OfarneU Hmuersitij Hibrary Jtlrara, !Setn ^nrk CHARLES WILLIAM WASON COLLECTION CHINA AND THE CHINESE THE GIFT OF CHARLES WILLIAM WASON CLASS OF 1876 1918 The date shows when this volume was taken. Tu renew this book copv the call No. and give to the librarian. , I^O'j'^v'*'^'" HOME USE RULES ^j^Jb''"'*'' ^ ' All books subject to recall All borrowers must regis- ter in the library to borrow books for home use. All books must be re- turned at end of college year for inspection and '"^'^ repairs. Limited books must be returned within the four week limit and not renewed. Students must return all books before leaving town. Officers should arrange for ■ the return of books wanted during their absence from town. Volumes of periodicals and of pamphlets are held in the library as much as possible. For special pur- j poses they are given out for a limited time. Borrowers should not use their library privileges for the benefit of other persons. Books of special value and gift books, when the giver wishes it, are not allowed to circulate. Readers are asked to re- port , all cases of books marked or mutilated. Do not deface books by marks and writing. Cornell University Library SB 271.T25 The Tea planter's vade mecum ^a, volume o 3 1924 023 998 168 ec..vei "^Ki. Cornell University Library The original of tiiis book is in the Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924023998168 THE TEA PLANTER'S VADE MECUM. THK TEA PLANTER'S VADE MECUM; A VOLUME OF IMPORTANT ARTICLES, CORRESPONDENCE, AND INFORMATION, OF PERMANENT INTEREST AND VALUE, REGARDING TEA, TEA BLIGHT, TEA CULTIVATION AND MANUFACTURE, TEA MACHINERY, TIMBERS FOR BOXES AND OTHER PURPOSES, With a Practical Treatise on THE USE AND CARE OF STEAM ENGINES IN TEA FACTORIES : The ivhole Woi'k brought up to the latest date, AND HAVING A Classified Synopsis of Contents, and a Copious Index. COMPILED BY TPIE EDITOR OF THE "INDIAN TEA GAZETTE." PUBLISHED AT THE OFFICE OF THE TEA GAZETTE, 10, HARE STREET, CALCUTTA. 1885. Sgt7t + \A!S6'6b' CALCUTTA : Printed by P. S. D'Kozaeio & Co., 12, Waterloo Steket, PREFACE. It is hardly necessary to say much as a Preface to this WORK. The CONTENTS will speak for themselves. The Compiler can only say that he has spared no pains to include in this VOLUME everything of value to Tea Planters, and has endeavored, by most careful classification, and a very full Index, to render the varied Information and Instruction given, as easy for reference as possible. Calcdtta, Septemler, 1835. } THIS VOLUME IS RESPECTFULLY DEDICATED TO THE MEMBERS OF THE INDIAN TEA INDUSTRY, BY Their Humble Servant and Felloiv Worker, THE EDITOE. September 1885. MEMO- The Editor of the Tea Planter's Vade Mecum will be glad to receive the opinions of Subscribers as to the pre- sent Work, with any suggestions they may be pleased to favour him with, which he might be able to adopt in any Second Edition of the Book that may hereafter be pub- lished. CONTENTS :o:- Pages. HISTORICAL AND DESCRIPTIVE ... ... 1 to 7 FORESTS AND CLIMATE, DROUGHT AND RAINFALL... 11— 23 BOTANICAL ORIGIN AND ANALYSIS OF TEA ... 27— 33 TEA ADULTERATION AND TEA SUBSTITUTES ... 37— 43 SOILS ... ... ... ... ... 47- 51 MANURES AND MANURING ... ... ... 55— 58 DRAINAGE ... ... ... ... ... 61— 64 TEA SEED AND TEA SOWING ... ... ... 67— 71 TRANSPLANTING ... ... ... ... 74a— 77 THE SAU-TREE ... ... ... ... 81-86 CULTIVATION ... ... ... ... 88a— 95 BLIGHT ... ... ... ... ... 99—106 PRUNING ... ... ... ... ... 109-113 PLUCKING ... ... ... ... ... 117—119 BUILDINGS ... ... ... ... ... 123—128 STEAM ENGINES IN TEA FACTORIES ... ... 131—164 TEA MACHINERY ... ... ... ... 167—179 MANUFACTURE ... ... ... ... 183—204 SORTING AND BULKING ... ... ... 207—209 TIMBERS FOR TEA BOXES, &g. ... ... ... 213—241 PACKING ... ... ... ... ... 245—250 TEAWEIGHMENT ... ... ... ... 253—255 BRICK TEA & BURMESE WET TEA ... ... 259—262 TEA IN INDIA OUT OF BENGAL ... ... ... 265—268 TEA IN CEYLON ... ... ... ... 271—285 TEA CULTIVATION OUT OF INDIA AND CEYLON ... 289—293 TEA MANUFACTURE IN CHINA AND JAPAN ... 297—300 SYNOPSIS OF CONTENTS. -:o: SECTION I. Historical and Descriptive : Historic Kotes on Tea. The Indian Tea Industry : its Past and Present. Indian Tea-producing Districts. SECTION II. Forests and Climate, Drought and Rainfall Trees as a Protection to Tea from hot or violent Winds. Tea Climates in India and Ceylon. Rainfall of Indian Tea Districts, SECTION III. Botanical Origin and Analysis of Tea Botanical Origin of Tea. Description. Chemical Composition and Analysis. SECTION IV. Tea Adulteration and Tea Substitutes Tea Adulteration and Adulterants. Adulteration of Tea in Foreign Markets. Tea Substitutes. xu SECTION V Soils : Constituents of Soils. Soils for Tea. What Constitutes a Good Tea Soil. SECTION VI. Manures and Manuring Manures as applied to Tea. Limestone a Manure for Tea. Information anent Manures for Tea. SECTION VII. Drainage : Importance of Drainage. Different sorts of Drainage for different Soils. Sub-Soil vs. Open Drainage. SECTION VIII. Tea Seed and Tea Sowing : Picking and Sowing Seed. Tea-seed Garden. Seed-sowing. SECTION IX. Transplanting: Importance of Special Care regardin; Jebens' Transplanter. Filling-up Vacancies. xm SECTION X. The Sau-Tree The Sau-Tree as a Tea Fertilizer. Correspondence regarding the Sau-Tree. Summary of Opinions. SECTION XL Cultivation: Cultivation. Terracing. As to Steam Ploughing on Tea Gardens. Ploughing and Hoeing Machinery. Hoeing and Weeding. Deep vs. Light Hoeing. SECTION XII. Blight : Bhanji Leaf. The Tea Mite and the Tea Bug of A ssam. Mosquito Blight. Other Blights. Insecticides. SECTION XIII. Pruning : Sap in Tea Pruning Tea. Correspondence re Pruning. SECTION XIV Plucking : Plucking. Methods of Plucking. Coarse vs. Fine Pluckinof. SECTION XY. Buildings : The Factory, &c. Thatch for Roofing. Tiles for Roofing. SECTION XVI. On Steam Engines in Tea Factories Chapter. I. — Engines and Boilers. ,, II. — The Boiler, and How to Care for It. ,, III. — The Steam Engine. „ IV. — Engines : their A'ariety and Treatment, 5, V. — On Repairs to Steam Engines. „ VI. — Summary and Conclusion. SECTION XVII. Tea-Mandfactdring Machinery Machinei-y : its General Principles. Green-leaf Cutting Machine. Drying Machines. Piolling Machines. Sorting and Winnowing Machines. &c. &c. &c. XV SECTION XVIIT. MA.NUFACTDRE : PART I.— Leaf-^Yithering, Weighing, and Rolling. PART IL— FERMENTATION :— Chemical Process of Fermentation. Phases of Fermentation. As to the Eight Degree of Fermentation. Discussion regarding Fermentation. PART III.— FIRING :— Firing. Panning. PART IV.— MISCELLANEOUS .— Generally-admitted Facts. Causes from which diiFerent Results arise. Jottings from a Planter's Note Book. Tea Manufacture in Dehra Doon. Manufacture of Green Tea. Tea Tasting. SECTION XIX. Sorting and Bulkikg Sorting. Bulking. Bulking in London and in India. SECTION XX. Timbers foe Tea-Boxes, &c. PART I.— AS TO INJURIOUS WOODS FOR TEA-BOXES: Injury to Tea from the use of Improper Woods for Boxes. Memorandum by Dr. Watt. Correspondence on the Suljjcct. XVI PvVRT II.— INDIAN TIMBERS:— Timbers of Upper Assam. Indian Timbers for General Purposes. Indian Timbers for Tea-Boxes. Cryptomeria Japonica as a Timber for Tea-Boxes. SECTION XXI. Packing : Size of Packao-es for Poreim Markets. The Packing of Indian Tea. Packages and Size of Breaks. Miscellaneous. Tin Tea-Boxes. SECTION XXII. Tea Weighment : The new Customs Rules. Weighing of Indian Teas in Bond. Tea Weighment. — Advice to Managers. SECTION XXIII. Brick Tea and Burmese Wet Tea Chinese Brick Tea. Thibetan Brick Tea. Dry-Cake and Wet Tea in Burmah. SECTION XXIV. Tea in India odt of Bengal Tea in Dehra Doon. Tea in Cashmere. Tea in the Nilgiris. Tea in the Andamans. Tea in Arracan. xvu SECTION XXV. Tea in Ceylon : The Tea Industry of Ceylon. Tea Culture, &c., in Ceylon. Tea Yield in Ceylon. SECTION XXVI. Tea Cultivation odt ov India and Ceylon Tea in Fiji. Tea in New Zealand. Tea in Johore. The Tea Enterprise in Java. Tea Cultivation in Natal. Tea-Growing ui the United States. Tea in Rassia. SECTION XXVII. Tea Manufactore in China and Japan Chinese System of Manufacture, &c. Black Tea Manufacture in Japan. Green Tea Manufacture in Japan. N. £.— For Detailed Index, See pp. xxiii— xx.vi. XIX REMARKS ON THE SYNOPSIS OF THIS WORK. This Volume, for greater convenience of Reference, has been divided into Sections, with separating Half-titles showing the con- tents of each Section. The first Section is devoted to a brief Historical and Descriptive Account of Tea, and of the Several Indian Tea-producing Districts, —their speciality as regards suitability of Soil, Climate, &c., for Tea Cultivation. The Second Section treats of Forests, and their influence on Climate, Drought, and Rainfall, of which latter a Table is given showing the Latitude, Longitude, and Rainfall, of Principal Tea Localities. The third division of the Work is devoted to a Chapter on the Botanical Origin, Chemical Composition, and Analysis of Tea. Section IV. treats of the various forms of Adulteration known, and especially as practised in Foreign Markets ; to which is appended an account of Substitutes not seldom passed off as Tea. Part V. deals with Soils, their nature and properties, and indi- cates the essentials of good Soils for Tea. The important subject of Manuring occupies Section VI. of this WoKK, and the best kinds of Manure, and their mode and time of application, are treated of Section VII. deals with the important subject of Drainage ; and the different sorts of Drainage desirable for different Soils are indi- cated. Next comes Tea Seed and Tea Sowing, which Chapter deals with the selection and sowing of Seed, upon due attention to which so much of the success of all Nurseries must depend. In Section IX. the subject of Transplanting is discussed. As much of the success or failure of an Estate depends on the way the Tea-bush is planted and cared for when young, too much attention cannot be given to this matter, and if the Instructions copiously given be only followed, there will be little fear of miscarriage. Section X. discusses the important question of the influence of the Sau-tree as a Tea-fertilizer^ regarding which there have been so many different opinions mooted. The subject of Cultivation is dealt with in Section XL, and this Chapter embraces all the best-known Opinions as yet record- ed, from which, also, the relative merits of Light vs. Deep Hoeing, according to circumstances, will be readily seen. Blight, that dread enemy of the Tea-planter, occupies a Section, also, by itself, in which the various forms of Blight, and their best-known modes of treatment, will be found detailed. The question of Pruning, regarding the mode and extent of which there is so much difference of opinion, will be found fully re- ferred to in Section XIII. XX PLUCKraG occupies the next Section, and the relative merits of Coarse vs. Fine Plucliing are discussed. The subject is one of much importance, as affecting the price which our Teas fetch in tlie London market, and also the yield which it is our object to obtain. It raises the much vexed question of Quality m. Quantity, regardins" which, as in most other matters, a judicious medium will be probably found to answer best. Buildings, their form, material, and arrangement, comprise the contents of Section XV., and although this Chapter will apply more particularly to those entering for the first time upon Tea, it will serve of utility also to those who find, as time goes on, and Estates expand, re-construction of Buildings necessary. As all large Factories now use Steam power, the knowledge of how to manage it most profitably and safely becomes of essential importance ; and instruction on this topic being difficult to obtain, it is believed that the inclusion of the very practical Articles con- tained in Section XVI. will be read with much profit. As Machinery, also, is now fast superseding hand-manufacture in Tea, and is bound in time whoU}^ to do so, even on small Estates, the particulars given of the different Inventions, and the review of their relative merits, cannot but prove of much interest. Opinions will of course differ as to which is the best form ot machine for the different purposes of Tea-manufacture, but the rival claims of the several Inventors who have as yet come forward will be found here- in impartially discussed ; and those who may be for the first time introducing Machinery into their Factories, or those who may be renewing or adding to their Plant, will find, it is hoped, in this division of the Work, ample information to guide their choice, accordinsc to circumstances surroundinsr. As regards the subject of Manufactuee, there are, as is well known, diverse opinions and systems ; but there remain primary Kules which should govern all ; and these will be found fully set forth in Section XVIII. The Discussion contained in this Volume on the relative systems of Withering, Rolling, Fermentation, and Firing, are profitable reading, and much may be learnt, even by the experienced, from the varied opinions herein set forth. The advantage of correct Bulking, to meet the requirements of the Home Trade, needs hardly to be impressed upon Managers, but as the new Regulations now in force are greatly in favour of owners if carefully complied with, we commend the remarks in this Section (No. XIX.) to careful notice. It has long been notorious that our heavy and unsightly Pack- ages meet with much disfavour at lioiue, altliough theTrade have had, hitherto, to put up with them ; but they like them none the better for that, and it should be borne in mind that a reform in this respect is being attempted in Ceylon by the use of a new wood obtained from Japan, of which Tea-Boxes are now being manu- XXI factured. Cryptomeria Japonica bids fairto supersede all other woods now in use, and we should strongly recommend a trial of it being made in India. The Section on Timbers for Tea Boxes, &c., contains evi- dence of the necessity for more caution being exercised in this country in the selection of our Box-timbers, and we would strongly advise an experiment being made with Cryptomeria Japonica, which has al- ready been adopted to some extent in Ceylon, where the Agency for this new introduction is located. A reference to a Colombo House would secure full information on the subject, and may be well worth the making. Meanwhile, as long as we use Indian Timbers, it is well that we should select the best only, and those most suitable for the purpose; and Mr. Peal's Paper on this subject, in Sicction XX., cannot be too carefully studied. Turning, now, to Foreign Markets for our Tea disposal, we may draw attention to the necessity which exists, even more than it does at Home, for adapting the size of our Packages to the wishes of the Trade in the Colonies and Abroad. It has been repeatedly pointed out in the Tea Gazette that, for shipment to Australia, whole chests are a mistake, but still they continue to be largely forwarded. Why will people not learn from experience ? The Chinese, finding that there is aprejudice in favour of small packages, in the Colonies, have already adapted themselves to the necessity ; but India still blunders on. and sends the largest proportion of her Tea forward in the unsightly and undesirable heavy packages, as formerly. This may seem a small matter of complaint, as it is the Tea which is pur- chased for its quality, and not for the look of the Box in which it is contained. Never mind : prejudice is a strange thing, and one diffi- cult to overcome ; and as it costs so little to yield to it, in this case why not do so ? We commend, therefore, to the notice of the Rea- der the remarks on this subject given in Section XXI. of this Work, as also the new Rules now in force as to Tba Weighment at the Cus- tom House in London, attention to which will save owners from hav- ing the bulk of their Teas turned out (and possibly largely pilfered from) in the Bonded Warehouses at home. It seems strange to have to enforce such advice, but, according to the brokers at home, quite insufficient attention is still paid here to the means of avoiding what is at present a great drawback in respect to the weighment of Indian Teas. Although Tea in India out of Bengal does not constitute a Trade of very great importance, it is still such as to require a place in this Work, and it will be found sufficiently touched upon in Sec- tion XXIV. When we come, however, to Section XXV. (Tea in Cetlon), it will be seen with how much reason we have to regard the steady advance of that Island. We do not write this with any desire to xxu create jealousy of feeling, but rather with the object of stimulating Planters in this Country to maintain their high position to the full- est ; so that, in a spirit of fair and honest rivalry, each may strive its utmost to-n^ards perfection in Cultivation and Manufacture ; and although India is by a long long way the Elder Brother, still, in these days of Competition, Merit is bound to carry all before it ; and a good name may stand to become weakened if others establish a claim to a still better one. There is, doubtless, room for both Ceylon and India in the World's markets, and there is no reason why they should not advance hand in hand and side by side ; but we must not ignore the growing advance of our Younger Brother, or shut our eyes in any way to the progress in Tea which Ceylon is making. Rather let us show a knowledge of this fact by strenuous endeavour to hold, still, a leading position, based not only upon maturer years, but up- on the fullest exercise of that maturer Knowledge which we should possess, and should seek in every way to improve, further, to the ut- most. Of the concluding Section of this Work, we need only remark that although not referred to for any exact imitation, it has been thought that something may still be learnt from our old-world neigh- bours, China and Japan, in respect to their painstaking system of Manufacture ; for, with us, the use of Machinery is apt to cause us to become somewhat careless in the matter of perfect manipulation, which even the most scientific Machinery does not enable us to dis- regard the necessity for. There is manipulation, although of a diff- erent kind, required with Machine-manufacture as there is with Hand, and it is to the attention which we pay to this matter that we have to look for equally good results in our machine-made Teas as was able formerly to be so successfully obtained by hand : indeed, it may be said that the use of Machinery in Manufacture entails upon us the need for increased attention, so that, while we provide more effi- ciently for the disposal of our greatly-increased and increasing out- turn, we do not neglect in any way that closeness of supervision in manipulation, in its every detail, which rendered our Hand-made Teas the finest in the World. INDEX. A. Acanis, or Red Spider Adulteration Abroad Adulteration and Adulterants of Tea Adulteration in Foreign Markets Allen'a Dryer America, Tea-growing in Analysis of Tea .. Andamans, Tea in the .. AnseU's Sorter ... Anti-Bliglit Growths Ants, aa Tea-Bug Destroyers Arraoan, Tea in . . Aroma, How to obtain B. 87 38 172 . 291 . 30 . 268 . 178 106 . 102 . 268 . 200 Barry's Dryer .. 174 BatoumTea .. 42 Beetle Pest .. 105 Bhinjl .. 99 Bicknell'a Dryer .. .. 175 Blight .. 99-106 Bohemian Tea ... 43 Boiler, The, and How to Care for it .. 134 Breaks, As to Size of .. 247 Breaks, Sieving of.. ,. 247 Brick Tea, Chinese .. 259 „ Thibetan .. 260 Botanical Origin of Tea .. 27 Box, How to fully fill .. 248 Boxes to be weighed separately .. 248 Boxes, 'Wood for ,. .. 246 Boxes, Timbers for .. 237 ,, Lead for . 249 „ Packing of.. .. 248 „ Sizes of Wood for .. .. 248 Buildings .. 123 Bulking in India .. 209 Bulbing in London .. 208 Bulking and Sorting .. 207 Burmah. Dry and Wet Tea in .. 261 Burmese Wet Tea .. 261 c. Cashmere, Tea Cultivation in Caterpillar Blight Caucasus, Tea Cultivation in the .. 2fi6 .. 105 .. 293 Ceylon, cost per Ih. In n Plucking in » Pruning in I, Tea manufacture in ,, Tea Packing in ,, Tea Yield in „ Tea Climates in, „ Tea Cultivation, &c.,ia Chemical Composition of Tea China "Lie" Tea China and Japan, Manufacture in Climates (Tea) in India and Ceylon Coarse vs. Fine Plucking, . . Constituents of Soils Corrugated Iron for Roofing Cryptoraeria Japonica for Tea Boxes Cultivation Dalgamo's Sieving Machine .. Davidson's Sirocco . . Dehra Doon, Tea Manufacture in Dehra Dun, Origin of Tea in Depth of Sowing, Aa to Description of Tea Drainage, Importance of Drainage, different Sorts of Drainage, Sub-soil vs. Open.. Drought and Rainfall Dry and Wet Tea in Burmah Drying and Withering Machine, Greig's Drying Machines E. Engines and Boilers Engines : their Variety and Treatment Eurya Serrata, or Wild Tea .. Factory Buildings Fermentation, Phases of . . ,, Chemical process of. ,, Right Degree of , , Discussion regarding Fermenting Machines Fertilizer, A cheap Fertilizer, A. Patent .. 282 .. 872 ... 277 .. 279 .. 281 .. ib- .. 19 271-285 .. 28 .. 89 ... 297 16-19 ., 118 .. 47 .. 128 ... 128 .. 886 ... 278 .. 173 .. 202 .. 265 ... 69 .. 27 .. 61 .. 62 .. 63 10-11 .. 261 .. 171 171-175 131 . 150 . 41 123 189 188 190 191 193 58 68 XXIV Fiji, Tea in Filling-up Vacancies Firing . . Forests and Climate G. 79 194 11 .. J72 199 .. 60 in .. 200 .. 103 . . 299 171-177 144- 145 . 02 . 103 1 . 92 . 94 . 92 95 . 2 . 260 Globuloua Pipes for Drying Golden Tip Good Tea Soil, what constitutes a Gi-een-leaf Cutting-machine Green Tea, How to make Green Tea, Manufacture of, in Dehra Doon Green Tea manufacture in Japan Greig'e Tea Machinery Gauge-glass of Boilers H. Hand weeding • . Helopeltis Antonii Historic Notes on Tea Hoeing and Weeding Hoeing, Deep vs. Light Hoeing vs. Plougliing^ Hoeing, Replies to Queries as to Home of the Ten-plant, India tho Hoop Iron I. Improper Woods, Injury to Tea from the use of 213 India, the Home of the Tea-plant . . . . 2 India, Tea Climates in .. .. ..16 Indian Tea Industry, The .. .. ..3 Indian Tea-producing Districts . . . . 5 Indian Timbers for Boxes, &c. . . . . 222 Injurious Wood^ for Boxes .. -.213 Insecticides . . - - • • . . 1'06 J. Jackson's Compound Dryer . . . . . . 172 Jackson's Roller .. .- .. ..175 Japan and China, Tea Cultivation, &c., in .. 297 Japan, Tea manufacture in .. .. .. 298 Java, The Tea Enterprise in . . . . 29 Jeben's Transplanter .. .. ... 75 Johore, Tea Cultivation in . . . . . . 290 Jottings from a Planter's Note Book . . . . 199 Jungle, Use of .. •- •• ..89 K Kerosine, to kill Insects .. .. ..106 Kiumond's Boiling Machine . . . . . . 176 L. Latitude. &c., ol Tea Localities LcfiE Weighing . . . . , , .,183 Lie Tea in China . . . . . . . . 39 Lime as a Manure . . . , ... 65-58 Limeetone a Manure fqj Tea ... ..55 Lyle's Rolling Machino .. .* ..176 M. Machinery in Tea Factories, On .. 131-146 Machinery : its General Principles ., .. 167 Machinery for Tea Manufacture ... 171-9 Manufacture, Fiicts regarding . . . . ] 97 ,> Causes of different Results of .,198 Manufacture in China and Japan ... .. 297 „ Cej'lon .. .. ..279 Manufacture, Notes regarding .. .. 198 Manure, a New .. ... ... 68 Manure as applied to Tea . . ... . . 65 ,, Information anent . . . . . . 57 ,, A Cheap ... .. . . . . 68 ,, Lime, as A .. 55.58 Marks on PMi-k:if;e,s, As to . . .. .. 245 Mat^, or Paraguay:tn Tea . . . . , . 41 Mosquito Blight ... .. .. .. 103 N. Nails for Packing .. .. 249 Natnoonah Tea ... .. .. .. 200 Natal. Tea Culture iu .. .. ..291 Nelson's Rolling Machine .. .. ... 175 Nericks for Planting .. ... ..74 6 New Customs Rules .. ,. ...253 New Zealand, Tea-growing in .. .. 290 New Manure, A .. ... .. ..53 Nilgiris, Tea in the . . . . . . 266 Novel Teas ... . .. .,42 0. Orange Tip .. .. .. ..199 Origin of Tea in India .. .. ..2 Origin, Botanical, of Tea .. .. ..27 Packing . . . . 245-250 Packing, How to complete . . . . . . 248 ,, in Tin Boxes .. .. .. 250 Packing of Indian Teas . . 2-15-24S Packages, size of — - . . . . , 245 Packages, Size of, for Foreign Markets . . 245 Packages and Marks . . . . . . 247 Packing Hot, necessary .. .. .. 248 Panning .. .. ..195 Paraguayan Tea, or Mat6 . . . . . . 40 Picking and Sowing Seed . . . . . . 67 Planting, .. .. .. .. 74a Ploughing IIS. Hoeing .. ., ,,92 Ploughing and Hoeing Machinery ... .. 92, Plucking, Methods of .. .. ,. I17 XXV Powder Tea Pruning Tea Puerk, or Tunan Tea Pungeaoy. Aroma, and Flavour, How to obtain, R. Rainfall of Indian Tea Dibtrlcta Raln-Guftge, Tho .. Red Spider, Letters re The Repairs to Steam Engines ., Robertson's Typhoon Rolling Macliiuca .. .. ,, Rolling .. Roofing, Material for Russia, Tea Cultivation In . . S Sap in Tea Sau-tree as a Tea Fertilizer ... ,, Correspondence regarding „ Selected Opinions ditto Sau-tree, Effects of the Science of Tea Preparation . . Seed-Picking Seed Garden Seed-Sowing Seed, Yield of . . Seed, Germinating of Seed, How to Preserve Vitality In Seedlings from a maund of Seed Shand's Dryer Sifting and Sorting Machines Silver Tip, How to obtain . . Sirocco Drier Size of Breaks Soil, "Wliat constitutes a Good „ Constituents of Soils for Tea Solder ... Soldering- fluid . . Soldering Tea-Lead, As to Sorting .. Sorting and Sifting Machines Sour Tea, Cause of Sowing and Picking Seed Sowing, Depth of . . ,, at Stake .. Spurious Tea in China, How made Staking Steam Engines, Repairs to . . Steam, As to pressure of, in Boilers ... Steam Engine, The Steam-Ploughing on Tea Gardens Sub-soil vs. Open Drainage ... Substitutes for Tea T. Table of Latitude, Ac, of Tea Localities .. .48 Tea Adulterants, &0. .. 87 111-118 Tea riviora 171-175 .. 42 Tuii Firing in Japan .. 2ii9 .. 200 Tea in Dohra Dun .. 265 Tea made from other Plnnta .. 43 Tea Manufacturing: Maciiinery 167-179 Tea Sorting in Ceylon .. 280 20-21 Tea ileld in Ceylon 281-3 .. 22 Tea Wcighmcnt, As to .. 2S5 101 Tea Adulterants and Adulteration .. 37 .. 156 Tea, Analysis of .. .. 30 . 174 ,, Chemical Composition of .. 23 176-177 .. 187 , , Description of „ Botanical Origin of . . ... 27 . . 27 126-128 .. 292 1 , Origin of in India ,, Historic Notes on ,, Made from other Plants .. 2 1 .. 43 ,, Packing of .. .. 248 ,, Weigh raent of .. 248 ,, Breaks of .. 247 .. 109 Tea-Boxes, As to Weighment of .. 248 .. 81 How to fill .. 248 81-86 Tea-Breaking Maclilnes .. 179 .. 83 Tea Bug, The . . ... 102 .. 82 Tea Cultivation out of India and Ceylon 289-293 .. 196 Tea Cultivation in Ceylon 271-2S.5 .. 67 „ New Zealand .. 290 .. 68 „ Jobore .. .. ib .. 69 the Xilgiria .. 20s ... 71 S. Wynaad .. 267 .. 67 ,, Cashmere . iii'j .. 70 „ Russia .. 293 .. 71 ,, The Caucasus ... 297 .. 175 177-179 .. 199 Natal .. ,, Arracan.. Fiji .. 291 .. 20s .. 289 .. 173 Toa-Chests, How to fill .. 248 .. 247 Tea Climates in India ... IS .. 60 Tea Climates in Ceylon .. 19 .. 47 Tea-fertilizing Tree . 76 .. 49 Tea-growing in the TJ. States .. 291 .. 249 Tea in India out of Bengal .. .. 265 .. 249 Tea Industry, the Indian ... 3 .. 249 Tea-Lead, Soldering of .. 249 .. 207 , , Sizes of .. 249 177-9 Tea Machinery 171-179 .. 201 Tea-mite and Tea-bug .. 100 .. 67 Tea Manufacture in China and Japan . . .. 297 .. 69 ,, Ceylon ... 271, 285 .. 70 ,, Dehra Doon .. 103 ... 43 Tea Packing, As to ... 248 .. 74a Tea-Plant, Home of tho .. 2 .. 1S6 Tea- Prepai-ation, Science of .. 196 .. 143 Tea-producing Districts in India .. 5 ... 146 Tea-Seed , preserving Vitality in .. 70 .. 90 Tea-Seed Garden . .. 63 .. 63 Tea Sieves .. 178 ... 40 Tea Soils 49-50 Tea Stick Insect .. ... 106 Tea Substitutes . , 40 Tea Tasting .. 203 .. 21 Tea Weighment Rules .. 253 XXVI Tea Weighmcnt. advice as to Terracing, as to Method of . . Thatch for Roofing Thibetan Briclt Tea Thin Liquor, Cause of Thompson's Rolling Machine Tiles for Roofing . . Timtier for Boxes, &c. , ., General Purposes Tillage Timbers of Upper Assam Tin Boxes , for Packing Tip, How to obtain Transplanting Trees and Timbers, Indian . . Trees as a protection from Winds Turbine, The Typhoon Dryer ... United States, Tea-growing in the Vacancies, Filling-up of Vitality in Tea Seed, How to preserve . .. 265 221 76 70 w. ... 126 Water, In Boilers .. 140 .. 260 Weeding . 92 .. 201 Weighment, As to . 255 177 Wet and Dry Tea in Burmah . 261 .. 128 White Blight .. 105 213-241 Wild Tea,— Eurya Serrata . . . 41 .. 229 Winds. Trees as a protection from .. n .. 88a Wither Blight .. IO4 .. 218 Withering .. 183-186 .. 250 Wood for Tea Boxes .. 215-217 .. 199 Wood for Boxes, Siaea of .. 248 74a-75 . 218 .. 11 X. ... 163 ... 174 XLAIlDryerandWitherer .. . 171 Yerba Mat6 or Paraguayan Tea Yield of Tea in Ceylon Yunan, or Puerk Tea 41 263 42 C. LAZARUS &CO., By appointment to II. E. the Vlceroi/ and iSovernoi'-General'^f India, 11. R. II the Duke of Edinhurgh, and 11. H. H. tlie Dulce of Connaughtt ' Calsinet Sfaksrs, Upholsterers. Billiard TaUe lianufactureril. Zmporters of Chftadeliers, Glassware, Lamps, &c. Furniture. In Teak, Sissoo and Maliog.nny. In suites for Dining-room, Bed-room, Hall, and Drawing-room, in every Variety, upholstered in "Dacnask, Silk, Tapestry, and Plusli, Rep or Cretonne. (labinet Centre Tables, "Whatno1;s, Teapoys and Brackets. iaee Curtains, Carpets of every description. Purdahs, Cuitains. Mirrors. " : ' A lai-ge assortment in gilt, ebonised and gilt, or plain frames. Wire-wovea Spring Mattresses, Couch Cots, adjustable and patent Folding Chairs - Crystal Chandeliers & Candelabra, Of all sizes and of every description and design, from 3 lights upwards. Lamps. Crystal and bronze, Table Lamps. Hanging Lamps and Wall Brackets for kerosine and vegetable oils, fitted with all the newest improvements. All of ^Messrs. Hinks iind Sons' make,,with their punkah-proof burners, which obtained the Silver Medal at the late Calcutta International Exhibition, "^ Table & other Ornamental Glass. '- QonsistiJig of . sets ip. plainer cut and engraved crystal, Tankards, Ice Pitchers and Bowts, Jugs, Decanters, Goblets, &c. Fancy and colored glass Flower Vases, Bowls, and other decorative iirtioles. '' Earthenware & Porcelain. From the first makers. Dinner-sets plain and -handsomely decorated , and gilt. Breakfast, Tea, and Coffee sets to match : T^t«-a-tete sets. Fancy Porcelain and Art Pottery, and a lai-ge and raiignificent assDrtment of Brie a Brac_ Ornaments, &c. &c. Billiard Tables. <7. Lazarus & Co.''s Billvird Tables oUained the Gold Medal and Highest j A ward at the Calcutta Exhibition. 0. Lazarus & Co.'s Billiard Tables are the.only ones appreciated in tliis "^country, and have been supplied all over India, where they have given uoi- ' versalsatisfaction. Tiie Tables are fitted with C. Lazarus & Co.'s new contr bin!ition express Cushions^ now so generally known and sought after. Billiard and Pool Balls. Cues, Rests, Chalks, Tips, &c., and every requisite for the JBilliard Room, ■i always in stocks . ; Billiard Cushions renewed on our principle make an old^TabJe as good , for play as a new one. . . Catalogues and priced Lists sent free on application. C. LAZARUS «^ CO., c 56, 57, 59, 60, 61, 62, Beritinok Street, ; CALCUTTA, G. F. KELLNER & CO. FOR 0U« BRANDS, WBRE : 5 Gold and 2 Silver Medals, and 7 First-Class Certificates of Merit. We invite comparison of our supplies with tliose of any other House at similar prices Ten per cent, discount for Cash on Wines, except on articles marked nett ; and Five percent, discount off quotations for Stores. [Any article not approved may be returned] JScery Case is examined and re-paclted at our Godomrm before despatch, Urolien and uUagecC tattles heiiig replaced iy sound ones-. [A.11 Articles supplied under a guarantee ] GRA.NDS VINS DB CHAMPAGNE. Pints. 