 
 
 * _ hauled to the pit and there 
 
 dumped in heaps and left. It should be spread evenly in the pit and the 
 horse and cattle manures mixed as much as possible. It must be firmly 
 pressed, and for this purpose a ring roller without tongue is drawn about 
 the pit in all directions. Around the walls the manure should be tamped 
 down by a man using a tamper or boy stamping with his feet. 
 
 Hens and hogs must be kept away from the manure pit, for through 
 scratching and rooting air reaches the manure and there is a loss of nitrogen. 
 The solid manure should be kept moist by repeatedly pumping over it 
 the liquid manure. 
 
Universal Portland Cement Co. 
 
 99 
 
 Period Manure Should Remain in Pit 
 
 In the pit the manure undergoes a fermentation which adds to its 
 value. There is danger of the fermentation going too far, and for this 
 reason the pit should be emptied every 8 to 10 weeks. 
 
 The Manure Pit 
 
 In general the construction of buildings on the farm should be thought 
 out with the greatest care in order to hold down to the smallest possible 
 figure the investment of money on which interest must be earned. 
 
 Manure pits, jauche, (pronounced "yowka") cisterns and deep stalls 
 must not cost so much that the savings from their use are visionary. 
 
 If possible get along without a roof to the pit and thus cut down the 
 investment. 
 
 Build massively to keep down the cost of replacement and repairs. 
 Figure that writing off 1 per cent per year will cover this expense. 
 
 Choose a spot, or build in such a way, that surface water cannot flow 
 into the pit. See that eave troughs and gutters are not discharging into 
 the pit. Build up the walls to form a massive curb around the pit. 
 
 Fence the pit to keep in the stock to tramp down the manure. 
 
 Connect the pit direct with the jauche cistern. 
 
 In the construction of a manure pit there is one rule which always 
 must be adhered to, namely : There must be no sharp corners, but in their 
 place round corners. 
 
 If there are sharp corners the manure cannot be compacted in them 
 and then trouble begins in the pit. 
 
 The bottom of the pit should incline gently to the connection between 
 the pit and the jauche cistern. 
 
 The area of the manure pit should give 50 square feet to each standard 
 head of stock. The choice of form will depend on the length of the cow 
 stalls. 
 
 Dimensions of Pits to Care for 10 to 50 Head 
 
 Standard Head 
 
 Dimensions of Fit 
 
 Length Feet 
 
 Breadth Feet 
 
 10 
 20 
 30 
 40 
 50 
 
 32 
 32 
 59 
 65 
 
 82 
 
 19 
 32 
 32 
 39 
 39 
 
100 
 
 Permanent and Sanitary Farm Improvements 
 
 STANDARD 
 HEAD 
 
 DIMENSION 
 C 
 
 DIMENSION 
 D 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 s 
 
 20 
 
 5 
 
 s 
 
 30 
 
 8 
 
 5 
 
 40 
 
 9 
 
 6 
 
 50 
 
 10 
 
 7 
 
 Ground Plan for Manure Pit 
 
 STANDARD 
 HEAD 
 
 LENGTH 
 A 
 
 BREADTH 
 B 
 
 l 
 
 32 FT 
 
 19 FT 
 
 20 
 
 32 FT 
 
 32 FT 
 
 30 
 
 59 FT 
 
 32 FT 
 
 40 
 
 65 FT 
 
 39 FT 
 
 50 
 
 82 FT 
 
 39 FT 
 
 SECTION A-A 
 
 3/8> RODS 7UC.EXTENDING 
 ACROSS BOTTOM* UP SIDES 
 
 Longitudinal Section for Manure Pit 
 
Universal Portland Cement Co. 
 
 101 
 
 Materials for Building Manure Pits 
 
 Cement 
 
 Yards sand 
 
 Yards gravel 
 
 "Triangle mesh" for rein 
 
 forcement 
 
 Rods, %" round, ft 
 
 Gates, 58"xl0' 
 
 Fencing, lin. f t 
 
 Steel Posts, corners 
 
 " ends 
 
 " line 
 
 Lumber 
 
 Labor: 
 
 Excavating 
 
 Forms 
 
 Mixing and placing 
 
 Removing forms, setting 
 fence, etc 
 
 10 Standard 
 Head 
 
 40 bbls. 
 12 
 
 34 
 
 660 sq. ft. 
 
 550 
 
 2 
 
 85 
 
 4—8x10 
 
 4—8x10 
 
 4—8x13 
 
 1000 B. F. 
 
 75 yds. 
 6 man days 
 20 " " 
 
 20 Standard 
 Head 
 
 59 bbls. 
 17.5 
 35 
 
 1089 sq. ft. 
 
 750 
 
 2 
 
 112 
 
 4—8x10 
 
 4—8x10 
 
 4—8x13 
 
 1200 B. F. 
 
 128 yds. 
 7 J man days 
 27 " r 
 
 30 Standard 
 Head 
 
 94 bbls. 
 
 28 
 56 
 
 1980 sq. ft. 
 
 1000 
 
 2 
 
 166 
 
 4—8x10 
 
 4—8x10 
 
 6—8x13 
 
 1700 B. F. 
 
 230 yds. 
 9 man days 
 48 " r 
 
 40 Standard 
 Head 
 
 118 bbls. 
 35 
 70 
 
 2640 sq. ft. 
 
 1200 
 
 2 
 
 192 
 
 4—8x10 
 
 4—8x10 
 
 8—8x13 
 
 2000 B. F. 
 
 300 yds. 
 11 man days 
 60 " " 
 
 9i " " 
 
 50 Standard 
 Head 
 
 145 bbls. 
 43 
 
 86 
 
 sq. ft. 
 
 1410 
 
 2 
 
 225 
 
 4—8x10 
 
 4—8x10 
 
 10—8x13 
 
 2300 B. F. 
 
 383 yds. 
 14 man days 
 741 " " 
 
 12 " " 
 
 Prof. Randlett: We shall now take up the next topic, which is "Farm 
 Sanitary Systems." I shall call on Mr. Sargent to open the discussion. 
 
 H. Stillson Hart of Barrington, 111., constructed his manure pit entirely of concrete, the side walls 
 and floor are all of this material, openings having been left in the side wall through which a 
 wagon can be driven. The floor is made to slope toward the left hand corner, and at this 
 location a tank is provided into which the valuable liquid manure runs by gravity. At a lower 
 level the liquid manure is drawn off directly into a special wagon which carries it to the fields for 
 distribution. 
 
102 
 
 Permanent and Sanitary Farm Improvements 
 
 Farm Sanitary Systems 
 
 Discussion led by E. C. Sargent, Chicago 
 
 Mr. Sargent: Undoubtedly one of the most important factors to be 
 considered in connection with the farm home is the sanitary condition of 
 its surroundings. One of the most vital things to us is the keeping pure of 
 our water supply. It is absolutely essential that we take some method of 
 protecting the water we drink, that which we use for household purposes, 
 and that which is used for watering the stock. As you know, the ordinary 
 vault is a source of contamination and the cesspool is almost equally 
 dangerous. 
 
 We are now taking advantage, in the disposal of sewage, of what is 
 known as bacterial action. This action is evidenced in all forms of decay. 
 In sanitary systems for the disposal of sewage, use is made of what is called 
 the "septic tank." The basis of its operation is bacterial action. I think 
 it is unnecessary to go into a prolonged discussion of the action and shall 
 pass this subject over with the simple statement that the aerobic bacteria 
 work near the surface of the septic tank in the presence of ample air sup- 
 ply, while the anaerobic bacteria work in the bottom of the tank, away from 
 the air. This fact must be borne in mind in the regulation and operation 
 of septic tanks. 
 
 Only a few words are necessary descriptive of the septic tank. It is 
 simply a tank divided into two compartments and ordinarily placed be- 
 low the surface of the ground. See illustration below. Into the first 
 
 
 Coven for manholes 
 
 *}fi L * Swire 6'c.toc. 
 
 or z" k M£5H -poultry nfttin&. 
 
 ■jrFROM BOTTOM, 
 
 Concrete Septic Tank. 
 
Universal Portland Cement Co. 103 
 
 compartment, or settling tank, the sewage from the house is emptied, and 
 there it is attacked by the bacteria; the solids are transformed into a 
 liquid state, the liquid then passing into a second and smaller chamber, 
 called the dosing chamber, thence into the disposal system. 
 
 There are a number of types which may be used, but perhaps the most 
 common and most economical is the simple rectangular tank with division 
 and baffle walls. The size of the chamber will be regulated largely by the 
 size of the household. The larger chamber, as ordinarily made for a family 
 of six or seven is about 4 feet wide by 4 feet long by 5 feet in depth. The 
 walls may be anywhere from 4 to 8 inches thick, but 6 inches would be 
 ample. Reinforcement should be used, especially at the corners. The 
 tank is usually covered with a reinforced concrete cover % to 4 inches 
 thick, making it as nearly airtight as possible. The tank is ordinarily 
 vented through the regular vent pipe of the inside plumbing system of 
 the house. 
 
 The dosing chamber does not need to be over 24 inches in width for a 
 tank of this size. The dosing chamber, or compartment into which the 
 purified sewage flows contains a simple form of automatic siphon and is 
 regulated to empty the chamber periodically and at such periods that 
 the sewage will be allowed to stand in the septic tank for a couple of days. 
 The flow of sewage from the settling tank to the dosing chamber is de- 
 flected by a baffle projecting below the surface so that the bacteria work- 
 ing at the surface of the settling chamber will not be disturbed or carried 
 over into the dosing chamber. 
 
 Cost is rather difficult to state because it varies considerably with the 
 locality. It is safe to say that under average conditions, a tank which will 
 be satisfactory for a family of six or seven persons can be built within $150. 
 The sewage, after passing through the septic tank is greatly clarified 
 and the fluid which comes from this looks as if it were absolutely pure. 
 It is necessary, however, to give this some further treatment. The differ- 
 ence in systems is largely in the final disposition of this effluent. The 
 simplest method of doing this is known as the absorption system. There 
 are a number of other methods more or less elaborate for obtaining the 
 same result, such as filter beds with extensive systems of sprays, etc., but 
 our interest lies in the ordinary low cost absorption system. 
 
 The absorption system is made up of ordinary drain tile, more com- 
 monly 4 inches in diameter, and laid with open joints, probably J4 OI an 
 inch between them, this depending on the character of the soil. The 
 ordinary plan of laying these resembles a branch of a tree with its off- 
 shooting branches. There is a main line on which are placed the necessary 
 number of Y 's or branch tile, from which the side lines are carried. For an 
 ordinary loose soil, perhaps 300 feet to 400 feet of tile will suffice. It will 
 take care of the sewage from a household of some five or six persons. 
 
 The depth at which the tile are placed is regulated by the character of 
 the soil. If the ground in which the system is to be placed is a porous soil, 
 the system of tile can naturally be placed somewhat deeper than in a clay 
 or dense soil. It must be borne in mind that some of the bacteria which 
 play a part in the purification of the sewage require a supply of oxygen, 
 and for this reason the tile must be laid in such relation to the surface that 
 they can get proper supply in order to carry on their work. 
 
104 Permanent and Sanitary Farm Improvements 
 
 The ordinary depth for laying drain tile is about 12 inches for open 
 soils, while in the clay soils it should be placed somewhat nearer the sur- 
 face. In a clay soil, where the percentage of water in the sewage is large, 
 a second system of tile below the first should be provided — a sub-drain, in 
 order to carry away the excess water. It is a good plan to provide dupli- 
 cate systems in order that the effluent from the septic tank may be turned 
 from first one to the other, in order that the soil will not become so sat- 
 urated that the purification will be effected. 
 
 It is necessary to clean the tank not oftener than once a year. It will 
 be found that after cleaning it will require a couple of weeks to regain its 
 former efficiency. 
 
 Prof. Randlett: We come now to the subject of "Tanks and Troughs." 
 This topic is to be illustrated, and the small lanterns are to be used, similar 
 to the lantern placed upon the table last evening. 
 
 Tanks and Troughs 
 
 Discussion led by J. E. Freeman, Chicago 
 
 Mr. Freeman: Before we use the lantern I wish to make a few 
 general remarks about the use of tanks and troughs and their construction. 
 Of course, concrete tanks are employed in a good many ways besides 
 those relating to the farm, such as for holding different liquids used in in- 
 dustrial plants, in connection with large waterworks and in other water 
 supply and storage systems, but the small tanks that we consider here to- 
 night are the stock tanks and watering troughs. They are of such size and 
 character, and their construction is so simple that the farmer generally can 
 undertake them as about the first concrete work that he does. He may 
 have begun by building small foundations, walks or floors, but sooner or 
 later undertakes the construction of troughs or watering tanks. 
 
 There are a good many advantages in a tank of concrete. In the first 
 place it is easily made and the materials for its construction are generally 
 obtained right at hand. It is adaptable to any special size, and, therefore, 
 can be put in some position or location where it might be difficult to 
 utilize a wooden or steel tank. It is sanitary, easily cleaned, and when left 
 empty for any period of time there is no deterioration. It will not rot, it 
 will not rust or warp, and in fact, it is always ready for use. 
 
 Of course, there have been some cases of unsatisfactory results obtained 
 in constructing such tanks, but these have been due to poor foundations, 
 lack of care as to the materials and mixture which were used, or the method 
 of construction or of reinforcing. Sometimes the reinforcing has been left 
 out altogether, or the foundation may not have been satisfactory, and set- 
 tlement has taken place which would cause the tank to crack and leak. 
 These are points which ought to be very carefully considered. 
 
 The foundation should be made firm enough to support the tank, if 
 the ground itself is not sufficiently hard. If the soil is spongy or soft, 
 there should be a layer of cinders or gravel, say eight or ten inches in 
 thickness placed under the tank. The concrete for the tank itself should 
 be made of a rich, dense mixture, utilizing the best materials, a good 
 quality of sand and gravel or stone, the necessity of which you already 
 understand. The concrete to be used ordinarily for such work is a 1:2:3 
 
Universal Portland Cement Co. 
 
 105 
 
 mixture, although there have been some instances in the construction of 
 
 very large tanks where an exceptionally well graded 1:2:4 mixture has 
 
 been used successfully. 
 
 For reinforcing, the small troughs will usually take one-quarter inch 
 
 round rods in the walls, and in the floor, wire fencing which is run up into 
 
 the side walls. Either one of 
 these two systems of reinforc- 
 ing can be used if the tank is 
 built in place, but if the tank 
 is built to-be moved later, it 
 would be advisable to use 
 both in order to avoid any 
 possibility of cracking. 
 
 A good many tanks have 
 been built with perfectly 
 straight sides, and with very 
 little reinforcing, and often 
 the freezing of the water con- 
 tained has cracked the tank. 
 In addition to proper reinforc- 
 ing protection against this can 
 be provided by a batter placed 
 on the inside of the tank; 
 
 when the water freezes, the ice will slide up the inside walls of the tank 
 
 instead of breaking the tank apart. 
 
 The method of protection is illustrated in the design for small troughs 
 
 or tanks below. The troughs are about 16 inches wide, from 6 to 
 
 A Concrete Apron about the drinking tank is equally as 
 essential as the tank itself. In many instances excel- 
 lent troughs provided with clean and running water 
 are practically inaccessible on account of the muddy 
 conditions of the surrounding barnyard. 
 
 Small reinforced conc_ 
 inverted position, or l..c =».«* 
 with the side form as a guide 
 
 :rete troughs may be made by the use of a wooden or clay inside form in an 
 r the shape of the interior may be formed by the use of a wooden template 
 
 as a (ruide. 
 
106 
 
 Permanent and Sanitary Farm Improvements 
 
 On the tank illustrated above, steel angles are used to 
 protect the edges, but this expedient is not generally 
 considered necessary. It would be better to expend 
 this money and labor in building a concrete apron 
 around the tank to prevent such muddy conditions. 
 
 10 feet long, and about 6 inches deep. Such small troughs can be built 
 in position, or they may be made inside the barn during the winter and 
 later set in place. 
 
 On the farm of Funk Brothers at McLean, Illinois, near Bloomington, 
 is a good example of a rectangular concrete tank. You will notice that 
 
 there is a concrete cover to 
 the well. A concrete floor 
 around the tank, however, 
 would improve the appearance 
 of the work, and prevent the 
 formation of mudholes which 
 might undermine the founda- 
 tion and cause the tank to 
 settle unevenly. 
 
 Many times a concrete 
 stock tank is used in connec- 
 tion with a concrete feeding 
 floor, which is a very good 
 way to utilize both types of 
 barnyard improvements. 
 
 Occasionally the concrete 
 stock tank can be located so as to supply the water to two fields, being 
 set in the line of the fence dividing them. An example of this may be 
 seen in a large rectangular stock tank, about 16 feet square, on the 
 farm of Dr. Mitchell, near Hughesville, Missouri. Such a tank makes 
 a pleasing improvement on a farm, of which the owner may well be 
 proud. 
 
 In building the forms for a rectangular tank illustrated below , 
 the inside form is hung from the outside form and both the floor of 
 the tank and the sidewalls are built at the same time. The reinforcing 
 in the tank walls should extend all the way around the tank, so as to 
 strengthen it against water pressure and against settling or strain. 
 
 A cover on a water tank will help to keep the water from freezing in 
 cold weather. The whole 
 structure shown here is well 
 built, except for the fact that 
 there is no concrete platform 
 around the tank. 
 
 The best form of construc- 
 tion would be to provide such 
 a tank with a concrete top, 
 that covers practically the 
 whole of the tank, excepting 
 at one end, where there may 
 be a wooden cover that can 
 be lifted up to allow the stock 
 
 to arink. Concrete watering tank 6 ft. by 16 ft., 3 ft. deep, on the 
 
 <iiirrl fi tnnlf is in lisp r>n farm of Dr. H. C. Mitchell, near Hughesville, Mo. This 
 
 OUCn a td-nK IS in Use On tank has a surrounding apron of concrete about 8 ft. 
 
 the farm of Emil Thompson, wide t0 Prevent the formation of mudholes which are 
 
 . tt-11 Ti/r- j. A • particularly disagreeable around the watering trough. 
 
 at MlllS, Minnesota. A pipe The tank is available to two feeding yards. 
 
Universal Portland Cement Co. 
 
 107 
 
 leads from this to a small concrete hog trough nearby, the supply being 
 regulated by an automatic valve. 
 
 The cost of the concrete tanks depends largely on local conditions, 
 
 The easiest form to construct for building concrete tanks is of the rectangular shape. The inner form 
 is supported on the outer after the concrete tank floor is in position. 
 
 but may be roughly estimated at $1.00 a barrel capacity. A circular 
 concrete tank at Elkhorn, Wisconsin, holding about 30 barrels was 
 built for this figure. The outside form was of corrugated iron, and a 
 rather pleasing finish was thus produced. 
 
 Circular concrete tanks, such as the one illustrated, are more eco- 
 nomical of material than the rectangular tanks, but the form is somewhat 
 more complicated. Such a form costs about $50.00, but it can be used 
 repeatedly. It is metal lined, and is good for building many tanks, so 
 that the cost of forms per tank would be really brought down to a small 
 item. Sometimes groups of farmers can co-operate to advantage in the 
 purchase of such a form. 
 
 Occasionally circular tanks are built with a many sided form for the 
 outside, instead of a circular one, thus somewhat simplifying the con- 
 struction. 
 
 At the Dunham farm, 
 Wayne, Illinois, where you 
 examined this afternoon the 
 ruins of the wooden barn that 
 was recently destroyed by fire, 
 you probably saw the rectan- 
 gular concrete horse trough 
 near the concrete milk house. 
 Both of these structures were 
 built by farm labor, under 
 the guidance of the farm 
 superintendent. The whole 
 
 tank Was Constructed at One By using wooden covers above the reinforced concrete 
 . • .• •. tank, the drinking capacity is in no way lessened 
 
 COntinUOUS Operation, as It although dirt may easily be excluded. 
 
108 
 
 Permanent and Sanitary Farm Improvements 
 
 has been found, that this method gives the most water-tight work. 
 On the farm of F. A. Tanner near Rockford, Illinois, the concrete 
 
 block milk house has ingen- 
 iously been placed under the 
 barn approach, thus utilizing 
 what might otherwise have 
 been waste space. Inside 
 this milk house is an excel- 
 lent concrete tank for cooling 
 milk. As illustrated on page 
 110. 
 
 A good plan in building 
 a concrete cooling tank for 
 a milk house is to make it 
 of sufficient size to accommo- 
 date two rows of 14-inch milk 
 
 A covered concrete tank is advisable in order to keep cans > a n d deep enough to 
 
 dirt, leaves, etc., out of the drinking water, and al- bring the Water level l'llst to 
 
 though the drinking capacity is somewhat lowered, .-i , £ .-i rrn 
 
 the cleanliness of the water balances this objection. tne neCK 01 the Cans. lhe 
 
 bottom of the tank should 
 be about 8 inches below the 
 level of the milk house floor, 
 so that it will be easy to lift 
 out the milk cans. 
 
 Sometimes in connection 
 with the milk house an 
 overhead water supply tank 
 is provided, and again this 
 type of tank can be utilized 
 in some localities in connec- 
 tion with a cold room for 
 creamery products. One 
 farmer at Henderson, Minne- 
 sota, built a circular structure 
 of this type, and since the 
 water pumped from the 
 
 ground is Very Cold, his Stor- Concrete cold storage house such as can be built with 
 
 age room deDends onlv on the ?»° f ° rm ?' ? n .. the farm °f Henry Liske, Henderson, 
 
 age luuiii ucpeiius umy on uie Mlnn . The building has an inner houge 5 ft fn djam j 
 
 tank above It IOr the lOW eter ln which ice can be placed for cooling purposes. 
 
 temperature desired. 2d Sm" B is used for 8toraee of butter ' eg8r8 ' milk 
 
Universal Portland Cement Co. 
 
 109 
 
 The peculiar surface which is noticed on the round tank illustrated above is due to the use of corru- 
 gated steel for building the outer form. On account of its durability steel is to be recommended for 
 this purpose and the form which was used to build the tank illustrated above has been used on a 
 number of concrete tanks without showing deterioration 
 
 A reinforced concrete milk house at Oak Lawn Farm, "Wayne, Illinois, showing concrete stock tank 
 on the exterior. A considerable portion of the building has been given over to a large cooling tank 
 and in order to insure absence of joints the entire concrete construction was carried on without 
 interruption. 
 
110 
 
 Permanent and Sanitary Farm Improvements 
 
 'yr-xs/ ■ - : 
 
 F. A. Tanner, Rockford, Illinois, has used the area underneath the reinforced concrete approach to his 
 barn for a milk house, building up the side walls of concrete blocks. 
 
 '"foVced c rrc"etrat D n r!ach T o i t n h r h tn Tanner ' 8 """ h ° u8e ' 9howin * th * »>°P'"« «of due to the , 
 
Universal Portland Cement Co. 
 
 Ill 
 
 f-Counter sunk hoh 
 
 STO 
 
 spaced 
 £'-0' 'apart with 
 heads to fit 
 countersunk hole 
 
 SECTION THUU CHRMl£L 
 
 Design of cooling tank for milk house. 
 
 Layout for a Circular Stock Tank with rectangular floor surrounding it. 
 
112 
 
 Permanent and Sanitary Farm Improvements 
 
 A circular form can be made of sheet steel supported on a wooden frame work. The inner form is 
 suspended from the outer as shown. 
 
Universal Portland Cement Co. 
 
 113 
 
 Evening Session 
 
 Crystal Room, Hotel Sherman Thursday, August 21, 1913 
 Oliver Kline of Indiana, Presiding 
 
 Mr. Boynton : If the meeting will come to order now, we shall proceed 
 with our program. I shall turn the meeting over to Mr. Kline, who will 
 preside. 
 
 Mr. Kline: Gentlemen of the Conference: We shall now proceed 
 to work. I hope our different workers will be brief and to the point, 
 and cover the ground just as quickly as they can, so that we shall make 
 progress, for if you all feel as I do, you feel like resting. Nevertheless, we 
 will not quit until our work is done. The first subject tonight is that of 
 Farm Building Economics, which will be discussed by Mr. J. H. Libberton, 
 of Chicago. 
 
 Farm Building Economics 
 
 J. H. Libberton, Chicago 
 
 The economics of farm buildings concern chiefly the judicious ex- 
 penditure of funds for the construction of farm structures; and when 
 considering the judicious expenditure of money, we must take into account 
 hot only the first but the last cost. The last cost naturally includes the 
 first cost ; and when you consider buildings of a temporary nature as com- 
 pared with permanent construction, you find that those of the permanent 
 type generally cost about ten per cent more than those of the temporary 
 type; but, so far as depreciation, insurance, and cost of upkeep are con- 
 cerned, in the end, data which have been obtained on Chicago buildings 
 show that inside of twenty years, the advanced insurance on the frame 
 
 General view of the ruins of the dairy barn on the Dunham Stock Farm, Wayne, Illinois, 
 concrete silos remain unharmed, even though exposed to the hottest part of the fire 
 
114 
 
 Permanent and Sanitary Farm Improvements 
 
 structure will compensate for the difference in the cost between the tem- 
 porary and the permanent structure. 
 
 It is plain, therefore, that the most economical construction at the 
 end of twenty years is the permanent construction, that is, looking at the 
 problem from an insurance standpoint alone. When we turn to insurance 
 from the standpoint of a farmer, we meet a very interesting situation. In 
 the past the farmer has leaned a great deal toward buildings of a temporary 
 nature, and this has reflected itself in the operations of the various insur- 
 ance companies; so that, at present, in Illinois, for instance, and in many 
 other states, a farmer is given no incentive by the insurance companies 
 toward the building of permanent structures, for the reason that if he 
 undertakes to insure his permanent buildings he will be confronted with 
 the same rate which he enjoys on his temporary structures. Then the 
 question arises, why should he pay ten or fifteen per cent more, and build 
 out of concrete or permanent material, when he can get the same rate on 
 the cheaper construction with consequent less cost? 
 
 Now this is the condition which will fast be righted by the insurance 
 companies the minute that there is enough permanent construction to 
 justify their going into the subject thoroughly, and giving the people a 
 special rate for fireproof construction. 
 
 Another phase of permanent construction is the interest on the in- 
 vestment. From our original assumption the interest on the investment 
 
 Near view of the fire damage on Dunham Stock Farm, Wayne, 111., showing the effects of the fire 
 which entirely destroyed the dairy barn and converted the steel stalls into twisted wreckage. 
 
Universal Portland Cement Co. 
 
 115 
 
 A Ramshackle Barn and Submerged Barnyard where 
 dirt and filth abound. A recent epidemic of infantile 
 paralysis, near Chicago, was traced to a filthy cow- 
 stable and barnyard. 
 
 is, of course, ten per cent more than on temporary construction; but 
 that will generally be accounted for later by the absence of repairs, paint- 
 ing, and various other expenses to which the farmer must continually be 
 put to keep his buildings up 
 and in order. 
 
 Fire, tornado and lightning 
 insurance are three different 
 types of insurance which ap- 
 ply particularly to the farmer. 
 In one instance a farmer in- 
 sured his property for $4,000 
 against fire. A tornado ap- 
 peared, killed twelve of his 
 cattle, and did damage in a 
 much larger amount than 
 $4,000 and he could collect 
 absolutely no insurance, be- 
 cause his policy did not cover 
 this particular type of dam- 
 age. 
 
 In speaking of lightning damage to concrete barns, it was not long ago 
 that lightning struck a concrete house on the north side of Chicago. As 
 there was plenty of reinforcing steel in the building the lightning im- 
 mediately diffused throughout the net work without damage, except to 
 the peak of the house, and at that point occurred only a slight crack. 
 There was a good deal of shock in the house, they tell me, but those within 
 were not injured in any way. Another instance of that occurred at Lewis 
 Institute, in Chicago here, where lightning struck the flagstaff, splintering 
 it into a thousand pieces; tore up the roof until it reached the steel frame- 
 work. At that point it was entirely dissipated in the steel of the building. 
 The same would also be the case with a concrete barn. 
 
 Another phase of the problem with which the insurance companies are 
 contending is that of the wooden silo. At the present time practically 
 all the companies are refusing to insure wooden silos, unless other sub- 
 stantial property is offered at the same time. An officer in the Con- 
 tinental Insurance Company informed me the other day, that the com- 
 pany absolutely would not insure wooden silos which are five years old. 
 
 Thus the farmer is debarred 
 from insurance on a temporary 
 silo which is over that age. 
 
 Farm building economics al- 
 so concerns very naturally the 
 relative location of the build- 
 ings. That is a subject into 
 which I will not enter, because 
 you are more familiar with it 
 than I; but, nevertheless, it is 
 a subject which is often deserv- 
 ing of mflre thought than is 
 
 The barn of Dan Swatz was totally wrecked by the crpnprflllv nronrf\f>e\ it We> 
 
 storm of March 23, 1913, indicating conclusively the generally aCCOraea It. VVe 
 
 need of substantial permanent construction. Olten See the farmer With his 
 
116 
 
 Permanent and Sanitary Farm Improvements 
 
 buildings scattered most injudiciously over his place, with the result that 
 making several hundred more movements than are absolutely necessary 
 in carrying out his daily tasks. This condition obtains in the average 
 
 factory; it is only in the last 
 few years that we have devel- 
 oped efficiency engineers who 
 go into this subject from a 
 scientific standpoint. That 
 same study, of course, has 
 been extended to our modern 
 barns; and we find the barns 
 of today much better designed 
 than those of yesterday. 
 
 A few illustrations may 
 serve to demonstrate the value 
 of providing permanency in 
 farm building construction. 
 The health department of the 
 city of Chicago is demanding that farmers provide more sanitary sur- 
 roundings, not only for their own benefit but for the protection of the 
 people who consume the farm products in the city. The illustration 
 on page 115 shows a dairy barn which has been condemned by the 
 Chicago Health Department, and the reason for its condemnation seems 
 perfectly self-evident. The picture at the top of this page shows a con- 
 trast which is rather pleasing to look at. The asbestos shingles are used 
 in preference to the wooden ones on account of their fireproofness, which 
 is often of vital importance on farm buildings which house the farmers' 
 work shops. 
 
 Concrete Block Milk House, on the farm of A. J. Strong, 
 Elkhorn, "Wisconsin. The roof is covered with cement- 
 asbestos shingles. 
 
 When fire destroyed all of the barns of Mrs. Scott Durand's Farm, the concrete block milk house 
 remained standing, although in the thickest of the fire. New buildings have now replaced those 
 destroyed by fire, but the monolithic concrete milk house is still doing duty and will continue to 
 do so for years to come. 
 
Universal Portland Cement Co. 
 
 117 
 
 Mrs. Scott Durand operated an extensive dairy farm at Lake Forest, 
 Illinois, north of Chicago, for the purpose of supplying milk to the city. 
 Her business was of large proportion, but a fire having once started 
 demolished not only all of the 
 farm buildings, with the ex- 
 ception of the concrete milk 
 house, on opposite page but 
 the wooden silos as well, leav- 
 ing her without feed of any 
 kind for the cattle, and neces- 
 sitating the temporary inter- 
 ruption of business and the 
 sale of all her live stock. Thus 
 not only does the farmer lose 
 the actual value of the build- 
 ings, but oftentimes business 
 which has taken years to build 
 up, and which necessarily is 
 transferred to his competitors. It might be mentioned incidentally that 
 Mrs. Durand's subsequent construction has been fireproof. 
 
 Wind sometimes is almost as disastrous as fire, as has been proven 
 many times, one instance having occurred recently at Oswego, Illinois, 
 on the farm of John Herrin. At this place a basement barn 100 feet long 
 and 40 feet wide, was entirely demolished, eleven head of steers ready 
 for the market, valued at $100 per head were killed, as well as two horses 
 valued at $200 each. All of the farm machinery was within the barn and 
 severely damaged. The total estimated loss was $4,000. Mr. Herrin 
 carried fire insurance to this amount but since the damage was done by 
 wind he could make no collection. 
 
 Concrete Engine House, contains acetylene lighting 
 apparatus on one of the Funk farms, Bloomington, 111. 
 The walls and roof are of monolithic concrete, and 
 provide fireproof construction where most needed. 
 
 A cyclone not only destroys a wooden barn, but is fatal to the machinery and often to the animals 
 housed within. 
 
I 1 8 Permanent and Sanitary Farm Improvements 
 
 And so we might go on, enumerating one instance after another, where 
 the farmer has failed to realize the importance of providing permanent 
 construction, which, after all, is the best assurance against fire or tornado. 
 On the Funk Farms, located near Bloomington, Illinois, a large part of 
 the new construction is being built of concrete, one instance being the 
 gasoline engine house illustrated in on page 117, which is given over to 
 the purpose of lighting the dwelling. In this submerged house is a gaso- 
 line engine, electric generator and acetylene gas generator. In case there 
 is an accident there is no inflammable material present to assist the flames 
 in further destruction. 
 
 I hope that in looking at these pictures and talking with you for the 
 few minutes given, we have come to a slight understanding of the subject 
 of farm building economics, which, after all, is nothing more than judicious 
 farm construction. 
 
Universal Portland Cement Co. 
 
 19 
 
 Farm Building Construction 
 
 Discussion led by D. P. Witter, New York and E. S. Fowler, Chicago 
 
 Mr. Witter: I desire tonight to give my time very largely to those 
 who are better prepared, and especially to a general discussion at the 
 close of my remarks on the construction of the silo. There are, however, 
 a few points that I think will not be covered by any other speaker tonight. 
 
 During the last three days we have visited about twenty farms. 
 I think that every particle of the attention has been given to the barns, 
 stock and silos, or in other words, to that part of the farm buildings that 
 brings in dollars. The farm home has not been mentioned. Any barn, 
 or any silo, that does not contribute to the building up and maintaining 
 of a farm home, is not worth looking at for a moment. Let us consider 
 now very briefly some of the things that ought to surround the farm home. 
 In doing this, we will not criticise our forefathers. They came here when 
 the country was new, they had the forests to clear away, schoolhouses 
 and churches to build; they did their work faithfully and well. 
 
 Today, however, we have a different condition; and it remains, it 
 seems to me, for this generation to point to a more permanent construction, 
 a construction that will be pleasing, homelike and sanitary. I would 
 place the house in front of the other buildings, or at the side, always. 
 How often we see the outlook across God's own bright country entirely 
 
 John F. Jelke operates a model farm near Elgin, for the purpose of supplying cream to be used in his 
 business. 
 
120 
 
 Permanent and Sanitary Farm Improvements 
 
 obliterated, you might say, by a great red barn right across the road from 
 the house! Somebody has absolutely no idea of the beauty of the open 
 country, and of what a farm home ought to be. 
 
 ' In our Institute work we should call the attention of our listeners to 
 the fact that their buildings should be so placed that others who follow 
 them will be glad for that arrangement. Another thought is that these 
 buildings should be so constructed on the farm, and the farm so managed 
 with the aid of the buildings, that it will not only give the family a living, 
 but a profit. I have wondered just how many of the farms we have 
 visited in the last three days were actually paying the expenses of the 
 farm, and bringing in the family a dividend besides. What we want is 
 the farmer, or farm management, that will not only maintain the fertility 
 of the farm, but improve it; and we want a farm home that will be 
 profitable to the owner. 
 
 These buildings must be so placed and so constructed that they will 
 be economical from every point of view. That brings me to the thought; 
 that we can have no hard and fast rules. In other words, the buildings 
 must be adapted to the man, to his needs, to his environment, etc. What 
 is best for one man may not suit another at all. We must consider, there- 
 fore, the adaptation of the buildings, what they are to do. I hope that 
 the time will come soon when we shall study more farm architecture, of 
 which we have had so little. 
 
 One man whom we met on the cars coming here stated that he and 
 his wife worked for years to plan a house, and now it is not what they 
 want at all. I heard the remark twice within a week, to the effect that 
 a man and his wife had worked for a year to plan buildings, which proved 
 to be entirely unsuited to their ideas or needs. If a man commits a 
 
 Round barn of Spencer Otis, Sr., at Barrington, 111., constructed of concrete stucco. 
 
Universal Portland Cement Co. 
 
 121 
 
 murder, he goes to the best criminal lawyer he can get for help; but 
 every farmer thinks that he is entitled to be his own architect. I hope 
 the time will come when, in matters of this kind, we shall get the advice 
 of the best man available. 
 
 There is one more thought that I desire especially to leave with you, 
 one that has been emphasized again and again — that buildings and their 
 surroundings must be sanitary. People sometimes think we have gone a 
 little crazy over this word "sanitary," but we cannot carry it too far. 
 The location of the buildings, the water supply, etc., mean a very great 
 deal. Typhoid fever cost me about $500, and very nearly cost me my 
 life, on account of my own water supply. It emphasized that point to 
 me in very strong fashion. We ought to remember that the water supply 
 is no more sanitary than its surroundings. 
 
 It was suggested that I take up, for a moment at least, the discussion 
 of the question of the barn, and especially the cow stable, whether that 
 should be under the storage part, or at the side of the barn. We have 
 seen some splendid barns on our trips this week, barns that were built 
 both ways; and in discussing the subject I could take either side of it, 
 and possibly make out a case. From the standpoint of economy of 
 structure and economy of labor, the barn with two stories, with the storage 
 part overhead, will continue to be the barn of the majority of farmers, in 
 our country, at least. We saw a very good barn of that kind yesterday. 
 However, we must all admit it is more expensive to build; and I think 
 we will all admit it is more expensive to operate. For myself, if we had 
 our ceilings and floors made as they should be made, absolutely tight, 
 
 A.'J. Fowler's All-Concrete Barn at Sheridan, 111. 
 
122 Permanent and Sanitary Farm Improvements 
 
 m ■ ■ ■ >■ ii ' ' ■ ' "" 
 
 I see no reason why we cannot, from the standpoint of sanitation, and 
 every other standpoint, keep our stock in under the storage part of the 
 barn. We must have the floors and ceilings absolutely tight, though, if we 
 
 are going to have proper ven- 
 tilation, if we are going to be 
 able to control air currents. 
 
 Mr. Kline: This discus- 
 sion will be continued by 
 Mr. Fowler, of Chicago; after 
 that you may ask whatever 
 questions on the subject are 
 in your mind. 
 Mr. Fowler : Farm building 
 __ construction has been well out- 
 
 concrete Wall for the first story of barn, near Stark's lined by the previous Speakers. 
 Station, 111. The walls were built 18 inches in thick- Jt will be HIV purpose to take 
 ness when 8 or 9 inches would have been sufficient. t i p i_i • 
 
 up only one phase ot this ques- 
 tion, that of the design and construction of barns. 
 
 Like all developments which have taken place in this country, the de- 
 sign of farm buildings has gone through many changes. The early type of 
 barns were not large because early farming was diversified and often re- 
 stricted to small acreages. With increased transportation facilities and 
 the introduction of scientific farming, more extensive and better designed 
 buildings were required. 
 
 The first type of permanent farm buildings originated in those vicinities 
 where stone was plentiful. These were poorly designed and in most cases 
 unhealthy. The introduction of the sawmill somewhat checked the 
 progress of stone construction because frame construction was cheaper. 
 But today, owing to the increase in cost, lumber has become almost as ex- 
 pensive in first cost for farm buildings, as masonry construction. Lumber 
 is growing scarcer, the price of labor for erecting it is gradually growing 
 higher, until we are now compelled to seek a substitute. 
 
 Of recent years, scarcely a farm building is constructed, that concrete 
 is not used in some part of it. One of the first uses of concrete, on the farm 
 was for the foundations of buildings. Its permanency has caused farmers 
 to use this construction for the walls of the first story of barns. Rarely 
 do we see a new barn built without using concrete for this part of it. At 
 Stark Station, Illinois, today, we passed such a building. Mention of 
 this is made because of the character of construction that was used. 
 The first story walls of this new barn are 18 inches thick, where a 
 thickness of 8 inches with reinforcement properly placed would have 
 been ample. Enough material was used here to have built two such 
 foundations, had the building been built in accordance with good engi- 
 neering practice. 
 
 A common mistake among farmers is that of copying the design of 
 some building which a neighbor has used to advantage. Farm buildings 
 are the farmers' factory. In them, raw materials are converted into 
 finished products. The foods on the farm may be compared to the raw 
 materials in manufacturing and the milk, butter, cheese, beef, pork, etc., 
 to the finished products. The manufacturer carefully considers the 
 
Universal Portland Cement Co. 
 
 123 
 
 design of his factory, in order that the work done in it will be economical 
 and efficient. The farmer likewise, should consider the design of his 
 farm buildings, so that the animals housed in them will be comfortable, 
 enjoy good health and receive the greatest benefit from the feeds given 
 them; also that the least amount of time and labor will be required in 
 caring for them. Consequently, it is rather difficult to announce any 
 standard design for farm buildings. There are, however, a few standards 
 in barn construction which have been fairly well established, principally 
 among which are barn floors and the size of mangers, feed and passage 
 alleys, cow stalls and horse stalls, all have nearly standard dimensions. 
 As an example of what can be accomplished in permanent building 
 construction, I shall describe the design of an all-concrete barn that was 
 built on A. J. Fowler's farm at Sheridan, Illinois, in 1913, with the assist- 
 ance of^our Information Bureau. 
 
 The farm which this building serves, contains 217 acres, all but 30 
 acres of which are tillable. Realizing that soil fertility cannot be main- 
 tained successfully by continually raising grain, a barn was chosen, adapt- 
 able to general purposes and one which could be enlarged later, if desired. 
 The barn is rectangular in shape, 34 feet wide and 54 feet long. It provides 
 stabling room for 8 horses on one side, 12 cows in two rows, facing the 
 outside walls with feed alleys running through the barn in front of each 
 row. Between the horse stalls and cow stalls on each side are two grain 
 bins. Beside one of these grain bins is a small watering trough. Crossing 
 the barn between the grain bins and horse stalls is a passageway leading 
 to the feed alleys. At each end of this passageway is an outside door 
 
 Interior of the barn at Sheridan, III., showing the concrete driveway, cow stalls and feed alley. 
 
124 
 
 Permanent and Sanitary Farm Improvements 
 
 located with future building extensions in view. At the end of these 
 passageways are the hay chutes, coming from the mow above. The 
 second story is used entirely for the storage of hay and straw. It has 
 a capacity of about 40 tons. 
 
 The partitions for the horse stalls were made of concrete 4}-^ feet high 
 and 4 inches thick, reinforced with %-inch round rods, vertically and 
 horizontally. The mangers were made 3 inches thick and reinforced 
 with J4-inch round rods. Steel guards 28 inches high were put on top 
 of the concrete partitions and fastened to them by bolts imbedded in the 
 concrete. The Louden Machinery Co.'s cow stalls, litter carriers and 
 hay carriers were used. 
 
 The driveway, cow stalls, feed alley and horse stall floors were made 
 of concrete. For all the floors, except the horse stalls, a mixture of 1 :2J>^:4 
 was used, and for the concrete horse stall floors a mixture of 1:2:3 con- 
 crete — a richer mixture because of the greater wear they would receive. 
 
 The surface of these floors was struck with a straightedge and finished 
 with a wooden float, giving a surface that offers a good foothold and a 
 floor which will not become slippery with wear. 
 
 Anchor concrete blocks with continuous air space were used in the 
 walls of this building and were made near the site on an Anchor concrete 
 block machine. These blocks are so constructed that they form two 
 separate walls, having no connection, except four tie rods between the 
 outer and inner surface. When these blocks are placed in the wall they 
 provide a continuous air space around the entire building. 
 
 Horse Stalls in A. J. Fowler's barn, built entirely of concrete, will last forever. 
 
Universal Portland Cement Co. 
 
 125 
 
 The total number of blocks required was 2,326, the average cost of 
 which was 11 .8 cents each. The sand and gravel used for making these 
 blocks, as well as all the other concrete work, was secured from a gravel 
 pit on the farm. Tests of the material from this pit showed that it was 
 clean and well graded. In making the blocks, that part which passed 
 a %-inch screen was used and for all other concrete work, the material 
 was separated into respective parts of sand and gravel and remixed in 
 the required proportions. All material used was accurately measured, 
 including the amount of water. This was essential to secure a uniform 
 quality of concrete as well as a uniformly colored block. The amount 
 of water used was determined by experiment, enough being used to permit 
 the material in the block to retain a perfect shape without sagging, when 
 taken from the machine. The blocks were allowed to remain on the 
 pallet 24 hours when they were removed, stored in piles, covered with old 
 hay and kept sprinkled for 5 days. 
 