2 doz. lis. A. Our name is guarantee tliat every article we supply is the best procurable of its kind . Quarts. 1 doz. lis. A. Pomraery et Greno — The Prince of champagnes ... 66 70 Benaudin BoUmger & Cie— Verj- dry, clean : a pei-fect wine for India .. 60 Perinet et f'ils, Vin Brnt ... 62 !I>o Cav^e Resorvee, choice and dry 56 Do. Ourte Noire, a nice light wine, dry ... ... . 52 Fleur de Sillery — a fine light dry winp, selected for India ... 48 Ditto ditto, J pints 15 Jluinart Pere et Fils, Green Seal : ver.v choice- dry and clean, nett... 52 Dry Monopole, nett ... ... 60 6i 66 8 60 56 64 SPARKLING BURGUNDY. Under tliis title many sweet and unwholesome 'Concoctions nre sold. We guarantee ours to be pure Burgundy, besides beiu}^ a very pleasant heveriige ; it is useful in convalescence after Fever and Dysentery : all Burgundies are especially recommended for their blood-inaking and enrich- ing properties. 1 dozen quarts, Rs, 50-0 ; 2 dozen pints, Rs 530. SPARKLING HOCKS. These are strengtlieninsr, and should be, we think, more generally iised, as they are dry ard clean, iind of great delioiicy. Nonpareil, 1 nzen qu.arts ... Rs, 46 Ditto, 2 ,, pints ... ... , 49 Pearl of the Rhine, 1 dozen, nett ... ,, 35 Ditto ditto, 2 „ pints, nett „ 38 SPARKLING MOSELLE. Nonpareil ; a wine of great bouquet : luscious without being sweet ; 1 dozen quarts ... ... lis. 46 ft Ditto ditto, 2 „ pints ... „ 49 CLARETS We make the liealthy character nnd purity of all our supplies our special study ; in these days of adulteration it is impossible to be too careful in selecting Wines and Spirits. Consumers should be very particular to avoid cheap and un- known Brands. We are Solo Agents for Messrs A. Lalnnde & Co , of Borileanx, to whom were awarded the tirxt prizen for Clarets. These Wines can only be obtained from us ; they are invaluable to innalida and periions whose blood has become i/npoveris/ieci from a long residence in India. light, sound breakfast St. Estkphk wine .. ... .. Ps. 14 PAUii.tAC ; thi.« is adelioious wine, having full flavour of grape ... ... ,,15 LiSTRiC ■) J Good dinner wines ... ,, IS St. .Jdlien ) ('H\TEiO Mauvrsin Moulis: a I'ght Claret of much character, with good bouquet: makes an excellent dinner wine ... , 22 Chateau du Iekthk Maegau.x : a full bodied, thoroughly sound wine. 'I his is practically as good as Clarets at far higher lates .. ,, 24-0 Chateau Luroc St. Estkphk : a very full and mellow after-dinner wine ... „ 29 Chateau Brown Caistenac: an exceed- ingly choice light after- diniiei- wine, of great bouquet and character ' ... „ 46 xxvu INTRODUCTORY. The aim of the Compiler and Editor of this WORK has been to place before Tea Planters as exhaustive an Epitome of Information and Instruction on Tea and Tea Matters, as possible ; and to present to the Reader the latest-known Facts, in regard to Culti- vation and Manufacture, in a concise and easily-referable form. Machinery, also, now plays such an important part on Tea Estates, that it has been felt desirable to give a prominent place to this Subject ; and the professional Papers herein contained on Machinery, and on Steam Engines in Tea Factories, will doubt- less prove of much practical utility, as the Topic has been specially treated by its author in very clear untechnical language. It is believ- ed, therefore, that these Sections of this Volume will not be found in any sense " dry reading," but will afford a desirable aid in respect to the varied knowledge which the Manager of a Tea Estate now finds it needful to possess. Another Subject which has been dwelt on, intentionally, at some length, in this Volume, is that of Trees and Timbers, and Timbers for Tea-Boxes. The Planter is so largely dependent on Wood for Buildings, Fuel, and Boxes, that full information on this head cannot but prove of much advantage ; while the scare which not long ago took place in regard to the use of Injurious Woods for Tea-Boxes renders a special treatment of this Division of the Work very op- portune. When the Tea Plant was first introduced into this Country, few could have conceived the extent and importance which the Indian Tea Industry was destined to attain ; but that extent and impor- tance is now palpable, and admitted ; and the fact that it is found practicable to maintain a Specialist Journal devoted solely to the TEA INTEREST is one proof of this, as is the production of a Volume like the present, another. The tide of progress of Tea in India has by no means yet reach- ed its flood ; for although the golden dreams once indulged in have departed, to be indulged in no more, yet the Industry has now settled down into a condition of safe permanence, and of probable gradually-advancing Prosperity. To further this, it is, however, necessary that we should " keep all our wits about us," seek to XXVlll increase and improve our knowledge of Cultivation and Manufac- ture in every way, and meet the danger of over-production by tlie utmost practice of judicious improvement and economy in all directions and branches. And lastly," not to believe, any of us, that we have no more to learn from our neighbours : for truly, in the matter of Tea, " in the multitude of counsellors will be found wisdom :" for Facts and Information present themselves in so varied a form, yet under circumstances and surroundings apparently so nearly similar, that it requires constant watchfulness to enable us successfully to grapple with difficulties as they arise. Interchange of idea and community of knowledge on the many divisions of Tea Cultivation and Manufacture are, thus, of great importance, and can only tend largely to improve the condition of the INDUSTRY, and of all engaged in it. It is hoped, therefore, that this Work may have the effect not only of still further stimulating those who are striving in every direction to increase and maintain the high reputation of Indian Tea, but that any who may not hitherto have been so active workers will lend their aid, with increased zeal, towards placing and main- taining in the highest position The tea INDUSTRY of INDIA. SECTION I. HISTORICAL AND DESCRIPTIVE. Historic Notes on Tea. The Indian Tea Industry : its past and ri;i;.sKKT. Indian Tea-producing Districts. THE TEA PLANTER'S VADE MECUM. -:o:- HISTORIC NOTES ON TEA. Some interesting information on this head is furnished in a newly pub- lished Work by the learned Swiss botanist, Professor A. de Candolle. A legend, originally related by the Dutch traveller Kocmpfer, of a Buddhist monk, who came to China from India some time during the fifth century of the Christian era, and, in vexation at having slumbered during a night of vigil and prayer, cut ofiF his eyelids, whence, forthwith, sprang up two tea- plants, has often been repeated in popular "Works as not only prefiguring the anti-somnolent properties of the leaf, but as affording traditional evidence of the source and probable period of introduction of the Tea-plant into the Flowery Land. Unfortunately for this view, the legend, it seems, is wholly unknown in China, whilst the plant itself has been known there from ages far more remote. Dr. Bretschneider, physician to the Russian Legation, Pekin, who has made many valuable researches in Chinese literature, states that Tea is mentioned 2700 b. c. in a Chinese compilation known as the Pent Sao, and likewise in another, the Rhya, which dates from 500 b. c. to 600 B. C; whilst a native commentator on the latter Work, writing A. d. 400, gives full details of the Plant and of the modes of infusion still in use. Its antiquity in China is therefore very great. In Japan it may be of later in- troduction ; but neither there nor in Cochin China, where it is probably of high antiquity^ is there any tradition of its introduction from India. Its name is unknown in Sanscrit, as in the various dialects of modern India. The cultivated Plant spreads its seeds readily, and thus runs wild — verwildert, as the German botanists say — so that naturalists are much at variance as to the actual spontaneity of the specimens alleged to have been found growing wild in different parts of China and Japan. A better established fact appears to be, that the plant has been found, in an apparently indigenous state, by English travellers in Upper Assam and Cachar. INDIA : THE HOME OF THE TEA PLANT. It is now about 50 years since the indigenous Tea tree was discovered growing wild in the forests of A-sani. These forests clotlie the hills which form the boundary between India and China, and it is a fair assumption that the plant or its seed was, thousands of years ago, exported from India into China, where it has become an important ludustiy. Tea has not been culti- vated in India for many years, the oldest Company, the Assam Company, having only been founded in 1840. It is now cultivated in a dozen different parts of India, hundreds of miles apart, some being on the north-east or east, others in the north-west or south of India. The chief Tea-producing Coun- tries of India are Assam, Cachar, and Sylhet, Chittagong, Chota Nagpore, Darjeeling, Dehra Doon, Dooars, Kangra, Kumaon, Neilgherries : also, Ceylon. Upwards of 240,000 acres of jungle have been cleared by our countrymen in India, and planted with Tea, employing over a quarter of a miUion people in the cultivation. Oeigin of Tea in India. The cultivation of Tea in India commenced within the memory of men still H^-ing. and the Industry now surpasses even indigo as a field for European capital. Unlike cofFee-planting, the Enterprise owes its origin to the initiation of Government, and it has never attracted the attention of the natives. Early travellers reported that the Tea-plant was indigenous to the southern vallevs of the Himalayas ; bnt they were mistaken in the identity of the shrub, which was the 0-^i/ris nepelensls. The real Tea (T/ieos vlridi:-t),a plant akin to the camellia, grows wild in Assam, 1icing commonly found throughout the hill tracts between the valleys of the Bramhaputra and the Barak. It there some- times attains the dimensions of a large tre(>, and from this, as well as from other indications, it has been plaiisibly inferred that Assam is the real home of the ]ilant, which was thence introdxiced at a prehistoric date into China. The di-;covery of the Tea-plant "growing wild in Assam is generally attributed to two brothers named Bruce, who brought back >pecimens of the plant and the seed, after the conquest of the Province from the Burmese in 1826. In January 1834, under the Governor-Gen(■ral^hip of Lord AVilliam Bentinck a Committee was appointed " for the purpose of submitting a plan for the intro- duction of Tea-culture into India. " In the following year, plants and seed were brought from China, and widely distributed throughout the country. Government itself undertook the formation of experimental plantations in Upper Assam, and in the sub-Himalayan districts of Kumaon and Garhwal in the North-W(.'stern Provinces. A party of skilled manufacturers was brought from China, and the leaf which they prepared was favourably reported upon in the London Market Forthwith ])rivate speculation took up the Enterprise. The Assam Tea Company, still by far the largest, was formed in 1839 and recei\-(^d from the G()\-ernment an extensive grant of land, with the Nurser- ies which had been already laid out. In Kmnaon, retii-ed members of the civil and military ser^■^ees came forwai'd with equal eagerness. Many fundamental mistakes as to site, soil, and methods of manufacture, were made in those early days, and bitter disappointment was the chief result. But while private enterpriser languislKid, Government steadily perse\-ered. It retained a portion of its Assam Gar(l<'us in its own hands until 1849, when the Assam Company began to emerge from their difficulties. Goverimient also carried on the busi- ness in Kumaon, under the able management of Dr. Jameson as late as 185;') e ( 3 ) THE INDIAN TEA INDUSTEY. The first plants and socd of Indigenous Tea appear to have been brought down from Upper Assam in 1824 by one of two ■ brothers of the name of Bruce, but Lieut. C'harlton's claims to the discovery 'have also been warmly advocated. No ad^'antago appears to have been taken of the discovery till 1834, when Government became alive to its importance, and appointed a Tea Committee. It consisted of eleven Europeans and two natives, and one of its duties was to determine the site for an experimental Garden. In the mean- time it had established the fact that the Tea shrub was indigenous from Sud- dyah to Yunan. Whether the China plant was indigenous to India was not conclusively determined ; the bulk of opinion seemed to be in favor of its having been raised from Assam seed, and having become dwarfed by a less genial climate. An experimental Garden was opened in Seebsaugor in 1835, but the first Tea manufactured does not appear to have given much satisfaction, as it arriv- ed home in so mouldy a state that samples could not be tested. The Court of Directors, however, nothing daunted, persevered with the work, and short- ly afterwards forwarded to the London market some consignments, which commanded such high prices that it was hoped " it would place England in an independent position in respect to China." But however desirous the Honorable Company may have been to ruin the China trade, they were not above indenting on that country for supplies of seed, committing at the out- set of the Industry the unfortunate mistake of neglecting the fine indigenous seed they had at hand, and importing in its place at great cost an altogether inferior article. This practice of importing seed obtained for se^-eral years ; in fact, the Government stuck to the China plant up to the moment of abandon- ing its Gardens. Indigenous seed was subsequently turned to account by planters, and of late years Assam hybrid has been generally used. The first Public Company was formed in London in 1839, under the title of the Assam Company, and in the following year the Government trans- ferred over to the Concern its Experimental Garden at Seebsaugor. The shares of the Company were eagerly taken up at £20, but, in the dark days of Tea, to be referred to presently, they were hawked about the market at half a crown each. The Government worked another Experimental Garden in Assam, which it sold to a knowing Chinaman in 184y for Bs. 900, when, after fifteen years' trial, it abandoned the further development of Tea Cultivation to private enterprise. The pioneers of Tea confined their attention at the commencement to Assam. Colonel Hannax opened the first private Garden near Debrooghur in 1850-51. By 1853 three further Gardens in Seebsaugor and six in Luckimpore had been planted out ; while, by the end of 1859, after innumer- able difficulties had been overcome, the number had been increased to fifty-one. In the meantime private enterprise had ascertained that Tea could be grown in other and healthier districts than Assam, and during the period 1850-60 several Gardens had been opened out in Sylhet, Cachar, Darjeeling, Chitta- gong, and a few in the Kumaon and Hazareebagh districts, Assam stiU con- tinuing, as it has, indeed, to the present day, to engage the bulk of attention. We doubt if any of the Gardens paid their way up to the year 1860, but of this we are convinced that, had the Industry been then left to itself to develop, the good results which it has since atbiined would have been much earlier declared. It was at this critical time, however, at what we might call its turning-point, that influences were brought to bear upon the Industry which threw it back several years, and all but proved its ruin. Tea was, in fact, ( 1 ) brought into a most unenviable notoriety, from which it has not completely recovered up to the present. To describe rightly how the Tea mania was brought about, it will be necessary to explain the conditions under which planters held their lands. In the earlier days of Tea, Government was anxious to foster its cultivation; it was ready to grant suitable tracts of land on very easy terms, but, as the Industry further developed itself, and applicants for grants came forward more freely, more stringent Rules were introduced, culminating in the Assam Rules of 1854. These Rules were particularly unpopular with cultivators ; nor is it to be wondered at that they were so, considering that they only allowed 99 years' leases, under heavy clearance conditions. Complaints with reference to them were loud and frequent, till, in 1861, they were supplemented by what are generally known as Lord Canning's Rules, which, among other reasonable concessions, permitted the redemption of land in fee simple. Symptoms of the Tea mania had already shown themselves before these Rules were published ; but shortly after their promulgation, it broke out in aU its force. It was the period of the American War, when rapid fortunes were being made on both sides of India, and when the attention of capitalists in all parts of the world was turned to this country. Speculators saw their opportunity, and made the best of it. From the good results attained by a few private Gardens, exaggerated pictures were drawn of the enormous profits to be made by working with large capital. Companies were hurriedly formed, and land taken up in the most reckless fashion, and there was as eager a rush for shares in the new Concerns as there was a few years later for Port Canning scrip. Those were greedy days, when men hoped to get rich by strides, and it would have been well for the Tea Industry had the new Rules been framed with a view to check instead of to foster speculation : but unfortunately this was not the case. AVhat took place in those evil days is thus described in " Papers regard- ing the Tea Industry in Bengal," printed in 1874 : — " The chief object of sueciilators during the Tea mania was to get possession of one or move lots of wastff land, and the suspension of the clauses in the Waste Land Rules providing for demarcation and survey, previous to sale, made it very easy of attainment. The next step t-ifcen by the more honest among them was to try and bring portions of their lots under some sort of resemblance to Tea cultivation in as short a time as practicable. Local labour was hired at any rnte which the laborers chose to ask for. Tea seed was purchased at extravagant prices. The earth was scratched up, and the seed being laid down, the speculator considered himself free to form a (Jompauy, which was started by buying the lauds he had scarcely finished clearing and sowiu" on as accomplished Tea gardens, and what still remained of undesirable waste at a cost out of all proportion to the amount he had contracted to pay for it to the State, and to what it was worth. Bnt in time even such a pretence of cultivation as has been described in the previous lines was thought too slow, and more enterprising traders found their account in persuading shareholders to invest in Tea gardens that were actually not in existence at all. A remarkable instance of this occurred in the Nowgon" district where the [udian Manager of a promoter of Companies in Londou was advised by his employer to clear and plant a certain area of waste land for delivery to a Company to whom he had just sold it as a Tea garden.''' The evils above described were not confined to Assam, but were extend- ed, though certainly to a less degree, to (iichar, Darjeeling, and Chittagong. In the latter district whole tracts of land utterly unfit for Tea cultivation steep hills and used-up paddy land, were taken up, and resold to others at enormous profits. The inevitable sequence of the greed and folly of the period 1864-67 was the coUaiise of several of the mushroom Companies, and a strono- reaction against Tea. The mania was succeeded by a panic. In place of the rush to ( 5 ) possess Tea property regardless of cost, there was now a still more eager desire to get rid of it at any price. Gardens which had been sold for enormous sums now went a-begging at a few hundred Rupees. Tea shares which had been run up to heavy premiums were pressed on the market for mere nominal values, all that their holders wished being to get their nani(;s as quickly as possible off the Registers, and be quit of Tea for ever. Men had become bankrupts through Tea, borrowed money which they had no hope of repaying on account of Tea, ruined their friends through Tea, — till its very name was odious. It took its place for the time among the many com- mercial Bubbles of the period, and everything connected with it was viewed with suspicion. So serious was the crisis, that Government considered itself called upon to interfere, and early in 1868 appointed a Commission to enquire into the state of the Indiistry. Its report was confined to Assam, Cachar, and Sylhet, the result confirm- ing what every well-wisher of Tea supposed to be the case : that is to saj^, the old Gardens were found to be generally in a flourishing state where they had not been injured by stock-jobbing influences, but the Commission pretty strongly intimated that the sooner some of the newly-opened Gardens were wound up, the better it would be for all parties concerned. It took some time to re-establish confidence, so heavy was the blow the Industry had received. In fact, there are still people who have such a painful recollection of those times that they refuse to the present day to believe anything good of the Industry, and look upon an investment in Tea as an act of reckless daring. But there were others who were not slow to recognise the fact that Tea properly worked was certain to become valuable property ultimately, and it is a fortunate cir- cumstance that most of the Gardens which changed hands at this period were taken up by men determined to give the Industry another fair trial, while it is gratifying to know that most of them, with a judicious outlay of capital and a moderate display of perseverance and patience, have realized the expec- tations of their purchasers. There is little probability now of the former mistakes being repeated, Tea having settled down into its place as one of the staple products of India, with a fair future before it. — From A. F. DoioUng's Tea Notes. INDIAN TEA PRODUCING DISTRICTS. In describing the produce of the different districts, it is not proposed to give exhaustive particulars of each production, but rather to point out one or two of the most prominent features respecting them. Experience teaches, and it should be remembered, that there are often good and indifferent Teas sent from the same district ; and although some dis- tricts have never acquired the credit of producing very excellent tea, and others have degenerated, yet the good teas from such districts often surpass the indifferent teas from a good district. Occasionally, also, a description which will be true of the teas of a dis- trict as a whole, may be falsified by some special parcel which has turned out much better or much worse than its fellows. This will, of course, be readily understood when it is considered that each district extends over many miles, and comprises within its limits Gardens in various stages of cultivation, and that the varieties of " hybrids " between the indigenous tree and the China bush exceed one hundred. There is one remarkable difference between Indian and China teas, and that is, while second, third, and fourth-crop China teas are different in charac- ( c^ ) ter, and respectively inferior the one to the other, there is nothino; in Indian Tea to proclaim its relationship to any particular crop or feathering. The number of times an Indian bush is plucked varies considerably, according to the position and soil of the Garden and the state of the weather. When all things are favourable, some trees will yield as many as sixteen or seventeen flushes (pickings), while occasionally only five or six can be obtained. The following are the principal districts from which the supply of Indian teas is obtained : — Assam. DarjeeKng. Cachar and Sylhet. Kangra. Dehra Dhoon. Kumaon and Simla. Hazaribagh (Chota Nagpore). Chittagong. Neilgherries (Madras), Dooars. Julpigoorie. Ramgurh. Assam. — Indian teas from the district of Assam are nearly always strong and pungent, the brokens, in addition, being thick and rich. The colour of the infused leaf is a ruddy brown, with a tendency to red. The dry leaf is a dull, greyish black. The finer sorts are evenly curled, and abound with Pekoe tips. Assam is the home of the indigenous plant, and its hot, moist climate and rich soil are nearly perfect for tea-growing. Daejeeling. — Darjeelings are full and very flavoury, but are not so pun- gent as Assams. The infusion is, or should be, bright. The dry leaf is black- er, but, taking the average, is scarcely as tightly twisted as that of Assam teas. Darjeelings from the Terai below Darjeeling are probably the Ijcst pure- drinking teas that are brought to England ; for full flavour, smoothness, and rich strength, they are unequalled. Occasionally Darjeelings are found that do not possess the flavour for which the district is justly famous. The tea, then, is soft and, insipid, and is useless for increasing the flavour of a blend. Most of the plants in Darjee- ling are from China seed. Cachae. — Teas from this district are in character between the Assam and the Darjeeling. They are not so pungent as the Assams, nor are they as flavoury as the Darjeeling, but neither their strength nor flavour is to l>e des- pised. The leaf is blacker than the Assams. The liquor is rather soft, and occasionally fruity, with a tendency to be slightly burnt. The majority of the Cachar trees are hybrids. Sylhet. — Sylhet produces teas that are' similar to those of Cachar, but are more pungent. Kangea. — Teas grown in the Kangra Valley are fine, delicate, and aro- matic. Their infused leaf is \-ery bright, and the flavour is even considered superior to that of the Darjeelings, but unfortunately they are often thin. Dehba Dhoon. — Dehra Dhoon teas are mostly thin, high-burnt, and rather sour. Occasionally the flavour is rather earthy. They are not very much sought after. Kumaon and Simla. — These teas are somewhat similar to Kangras. They are very flavoury, and sometimes rich, but are not unfrequently thin, and occasionally the flavour is not of a very high order. DEHRA DUN TEAS. The remark as to Dehra Dun Teas in page 6 requires qualification ; for of late years they have considerably inaproved, and the faults formerly characterizing them have now disappeared. For years the Dehra Dun Planters found it more advan- tageous to manufacture their leaf into green tea to supply a local paying demand, and it was only on this local demand becoming extremely uncertain and irregular, owing to troubles on the frontier, that they were forced to change their manufacture to black teas. For a time their buildings and manufacturing space were too limited for the changed system, and the usual appliances were wanting, so that teas were very irregular in qualitv, and often inferior. We are glad to say that, with the introduction of improved methods, the teas now being made in the Doon compare favourably with our finest hill teas, being described as " well-made, with thick rich liquor," and " well-made leaf, thick good flavor." ( 7 ) Hazaribagh (Chota Nagpork). — The infused leaf of these teas is very bright. The liquors are fresh and flavoury, but also sometimes weak and sickly. Chittagong. — Chittagong teas are strong, thick, and almost nutty in character. They are good, useful teas, and for their great strength are ia considerable demand. Neilgherrt (Madras). — The Neilgherry Hills produce fancy green teas. The black teas from these hills arc, perhaps, the most inferior of all Indian teas. When Neilgherry teas were first imported, the flavour was deci- dedly objectionable. It has now slightly improved, but is still far from perfection. The liquor is thin, and the dry leaf black and tippy. These Neil- gherry teas from Madras must not be confused with the Assam Neilgherry teas, which are strong, rough, and pungent. DoOARS. — The teas produced in this district are similar in character to those of Cachar, but, being considerably stronger, are more valuable for blending. JuLPiGOORiE. — Julpigoorie teas have a very bright infused leaf, and a thick, rich, but rather soft, liquor. Ramgurh. — The infused leaf of this is also bright. The liquor is fine and fresh, but thin, and inclined to be sickly. SECTION II. FORESTS AND CLIMATE, DROUGHT AND RAINFALL. Trees as a protection to Tea from hot or violent Winds. Tea Climates in India and Ceylon. Rainfall of Indian Tea Districts. ( 10a ) DROUGHT. In India, happily, we do not suffer mucli from Drought, as far as Tea Cul- tivation is concerned, although we may not always get the amount of rainfall we require. But it will probably be a matter of some surprise to many to learn that Cultivation has a marked influence in the sense of utilizing and re- furnishing the moisture which falls as rain. The general idea has been that rain once absorbed by the soil does not give much back again to the atmos- phere ; but it will be seen that such is the case, to a greater extent than is supposed. A very interesting Paper on this subject, by Dr. B. Puryear, was read some time ago at the Richmond College in America, where the Professor of Chemistry spoke as follows : — " Have we any remedy against droughts ? To no inconsiderable extent we have, aud that remedy is deep plowing. 1. Deeply -plowed lands receive, when rains are abundant, into their sub- stance, aU or nearly all the water that falls ; none, or little, runs off from the surface. Such lands have therefore a large storehouse of water from which plants may draw their supplies — crops will stand a drought better for this rea- son. But the farther the water sinks into the substance of soil, the smaller is the amount which the hot sun of summer will evaporate. Twelve inches be- neath the surface the soil is many degrees cooler in summer than the surface ; and hence if the soil be once saturated to that depth, much less water is dissipa- ted and lost by solar heat. Deeply-plowed lands, therefore, not only receive into their substance much water, when rains are copious, but hold this water with greater grip and tenacity. 2. A deeply-pulverized soil is permeable by the atmosphere, and the atmos- phere, how dry soever, always contains some aqueous vapor. In a perfectly- dry atmosphere our bodies would shrivel in a very few hours into mummies ; all plants would wilt and die in a day. When the atmosphere can descend deeply into the soil, the cool soil deprives the aqueous vapor of heat, and so converts it into water, and deposits it just where it is most needed, about the rootlets of plants. In other words, in deeply-plowed lands dew is being depo- sited in varying quantities all the time about the roots. Here is another reason, why crops stand droughts better in deeply-plowed lands. 