 The foundation for the walls and pilasters starts 4 feet below the 
 surface of the ground, round rods of the size used in the pilasters and 
 columns were set in the concrete foundations for connecting these to the 
 reinforcing rods in construction above them. 
 
 The hay mow floor was built of concrete, 5 inches thick, reinforced 
 with J^-inch round rods, spaced 5 inches apart, which gave a strength 
 which would support 100 pounds per square foot on its upper surface. 
 
 The most decided change in the design of this barn from that of others 
 was in the roof. A monitor roof was chosen, because it was best adapted 
 for handling the storage contained in the mow, affording the most eco- 
 nomical mow space, and a construction to which concrete is well adapted. 
 
 This roof was made of reinforced concrete, mixed in the proportions 
 of 1:2:3. The two side roofs each have a span of 11 feet wide, while the 
 
 monitor roof has a 
 span of 12 feet. The 
 side walls of the mon- 
 itor are 4 feet high 
 and 6 inches thick 
 and are reinforced 
 with 3^-i QC h steel 
 rods. The side walls 
 act as a concrete 
 beam, running from 
 column to column, and 
 support the roof slab 
 of the monitor. The 
 side roofs are 4 inches 
 thick, reinforced with 
 ^g-inch rods, spaced 
 4 inches on centers, 
 transversely and 8 
 inches on centers, 
 lengthwise. The hay 
 mow is attached di- 
 
 The monitor roof is the most economical of mow space and best r „„+l v 4. n aJ,_ rnri f „f 
 adapted for handling storage. recuy UJ Uie TOOI OI 
 
126 
 
 Permanent and Sanitary Farm Improvements 
 
 the monitor by means of U-bolts which were imbedded in the con- 
 crete, when it was poured. The surface of the roof was struck with a 
 straightedge and finished with a wooden float. After hardening suffici- 
 ently to permit sprinkling, the 
 roof was kept thoroughly wet- 
 ted for two days and following 
 that it was sprinkled four to 
 five times each day for five 
 days. In this roof no water- 
 proofing was used, the grad- 
 ing and mixture of the mate- 
 rials being depended upon. As 
 to water-tightness the roof has 
 been a complete success. 
 The total cost of this roof 
 
 Round Barn of Monolithic Concrete, on the farm of was $575 Or about 25 Cents a 
 
 s. d. stoner, Oregon, 111. square f oot. The contractor's 
 
 estimate for a pitched wooden roof was $637. It is possible that the 
 storage space under a pitched roof is slightly greater but the difference 
 in cost in favor of the concrete may readily be applied to the building of 
 the walls higher to obtain the same cubic contents. 
 
 In this loft only 4 cubic feet of space were utilized by the supports, 
 which space was that occupied by the eight reinforced concrete columns 
 extending through the mow. 
 
 Another type of a permanent barn, illustrated above, has been built on 
 S. D. Stoner's farm at Oregon, Illinois. This barn is a round barn 
 with a concrete silo located in the center, extending up to the roof. The 
 first floor is used for young stock and dairy cows, the second floor for 
 horse stables and storage and the third floor for hay. The walls of this 
 building are of monolithic concrete, reinforced with steel rods, so also 
 are all interior floors and the roof. 
 
 In most instances, the first cost of a farm building is the only consid- 
 eration given by the farmer. He does not consider that this proposed 
 building may house a single animal, whose value is greater than its total 
 .cost; its destruction by fire may mean a loss of double its value. With 
 fireproof construction the stock and barn are both insured against such 
 disaster. 
 
 The difference in cost between timber and concrete construction 
 cannot be determined by any one set of figures. It varies in cost with 
 location, type of building and its capacity. Generally speaking, the 
 first cost of a permanent building will exceed mill construction by about 
 15%, but after a few years of service the two will have cost an equal 
 sum because of the added expense due to insurance, repairing, painting, 
 etc., which is necessary for the latter, besides direct and indirect losses 
 from rats and other vermin. Permanent farm buildings add value to 
 the land. Modern improvements on a farm of 160 acres cost all the way 
 from $25 to $50 per acre. Farms with permanent buildings on them are 
 better investments than those with perishable structures. Scattered 
 over the country are many farm structures built of concrete, which fact 
 is evidence that farmers are recognizing the value of this kind of construe- 
 
Universal Portland Cement Co. 
 
 127 
 
 tion and as a noted educator said: "Permanent farm buildings are a sign 
 of progress." 
 
 Question : I would like to ask why you used a flat type of roof instead 
 of a gable roof? 
 
 Mr. Fowler: There were 
 two reasons for doing this. 
 Monolithic concrete cannot be 
 placed successfully on a steep 
 roof. Further, by the use of 
 a flat roof, there are no wind 
 loads to provide against. The 
 only load necessary for con- 
 sideration is that of snow and 
 sleet. 
 
 The question of roofs on 
 barns has been one of much 
 discussion. Some farmers 
 seem to cling to the old- 
 fashioned hip roof, but figur- 
 ing the cubic feet of space 
 wasted with this type of con- 
 struction, compared with the 
 waste of space occupied by 
 supports with the monitor 
 type, there is little reason for 
 adhering to gable roof; the 
 handling of the hay in one is 
 as easy as in the other. It has 
 been a common remark of vis- 
 itors, at our place that they 
 were surprised to find the ease 
 with which hay or other stor- 
 age could be handled in this mow, and the small amount of wasted 
 space. 
 
 Question: What was the total cost of this building? 
 
 Mr. Fowler: The total cost of this structure, placing the price upon 
 the sand and gravel at $1 a cubic yard, and taking into consideration 
 all other expenses, incidental to this work, was about $2,600. 
 
 Question: What would be your estimate on the cost of a wooden 
 structure of the same size? 
 
 Mr. Fowler: The estimated cost of a wooden barn submitted by 
 contractors corresponding to the design of this barn with mortise and 
 tenon frame, was $2,100. 
 
 Question: Do you find solid concrete construction satisfactory in 
 excluding cold from the stable? 
 
 Mr. Fowler: There is very little difference in loss of heat from the 
 interior of a barn through 6 inches of wall made of solid concrete and 
 1-inch boards. In the building just described the walls are made of 
 anchor continuous air space blocks, thus having a complete insulation 
 of air between the outer and inner surface. 
 
 A pump house of concrete similar to the one illustrated 
 can be used for housing either a hydraulic ram or a 
 gasoline engine. On the modern farm an adequate 
 water supply is not only essential for fire protection, 
 but for numberless other uses such as drinking, cool- 
 ing, washing, etc. 
 
128 Permanent and Sanitary Farm Improvements 
 
 Question : Was the hay mow reinforced the same as the roof? 
 
 Mr. Fowler : The hay mow was reinforced with 3^-inch round rods, 
 spaced 5 inches apart on centers and the total thickness of the floor was 
 5 inches. 
 
 Mr. Chase: Owing to the expansion and contraction in concrete, 
 I would like to ask how you took care of the expansion and contraction 
 in your roof? 
 
 Mr. Fowler: This was cared for by placing 0.4% of steel based on 
 the cross section area of the concrete. 
 
Universal Portland Cement Co. 
 
 129 
 
 Silos 
 
 Discussion led by Prof. C. A. Ocock, Wisconsin; Prof. L. W. Chase, 
 Nebraska; and Jos. E. Wing, Ohio 
 
 Prof. Ocock: "Silos" is a pretty big subject. You gentlemen have 
 been hustled around from one place to another on some of our excited 
 jaunts that we have had, but you will probably find yourselves hustled 
 around even worse by the time you get through with the silo problem 
 that is before us tonight to thresh out. 
 
 I believe most of you will be interested to know a little something 
 more about the system which we have in Wisconsin for the construction 
 of a concrete silo. I am going to avoid the subject of silos in general, 
 and leave those who follow me to clear up some of its problems. There 
 are quite a number here who have asked me regarding the methods which 
 we follow in the silo circuits. The silo forms, which I shall show a little 
 later on the screen, were not entirely original with me. There are some 
 original features, however. 
 
 Why did we encourage the farmers to build concrete silos? It was 
 because the farmers encouraged us. They insisted that we give them 
 information relative to the construction of concrete silos-. There hap- 
 pens to be a State law in Wisconsin, which prevents the people using 
 State money for internal improvements. Therefore, it was impossible 
 for the State to advance the money for such a purpose. The only solu- 
 tion of the problem was to borrow from the State Treasurer, with the 
 
 The concrete silo at the St. Charles Boys' School was built by the boys themselves as were many 
 of the other permanent improvements. 
 
!30 
 
 Permanent and Sanitary Farm Improvements 
 
 ■^^^ 
 
 understanding that in time we would pay the money back from rentals 
 or the use of the forms. The object of this system was not only to pay 
 or the forms, but to pay for the operating expenses, the repairs of the 
 orms, and turn enough money 
 
 back so that we would be 
 
 clear. We estimated that five 
 
 years would probably meet 
 
 that requirement; and, so far 
 
 as we can see at the present 
 
 time, it will. 
 
 We organized the circuit 
 system along the following 
 lines : If y o u alone were 
 interested in the matter of 
 silo construction in your 
 locality, or if you could get 
 but one person interested, 
 you would possibly feel that 
 we were not doing the best 
 by you if we refused to send 
 you a form for the purpose of 
 constructing a silo. However, 
 it seemed better to insist that 
 at least three contracts be 
 made in one locality. It was 
 not imperative that there be 
 three different contracts, but 
 the idea to insist that at least 
 three silos be built. We 
 received a great many calls 
 for one silo. We had to turn 
 those down, but where we disappointed a great many people because 
 we would not furnish forms to them, in general this has proved very 
 satisfactory. 
 
 The expense to the farmers is about as follows : Cost of forms : Three 
 silos in a circuit, $10 each, or $30. Four silos in a circuit, $36. Five 
 silos in a circuit, $40. Six silos in a circuit, $42. We pay the freight 
 both ways on those forms. You must understand, however, that if 
 you ship a form from the southern part of Wisconsin to the northern, 
 the freight rate will be something like $18, or very close to that by the 
 time the forms get up and back. Taking it all in all, however, we find 
 that, on the average, we come out a little better than even by the time 
 you have paid so much for the form each year, and so much for the oper- 
 ating expenses. We not only pay the freight both ways, but we pay 
 for sending a man along to set the forms up the first time, and know that 
 they are put together properly, and the necessary instructions given in 
 the mixing of the concrete. We do not presume to do any of the work; 
 we do not ask the man to do any of the work. We merely show the 
 farmers how to start it properly. If we did not carry out our work 
 strictly along that line, I think you appreciate that we would be in trouble 
 all the time. When we start the first form, it is our request that all the 
 
 The silo is said to pay a greater return on the invest- 
 ment than any other farm building. The illustration 
 above shows the twin monolithic concrete silos on 
 Wakefield Farm, Barrington, 111. 
 
Universal Portland Cement Co. 
 
 131 
 
 farmers in that circuit be present, to see how the form goes together, 
 and that they may get the necessary instructions. We have very little 
 difficulty with the placing of the reinforcement, the doorways, and the 
 handling of the forms in general. 
 
 The cost of the forms varies. The forms which we have up in Wis- 
 consin are made of No. 2 pine — that is, the woodwork is made of No. 2 
 pine. The galvanized iron used is No. 18 iron. You may ask the ques- 
 tion, why do we use such heavy iron? In our State we find that the 
 freight handlers do not handle those forms in a very careful way. They 
 will throw them out of a car, end over end, and let them lie around in any 
 old place, and it takes a good grade of material to stand the handling 
 received. Once in a while, too, we find that some of the farmers are not 
 quite as careful as they might be, and so it was necessary, in the con- 
 struction of those forms, to put the best material into them we could get. 
 Therefore, they are more expensive than those you might build your- 
 selves. You can build a homemade form for much less than what these 
 cost, because you would probably only use that form once or twice, or 
 possibly four times, loaning it to your neighbors. The 12-foot forms 
 
 which we have, cost $65. 
 They are 2^ feet high. The 
 14-foot form costs $70; and 
 the 16-foot forms, $75. So 
 far we have not had to pay 
 out very much for repairs, 
 although this is the third year 
 the forms have been in use. 
 
 As to the cost of the silos, 
 from data which we got from 
 the farmers, the figures ran 
 something like this: Where 
 the material was to be had 
 on the farm, and in most of 
 the cases the material is right 
 near the work, the estimate 
 included the cost of materials, 
 hauling the materials, build- 
 ing the silo, according to the 
 price of labor in their locality. 
 From these estimates we 
 found that a silo 12 feet by 
 36 feet cost from $200 to $225, 
 including everything. The 
 14 foot by 34 foot size ran 
 from $225 to $240. The 14 
 foot by 36 foot size ran from 
 $250 to $275. The cash out- 
 lay — which, of course, is the 
 important factor in the whole 
 thing — is usually from $85 to 
 $125. 
 
 Building a Concrete Silo on the Kane County Farm; t t k „.„ „f „„„ a :i n 4.U A 
 
 W. H. Warford, Contractor, Geneva, 111. ln tne case OI one sli0 > lne 
 
132 
 
 Permanent and Sanitary Farm Improvements 
 
 dimensions of which were 14 feet by 34 feet, a young man sent in an 
 itemized account of the cash outlay on the silo, and it was $84.65, I 
 believe. This, of course, is an important thing to the man who has the 
 material on his farm. If he can get his forms, and if he can get 
 two of his neighbors interested, he is sure of getting a silo which will 
 not cost him much more than a stave silo, and one which will last him a 
 great deal longer. Remember, those prices include concrete roof and 
 walls, but do not include the chute. If the farmer desires to put a 
 wooden chute on the silo wall, it is very easily done by putting 
 wooden blocks in between the forms, that is, putting a wooden block 
 into the wall itself, and then putting a bolt through the hole after you 
 pull the block out. 
 
 Now, I shall show you something about how the form looks. We shall 
 pass over the slides rapidly, because our time is limited. The outside 
 forms may appear somewhat cumbersome to those who are familiar 
 with the form which is built only of steel; but you can all see, in the next 
 slide, the support which you will receive for your concrete corners. While 
 it does not add any particular 
 strength to the silo, it adds 
 dignity, and makes the silo 
 more imposing; and I believe, 
 as a rule, the farmer feels 
 more satisfied in having 
 something which co-ordinates 
 with the general appearance of 
 the buildings surrounding it. 
 
 Mr. Kline : The discussion 
 will be continued by Prof. 
 Chase, of Nebraska. 
 
 Prof. Chase: Out in 
 Nebraska we are very, very 
 new in this silo game. Pos- 
 sibly four years ago we had 
 ten or twelve silos in the 
 whole state. Now, I believe, 
 we are more ambitious, or 
 more of an aggressive nature 
 out there than you men of 
 the Eastern States are. 
 
 I lived on a farm in south- 
 eastern Nebraska, which had 
 one of those rampageous 
 young streams flowing across 
 it; and every time it went 
 across our farm it took out 
 from a half mile to a mile of 
 fence, and strung it down 
 through the timber, and 
 covered it with mud. I 
 
 know that if I had drawn ten Building a Concrete Silo with the Wisconsin form, show- 
 Cents an hour, which was - nB the " a<rtrin e of concrete placed and roof centering 
 
Universal Portland Cement Co. 
 
 133 
 
 Placing the "Wood Framing for Concrete Silo Roof on the 
 Wisconsin type silo. 
 
 pretty good wages at the time when I was a boy out there, for the time I 
 put in pulling that fence out of the mud during the eight years we lived 
 on that farm, I could cut a channel with the money clear across the 
 
 farm, and keep the stream 
 where it belonged. 
 
 The same rule applies to 
 buildings. Farmers are always 
 repairing their buildings. 
 Therefore, I have been endeav- 
 oring to get hold of some line 
 whereby we could get per- 
 manent buildings introduced 
 into our State. Silos appealed 
 to me as a pretty good start. 
 A somewhat peculiar con- 
 dition exists in Nebraska. 
 Strange to say, our silos are 
 apt to swell up very much in the winter time when we put green 
 corn fodder into them. In the summer the wind blows there at 
 a velocity of between thirty and sixty miles an hour, right off the State 
 of Kansas, and it is pretty hot. It shrinks up our stave silos so badly 
 that a great many of them have to be erected at least three times before 
 they are built once. We have farmers in our State who now take their 
 silos down in the spring, rather than to have to untangle them after the 
 wind has blown them down. Then in the fall they put them up again. 
 As a result of my investigation, I decided that there were possibly three 
 types of silos that we could introduce into Nebraska. One was the clay 
 block silo, which was designed by the Agricultural Engineering Depart- 
 ment of Iowa; another was a cement block silo; and the other was a 
 monolithic concrete silo. We first built a clay block silo. In building 
 that we found, we believe, that it is impossible for a farmer to build a 
 clay block silo himself. He must have somebody to aid him, someone 
 who has built a silo previously; or he must have a contractor to do it. 
 
 The next thing we turned our attention to was the concrete block 
 silo. Where I come from we have a complete set of concrete buildings, 
 excepting a water tank. We use an old water tank which was taken 
 from our original set of buildings at Lincoln. I might say that the wooden 
 tank on the steel tower has 
 simply ruined the architec- 
 tural beauty of that set of 
 concrete block buildings. The 
 buildings are made of two- 
 piece cement blocks, made 
 from sand that we dug out 
 ourselves. After that, we 
 thought we would try the 
 two-piece cement blocks in a 
 silo. Following Prof. Ocock's 
 suggestion that we make 
 everything so the farmer can 
 
 , ., , . ° t« ttt t_ ■,. Placing "Wooden Roof-form Strips over roof framing; 
 
 dO it himself. We DUllt a Wisconsin silo type. 
 
134 
 
 Permanent and Sanitary Farm Improvements 
 
 Form in Place for Casting Cornice around Concrete Silo. 
 A cornice although not essential, adds considerably 
 to the appearance of the silo. 
 
 "homemade" cement block machine. On a farm, at Fremont, we 
 
 erected two 16 by 37j4-foot homemade cement block silos. Mr. Curtis 
 
 paid me a compliment this afternoon by saying that here in Illinois you 
 
 could not make concrete silos 
 
 such as we have out in 
 
 Nebraska. At any rate, we 
 
 have two cement block silos in 
 
 Nebraska that ought to make 
 
 people sit up and take notice; 
 
 and we have some monolithic 
 
 silos, too. 
 
 We did not build those for 
 a song. I do not know what 
 kind of labor Prof. Ocock is 
 using up in Wisconsin, but 
 our farmers think their labor 
 is worth more than his. We 
 kept track of everything in 
 the construction of those silos. 
 We found that these farmers can build cement block silos the most 
 easily. A cement block silo is about the easiest piece of construction 
 I know of. A man gets started on it, and all he has to do is to set 
 one block on top of another, and keep going on up. In those two 
 silos I mentioned, we found that the first one cost us $658.78. That 
 includes the foundation and the roof. We built four stave silos on the 
 University farm. We built one at the same time the concrete silo was 
 being built that cost us about $35 more. We put in board on all of this 
 work at 50 cents a day. We considered the cost of hauling in everything. 
 This sand was hauled, and we found it cost us 25 cents a yard to haul 
 the sand the distance we had to haul it; and we went right on through 
 all the items in that way. The whole would be $3.94 a ton, or $2.66 a 
 ton not including home labor. 
 
 On the next silo we saved quite considerably, because of the fact 
 that we had had a little experience. In fact, we saved almost $60. Inci- 
 dentally I might state that this work was supervised by one of our students 
 
 who never helped with a silo 
 before. He made all the 
 blocks and made two home- 
 made machines which cost 
 about $2.50 apiece, and with 
 them built the silos. 
 
 We have in Nebraska 
 several silos that have been 
 built by farmers, that are a 
 little bit cheaper than those 
 I have mentioned, for we 
 have kept track of the cost. 
 It may be interesting to know 
 that the two silos I mentioned 
 are standing on quicksand. 
 If we had been engineers, I 
 
 Placing the Foundation for the Wisconsin type silo, 
 using the earth as the outer forms. The concrete floor 
 and footing have been placed and the wall form is in 
 position for the first rilling. 
 
Universal Portland Cement Co. 1 35 
 
 presume we would have driven supports down for them to stand on. The 
 Elkhorn River went out of its banks a year ago last spring, washed in 
 under one of these silos, took the foundation clear out, and now this 
 
 silo is leaning about 4 inches 
 out of plumb. Nevertheless, 
 there is not a crack in it; and 
 I believe you could lay those 
 silos down and roll them 
 around on the ground and 
 they would not go to pieces. 
 I have not heard anyone 
 here discuss the matter of 
 troweling in the face of con- 
 crete blocks. I do not know 
 whether there is anything in 
 
 University of Wisconsin Silo Construction showing the "" or QOt, and 1 hesitate Very 
 concrete in place for part of the roof, using rods and much to SaV anything about 
 mesh reinforcing. . , i_ j> /i 
 
 it here berore these cement 
 men; but we made blocks with what we called a "troweled face." The 
 backs of the blocks were made of a one to four mixture, and the face 
 of the blocks was made of a one to two mixture, which was pretty wet, 
 and troweled down. We put the blocks in the wall, and it was so hard 
 and so impervious to moisture that we could wet them, and then take a 
 broom and brush them with cement. That is our scheme. They were 
 just simply like vitrified tile, as far as taking up moisture was concerned. 
 As far as I know, there has never been anything spoiled in either one of 
 these silos. They are not the least bit musty, and the owner is perfectly 
 satisfied with them. 
 
 In regard to the monolithic concrete silos, we made two forms. We 
 first went into a blacksmith shop and asked the man to make us a steel 
 form. When he started to make it his estimated price was $140; but we 
 eventually paid $250 for it. It was not satisfactory; but nevertheless, 
 we used it to make a great many silos. We made the first silo 16 by 37J^ 
 feet, with concrete roof. The sand was shipped fifty miles. This silo 
 was 16 by 37}^ feet and cost $513.32 or $2.65 a ton. That was the first 
 concrete silo I had ever seen built, and the first concrete silo I had ever 
 had anything to do with. It was the cheapest one that we built, because 
 of the fact that we had excellent labor. That silo cost, including home 
 labor, if you want to figure it that way $1.64 a ton, and it went through 
 the tornado which tore up Omaha so badly, and is in perfect condition 
 still. At Valentine, Nebraska, using Indian and half-breed labor, a silo 
 16 by 30 feet, cost as much as the 16 by 37J^ foot silo that I just men- 
 tioned. We have not been able to get silos as smooth as we have seen 
 today, either inside or out, without plastering. I think I have learned 
 here one reason why, and that is, we have not been making our mixtures 
 rich enough. The custom with us is to make a one to five mixture. You 
 know, we had a lot of expert cement block makers all over the State of 
 Nebraska, making' lots of blocks, and using a mixture of from one to seven 
 to one to nine; and we thought we were doing pretty well to reduce it 
 down to a one to five mixture. Later we reduced it to one to four. 
 
 There has been a great deal of arguing in regard to freezing. A very 
 
136 
 
 Permanent and Sanitary Farm Improvements 
 
 good illustration of that point may be had at the University farm where 
 we have five silos. Three of them stood open during the winter before 
 last, the most severe winter we ever had. One stave silo, which had the 
 doors closed continually all the time, froze in 15 inches. One clay block 
 silo which had the doors open all the time froze in about 4 inches. One 
 stave silo, which had the doors open, froze in about 3 feet. The two 
 single-piece cement block silos I spoke about, which were about 40 rods away 
 from the other three, froze in about 10 inches. That shows to me quite con- 
 clusively that concrete block silos and clay block silos do not freeze any worse 
 than stave silos; and in fact, with us they do not freeze quite as badly. 
 
 In regard to roofs, I have seen a great many silos around here without 
 roofs. Some people say, "Put the roof on to keep the heat in." We go 
 one step farther and say, "Put the roof on to keep the ensilage from 
 spoiling." We had that illustrated to us very emphatically one year 
 when we had two silos left without roofs until along in the winter time. 
 The ensilage spoiled on the north side down about 5 feet. In the center 
 it was spoiled down about 2 feet. It was just as bad in the wood stave 
 silo as it was in the clay block silo. In the adjoining silo it only spoiled 
 in about 8 inches. The only reason for the spoiling that we could figure 
 out was that the ensilage rotted. The sun shone on it, and of course 
 it shone down across the silo from the south side to the north. This 
 dried out the ensilage, causing it to raise up and let more air down, to rot 
 out more ensilage. I believe that three tons of ensilage, at least, was 
 wasted in those two silos, which would mean about $12 loss. Twelve 
 dollars will pay for half of a concrete roof, not including the form. Inci- 
 dentally, I might state that we have found that concrete roofs are cheaper 
 than shingle roofs. 
 
 Calf Pen on the farm of H. Stillson Hart, Barrington, 111. 
 
Universal Portland Cement Co. ] 37 
 
 I have outlined to you a little of what is going on in Nebraska with 
 regard to concrete silos. I desire to take just a moment more to explain 
 to you the emergency silos that we have out there. I might preface my 
 remarks by stating that Caesar was about the first man to build a silo. 
 He dug pits in the ground, put grape leaves in the pits for forage for his 
 horses. We are a little bit behind the times, in Nebraska, in that we are 
 putting in a great many pit silos this year. In our country we have 
 water down anywhere from 30 to 300 feet, and have soil which you can 
 dig out, and let stand for 100 years, and it will not cave in. Pit silos 
 are very cheap, under those conditions. However, we only recommend 
 them as an emergency silo. We must get silos into Nebraska. As I 
 said, three years ago we had about 400; two years ago we had 1,250; and 
 this year we have in the neighborhood of 2,000 silos. Heretofore, they 
 have been nearly all wood stave silos. 
 
 This year the largest percentage will be concrete silos. 
 
 The pit silo is a little bit peculiar in that you do not build it up, but 
 you build it down. Regarding pit silos, all farmers should be warned 
 that there is a gas formed from ensilage, it makes no difference whether 
 kept above ground or not. This gas is heavier than air, flows just like 
 water, and will stand in the silo unless there is some way of getting it 
 out. This deadly gas that forms the first two or three weeks is known 
 as "black damp," called carbon dioxide gas by scientists. Therefore, 
 if you are building a pit silo, do not enter it until after you have started 
 your blower and let it run a little while; or do not enter it until you have 
 let the wind whiff through it. Some of our farmers keep a rabbit down at 
 the bottom of a pit silo. As long as the rabbit is alive, they can safely 
 enter. If a cat gets in the silo and eats the rabbit, they leave the cat 
 there. One man had a horse fall in his pit silo, and he left it there. The 
 only way he could get him out was to fill the silo, so he had the boy ride 
 the horse and trample the ensilage down while getting him out. 
 
 Do "not think I recommend pit silos, except in cases of emergency. 
 This year we are only recommending them in Nebraska to save the burnt 
 up corn in the southern part of the State. If there is anything that 
 advertises a farmer's place better than good stock in good fields, it is a 
 good silo; and where you find the one, you find the other. They go 
 hand in hand. So I hope we shall get silos started, even if we have to 
 start them through the pit silo, if we may wind up by having more and 
 more concrete silos out in Nebraska during the next eight or ten years. 
 
 Mr. Wing : I would like to say a word about concrete silos, as I built 
 the first thin silo that was ever built in the world. The wall was only 
 4 inches thick. I do not say that is very practicable, as it is a 
 good deal of trouble to build a wall 4 inches thick; but I was determined 
 to do it. The silo was 16 feet in diameter, 32 feet high, with a wooden 
 roof, costing us $225. We washed the wall inside with cement and there 
 has never been a shovelful of spoiled ensilage in the silo next to the wall. 
 It has kept perfectly. Some time after that we built another silo, a 
 wooden one. It was a stave silo, with wooden slabs set on the outside, 
 with the hoops looped up on the inside. We have taken a great deal of 
 spoiled ensilage out of that silo; and now it has to be plastered again on 
 the inside, to be used at all. Of course, I do not suppose any silo is 
 
136 
 
 Permanent and Sanitary Farm Improvements 
 
 absolutely perfect; but the point I wish to bring out is this: Probably 
 every man here has a silo, and has always had more or less spoiled fodder. 
 He does not know what to do to prevent it. Salt will stop it. Put about 
 half a barrel of salt in a 16-foot silo, and you will find no more spoiled 
 ensilage at all. It will absolutely prevent any spoiling whatever. As 
 soon as you get your silo full, and the ensilage has settled a little bit, 
 lift off the hatch and put on your salt, and there is not going to be any 
 mold or spoiling at all. You may think it is a little too salty for the 
 cattle, but it will not be if you have the cattle pretty well salted before 
 you begin to feed; and you can mix it up a little, too. That is the best 
 thing I have found. 
 
 Mr. Becker: I would like to know whether, if you had to build 
 another concrete silo, you would build it a little thicker? 
 
 Mr. Wing: Yes, 6 inches, because it is more easily done. That is 
 the only reason. Otherwise, I would build a 4-inch wall again, if I could 
 do it as easily as I could a 6-inch wall. We reinforced this silo with wires 
 about the size of a lead pencil, figuring out the stress ourselves, and got 
 it plenty strong enough, and it will last there for a thousand years. 
 
 Chairman Kline: I wish to make a statement before leaving the 
 floor. I am connected at home with the Farmers' Mutual Fire Insurance 
 Co. We have a liability of nearly three million dollars, covering three 
 counties. We have so far this year paid losses on eleven barns which 
 were destroyed by lightning. None of those barns had the protection of 
 lightning rods. We did not lose a barn during that time that was pro- 
 tected with lightning rods. I believe that one of the problems before 
 our cement people here is to so plan and construct these new buildings — 
 and I believe they can — so that they perhaps will be impervious to light- 
 ning. 
 
 Mr. Wagner: During the day several people have spoken to me 
 
 Prize Herefords seen on the farm of R. R. Hammond, Barrington, 111. 
 
Universal Portland Cement Co. 1 39 
 
 concerning a certain matter which I now desire to bring before you. I 
 do not know whether it will meet with your approval, or not. As I 
 understand it, you will have until tomorrow evening to think it over. 
 I know that we have all enjoyed ourselves immensely during the past 
 four days, and somebody suggested that we try and make this con- 
 ference into an organization, that the institute workers of the United 
 States might come together at some special point each year, or every 
 other year, as the case may be, and discuss those matters which pertain 
 to institute work. I am not going to say yes or no to that proposition 
 at this time. There may be a resolution presented tonight, or later, 
 touching this matter. I merely ask the question, would this be a feasible 
 proposition? Could we make it a permanent organization? It certainly 
 has been beneficial to us, for I am sure we all know very much more about 
 cement than we did four or five days ago. The main question would be 
 the financing a proposition such as I have indicated. That would be 
 the difficult part of it. A great many of our institute workers are not 
 men of means, and it will be necessary to consider carefully the expense 
 of such a proposition. You may not know that there are a number of 
 moneyed men in the United States today who take an active interest in 
 the work of the farmer, and I suggest that, say, five of those men be 
 requested to assist us in a financial way. Mr. Boynton has already 
 shown his interest, and it seems to me that we could interest others. 
 I simply suggest that if you do not desire to take any action now, that 
 you consider this matter until tomorrow evening, and if a resolution is 
 presented be ready to express yourself either for or against it. I 
 thank you. 
 
 Mr. Boynton: There will be an adjourned meeting of the Resolutions 
 Committee at the close of this session. It was suggested that if any 
 members of the Conference have ideas on the matter of resolutions, they 
 should put them in writing and hand them in to any member of this com- 
 mittee, who will gladly consider them. 
 
 The Chairman: If there is nothing more to be brought up at this 
 time, we shall adjourn. 
 
140 Permanent and Sanitary Farm Improvements 
 
 Informal Conference Banquet 
 
 Hotel Sherman, Banquet Hall Friday Evening, August 22, 1913 
 
 Prof. Ocock: Ladies and gentlemen, it is time for us to turn our 
 attention to other things than those which satisfy the physical body. 
 It is time to consider the things which contribute to building up the 
 mental part of ourselves and which give us a better knowledge of men. 
 
 We came here at the beginning of this week, not knowing just what 
 the nature of the work would be, but we have found out what it means 
 to study in the "Universal School." This Short-Course in Concrete has 
 been highly instructive, and I believe you will all agree with me when I 
 say that we have learned a great many valuable things. We have come 
 to know fellowworkers from different sections of our country and we have 
 found out that those who have so generously and thoughtfully made this 
 gathering possible, are our friends. Tonight, as we assemble in this 
 banquet hall, let us not mourn because of the separation of the morrow, 
 but let us turn our minds to the pleasures of the past week. Let us feel 
 that we are gathered here tonight as friends, and forget that we shall part 
 tomorrow. Let us cheer each and everyone the best we know how. 
 
 I have been asked to say to those who are to speak later, not to make 
 those to whom they are speaking feel that it is a funeral, but to wake 
 things up. If need be, break the concrete, and have a good time. 
 
 The first speaker on the program is to speak upon "Ponderous Presi- 
 dential Possibilities." I am sure the man who has that subject is well 
 able to handle such a ponderous question, and we will now listen to Prof. 
 L. R. Taft, who will give us a little enlightenment relative to "Ponderous 
 Presidential Possibilities." (Applause.) 
 
 Prof. Taft: Friends, I came down here the first of the week, and 
 have been looking around critically trying to find some chance to pick 
 a flaw in the management, and I think I have found the first thing now 
 that I could criticise, or perhaps the first two things. One thing is the 
 choice they have made of the first speaker, the other thing that I have 
 to find fault with is that one of the requirements of a successful speech 
 is that it should be extemporaneous. When I have a chance to deliver 
 anything of that kind, it usually takes me about three days to prepare it. 
 Not knowing about this till three minutes ago you won't get anything 
 extemporaneous from me tonight. Then I was bothered to find out 
 what this subject means, and its application — "Ponderous Presidential 
 Possibilities." Now everyone who was with us today, climbing those 
 stairs in the Stock Yards or in the cement plant at Bufnngton would 
 never think of applying that word "ponderous" to the speaker. In 
 regard to presidential possibilities, I want to say that I do not know much 
 about possibilities in this line. I have heard about presidents but most 
 of them are has-beens rather than possibilities. 
 
 It seems to me that there is some connection between the President 
 and Institute work, and on thinking it over, I could find one or two points 
 that they hold in common. Some of our presidents have been famed for 
 their honesty. They thought right should be done. They tried to put 
 through these things to the best of their ability, without regard to conse- 
 
Universal Portland Cement Co. 
 
 141 
 
 quences. It seems to me that Institute workers ought to have this in 
 mind. Let them be truthful in what they attempt to do and say. We 
 have all, perhaps, seen men who, wanting to make the best possible show- 
 ing, would perhaps goa little on the other side of the truth. I have always 
 found that if those statements were learned to be false it practically 
 knocked out Institute work in that section for years to come, and there- 
 fore, I hope that you will try to emulate some of the presidents and be 
 truthful. 
 
 Another point is that some of our presidents have been great travelers. 
 Certainly those of us who are here have for the last four or five days been 
 following in their foot-steps. We have been led a pretty rapid pace 
 traveling up and down this section of the country, and for my part I can 
 say that I believe the last four days have been as profitable as any four 
 days I have ever spent. I believe that some of the trips which the 
 presidents have taken have given them a chance to learn of the needs of 
 the country. So as Institute workers we have informed ourselves and 
 thereby can help our farmer friends, so I believe it has been a very good 
 thing for us to have been here at this Conference on Permanent and 
 Sanitary Farm Improvements. 
 
 I once heard a certain story. It impressed itself strongly upon my 
 mind. I will tell it. A certain speaker got up and commenced to hem 
 and haw and say that he wished that he had not been called upon as he 
 did not know what to talk about. A little boy way back in the room 
 
 Interior of round barn belonging to Spencer Otis at Barrington, 111. The trolley for the litter 
 carrier may be seen at the rear, with concrete floor in the foreground. 
 
142 Permanent and Sanitary Farm Improvements 
 
 piped out "Talk about a minute and sit down." I think I have talked 
 about a minute, and will now sit down. (Applause.) 
 
 Prof. Ocock : I see that the next topic we have before us is "Clothes 
 Don't Make the Man." I remember hearing not very long ago of a 
 young man picking out a young lady to be his wife. I don't know just 
 what the next speaker will have to say, but the thought in the matter 
 which this young gentleman brought to the attention of the people was 
 (and you Institute workers might bring the same thing to the attention 
 of the young people in your work) that before the young people are mar- 
 ried they see each other in their best bib and tucker. When they get 
 down to real work, John in his overalls and M ar y m her gingham dress; 
 they will look a little bit different, and therefore they ought not to be 
 disappointed. 
 
 We will listen to Dr. Richard S. Hill, and see whether he will dis- 
 appoint us in his discussion of his subject, "Clothes Don't Make the Man." 
 (Applause.) 
 
 Dr. Hill: Mr. Toastmaster, ladies, my friends who have been with 
 us all of this week: A couple of days ago, just after we had had a very 
 pleasant luncheon, a speaker started to make an address. He made 
 this little slip while talking to us : "Don't go out, better things are coming 
 yet." That is really true now, gentlemen. I am a little at a loss to 
 know how to get at this subject of "Clothes Don't Make the Man," and 
 I wonder whether those who started this think that the clothes of the 
 present day are making the women. (Laughter.) We have all had a 
 most pleasant week and I came here this evening with the expectation 
 of enjoying the banquet to the fullest extent, but when I got down to 
 this end of the table I was sandwiched in between Brigham Young and 
 Patrick Henry. They were both so extremely nervous (after reading the 
 program and finding that they were on it) that they made an awful bad 
 mixture of me, and instead of having a 1:2:3 mixture, I have got five 
 in it — five parts of water. 
 
 You may not think that I am a real Southern Maryland farmer, but 
 I am. They all look just like me down there. We do get enough to eat, 
 and we get a lot of good things to eat, but the trouble is we eat so much 
 and so slowly that it keeps us thin. Before I go any further I want to say 
 that there is going to be a meeting of the Farmers' Institute Workers in 
 Washington in November (1913) and that is right near where I live. Wash- 
 ington happens to be a daughter of Maryland, possibly the only daughter 
 she has, and when you come down to visit that daughter, why we are 
 going to have an open door over in Maryland, and want to see you all 
 there. 
 
 I had the pleasure last winter of meeting one of the gentlemen con- 
 nected with the Universal Information Bureau and I was glad indeed to 
 have him at that time, and I want to use an expression that we have down 
 in Maryland, "I am tickled to death" that I have also had the pleasure 
 of meeting Mr. Boynton personally, and his full corps of fine assistants, 
 splendid fellows. I have had an elegant time here in Chicago. It is the 
 first time I have ever been in Chicago — be careful how you take this 
 down, because I am not going to tell everything when I get home; it is 
 not always wise, gentlemen — but I have had a fine time while here. And 
 
Universal Portland Cement Co. 
 
 143 
 
 I will tell you young fellows here that are not married, to hurry up and 
 get married and enjoy home comforts, but use a little discretion as to 
 how much you tell when you do get home some mornings after sunrise. 
 
 I am not going to say anything special about our trip. You have 
 all enjoyed it as much as I have. Everyone of us has learned a great 
 deal. 
 
 I am particularly glad to be able to say, after having seen what I 
 have seen here, that my little state of Maryland at the present time has 
 either completed, or has under construction more miles of concrete roads 
 than any state in the Union. (Applause.) 
 
 On Wednesday, or yesterday, I think it was — I get my dates all mixed 
 up when I am away from home — we paid visits to several farms, and we 
 came to one farm and asked the man "What are we brought here for?" 
 "I don't know," he said. "I expect it is to see that tall silo up there," 
 and he certainly did have a tall concrete silo, 60 feet high. We asked 
 him a few questions in regard to the value of his farm, and he said, "Why 
 I want to sell it — a farmer came along here a few days ago and offered 
 me $290 an acre." I don't believe he had anything much on his farm 
 but a concrete silo. Now I am going right home and build a concrete 
 silo. (Applause.) If I can't get $290 an acre for one concrete silo on 
 my farm, I will build two. 
 
 Let us think of these things we have seen. And I believe I can say, 
 in the parlance that we use in our country, we have had real, genuine 
 
 eye-openers on the farms 
 around Chicago. We see that 
 these people are doing things, 
 and they are doing them well, 
 and I think all of us can take 
 the lessons we have learned 
 from this section, and do good 
 with them. 
 
 It happens to be my prov- 
 ince to sit up here at this, 
 the speaker's table. We are 
 all Institute men, and I prom- 
 ise you when I come back to 
 Chicago next year to enjoy 
 this noble treat again with 
 Mr. Boynton and these fine 
 fellows (laughter). I won't 
 come back as a Director of 
 Farmers ' Institute from Mary- 
 land, but as an ordinary In- 
 stitute worker, and be right 
 down with you boys, and I 
 will enjoy it a whole lot more 
 I promise you. (Applause.) 
 
 Prof. Ocock : We shall next 
 
 -n -:-■>,,*- .:: ~-:x> ■ \[ sten to a talk from Mr. Brig- 
 
 C. H. Bramble of Michigan and H. Burkholder of Clyde, \. arn „„ 4.U„ cnhiprt r\f "TVlP 
 Ohio, discussing ways and means. nam On ineSUDjeclOl 1WS 
 
144 Permanent and Sanitary Farm Improvements 
 
 Winds Descended and the Floods Came." I suppose that refers to 
 something the matter down in Ohio, this spring, and Mr. Brigham may 
 have something to tell us about it. We will now listen to Mr. J. S. 
 Brigham. (Applause.) 
 
 Mr. Brigham: Mr. Toastmaster, ladies and gentlemen: Well, the 
 winds did descend and the floods came, and then some. Our beautiful 
 state of which we are so proud was suffering last spring. I want to take 
 this opportunity of returning to Illinois and to the other states that are 
 represented here tonight, thanks for the sympathy and kindness that was 
 extended to our state at that time. You know our beautiful city which 
 from her throne of beauty rules the world, suffered a very heavy loss from 
 the flood. Also that beautiful gem of cities, Dayton. But there are not 
 only clouds that cover our state, for you know the rainbow comes down 
 over Ohio as well. 
 
 Now friends I have been given a subject to talk about, and when I 
 wish to talk of anything my mind naturally turns back to my own state. 
 I like to talk of Ohio. We don't know much else down there but Ohio, and 
 I know that the sun never shown on a country more fair, than beautiful, 
 peerless Ohio. 
 
 "Her sons are valiant and noble and bright; 
 
 Her beautiful women are just about right, 
 
 And her babies, God bless them, they're clear out 
 
 of sight, 
 That crop never fails in Ohio." 
 
 (Applause.) 
 
 Now friends, I want the boys from Ohio to stand up just a minute. 
 Now let us give our call. 
 
 (The Ohio call was given: "0-0-0 H I O, Ohio.") That is in 
 honor of the Universal Portland Cement Co., who have treated us so 
 kindly and so courteously and have given us such a fine time, far above 
 what we imagined. 
 
 Now to be very brief, as time is passing, I want to tell you of a dream 
 that came to my mind today when I was looking around in our train as 
 we came down from the cement mill, and I saw about half or two- 
 thirds of the boys who had been in this strenuous work during the past 
 week, all asleep. I thought that probably they were dreaming like the 
 man did (probably he was an Institute worker) who was traveling and 
 went asleep. While asleep he dreamed that he died and went to heaven. 
 When he got up there to the pearly gates he said to St. Peter that he 
 would like to go over into that part of heaven where the cement workers 
 and the Institute workers were located; that he would feel more at home 
 in that part of heaven than any other. 
 
 "There is one question I would like to ask you before we separate. 
 Why is it that the Institute people and cement workers are located so 
 far from the center of Heaven? "Why," the guide said, "that is easy; 
 they are the only class of people that the Almighty dare trust out of his 
 sight, so we put them over there." (Applause.) 
 
 Prof. Ocock: We shall next hear a talk on "How will the Farmer get 
 Money Before He Earns It?" That is a rather difficult proposition to 
 discuss. 
 
Universal Portland Cement Co. 
 