3. Water is always rising from below by the capillarity of the soil, but it rises slowly through a hard and compact soil — with ease through a deeply- pulverized soil. Hence the more deeply the soil is plowed, the larger will be the amount of water drawn up from below by capillary attraction. Can philosophy draw comfort from a drought ? When the fields are dry and parched, when the water-courses are failing, and our domestic animals are pinched both for food and water, and the farmers' hopes are blasted — are there no compensating advantages ? We think there are, and we give them for the comfort of the despairing and despondent. During a drought the soil is 'collecting its forces, and recuperating its energies for better work in the en- suing season. Let us see : If from a damp cellar we take a cube of cut sugar, and touch a point to water, the water will strike slowly through the mass of sugar ; but if we take a cube of cut sugar made perfectly dry by exposure to the hot sun, and touch it to water, the water in a moment flashes through the lump. The diflFerence with which the two lumps receive water is striking and obvious. The dry lump in a tenth of the time will receive ten times as much water into its substance as the moist lump. It is just so with the earth — the dry lump ( 105 ) of sugar represents the eartli in dronglit ; the drier the soil, the stronger is the tendency of water to rise from below to the sarfice, where it is evaporated. But water never comes to the surface simply as water ; it must come charged with all the soluble material which it has encountered in its ascent to the sur- face; it brings with it the nitrates, the alkaline salts and compounds, which have been exposed far below to its solvent action. When a solid is dissolved in water it is no longer solid, but is as liquid as water, and must go wherever water goes. It can part company with the water only at or near the surface, where the water changes its form and becomes vapor. But these salts lately dissolved in water become solid again when the water is lost by evaporation. The more severe and protracted the drought, the greater the depth from which the water will rise, and hence the greater its opportunity of meeting and dissolving solids and bringino" them in solution to the surface, where they are deposited for the benefit of the ensuing crop. During a drought, then, that mightiest power in the Universe, that exhaustless source of all power, the great Sun, is drawing no from depths inaccessible to the spade and the plow, the soluble matter of the earth, and putting it where it is most useful to the farmer, /'* the siirfiire- sriil . This water as it comes up brings what the farmer needs, and only what he needs : it brings up only soluble matter, and it is only soluble matter in the soil that can feed the growing plant The substances that the plant derives from the soil are solids ordinarily ; but they did not get into the plant as solids — all come up into the vegetable circulation in solution. Again, no mechanical redaction could put this material, brought np by water, in so comminuted a condition. It was lately dissolved, more finely divided than could be effected by the boasted machinery of our dav. When the water leaves it, it is therefore in the hesh possible condition for solution aoain. It is fully and freely available in consequence of its excessive com- munication, far more so than if the same amount of the same fertilizing material had been ground and bolted by the most perfect machinery at our command. A year of hard drought is sure to be followed, if the seasons be moderate- ly favorable, by a year of plenty. The crop gets the advantage of all the soluble material drawn up and deposited near the surface during the drought of the preceding year. " The remarks, it will be seen, have more especial reference to agricultural crops, but the principles underlying may be equally applied to Tea, and go to teach us that we should keep the soil between the lines of Tea-bushes as open as possible, because, as is shown, water, if not prevented by hard, caked soil, will always rise from below by the capiliarity of the soil itself. This is a very beautiful and interesting theory, which of course underlies the principle of Cul- tivation, but which nevertheless we may not always pay sufficient regard to. In fact it is not uncommon to find the lines of soil between Tea resemblincr rather narrow beaten pathways than anything else, and although they are and must be necessarily to a certain extent used as such, yet the necessity of keep- ing the soil there as open as possible, from time to time, should not be lost sight of. ( 11 ) TREES AS A PROTECTION TO A TEA GARDEN FROM HOT OR VIOLENT WINDS. By the Editor of the Indian ForeMer. In the correspondence column of the Indian Tea Gazette of the 4th April 1881, two letters have appeared, which discuss the practical benefit derived from trees or shrubs as affording protection to a Tea Garden against hot winds. As all the services which trees are capable of rendering to the community form a subject of study for forest officers, and the power of resistance to the wind possessed by belts of trees is an important consideration in arranging the order of felling (assiette des coupes), I hope that the following remarks may prove interesting to the readers of the Indian Forester, and, if at the same time they are of any service to the correspondents of the Indian Tea Gazette, whose letters have called them forth, my object in writing them will be fully attained. The effect of forests in tempering and checking the force of the wind is frequently alluded to by writers on forest economy ; and if I quote a few of the passages which I have met with, it is because I think that will be the most conclusive manner of testifying to this important role of protection which trees and forests perform for the benefit of neighbouring cultivation. The Americans, who have often been reproached with the wanton destruc- tion of their forests, are now endeavouring to re-establish them. A notice on the subject, by Mr. G. P. Marsh, which occurs in the Eei-ue des Eaux et Forets for October 1880, under the title, Le rehoisement aux Etnta-Unis, begins by pointing out the value of trees to the settler on the prairie as a protection against the wind. The passage, translated from the French, is as follows : — " None can better appreciate the benefits conferred by forests than the settler on the prairie, whose dwelling is ever exposed, as a ship on the ocean, to the fury of the violent and changeful winds which sweep across the bare and level plains where no obstacle checks their impetuous career. " Seated by the hearth in the depth of winter, when his dwelling, buried in snow, looks like a mole-hiU in the midst of a vast expanse of moorland, he regrets that, when some 20 or 30 years ago he was selecting a site for his dwelling, he did not plant out with trees a few patches of hundreds of acres of which his holding consists. Had he done so, his house would now be snug and quiet, with a fine clump of trees to shelter it from the north-west wind. His garden would not be dried up by the first dry wind of Summer ; and he would not see his fruit blown off and destroyed by the wind. " There are very few among the pioneers of the far ^Vest who have had this forethought ; but the wisdom of those few is now so manifest, that from one end of the prairie to the other it is felt that the planting of trees is an object of public importance." As shewing the advantages expected from this planting of trees, the last paragraph of the extract from The Scientific American, entitled: "Preservation of Forests," which appeared in the Indian Forester for July 1879, may be quoted: — " Any State where these precautions" (planting groves of trees, quickset-hedges, trees on road sides, &c.) " should be generally adopted, would soon be so unmistakeably distinguished by the unfailing humidity and fresh- ness of its fields and the abundance of its crops that the sheer necessity of competition would induce backward neighbours to try the same experiment, and before long the maxim would not only be generally recognized, but generally acted upon, that husbandry and tree-culture are inseparable." ( 12 ) This certainly points to practical benefit to be derived by agriculture or other cultivation from the planting of trees in their vicinity ; and this, too, without its being necessary to establish extensive forests, or even to distribute the trees with the special object of forming a protective belt. Forests, too, are efFectual in tempering the winds, rendering the climate of the place more equable — (Baudrillart Dictionnaire Forestier.) A writer in the " Independance Beige' of 18th June 1865 thus describes the effect of forest trees: — " 1st. — They prevent the sun's rays from reaching the ground and heating it. " 2nd. — By the expanse of branches and leaves they multiply the cooling surfaces affected by nocturnal radiation. " 8rd. — The upper layers of the air, cooled in the tree-tqjis of the forest, sink by their increased density towards the earth, and thus is kept \vp a degree of cold considerable in its intensity, and thereby a well maintained moisture. " From what has just been stated it may be clearly deduced by scientific reasoning that forests lower the temperature of their locality and render the climate at once cooler and moister." I believe that these views are rather one-sided, and that the fact really is that, as forests absorb or part with heat very slowly, and as the air inside the forests is not renewed so freely as it is in the open, forests have an equalizing and regulating effect on the heat of the local climate, and tend to absorb the heat of hot winds, and to give back this heat as the weather becomes colder. In the "Transactions of the Academy of Science of France" {Coinptes Rendues) Vol. LX., sitting of the 10th April 1865, a memorandum may be found which establishes the opinion that forests afford shelter from the wind to cultivation in their neighbourhood ; and it is pointed out that this action is more efl^ectual the higher the trees. It has been noticed in many countries that extensive denudation has caused hot vsdnds in summer and hail-storms in winter. Thus the occurrence of hail-storms has been remarked in the vineyards of many parts of France to have been caused by the destruction of a screen of forest vegetation which previously warded off the winds and their attendant storms. A well-known instance of the protection afforded by plantations of trees is the great work of fixing the rolling sand-hills in the Departments of the Gironde and Landef:, which was first effected by Bremontier, and is still being carried on. In this case not only had the wind to be combated, but the substance of a moving range of sand-hills to be consolidated, so that the wind should not be able to roll it, piecemeal, inland. The authority of M. Lorentz and Parade (Culture des bois} will, I feel sure, be admitted on this subject to be the best that can be adduced. Speak- ing of the climate of plains, (p. 21, 5th edition) we are told that " the absence of large surfaces of water by an increased heat and drought in summer and in winter, adds to the intensity of the cold." As regards the eftect of a belt of trees in protecting the ground behind it from the wind, the third chapter of the Work just quoted, treating of the laying out compartments of forest for felling, contains much that is instructive. The following passage (pp. 205, 206) is particularly applicable : — " It is an addition to the advantages of the rule we have just been discussing to leave standing on the West and South margins of the forest, when the feelings reach those parts, a belt of trees forming deeji forest of a width more or less considerable (100 to 50 feet) according as the place is exposed or sheltered, ( 13 ) as the trees are deep-rooted or the reverse, &c. It is well known that near the margins of a wood the trees are generally more branchy and stunted, and more firmly rooted than in the interior, and that having grown up under the constant action of the wind, they naturally withstand its violence better. Monsieur Bagneris, in his lifaitMel de Syloicultvre, concludes his remarks on the admitted climatic effect of forests in these words : — " Lastly, the forests break the force of the winds and check their violence " Again Cp. 218J on the subject of laying out compartments for felling : " When the side directly ex- posed to the wind is reached, it is always necessary to maintain intact on that side a zone to be kept up as deep forest and worked by selection fellings. The width to be given to this belt must vary according to the resistance it has to offer ; but, to be effectual, it is seldom that it can be made less than a hundred yards wide." On exposed ridges or plateaux, as well as in narrow valleys swept by the wind, it is often iiecessary to increase the width. In the " Independance Beige" of the 20th June 1865 the use of forests as screens to protect cultivation from the wind is discussed. Their influence — (and Arago is cited in support of this view) — is one of equalization ; and the writer proceeds to say : " It is for man, and particularly for the agriculturist, to know how to constitute such screens as will be free from any drawbacks that might be presented by dense forests of vast extent. Now for this purpose extensive forests are needed not ; screens of trees, quick-set hedges, plantations round the homestead and along the roads, will afford ample shelter, without occasioning, as forests might, late spring frosts, and thereby often endangering the crops." The circumstances of different localities must necessarily vary so greatly that no rule can be laid down as to the width of the belt of trees ; but as re- gards shrubs and quick-set hedges affording ample shelter, that, I think, depends on the intensity of the danger to be counteracted and the extent of ground to be protected. The resistance of the belt of trees will be in proportion to its density and the firmness with which the trees in it are rooted ; the extent of ground it will protect will be greater or less as the trees forming it are tall or short. I believe that the distance behind the belt to which the shelter extends is about twenty times the height of the screen. No doubt there is some mathe- matical formula, whereby, with certain data, it might be computed ; but the surest and simplest plan will be to rely on actual observation in each case. One may expect that a low wind sweeping over a level plain, and a wind com- ing in a slanting direction, as from the side of a mountain, would not be coun- teracted to the same extent by a belt of trees of a given height, — so that I should expect to find the extent of ground sheltered to depend very much on the angle of incidence of the wind. As to the best kinds of trees to be planted, in the absence of existing tim- ber, they must above aU be suitable to the soil and climate — of hardy growth, capable of growing up in the exposed situation where they are to be placed. Such as are gregarious and will form dense thicket are to be preferred, and valuable kinds, if suitable in other respects, should be used in preference to those which are useless as timber, if the winds to be counteracted are constant, evergreen trees which keep their foliage 'throughout the year are to be preferred to deciduous kinds. According as the winds are hot or cold the kinds should be chosen which are best suited in this respect; thus, in Europe, the Scotch fir (Pinus Sylvestris, Linn.) is found to resist cold better than the maritime pine {Pinus maritima, Linn.), which, in the winter of 1879, succumbed to the cold extensively in the north and centre of France. Sissu {Dalhergia Sissoo, Roxb.), which is recommended, I see, by two of the Tea Gazette correspondents as suitable for planting in amongst the ( 14 ) bushes, would be very useful also for the belt of jungle, as it is gregarious and hardy, growing in the stoniest soil of river-beds exposed to the winds which sweep down the valleys. It is also a quick grower, and the wood is valuable for cart-wheels, furniture, gun-carriages, &c. ; but it does not, as a rule, form compact or dense forest. It would be useful on the outside of the belt, by its hardy temperament and firm root-hold. Bamboos have the advantage of growing to their full height very quick- ly and when propagated by off-sets they form good-sized clumps in three or four years. A Tea Gaz. correspondent remarks that the bamboos in his part of the country are all flowering, and asks if there is no remedy to prevent their dyino- after running to seed. I believe there is not. In Drury's " Useful plants, " 2nd edition, p. 64, we find that " at the age of 15 years the bamboo is said to bear fruit — a whitish seed-like rice, and then to die." I have noticed that the forest bamboo of the Terai, (Dendrocalamus Hamiltonij) is flowering pretty generally this year ; but the phenomenon does not universally affect all the bamboos. I have also noticed clumps of this bamboo in a languishing condition, which had lately flowered. The hamboo is vei'i/ useful to Tea Planterx^ and is frequently planted on estates in the Darjeeling Terai. It is also very firmly rooted, and the clumps have a good broad base. This is important, at least for the outside of the belt, as they may be used in place of deep-rooted trees should the soil not be deep enough for their growth. But whatever tree or shrub is used on the outside, all the low branches must be kept. Stunted trees with branches feathering dovTi to the ground, will be most useful. At page 68 of the Indian Forester for July 1880 this sentence occurs :^ " In exposed situations both the pruning and thinning of trees should be much lighter round those margins of plantations which face the prevailing high winds of the district. By too close packing it often happens that only the face of the very outermost trees are dotted with foliage, so that any injury to one of these admits the destructive winds. This may be guarded against by a judicious early thinning of such margins, so as to secure a belt of low- branched trees. — (A. J. Burrows, in The Garden.}" The India rubber {Ficus elastica, Roxb.) wordd be a good evergreen tree for the outside edge where permanent foliage is desirable. It wiU grow in most soils provided they are well drained and permeable ; and it also requires plenty of simlight. Its roots take firm hold of the soil. Cedrela Toona might also be grown as suggested. It is a shade-loving tree, and its being planted amongst other kinds would draw it up with a fine clean stem, so that the trees would be likely to give good timber. The toon is capable of attain- ing a height of seventy feet or thereabouts, but requires a moist rich soil and a sheltered situation : otherwise its growth is stunted. The young plants are apt to be broken by deer browsing on the leaves. The new shoots also suffer from th(^ attacks of a grub which eats into the pith. If the soil is suitable it would be worth while to grow toon, as the timber is greatly esteemed for teu-hnxes and furniture. As regards the raising of sissu in a nursery, as recommended by a cor- respondent of the Tea Gazette, in a recent issue of that Journal, I think under the circumstances it would be a waste of time. Sown broadcast, sissu germi- nates very readily, and the seedlings grow far more rapidly than the plants raised in the nursery and then transplanted. It would be better to sow broadcast over the whole' of the proposed belt, and to thin out any plants required for planting in the Tea, replacing them by toon, &c. Sissu seed is very plentifully produced, and is easy of collection, as the pods are indehiscent, and there is no tlanger in lea\'ing it to get fully ripe upon the trees. ( 15 ) Toon-seed, ho^yeve^, should be colloctcd us soon tis the fruit begins to ripen, for if the capsules are left to open, all the scH'd, which is very light, will be lost. Toon may with advantage he raisiMl in a nursery, as it requires par- ticular care to screen the seed-beds from the sun, and to protect the young seedlings for the first few wctdis. To cttV^ct this, a rough roof of elephant grass or loosely-woven mats, through which the. sunshine can filter as through a cullender, should be erected over the s(H'(l-beds. The seed should only be lightly sprinkled o-\-er with earth. The best time for sowing is early in the rains, as soon after the seed has been collected as the ground gets damp and warm. The germination of the seed of Finis elastica is rather difficult. It re- quires a well-drained soil, yet a warm moist atmosphere like that of a green- house; the seed should be fresh gathered ; the bods should be heaped up in little . mounds, and the seed sprinlded on the sides of the mounds. Pounded brick and charcoal have been tried as soils for the seed-beds. I would recommend a compost more apt to retain moisture, — a mixture of pounded brick, charcoal, decayed leaf-mould, and moss gathered from the branches of trees, and that the momids be made 'with this. Water should be given often enough to keep the seed-beds moist, but they should not be deluged with water, nor should very cold water be given, but having the same temperature as the soil. The Ficus elastica grows readily from cuttings, if struck in soil that has been well hoed up, and the cuttings are put in during rainy weather when the soil is warm, say July or August, in a sunny place. Wherever possible it would of course be j (referable to utilize existing trees ; for, however quick-growing the kinds planted may be, it will take a long time for them to attain their full height, or, in other words, their maximum protective effcttt. To judge, howe\'er, by the opinion of a corres- pondent of the Indian Tea Gazette who writes from the NiJgiris, jjlanters do not always select the site of their plantations with a careful regard to the local conditions affecting climate. He says : " I am inclined to the idea that a want of special knowledge has contributed greatly to the non-success of tea- growing here. In many instances very cx])Osed windy situations have been chosen instead of the low-lying humid -^alleys ; and sometimes, I think, fixing the site of a bungalow on a nice snot, and Inning the tea cultivation close by, has had something to do with it." It is interesting to see that tea- planters, who occupy a most important area in many districts, and have a great landed interest in the Country, take interest in forests for the sake of the protection they afford, as well as for the produce they may yield. Lindley, in his Theory and Practice of across the windy field, and of a thick forest Borticvltnre, Yiiites oi " tlie great importance border outside ; which would cost labour and of screens, which break the wind, and keep time and money, it is true, but none of which in gardens of walls the air in repose in their would be grudged for real benefit ; but to-day vicinity." it was very windy (a, cold wind this time), Now, I know of " a garden" which at times and looking up to the sky the wind seemed to is visited by rude Boreas with much too be coming down at an angle of about forty- nrdent liberties — the warmth of his attentions five degrees, if not actually straight down; being sometimes distressing. But can these and this made me pause in my mental plans, liberties be effectually stopped 1 Walls and and think " how high and how close would screens may do, 1 think, in narrow little the walls or screens of trees need to be to English gardens; but our so-called gardens resist with any real effect a wind like this. " are veaWy fields ; and how would you mitigate A wind driven by a fan through a pipe one the evil effects of a too warm wind out in the might nullify and quench, however hot or open fields 1 powerful ; but how about a wind that, when I have an elaborate plan in my mind of yon turn your face sky-wards, buffets you on thick rose-hedges and of leafy trees in thickly- the brow 1 Is it any good to think of plant- pianted belts all running parallel to each other ing, watching, and tending rose-hedgea and ( IG ) shrubs and thick trees when the winJ, after all, may blow over the heads of them all, and mock me for my pains ? Trees planted ajoMi the garden judiciously might do; but these, being more scattered, would need more expensive nurturing and fostering : and I am afraid that the wind would slip undur them, and mock one all the same. I begin to fear that the relief from any sys- tem of tree or shrub-planting would be very partial, and limited to the tea-bushes in the immediate vicinity of such ; and that, apart from the indefinite benefit from the presence of the trees themselves, labour, money, time. and valuable space might be sacrificed for no adequate benefit ; but can any one tell me anything from his own practical experience, or give me his theoretical views ? I am writing of a garden, not, like many in Assam, winding by the sinuosities of a well- wooded Jam, but of one on an open space, as yet too slightly wooded. F, Sib, — "F." " special correspondent" for DehraDoon, wants to know "the practical benefit, if any, of trees or slirubs as a means of stopping the force and effects of the wind ?" I gather from ''F.'s" letter that the garden he knows of is visited by hot winds ; they cannot, however, have a very long and last- ing effect, otherwise the very creditable yield of " 420 lbs. of tea per acre over an area of 712 acres" could not surely be obtained. All the same the winds must be very bad for tea. no matter how slight, and I for one can, I think, understand " F.'s" apparent anxiety to overcome the evil caused by them. There is no doubt that trees do toa certain extent break the force and effect of wind, and as the garden "F." alludes to is •' on an open space as yet too slightly wooded," it would certainly do no harm to plant more trees all over it. I would recommend his laying down nurse- ries of Sissoo, (the seed must be easily procur- able in the Doon,) and removing the seed- lings when they have well grown, and are 3 to 4 feet high. I would plant them all over the garden— in the tea, and by the roads ; any ground in, or near the garden not fit for tea might, I think, advantageously be turned into a clump ol Sissoo-trees. I suggest the Sissoo, as I know tea grows well under its shade, as it's not a surface feeder, and consequently strikes its roots well down, and not into the tea bush. If I had ever so little hot wind to contend against, I would be very careful to leave the outside of my bushes well covered, so that my hiishrx thcmxi'ln-.t mif/lit offer resistance to suoli mind, and I would be very careful how I thinned out. I would cultivate my garden highly, so "that my liiskes movld, he aVle to stand a HI tie hot wind. I would see that the bushes arc in a good healthy state, and not being over-pruned or over-plucked ; but I be- lieve the best advice I can give "F." is to do pretty much the same as is done where they get 426 lbs. of tea per acre over an area of 712 acres, which is certainly Moi ladtoia "non- regulation Tea district." E. "F." writes to ask if any plan can be de- vised for protecting a Plantation that suffers from the hot winds. His idea of planting belts of trees, and thick rose-hedges would, in my belief, be not found to answer practi- cally, though in theory it seems good. Not only would it be a very expensive and trouble- some operation planting out and tending thia belt of trees, but in the end it would not pro- tect the whole of his garden, but simply have effect on those bushes immediately alongside. ISIo belt of trees, unless dense, and all but im- penetrable, and irom 50 to 100 yards wide, could effectually break the force of the liot winds we have sometimes in April and May. I believe there is no complete remedy for a garden so exposed, so we must look for a partial mitigation of the evil only. It is not only the scorching dry winds, but also the burning vertical rays of the sun, that shrivel up and kill the bush. This last evil can easi- ly be overcome by planting suitable trees in among the tea. It costs comparatively little, and trees can easily be manured, pruned, hoed, etc., at the same time as the surrounding te.i. The tTee,faeile princeps. for a tea plan- t.ition, is the Sissum or yissoo (Dalhergia .s/.vsKo), for the following reason ; it is a fast grower : has deep roots, not surface feeders ; it is covered with foliage during the hottest time of the year, giving a light equable shade, and it sheds all its leaves and seed-pods during the cold weather, when shade is not wanted, the leaves, etc., forming valuable leaf-mould ; added to this, it is a handsome tree. Ne.xt to the Hissum, one might plant the Toon (Cedrela Tovna), which is also a good tree, but not so good as the former. Both are valuable as timber. Besides these two, I would not plant any other kind of tree in among the tea, — .all others seem to have some injurious effect. But above all, never have a mulberry even close to tea : its roots spread out and are almost entirely surface feeders, and the dropping of leaves and ben-ies have a sort of blighting effect on anything growing underneath. There are a number of other trees that do undoubted harm to the tea bush, but they are too m.-iny to numerate here, and I believe are fairly well known to those interested in the matter. TEA (JLIMATEH IN INDIA. The climate required for Te.T is a hot damp one. As a rvile, a good Tea climate is not a healthy one. The rainfall should not he l(>ss than 80 to 100 inches per annum, and the more of this that falls iu the early part of the year ( 17 ) the better. Any climate whicli though possessiiio- an aliunilunt ramfall suff(u's from dronght in the early part of the year, is not, ca'tcris ^xirilmn, so good as one ■where the rain is more equally diffused. All the Tea districts would yield better with more rain in February, March, and April ; and therefore some- where fogs preTail in the mornings at the early part of the year, are so far benefited. As any drought is prejudicial to Tea, it stands to reason hot winds must be very bad. These winds argue great aridity, and the Tea plant luxuriates in continual moisture. The less cold weather experienced where Tea is, the better for the plant. It can stand, and will grow in, great cold (freezing point, and lower in winter, is found in some places where Tea is), but I do not think it will ever be grown to a profit on such sites. That Tea requires a temperate climate was long believed and acted upon by many, to their loss. The climate cannot be too hot for Tea if the heat is accompanied with moisture. Tea grown in temperate climes, such as moderate elevations in the Hima- layas, is quite diiferent to the Tea of hot moist climates, such as Eastern Ben- gal. Some people Idee it better, and certainly the flavour is more delicate ; but it is very much weaker, -and the value of Indian Tea (in the present state of the home market, where it is principally used for gi'sdng ' body ' to the washy stuff from China) consists in its strength. Another all-important point in fixing on a climate for Tea is the fact, that apart from the strength the yield is double in hot, moist climes, what it is in comparatively dry and temperate ones. A really pleasant climate to live in cannot be a good one for Tea. Assam. The climate in the northern portions is perfect, superior to the southern, as more rain falls in the spring. The climate of the whole of Assam, however, is very good for Tea. The Tea; plant yields most abundantly when hot sun- shine and showers mtervene. For climate, then, I accord the first place to Northern Assam. Southern Assam is, as observed, a little inferior. The Burhampootra — that vast river which runs from one end of Assam to the other — gives an easy mode of export for the Tea, but still, owing to the dis- tance from the sea-board, it cannot rank in this respect as high as some others. Cachae. The indigenous Tea is also found in a part of this province. The cli- mate differs but little from Assam. In one respect it is better ; more rain falls in the spring. Chittagong. The climate is better than Cachar in the one respect that there is less cold weather, but inferior in the more important fact that much less rain falls in the spring. In this latter respect it is also inferior to Assam, particularly to Nor- thern Assam. There is one part of Chittagong, the Hill Tracts, (Tea has scarcely been much tried there yet), which, in the fact of spring rains, is superior to other parts of the province, as also in soil, for it is much richer there. On the whole, however, Chittagong must yield the palm to both Assam and Cachar on the score of climate. Tbeai below Daejeeling. The climate is a good one, but there is not as much rain in the early part of the year as planters could wish. ( IS ) The Dbhba Doox. In climate the Dehra Dhoon is far from good. The hot diy weather of the North-west is not at all suited to the Tea plant. Hot winds shrivel it up, and though it recovers when the rains come down, it cannot thrive in such a climate. — [But it in grown there profitably. — Ed., /. T. G.] Kangea. This is a charming valley, with a delightful climate, more favourable to Tea than the Dehra Dhoon : still it is not a perfect Tea climate. It is too dry and too cold. Kangra is strictly a Himalavan district, but the elevation is moderate, — if I remember right about 3,000 fret, and the land is so shghtly sloping that it may almost be called level. Darjebling. The elevation of the Station, 6,900 feet, is far too great ; but plantations lower down do tolerably well (that is, well for hill gardens). The climate, like all hiU climates, is too cold. LUie elevations in Darjeeling and Kumaon are in favour of the former, Jirst, because the latitude is less ; ifecondly, be- cause Darjeeling has much more rain in the spring. I believe, therefore, that the hill plantations of Darjeeling have a better chance of paying than the gardens in Kumaon ; but, as stated before, no elevated gardens, that is, none in the Himalayas, have any chance in the race against plantations in the plains, — always providing the latter are in a good Tea climate. AH the plants in the Darjeeling gardens, with but few exceptions, are China. The China plant makes by far the best Green Tea, and I believe the Darjeeling gardens would pay much better than they do if they altered their manufacture from black to green. All Himalayan gardens should, in my opinion, make Green Tea (Kumaon has awoke to the fact), for aU have China plants, and can therefore make far better Green Tea than can be produced from Hybrid, which is so general in plains gardens.