 145 
 
 I remember one incident when I was on the road, in the early days, 
 when we ate corn bread. In driving out through a wild section of Kansas 
 we came to a little wayside farm and asked if we might get something to 
 eat. The old German farmer called out to his wife : "Mary, these here two 
 fellers want something to eat. They say they are working for the Har- 
 vester Co., but I allow they are horse thieves." He said, "Do you 
 think they can get anything to eat?" "Well," she said, "I allow they 
 can." So we put the horses in the barn and went into the house, and 
 after some delay Mary began getting supper. We smelled the bacon 
 frying and corn bread baking. It wasn't long before we sat down and 
 began eating. It was dark, but wasn't so dark but that the old gentle- 
 man could see what he had to come in contact with, and pretty soon he 
 began pulling something out of his mouth. He said: "Mary, there is a 
 'har' in your bread." She didn't pay any attention to him. Pretty 
 soon he got another mouthful and said: "Mary, there is 'har' in your 
 bread." "There ain't no such thing," she said: "There ain't no 'har' 
 in that bread." We began to get a little bit nervous, and the third time 
 the old gentleman told her there was 'har' in her bread, she said: "I don't 
 care a darn if there is. I have told you two or three times to cover up the 
 meal barrel so the pups wouldn't sleep in it." (Laughter.) Now we 
 will listen to Mr. G. W. Simon on this question of "How Will the Farmer 
 Get Money Before He Earns It." Mr. Simon. (Applause.) 
 
 Mr. Simon: Mr. Toastmaster, ladies and gentlemen: I recollect 
 that when we were in the lecture room, at the Lewis Institute, some of 
 the experts connected with the Universal Information Bureau stated that 
 before you made the mixture for the concrete it was best to screen your 
 sand and gravel through a certain sized mesh. It seems to me that the 
 committee responsible for the program tonight should have profited by 
 these instructions instead of putting in among the speakers too big a rock. 
 I am afraid it might spoil their concrete mixture. (Laughter.) I sup- 
 pose all of us speakers are in the same boat tonight. We all make our 
 apologies. When I looked at the title of the subject given to me I was 
 reminded of a little incident in Massachusetts. There was an old farmer 
 
 by the name of Silas Wright. 
 Before he died he had a head- 
 stone made for himself which 
 he placed in the cemetery 
 where he expected to rest 
 after he departed from this 
 earth. Then he had the fol- 
 lowing epitaph inscribed on 
 the stone: "I am going, but 
 know not where." We have 
 kept agoing the whole week, 
 but now I must say I don't 
 know where I am going. I 
 suppose, however, that I shall 
 have to stick to the topic, 
 
 Dr. H. E. Horton Agricultural Commissioner, of the namely : "How Will the Farmer 
 American Steel & Wire Company, concluding one of „ ._;£ _ „ __._-, 
 
 his best stories, having as his listeners, Prof. E. A. Viet Money UelOre He learns 
 
 d. F U |ro f st he University of Illinois ' s ' p - Ayers and It?" You see, the farmer has 
 
1 46 Permanent and Sanitary Farm Improvements 
 
 a good example in us. I would say, if the farmer wants to get money 
 without earning it let him become an Institute worker. (Laughter and ap- 
 plause.) And then he will surely be invited by the Universal Portland 
 Cement Co., to spend a week in Chicago to look around. 
 
 I remember when I was a student in college I attended one of the 
 Institute meetings, and felt quite inspired. Leaving the Institute and 
 going back to the college, I began dreaming along the line of the different 
 talks. After a while I wrote a little article entitled: "The Farmer in 
 the Year 2,000," in which I described how everything would be perfect 
 at that time, and among other improvements I discussed concrete build- 
 ings with steel reinforcement. I am glad to be able to say that I was 
 interested in concrete at such an early time — even before I attended the 
 Conference this week. Otherwise, if I classed concrete buildings among 
 the perfect things in store for the farmer, you might think that I was 
 doing it simply to natter the Universal Portland Cement Co. 
 
 Every one of the speakers here stated that he represented some state 
 —Michigan, Ohio, Wisconsin, or some other prominent state. It is hard 
 for me to say that I represent any one state. In my work with The 
 Jewish Agricultural and Industrial Aid Society I have covered thirty-five 
 states in the Union, and I can almost say that I represent the whole 
 United States. I do represent, so to speak, the Jewish farmers of the 
 United States. Many of you will wonder whether there is such a thing 
 as a Jewish farmer, but we have in the neighborhood of five or six thousand 
 in this country. Most of them are making good. And I can say that 
 I was fortunate enough to have my share — I would not say in making 
 them — but, to some extent, in molding their ways. I had to use some 
 cement for that purpose, but this cement has not the mark of the Uni- 
 versal Portland Cement Co. on it; it is even a more universal cement — 
 it is called Credit! 
 
 You Institute workers have many times, possibly, ran across the 
 same obstacles I have. When I came to the farmer and talked to him 
 about different improvements, about getting better stock or erecting 
 better buildings or employing better methods of farming, he would politely 
 listen to me and would then simply reply: "Well, everything that you 
 said is all right, but it costs money. Where shall I get it? And many 
 a time, impressed by his sound logic, I had to just keep silent and leave 
 him. I believe that it is just about time for us to think: Where should 
 the farmer get the money? 
 
 The topic I have been asked to speak upon is: "How Can the Farmer 
 Get Money Before He Earns It?" But I say the farmer of this country 
 has earned the money long ago. (Applause.) It is the farmer who made 
 this glorious country. It is the farmer who has built up all these big 
 industries — all these enormous enterprises, and it is about time for us to 
 reciprocate. It is about time that the farmer be given a square deal. 
 I am glad to see that we are coming to this. I am an optimist. I believe 
 that the world is getting better and that everything around us is getting 
 better. We see examples of this improved state of affairs in this Company 
 spending its money in order to show the farmer how he can use concrete 
 material to better advantage, and more economically. But there is a 
 little more yet due the farmer than merely to tell him how to do things. 
 
Universal Portland Cement Co. 
 
 147 
 
 We shall have to show him how to get the money with which to do them, 
 and I am not speaking theoretically. 
 
 Permit me to tell you how the Jewish Agricultural and Industrial 
 Aid Society, which I have here the honor to represent, has found a way 
 to show the Jewish farmer how to get the money with which to do things. 
 
 About twenty-five years ago there was quite a wealthy French baron 
 by the name of Baron Maurice de Hirsch. He decided to help his people 
 in the back-to-the-land movement, for which purpose he established a 
 fund. We had to make the farmer, so to speak, from A to Z, and the 
 first question that arose was the money question. The first thing that 
 this Fund did was to introduce in their work the French credit system, 
 the "Credit Foncier of France." It was established in this country in 
 1891. I have no figures showing what we accomplished during the earliest 
 period of our work, but I have here figures showing the result of our work 
 since 1900, when "The Jewish Agricultural and Industrial Aid Society" 
 was established as a separate agricultural branch of the Baron de Hirsch 
 Fund. Since 1900 we have distributed in thirty different states $1,494,- 
 437.91 in loans to 2,568 farmers. We loaned this money on long term mort- 
 gages, running on an average for ten years, secured by a second or third 
 real estate mortgage, but the character of the farmer being one of the 
 principal assets. We charged interest at the rate of only four per cent 
 per annum, and in these fourteen years, although our loans are made 
 largely from a philanthropic point of view, we have lost less than two 
 per cent of the total. Now, ladies and gentlemen, if we could give a 
 
 Interior of concrete dairy barn on 'Wakefield Farm, Barrington, 111, George E. Van Hagen, owner. 
 
148 Permanent and Sanitar y Farm Improvements 
 
 million and a half dollars to farmers who know little about farming 
 before they started, and could give it to them on a second and third 
 mortgage, and sometimes on a chattel mortgage, and we have been kept safe 
 and sound, would not the United States Government be safe and sound 
 if it would loan money to the farmer on a first mortgage at four per cent, 
 and thus relieve the farmer from having to pay ten per cent interest 
 to the banker? You possibly, all read, the other day that the United 
 States Government gave $50,000,000 to the National Banks at two per 
 cent. What security did the National Banks give the Government? 
 Some paper! Now, the farmer of this country does not want to give as 
 security for his loan, paper; he wants to give good land that is worth 
 good money, and he does not want the loan at two per cent; he is willing 
 to pay four per cent. And why shouldn't he get it? He does not want 
 charity. It is true that there was a time when land was possibly a poor 
 security, but the time of free land is past. This country has no free land, 
 or has very little of it. At the present time if you want to get land which 
 is dry, on which you have to spend millions of dollars in order to get the 
 water supply for the crops, you will have to pay a high price for it. Land 
 now is a good security; besides, we have some good farmers who are good 
 for it, because I believe that the land is worth as much as the man who 
 is on it. 
 
 And we have got some good men on our farms. 
 
 But there arose another difficulty in our work. After we granted 
 long term loans to our farmers it was still hard for them to get along. 
 In the first place, it was difficult for us to reach them all. Secondly, 
 there was another thing that acted as a drawback, there was just a little 
 parasite — I don't know how to classify it, whether it belongs to the order 
 of bacteria or fungi — perhaps the significant term "blood-sucker" might 
 most properly be applied to it. There was a parasite among the farmers 
 which has gradually sapped all the strength from them. That parasite 
 is the small money lender, the small loan shark, who smiles upon the 
 farmer and is glad to oblige him by giving him a horse worth $50 and 
 charging him $100. This is how he does it; he says to the innocent and 
 helpless farmer: "I won't charge you anything for this horse; you simply 
 give me a chattel mortgage on your crop." And so on right along he 
 charges fifty and a hundred per cent, and often even still more, on the 
 various things that the farmer needs. And when the time comes for the 
 farmer to sell his product, he thinks: "I will sell my product to the 
 highest bidder and get a good price for it." Here he finds himself caught 
 in a spider's web from which he cannot extricate himself. You see, he 
 had been sold, bound hand and foot by this local money lender who says 
 to him: "You have to sell the crop to me. You can't sell it to anyone else." 
 We therefore determined that we would have to rid the farmers from this 
 small but formidable parasite which has developed among them. I can't 
 say how many sleepless nights I have spent thinking how to combat this 
 dread parasite. And I came back to our Society and said: "We have 
 to do something. We have to so organize the farmers that they will be able 
 to help themselves." 
 
 Co-operation among farmers was then unknown in America. We 
 turned to Europe and found that in Germany the farmers had had the 
 same trouble and had suffered in the same way as we have suffered here 
 
Universal Portland Cement Co. 1 49 
 
 until there arose among them a man by the name of Raiffeisen, a plain 
 man, a farmer, who believed in the; simple principles of co-operation and 
 of mutual self-help. Some believe that this is something new, but it is 
 as old as the world is old. All our religious organizations, and even society 
 as a whole, are founded on principles of brotherhood and co-operation. 
 It is an old idea. The trouble is that we seek far away that which is before 
 our very eyes. We do not see the "bluebird" right in our own house, 
 but we travel a big distance in search of happiness. We looked into what 
 Mr. Raiffeisen did, and we found his plan a very simple one. It was to 
 organize the small farmers into groups and to have every member of each 
 group subscribe a small amount and create a fund. By means of this 
 fund they were enabled to make each other independent. 
 
 Finding the Raiffeisen System very practicable, we decided to introduce 
 it in this, our United States among our own farmers. We started to work 
 on this principle in 1909. As pioneers in the field of Co-operative Agri- 
 cultural Credit in the United States, we naturally encountered many ob- 
 stacles. Chief among these was the absence of legislation under which 
 these Credit Associations could be incorporated. We finally concluded 
 to organize them as unincorporated or voluntary associations, and in 
 May, 1911, the first Co-operative Bank on American soil was opened. 
 
 The principle under which we acted is similar to that under which the 
 Government is acting towards the National Banks. We said to the 
 farmer: "Here you have a small community of twenty farmers. You 
 subscribe, together, a small sum of money — as much as you can convenient- 
 ly spare, let us say, for instance, $500, in shares of $5 each. We will then 
 give you two dollars for every dollar you subscribe." In other words, 
 if they subscribed $500 we loaned them $1,000, for which the farmers in 
 the community were jointly responsible, and we charged them interest 
 at the rate of two per cent per annum. This small community of farmers 
 now had $1,500 for their small emergency needs. Suppose a member of 
 the community should lose a horse or a cow, or should need $50 to buy some 
 fertilizer, or has to borrow a small sum to pay his laborer. He does not have 
 to borrow the money from his grocer, nor does he need to apply to the 
 local money lender, but he can get it from his own community bank, from 
 his fellow farmers who do not need the money just then, but may have 
 to use it in a similar manner later on. If he wants $50 or $100 he knows 
 that he can get it and the bank knows that the money will be good. This 
 community bank, or Co-operative Credit Union, in the management of 
 the affairs of which he has the same voice as any other member regardless 
 of the number of shares held, charges him six per cent. At the end of the 
 year, after all expenses are paid out, dividends are distributed. To date 
 we have organized seventeen of these banks. I have here some figures 
 showing the result of their operations up to March 31, 1913, an average 
 period of ten months and twenty-four days. With an original capital 
 of their own of $7,000 they have granted loans aggregating $39,111.97. 
 Their net profits up to March 31, were eleven and three-quarters per cent 
 per annum on their capital. We have thus made the farmers almost 
 wholly independent of the local money lender, besides teaching them 
 business methods and self-government. If they ask where they should 
 get the money we can point out a way. We say: "Go and help your- 
 selves, and help each other." These are the principles of co-operation. 
 
150 
 
 Permanent and Sanitary Farm Improvements 
 
 Now, as I said before, I am an optimist. I believe the time is not far 
 distant when we shall have plenty of banks established for long and short 
 term loans. I see that one of the philanthropic funds interested in uni- 
 versal peace has sent a committee to Europe to investigate the war in the 
 Balkans, to discover its causes and to study its effects. I hope that some 
 of these public spirited institutions will soon turn the light upon our own 
 country and study the causes of the suffering of the farmer and how we shall 
 be able to help him. So you see my topic should have been : How Can the 
 Farmer Get the Money He Earned Long Ago? I thank you. 
 
 Prof. Ocock: Most of you are unaware that we have with us a very 
 funny man. He has been with you all the week, and hasn 't sprung any 
 jokes. I don't know whether I can get him to do anything like that to- 
 night or not. We have with us one whom I would like to have you all get 
 acquainted with. You have read a great many times of either his work 
 or some other fellow's work, and so I will call upon Mr. William Nye to 
 crack a joke. (Laughter.) 
 
 "Bill" Nye: Mr. Chairman and gentlemen: This is entirely unex- 
 pected so that it overwhelms me, somewhat. I rather think that Mr. 
 Ocock wished to pay me back for some of the things I said about him this 
 week, and has taken this mean advantage of me. I am sure that if he holds 
 anything I have said against me I will apologize for it. 
 
 I have forborne this week from saying much, out of consideration for 
 your feelings. I have not cracked many jokes. In fact, I have refrained so 
 long that I have got out of the habit a little bit, and really think that I 
 must remain silent as far as jokes are concerned, for the rest of the time. 
 I am afraid to say much anyway. Mark Twain said that it is unfortunate 
 for a man to be so awkward with his mouth, that every time he opens it he 
 puts his foot in it. I am going to try, at least, to keep from putting my 
 foot in my mouth. 
 
 I wish, however, to say a word in appreciation of what has been done 
 for us this week by the Universal Information Bureau and by Mr. Boynton 
 and his assistants. I am sure I cannot express fully the appreciation of all 
 those who have taken advantage of this opportunity which has been pre- 
 sented to us and I will go back 
 to my home in Indiana with a 
 better appreciation of what 
 the Universal Portland Ce- 
 ment Co. is doing in their 
 educational work for the farm- 
 ers. (Applause.) 
 
 Prof. Ocock: I forgot to 
 take my dictionary with me 
 tonight, but I will try to wade 
 through the title of the next 
 subject which is "A Scientific 
 Treatise on The Modern Idea 
 of Nomenclature, in Cases of 
 Duplicated Consanguinity" — 
 
 whatever that mav hp Mr Th , e c 9 n{eTen ^ e Delegates were royally entertained at 
 
 wlKtuevei UUd-u llld,y ue. lVir. Barnngton by the ladies of the Baptist Church. 
 
Universal Portland Cement Co. 151 
 
 Forest Henry will make a little explanation of it. Mr. Henry. (Applause.) 
 Mr. Henry: Mr. Toastmaster, ladies and gentlemen: A man that 
 has spent more than fifty-seven years on the prairies of Minnesota, especial- 
 ly going there at the time that I did, in the 50 's, learns to be a man of ex- 
 pedience. He learns to buck up against a good many things, and hardly 
 ever gets stuck. During my short stay in Minnesota, I have done a great 
 many things that are a little out of the usual, like assisting in setting 
 broken limbs, helping perform some surgical operations, pulling a few 
 teeth when the dentist was not around, marrying a few couples when the 
 minister was not forthcoming, and so on. On a few occasions I have 
 responded to a toast, but when a toast like this is handed out on a minute's 
 warning, it takes all the wind out of my sails, and I have been racking 
 my brain here tonight to try to make out who is responsible for handing 
 out such a toast as this. 
 
 A Voice : You will never know. 
 
 Mr. Henry : So I concluded that it is one of two men. Let me read that 
 again: "A Scientific Treatise on The Modern Idea of Nomenclature, in 
 Cases of Duplicated Consanguinity." I said that I am of the opinion that 
 it is one of two men, two young men who were brought up in my neighbor- 
 hood. One of them after he had attended our High School came back, and 
 his mother asked him to bring in an armful of wood. He turned to her in 
 surprise and said: "Mother, the grammatical portion of your education has 
 been sadly neglected. You should have said, ' my son, will you transport 
 from its recumbent position the combustible material upon the threshold 
 of this edifice, one or more of the minute particles of a defunct log." 
 (Laughter.) But it puzzles me to know whether it was this fellow or the 
 other one. The other fellow was brought up in the adjoining neighborhood. 
 He went to college, and when he returned he stuck out his shingle. He had 
 learned dentistry, and when his first patient came in to submit to his 
 tortures he looked into his mouth and this is about what he said: "I 
 see a slight disposition to concentrated action which will undoubtedly lead 
 to suffusion and concretion of the molus de mortis, and by sympathy a 
 , strabismic deflection of the left eye, and a centrific convulsion of the upper 
 lobe of the tarsus." Just about this time the patient fainted. 
 
 Well, now I think that if I would give you anything like that, in the 
 short time that I have had to prepare this treatise, why some of you would 
 faint, so I am just going to cut it off right short. I thank you. (Applause.) 
 
 Prof. Ocock: I can see not very far from me one of the workers of the 
 Universal Portland Cement Co. He has got a rather hard name. It is 
 not so much like Pebble, nor is it Concrete, but it is Stone. I am going to 
 ask Mr. Fred Stone to say a word or two. (Applause.) 
 
 Mr. Stone: You are sure you haven't made a mistake, Mr. Toast- 
 master? 
 
 Prof. Ocock: Not at all. 
 
 Mr. Stone : You really meant that. Well, the only possible explanation 
 that occurs to me of this condition in which I find myself is that the Toast- 
 master has gone back a few steps and has gotten a little bit mixed. One 
 of the earlier speakers not that I class myself as a speaker — but I will say 
 one of those who have spoken had a subject which was "How Will the 
 
152 Permanent and Sanitary harm Improvements 
 
 Farmer Get Money Before He Earns It." I think that Professor Ocock has 
 transposed that just a little, and as put down on paper it might read: 
 "How Will the Toastmaster of the Evening Get Revenge Before He Really 
 Has Reason To." As a matter of fact, last night in an idle moment I made 
 a threat that when I got up around the vicinity of Madison next time I 
 would open up and tell the people there something about the behavior of 
 the Toastmaster of the evening after the hours of work during the last few 
 nights. I know that he couldn't do anything to me up in that neighbor- 
 hood, and I think he is trying to take advantage of me now and get his 
 revenge in advance. 
 
 There is only one thing that I might say, and that is that I know a great 
 deal more now about Farmers' Institutes and their work and workers than 
 I did at the beginning of the week. I am very fortunately reminded of 
 that by the fact that the first night I was seated down in the lobby, and 
 someone came along and said: "What are all these badges I see here?" 
 I, at that time, had not seen the Conference badges that Mr. Boynton 
 and his people had gotten up. I said: "I don't know:" That person 
 passed along, and in a few minutes someone else stopped at my chair and 
 said: "Do you know any of these Institute people around here?" I said: 
 "No, I don't." I did not at that time. A few minutes later someone 
 else came up and said: "These Institute people here, where do they get 
 their pay? Do they get it from the State, or the County? How are they 
 organized?" I said: "I am sorry I can't enlighten you, but I really don't 
 know. " I sat there for several minutes and four more people came along 
 and asked me about Institute work, and I had to plead ignorance in every 
 case, and finally someone came up and said: "How many of these people 
 are there here?" I said: "Really I don't know. I am not an Institute 
 worker myself. The reason I look this way is because I am sick. " (Ap- 
 plause) . 
 
 Prof. Ocock: We have with us tonight an editor of one of the farm 
 papers, one of the most prominent farm papers in the state, and probably 
 in the country, and I am going to call on Mr. H. E. Young, of "The 
 Farmers' Review" to make a few remarks. (Applause). 
 
 Mr. Young: Ladies and gentlemen: After listening to this splendid 
 music and these very eloquent addresses, I feel very much as the culprit 
 did when he was brought before the bar of the court one morning to be 
 sentenced. The Judge asked him if he had anything to say and he replied, 
 "No, sir, your Honor, there has been too dog-gone much said in this case 
 already . ' ' (Laughter) . 
 
 But we have had a glorious week. It has been a great week, and I am 
 sure that everyone will take a great many ideas back home on the farm 
 to the farmers whom we all represent, which will be of inestimable value 
 to them. 
 
 I shall be brief. You know living in Chicago has a tendency to make 
 one rather quick in his actions. The automobile business in this town 
 I find, has divided the people into just two classes, the quick and the 
 dead, and you have to be damned quick or you'll be dead. (Laughter). 
 
 In the last few days we have heard a great deal about sanitary and 
 permanent farm improvements. I am sure that most of us understand 
 these terms pretty well by this time, but an incident occurred a few even- 
 
Universal Portland Cement Co. 
 
 153 
 
 A varied discussion. 
 
 ings ago which I cannot resist the temptation to tell you about. It was 
 at a meeting where there was a discussion about making a temporary organi- 
 zation, permanent. A friend of mine happened to be chairman, and upon 
 the front seat one of the boys 
 was sitting, and he had evi- 
 dently made a few calls after 
 leaving his house before com- 
 ing to the meeting, for he was 
 feeling pretty well and was 
 persistently trying to speak to 
 the question. The chairman, 
 noticing his condition, tried 
 to keep him out of it, but 
 finally the fellow jumped up 
 and made his motion. The 
 chairman pushed him back in 
 his seat and said: "Sit down, 
 you don't know the difference 
 between temporary and per- 
 manent." And our convivial 
 friend rose up again and said: 
 "Yes, I do, "he said: "I am 
 drunk. That is temporary. 
 But," he said. "You are a 
 darned fooL and that is permanent." (Laughter.) 
 
 As I said before, this has been a great week for us. It has been great 
 from both standpoint of education and entertainment. We have feasted 
 our eyes on permanent construction on the farms about Chicago, and we 
 have been feasted with practical information regarding how we can get 
 those improvements on our own farms, and how we can help others to get 
 them on their farms. We have been feasted with all the good things to 
 eat that anyone knows how to prepare. We owe all this to the Universal 
 Information Bureau, who have so gloriously entertained us. I want to 
 congratulate them on planning and carrying through such a magnificent 
 school of education and course of entertainment as they have done so 
 excellently, this last week. We are to be congratulated, ourselves, for 
 having had the honor of an invitation and the privilege to participate 
 in this glorious sight-seeing and this practical instruction work which 
 we have had laid out before us. I am sure we must take off our hats and 
 recognize the many good uses of concrete on the farm. The concrete 
 in this instance is almost synonymous with another word which we all 
 know about now, and which is spelled " U-n-i-v-e-r-s-a-1. " (Applause). 
 
 Prof. Ocock: We have with us tonight a young man who has passed 
 through the same experience as some of the rest of you. I may possibly 
 be wrong about it, but I understand that he was fortunate enough to 
 select his wife through one of the agencies which they have in Nebraska. 
 Now this agency is called "Aksarben. " I don't know what that means, 
 and it may have something to do with an "ax," but whatever it means, 
 Professor L. W. Chase, of Lincoln, Nebraska, will enlighten us upon it at 
 this time. (Applause). 
 
154 Permanent and Sanitary Farm Improvements 
 
 Prof. Chase : Ladies and Gentlemen : I am not going to offer any 
 apologies whatever for being up here among the ministers tonight. You 
 will have to take that matter up with the committee. They asked me to 
 appear on the program. I was so tickled that I accepted at once. You 
 must suffer for it. 
 
 We have been talking concrete, seeing concrete, hearing concrete, and 
 I guess dreaming concrete all the week. It has been the best kind of con- 
 crete. So that in my toast tonight, if you may call it that, I shall avoid 
 the subject of concrete. 
 
 It is not possible for me in any way whatever to express my thanks and 
 appreciation to the Universal Portland Cement Co., and the committee 
 from the Universal Information Bureau, who has had this in charge — 
 for what we have learned through this week. 
 
 Now then they have given me a term here to explain — Aksarben! 
 Aksarben is an Indian name written Chinese fashion. I don't know 
 whether it was derived in the way that the cement people define Portland 
 cement or not, but I will state this afternoon, when we were out to the 
 Buffington plant I got to wondering how Taylor and Thompson ever 
 figured out their definition for Portland cement. It runs about this way. 
 "It is a conglomeration of so and so and so and so and so and so." And 
 "conglomeration" is the smallest word in the definition. While waiting 
 for the train I stepped over into the check room, where each man had his 
 name. I saw where Taylor and Thompson got their definition. That 
 was the greatest conglomeration of names that I ever saw. I shall only 
 give you two or three, the way that I understood them, or the way that 
 I would have pronounced them. I stepped outside where the paymaster 
 was paying off the men, and he was calling their names and their numbers, 
 and I will give you some of the names the way I understood those fellows 
 to pronounce them. The names run this way : " Kolenskiwauwow. Senis- 
 opoli. Serrogonvalo. Palorowski. " Now I don 't suppose those are pro- 
 nounced anywhere near right, but that is the way two or three of us pro- 
 fessors decided they were. Now the first name that I got while I was 
 standing about three feet off was " My Country 'Tis of Thee. " The next 
 one was, " Sweet Land of Liberty. " The next one, "No checkee No Mun." 
 The next "More Money Tuesday." 
 
 Now Aksarben, as I said, is an Indian name used Chinese fashion. 
 You will notice that it is the name "Nebraska" spelled backwards. 
 "Aksarben" is a very big organization in the city of Omaha. It has a 
 big jubilee out there once every year, and as Omaha is known as little 
 Chicago, you can imagine that they do pull of a few big things out there. 
 
 Now, since I am to talk about Nebraska, I will first say that there 
 is one thing that I have heard more of in the last week than I knew of 
 before I camehere, and that is that it is dry out in Nebraska. I have 
 learned that since I have been here. (Laughter). 
 
 Now there is a State just south of Nebraska, and that is Kansas. 
 Quite a little rivalry exists between Kansas and Nebraska, but we've got 
 it on them this time, because it is drier in Kansas than it is in Nebraska. 
 I went down into Kansas about two weeks ago on a fishing trip, and it 
 was so dry down there that I couldn't see the fish for the dust they kicked 
 up as they swam up the stream. (Laughter). 
 
Universal Portland Cement Co. 155 
 
 Again, Nebraska is not the slowest State that there is in the Union. 
 Things are doing out there. Even Professor Ocock as he was riding 
 across the State not long since found that the women were up and doing. 
 Like all professors, he is very critical of the way things are going on. He 
 looked out of the window and saw the tall corn stalks standing in the corn 
 fields uncut, and he said: " my, what a waste." A big stout woman sitting 
 in front of him turned around to him and in her most haughty manner 
 said: "I wish you would please mind your own business." (Laughter). 
 
 Again, Nebraska can boast of the first railroad. Nebraska's first 
 railroad is spoken of in the Bible. If you don't believe that read the 
 verse in Genesis which says: "And God created all things, even the 
 creeping things." 
 
 Now we have out there in Nebraska a very prolific class of people and 
 they are pretty energetic sort of fellows. They are not like I find the 
 people are here in Illinois. Here in Illinois I notice they all set the build- 
 ings on the corner of the farm which is closest towards town. Our farmers 
 are most thrifty; they are continually saving up and buying additional 
 pieces of land to add to their farm. Why, every time there is a child 
 born into the family they buy an additional farm, and every time anyone 
 is married into the family they buy an additional farm. These people 
 are so thrifty that they set their buildings in the center of the farm and 
 will put three or four gates between the farm buildings and the road. I 
 asked one of them why he did that and he said: "Well, if you make it 
 that much harder to go to town than to go to the field you will go to the 
 field every time." These fellows have carried this even farther than 
 that; they have carried it so far that some of them have set their houses in 
 the hog yard so they wouldn't have to carry the slop to the hogs. And, 
 incidentally, that is true in the case of a few farmers, but not very many. 
 
 Speaking of one of our Nebraska characters, a farmer that wears the 
 typical high boots, the same old kind that you pull on by getting hold 
 of the boot strap and pulling for dear life, and in every other way he 
 presents a typical appearance. He went down to St. Joe with a shipment 
 of cattle one day. And I might say that it is not an uncommon thing to 
 see a farmer ship a whole train load of cattle down to St. Joe; in fact, 
 one of our farmers last spring shipped a thousand head in one shipment, 
 and had over 5,000 head left on his farm. Well, anyway, this old fellow 
 went down there. It happened that he arrived on Sunday. Not having 
 anything else to do until Monday morning, he decided that he would go 
 to church. When he came inside he looked around for a place to sit. 
 No one came up to show him to a seat, but he wasn't going to stand on 
 ceremony, so he marched down the aisle and sat down in the third pew 
 from the front. As he sat there he kept gazing around and watching the 
 people file into church. Soon a lady came in and as he happened to be 
 looking over his shoulder he saw two or three ushers bounce up and very 
 politely and ceremoniously lead her towards the front, and showed her 
 to the pew immediately behind him. She sat down in a dignified way, and 
 pulling out her lorgnette, raised it to her eyes and began squinting at 
 him. She looked him over two or three times. Finally she got out her 
 gold pencil and wrote a little note on a card and handed it over to our 
 farmer friend. He read it. This is what she had written: "I pay $300 
 
156 Permanent and Sanitary Farm Improvements 
 
 a year for that pew." The farmer reached down in his vest pocket and 
 got out his stub of a pencil, turned the card over and wrote on the back 
 side of it: "You pay too damned much!" (Laughter). 
 
 We, as farmers, are all pay- 
 ing too much for our build- 
 ings. We are paying too much 
 for the material that goes into 
 our buildings for the results 
 we get. Most farmers need- 
 lessly waste a lot of time and 
 energy repairing buildings. 
 The average farm building is 
 a source of constant waste of 
 time for repairing, from be- 
 ginning to end. Furthermore, 
 the fence question is another 
 
 Pure Bred Holsteins on concrete feeding floor, Hawthorne big One! And when yOU men 
 Farm, Harrington, 111. go ba(;k tQ yQUT var j ous 
 
 homes, I do hope that you will pound this fact into the farmers, that 
 they are paying too much for their buildings. We have to pound it 
 into the farmers the same way the grain dealers have had it pounded 
 into them and the same as the railroad companies have had it pounded 
 into them. That is the need of permanent improvements on their farm. 
 If the railroads can afford to put in concrete bridges the farmer can. 
 If the railroad companies and the granaries can afford to put in concrete 
 tanks to hold their grain the farmers can afford to put in concrete tanks 
 to hold their grain. If the railroads can afford to put in brick and con- 
 crete stations and warehouses and the like, the farmer can afford to put 
 similar permanent structures on his farm. The farmer will not be as 
 progressive as he should until he begins to look into the future, and sees 
 that it is not and never was an economy to pay two or three times for a 
 temporary structure. It is economy for him to put up a permanent 
 structure and pay for it once and for all time. 
 
 Now, I am going to leave with you an invitation to come out to Ne- 
 braska sometime. You all know it is a dry State, it is a sandy State, but 
 I do wish to have you all come out to the University of Nebraska, sometime 
 and see me. Maybe I am not a good mixer up here among you farmers. 
 I am just a little bit timid when I buck up against you fellows, and talk 
 to you who have lived on farms and have demonstrated that life on the 
 farm is well worth while. I have lived on the farm twenty-six or twenty- 
 seven years, but have had to live in town now for a few years, but I want 
 to get back to the farm. I feel that I don't know much about farming, 
 and for that reason have not been able to talk with you as I should, be- 
 cause I feel that you know more about it than I do. 
 
 As President of the American Society of Agricultural Engineers I am 
 going to ask all of you who can to come out and meet with us this winter — 
 the last week in December (1913), at the Great Northern Hotel in Chicago, 
 and bring as many friends as you can. The first meeting starts on a 
 Monday. We shall have a lot of things that will be of interest to you. 
 We shalltalk about grain cleaners.^We shall have a paper by Dr. Horton, 
 
Universal Portland Cement Co. 157 
 
 who has been with us this week, about the need of cleaning grain. We 
 shall also take up the subject of electric lighting systems on the farm, and 
 other live topics, and I extend an invitation to you one and all to come. 
 (Applause). 
 
 Prof. Ocock : Inasmuch as Mr. Henry rather shirked his duty when I 
 called upon him before for a speech — I think he was rather too short — I 
 am coming back at him again and now ask if he hasn't got a word or two 
 more to say. I think it is a good thing to stir people up, once in a while. 
 
 Mr. Forest Henry: Well, I might console my friend, Prof. Chase, a 
 little bit. He has told us of a very dry season down in Nebraska. Some- 
 times it is quite a comfort to see people in a worse boat than we are in. 
 Not long since I happened to see a man from Oklahoma, and I was com- 
 plaining to him of the dry weather we had, along in June, up in Minnesota, 
 which threatened our crops just a little. "Why," he said: "Henry, you 
 don't know anything about dry weather." He said: "About a week or so 
 ago I was riding along a road in Oklahoma. I was riding for two whole 
 days, and I couldn't get even a pail of water to water my team." He said: 
 "I finally saw a black spot out in what used to be a marsh, and I drove 
 over to see if there wasn't a mudhole or something there from which I 
 could get a little water, and as I approached the place I saw two men 
 backed up against this mudhole, and they had hold of a pig by the hind 
 legs, and they were dousing him in that mudhole. I asked them what 
 in the world they were doing that for, and they said: 'we are soaking that 
 pig up so he will hold swill.' " Now I tell that to Prof. Chase so when he 
 gets back to Nebraska he will feel that he is not in as bad a pickle as his 
 brothers over the line. 
 
 But that is not what I got up to say. I will commence again. Ladies 
 and gentlemen, and particularly Mr. Boynton, and his young men who 
 have escorted us during the week. I will start with a story. This is a 
 cyclone story, but it didn't happen in Minnesota. You know we don't 
 have cyclones there. This happened up in my friend's country in North 
 Dakota. We have a few Swedes up there and it happened that this Swede's 
 home was swept by a tornado. He was not injured, but he was carried 
 about eighty rods and set out on the prairies unhurt. The next day his 
 pastor was consoling with him, and dwelt on his good fortune in not being 
 hurt, and he said: " Brother, do you ever think of how this thing all came 
 about? Your home was taken, your stock was taken, and you left un- 
 hurt?" And he said: "It was because the good Lord was with you." 
 The Swede thought a moment and then he said: "If the Lord was with 
 me, he sure was going some." (Laughter). 
 
 And now, boys, we have been going some this week. We certainly 
 have. I heard this expression used more than a dozen times during the 
 week: Boys we have never spent a more profitable week than the one 
 that has just passed! (Applause). I think we can say this and say it 
 truthfully. It has been profitable in a great many directions. I am not 
 going to take your time here tonight in enumerating the many ways in 
 which it has been profitable to us Institute workers. That has already been 
 alluded to. What we want to do now is to consider who is responsible 
 for all this. The initiative of this Conference began up in Minnesota 
 about two years ago, when the Universal Portland Cement Co., sent to our 
 
158 
 
 Permanent and Sanitary Farm Improvements 
 
 "Flossmor Snowflake" belonging to Geo. E. Van Hagen 
 at Barrington; this cow boasts a yearly production of 
 18,800 pounds of milk, with 3.64? butter fat. 
 
 State, some young engineers to do educational work among the farmers. 
 And one amongst them I shall mention in particular. You will pardon me 
 if I mention his name and not the rest, for he was the first out there. 
 
 That was Mr. Fowler. His 
 untiring efforts in behalf of 
 the good cause he represented, 
 the unselfish way in which he 
 presented his subject, and his 
 gentlemanly bearing on every 
 occasion endeared him to our 
 people wherever he went. 
 Whenever I go back to one of 
 those towns where he had 
 been with us they say: " Where 
 is the cement boy?" "Why 
 didn't you bring him with 
 you?" Now, I say the initia- 
 tive of this Conference began 
 there when they sent that 
 young man out to Minnesota. Others followed, and each representative 
 has followed in his footsteps, and we are always glad to receive them. 
 They have done their part nobly and well, and they have represented 
 this company in a way that they do not need to be ashamed of. 
 
 I could not help but remember one expression that our Jewish friend 
 (Mr. Simon) over here to my left used. It sank deep into my heart and 
 I will never forget it. He said that: "the farm was not worth any more 
 than the farmer who was on it." Well, if this company from start to 
 finish is made up of men like these young gentlemen that we have met 
 this week and worth as much as the young gentlemen that represent it, 
 why we bid them godspeed, indeed ! 
 
 Now I want to say a word or two in regard to Mr. C. W. Boynton, 
 who is with us here tonight. While these young men have done their part 
 nobly and well, Mr. Boynton, who represents this company in his official 
 capacity as Engineer in Charge of the Universal Information Bureau, we 
 understand, has been the main factor in bringing this Conference about, 
 and in making it such a great success. Possibly, a little later there will 
 be some resolutions read and adopted by this Conference. Resolutions 
 alone are cold. We want to say something or do something that will be 
 lasting. In some small way, at least, acknowledge what Mr. Boynton 
 has done in our behalf, and for the cause that we are here this week to 
 represent. We have been taken from place to place without a hitch, 
 without any accident; everything has been in perfect harmony during 
 the entire week. Everything that possibly could be done has been done 
 for our comfort, our happiness and for our improvement. We have not 
 only been feasted, but we have been clothed. This afternoon when we 
 went to the cement plant where we were thoughtfully clothed — when 
 we came back we were all curried down as well. Whoever heard of any- 
 thing like that before? 
 
 Mr. Boynton, I wish to thank you in behalf of these representatives 
 that are gathered here tonight for your untiring efforts to make this 
 
Universal Portland Cement Co. 
 
 159 
 
 The quality of sheep's wool seems to be an interesting 
 subject with C. R. "Wagner, of Ohio. 
 
 a great success. Fearing that in the midst of your busy labors and care, 
 you might forget later these expressions of simple thankfulness that come 
 from word of mouth at this time, we want to go further and leave with 
 you a little token to show our 
 appreciation of your untiring 
 efforts. Yes, I might add of 
 your unselfish efforts, for in 
 no way since we have been 
 here has there been an expres- 
 sion in word or deed that 
 would indicate that this has 
 been anything but an unselfish 
 movement to uplift this cause 
 that we represent. We want 
 to leave with you a little 
 memento, so that as the days 
 roll by you may turn to it 
 occasionally and remember 
 that it is a token of the high 
 esteem in which we hold you. 
 In behalf of these Institute 
 workers, and in the name of 
 the States we represent, I pre- 
 sent you with this little token 
 of our regard. (Applause). 
 
 Mr. Boynton: Mr. Chairman, ladies and gentlemen: This is a com- 
 plete surprise to me. I feel almost as though I would rather this would 
 not have happened. What I have done this week was only made possible 
 because I represent a company that is broad minded and unselfish enough 
 in its efforts to promote the interests of its customers, the ultimate con- 
 sumer ! 
 
 We all appreciate that our prosperity depends upon agriculture, and 
 we shall prosper in proportion as the farmer prospers. The farmer cannot 
 prosper unless his plant is efficient, unless his equipment is modern. What 
 would you think of a manufacturer, a manufacturer of cement, or any 
 other commodity, whose buildings were dilapidated, the surroundings of 
 which were entirely unsanitary, the machinery out of alignment and 
 bearings rattling? Would you expect that plant to declare dividends? 
 You never would. Why should we expect anything more of the farmer? 
 He probably has been a little slow in keeping up with modern conven- 
 iences, because he has been working so hard to make just a living. He 
 produces wealth, but before the crop is sold a great deal of its real value 
 goes to some one else through faulty means of marketing. Eventually he 
 has little to spend on improvements. He has not the means of obtaining 
 reliable information by which he can make what he has to spend give the 
 best results. 
 
 We, of the Universal Portland Cement Co., appreciate that fact. We 
 have tried for a number of years, in a small way, to bring a message through 
 the Farmers' Institutes. We found a great demand, a great desire for 
 information as to how to improve the farm permanently and economically. 
 We could foresee our inability to supply that information through the 
 
160 Permanent and Sanitary Farm Improvements 
 
 channels we were following. That led us to believe that the way to do 
 this was to have it come through the regular Institute corps, who have 
 capable men to speak on these subjects, by training these, the regular 
 workers. It would add no expense to the State. It would give the fajrmer, 
 at all times, the information he would most desire and need. If the 
 agriculturist wants an address on the use of concrete, bettering his build- 
 ing conditions or improving sanitary conditions on his farm, he can get 
 it this winter from something like one hundred men. You gentlemen 
 have been with us this past week. You have seen what a few progressive 
 farmers have done. We believe that you will leave here with the ability 
 to supply a long felt need in your Institute work. We certainly appreciate 
 having had you with us. 
 
 We feel that the farmer will build, and will build safely if he knows a few 
 simple rules. Otherwise he will waste his money. This waste will do no 
 one any good. It is to help the farmer to help himself that we have done 
 what we have. It is hard to make the public as a whole, understand that 
 a commercial organization can be broad-minded, and farsighted enough 
 to be willing to expend money without a string tied to it. But, gentlemen, 
 there is no string attached. We don't expect you ever to mention "Uni- 
 versal," in any address you make before Farmers' Institutes. We want 
 you to be familiar with concrete, because concrete will help the farmer. 
 If you think, in some communities that some other material will produce 
 more economically-permanent and sanitary conditions, that is the thing 
 that you should talk about. 
 
 We believe, of course, that concrete has great possibilities; we know 
 that it has great possibilities and I am proud to be associated with the 
 cement and concrete industry. I think it is one of our greatest industries. 
 I believe that it has greater possibilities in it for the common people than 
 any other building material or any other commodity other than those 
 which supply the necessities of life. 
 
 I wish to thank you, in behalf of my company, for accepting our in- 
 vitation to come here, in being willing to recognize our ability to co- 
 operate unselfishly with you in your work. You have done us a great 
 honor by coming; I feel that the State organizations have done us a great 
 honor. Most of you men know that the invitation to this Conference was 
 extended very largely through the State organizations. We knew the 
 live Institute workers, in the various States, because we have been work- 
 ing more or less with them, but we felt that the State organizations knew 
 better the men that should take up this work, so we asked them to desig- 
 nate those to whom our invitations should be issued. We are glad that 
 they had so much interest in it as to ask you to come. 
 
 I thank you gentlemen, as individuals, for the appreciation you have 
 shown in this little remembrance. I shall certainly cherish it for the re- 
 mainder of my life, with a great deal of affection. Nothing has ever oc- 
 curred in my life that has touched me as this has. It is the strongest in- 
 dication of appreciation that has ever come to me and it touches me very 
 deeply. I thank you again. (Applause). 
 
 Prof. Ocock: If I have not been misinformed there has been pre- 
 pared a set of resolutions. I wish that the one who has them in charge 
 would present them at this time. 
 
Universal Portland Cement Co. 161 
 
 Mr. C. R. Wagner : Ladies and gentlemen: Your Committee on 
 resolutions begs leave to submit the following : 
 
 Whereas, The present condition of American Agriculture and the 
 highest success of our farmers warrant the erection of farm buildings of a 
 permanent character with modern sanitary arrangements. 
 