* Kumaon. , No hill climate can l>o a good one for Tea ; but the inner pai-t of Kumaon, very cold, owing to its elevation, high latitude, and distance from the plains, is a particularly bad one. An exhilarating and bracing climate for man is not suited to the Tea plant. The district has one sohtary advantage — rich soil. Could any part of Kum;ion al1s^ver for Tea it would be the lower eleva- tions in the outer ranges of the hills, but these are precisely the sites that have not been chosen. Led, as in my own case, partly by the Gdvernment example, partly by the wish to be out of sight of the ' horrid plains,' and in sight of that glorious panorama the Snowy Range, planters have chosen the interior of Kumaon. Some wisely (I was not one of them) selected low sites valleys sheltered from the cold winds ; but even their choice has not availed much. The frost in winter lingers longest in the valleys, and thouo-h doubt- less the yield there is larger, owing to the increased heat in summer the - When this was written the demand for Gree„ Tens i„ Europe was greater than it IS now. btill. Kumar... lias found a h.cal market for Green Tea over the buiUer— that is, among the Asiatic tdbes, and Darjeeling might do tlie same. ( 19 ) young plants suffer much in the winter. The outer ranges, owing to the heat radiating from the plains, are comparatively free from frost, but there again the soil is not so rich. Still, they would unquestionably be jireferable to the interior. Gurhwal is next to Kumaon, and so similar that I have not thought it necessary to discuss it separately. The climate is the same. Hazaebebaugh. The climate is too dry, and hot winds are felt there. Nbilghebeibs. The climate is superior to the Himalayan, for the frost is very slight. Were, however, more heat there in summer, it would be better. The temperate climate which holds on these ' blue mountains' is not fa- vourable to a large produce. Western Dooars. As regards climate, soil, and lay of land, it is perfect. — Col. Muney on Tea. TEA CLIMATES IN CEYLON. A contemporary, who ought to be an authority on Tea, has been writing in praise of high altitudes for that cultivation, and });ises his argument.-* in their favor on the alleged fact that certain estates in Darjeeling at 3,U0U feet have done better than was expected, though we are not told what constitutes "better," and the writer |in question goes on to argue that if tea will do well at 3,000 feet in a latitude 270 from the equator, we may safely go to 6,000 feet and over in Ceylon : a theory from which we beg to dissent. In an island like Ceylon, exposed to the full violence of the south-west monsoon, very much depends on position and exposure. Were we writing of the Uva side of the country, we should imhesitatingly adopt the theory, but certainly not on the Kandy side of Newera Eliya, where, as a compensation for the hea\-y rainfall, there must be heat, if paying flushes are to be had. Will anyone venture to assert that the upper portion of the Rambodde Pass, or the bleak, exposed portion of Upper Lindula, can ever become profitable localities for tea ? To talk of the healthi- ness of such situations is altogether beside the question. Colonel Money, writing on this subject, says: " A really pleasant climate cannot be a good one for tea, " — by pleasant he intended to convey the idea of a good bracing- cKmate. Again, speaking of the Kangra District, Colonel Money sa}"9 : " Kang- ra is not the best place for a man who wants to make money by tea ; but for one who would be content to settle there, and content to make a livelihood by it, a more desirable spot, with a more charming climate, could not be found." Further on he says : " No hiU climate can be a good one for tea. " " An exhilarating and bracing climate for man is not suited to the tea j)lant ;" and of Kumaon he adds : "The district has one solitary advantage, rich soil ; but even this cannot, in the case of Tea, counterbalance the climate." The contemporary who, perhaps not unnaturally, professes such strong faith in an altitude of 6,000 feet for tea in Ceylon, tells how the yield in Sylhet has been brought up to unprecedented amounts ; but then nothing is said as to the altitude of this prolific district, and, singularly enough, Money does not mention it in his Book ; but we find it alluded to in other Works as a flat coun- try, with a few alluvial ridges, and a heavy rainfall from April to November, which keeps the country inundated. ( 20 ) The reason wliy tlie low-lying tea districts of this island, so favonrable for the yield of tea, unlilce those of India are so favourable to health, is the fact of their exposure to healthy sea-breezes, which reach them across an open, well- cultivated country. Yattiantota, Avisawella, Dolosbage, and the Morowa Korle, have none of them exhilarating, bracing climates, yet they cannot be termed unhealthy for the reason above-named. In the Avisawella District, and those adjacent. Tea flushes very nearly throughout the year, — certainly in nine out of the twelve months, and during those nine months plucking rarely ceases. In the Morowa Korle we believe a similar state of things prevails. After an interregnum of some years since King Coffee was deposed in .that part of the Island, it has been ascertained beyond a doubt that no more suitable district for Tea exists in the country. The forcing qualities so detrimental to coffee production, and which were the cause of the abandonment of estates on which much capital had been expended, are precisely those which go to make successful tea plantations. So undoubted has been the success attending the pioneer operations of tea planters in the Morowa Korle, that the proprietor of a number of extensive estates on which coffee has proved a failure, has resolved, after an inspection of the land and under first-rate advice, to proceed with the cultivation of Tea on a large scale, and we have no doul>t, from information we have received, that he is acting judiciously. The quality of the produce has been pronounced first class, and we shall be prepared to hear, a few years hence, that this hitherto discredited district has become a favorite locality for investors. A Colombo merchant, who not long ago became the purchaser of the Campden Hill Estate for £3,500, values it to-day, on safe calculation, at £11,000. — Ceylon Times. THE EAINFALL OF INDIAN TEA DISTRICTS. Though rainfall returns very often convey anything but an exact impres- sion of the climate of a given spot, they are the only means we have of comparing the humidity of one place with another. In the ofiicial Report on the Assam district, presented to the Agricultural Department of India, is a statement of rainfall at the head-quarter stations of the foUowinc Tea- districts : — Average for the 1880. 1881. 1882. previous 5 years. 1883. Silchar . . . 112-16 127-95 113-71 118-51 160-44 Sylhet ... 173-77 166-33 16811 167-32 148-36 Dhubri ... 113-7(3 69-13 100-75 107-39 70-37 Gauhati ... 70-07 7212 66-22 70-69 59-26 Tezpur ... 7'J-50 96-61 76-39 86-08 72-24 Nowgong... (i.s-53 79-96 71-05 77-68 72-32 Sibsagar ... 9:a "F"^ co:3 ^-H rS <=>^A «a ^« ^■-•A c^a a;^; <=> •=!z; ^_^ CO ^ § ^ Mqoioo ■b'" lo"^ ;„« ^^ tf,"" :b* b"* «« CO (M CO o ^ o to o CD jaqmajdag o "^ b"^ in"^ 2*" b*^ " ""* "^ " ■^ OS oo 1* O lO ^o OlN SgO 5;« ^snSiiY w'^ « '^ -0 •«" «" = ?; 00 o o ^ "M ^^nauf b-^^ i'' '"' b" b "^ 'A'A b^ . t-> >» t>> 11 ■gg rt do --' p — « 2S S 2i 11 1 1.9 l)ii-t square inches. One six inches in diameter («)2x3-I416=2S-2744 square inches, &c. Any change in the form of the opening, (such as may be produced by a blow or a squeeze,^ diminishes its area, and the gauge will no longer register truly, and must be rejected. To provide against any accident of this kind, the rira of the funnel is generally strengthened by a stout brass ring, The reservoir is either a large bottle, or a vessel of sheet-zinc or copper, or tin plate; but this last is objectionable, being liable to rust. The water received is measured either in a graduated glass measure, or by means of a dip-stick, or a light graduated rod, carried by a float, which lises as the water accumu- lates. Some gauges are provided with certain mechanical arrangements for recording the rainfall on a dial ; but these need not be described here. Those with a graduated glass mp,asure are all alikein the essentials of thrir construction, differing only in shape, dimensions and certain other details ; and bear the different names of their inventors, as Symons' gauge, Glaish- er's gauge, &c. The float gauge is generally known as Fleming's gauge. It will be neces- sai'y to notice those only that are in common use in India. Symons' gauge. — This is the most conve- nient and trustworthy form of gauge, and is now used exclusively throughout Bengal and in some other provinces. It is a small cylindrical gauge, five inches _ in diameter and fourteen inches high. The water is re- ceived in a large glass bottle, and it is mea- sured in a cylindrical glass, holding a quanti- ty which represents an inch (or lialf inch) of rainfall when filled up to certain fixed mark . The space below is graduated in tenths and hundredths of an inch. Tliegauge, as made in England, is intend- ed to stand on the ground or to have the bottom buried to the depth of two or three inch- es. In Bengal it is furnished with a foot, which gives it a firm hold in the ground, and preserves it from the danger of being blown over. It is to be buriedin the ground. To measure the rain, lift the inner receiver and pour the rain cautiously (so as to spill none) into the measuring glass, placed on a, Inrge empty dish. The glass will hold one inch. If more than one inch have fallen, the TliE RAIN-GAUGE. The object of the glass must be filled exactly to the one inch mark, then emptied and refilled, until all the rain collected has been measured. The pour- ing requires some care, and should be done over a large dish to catch any that may acci- dentally be spilled. The receiver (if of me- tal) should have a small lip or spout to facili- tate pouring. The measure glass belonging to a rain gauge is graduated for a receiving sur- face of definite dimensions, and cannot be used for a gauge of different diameter without a special calculation. A glass graduated for use with a 5-inoh gauge may be used for any gauge of that diameter, but not for a 4-inch nor an 8-inch gauge. On an emergency, rainfall may, of course, be measured in any graduated glass the exact capacity of which is known ; but every reading in a register so kept must be reduced by calculation, the data for which are,— the diameter of the gauge funnel, its form whether round or square, and the value of the graduation either in cubic inches or fluid ounces. The latter may be converted into cubicinches by multiplying by l-7o3,and this product divided by 3-1416 times the square of half the diameter of the funnel in inches, if the funnel be round, will give the depth of rainfall. This rule may be useful at stations where a broken measure glass is not easily replaced without delay, since an ordinary apothecary's fluid-measure-glass can generally be procured for temporary use. Olaisher's gnvge. — This is similar to Symons' gauge, but is larger, »!:, , S-inches diameter. It appears from the com|)arative experiments made at Galne by a committee ef the British Association, th.it this presents no advantage in point of accuracy over the smaller gauge. The spout at the base of the collecting funnel is bent, whereas th.at of Symons' gaugeis straight; but this is rather a disadvantage, as it ia more liable to become choked by the accu- mulation of dust, &c. Flem'nuj's gunge, — The receiver of this gauge is long and narrow, and contains a float (near- ly as broad as the receiver.) carrying a light brass or wooden rod, which rises as the rain accumulates ; passing through a perforated bar across the mouth of the funnel. This bar serves as an index, and i-hows, by its intersec- tion with the rod, the quantity of rainwater in the receiver. The float requires a certain quantity<)fwatcr( variable in dillerent gauges)to float i t and bring it to the zero mark ; and this quantity ought always to be kept in the gauge, amatlcr requiring some attention during dry wr,ii,her. Failing this, the quantity required for floatation must be ascertained and added to the quantity read off. .Should the rain be too small in qu.antity to bring the rod to the zero point, it cannot be accurately recorded. This gauge, therefore, in the hands of unskill- ed and inattentive persons, (and they are many,) is likely to give results always in detect of the truth ; and such is found to be the case in practice. The gauge is open to many other objections. If the float is dented, or otherwise altered in form, or if any part has to be considered, the quantity of water required for its floatation is altered, and this is rarely if ever attended to. ( 23 ) As this gfiuije, however, ia stlU extensively used, attentiou is drawn to the following precautions : — I. — Either enough water must be kept constantly in the receiver to retain the gauge at zero, (a troublesome matter in hot weather) or the gauge must be kept quite empty, and so much added to each reading as is required merely to bring the gauge-rod to zero.* II.— The gauge, being long, is li.able to ba blown over. It must therefore be placed in a wooden stand which is firmly bedded in the ground ; or a metal cylinder or long wooden bos of such size as to hold the receiver must be buried in the ground, and the receiver placed therein. In this case, the mouth of the funnel should be not less than one foot above the surface of the ground, to prevent dirt being blown or washed into it. III. — In very heavy rains, as the cylinder will hold no more than six inches, the rain should be measured and the gauge emptied every three hours (or less), according to the quantity of the fall. IV. — The gauge must be emptied after each observation, with due regard to the provision specified in I . V. — The funnel which carries the index bar must be truly adjusted and pressed home on the top of the receiver. This should be attended to before the reading is taken. VI. — Sometimes the float does not rise freely, but either sticks in the receiver or is detained by the friction of the rod against the index bar. Before taking the reading the float-rod should be lifted with the finger and thumb, and then allowed to fall freely, and adjust itself to the point of free floatation. Site for Rain-gavge. — This I'g a matter requiring some judgment. First the gauge should always be on the ground, and not on a building of any kind ; unless more than one gauge are registered, and it is especially required to know the quantity collected at a certain elevation. This is always less than on the ground, and the variation ia especi- ally rapid within a few feet of the ground. In the experiments made at Calne, under the superintendence of a committee of the British Association, in the years 186.3 to 1867, with gauges at different elevations, it was found that a gauge with its mouth on the level of the ground gave, on the average of tlie 4 J years, e'7 per cent, mora than one with the mouth one foot above the ground, and a gauge at the height of 20 feet 'gave nearly 5'7 per cent, less than the latter. It is, therefore, necessary, in order that the results may be compai-ablo, that the same elevation should be universally adopted. That recommended, and now generally adopted, is that the mouth of the gauge be one foot above the ground level. The common practice of setting the gauge on a pillar of brickwork is a violation of the rule, and should be abandoned. 2nd. — The gauge must be as far as possible from trees, buildings, and all objects that dominate it ; both that it may receive its full quota of rainfall with the wind from any quarter, and also that it may not receive droppings from trees, &c., when wind accom- panies the rain. — The Indian Meteorologists* Vade meeum. * This can be found by a simple experiment : Pmir water into the empty receiver till the gauge is brought to zero. Pom- it out into an empty L'lass. Then, having poured a second portion of water into the receiver, and again brought the gauge to zero, returu the first quantity into the receiver and the gauge will shew the quantity it contained. D SECTION III. BOTANICAL ORIGIN AND ANALYSIS OF TEA. (From Prof. Bell's "Adulteration of Food, ^c") Botanical Origin of Tea. Description. Chemical Composition and Analysis. ( 27 ) BOTANICAL OEIGIN OF TEA. The Tea of commerce is derived from a plant named Thea sinensis, •which is an evergreen, and closely allied to the well-known oontis Gmnelliii. In cultivation, the Tea-plant is generally found from 3 to (i feet hio-h, hut if allowed to attain to its full growth it reaches to a height of between •■>() and 40 feet, and possesses a stem more than 1 foot in diameter. It is a native of China, Japan, and the northern parts of Eastern India ; hut its cultivation has been successfully introduced into many parts of British India, and it has been grown with a fair amount of success in Ceylon, Brazil, and ( !arolina. At one time it was thought that black and green teas were prepared from the leaves of two different plants, named respectively Thea bohea and Thea viridis ; but it is now known that one plant, Tliea sinensis, is the source of both kinds, and that black or green tea can be prepared at pleasure from the same leaves, the difference depending entirely upon the process followed in the manufacture. DESCRIPTION.* The Tea of commerce consists of the prepared leaves of the Tea-plant, but in most samples there are present portions, of the young branches and flower buds. The leaves are sometimes 2 inches long and 1 inch wide ; usually, however, they are much smaller, though the fuU grown leaf measures from 5 to 6 inches in length. The leaves are gathered four times during the year ; the first gathering ■ being made early in the spring, and the following three at intervals of about six weeks between each. The tea prepared from the first gathering is most delicate in colour and flavour, contains the smallest portion of woody fibre, and is reckoned the best in quality. The quality of the tea depends also upon the age of the tree as well as upon the age of the leaf, the finest teas being produced from the young leaves of young plants ; whilst old leaves, and •the leaves of old wood, are deficient both in flavour and extract. In the first stage of the preparation of green tea, the leaves are gently heated for a few minutes to render them soft and flaccid, and after being re- moved from the pans they are rolled by the hand on a wooden table. They are again placed in the drying- pans, and the leaves are carefully kept in mo- tion until sufficiently dry, the operation being proceeded with as quickly as possible to conserve the green colour and prevent fermentation. The leaves intended for black tea are thrown into. heaps to undergo fer- mentation, and at the expiration of a few hours are tossed about until thcv become quite soft, when they are rolled into balls by a peculiar movement and strong pressure of the hands. They are next exposed to the air for some hours, and then alternately dried and rolled two or three times, and finally dried over a charcoal fire. It would appear that this process is not uniformly followed, as in some instances the leaves are partly withered by exposure to the sun for two hours, and then tossed and beaten by the hands for some time until they become flaccid. This is repeated two or three times at intervals of about half an hour. The fermentative action appears to proceed during this part of the process. The leaves are next heated in an iron pan for a short time, and then rolled into balls, by which operation some of the juice is expressed. Having been half dried over a charcoal fire, they are removed to an open basket and allowed to remain until next day, when the drying is again proceeded with, ** This " Descriptiou" has evidently special refereuce to Cbiua Tea, but will be read with interest. — Ed. ( 28 ) and continued with various precautions, until the tea has attained sufficiently crispness to be considered ready for the market. The dried tea is then carefully sorted, by sifting it through sieves of different-size meshes, and by hand-picking. In this way it is divided into parcels of uniformly-sized leaves, and at the same time every unsightly and imperfectly-dried leaf is removed. Some teas are scented, in order to impart to them an agreeable flavour. The flavour is communicated by placing the leaves in contact with the flowers of plants possessing an aromatic odour, such, for example, as the flowers of Oleafragrans, which are used in the preparation of scented Pekoes.* The two great classes of tea, green and black, are each sub-divided into a variety of kinds, which are known in commerce by particular names. In green teas we have Gunpowder, Hyson, Young Hyson, Imperial, and Twankay ; and in black teas, Congou, Kaisow, Moning, Souchong, Oolong, and Assam. [It would seem as if the author was ignorant of any other Indian Tea than that of Assam. — Ed.] A Tea is pronounced of good quality when it prossesses delicacy and fulness of flavour with a certain amount of body, and its value in the market is deter- mined by the extent to which it possesses these characters. CHEMICAL COMPOSITION. Tea has been the subject of numerous investigations as to the nature and quantity of its several constituents. There has been a certain measure of ao-ree- ment in the statements which treat of the kind of substances w hich form the bulk of the tea, but a very great diversity exists in the results stated to have been obtained bydifferent chemists with regard to the quantities in which these are present. This is esiiecially true if we include the earKer investigations on the subject, the results of which, with regard to some of both the organic and mineral constituents, have not Ijcen confirmed by the more recent researches. The differences may partly arise from the various meanings which it is possible to attach to some of the terms in which the analvses are stated ; such as for example, " Extractive, " " Gum, " " Sugar, " Tannin, " and " Albmnin.'"' It may be said that the only organic constituent of Tea which has been complete- ly isolated and identified is the alkaloid theine, and this is no doubt due to the facility with which it crystallizes. The organic substances found to exist in Tea are a volatile oil (to which much of the characteristic odour of Tea is dne,) theine, tannin, an albuminous body, gum or dextrm, pectin, cellulose, chlorophyll, and resin. Oil of Tea.-— The essential oil of tea is present in very small quantity It has a specific gravity less than water, is of a yellowish colour, and readily pass- es into the form of a resin by exposure to the air. It possesses the peculiar taste and smell of tea, and has very potent stimulating properties Taken in rather large quantities, the oil is said to produce headache and o-iddiness The peculiar odour of Tea is mostly developed duringihe process of manufacture. It is more than doubtful whether it arises solely from a definite body pre-existing m the tea, as we have found that the flavour of black tea was produced by heating for some time, to a temperature of 212° F a por tion of an extract of green tea from which the oil or resinous matter had been removed. Ed.. /. T. G Forttmately, of Indian Teas il may be said they require no such adveniitioua aid- 2-78, grains. 3-12 J) 2-24 jj 2-97 jj 2-93 j> 3-42 J) 2-72 11 ( 29 ) Theme, C H'° N* 0'.— This is the alkaloid of Tea. The proportion in which it is present was for some time greatly under-estimated by chemists. More recent analyses, however, show a great quantity. Stenhouse has found from 1'05 to 4"1 per cent. ; Peligot, from 2'3 to 4'1 per cent. In some recent analyses made by ourselves we obtained the following amounts of theine from 100 grains of the tea, dried at 212° F. (100° C.) : Congou, low ... • Do. fine ... Hyson Souchong Moning ... .., ... Assam ... ... ... Gunpowder ... Theine is very rich in nitrogen, of which it contains nearly 29 per cent. Albumin and similar substances contain only from 15 to 16 per cent. It is to theine, chiefly, that the beneficial and stimulating properties of Tea are ascribed, aided, no doubt, by the peculiar volatile principle present in the prepared leaf. Theine exists in combination with tannin in Tea, and it is an impure compound of these s-ubstances which precipitates on allowing a rather concentrated hot-water solution of tea to cool. Theine crystallizes from water in the form of long needles of a white and silky lustre, contain- ing one atom of water of crystallization. It sublimes at 365° F, (185° C), and an attempt has been made to take advantage of this property to esti- mate the amount of theine in Tea, but without any marked success. It dis- solves rather freely in hot water, less so in cold water and alcohol, and with still greater difficulty in ether. It is altered by boiling with nitric acid, the produce forming, with vapour of ammonia, a coloured substance which re- sembles murexide, produced in a similar way from uric acid. Albumin, or Vegetable Gasein. — This substance exists almost entirely in the insoluble form in Tea. A small quantity is dissolved out with water, but the amount is less than one per cent. Like ordinary casein and coagulated albumin, it is dissolved by alkalis ; but its separation by this means from the cellulose of the leaf is unsatisfactory. The cellulose of Tea is readily acted on by the fixed alkalis, so that the albumin can be only partially recovered in an impure state. The amount of this substance may be more accurately determined by thoroughly exhaust- ing the leaf, first with alcohol and then with water, and estimating the ni- trogen in the portion of the leaf remaining insoluble, reckoning the quanti- ty so obtained as being all derived from albumin. When the nitrogen, associated with the cellulose in the form of vegeta- ble albumin, is deducted from the total amount of nitrogen found in the leaf, a quantity remains which cannot be accounted for by any proportion of theine which has as yet been fairly obtained from Tea. The alcoholic extract, therefore, either contains a large amount of theine than has been recover- ed from it, or there is present a quantity of another and undetermined nitro- genous compound. Gum or Dextrin. — Substances under the indefinite term of "gum" are stated by chemists to be present to the extent of from 5 to 9 per cent. We have found, however, in samples of black and green tea, the analyses of which are given above, that dextrin, arabin or similar gum, convertible into sugar by sulphuric acid, was practically absent. It is true that about \ per cent, of a gum corresponding to dextrin was found in the green tea; but un- less the Chinese are exonerated from the suspicion of using such a gum in ( 30 ) making up green teriP, it is open to question whether even this small propor- tion is natural to the leaf. [It is well known that the Chinese use facing, matter.— Ed., 7. T. G.} Pectin, ) the litre. 1-lOth gram of pure tannic acid is dissolved in 100 cubic centimetres ()[■ water, and introduced into a burette ; 10 cubic centimetres of the lead solu- tion are measured into a beaker, and diluted with 90 cubic centimetres of water. This solution is made hot, and the tannic acid solution carefully dropped into it until a little of the filtered liquid gives a pink colouration with a drop of an ammoniacal solution of ferricyanide of potassium. The tea solution is prepared by exhausting 2 grams of the powdered tea with boiling water, and making up to 250 cubic centimetres. This solution is tested in the same way, and the calculation of the jKn-contage of tannin made from the two results. It is evident that some precautions are necessary in applying the test, as there is no provision made here for the precipitation of the lead by the alkaline phosphates and other substances present in the solution which are thrown down by a salt of lead. Another method, by Lowenthal, with modifications by Estcourt, has been suggested. For this test various solutions are required : 1. Solution of permanganate of potassium made by dissolving l"6b grams of the salt in a litre of water. 2. Solution of pure sulphate of indigo : 30 grams dissoh'ed in water, and made up to a litre. 3. Solution of pure tannic acid : 2 grams in 1 lW;re of distilled water. 4. Dilute sulphuric acid : 200 cubic centimetres of concentrated sulphu- ric acid diluted to 1 litre, or 1 in 5. 