 Resolved, That this assembly of Farmers' Institute and Short Course 
 workers authorize the giving of more attention to this subject in their 
 regular activities in the field. 
 
 Be It Further Resolved, That we recommend to the American Asso- 
 ciation of Farmers' Institute Workers the taking up of this movement, 
 and arranging to have some demonstration work done at their regular 
 annual meetings. 
 
 Whereas, The success of this movement depends upon the complete- 
 ness and accuracy of the information possessed by the workers in the above 
 line. 
 
 Resolved, That we hereby express our hearty appreciation of the 
 opportunity for a thorough study of the question under the most favorable 
 conditions which will result in the farmers of 16 States receiving a lasting 
 benefit, and that we extend our thanks to the Universal Portland Cement 
 Co., for making this possible, so far as the use of cement in the construction 
 of permanent farm buildings is concerned, as well as for the delightful 
 entertainment furnished, and to Mr. C. W. Boynton and his assistants 
 of the Universal Information Bureau, who so unceasingly and untiringly 
 labored to make this most notable and unique meeting the great success 
 it has proven to be. 
 
 (Signed) Gordon W. Randlett 
 Forest Henry 
 Richard S. Hill 
 C. R. Wagner 
 L. R. Taft 
 
 Committee. 
 
 Mr. Wagner : Mr. Chairman, I move the adoption of these resolutions. 
 
 (The motion was duly seconded.) 
 
 Prof. Ocock: You have all heard the reading of the Resolutions. 
 The motion is made and seconded that we adopt the resolutions. All in 
 favor of adopting the same will say "Aye." 
 
 (Motion unanimously carried.) 
 
 The following questions were either asked during the meetings when 
 there was no time for discussion or else sent in by letter to be printed in 
 the proceedings. 
 
 Mr. J. A. Hummon, 
 
 Department of Agriculture, 
 
 Division of Farmer Institutes, Leipsic, Ohio. 
 Question: I would like to know if reinforcing will overcome the 
 cracking between different settings? I have had some trouble in making 
 supply tanks for water, where we joined work of different days. There 
 
162 Permanent and Sanitary Farm Improvements 
 
 would be a seep and sometimes it would be difficult to stop. This was 
 where no reinforcing was used. What is the best means for joining new 
 work on to old work? For instance, putting a new top on an old water 
 tank. I have one that I want to put a new top on. 
 
 Answer: Reinforcing would help in bonding together successive 
 day's work, but the best method of preventing seams or cracks where 
 each day's work is joined to that of the day preceding, is to take particular 
 care to secure a good bond between the two courses of concrete. Immedi- 
 ately before the concrete is placed for each succeeding course, the surface 
 of that previously laid should be thoroughly cleaned off, removing all dirt 
 or laitance. It should then be wetted and a coat of cement grout mixed 
 to the consistency of thick cream applied just before placing the new con- 
 crete. 
 
 In the case of old or thoroughly hardened concrete, the surface should 
 first be roughened with a pick or chisel and all loose or foreign material 
 brushed off and the surface then scrubbed with plenty of water and a 
 stiff brush. The grout is then applied and the new concrete deposited as 
 described above. Sometimes it is desirable to wash the old surface with a 
 solution of muriatic acid consisting of one part acid to three or four parts 
 of water. This should be applied with a brush containing no metal, and 
 after remaining on the surface for a few minutes, should be washed off 
 with plenty of clean water, taking care to remove all traces of the acid 
 solution. 
 
 Mr. Bert Smith, 
 
 Farmers' Institute Instructor, 
 Delaware, Ohio. 
 
 Question: We are thinking of erecting an ice house of cement and 
 would like to know the latest methods used in erecting the ice house so that 
 the ice will keep. Can an ice house made of cement keep the ice? The one 
 that we are thinking of erecting is to be made of cement blocks, regular 
 silo blocks, and is to be 18 feet in diameter. 
 
 Answer : The experience of farmers owning small concrete ice houses, 
 as well as those of larger ice dealers, show that in a properly constructed 
 concrete house the ice is kept in excellent condition and there is a mini- 
 mum loss from shrinkage. Our booklet: "Small Farm Buildings of Con- 
 crete" shows several good methods of ice house construction. 
 
 A design of a round ice house is unique, but we believe it is capable of 
 producing very satisfactory results. On a farm at Henderson, Minnesota, 
 the water pumped from the ground is very cold, so that the owner has con- 
 structed a storage room for creamery products which depends only on the 
 tank above it for the low temperature desired. The structure is interesting 
 in that it is built circular like a concrete silo. 
 
 The concrete walls of an ice house should be built double with an air 
 space between. Sometimes this space is filled with a good insulating ma- 
 terial such as dry shavings, sawdust, or preferably ground cork. In block 
 construction, we would suggest the use of two-piece blocks or else an inner 
 wall of veneer blocks to provide the continuous air space necessary. 
 
Universal Portland Cement Co. 163 
 
 Mr. R. A. Ogg, 
 
 Greencastle, Indiana. 
 
 Question: (1) Will a wash of rich cement on the inside of a silo pre- 
 vent absorption of moisture from the silage? 
 
 Answer: If the silo is of ordinary good concrete, it will not require 
 further treatment of any kind. To prevent absorption a wash of neat 
 cement and water of the consistency of thick cream is an effective seal for 
 porous concrete, but must be applied only after the surface of the wall has 
 been thoroughly dampened. This wash is suitable for all old walls which 
 have proven unsatisfactory, but new walls made of properly mixed and 
 proportioned concrete will not require it. 
 
 Question: (2) Will the acid from the silage eat away the cement so 
 that it should be rewashed every few years? 
 
 Answer : Silage acids have no perceptible effect on silo walls of concrete, 
 whether washed or not. On the Morgan farm near Beloit, Wisconsin, 
 there are two concrete silos which are entering upon their eighteenth year of 
 continuous service, and small trowel and form marks are still visible on the 
 inside walls. 
 
 Question: (3) Mr. Forest Henry stated that even a silo of burned 
 hollow clay should have a wash of cement. Why? The vitrified blocks will 
 not absorb the moisture. Will the mortar of the joints? 
 
 Answer : For the purpose of securing a smoother inside wall the interior 
 of clay block silos are sometimes given a cement plaster coat. Cement 
 mortar suitable for laying up blocks of this kind should be perfectly water- 
 tight. 
 
 Question: (4) Will a cement floor be too damp for a corn crib? 
 
 Answer : Not if properly constructed. Concrete floors are coming into 
 general use in corn crib construction because they are rat-proof and per- 
 manent and provide a smooth surface for shoveling. F. J. Hennessy, 
 Chebanse, 111., writes us: "I was first here to use cement for the floor in a 
 large new double crib. I built one a year ago on my farm. My floor is 
 solid and level, raised up 18 inches above the ground. Friends around here 
 told me the corn would spoil on the floor, but will say crib was not com- 
 pleted when my tenant began putting in corn, even though the floor was 
 not dry. The corn came out when shelled last June in fine condition. I 
 am not now troubled with rats or mice." 
 
 A whole page of the August 22nd issue of Wallace's Farmer was de- 
 voted to recommendations for or against cement floors for corn cribs. 
 Out of nine answers, all of which were greatly in favor of cement floors for 
 corn cribs, almost everyone mentioned the fact that the corn did not spoil 
 and that rats were kept out of the cribs. 
 
 Question: (5) I have cement floors for all of my hogs to eat on but 
 have doubts about such a floor for pigs to sleep on. Writers in farm papers 
 say it is too cold. What do you advise? 
 
 Answer: Concrete floors will not be too cold for the hogs' sleeping 
 quarters, if a sufficient amount of bedding is used. They are commonly 
 utilized by large hog breeders who say that they have given complete 
 satisfaction. 
 
 An Illinois subscriber asks Wallace's Farmer: "If concrete floors will 
 
164 Permanent and Sanitary Farm Improvements 
 
 cause his hogs to have rheumatism, owing to dampness," and the reply is 
 that: "Concrete has come into quite general use as a floor for hog houses, 
 and the results are usually quite satisfactory. We suspect that the reason 
 he has had trouble is that he has not kept the floor well bedded, which is 
 important to take up the moisture, whether the floor is of concrete or any 
 other material." 
 
 Mr. Fred L. Dean, 
 
 Maplehurst Stock Farm, 
 Sheridan, Michigan. 
 
 Question: Would you please make comparison (approximately) as 
 to cost and durability of a water tank 5 feet x 10 feet x 3 feet, also of a silo 
 12 feet x 32 feet? 
 
 Answer : Any data that we can give along this line would be of only the 
 most general value, since local conditions and prices for materials have so 
 much to do with the final cost. Roughly speaking, a concrete water tank of 
 this type would not cost over $1 per barrel capacity. The tank you men- 
 tion would hold about 33 barrels and therefore cost $33. A silo 12 feet x 
 30 feet would hold about 74 tons. A fair approximation of the cost of 
 monolithic concrete silos of this size would be about $3.50 per ton, so that 
 the silo in question would cost about :' 
 
 C. F. Chase, Esq., 
 
 Assistant Professor, Agricultural Engineering, 
 North Dakota Agricultural College, 
 
 Agricultural College, North Dakota. 
 Question: I was especially interested in the stucco work that was 
 being put on a number of the old buildings on some of the farms which we 
 visited. They were plastering the walls on the outside by first putting on 
 building paper, over this triangular mesh woven wire to which they applied 
 the plaster which contained a certain amount of lime and some hair, as I 
 understand. If you have the exact method of applying this stucco, I 
 should like to have it, also your idea of its value? 
 
 Answer : As you have stated in your question, the buildings referred 
 to were first covered with building paper and then the wire mesh was 
 fastened directly to the walls without furring strips. The plaster coats 
 were applied by the usual hand process. The construction is not what 
 is considered the best practice for plastering exteriors. The mesh used had 
 a width of 4 inches in some places, which was entirely too much and the 
 absence of furring strips did not allow the plaster to form a sufficient key 
 on the back of the mesh. Metal lath for exterior plastering should have 
 at least 2*^ meshes per lineal inch and furring strips should be used, prefer- 
 ably of metal which will hold the mesh from the wall surface. 
 
 Mr. L. S. Griffith, 
 
 Institute Lecturer, 
 McNabb, Illinois. 
 
 Question : What would be the best way to stop a leak in a water tank 
 built of concrete? This tank was very poorly constructed, and has leaked 
 
Universal Portland Cement Co. 165 
 
 through a crack made by leaving the inside forms on too long. At times 
 a small stream of water will squirt out through the crack. 
 
 Answer : Empty the tank, then cut out the crack on inside of the tank 
 to a depth of about lJ/£ inches, making a "V" shaped groove with depth 
 greater than the breadth of face. When this is completed, thoroughly 
 clean the cut and the surface of the concrete on either side of it by brush- 
 ing and washing, removing all dirt and loose material. Then thoroughly 
 wet the surface and apply a grout of neat cement and water fixed to the 
 consistency of thick cream. Follow immediately with a coat of plastic 
 mortar mixed in the proportions of 1 part cement to 1 part of clean, coarse 
 sand. Protect the work from rapid drying by covering, and keep wet for 
 several days. 
 
 S. W. Burlingame, Instructor, 
 Department of Agriculture, 
 Caldwell, Ohio. 
 
 Question: I have been thinking about the construction of a small 
 cistern for family use, say to hold 40 to 60 barrels. Could not one use the 
 "wire fence" to reinforce the walls after the manner it is used to put on 
 stucco work on buildings, and thus build up a reinforced wall about one 
 inch thick, over which a dense coat could be put on later with a trowel, and 
 have a better job than if brick had been used to lay up the walls, and also 
 cheaper? I have reference to a round cistern, and also a rather hard clay 
 soil that would not cave in easily. I know of one here that is cemented 
 right on the clay walls that has given satisfaction for years, except at the 
 top where frost gave trouble. 
 
 Answer : Painted or galvanized expanded metal, or drawn wire lath, 
 galvanized after weaving, could be used for cistern construction as you 
 suggest, furring it off from the clay walls and covering with a dense plaster. 
 Some forms of lath are now made with stiffeners which act as furring strips. 
 It is a comparatively simple matter, however, to make a round wood form 
 and build the cistern of monolithic concrete, reinforcing it with steel rods. 
 Mr. R. C. Sabin, Ludington, Michigan, has a cistern of this kind with an 
 arched top. Concrete cisterns can be built more cheaply than those of 
 brick and when once constructed will require no further attention. In 
 stiff soils that will not cave easily, no outer form is required as the ground 
 will serve the purpose. 
 
 Question: I believe the plan of reinforcing monolithic silos is not 
 quite plain to me, in the way of placing rods around the silo. Also, how 
 close together are the ones that go in perpendicularly? Perhaps this query 
 will be answered fully in your report without reference to my present 
 inquiry. 
 
 Answer: In reinforcing the silo the horizontal rods are placed as 
 rings in the center of the silo walls. The size and spacing of the rods vary 
 from top to bottom with the area of steel required to withstand the pres- 
 sure. The heaviest reinforcing therefore is at the bottom of the silo. The 
 amount of steel also varies with the diameter and height of the silo. Our 
 silo booklet suggests as a convenient scheme of vertical reinforcing, the use 
 of ]/2 inch rods spaced at intervals of three feet around the silo walls. 
 
166 Permanent and Sanitary Farm Improvements 
 
 Professor L. E. Hazen, 
 Cornell University, 
 Ithica, N. Y. 
 
 Question : Would like to have quotations on the cost of constructing 
 the monolithic silos which we observed on our trips, especially the smaller 
 ones? The call here in New York will be for monolithic silos with thin 
 walls of small capacity and simple construction. 
 
 Answer: The following data is available regarding the silos you 
 mention. Mooseheart Farm, Batavia, Illinois. Silo- 16 feet by 60 feet 
 with 18,500 gallon water tank. Total height 79 feet. Cost about $1,300 
 complete. 
 
 Kane County Farm, Geneva, Illinois. Silo 16 feet by 60 feet. Cost 
 $1,100 complete, including chute, feed room and roof of concrete. 
 
 Wilson Brothers Farm, Sugar Grove, Illinois. Silo 16 feet by 64 feet. 
 Capacity, 400 tons. Cost about $900. No roof. 
 
 John Creighton Farm, Geneva, Illinois. Silo 16 feet by 36 feet. No 
 roof. Cost $450. 
 
 G. O. Plummer Farm, Hampshire, Illinois. Block silo 16 feet by 32 
 feet. Cost $500, including wooden chute, feed room and roof. 
 
 Frank Carr Farm, near Batavia, Illinois. Silo 16 feet by 40 feet. 
 Cost $640. 
 
 F. C. Dunning Farm, Dundee, Illinois. Silo 20 feet by 40 feet. Cost 
 $10 per foot or $400 (gravel furnished by owner). 
 
 Frank White Farm, near LaFox, Illinois. Twin silos, 18 feet by 45 
 feet. Cost $725, each without roof. 
 
 Arcady Farm, Lake Forest, Illinois. Last silo built 18 feet by 45 feet. 
 Built with farm labor. Cost, including concrete chute, roof and feeding 
 room, $650, complete. 
 
 Wakefield Farm, Barrington, Illinois. Two silos 18 feet by 44 feet, 
 including concrete chute and roofs. Total capacity 500 tons. Total cost 
 complete, $1,000. 
 
 Mr. Gordon W. Randlett, 
 
 Director of College Extension, 
 
 North Dakota Agricultural College, 
 
 Agricultural College, North Dakota. 
 
 Question : What is the effect of large aggregate in concrete work, say 
 those stones from 1 to 3 inches in diameter? 
 
 Answer: Up to a reasonable limit, the strength of concrete increases 
 with the size of the stone. For mass concrete, a practical maximum size in 
 the graded material is 2^ inches to 3 inches. In thin walls, floors and rein- 
 forced concrete construction, the size must be such as can be handled con- 
 veniently and worked readily around the reinforcing metal. In ordinary 
 work 13^-inch gravel or stone will be as large as can be used. The 
 ultimate strength of the concrete is no greater than the strength of the 
 aggregate of which it is composed; hence the necessity that this aggregate 
 consist of hard, durable material. 
 
Universal Portland Cement Co. ] 67 
 
 Question : Is smooth aggregate, such as might be taken from the river 
 bed, suitable in any case for concrete construction? 
 
 Answer : Smooth aggregate composed of rounded particles, if clean and 
 of hard, durable material, is entirely suitable for concrete construction. 
 Concrete made with such aggregate may not attain at the earliest stages 
 the strength of concrete made with aggregate composed of angular parti- 
 cles because the cement can less easily grip the smooth surface; but after a 
 few months, the strength obtained by the two concretes will at least be 
 equal. Notwithstanding this, some tests show gravel concrete to be 
 stronger at periods of one year than concrete made with broken stone. 
 
 Question: What chemical reactions take place in properly cured con- 
 crete, and what takes place when concrete is dried too quickly ? 
 
 Answer : Some authorities say that the hardening process of cement is 
 first a dissolving and then a crystallization, and during its progress water 
 is absorbed. For proper curing, sufficient moisture for the thorough harden- 
 ing of the cement must be retained in the concrete. If the concrete is 
 dried too quickly this crystallization is interrupted and the full strength 
 of the cement is not attained. 
 
 Mr. N. A. Clapp, 
 
 Northville, Michigan. 
 
 Question: Some of the concrete silos first constructed in Michigan 
 cracked from top to bottom. Have you had trouble along that line where 
 you have used a good kind of reinforcement? 
 
 Answer: Where sufficient and suitable reinforcement is used in silo 
 construction and properly imbedded in well made concrete, there need be 
 no fear of the formation of such cracks as you describe. Cases of this kind 
 can generally be traced to insufficient reinforcement, if not an entire ab- 
 sence of it, or to some error in materials or workmanship, which result in a 
 concrete of inferior quality and poor bond with the reinforcing. 
 
 Question: I have seen some concrete silos that were surface cracked. 
 Is that due to the use of too much coarse material in the concrete? 
 
 Answer: Surface cracks or checks sometimes make their appearance 
 where the outside of the walls are plastered with cement mortar or given a 
 wash coat of cement grout, and possibly this may be the condition to which 
 you refer. These cracks could be avoided by thoroughly wetting the con- 
 crete surface before applying the plaster or wash and by protecting the 
 finished work from rapid drying. 
 
 Mr. H. C. Mullen, 
 
 Pingree Grove Cement Tile and Block Works, 
 Pingree Grove, Illinois. 
 
 Question: What do you consider the best mixture, size of aggregate 
 and consistency for the manufacture of the larger sizes of drain tile? 
 
 Answer: For tile up to and including those of a 10-inch diameter, a 
 mixture not leaner than one (1) sack of cement to three (3) cubic feet of 
 fine aggregate should be used. For tile of diameter 12 inches and over the 
 above mixture will apply if only fine aggregate is used. If coarse aggregate 
 is added, use a mixture not leaner than one (1) sack of cement to a total of 
 
168 
 
 Permanent and Sanitary Farm Improvements 
 
 four (4) cubic feet of fine and coarse aggregate measured separately. In 
 all cases the sand should be well graded from finer particles to those just 
 passing a J^-inch mesh screen containing not more than 5 per cent pass- 
 ing a sieve having 100 meshes per lineal inch or more than 20 per cent pass- 
 ing a sieve having 50 meshes per lineal inch. The gravel or stone should 
 range from 34 i Q ch to a size not over one-half the thickness of the tile wall. 
 
 Question : What was the proportion of mixture and size of aggregates 
 used by the Dunn Tile Machine, on the evening of. the first day of the 
 Conference? 
 
 Answer: A 1:3 mixture, using a clean, coarse sand, known in the 
 Chicago market as torpedo. 
 
 Question : What is the best mixture, proportion and size of aggregates 
 for use in making fence posts, the mixture to be poured? 
 
 Answer: A 1:2:3 mixture; that is, 1 sack of cement, 2 cubic feet of 
 clean, coarse sand and 3 cubic feet of screened gravel or crushed stone, the 
 maximum size of the stone to be % inch. 
 
 Question: What is the best mixture, proportion and size of aggregates 
 for use in making fence posts, the mixture to be tamped? 
 
 Answer : The same mixture would serve. Fence posts should be made 
 with concrete of a quaky consistency rather than by dry-tamping in molds, 
 as the drier mixture will not give a concrete of requisite strength and will 
 not insure a bond between the concrete and the reinforcing metal. 
 
 Mr. Lewis Taylor, 
 
 Indiana State Dairy Association, 
 Newburgh, Indiana. 
 
 Question: How, with given proportions of sand, gravel and cement, 
 can one tell what quantities of materials will be required for a given 
 amount of construction. For example, what quantities are required to 
 build a silo 6 inches thick, 30 feet high and 10 feet in diameter? 
 
 Answer: The following table shows the quantities of materials re- 
 quired for 1 cubic yard of concrete using the mixture commonly employed 
 in concrete work: 
 
 MIXTURES 
 
 QUANTITIES OF MATERIALS 
 
 
 Sand 
 
 Stone or 
 Gravel 
 
 Cement in 
 Sacks 
 
 Sand 
 
 Stone or Gravel 
 
 
 Cu. Ft. 
 
 Cu. Yd. 
 
 Cu. Ft. 1 Cu 
 
 Yd. 
 
 1 
 
 H 
 
 
 15.5 
 
 23.3 
 
 .86 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 2 { 
 
 
 12.8 
 
 25.6 
 
 .95 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 8* 
 
 
 11.00 
 
 27.5 
 
 1.02 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 
 9.6 
 
 28.8 
 
 1.07 
 
 1 
 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 7.0 
 
 14.0 
 
 .52 
 
 21.0 
 
 78 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 6.0 
 
 12.0 
 
 .44 
 
 24.0 
 
 89 
 
 1 
 
 21 
 
 4 
 
 5.6 
 
 14.19 
 
 .52 
 
 22.4 
 
 85 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 5 
 
 4.6 
 
 13.0 
 
 .51 
 
 23.0 
 
 85 
 
 The 6-inch wall of a silo 30 feet high and 10 feet in inside diameter will 
 require about 18.3 cubic yards of concrete — (10.5 [average diameter] x 
 3.1416 O) x 30' x 0.5' = 18.3 cubic yards). If a 1:2^:4 mixture is used, 
 each cubic yard will require about 1.39 barrels of cement, .51 cubic yards of 
 sand and .82 cubic yards of screened gravel or crushed stone, so that the 
 
Universal Portland Cement Co. 169 
 
 total quantities needed will be about 25J^ barrels of cement, 9,^ cubic 
 yards of sand and 15 cubic yards of screened gravel or crushed stone 
 Mr. H. D. Griswold, 
 
 West Salem, Wisconsin. 
 