5. Solution of pure gelatine : 25 grams of best glue dissolved in warm water, and made up to 1 litre with a saturated solution of common salt. In the application of the test, the tannic acid, indigo, and other matters in the tea solution are oxidised by the permanganate, and the end of the process is shown by the change of the blue colour to green, and then to a pale yellow. The first point to be ascertained is the numlier of cubic centimetres of permanganate solution required to decolourise 20 cubic centimetres of the in- digo solution. For this purpose 23 cubic e('ntimetre> of the solution are diluted with >i()0 cubic centimetres of distilled water, and 10 cubic centimetres of the sulphuric acid solution added. The permanganate solution is run in from a burette until the blue colour completely disa])pears — the end of the process being carefully observed. The same qirantity of indigo solution is again taken, with the addition of 10 cubic centimetres of the tannin solution, and the permanganate solution added as before. The difference in the two results is due to the tannic acid. It is desirable that the experiments should occupy the same time — about 6 minutes — and the solution should be kept vigorously stirred during the addition of the ](ermaiiganate. Two grams of tea are now exhausted with boiling water, and the extract made up to 250 cubic centimetres, 10 or 1 5 cubic centimetres of the tea solu- tion are tested in the manner just described ; the result represents the total oxidisable matter in the tea. To ascertain how much is due to the tannin, it has been propositi to precipitate the tannic acid in a given quantity of the tea extract with the gelatine solution, filter off a proportionate quantity, and test its oxidisal)le value by the standard permanganate. This latter indication is deducted from the amount obtaineil in tlic first experiment with the solution of tea, and the difference gives the number of cubic centimetres required to oxi- dise the tannic acid in the tea. Alhiwiin or Vegetable Casein. — Six grams of finely powdered tea are digested with 3 ounces of alcohol of 70 per cent., at a temiierature of 140° F. ((jO" ( ; j for fifteen minutes, and filtered, the process Ijeing repeated three or four times with successive quantities of alcohol. The residue is next treated ( 33 ) with water, and, after having boon digested in a similar way as in the first operation, is thrown on a filter, and well washed with hot water. The insoluble portion which remains on the filter is dried and weighed ; and, in other to determine the amount of nitrogen present, about ■? gram is submitted to combustion with copper oxide, and the proportion of albumin calculated by multiplying the amount of nitrogen by the factor 6'3 — the rela- tion by weight existing between albuminous substances and the nitrogen they contain being as 6"3 : 1. As already pointed out, a small quantity of albumin is precipitated by boiling the water-extract. This precipitate is weighed, and the nitrogen ascertained in the same way as above. Pectin and Pectic Acid. — The filtrate from the precipiteted albumin is evaporated to small bulk, and after the addition of a few drops of hydrochlo- ric acid, the pectin and pectic acid are precipitated by the addition of 200 cubic centimetres of alcohol of 90 per cent. The precipitate, which appears as a transparent gelatinous mass, is separated by filtration, re-dissolved in a little water, and again precipitated as before. The precipitate when well vsashed is dried, and weighed on a tared filter. A portion is then ignited to ascertain the amount of ash present, and the remainder is boiled for four hours with water acidulated with 10 drops of sulphuric acid to convert any dextrin or similar substance into glucose. The weight of ash and dextrin, if any, is deducted from the weight of the alcoholic precipitate proAioush- ascertained, the difference being regarded as the percentage of pectin and pectic acid present. Dextrin.— The proportion of dextrin or gum is ascertained from the amount of sugar produced by boiling the alcoholic proei])itate with dilute sulphuric acid, as in the above process for the estimation of pectin. The quantity of sugar formed is determined by an alkaline copper solution, from which result the dextrin can be readily calculated : 100 parts of glucose or 95 parts of cane- sugar being equal to 90 parts of dextrin. Cellulose. — The percentage of cellulose cannot be determined by direct analysis, and the process followed is usually an indirect one. The amount of cellulose is represented by the portion insoluble in alcohol and water, less the mineral matter, and insoluble albumin. The ash is obtained by igniting a known weight of the dry residue, and the albumin, as before stated, by combustion with copper oxide. The difference is the percentage of cellulose and insoluble colouring matter present in the tea. Chlorophyll and Resin. — Fifty grains of the dry and finely powdered tea are left in contact with ether for twenty-four hours. The ether is passed through a filter, and the tea-powder washed with warm ether. The filtrate is evaporated to dryness, and treated with hot water to dissolve out any substan- ces soluble therein. The portion insoluble in water is then dried and weighed. The powder left after treatment with ether is shaken up with alcohol for some time : the alcoholic extract is filtered, and gently evaporated to dryness. The residue is exhausted with benzol, and, after filtering and evaporating the benzol, the extract is treated with boiling water, as in the former part of the process. After removing the water, the resinous mass is dried and weighed. To this result is added the quantity of extract obtained by ether ; the sum multiplied by 2 gives the percentage shown as " chlorophyll and resin." SECTION IV. TEA ADULTERATION AND TEA SUBSTITUTES. Tea Adulteration and Adulterants. Adulteration of Tea in Foreign Markets. Tea Substitutes. ( 37 ) TEA ADULTERANTS AND ADULTERATION. Thk adulterants ot tea may be classed under three heads : 1st. Those substances which can be detected by their physical properties -—such as foreign leaves, quartz, excess of sand, and certain colouring matters. 2nd. Those which can be distinguished by their chemical properties — for ex- ample Prussian blue, clay, soapstone, gum, rice-water, etc. 3rd. Partially exhausted leaves. The quartz and sand are usually made np with the tea when in a soft and flac- cid condition, and are ingeniously concealed in the nodules formed of the leaves. Sometimes irregular grains of quartz have been simply coloured with plumbago or other substance, and so made to closely resemble some kinds of genuine caper tea with which tliey have been mixed. Magnetic oxide, sometimes referred to in the trade as iron filings, is found asso- ciated with quartz and sand in tea. An attempt at explaining the presence of this compound has been made by attributing it to the ferruginous character ot the soil on which, in some localities, the tea plant has been cultivated, but the quantity found is often much too large to be accounted for by the accidental admixture of portions of the soil during the process of gathering the leaves. The object of adding Prussian blue, china clay, and similar substances intended to impart a greenish tint, appears to be twofold, namely, to improve and give unifor- mity to the colour of bond fide green tea, and also — which is very reprehensible — to give to old and inferior black tea tiie appe.aranoe and external character of green. In adding the colour, the leaves are usually moistened with rice-water, and re- heated. Whilst in this condition, the finely powdered colour is shaken on the tea, which is continuously stirred nntit a uniform tint is obtained. Sometimes a little yellow colour, such as turmeric, is added first, and then the Prussian blue or indigo ; in other instances, the Prussian-blue mixture alone appears to have been used. Some years ago large quantities of exhausted leaves were collected in England, and, after the addition of gum and other matters, were rolled and re-dried so as to resemble genuine tea. This spurious tea ivas mixed with tea as imported and sold to the public as genuine, whereby a serious fraud was perpetrated. By the vigilance of the authorities this practice was suppressed, and we believe that it has never since been successfully resumed. It has occasionally happened that an im- portation of tea has been submerged in sea-water ; in some instances such tea has been re-dried and brought into the market, but perhaps more frequently re-shipped to another country. From the present general soundness, however, of the tea trade, the sale of such a description of tea has been reduced to a minimum. It is well known that the manufacture of spurious tea has been carried on to a considerable extent in China, and that large quantities of the sophisticated article have been imported from time to time into England, some of which has been known in the market by the name of the "Mahloo Mixture." Owing, however, to the rigid scrutiny to which tea is now subjected, it is likely that the quantity of such spurious teas passed will become very small. It has been seen that the adulterants of tea may be conveniently studied under three heads — viz. : 1st. Substances which can be detected by their physical properties. 2nd. Mineral salts, along with some organic substances, all of which have dis- tinctive chemical reactions. 3rd. Partially exhausted leaves. When tea is treated with hot water, a large proportion of the soluble organic matter of the leaf is extracted, together with some of the mineral compounds, chiefly potash salts. If in a suspected sample the pi'oblem to be solved was merely whether it con- sisted wlioUy of exhausted leaves, the proof of sophistication would be very easy ; but when a portion only of the tea is in that condition, the question presents greater difficulty. This arises from the fact that in vegetable products, tea amongst the rest, nature has provided no hard-and-fast line as to the proportion in which the soluble or characteristic constituents may be present. Where a given test, say that of the total ( 38 ) water-extract, is relied upon nnd applied to a number of teas, great difference exists between the maximum and minimum results. It is obvious, therefore, that a consider- able admixture of a spurious tea conld be added to one of the better kinds without reducing the amonnt of extract below that obtained from a genuine though inferior tea. It will be found difficult in practice to separate individual exhausted leaves. Where this can be done, the results of an analysis of them would no doubt be con- clusive. Usually it is necessary to weigh out a given quantity — say 100 grains — of the tea, and after repeated extraction with boiling water, the filtered extract is eva- porated down either in whole or in part, and the percentage of dry extract calculated. Or, 200 grains of tea are finely powdered in a mortar, and introduced into a flask with 2,000 grains of water at 60° F. (15'5° C), and raised to the boiling-point over an argand burner. After this point has been reached, it is removed from the lamp, allowed to stand for 2 minutes, and filtered hot to prevent deposition of the tannate of theine. The specific gravity of the filtrate is then taken with a gravity- bottle, and the result noted. The best filter for the purpose appears to be one made of flannel, and used double. — Prof. J. Bell. THE ADULTERATION OP TEA IN FOREIGN MARKETS, We notice m tha English Jilechanic and World of Science for December 22nd, 1882, a most damaging statement as regards Indian tea. As the Organ of the Indian Tea Industry, we ani bound either emphatically to contradict this statement from knowledge, and prove it to be wrong, or, by silence, to tacitly admit it. Fortu- nately we are able to do the former. The paragraph we refer to is as follows : — This staple plant [Tea] is at the present time being adulterated to a large extent not only in China and other tsa-growing (save the mart) countries, but also in India—tea. being Iforwarded from the Assam and Darjeeling districts to Calcutta, and NLaaip".{ijl'' .. 3-08 6 08 . . 43 1)2 .. 8'16 6-36 .. 46 88 .. 2-78 6-l'2 .. 46'08 .. 2-88 ( 39 ) pil to know, in inspect to n qnito now importation, what was so fully known in Ciilrntta and in Mincing Lanr*. The wise step was tliorofore resorted to of obtaininK tlio opinion of experts, and tliis is the Ue[iort : — INDUSTRIAL AND TECIINOLOQIOAL MUSEUM. Laim-alorn, 1th Beoiithtr, 18S2. REPORT on SAMPLES of TNDIAN TEAS received from MESSRS. JAMBS IIBNTY k Co. THE FOLLOWING RESULTS WERE OBTAINED UPON ANALYSIS:— Per Centage Per Ceiiiage Per Cealone Lots, Naiiie. of of of Mineral Ash. Extract. Soluble f!iil I. 2.3.34,40. ASS.«l PEKOE. .5 l:l, -'H, 27, 41, 44. ASSAM PEKOE SOUCHONG 6, l.j. 22. SO 4.). CACHAR PFKOE 3, 7. 16, 20 24, 30, 48, 46. CACHAE PEKOE SOUCHO.MG 4.11 17 21,38 DARJEELING PEKOE SOUCHONG I. 8, 14, 2.'-., 26. 32, 37, 42, 47. INDIAN BROKEN TEAS 10, 2S, 28, 81. 33, 35, 86. 4H, INDIAN SOUCHONGS We have earoCuUy examined the above teas, the leads of which were cut under our supervision ; the sam- ples also bein^ taken by us from the bulk. We guarantee tlicse teas to be pure and free from any adulteration. J. COSMO NEWBERY. FREDERIC DUNN. But the writer in the Mechanic's Magazine may argue : " This does not prove that falirioated tens may not be sent forward to London." No, it does not ; but in tlie first place the surronndiiigs in Calcutta do not permit of such fabrication, and if they did. Mincing Lane would not take our fabrications : they have more than enough of China adulterations already. It would indeed be a sad thing for the credit of our great Industry if there was a particle of truth in the atrocious statement made by the anonymous writer in the yl/ec/ja»i2c's Magazine. But there is not. We dare assert that not a pound of Tea leaves this port that does not come from tea-gardens, — there grown and manufactured ; and it is next to impossible, as we have said, that herbs and leaves of trees should be manipulated in Calcutta to resemble Ten, It seems to us that the writer of the remarks in question, being probably himself interested in China teas, and knowing that adulterations with these teas are practised, seeks to drag Indi.nn teas down to the same level, so as to prevent any superior appreciation of Indian teas becoming a potent factor in the minds of the English public. If this be so, it is a most dastardly piece of policy ; for the statement that siMirious teas or adulterated teas are sent from India, is absolutely untruthful. We do not need to say this to our subscribers in this country, for they know the fact already, but as people at home will believe almost anything regarding foreign countries, it becomes desirable that we should protest in the strongest manner against a statement made, void of a fraction of foundation or proof. CHINA "LIE" TEA. The following is the method, as shown by a Chinese tea-maker, for colouring exhausted black-leaf teas, stalks, &c. : — " A quantity of tlie old branches iind useless leaves are collected from the bottom of the tea plants, and pounded into a pulp in a rice-pounder or mortar ; then tied up in a cloth, and put into a hole in the ground to ferment for a few hours. When sufBciently fermented, the pulp is placed in a large tea-pan, and boiling water is poured on it. It is then allowed to boil until two-thirds of the water have evaporated. The liquor is strained off, a proportion of gum and coloring mixed, and the exhaust- ed leaves and stalks steeped in it as long as considered necessary. The renewed Tea it then partly dried, lightly rolled, and finished in the sun or on heated plates." ( 40 ) TEA SUBSTITUTES. Yerba Mate, or Paraguayan Tea. Mr. L. Gouty, after a special visit to South America, contributes to the Jirriiv Scivntijiipie an .irticle giving the results of his ex.aiiiina- tion of the food question on that contiiiuiit, especially with respect to a nntiitious bever- age known as mati, which he believes is des- tined to replace coffee and alcohol to a great extent. The leaves are derived from the lle.p Paraiiva}jc'n>ih^ which grows to a height of from three to six metres, and covers acres of ground throughout Pnvaguay, Rio Grande, Parana, and the province of St. Catherine. This represents an extent of country larger than France and Germany combined. The leaves, which are thick and oblong in shape, are only picked every three or four years. They are dried by artificial meansin the woods by the peasants themselves, who send them in a rough state to the factories. Here they un- dergo a separating process by means of sieves, and are afterward packed ready for sale. In preparing the beverage the lenf is boiled for one or two minutes, the liquid furnished being less limpid than tea, and not so dark ascofiee. The aroma is less pronounced than that of good tea, and the mate is sweeter to the taste than coffee, and m.ay be drunk without sugar. JJoreover, it may with advantage pass through seven or eight successive boilings, each time in fresh water, and the last infusions will be Ixtter than the first, but in this case it must not be allowed to get cold. This product is now sold at the rate of 5s. 6d. and 6s. 6d.per 15 kilog^ammes(3:i'|lbs.)de- live^ed at Antonine, a shipping port in Parana, and as each kilogramme furnishes 4U litres (about 36 quarts) of a strong infusion, the cost per litre is less than a farthing. But this rate would be still less if there were proper means of traffic from the woods, can-iage bf ing three times as expensive as the original article. A great reduction might fairly be anticipated if railways or even good roads were constructed ; but at present the transit is made by means of mules, along steep and rugged paths. From a chemical analysis of this plant, it appears that it contains the same properties as coflfee, an alkaloid, with oleaginous essences and resinous gums, but as the quantity of the latter present is much greater than in coffee, the nutritive element is superior. This analysis is confirmed by ex- peiience. The inhabitants drink nothingelse, ai d with mat6 and meat they live well, with- out experiencing any desire for bread or vege- table, although the country is favourable for the cultivation of maize and potatoes if neces- sary. The cattle-tenders often remain absent for days from all human habitation with their herds, and are content to forego their usual meals if only they have a good supply of matiS, which thus appears to be an active clement of food, and, unlike coffee, produces neither sleeplessness nor palpitation. I. Piiraiivfijicnsisis characterised as a species by its perfectly smooth, ovate, lanceolate, unequally-serrated leaves, and by having much- branched racemes of flowers, the sub-divisions of which .arc somewhat umbellate, and by its slightly hairy calyx. The leaves of the Mate, the name by which it is known in South America, are from four to five inches long. The M,at6occupiesthesame important position in the domestic economy of South America as the Chinese tea does in this country, and it is calculated that it is consumed in that coun- try to the extent of about 8,000,000 lbs. annual- ly. It has been in use for about a century and a half, the practice having been adopted from the aboriginal people. The leaves are prepared by drying and roasting, not in the manner of Chinese teas, but large branches are cut oS the plants and placed on hurdles over a wood fire until sufficiently roasted ; the branches are then placed on a hard floor, and beaten with sticks ; the dried leaves are thus knocked ofl! and reduced to a powder, which is collected, made into packages, and is ready for use. There are three sorts known in the South American markets : the Caa-Cuys, which is the half-expanded leaf-buds; the Caa-JIiri, the leaf torn from its midrib ami veins, with- out roasting ; and the Caa-Guaza or Yerva de Palos of the Spaniards, the whole leaf with the petioles and small branches roasted. It is prepared for drinking by putting a small quantity, about a teaspoonful, into a gourd or jug, with a little sugar ; the drinking-tube is then inserted, and boiling water poured on the Mat6 ; when sufficiently cool, the infusion is sucked up through the tube. It has an agree- able, slightly aromatic odour, is rather bitter to the taste, and very refreshing and r^'stora- tive to the human frame after enduring great fatigue. It is almost impossible for those accustomed to it, to leave it off. It acts in some degiee as an aperient and diuretic, and, if taken in over-doNCs, it occasions diseases similar to those produced by strong liquors. It contains the same active principle as tea and coffee, called theine, but not their volatile and empyreumatic oils. That the Yerva mate is to the greater part of South America, Paraguay, La Plata, Peru, and Quito, what the Thea BoJica or Tsclia of the Chinese is to western civilisation, should be sufficient argument in favour of its intro- duction to Asia. It is just possible, however, that it might have special claims to our atten- tion : that is, it might make an admirable blend with our excellent, though, to some people, peculiar-flavoured Indian teas, and give them a value in the British Colonial markets which they do not now possess. Mat6 consists of small pieces of leaf, with stalks an inch long, and parts of the stems, which have been artifioally dried. It is of a dirty yellow-gray colour, having a taste peculiar to itself, but resembling the coarser varieties of Chinese tea, and not dissimilar to it in composition. Trommsdorf has found catechuic acid in it, which is probably com- bined with the theine discovered in it by Stenhouse, as is tannic acid in Tea, with the same alkaloid. The quantity of ash very slightly exceeds the maximum found in Chinese ( II ) or Indian tea, the proportions of soluble salts being in nearly the same ratio, e. g. — Soluble. Insoluble. Total. Ash of tea 3'55 2'37 = B 112 Ash of mat6 4-22 2-OG = (r2S Two objections might be taken to the intro- duction of mat6 into this country : — Isf, that it might be used as an adulterant ; 2nd, that the infusion, unlike that ot tea. produces an unpleasant excitement. Regarding the first, although the use might lead to the abuse of it we cannot but believe th.at in time ir. would stand in the same relation to tea nf chicory to coffee, that is, as an accepted adjuvant. As regards the second objection, the tea with which it was mixed would, in all probability, modify or entirely counteract its excitant pro- perties. Further, were it proved that admix- ture with mat^ improved the aroma of tea, the cultivation of the one might enhance the value of the other, in so far that the cultiva- tion and cost of curing -mate would be very little ; consequently, its admixture with tua, provided it prove pleasant to the consumer, must needs be profit.nble to the producer. One point which might prove to be of some importance is that opium allays the excitant eilects of mate. Might not mate couuteract the soporific effects of opium ? We have received from the River Plate a sample of mat6. In appearance it is like pow- dered light snuff-coloured meal, with about 10 per cent, of stick. The Tea or Mat6 is made by putting some of the sticks at the bottom of a small gourd, as drainage, and then some of the broken leaf on the top. The gourd is then filled up with boiling water, and the tea or mat6 is sucked up through a"bombija," /. c, a tube with a rose or strainer at the bottom. This latter is necessary, as otherwise the powder itself would be drunk with the infusion. The liquor is a dirty straw colour, and the taste slightly bitter, but not very delicate. As we had no bombija through which to drink it, we were perforce compelled to strain the liquor through linen. Mr. W. .S. Cresswell reports to us on the above as follows : " The liquor has a pungent acid flavour very unpleasant to the taste, with none of the properties of the Tea-plant in leaf or liquor, and should the inhabitants of the River Plate have an opportunity of tasting our Indian Tea, they would never go back to their Mat6 Tea again." As , Mr. Cresswell justly says, Terba Mat6 is not tea at all. Still itis drunk, and largely so, and is much appreciated by the Paraguay- ans. Therefore there seems to be a possible field for our produce in Paraguay. I frequently use Paraguay tea, or mate, andean assure any one wishing to know the truth that it is not tea at all, and is for a cer- tain reason utterly unfit to be used to "blend with Indian teas. " Matii parts with its flavour and colouring-matter almost instan- taneously by pouring boiling water over the leave.s, and this may be repeated several times without exhausting them. Tea, on the con- trary, parts doivhj with its theine and colour- ing ; if mixed with the Icavis of the mali!' ilex, its flavour would be utterly uverpowered by that of the latter. Mati does nut produce any 'cxcilement otavery unpleasant kind to Europeans. ' On the contrary, I know Euro|)Ciins who cannot take tea who resort to mate, because it docs not produce the excitement to the nervous system caused by tea, including insomnia. Judging from its effect on myself, I consider it to be one of the most harmless of warm infusions, and h.ave always liked it. The South American peoples who use it, certainly do not suffer from its exciting proj)ertie.s, although many of those who imbibe mat6 in great quantities object to a cup of tea be- cause it affects their nerves. Mat6 is an excellent sithstitute for tea : as a We«(i it never can be used. We use it in South America either by pouring boiling water over the pulverized leaves and twigs, Avith sugar to suit the palate, and then sucking it through a silver tube ; or, by infusing the entire leaf in a teapot or jug, and pouring it out like tea. The latter way of piepar.ation is not very common yet. but will, I think, soon become more general. Dndoubtedly it is a good morning or evening beverage for ner- vous persons who cannot take tea. This is the plain truth about mnti. It will never supplant tea-in Europe or elsewhere, and will never be employed (at least success- fully) to adulterate the latter. It is a beverage fill generis, and, although I enjoy amate now and then, I have no inclination to abandon the use of tea. Rich .and poor among the natives of the Spanish American Republics use it : but for all that, tea .and coffee are yearly being consumed to a gii.aler extent by all classes, whilst the consumption of mate remains about stationary. Mate, or Par.aguayan tea, is known to be extensively used in South America, and almost univeisally in Brazil, the common practice being to pour boiling water on some of the powder (consisting of ground leaves and twigs of certain species), then to suck the infusion through tubes provided with strainers. M M. d'Aisonval and Conty have recently inquired into the action of this substance, administer- ing it to dogs, either by injecting into the veins, or by introduction into the stomach, anil they have observed a remarkable effect of it on the gases of the blood. It diminishes the carbonic acid and oxygen both of the arterial and of the venous blood to a large extent, sometimes a third or even half of nor- normal quantity. This action, which is less intense during digestion, and has no necessary relation to phenomena of excitation of the sympathetic nerve-system, is somewhat obscure asto its '■ mechanism," but iis exist- ence proves directly the importance and nutri- tive value of the aliment in question, which, cousuraed in such large quantities in South America, is almost unknown in Europe. WILD TEA.— EURYA SERRATA. All who have had experience of tea nurseries must have noticed the curious persistence of ( l:^^ ) the plant so-called "wild tea" ( not a true tea although it looks, very like it) in apparently claiming atfinity to tea by growing up side by side with tea plants. A planter who found that his pluckers had been taking a flush from some of these plants, got some leaves gathered, and prepared them as tea is prepared. The sample is coarse, and the flavour anything but fine, but certainly the substance might be mis- taken for coarse tea. NOVEL TEAS. Among the little-known teas are four des- criptions which we are not aware of having ever seen or heard of on the brokers' shelves in Mincing Lane. The " powder tea " of Japan is so well spoken of by travellers that probably it maybe the sort mentioned by Hiss Bird in her interesting book, as selling on the spot for ten shillings a pound ; at all times it is said to furnish an exceedingly au;reeable and refresh- ing draught when taken in the orthodr)x mode. The same plant, that which yields tne ordinary f^miliar teas of commerce, produces this, only the shrubs selected are old, and must for the purpose have been subjected to a system of very copious manuring to the extent of ten applications per annum. The plucked leaves are for a few seconds exposed to a current of steam, dried by spreading out on a mat, and after- wards subjected to a similar round of mani- pulation as other tea, the finished product being immediately enclosed in airtight metal jars. When required for consumption the ne- cessary quantity for the party is withdrawn, slowly reduced to powder in a handmill, and for every individual a quarter of an ounce is removed on the tip of a feather to the cup, into which boiling water is poured. The mixture is now agitated with a wooden whisk, in the manner adopted with a cup of cocoa, until a drooping head of froth hangs over the vessel, when the fragrant nectar-like fluid is absorbed according to the fancy. From time immemorial some of the abori- ginal tribes of America, and for 230 years the colony founded in North Carolina by Sir ■\Walter Raleigh, have been addicted to the use of what is called "yaupon tea." The leaves, about one inch in length, grow upon the ih;v euponia, of the same family as our evergreen holly, with chemical properties resembling closely those of the teas and coffee of com- merce, and .akin to the matii of I'araguay — a desirable and honest character to commence with- In addition, it is claimed for the infu- sion that its tonic virtue in invigorating and bracing up the relaxed alumnus, equally with the jaded and toil-worn artisan or labourer, greatly surpasses that of any known fluid. It is described as being at once a sedative, a sudorific, and an .anti-febrifuge, the use of which is marked by no subsequent evil effects. By the natives of Carolina it is everywhere enthusiastically invested witli the attributes of both meat and drink, so that the sailors and raftsmen, who are often called upon to put forth extra and long-sustained eiiort, assert that on yaupon tea they can endure more hardship and fatigue than by the aid of any other form of aliment. A former Consul, Mr. E. Col borne Babcr, at Chung King, about three years ago described a few of the wild teas of Szechuen In Western China, which evince peculiarities of consider- able interest. During one of his rambles the monks of the Ngonii monasteries refreshed him with a naturally-sweet tea, which tasted like common Congou mingled with brown sugar. The tea seems to be found only on the slopes of this range, as inquiries a few miles distant failed to produce any recognition of it among the natives. Another kind was met with in the wilderness of the Hwang-mu-chang pla- teau, overhanging the Tung river at a height of 6,000 feet, which yielded a highly coloured, but somewhat weak infusion, having the taste and flavour of tea and milk mingled together. The plant is described as a leafy shrub 15 feet high, with a stem some four inches thick, every portion of which, except the roots, is used in preparing the beverage. The so-called ' Puerk,' known also in China as Yunnan tea, but which comes from the Shan States south of Yunnan, is highly prized for its pharmaceutical qualities, being reputed- ly a certain cure for spleen, bile, and hemor- rhoids. One fact regarding tea may astonish m.any people not a little, not only in England but in China. Its use among the 300,000,000 of Chinese is by no means so common as sup- posed. As a fact the poorest classes in Shansi, Honan, Shantung, Yunnan, Twang-is, know it only as a luxury. The peasantry of these provinces, especially the north, sip hot water with the same relish as a Fokien man taking his infusion ofBohea, and try to cheat themselves by giving the innocent beverage the name of Tea. Batodm Tea. There is an interesting account of this product in a recent No. of the Pharmacevr- tical Jiiunial. It is .also known as " Trebi- zond Tea," and has formed the subject of discussion at a recent meeting of the Lin- nean Society. It is very doubtful, however, whether it can be said to be allied to the true Thea, the leaf being much thinner, and easily distinguishable from the known varieties of the genuine article. It grows all along the Taurus range, and when the leaf is carefully prepared, a palatable beverage is said to be the result. So much, also, can be said for Mate, or Paraguayan Tea, but it is not claimed for the latter, even, that it is of the Thba family. In England an infusion somewhat resembling Tea can be produced from laurel-leaves, but it is absurd to call any of these imitations Tea. They may be used as adulterants, but hardly so, we should think, to an extent to make the matter of much consequence. A good deal, how- ever, of this Batoum Tea is said to be sent into Persia, where it passes successfuly for the genuine article. It has a very pronounced odour and possesses an unpleasant acridity. The, leaves are gathered in July and August, and the manufacture is very similar to that of China Tea. It is not uncommon to mix a certain per- centage of good China tea with this fiotitioaa article, to pass it off the more easily. ( 13 ) Powder Tea. Sin, — I have made a little powder tea from old plants kept for seed, and which from the heavy manuring yearly, (lush well at this season. A quarter tola worked up with sugar, lemon - juice, and hot water, makes a fair drink ; or if cream is used instead of lemon-juice, a good strong flavory cup. Tea made from other Plants. The Pharn>acenticnlJnwrnaloi March21st con- tains a paper from Jlr. Thiselton Dyer on Tea used by the Circassians made from a plant ( Fac- einiun an:t(ist/iph!/lo,'!)grovm ou the hill sides in the province of Roum. It seems there are several tea substitutes in use in different parts of the world. Another plant (Ledum pahu^) yields Labrador tea. Bohemian Tea. For some years past, spurious black and green teas have been manufactured from the leaves of the Lithoxpertmim officinale (Gromwell) in Bohemia. These have in some instances been palraeii off in tlie market as " Chinese," but hare mostly been used not only in Bohemia but in other countries in Europe, as an adulterant for fine teas. The chemist, A. Vogel. has subjected the plant to a careful botanic chemical analysis, and found that •' Theine or any other alkaloid is not found in the plant, but only cellulose, gluten, giira, gluoosides, fat, ethereal oil, resin, tannin,.chlo- rophyl, albumen, acid salts, water, &(j. Dex- trine also appoiU'9 to be present in it.'' The couiposilion of the teas made from the plant, we are told, " differs greatly iind notably from that of Chinese tea," The genus of plants Lithospermum belong to the natural order JJunii/iitacecs, There are several species of the plant, but the most impor- that is the IjitJui!« ) become an ntlept. Some time ago the Indian Agriculturist drew attention totlie value of crude limestone as the basis of most of those fertilizing agents whicli have now become recognized as necessary stimuhints to all lands tiiat have bepu under culliva- tion for more than fiye years, — iiy wliifb period the average of our tea plantations attain their maximum yield That there are exceptions we know, .but we are here concerned only with tea-gardens as a whole. In selecting sites for tea planting, no one who could get flat land would select iedalis. But though a large area of desirable plots exists, they are mostly in the hands of native or other proprietors, and thus many people in opening out fresh lands to supplement their present area are compelled to make use of teelahs more or less steep, and tn connteract the ih-awbaoks of such lands by a system of 'terracing.' JMow, thongh this system is imperatively demanded to keep the plants in proper po- sition on tbe hillsides, almost all the surface soil is so much disturbed in the pri- mary operation, that at the end of the rains but a very small proportion remains in situ. Theoretioally, the only portion of the terraced land thoroughly deprived of the original vegetable deposit is the apex of the teelak so treated, the argument being that what surface soil is disturbed from above is retained on the lower terraces. But if we will but watch the effects of heavy rain on newly terraced land, it will be a[iparent that the surface soil, from the liij;ht natnre of its composition, is carried so rapidly over the edges, as the ti>rraees become soaked with water, that it is almost all washed down to the foot of the hill by the end of the first rainy season ; and although the loss of it has no material effect on the tea-plant for the first year or two, a few minutes' reflection will tend to show that manuring by means of renovating-pits upon terraced teelahs is absolntely necessary from the time the plant commences to yield, because the very process adopted for the benefit of the plant at the outset is such as, by depriving the soil of its most valuable constituents, to ensure the rapid dete- rioration of its yielding powers. Much indeed might be done were the surface soil from the upper terrace scraped together, and buried either in a trench running right round the inside of the terrace, or in pits dug behind the place subsequently to be occupied by the plant. But although this mijlit eke out the yield, possibly for a couple of seasons, it must now be apparent to all who have had experience of ti'i'lah gardens that, without renovating aid artificially supplied, the yield must gradually fall off until it becomes no longer remunerative. To any one knowing the Sylhet and Caohar districts tolerahly well, this can be ascertained beyond all question by referring xo the statistical accounts of the annual yield of the numerous gardens in the agency of the firm publishing the quarterly reports alluded to. In the instance of one garden, the falling off has been so' marked as to lead the shareholders to look upon the existence of the Company to be ensured only by large extensions yearly : whereas, had the money alre.idy sunk in such extensions been employed in the scientific application of manure to the older portion of the property, the average outturn would have been maintained and the garden kept within the origi- nal area. Moreover, these extensions necessitate a much greater expense in the way of additional labour and supervision than the careful nursing of the old garden would require. We think therefore that the efforts of our tea planters should be directed to the utihzationof all such material for forming manures as can be collected within a reasonable distance of the factory, such for instance as cowdung, stable refuse, and bhee! 30i\. But it is evident that these manures alone do not possess the requisite strength to compensate the plant for the severe strain put upon it, and so long as this demand is exacted, it appears to us quite evident that something utore stimu- lating and nourishing is required. A close investigation into the merits of limestone has confirmed us in the opinion that the present yield of our li'rl,ih ganler.- 'Tiuld be largely increased were a regular system of manuring resorted to, and wo ir'.ist soon to hear that the collection of a compost of all animal refuse, mixed with one-third its bulk of crushed limestone, is being carried out on all gardens where renovating pits can be dug without endangering the stability of the plant. That this would be a work of tiinc we admit, but in the present state of the Tea Industry an increased yield as soon as possible is absolutely necessary, and the effects of manure such as we recommend, would increase the outturn far quicker ( ■" ) than large extensions even of the beat jilt, wliicli latti>v must always renmiii, for two or three years at least, a dead weiglit on the linancos of the factory. Some donhfs have been expressed as to the safety of applying limestone to Tea, but as that matter can at once be set at rest by a visit to easily-accessibl places, we need do no more than refer to it here. Terriah Ghat at the foot of the ascent to Shillong vid Oherra Poonji, is well worth a visit, if merely for the purpose of proving our arguments in favour of limestone ; for here may be seen its effects on jack, areoa, sago, plaintain, and pdn (betel pepper-vine) while, close by, the Khnssias at Bolahgunge have recently discovered that the apparently infertile sand-c/nirs exposed during the cold weather, are so impregnated with the mineral as to yield heavy crops of dhal, potatoes, and yams. Those wlio are under the impression that limestone is inimical to tender vegetable life, may be surprised to learn that the most delicate of all the ground orchids, Anmctochilns, is found in the most flourishing condition in the clefts of limestone reefs. To such as would -wish to see the effects of the minernl upon Tea, we recommended a visit to the Sundai estate in the Jaintia Hills. It will thus be seen that limestone is suitable for enhancing the yield of the fruit-bearing trees, not plants and pure vegetation, as demanded by our tea-planters. Our object in advocating its use as the basis of a compost, is that it is procurable in limitless quantities and at a' nominal price — recommendations that should have due weight with tea proprietors at the present juncture. — Indian Agriculturist. INFORMATION ANENT MANURE. Sir, — Given good soil and site, is it benefi- eial, useless or harmful to apply manure, (a) when planting out ; (6) after the first year of planting ; (c) any time before plucking commen- ces i {li) any time before the deterioration of the bushes commences ? 2nd. — If you have once commenced manur- ing at any of the above periods, is it necessary to keep up the treatment, or may you drop it at any of the stages ? 3rd. — What is the best time of the year to manure t 4tk. — How close to the bushes may it be put without being injurious ? 5th — How far may it be put without being nseless ? 6th. — How deep ought it to be put 1 7th. — Is there any benefit in putting it very deep ? If you or any of your correspondents will kindly answer the above questions seriatim, I am sure you will confer a benefit on the planting community generally, and especially on — " YonE HnMBLB Servant." Dear Sir, — The subject on which your correspondent asks for information is one "which may be written on by the hoar. Seriatim, (a.) Useless ; (S) Useless ; (c) Useless ; (d) Beneficial may differ, but remember he says toil and arte." nay more, necessary. Some given, good 2nd. You may drop it, but you'll drop ths benefit of it as well. Srd. From the 1st of January to the Slst of December, as you have the manure and labour available, is the best time of year. ith. As close as the majority of the spong- lets or spongioles, JV. B. — Where these are, " Your humble Servant" can best ascertain by having the greater part of the earth beneath a tea-plant carefully separated from the roots. This is a task that will have to be gone about very carefully and gingerly, and a pronged koorpee, pretty strong, will be a good thing to use. But it can be done, and well too. This task will, for fibrine perfection, occu- py two men quite the best part of two days — with a largish bush. A " coloured man" — a Georgian — might do it in less time by himself, but not Thakoor Dass, nor Kaniya Keyot, nor Poopooh Sawmi. 'oth. This is virtually answered by the last reply. dth. Just so : that when the earth is filled over it, all will be as level as things were, be- fore. 1th. I should say not, because the rain will take it down in time ; and to feed ioth, upper and lower circles or rootlets distinctly is not, at present certainly, part of our plan, though it might be a good plan. Let Y. H. S. try it. To conclude, the flower of my experience (so far) is, that to make the tea-bush flush and flourish, and most effectually to nour- ish it, there is nothing than can come up to a good nasketful of farm-yard manure, i. e. cow- dung, ashes, and decayed straw ; the "basket- ( -^'^ ) fill" to mean, fot an ordinary siJied bush, ab- out from 10 to 12 seera, and for a vdvy fully developed bush half as much again, or double, indeed. And in my humble opinion three points ought to be observed : — the first, that your manure be well kept and sheltered from sun and rain while being " made," to as great an extent as is fairly practicable, by being stor- ed indoors during the heavy rains, and by be- ing protected at other seasons by coverings or "fixers" of earth pretty well broken up ; the second, that it be laid in just about under the circumference of the bush {N. B. — not the tUm); and the third, that you see that the fair quantity is- given, (and as quickly as pos- sible after being carted to the field), and that the coolies do not humbug and make one bas- ket go to more than one bush. — F. A Cheap Manubb. Dear Sir, — Here is a simple sanitary "wrin- kle. " It is so simple that one feels that he may be thought simple to suppose that others are so simple as not to know it. Hoivn-ev ; engage an active, good sweeper, and give him a hoe, and tell him to go round the outskirts of the lines steadily — to be always at it for a fair proportion of workinghoursof the twenty- four — and wherever he sees any excreted mat- ter, tell him to throw a couple of hoefuls of earth over it. I am trying this plan this year, and I cer- tainly have found that there has been an im- provement. It may be fancy, but I hardly think it ; and my nostrils have had a better time of it. Indeed, fairly and broadly, to judge by one's senses, this single sweeper, at five rupees a month, has done a vast deal of good, and without worrying the people. The man should get instructions to make himself quite aware of the places he frequent- ed ; and should be warned not to give any bother to the people, but to go round about with his hoe after they have gone ofi to work ; and also to take a turn round before dark. I think that this plan will be found to be worth the cost, and far over. Of course exten- sive lines would require more than a single hand.— P. A Cheap Fertilizer. — This consists of sul- phate of ammonia, 60 lbs. ; nitrate of soda, 40 lbs. ; ground bone, 250 lbs. ; plaster, 250 lbs. ; salt, ^ bushel ; wood ashes, 3 bushels ; stable manure, 20 bushels. A Patent Fbetilizbr. This invention relates to a combination of chemicals to be used in connection with dry peat or muck and unbleached ashes, or with any refuse matter having fertilizing properties, to form a fertilizing compound ; and it consists in combining dissolved bone, ground plaster, nitrate of soda, sulphate of soda, and sulphate of ammonia, in proportions substantially as follows : Dissolved bone, three bushels ; ground plaster, three bushels ; nitrate of soda, forty pounds ; and sulphate of ammonia, thiry-three pounds. This mixture is incorporated with, say, twenty bushels of dry peat or muck, and three bushels of unbleached ashes. The manner of preparing a fertilizing coiS- poundfrom the above ingredients is as follows; The peat or muck and ashes, if such matter is used as the base of the mixture, are first thoroughly mixed with the dissolved bone, and the nitrate of soda, sulphate of soda, and sulphate of ammonia, after being dissolved in water, added thereto. The ingredients are next incorporated with the ground plaster, after which the compound is allowed to stand for, say, thirty or forty days, when it becomes ready for use. A New Manukk. A correspondent writes : " I am making some very careful experiments in manures — chiefly saltpetre, which I believe will be found most effective, and being in such small com. pass, carriage will not amount to much. Ex- periments on the Government farms at home point strongly to nitre being the chief ferti- lizer ; also to the necessity of the ground be- ing covered with some quick-growing crop during rains, when the loss of nitrates by drainage is very heavy. I am sowing in Sir- gooja oil-seed, which grows very quickly, and I then dig it in a month afterwards. I believe this is one of the cheapest and most effective ways of manuring." Lime as a Manuhe. — The importance and value of this is being recognized in Ceylon. A recent letter to the local paper says : — Within the range of the limestone deposits, indeed, plants either of tea, cinchona, coffee, or vanilla, enjoy an immunity, and this fact attracting attention led to the employment of crushed or rather pulverized limestone as a manure. One garden that had suffered so severely as to be on the point of being thrown up, was thoroughly renovated by the application of two pounds placed round the base of the stem of each plant. The cost of application being for an acre of tea, 2,722 plants, at a task of 5,000 for 3 annas, a little over a rupee per acre. If there is no limestone in the vicinity, the cost of getting it from Bengal would not amount to so much as th« indulgence in those highly priced artificial manures at present in vogue. Lime is the most powerful renovator known (renovation must not be confounded with stimulation, whose effects are transient.) Lime contains all the elements of strength- giving vitality, and plants, so strengthened, will be as well able to encounter disease as a strong healthy man does. The puny effects from renovating pits filled with cowdung and weeds avail little, and cost three times as much as a seer of limestone would. It is unreasonable to expect that our plants of tea, coffee, cinchona, cinnamon or other spices, can goon standing the exacting demand cons- tantly made on their leaves, berries, and bark, without some corresponding nourishment as compensation, and though disease must be endured, our plantations must be strengthen- ed to fight it, even, where it can be afforded, at the expense of abstaining for one whole year from growing a crop, after limiiug. SECTION VII. DRAINAGE. Importance of Drainage. Different sorts of Drainage for different Soils. Sub- Soil vs. Open Drainage. ( 61 ) IMPORTANCE OF DRAINAGE. Drainage, though but very little understood by planters, is a very important operfttion in the cultivation of Tea. Through the lamentable ignorance, upon ihis subject, which is displayed by some of the planters on the nearly dead flats of Assam, we have seen parts of a garden where Tea, though repeatedly planted, would not, and indeed could not, grow. We have noticed stunted bushes, with their bark per- fectly covered with lichen, which, though itself no cause of disease, is a sure sign that the soil is cold through the presence of a superfluity of moisture, and that, as a result of this, the vital jnices of the plants have been chilled and caused to stagnate : the bark has thus become diseased, and in its diseased condition has afforded a suitable resting. place to the lichen. In Sylhet, drainage becomes a very simple matter ; indeed most of the country appears to enjoy a perfect natural drainage, — at least as far as many planters appear to understand its action. The real fact, however, is, that the sole use of artificial drainage lies in the removal of stagnant water from land visibly suffering from a water-logged condition ; and most, if not all, soils may be vastly improved by a judi- cious system of drainage, varying in its best methods of performance with the charac- ters and several combinations of country, soil, and subsoil, The effects of drainage may thus be briefly summed np ; Firstly, soil, which from surplus moisture was sour and unapproachable by the atmosphere, becomes sweet- ened by the access of air, ami admits of the chemical operation above-mentioned un- der the head of simple cultit-ation ; secondly, the removal of the surplus moisture, which l)y evaporation kept the internal temperature down to a very low degree, causes a much higher temperature to succeed the previous cold condition of the soil ; and thirdly, where an excess of soluble salts in the soil gives rise to an incrustation upon the surface by evaporation of the stagnant water holding them iu Solution and bringing them with it by its continual flow upwards through capil- larity, the removal of such stagnant water from below entirely prevents a recurrence of tins condition, while the drain remains in working order. In commencing to drain, therefore, the first points which should occupy our consideration are, the level of the nearest river, bheel, or rice land, in the cold weather, and also in the highest floods. The next object is a suitable outfall, from whence the system should be commenced, beginning with the main drains, and proceed- ing, after their completion, with the arterial. A little more attention to this most important operation would soon prove its inestimable value to the ten-planter. It would be well to stick to the old open drains, t.-xking care to give them a decent fall, and to clean them out once aimually during the cold weather. Tile draining would cost a great deal of money, and the drains would, I think, owing to the inordinate rainfall during the wet season, soon silt up and become useless. The only objections to open drains are the drying of the adjacent soil through exposure during the cold season, and occasionally, if there be a considerable fall, to the washing away of mineral matter — some of it useful as plant food — in a fine state of division. Pipe and tile drains at home are of course covered in as soon as the pipes or tiles, as the case may be, have been laid ; but we must remember that the trifling rain-fall in England renders it impossible, without direct local experiment, to form, from a knowl- edge of the efficacy of these systems of drainage in that country, any reliable opinion as to the probabilities of their efficiency, or its converse, if tried in the Tea-districts of India, — in some of which they would have to dispose of a rain-fall at least ^r« times as great as that with which the British agriculturist has to deal. There is, in our opinion, serious cause for apprehension th;it by silting up and by choking, from the roots of the Tea-bushes, (fur the deeper the drainage, the deeper will their tap-roots descend) the enormous outlay which would have to be incurred in tile or pipe draining, — an expenditure suited only to the performance of a real and permanent improvement — might be utterly and irremediably thrown away. We have seen made — upon stiff, wet, low-lying clay — open drains which have answered their purpose admirably ; they are inexpensive to make, and there is no fear of their ever giving trouble. An ordinarily strong coolie will cut and throw up 108 ( eriment8 ( 83 ) •have gorie to prove that the " Sftu" tree pos- . Besses pecnliav properties in bringing round exhausted soils, thereby causing tea bushes to flush vigorously : in fact, imparting a vitality which T?e are now beginning to find old tea sadly deficient in. I am not in a position to state the reason o{ the " Saa" exercising such an influence on tea, and I believe'a thorough chemical analy- sis of the soil can be the only means of ascer- taining the cause. ■ An area of three acres planted with " Sau" about 10 years ago has yielded, for the last four years, more than double as much tea as any other part of the garden. I think we may put aside shade as the cause of this increase in yield ; in fact, the generality of planters condemn shade. It tends to make the bush throw out long stalky shoots, racing with each other to reach the light, and the flushes from such trees are necessarily meagre and woody. Such, however, is not the case under " Sau.'' Xhe tea bushes under this tree, which casts a light shade, are broad in proportion to their height, have an even growth over the whole surface, and yield flushes equal to the finest tea I have seen in the open, where the condi- tion of the soil and age of bush are both in its favour. I do not wish to contend that " Sau" is capable of improving tea plants, where the soil contaius elements which in some instances nature has abundantly supplied for the support of the bush, but I do assert th.at the vitality of the tea bush is limited, probably in a great measure depending on the charac- ter of the soil; and unless we restore some of those essential parts, we are yearly, I may say weekly, abstracting, the tea planter in a few more years will find himself surrounded by tea which the very best cultivation and the most scientific pruning can never bring round. The mere fact that blight has, during the last few years, been more prevalent than for- merly, strengthen the argument that soil is deteriorating, and there is the strongest proof to show that tea under the " Sau" is particu- larly free from blight when the surrounding trees are suflfering. Professor Johnson, in his Elements of Agri- cultural Chemistry, says, the improvement of land, therefore, by the planting of trees de- pends in part upon the quantity of organic food which the trees can extract from the air, and afterwards drop in the form of leaves upon the soil, and in part upon the kind and quantity of inorganic matter which the roots can bring up from beneath, and in like man- ner strew upon the surface. The action, there- fore, of a tree is two-fold : — 1st. — It causes vegetable matter to accumu- late on the surface. 2nd. — It brings up from beneath certain substances which are of vital importance to the growth of plants, but in which the upper soil may have been deficient. The same author also proves that land can be improved ten-fold by planting trees. In some trees certain mineral salts are sup- posed to exude from the root-cells into the waterof the .soil : these salts acting in some instances, we all know, as a poison. From the same causa mfty not some mineral salts proTO beneficial to the tea bush 1 My object in collecting the following cir- cumstantial proofs of the efiicaoy of the " Sau," principally, and of a few other trees, partially in restoring exhausted soils, is to call the attention of the tea-planting community generally to this important fact, and to urge the necessity of a careful chemical investiga- tion of the matter on the spot. My thanka are especially due to the gentlemen who have come forward so liberally with their opiniona in this matter. J. Buckingham. Amgoorie, October 23rd, ISS4, Mr. Newington writes regarding the " Sau" tree ;^ I was out at one of the out-gardens this morning, and took particular notice of tea growing under the "Sau" trees, I feel con- fident that it is beneficial to the tea plant, and will increase the yield. In the first place, it is a cultivator, as the lateral roots grow so near the surface, which seems to open the soil and make it porous ; then again I notice this tree does not thoroughly open its leaves until about 8 A. M., just when the sun is getting hot. When leaves are quite open, it gives a slight shade, while at the same time it does not exclude the sun ; this is beneficial to the tea plant. Also this slight shade prevents the ground getting dried and baked by the heat of the sun. As far as the fact of the leaves acting as manui-e is concerned, this is very slight, as the foliage is comparatively light. I quite believe in the tree. For the last three days I have been planting out my " Sau" nurseries among the tea 50 x 50. Mr. Raban writes : — Eegarding the " Koroi" or " Sau" tree, from what I saw at Amgoorie I was quite convinced that it benefited the tea growing under it : so much so, that I have this year planted out 100 acres of itmy.self. I find it difficult to account for the beneficial efllects it produces on the tea plant, but it is possible that Acacia trees take up nourishment from the soil not requir- ed by the tea plant, give sufficient, not too much shade, keep down jungle, and, sending their roots down much lower than the tea plant, drain the subsoil, and enable the latter to send roots down lower than it otherwise could. I do not say this is a sufficient or satisfactory explanation, but it is the only way I can account for the beneficial effects produced. Dr. Simons writes : — I will endeavour to give you all the infor- mation lean collect about the " Sau" (Acacia Stipulata). It is a tree worth cultiv.ating among tea more than any other I am acquaint- ed with, for, in the way the branches spread, it does not keep the sun entirely off the plants but moderates the strong heat of the sun's rays, through which evaporation from the leaves is lessened and the flushes come in quick- er and larger than on those growing exposed in the open. The '• Sau" grows to a very large size and quickly. Dr. Koxburgh in his "Flora Indica" states that one tree planted ( 84 ) by himself had a trunk 48} inches in circum- ference, 4 feet above the ground, when only 7 years old. Another tree in the Botanical Gardens 20 years old measured 13 feet in cir- cumference. I do not know whether you took notice of the " Sau" tree which was srrowing in Borsitlah Factory, not 100 yards south of the Iron Tea-house. I once measured the trunk, and, as far as I can recollect, 3 feet above the base it was 14 feet in circumference, and the branches spread over at least one-tweutieth of an acre. There were no vacancies among the tea plants growing underneath it, even to with- in a few feet of the trunk. They always looked uniformly healthy, with deep green leaves, while those growing in the open not far off had several vacancies j some looked scraggy, with leaves of a pale greenish-yellow colour, and would be often affected by blight, either red spider, green fly, and fungoid spots on the leaves. The "Medeloa" (Acacia Elata), which I presume you know as " Koroi, " is another desirable tree to grow among tea, but from its slow growth, and not having spreading bran- ches, it does not answer so well as the " Sau." The timber of the " Sau " is not useful for posts, as it decays in the ground quickly. For marolies and planks it would answer, but it is rather brittle. Natives scoop out old trees for canoes, which they say last longer than those made of the Poma. It makes excellent char- coal, as it burns slowly, I would surmise, by your writing to gain: information about the " Sau, " that you want to plant it among tea as a shade. I think it is time that a move is made in this direction, for in consequence of the indiscriminate cutting out of all trees, and leaving none for moderate' shade to the tea plants, all the blights now prevailing have been introduced. Fruit trees require planting in the open to receive the heat of the sun, but to treat a plant from which the leaf is required, moderate shading is necessary to prevent evaporation from the leaves. Mr. Macdonald told me there are some "Sau" trees growing among tea in a