 Question : I would like information in regard to the construction of a 
 septic tank to take care of the sewage of my house on the farm; kitchen, 
 bathroom and closet. The best up-to-date method of construction that will 
 be permanent and sanitary. The lay of the land is level. Any publication 
 or diagrams or any information on this subject will be gratefully received. 
 
 Answer: The Agricultural Experiment Station at the University of 
 Wisconsin, published recently a Bulletin on the subject, "Sewage Dis- 
 posal for Rural Homes." This is known as Circular of Information No. 
 34. We suggest that you write for a copy, addressing the Experiment 
 Station at Madison, Wisconsin. 
 
 "Country Life in America," which is published by Doubleday, Page & 
 Co., New York, N. Y., contains in the issue for May, 1913, an article de- 
 scribing a modern septic tank and a disposal system suitable for the isolated 
 residence or farm house. 
 
 Our Farm Cement News Vol. 1, No. 6, also contains a detailed de- 
 scription of a small septic tank suitable for such a purpose. 
 
 Question: How long does cement retain its strength stored in the 
 ordinary warehouse. What percent of loss in a given time and if it gets 
 poor can good work be done by using more of il. How can a farmer tell 
 whether he ought to use it or not? 
 
 Answer : The aging of cement has no effect upon its strength provided 
 no hydration of the particles occurs. Hydration can only come through the 
 introduction of moisture, and the problem of storing cement is simply that 
 of keeping the cement away from dampness. With a weathertight ware- 
 house and proper ventilation, cement can be kept in good condition for 
 many months. The sacks should be piled in a tight, weatherproof build- 
 ing and at least 8 inches away from the ground and from any wall, so that 
 free circulation of air may be obtained. In case the floor of the warehouse 
 is laid directly upon the ground, it would be well to raise the cement an 
 additional 8 inches by means of a false floor, so as to insure proper ventila- 
 tion underneath. 
 
 It is possible that at the end of a year or so the cement in the outer 
 sacks in the pile may become more or less caked or lumpy by absorbing 
 moisture from air circulating through the warehouse, but if the lumps can 
 be readily crushed in the hand the cement is still useful for any purpose, 
 though probably somewhat slower acting. If the lumps are very hard, 
 the cement is not suitable for important work, though it may be used in 
 mass foundations, etc. The lumps should be screened out and discarded. 
 
 Sometimes when cement is stored in high piles for long periods of 
 time, the cement in the bottom sacks becomes compacted and takes on 
 what is known as "storage caking" which is sometimes mistaken for cak- 
 ing due to moisture. This however, does not injure the strength of the 
 cement in any way, as it can be easily shaken up when the sacks are re- 
 handled. 
 
 C. R. Wagner : I would like to know about the sub-base of a feeding 
 floor, if you are covering that too. We have a clay sub-soil. 
 
1 70 Permanent and Sanitary Farm Improvements 
 
 Answer: For outside floors, if the soil is heavy and holds water, the 
 gravel sub-base is necessary and no matter what kind of earth is to be 
 covered, a sub-base is necessary if the ground is so sloped that surface 
 water can run down below it. The gravel sub-base should be six inches 
 deep after being well compacted by wetting and tamping. Where the 
 ground is flat and does not drain naturally lines of tile should be provided 
 on opposite sides of the floor for drainage. The trenches in which the tile 
 are laid should be back filled with gravel or broken stone and the tile laid 
 should be back filled with gravel or broken stone and the tile line should 
 lead to a sump drainage ditch. 
 
 A. Hummon : I would like to know whether it would be advisable to 
 put a little retaining wall around a feeding floor to keep part of the material 
 from sliding off. 
 
 Answer: It would be advisable to provide a small curb about four 
 inches high to prevent the hogs from working the feed off of the floor. 
 This could also be made a part of a concrete apron carried down a foot 
 on all sides which will prevent the hogs rooting underneath the floor. 
 
 J. F. Gordon: I think it is advisable to feed the hogs during all the 
 year on feeding floors rather than feeding in the field. We feed hogs 
 the year round. Now, six months of the time we feed out in the open 
 field. I want to know whether it is advisable to feed on the feeding floor 
 rather than in the open field. 
 
 Answer: Experts of several State Agricultural Colleges estimate 
 that concrete floors effect a saving of one-third in feed and that the hogs 
 will gain in weight faster because they do not have to pick up a large 
 quantity of dirt with their feed. The latter statement indicates that 
 better results would be obtained from feeding on feeding floors the year 
 round rather than a part of the time in the open field. Feeding on such 
 a floor will help to keep the hogs clean and healthy. 
 
 *Question: I would like to learn whether we are justified or not in 
 putting in a cement floor in box stalls and single stalls for brood mares 
 and colts. 
 
 Answer : Cement floors are being used by some of the biggest breeders 
 of high grade stock, including horses, in the country and the concensus 
 of opinion. is that if sufficient bedding is used and proper drainage provided, 
 these floors are entirely satisfactory. A quarter of an inch to the foot 
 is sufficient slope to give good drainage. 
 
 Question: Twelve or fifteen years ago I put in a cement floor in my 
 cellar and I had a filling under it composed of cinders and pounded up 
 brick, and so on. I put in four or five inches of that, and then on top of 
 that put a lot of thin cement, running it down through that, and found 
 it bound well. Now in the last few years that has been cracked and has 
 been raising up across the cellar in two or three different places. And 
 one place I took it up and put in a very good, rich, strong cement, supposed- 
 ly, and now that is cracked up in there again. It is a thing that I don't 
 understand, and no one who has seen it understands it. I would like to 
 know what it is that caused that. 
 
 Answer: It is difficult to say what caused the cracking in this floor 
 unless upward pressure of ground water could be held responsible. Since 
 no mention of water was made in stating the question, it is assumed that 
 
 ♦Name not obtained. 
 
Universal Portland Cement Co. 171 
 
 such was not the case. It is possible that if the cellar walls support the 
 weight of the house that there has been some settling of the walls. This 
 settling may have been communicated to the floor and not being uniform 
 over the whole floor area has caused tension in the top and cracks resulted. 
 It is much more important to know how to repair the floor and this in- 
 formation can be obtained by writing us, giving size of cellar and other 
 details which may seem pertinent. 
 
 Mr. Henry: I would like to ask a question. Underneath where we 
 expect to feed ouv work horses (they are sharp shod horses), would it 
 be practical to use the creosoted blocks set in a framework of cement. 
 That would apply just to where we are keeping a few sharp shod horses 
 for winter use. 
 
 Answer: We see no reason why this plan should not work very well. 
 Fine sand, an asphaltic preparation or a concrete grout may be used for 
 filler. Another satisfactory method used by some who prefer not to stand 
 sharp shod horses on concrete floors is to imbed a number of scantling in 
 the concrete on which plank are spiked, or provide a removable wood mat 
 to set on the floor. 
 
 Mr. Wallace : What about the depth of this tile in a case where it is 
 extremely cold, like the Northwest? 
 
 Answer: Practically the only danger of freezing will be in the pipe 
 which carries the sewage from the house to the dispoasl plant. The 
 temperature of the sewage in the disposal system will prevent its freezing . 
 even in very severe winter weather especially when the ground is covered 
 with snow. 
 
 Mr. Seass: As I understand the tile draining from the septic tank 
 would be common field tile laid apart about one inch. I understand he 
 expects the earth to take up the sewage after it has passed through the 
 septic tank. Would that be safe if a well were anywhere near the septic 
 tank, where this tile came out, or wouldn't it be better that that drain 
 be a vitrified tile with cement joints, and carried to quite a distance from 
 a well, and then off through drain tile. 
 
 Answer: It would undoubtedly be wise to lead the sewage about 
 three hundred feet away from the well if this is possible before allowing 
 any sewage to filter into the soil. It is not necessary to carry the sewage 
 that far in every case; in fact, it is sometimes impossible. 
 
 -*Question: In a flat country where we have no drainage, will it be 
 practical or allowable to run this from the septic tank into a cess-pool? 
 
 Answer: A cesspool is little more than a combined septic tank and 
 disposal system, for septic action takes place in the cess-pool and the 
 liquids are absorbed by the soil. The advantage of the sub-surface irri- 
 gation or tile system of disposal is that the sewage is applied to a greater 
 area than is possible with the cesspool. If no other plan is feasible the 
 cess-pool can serve as the place for final sewage disposal. 
 
 *Name not obtained. 
 
172 
 
 Permanent and Sanitary Farm Improvements 
 
 DELEGATES TO THE CONFERENCE ON PERMANENT AND 
 SANITARY FARM IMPROVEMENTS 
 
 ILLINOIS 
 
 A. N. Abbott 
 
 B. T. Abbott 
 S. P. Ayres 
 
 F. N. Chase 
 
 J. H. Checkley 
 
 T. Delohery 
 I. W. Dickerson 
 
 V. J. Frost 
 
 C. V. Gregory 
 L. B. Griffith 
 Dr. H. E. Horton 
 
 James Kane 
 J. H. Martin 
 J. C. Moore 
 H. C. Mullen 
 
 E. B. Page 
 
 F. L. Petty 
 C. C. Pervier 
 
 Morrison 
 Morrison 
 Chicago 
 
 Chicago 
 
 Champaign 
 
 Chicago 
 Champaign 
 
 Chicago 
 
 Chicago 
 
 McNabb 
 
 Chicago 
 
 Chicago 
 Morrison 
 Chicago 
 Pingree Grove 
 
 Chicago 
 
 Chicago 
 Sheffield 
 
 Prof. Fred H. Rankin Urbana 
 
 W. E. Riegel 
 L. D. Seass 
 George W. Simon 
 E. A. White 
 
 H. E. Young 
 
 Galatia 
 Arthur 
 Chicago 
 Urbana 
 
 Chicago 
 
 President Illinois Farmer's Institute 
 
 Institute Lecturer 
 
 Publicity Manager, American Steel 
 & Wire Co. 
 
 Assistant Managing Editor, "Prairie 
 Farmer" 
 
 Extension Department, University of 
 Illinois 
 
 Drover s Journal 
 
 Instructor of Farm Mechanics, 
 University of Illinois 
 
 Asst. Agronomist, American Steel & 
 Wire Co. 
 
 Editor "Prairie Farmer" 
 
 Institute Lecturer 
 
 Agronomist, American Steel & Wire 
 Co. 
 
 Examiner 
 
 Institute Lecturer 
 
 Roclc Products Co. 
 
 Manager, Pingree Grove Cement Tile 
 Works 
 
 Official Representative of all Orange 
 Judd Farm Papers; Assistant 
 Managing Editor, Orange Judd 
 Farmer, Chicago 
 
 Western Editor of "Farm & Home" 
 
 Institute lecturer, Treasurer Illinois 
 Alfalfa Grower's Association 
 
 Supt. Agricultural Extension; Assist- 
 ant Dean of School of Agriculture 
 
 Institute Lecturer 
 
 Institute Lecturer 
 
 Jewish Agrl. Aid Society 
 
 Department Farm Mechanics, School 
 of Agriculture, Illinois University 
 
 Farmer's Review, V. P. Illinois Farm- 
 ers' Institute 
 
Universal Portland Cement Co. 
 
 173 
 
 
 INDIANA 
 
 W. B. Anderson 
 
 Velpen 
 
 Institute Lecturer 
 
 W. F. Franklin 
 
 Danville 
 
 Institute Lecturer; Civil Engineer 
 
 Oliver Kline 
 
 Huntington 
 
 Institute Lecturer 
 
 James Kline 
 
 Houe 
 
 Institute Lecturer 
 
 C. N. Lindley 
 
 Salem 
 
 Vice President, Indiana Horticul- 
 tural Society, Institute Lecturer 
 
 E. C. Martindale 
 
 Wilkinson 
 
 Institute Lecturer 
 
 Prof. Wm. M. Nye 
 
 LaFayette 
 
 Professor of Agricultural Engineer- 
 ing, Purdue University 
 
 R. A. Ogg 
 
 Greencastle 
 
 Institute Lecturer 
 
 W. C. Polk 
 
 Fort Branch 
 
 President, Polk-Genung-Polk Co. 
 
 W. H. Senour 
 
 Brookville 
 
 Institute Lecturer 
 
 Louis Taylor 
 
 Newburgh 
 
 Institute Lecturer 
 
 R. L. Thompson 
 
 Topeka 
 
 Institute Lecturer 
 
 W. Walton 
 
 LaPorte 
 
 Institute Speaker and County Agri- 
 culturist 
 
 IOWA 
 
 Prof. J. B. Davidson Ames 
 Prof. A. W. Griffin Ames 
 Hugh Van Pelt Ames 
 
 Alson Secor Des Moines 
 
 MARYLAND 
 
 Professor, Farm Mechanics, Iowa 
 State College 
 
 Professor, Farm Architecture, Iowa 
 State College 
 
 Vice-President and Editor Kim- 
 ball's Dairy Farmer 
 
 Editor, Successful Farming 
 
 Dr. Richard S. Hill Upper Marlboro Director, Maryland Farmers' Insti- 
 tute 
 E. I. Oswald Chews ville Institute Lecturer 
 
 MICHIGAN 
 
 C. E. Bassett Fennville Institute Lecturer 
 
 C. H. Bramble Tecumseh Institute Lecturer 
 
 M. A. Clapp Northville Institute Lecturer 
 
 C. B. Cook Owosso Institute Lecturer 
 
 F. L. Dean Sheridan Institute Lecturer 
 
 A. L. Hopkins Bear Lake Institute Lecturer 
 
 Institute Lecturer, Assistant Pro- 
 fessor, Farm Mechanics, Mich- 
 igan Agricultural College 
 A. R. Potts East Lansing Institute Lecturer 
 
 J. H. Skinner Grand Rapids Institute Lecturer 
 
 Grant Slocum Detroit " The Gleaner" 
 
 L. R. Taft East Lansing Superintendent, Michigan Farmer's 
 
 Institute 
 
 Prof.H.H.MusselmanEast Lansing 
 
174 
 
 Permanent and Sanitary Farm Improvements 
 
 MINNESOTA 
 
 Forest Henry 
 J. L. Mowry 
 
 J. J. Springer 
 Dan Wallace 
 
 Dover 
 
 St. Paul 
 
 Zumbro Falls 
 St. Paul 
 
 Conductor of Farmers' Institutes 
 Agricultural Engineering Assistant 
 
 Professor, University Farm 
 Conductor, Farmer's Institute 
 Editor, " The Farmer" 
 
 NEBRASKA 
 
 Prof. L. W. Chase Lincoln 
 
 Professor, Agricultural Engineer- 
 ing, University of Nebraska 
 
 J. H. Barron 
 Leslie E. Hazen 
 
 D. P. Witter 
 
 NEW YORK 
 
 Nunda 
 Ithaca 
 
 Berkshire 
 
 Institute Lecturer 
 
 Instructor in Farm Mechanics, 
 
 Cornell University 
 Conductor, Farmers' Institute 
 
 NORTH DAKOTA 
 
 Prof. C. F. Chase Fargo 
 
 J. E. McClintock Fargo 
 Prof. G. W. Randlett Fargo 
 
 Assistant Professor in Farm Me- 
 chanics, North Dakota Agri- 
 gricultural College 
 Conductor of Farmers' Institute 
 Director Extension Department, 
 North Dakota Agricultural 
 College, Superintendent State 
 Farmers' Institute 
 
 OHIO 
 
 John Begg 
 E. A. Brenneman 
 J. S. Brigham 
 J. L. Buchanan 
 H. Burkholder 
 S. W. Burlingame 
 J. F. Gordon 
 D. D. Harsh 
 R. A. Hayne 
 G. C. Housekeeper 
 J. F. Hudson 
 
 John J. Lentz 
 Geo. S. Lentz 
 J. A. Hummon 
 
 Columbus Grove 
 
 Camp Chase 
 
 Bowling Green 
 
 Sherodsville 
 
 Clyde 
 
 Caldwell 
 
 Columbus 
 
 Minerva 
 
 Adena 
 
 Bowling Green 
 
 Ravenna 
 
 Columbus 
 St. Clairsville 
 Leipsic 
 
 Institute Lecturer 
 
 Institute Lecturer 
 
 Institute Lecturer 
 
 Institute Lecturer 
 
 Institute Lecturer 
 
 Institute Lecturer 
 
 Institute Lecturer 
 
 Institute Lecturer 
 
 Institute Lecturer 
 
 Institute Lecturer 
 
 Institute Lecturer and Farm Man- 
 ager, Ohio Representative of 
 National Stockman and 
 Farmer 
 
 Institute Lecturer 
 
 Institute Lecturer 
 
 Institute Lecturer 
 
Universal Portland Cement Co. 
 
 175 
 
 Horatio Markley 
 J. W. Nicodemus 
 H. B. Potter 
 
 George E. Scott 
 Bert Smith 
 M. C. Thomas 
 C. R. Wagner 
 C. S. Wheeler 
 Jos. E. Wing 
 
 Mt. Gilead 
 Van Wert 
 Springfield 
 
 Mt. Pleasant 
 
 Delaware 
 
 Mingo 
 
 Arlington 
 
 Columbus 
 
 Meehanicsburg 
 
 Institute Lecturer 
 Institute Lecturer 
 
 Managing Editor, Farm and Fire- 
 side 
 Institute Lecturer 
 Institute Lecturer 
 Institute Lecturer 
 Institute Lecturer 
 
 Staff Correspondent of "Breeder's 
 Gazette" 
 
 PENNSYLVANIA 
 
 J. T. Campbell Hartstown 
 
 Hon.N.B.Critchfield Harrisburg 
 Prof. E. D. Gardner State College 
 
 Pennsylvania Farmers' Institute 
 State Secretary of Agriculture 
 Head of Agronomy, State College 
 
 SOUTH DAKOTA 
 
 Prof. Christian Larsen Brookings 
 
 Professor of Dairying, South Da- 
 kota State College; Dairy Edi- 
 tor, "Dakota Farmer" 
 
 
 WISCONSIN 
 
 Rob. H. Beebe 
 
 Ashland 
 
 Editor, Lake Superior Farmer 
 
 A. J. Glover 
 
 Fort Atkinson 
 
 Assistant Editor, Hoard's Dairy- 
 
 H. D. Griswold 
 
 West Salem 
 
 man 
 Institute Lecturer 
 
 E. C. Jacobs 
 
 Elk Mound 
 
 Institute Lecturer 
 
 Geroge McKerrow 
 
 Madison 
 
 Superintendent of Farmers' Insti- 
 tutes 
 
 Prof. C. 0. Ocock 
 
 Madison 
 
 Professor Agricultural Engineering, 
 University of Wisconsin 
 
 Chas. Shroeder 
 
 Racine 
 
 "Wisconsin Agriculturist" 
 
 F. M. White 
 
 Madison 
 
 Assistant Professor, Agricultural 
 Engineering, University of 
 Wisconsin 
 
 
 CANADA 
 
 L. S. Bruner 
 
 
 Canada Cement Co. 
 
76 
 
 Permanent and Sanitary Farm Improvements 
 
 LOCAL DELEGATES AND OTHER PERSONS CONNECTED 
 
 WITH THE CONFERENCE TRIPS 
 
 ILLINOIS 
 
 Col. C. B. Adams 
 
 St. Charles 
 
 Superintendent St. Charles' School 
 for Boys 
 
 C. M. Aucutt 
 
 Aurora 
 
 Universal Dealer 
 
 W. E. Cummings 
 
 Geneva 
 
 Reinforced Concrete Bridge Con- 
 
 
 
 tractor 
 
 W. J. Dunham 
 
 Wayne 
 
 Proprietor of Oaklawn Stock Farm 
 
 W. E. Dunn, Jr. 
 
 Chicago 
 
 Manager W. E, Dunn & Co. 
 
 W. E. Dunn, Sr. 
 
 Chicago 
 
 President W. E. Dunn & Co. 
 
 Miss I. DuPre 
 
 Elgin 
 
 Elgin Courier 
 
 
 Elgin 
 
 Elgin News 
 
 Ed. E. Gore 
 
 Chicago 
 
 Vice-President, Chicago Associa- 
 
 (Address of Welcome) 
 
 tion of Commerce 
 
 H. Stillson Hart 
 
 Barrington 
 
 Proprietor, Hartwood Farms 
 
 I. S. Henkle 
 
 Chicago 
 
 Manager Hurst Silo Co. 
 
 Orvis Henkle 
 
 Chicago 
 
 Manager, Union Stock Yards and 
 Transit Co. 
 
 Robt. H. Izor 
 
 Chicago 
 
 President, Monolithic Silo and Con- 
 
 (Lewis one night-furnished forms) 
 
 struction Co. 
 
 M. A. Joshel 
 
 Geneva 
 
 Mayor of Geneva 
 
 G. H. Keller 
 
 Geneva 
 
 Farmer 
 
 C. B. Meade 
 
 Geneva 
 
 Editor, Geneva News 
 
 Spencer Otis 
 
 Lake Forest 
 
 Proprietor Hawthorn Farms 
 
 Spencer Otis, Jr. 
 
 Barrington 
 
 President, Otis Farms Co. 
 
 Prof.J.E.Reidheimer Geneva 
 
 Kane Co. Farm Improvement Assn. 
 
 Dr. H. R. Rider 
 
 Chicago 
 
 Borden Condensed Milk Co. 
 
 L. E. Smith 
 
 Waukegan 
 
 Editor, "Waukegan Sun" 
 
 G. E. Van Hagen 
 
 Barrington 
 
 Proprietor, Wakefield Farm 
 
 W. H. Warford 
 
 Geneva 
 
 Concrete Contractor 
 
 C. E. Wells 
 
 Evanston 
 
 Evanston Index 
 
 D. W. Williams 
 
 Lake Forest 
 
 Manager, Arcady Dairy Farm 
 
(flftilBim