garden named Burasoli, of the Grob Company, and tliey cover about 5 acres of plants. He is of opinion that the tea plants 'growing under- neath the shade of these trees have looked uniformly healthy and kept free from blight, while those in the adjoining open land are generally affected by blight, when prevalent. The yield of the whole garden has averaged 8 maunds per acre, but he considers the greater portion of this yield is plucked off from the. plants growing under the " Sau" trees. Mr. Peal writes : — Yours of 7th to hand, and I have noticed for many years what you allude to regarding " Sau." I first clearly noticed its value in tea at Bursali in 1808, and later on found that " Medeloa" was even better ; I fancy it is peculiar to all that group, i.e. Medeloa Albizzia elata Sau ,, Stipulata Hiris or Siris ,, Procera or Sirisa (Jati) Koroi ,, Marginata or Odora- tissima. These used all to be called " Acacias." The benefit to tea is obviously neither shade nor drip, but some chemical process due to the roots, as the effect on tea is often seen long after the tree has been felled, and the stump alone remains, at times DEAD. I have planted " Medeloa" by fids of root best, and it grows easily. Yes, Hingori is bad, and Sawa, which Dr. Simon calls "Engleha;aua Eoxburghiana," is WOBSB, and I have seen "Sum" bad. What is the chemical that the " Sau" and " Medeloa" roots evolve ? "Worth knowing. Mr. Phillips, in writing about Sau, says : — It is undoubted that they exercise a most beneficial effect on the trees near and under them, and from the appearance of them at Magoorie, as also elsewhere, where I have observed it since you called my attention to it, it is undoubted, I think, that they would increase the yield of tea considerably. I am 80 sure of this, that I am following your ex- ample, and am arranging to plant out the trees extensively in our gardens. How the trees benefit the tea I do not feel competent to state, but that they do so is un- doubted. I was glad to have the letters that you sent me, and to find that the tree is now named by Dr. Simon correctly, — at least I think so. Mr. Lawrie writes : — In reply to yours of the 20th, regardino- " Sau" shade, I am not at all certain why tea improves so much under trees of the above family, but I think it is either the drip from the leaves, or the leaf cast and hoed in with the soil. It cannot be the shade, as I find the tea the most exposed to the sun just as good as shaded from the afternoon sun. Un- der any large trees I see that as far as the branches reach, the tea is good ; and beyond, it is the same as other p.irts of the plot. Three years ago, when I bought Borsillah, I observed that under some very large " Sau" trees the tea was much better. In a new clearance in another garden I noticed the young plants grew quickly under the "Sau." Again at Naganijan, the same story. So I have for three years been planting our gardens and anxiously await to see whether the tree benefits the tea, or the soil where the " Sau' grows is better suited for tea. Next year ought to tell me, as we have some 50 acres now where the plants are from 8 to 10 feet high. Should it fail, it is very easy to get rid of, and it makes excellent charcoal. Mr. Walker writes : — Received yours of 20th instant some days ago, with regard to the "Sau" benefiting tea : there is no doubt that under certain circum- stances it ia so, but my opinion is that tea will grow as well without shade of any kind as with it. provided the soil and cultivation are of the right kind. On g.irdens with poor soil and bad cultivation, shade from " Sau," Mede- loa, and '■ Korio" seems to do good, but where soil, jat, and cultivation are first class, I con- sider shade of any kind unnecessary, if not detrimental. These are my ideas, but I am open to reason if facts are shown contrariwise. A few plants round a tree looking in better ( 85 ) health than those in the open garden is no proof that they give more or less leaf during a season. Mr. MaoDonald writes : — With regard to your enquiry regarding shade for tea, I must confess from experience that I do believe in some trees for shade. The " Koroi" I know little of from experience, but I should fancy it is too slow n grower. I should give the palm to " San" next to " Medeloa" ; perhaps there is very little choice between them. One of this Company's gardens has a plot of about 10 acres of tea, and about 8 years ago had about 20 to 30 indigenous large trees here and there, but thay are now fast dying out, owing to old age, and the sudden change from the being exposed to the open instead of being surrounded by jungle. There are now, perhaps, not more than a dozen alive, but still, for three or four years, the tea round the old trees shows superior growth and vigour to the plants not so situated. This garden has been repeatedly attacked by red spider and green fly, I have never noticed the former touching tea near a " Medeloa," although all round might be perfectly black. The green fly does attack it, but does not seem to do any- thing like the damage it does outside the radius of the tree. Another garden of the Company's, 12 miles off, has a plot of indigenous " Sau" tree, pro- bably not more than 10 trees on the acre. I have seen all sorts of blights in this garden, which is only a small one, but have never noticed any on this plot for the last nine years. I cannot say what the probable yield of this plot may be, as it was never kept ac- count of.but judgingfrom the steady outturn of from 7 to 8 maunds an acre for the whole garden, including some very poor plots in- deed, I should think it cannot be less than 10 maunds an acre. Many trees are good for tea, such as " Amluckia," " Modar," &o., but not to the extent that these are. I am not in a position to say how tea is actually bene- fited by shade or chemicals in the soil genial to it. It is a subject that certainly should be brought to the notice of proprietors in a man- nerthatit would leave little doubt in their minds as to the experiments being at least worth a trial. Mr. Byre writes : — I have planted out the whole of the Tea here with " Sau," which is the same, 1 un- derstand, as " Bihkoroi," and the efliects on the tea within the influence of the " Sau" are extraordinary, and such as no other of the same family produces. I agree with Mr. Peal so far, that the cause is chemical action of some kind, and I have seen no theory so plausible as that you pointed out to me at Aragoorie, i. e., the leaves absorbing inorganic matter from the atmosphere, and imparting organic matter when they wither and drop to the soil below. The drainage theory is too general, and to my mind utterly wrong in principle, and I should say botanically too. Mr. Peal thinks the chemical action takes place as from the roots. Tliis may be the case, but as he bases this theory on the fact of decayed roots of the tree forcing the tea more markedly, his opinion is weakened, as decayed roots have the same (modified per- haps) effect as manure. As the roots and the leaves are structural- ly and componently similar, I should say that his argument is in favour of the decayed leaves being the cause ; and more of the chemical principle being stored in the roots, the effect when they decayed would naturally be more marked and rapid, but still only temporary. I know nothing of either botany or chemis- try, and Mr. Peal is well versed in the former, I believe, so I am not prepared to argue the matter with him, but I disagree intoto with his logic of the cause. A chemical analysis of the leaves of all these trees would settle the question, and would be valuable, for if the fertilizing principle can be artificially- prepared, we would have a manure to our hands instead of waiting till the "Sau" grows to manhood, which may occur when none or few of us are there to see the result of our labour. Mr. D. M. Lumsden writes : — During the last week I have had a careful look about for the " Sau" tree amongst my tea, but have only discovered four, three a short distance apart fiom each other, and one ab- out ^ a mile distant in a separate block of tea. Beneath and around them all, but specially under that of the last-mentioned, which is the largest and oldest, the tea bushes are without doubt of greater dimension with a better plucking surface than those outside the spread or radius of the trees. Noting the above, adds to the opinion I formed when at Amgoorie, where I was able to observe the evi- dent good results on a much larger scale, though I am still unable to give the reason why. There seems to me to be no doubt that, from some source or other, the "Sau" tree exercises a beneficial effect on tea growing' within its radius, and I consider the subject is one which merits the attention of all in- terested in tea planting. Mr. Gibbons writes : — I find from long experience that shade of any description retards, rather than promotes, ex- cessive growth of leaf in the tea plant, and this will be seen at once by comparing the number of growing shoots on a healthy plant in the open with the number of growing shoots on the same class and ago of plant under shade. Although the latter no doubt looks darker and apparently stronger, still I main- tain the producing power of both plants stands in the ratio of 1 to 4, at the very least, i.e., for every pound of leaf grown under shade, you will get four pounds in the open. The shade of some trees is more detrimental than others, but on the whole my opinion is, the more light, heat, and air, the tea-plant gets, the greater will be its productive powers. Mr. Pringic writes : — The seed I got from you never came up, so I should very much like to get some more and give it a trial, as certainly, from what I, saw at Amfjoorio, I think there is no doubt it is beneficial to tea. ( 86 ) I have a good many " Koroi" trees scatter- ed about the garden here, and since you drew my attention to the matter, I have noticed that the tea looks uncommonly healthy and well grown in their Ticinity. It might be the " Koroi " keeps a happy medium in taking moisture out of the soil, enough in the rainy weather, and not having any heavy foliage to keep the sun from getting at the soil round about it, and not taking too much in the dry season. Here I notice that most trees dry up the soil tremendously round about them in the cold weather, and the drip from heavy foliage in the rains is certainly bad. Jack- trees I have found deadly for tea. Mr. Dowling of Chittagong writes : — • (Alluding to the '' Albizzia Odoratissima," or " Jati Koroi ") Bengal " Siris" : — The tea bushes are decidedly better under this tree than in the surrounding parts, and the " Koroi" also improves the tea in light soils, but not in clay. Mr. Earnshaw writes : — In reply to your question as to my views on the advantage of planting the " Sau" tree among tea, my observation leads me to the conclusion that in some way, which has yet to be explained, it is undoubtedly beneflicial, as 1 have nearly always remarked that the tea-trees immediately under and around the " Sau" are more vigorous in general growth, as well as fuller in top leaf shoots, than elsewhere : the growth is quite different from that delicate, thin kind usual under most other shade. "Koroi," and "Moj,"! have also noticed affect tea in the same manner as the "Sau" does. It would be most interesting and useful if the chemistry of the question could be explain- ed to us, as without understanding that, it is difficult to venture an opinion as to the reason of the good done by these trees. It would seem that somehow their roots, in drawing their nourishment from the soil, threw out the property which the tea-tree required, and in this way restored to the soil what had been taken out of it, to an excessive extent, by the tea. I hear it has been noticed that young tea is not much affected by these trees, and the benefit done is in old gardens ; this would point to the feasibility of the above idea. The leaves of these trees are so small and light that they would hardly act as manure to any appreciable extent, but that the light shade is useful in checking excessive and sud- den heat from the sun seems quite reasonable, I think. The fact that the beneficial effects are to be seen in tea round stumps of " Sau" confirms the correctness of the root-action theory, but would not altogether exclude the probability of some good arising from the light shade, when it was present. Whether the gases thrown off from the leaves of these trees could in any way affect the tea, only a chemist could say. It certainly would be worth while to have the whole ques- tion gone into by a scientific man, as it seems very certain that in many old gardens some- thing is wanted to restore vigour to the tea- trees, and to stop the mortality whichis going on among them, to a considerable extent, from some cause or other ; and if, by planting certain trees which are close at hand, old- gardens can be very materially improved, the fact should be realized, and acted on as soon as possible. SECTION XL CULTIVATION. Terracing. As TO Steam Ploughing on Tea Gardens. Ploughing and Hoeing Machinery. Hoeing and Weeding. Deep vs. Light Hoeing. ( 88a ) TILLAGE. The -whole art of Cultivation consists in tillage and manuring, and the profit of the husbandman depends on the perfection of the tillage, and the eco- nomy of labour in producing the effect. A defect in tillage will cause a great deficiency in the crops in ordinary years. To ensure good crops, the soil should be in such a state that the rains and dews may readily be diffused through it, without giving it a wet appearance, or evaporating too rapidly. It requires grcjit knowledge and experience to give any particular soil the exact portion of tillage which is suited to it. A fine garden-tilth, as it is called, is the most perfect for light soils which have been long cultivated and manured. When they can be brought to such a state that after continued rains the surface dries without forming a crust, and crumbles of its own accord, the tillage has been good ; and the deeper this soil is stirred, the more it will produce : but where clay abounds in the soil, which in dry weather can be readily pulverized by crushing the dry clods, and be reduced to the finest powder, too much tillage may do more harm than good. The fine clay is soon converted into mud at the surface by the least rain, because it is not sufiiciently porous to let the water through it ; dries into a hard crust, which effectually precludes the access of air, and consequently stops the vegetation of the seed. It is only by abundant manuring with organic matter, especially of animal origin, that this natural tendency in clays to cohere can be overcome, and until this is effected it is best to stir clay soils as deep as possible by means of subsoil-ploughs, but they should not be pulverized so that the water cannot run down between the lumps and clods ; and, especially, the surface should be left in such a state of roughness that heavy rains cannot cover it with a coat of mud. The clods which are left on the surface imbibe the moisture more gradually, and in dry- ing fall to pieces, by which the young plants are invigorated, and, as it were, moulded up. This is particularly the case in winter after a frost, as all clay- land cultivators are well aware. It is very easily ascertained whether a soil will bear much tillage or not. It is only necessary to try some of it in a large pot or box : make the surface very fine by breaking the clods ; then water it abundantly, and let it dry in the sun : if a crust is formed in drying, that soil will not bear too much harrowing and pulverizing, and should be left in a moderately rough state after sowing or drilling the seed ; but if, after it dries, the surface is loose and porous, then the finer the tillage the better the seed will vegetate. The whole depends on the ready admission of air, or its exclusion. ( ssh ) CULTIVATION. Young plants should remain untouched for a month after being trans- planted, to prevent any disturbance of their roots, and to allow them to re- cover from the shock. The jungle between them has now grown to such a length that if no further cultivation could be given, it would be necessary to clear it away with the dhow. Each man should not do less than 60 nulls of this work, unless from some misfortune the jungle has been allowed to grow for two or three months, when 30 nulls is enough. Any jungle which grows within a foot of the plant should be weeded, but if the jungle is allowed to grow too long, much damage is done to the young plant. First, the plant is weakened by being closely shut in by jungle ; and next, when the jungle near it is pulled up by the roots, large balls of earth are removed with the jungle- roots which have now taken firm hold of the ground, and the little seedling ' is shaken, and its roots disturbed. The best treatment is, at the end of the month to hoe gently all round the young seedling : but great care must be taken. The hoe must not strike within six inches of the plant — that is, a circle of a foot in diameter must be left, with the plant in the middle. The hoer stands close to the plant, and hoes over it, drawing the earth towards the plant ; he then turns gradually round, repeating the operation, until the circle is complete. Now, he places his hoe on one side, and with his hands pulver- izes the soil, and draws it back from the collar of the plant. Each of the plants now stands in the centre of a hoed clean circular space of about IJ to 2 feet diameter. The land remaining between these spaces need not be hoed until the end of the year, and the jungle, on its being repeatedly chopped with the hoe, gradually dies out. This work can be done for 1^ hazrees for a pie of 16 bushes square, 4 by 4 feet planting, 256 bushes, 28 ^ nuUs; and afterwards, as the work gets lighter, it can be reduced to IJ and 1 hazree. It should, however, be borne in mind that this work is much heavier in close planting than in wide. There are 270 bushes in 30 nulls planted 4 by 4 feet square. Pulverizing the soil should be repeated at least once in six weeks, and not oftener than once in three weeks. Bamboo stumps, or other troublesome jungle which is hard to kill, should be smothered with cut jungle and clods of earth. The heat generated by fermentation kills the young shoots effec- tually, and the stump dies, and can be easily hoed away the next year, when it will have become rotten. — P. Swinburne. The soil orer the rootlets of Tea-plants cannot be stirred too often. The oftener it is done, the oftener the trees flush ; and when young, the more vigorously will they grow. What is the best way to do it ? 1 believe simply by digging round each plant. I go to show why this is, I believe, the best : — ( 88c ) Putting aside the waste incurred in di>;ging a wliole Garden when not necessary, the way the soil is then dug near the plants is, I think, objectiona- ble. The ground is dug in a straight lino up to the plaid ; and in doing so, ii' the digging is deep, roots are very apt to be cut. Again, when the work is task-work, the men shirk as much as possible digging close up to the stems under the branches, and thus the soil, over much of tlu^ roots, is not stirred at all. This is not easy to detect, for you must look under the branches of each tree to see how the work has been done. In digging round plants the men should/o/Zow the kodalee round the tree, and tlie position of the blade in the same line as the roots makes any injury very unlikely. Even if tasked, as, when the work is examined, it is only round the plants, it is more readily perceived if the ground has not been stirred close up to the stems. I therefore prefer digging round plants, with the view of cultivating them, to digging the whole Garden. I believe the object is better attained. — Col. Money. ( 80 ) TERRACING. I notice a little error that the Agriculturist has fallen into — that " terracing will not preserve the soil from wash." This all depends on the instructions given to the coolies. If the planter clears away all jungle, roots of trees, &o., and makes the whole of the hillside loose soil, and then attempts to terrace, no wonder that the whole of the loose soil slides from top to bottom. It reminds me of a journey in a Railway carriage, with a Candian who was going to settle in Algeria, where the rain when it does fall, comes down in buckets. The Arab of that country has a small plough, very much like the native plough of this country. There are clumps of grass here and there — a stump of a tree — a big boulder-stone, but the Arab ploughs found each, does not root them out, and does not plough too deep, and, in s'pite of heavy showers of rain, secures a crop. The Englishman comes, abuses the whole system as being ante-diluvian, and commences to show the man of the country how to work. The clumps of grass, stumps of trees, and large stones, are all rooted out. He then goes to work with his improved English plough — ploughs beautifully loosens the soil tremendously. A heavy shower of rain comes, saturates the loose soil, which then commences to slip from top to bottom, leaving the hillside bare. "We in Darjeeling have improved on this style of working. We notice the heavy jungle : no sooner is one weed eradicated, than another springs up ; therefore, in God's parlance, the weeds are guardians (chokeedars) of the soil, and to throw them all away shows a want of common sense. Weeds, like fire, are good servants, but bud masters. The proper thing is, after the jungle is cut, to make your terraces about 3^ to 4 feet wide, out of the solid soil, and cultivate in the terrace afterwards. The upper jungle is burnt first, so as to kill as many insects and grubs in the soil as possible, and then each terrace is cut in the lower part, flat, about a foot wide, so as to give a base to the upper jungle which is placed upon it, and rests firmly, for it has a flat base. The inside of the terrace is then cultivated, leaving a foot width for the edge of the terrace : the jungle being put topsy-turvy at the edge, keeps up and arrests all the loose soil. The earth of the terrace being scraped to the edge, all the seeds of the weeds go with it, so that in the weeding, for a year or two, there is very little trouble : the weeds grown on the edge of the terrace are only sicklied, — therefore there is less labour than in flat land. Once in three years, when the weeds at the edge of the terraces are troublesome, they are turned topsy-turvy, and for a time the exposed roots arrest the soil till the Wfeds grow again. Pits, of course, will assist to retain the soil, but on properly-terraced land tliey are not required. In course of cultivation all the light vegetable mould is buried by the action o£ the fork, under direction of the skilled planter, before the seeds are planted. — J. S. Method of Terracing. — Old, as well as new, tila gardens can easily be terraced by aid of a triangle and plummet, which would enable the soil to be cultivated without loss by hoeing ; the loss by wash is small compared with the loss caused by hoeing the surface-soil off the tilas into the swamps below, leaving the plants on the bare faces of the tilas without nourishment or cultivation. Jungle is very much abused, but it has its uses in keeping the soil from being washed away while it is growing ; and when turned topsy-tnrvy, it still does the same thing. Grass at the edge of the terraces, is very useful. It should not be al- lowed to grow too large or too high, but should be kept down with the knife or sickle. One of its greatest uses in the cold weather, is keeping the ground damp, and pro- tecting the exposed side of the terrace from drying effects of the westerly winds. Two small gardens in which, this year, the grass was left on the edge of the terrace, and not deteriorated by any use of the knife, flushed earlier than aiiy well-cultivated. ( 90 ) well-pmned ganlen in tlie hills ; so that, in my belief, grass at the edge of a terrace is useful ; but it should not be allowed to get the mastery. If it is left for a whole season without trimming and reducing, no wonder it is a nuisance, but as the gardens ought to be hoed six times in the year, so each time the edge of the terrace ought to be trimmed, and the grass cut down to within an inch of the ground as part of the labour. AS TO STEAM-PLOUGHING ON TEA-GARDENS. The first question that arises in regard to this subject is " Would it pay, even if found feasible ?" In Assam, Cachar, Sylhet, and other places where labour is scarce, it is pro- bable that the introduction of steam cultivation would be a great boon to the Ten Planter. The first cost of a steam-ploughing apparatus with ropes, plough, and every- thing complete, as in use in England, on what is called the " single system," that is working with only one engine, is about £950. This is heavy, but as a much lighter cultivator would be used for Tea, I think the cost might be reduced to £800 — say Rs. 10,000 on the garden. Under moderately favouriible circumstances the machi- nery, making all allowp.nces for native attendants, and the usual difficulties we have to encounter in India through their laziness and stupidity, should cultivate 800 to 1,000 acres per month of twenty working days. The remaining ten days might be occupied, in the rains, by taking the engine and gear from place to place where it might be required ; for, as the expense of a steam-engine and apparatus would be too much for any Concern, except a very large one, to bear, I suggest that two, or three, or four Gardens unite and purchase one. There need be no clashing or quar- relling about terms with the cultivator at the end of the season : each should pay his share of the cost of the fuel, upkeep, wages, &c,, according to the number of days it was on each garden. It would be thus to the interest of each Manager to forward it on to the man whose turn was next, without delay. Remember, please, that in saying that it would cultivate so many acres in such a time, I mean that it wonld cultivate to the ways — that is up and down and across. There would remain a little hoeing, &c , round the inner part of the roots of the l)ushe3, but not much, as the cultivator I would design would go partly underneath the laterals, and still not hurt the roots, the outer lines being much shorter than the inner ones. Now, it is a simple matter to calculate, according to the rates of the district in which the reader may be, the comparative cost of cultivating 1,000 acres of tea by hand and liy tlie steam-plough. The plough would be worked for Tea by an 8-H. P. Portable Engine of any maker's manufacture. Wages for one engineman, one cooly to out wood, possibly one pair bullocks and cart-driver to bring barrels of water, two cocilies to shift the anchors, and two more to assist them (possibly) in shifting the rope, added to the cost of fuel, and 15 per cent, per annum added for repairs and deterioration, seems to be the cost of working. This would be lessened by the rope and anchorman and wood-cutter, on the days when the plough was not at work. Put it, however, at the cost of elephants or bullocks to take the engine, &c., from garden to garden, I think it will be found that the savinu' in expense would be very great on the side of the steam-plonsjh as regards cooly labour. Now, as to the feasibility of the sclieme. It is difficult without the aid of plates to describe how steam-plouy;hing is done. The engine remains stationary at one corner of the field. Near it is a large double windlass, which, when the cultivator ia at work, winds up the dragging-rope with one barrel of the windlass, whilst from the other, the rope is uncoiling, which will drag the plough down the next furrow. When the plough comes to the end of the furrow, two men, one at each end of the rope, shift, the anchors on which are the pulleys round which the rope runs : one furrow-breadth forward the plough is double, one set of coulters and shears being at work, while the other set is tilted up in the air by the weight of a man who sits on and guides the plough. When the plough is to return, it is not turned round, but the man simply tilts up into the air the set of plouijhs thiU have done their work, ( 91 ) and brings down the others. Of course, ploughs like this would not do in Tea : a special cultivator would be needed. At the «nd of the furrow the motion of the windlass is reversed, and the drag-rope becomes in its turn the following-rope. In England there is an ingenious mechanical contrivance for shifting the anchors, which does away with two men, as it works automatically. Now tlio greatest difficulty in the whole matter will be best explained to the reader in Messrs. Howard's own language in their letter to me. They say : — "The obstacle to the use of steam ploughs through rows of bushRS of trees, is the practi- cal difficulty of bringing the slack or following-rope into position for following the implement back on its return journey. The rope cannot be lifted over the intervening row of bu6he», and to employ draught animals to take the rope up the next alley between the bushes, would add to the expense of the work, and would impede it." They continue : " If it is important that the land be broken up to a depth of 9 inches, and the obstacles to effecting this by anirnal power are practically insuperable, the steam-plough, worked on the single system, with animals to convey the slack from end to end of the land, would probably be the most effectual and economical method of working." Now if this difficnlty could be overcome, (and I confess it is a rather formidable one) I quite believe that on fairly straight land, even if somewhat sloping, with straight rows of bushes, and the land clear of stumps, steam cultivation would be easy. On hill gardens, or gardens where tea is irregularly planted on ground much traversed by nullahs or having stomps left in, the steam cultivator could not work. There may be some method of lifting the rope over the bushes. Coolies might be stationed at intervals, along the row, and with the aid of a very light block and tackle might lioist long bights of the rope high enough to clear the bushes. The block and tackle would be fastened to the top of a light pole. One man would hold the pole while the other hove up, and (the pole being midway between the two rows) might incline it over till above the next row, and then lower away. A strong 10ft. bamboo, a pair of light wooden blocks, and an inch and-a-half Manilla rope, would be all that would be requisite. Other projects for effecting this may strike some of your readers : and what I want is, that those who may think the idea of steam ploughing of any value, should co-operaie together to work it out in a practical form. We can scarcely hope, in the present depressed state of the tea market, that proprietors will club together to subscribe to bring out a set of steam cultivating apparatus in order to institute experiments on the subject Should there come better times, something of the sort might be done, and it is as well to have the matter well thought out and discussed beforehand, so that should a series of experiments take place, people would be prepared for any contingencies which might arise, and perhaps be better prepared to overcome these difficulties through the matter having been pre- viously well discnssed. It is quite possible that steam ploughing for tea cultivation is a thing of the future, and may be nearer than you imagine ; therefore be careful to have your lines of tea very straight, both along and across, so that there would be no obstacle to the plough or cultivator working. If you object to the expense oi taking out stumps, they may remain in, as they could be taken out afterwards, " Tea Machinery." ( 92 ) PLOUGHING AND HOEING MACHINERY, Dear Sir, — Varioua agricultural instru- ments, such as ploughs, Sec, have, I know, been tried in old times, and not with the best results to the bushes ; but there is no reason why, because the ordinary machines have failed, that Planters should be sunk in the belief that that costly article — the coolie — must endure as long as Tea does. Darby's Digger is an instrument possessing the prin- ciple we require in deep hoeing, viz., turn- ing the earth completely over, and bringing subsoil to the surface, although of course far too unwieldy, costly, and weighty, to be used in Tea. It is, however, the first step in the right direction, as it closely copies spade ac- tion ; and we may hope that before long a machine with that principle, and capable of being worked in a tea-khet, will be brought out. For light hoeing, last cold weather I procured from Messrs. Vipan and Headly, Church Gate, Leicester. England, two expand- ing horse-hoes, which I worked all the hot weather, and which did their work admirably, and at a much cheaper rate than can be done by hand labour. Two of these hoes hoe a 12- acre khet in six days up the lines of tea and across them ; but to make a thorough job, it is better to go over the work again. The total cost of this — planted 4'xi' is^ fPay of boy and man 12 days _3 6 Foronehoe.rr'^°*''""°??^^®) ^1 i as, per diem, ( I Barley @ 24 per ( " 1^ Rupee ...J -2 Cost of light hoeing 12-aore khet 5 6 10 12 Nirrikh for 1.S6 bildars, light hoeing 240 spaces, 4'x4:', per diem @ 0-2-9 each ...—23 6 Or a saving of more than 100 per cent. I gave one 12-acre khet four of these light hoeings during the hot weather, which so thoroughly destroyed the grass seeds, that, although heavy rain has fallen here for the last mouth and a half, the grass in this khet is thin and not more than 6" high, a fact which to those who know how the jungle springs up in cultivated ground in the Doon when the rains set in, will be a sufficient proof of the success of these instruments. The frame of the hoe is only 7" high, and when the blades are buried in the ground is only 4" ; and as the handle projects from the centre of the back of the hoe and not from the sides, there is no danger of the bushes being injured. ' The hoe will expand from 14" to 20" at back, and from 3" to 7" in front ; and as the standards of the blades are curved outwards, the whole, in its greatest expansion, cultivates a breadth of 27" of ground. I found that one bullock was too weak to drag a hoe, although a good pony was quite equal to the work, so I put in a pair of bullocks. The bullocks and the hoe take up between them three rows of tea at once, — the bullocks on each outside row, and the hoe in the centre one. A boy walking up the centre row leads the bullocks, which are harnessed to the country ploughs, but with longer julas of course. These hoes are, I find, useless during wet weather, as they clog dreadfully, but during hot dry weather they are invaluable. What we now want is .i machine that, either by bullock, horse, or steam power, will do our deep hoeing as well as the light hoe does the light hoeing. PLOUGHING vs. HOEING, Deab Sir, — Some Managers have taken up the idea of ploughing instead of hoeing. It is an idea which I have been dinning into the ears of tea planters ever since I saw a tea garden. Mr. Lyell deserves credit, and so will everyone who assists to introduce ploughing instead of hoeing. The saving of labour would be immense. The gentlemen who are interest- ed in the subject will be glad to learn that I wrote home last month to several leading ao-ri- oultural machinery people, asking the fuUest particulars as to steam jtloughiny maeliinery, with a view to seeing how far suitable it would be for tea cultivation. As soon as all my information arrives, and 1 have thought the matter out, I will give the planting commu- nity my opinion. I have, as far as I am per- sonally concerned, already formed it ; and am confident that at no very distant date the steam plough will supersede the dhangar or other hand labour. But of course I must mako out a strong case for it, or my opinions would be supposed to arise from a professional pre- dilection for machinery. — C. B. F. HOEING AND WEEDING. Hand Weeding. I observe that the attention of some of our Managers has been drawn to this mode of cultivation, so successfully practised in Ceylon, with the object of having^ it tried, at least experimentally, in Assam The advantages claimed for it by Ceylon planters are, that it costs less than our system, and yields better results. ( 93 ) The chief olijections urged against it from the Indian planters' stand-point are, Jirst, tliat the greater abundance and more prolific growth of seed-bearing grasses nnd other weeds would either render the system impracticable, or neutralize the economic advantages claimed for it. Secondly, that even if practicable, it would be undesirable on the ground of the exclusion in much greater degree of the beneficial influence of light and air to the soil. With regard to the first objection, it would be a great mistake to assume that similar conditions are non-existent in Ceylon, with its moist forcing climate. It is their prevalence, in fact, which has led to the adoption of incessant rapid hand- weeding as the only effectual means of keeping the growth of weeds in sulijection. The second objection has no doubt a certain degree of abstract scientific validity ; but in dealing with a question of this kind, fine-drawn theoretical principles may be safely subordinated to the plain practical consideration — which of the two systems yields the more profitable results. Judged by this test, in a comparison of the working of tea estates between the two countries, Ceylon would seem to have decidedly the best of it. Paying quite as much, if not more, for his labour, the Ceylon planter produces his teas at a lower cost per tb., of a quality at least equal to ours, and obtains a higher yield per acre from plant of the same age. If the climate tends to force the growth of tea, it should have the same effect on the growth of weeds, thereby enhancing the cost of production. In natural fertility of soil and surface configuration we should be at least on a footing of equality — a good deal more, one would imagine, in respect of the large tracts of old Coffee-land put under Tea. We thus arrive at the fairly logical in- ference that the superiority possessed by Ceylon is derived mainly from its system of culture. Be that as it may, the Ceylon planter has this advantage in the argument, that while we have left his system untried, he has tried ours, and tried it to condemn it as little better than ruinous. It was found a very troublesome and costly process to restore to its former condition the land on which these hoeing experiments had been made, but it was held thnt there is no alternative between that course and absolute abandonment. This fact points to the most serious impediment to be en- countered — though I believe not an insurmountable one — in the application of the system to our old gardens, In new clearance, however carefully made, with the weed- roots eradicated, there appears no valid reason why it should not be found to answer. In the case of a clearance made on grass-land on a method tried by me, many years ago, with complete success in the objects then aimed at, it would have the best chance of success. The method is simply to dig or trench the ground to a depth of about 18 inches — starting with a clean-cut trench by casting on one side the soil dug out of it, then carefully putting at the bottom of each successive trench first the grass- roots, then the surface-soil, a.nd finally the sub -soil thoroughly pulverised at the time of digging. While the tea plant will readily establish itself and grow freely in such ground, finding nourishment for its tap-root in the underlying surface-soil and decay- ing grass-roots, the subsoil now on the surface is so inimical to ordinary vegetation that no weeds will take root in it for many months after breaking up. Land treated in this manner will also be found to retain moisture in a much higher degree in dry weather, and to part with it more freely when in excess, especially where there is a stiff bottom — often a hard pan till thus broken up. This system would be inapplica- ble to ordinary forest land, nor could it be carried out in its entirety where a large extension on grass-land had to be made in any one year. That it would be more costly than the ordinary method, is obvious, but the extra cost would be largely recouped by the saving in cultivation in the first year, whilst the gain to be derived from the plant being established under conditions ensuring the minimum of vacancie.» ^'wart^Y.y." to be cut, and damage done ; further, the If we say — Let x represent the unknown bushes lose strength, and decrease their yield. quantity (which is the outturn lost), theu we This I have noticed frequently where hoeing have x — hoeing — what ? has been carelessly done. ( 95 ) Again, as to loss incurred by " deep Tioeini) ;" as far as my experience goes 1 have found it the very reverse, and fancy Mr. Tod must have written from theory. As far as cutting Toots are concerned, I never found any harm come of it. I think that to cut a few of the laterals, in a place not cultivated for some time, renews and invigorates the bushes, rather, but I do not say that my opinion about this is founded on fact, riz. a trial given of cutting roots. At the same time I believe an occasional root-pruning would do good to old uncultivated bushes. Every one Icnows that, no matter what sort of cultivation may be given, the sides of bush- es never give the same yield as the centre, simply because 1st. The course of sap is more direct in the centre. Snd. The branches are shorter and thick- er. 3i-d. They get more light. ■ith. They are protected by the side branches from storms, &o. btlif. The greater portion of new or leaf- giving wood rises straight up from the centre. REPLIES TO QUERIES. Dear Sir,— I beg to give the following answer to inquiries on Tea Cultivation : — \st. Does throwing the earth up round the stem of a tea bush do any good ? (Ans.) It does good to a bush which had already lost the earth from its stem by being washed away, &c., by rains ; but I do not see wliat good it can do otherwise. The former I have tried and seen the good effects of, but have not tried the latter. 2nd. Whether is it good, bad, or indiffer- ent cultivation to hoe deep during the rains ? (Ans.) This question greatly depends on the class of soil you deal with ; I should say that with stiffish soil one deep hoeing in the middle of the rains does great good, but I should not give more, and not at all when you have sandy or light soil ; but after pruning, say March, if you can go round the garden with a deep hoe, then it does great good ; but few gardens can leave their deep hoeing to run so late as March, through shortness of labour. 3rd. Whether is it better to let weeds grow, and then hoe them into the ground, or not to let them grow at all ? (Ans.) It is bad to do away entirely with weeds : all that should be weeded is just round the stems of the plants, and the rest light hoed, if not very dirty with long grass, in which case it had better be cni fir.it, and must be weeded once or twice after the hoeing to prevent the weeds getting too far ahead of the usual cultivation. SECTION XII. BLIGHT. Bhanji Leaf. The Tea Mite and the Tea Bug of Assam. Mosquito Blight. Othek Blights. Insecticides. ( 99 ) BHANJI. There seems to be a certain amount of ignorance on this subject, sol will offer an explanation of the matter, as far as I know. First of till, the word is an expressive one, of Assiiniese origin, and means barren ; when applied to Tea, it indicates that the terminal leaf on any shoot (long or short) has a more or less dormant eye at its foot- stalk or axil, and that the growtli of the shoot in length is arrested. All kinds of Tea throw bhdnji leaves, and they are seen least in the centre or axis of the tree, and more at the sides : most of all at the edges, and under them. Being tlie signs of arrested growth, it is therefore only natural to expect to find them most where seed and flowers are formed. A flower is botanically simply a stunted branch, where linear growth is arrested, and the natural foliage is jammed into a bunch, and converted into petals, anthers, &c. Thus a bhanji leaf is a first step, though a small one, to a flower, and we find them on a bush more or less in proportion to rapidity or slowness of growth, and more at the sides than centre. In many trees the plan of growth, so to speak, is carried out all through, and ns far as possible the leaf repeats the general form of the tree, if not mutilated (by wind, insects, or creepers). It is the case in Tea, the natural form of which, as a tree, is much the same as its leaf; the Jack, Simol, Sopa, Sotiana, Sahm, and many other trees, show the same law, which however is not universal. Tea growing thus, naturally, as a pointed cone, say, gives a very different shape to what we wftnt, an^l we try to get a growth the very opposite, i. e. low, flat, and tvide. It is the Tea-tree's natural and persistent struggle to shoot up again into its own proper form that enables us to keep on cropping its shoots all the year as we do ; and as the attempt" is persisted in more or less from March to December, despite so much discouragement in the way of plucking, we may take Tea as a very fair emblem of the quahty we need now so much ourselves, i. e. " perseverance." But the growth of a tea shoot, unless in the yery centre of the bush, is not always steady and uniform, but in spurts. At the end of the year, if the longer shoots at the side that do not branch are examined, it will be seen that, after first startino;, the leaves increase somewhat in size and then decrease, and stop at a bhdnji eye ; this after a time again opens and grows, repeating the process, each growth from bhanji eye to eye being more or less lanceo- ,late, and the same form as the tree and leaf, Phinji leaves being the last ones on a shoot where the eye is dormant, there is no " tip" (as usual), and from being a result of arrested growth, they have less juicq • in them than other terminal leaves, and hence make worse tea ; they are also, thus, stiffer, more leathery, and harder to roll. Anything that tends to arrest growth produces bhdnji leaves, as cold, especially ■cold dry air, as in our cold season ; moisture and warmth have the opposite effects, and promote rapid growth. Want of " cultivation" conspicuously tends to produce bhanji flushes on some soils that in consequence suffer more than people think from paucity of labour ; but these kind of flushes are not strictly confined to the beginning of the year : if anything they are more seen at the end, as the growth fails and the cold season begins. When ^een at the beginning of the year it is due to leaf coming out and being checked again by cold, — a very common occurrence, and one to be expected. A good deal,,perhaps, depends on the pruning, if heavy. Bhdnji flushes early are seldom seen, growth being more forced ; but if lightly pruned, Tea is often seen to go bhanji with very little provocatiou, and if the weather be not cold or dry, is a pretty safe sign of want of cultivation, bo the causes are plain enough, and the cures, in some cases possible, in others not, as in temperature. S. E. Peal. ( 100 ) "Bhdnji leaf" is, in ray opinion, the result o£ lieavy plucldng and heavy prvning, and I daresay to partial observers the first necessi- tates the second. Such observers, however, are almost Invariably fanatical disciples of the " hair of the dog that bit you" school. 1, however, know some who have found another way out of the diifioulty ; — Thin out the tops of bushes, and always keep as much leaf on them as will be required to elaborate the crude sap seat up by their roots. When there is not sufficient leaf left for this purpose, the surplus crude sap is deposited in the cell-walls, near the tops of the bushes. This causes a sluggish circulation, the result of which is " bh4nji leaf." In a word, the aim of all judicious plucking is to pluck so as to leave a sufficient quantity of leaf on the bushes to enable them to digest the crude sap sent up by their roots, and so prevent the young wood from becoming scrubby and prematurely old ; and the aim of all judicious pruning is to remove the old wood, — by old wood I mean useless not thick wood — the sap canals of which have to a great extent become silted up, and on which the leaf developes sluggishly. I avoid all such pruning as implies the removal of nearly all the leaves of the plant during the semi-dormant season. AnR Kta. One of the causes of the above evil, is heavy plucking in the previous season, and little or no pruning in the cold weather following . In such a case I maintain that a good prun- ing, even in the middle of the season, would be the first necessary step, just as I should advise a dose of jalap in a constipated subject. Now any Doctor will tell you that he looks to the causes of a disease before he exhibits a remedy. If, therefore, bhinji flushes happened to be the fruits of over-pruning and over-pluoking (which they are only in some instances), then in those cases I should say treat with tonics, and give the subject rest, i. e. manure, cultivate, and don't pluck until the flushes are strong and healthy. As for the matter of pruning in general, all I can say is that few planters prune even two years running in the same way, and the reasons are as follows : — 1st. — The state of the bushes has to be considered. 2nd. — Previous treatment do, do. Zrd^ — Different soils have to be consi- dered. ith. — Do. do. do. 5th — Quantity may be required. (Aak Agents). &th. — Quality, do. do. do. (Ask Proprietors). Under these conditions what thinking man would ever attempt to lay down any single rule for pruning ? — Not O0R Doctor, THE TEA-MITE AND THE TEA.-BUG OF ASSAM. A very opportune Work has lately made its appearance, in which the author, Mr. Wood-Mason, of the Indian Blaseum, tells us all that he has, after careful research, been able to gather respecting the formidable pests mentioned above. The Work is rendered all the more valuable by several admirably-finished coloured Plates, showing the pests enormously enlarged, and giving, thus, a very tangible idea of the destructive capabilities of these enemies of the Tea plant. It is difficult to say which • of the two is the more deadly. The Tea-Bug or Mosquito Blight attacks the young shoots, which then curl and dry up, while the Ked Spider more particularly confiues its ravages to the full grown succulent leaves. A curious circumstance in connection with both these forms of Blight is, thiit neither of the two has yet been met with on a,ny other plant, — at least, so says, Mr.. Wood-Mason ; but some planters dispute this, and we should be inclined to think, also, that the Tea-bush is not the only plant patronized by these gentry. The difficult matter, in applying any remedy for Red Spider, is, that the eggs are laid in hollows close to the ribs of the leaves, and are not scattered over the whole surface, so as to be at once perceptible and get-at-able. Al- though heavy rain is one of the best antidotes, still the eggs are so firmly attached to the leaves, that it requires a good deal of continuous downpour to wash them away, and even then the spider itself takes shelter underneath the loaves, and is thus on the spot ready to commence anew. When at Darjeeling some years ago, we visited a Garden there heavily afflicted with Red Spider ; and, going out after a heavy downpour of rain, we picked several leaves, and placed them under the microscope, when it was seen that though many eggs had been washed off, a good many still remained ; the Spider itself was in such oases seen on the underneath portion of the leaf, almost as free from wet as if it had been under an umbrella, ag it were, which Nature had kindly provided. ( 101 ) There appears absolutely to be no remedy tor Spider-blight. In fact, if thera were, it must necessarily be most difficult of application over anything like a large area. Syringing with muddy water has been rocomraended, and for the time it has seemed to be efficacious, but as the eggs .revive under the influence of the sun, the relief is only partial; besides which, it is difficult to apply such a remedy over a large area. Some have propounded the theory that the Red Spider only attacks weakly plants, and therefore that nutritious or well-manured soil is all that is needed. No doubt to a certain extent this is correct, in so far that a strong and iiealthy plant will better be able to recover from a partial attack than one growing on impoverished soil ; but it is hardly likely that the Spider should prefer old and exhausted, to young and vigorous plants. We believe that, on one estate, "burning" was tried on a bad patch, and with some success ; but as a matter of fact, any real remedy remains to be found. LETTERS re T HE RED SPIDER, " ACARUS," LALL MAKEE. This peat resembles a mite, and is one of the worst of pests that the Tea-plant suffers from, throwing back gardens at the commencement of the season, from long drought, and even deficiency of rain. This contagious pestilence predominates, but it is not so fatal or so in- jurious as the " Leropsy" or " Mildew-blight." The red spider is a very diminutive insect, reddish colour on the back, and white on the under part of the body. It lives and feeds on the sap of the leaf. Its eggs resemble white dust or very fine soojee. The eggs have a very slight adhesive feeling, by which they adhere to the leaf ; the numbers that are to be found on the leaves are sufficient to extract all sap, after which the leaf withers, showing in bad cases a resemblance as if the leaf had been scorched by fire, leaving white stains. The red spider, as I have generally seen it, is worse to tea without shade on flat laud, but bushes along the slopes of hollows where jungle is growing, are rarely bad with it. Its Causes are Excessive drought, sterile, water-logged, and partially-exhausted soil ; deep hoeing too near the stems of the bushes, thereby cutting away runners, feeders, and young shoots, which come forth from the main root of the plant, thereby weakening it. The Remedy And prevention against this horrid pest is to have good hoeing between the lines of the bushes, and avoid hoeing any depth within 18 inches of the stem, thereby not running the risk of cutting any suckers or feeders, which supply the nutriment of the bush, which if done, each lateral root cut away weakens the bushes (same as bleeding would act on the human system,) and exposes it to various diseases. Drain all stiflE land where it is neces- sary, leading the drains into hollows or any other outlet. When pruning, thin out all superfluous twigs and wood, i.e. non-bearing old wood, attacked by lichen, &c., and allow free ventilation through the bush ; retain a fair height, with all breadth attainable. I have considered, after seeing the way manuring has been done on a very extensive scale at several friends' gardens who I have been staying with, instead of the manure being placed close to the stem of the bushes, placing it so as to be hoed in between the lines, it would not have the effect of being too power- ful in heating the bush. I quite agree, with all who manure, that it reinvigorates the soil, adds fresh vigour into bushes which have had previous hoeing promis- cuously, plucked year after year, nothing put into the soil, but all taken out, thereby gradu- ally impoverishing and making the land quite sterile, laying it open to the attack of pests. What would be the consequence to farmers at home if they tried to take crop after crop off their farms, and not fertilize their lands either by manuring or draining ? The result would be downright failure. Drain only such lands as require it, and have good cultivation, and there is little chance of being much troubled with the red spider, "Aoarus," Lall Makee. Oti dit where a jungle of a certain species of tree has been out down, another, and quite different species, takes its place : on which I theorize : If you take away jungle, shade- loving insects will disappear, and in their place sun-loving ones will appear. I am told, on inquiry, that red spider appears at the sunniest time of the year, and affects the sunniest and hottest localities, such as hollows and slopes facing southward. I have only lately arrived among the red spiders, so for the present I accept the above as fact, and on it have based all the ruminations I am laying before you. I have an idea — whether right or wrong I cannot say — that it is difficult to infect a heal- thy-blooded animal with diseases caused by parasites — and easy to infect an old, infirm, and impure-blooded one. On the plantation which I am now mana- ging I find most of the Tea-bushes with old wood stems covered with lichen and fungi, and by reason of the stems being old it is natural to suppose that the cells which carry the sap up arc, many of them, closed and useless, so ( 102 ) that the full quatitity of sap doss not reach the leaf-buds, and what does, arrives so slow- ly that a swift and vigorous growth (which almost by itself would overcome most evils that vegetable life is heir to) is impossible. To remedy this, and aid in expelling the spi- der, I would suggest that each year — from the many-stem bushes — a few stems should be cut to the grond, so that in four or five years the whole bush may be renewed, and that for the future no wood over say six years old should be allowed to remain, so that there may always be free and active cells forcing on and supplying a luxuriant top growth. Aoarvx Telarivs.—'T\ai is a minute mite, belonging to the family of spiders, Holetra. It is of microscopic size, and is just seen with the naked eye as a red moving speck. The genus to which it belongs {Acarus) contains an enormous number of species, mostly pa- rasitic in their habits, either upon pla,ntg or animals. The present species mostly be- gins to attack exotics when they are young and tender. The female red spider deposits its numerous eggs upon the under side of leaves ; they are exceedingly small, whitish, and scattered over the leaves. The larvs, as hatched, resemble their parents, save in size ; when mature they are of a dark-brown colour and slightly hairy. Like spiders and mites in general, they moult several times before reaching maturity. They spin for them.eelves silken webs, which shelter them from weather and other influences. The cause of red spider is a dry, arid atmosphere, and to keep these pests down, the plentiful application of clean cold water is the best mfaus. Soft water, in which a little sulphur-soap has been dis- solved, is a very good remedy. THE TEA BUG. Sir, — I saw a letter in the Eiiglixliman on the subject of ' Tea Bug,' signed by a ' Blight- ed Planter'. As I can answer some of the questions, I write to you, aa in your columns the subject finds a fitter place. 1st. What is the origin and primary abode of the Tea Bug, i. e, mosquito? There is no doubt but that this pest is indigenous in the jungles of Assam, as the inhabitants will tell you that it commits great havoc on the Pan, crop. From this I should say it feeds chiefly on the wild Pan, which is a creeper growing on the trunks of trees. 2nd. Its habits, with regard to its time of breeding, period of hatching, and development. The little insects generally appear with the first of the new season's leaf ; but they also Beem to keep on increasing, often to the end of the season, although the heavy rain inter- feres with them somewhat. There are often ' two at a litter.' I can't Bay how often one pair will breed in a year, nor how long they live, and when they come to maturity. 3rd. Whether it has any period of hyber- nation or lying dormant, or is active through- out the year ? If the former, when does it take place! If the latter, is it migratory in all or any of its stages 1 It certainly has a ' period of hybernation,' and that is in the cold weather, when the tea has no young leaves for it to feed on. It often leaves a garden for no visible rea- son, but again at times sticks obstinately to certain patches of tea for all that is done to clear it out. I have known it to desert a piece of tea that was allowed to go into jungle. The jungle was hher and other grasses, which completely hid the bushes. — " Up Yonder." The Utilisation op Ants as TBA-Bua- Destrotees. Sir, — I have for years past taken the keen- est interest in the numberless efiiorts that have been made for the extermination of the various tea pests ; but no method yet devised, to ray knowledge, has proved thoroughly effectual when put to the test. Universal syringing of the infected bushes with carefully prepared drugs and disinfectants, sulphur and other fumigations, and the liberal application of chemically prepared manures, have not, so far, succeeded in eradicating the evil. After no- ting these numerous failures, I come to the conclusion that we have to look to Nature alone to produce a remedy ; at the same time not ignoring the fact that Nature can largely be assisted and encouraged by artificial means. With regard to tea-pests of the bug and spider types, 1 maintain that the only effectual means of extirpating them, or sensibly reducing their numbers, will be found in the discovery and introduction of some other insect which will make these pests its natural food. With this idea in view I tried several experiments on the common Tea-bug. which we also have up here, but which, I am happy to say, has not yet proved itself a plague. After trying the carnivorous propensities of a variety of insects, I gave up the thing, for the time being, as hopeless, as almost in every instance they refused to have anything to do with the Bug ; but one lucky day last year I quite accidentally discovered what I had been so anxiously looking for before : — while tending and training up a favourite creeper in my verandah, I noticed the young tendrils were swarming with the common large black ant. On closer observation it could clearly be seen they were destroying and devouring, in a most wholesale fashion, myriads of small greenish-looking insocls, very much resem- bling the Tea bug iu ils earliest stages of ( 103 ) development. It was tliis resemblance tliht struck me, and I immediately detached one of the tendrils of the creeper, with about a dozen or twenty anta upon it, and placed it on one of the infected tea bushes. After the creeper had been cleared of all its occupants, the ants in the most natural way possible took to eating up the tea bugs I Next day, on care- fully examining this particular bush, not a single tea bug could be seen 1 The ants had likewise decamped, but I noticed a few stray individuals afterwards on the adjoining bush- es, probably seeking for more of their newly- acquired fooil. Several other small colonies of ants that I transferred in like manner be- haved in exactly the same way as the first lot. So far, so good. My experiments were at last crowned with success. But on thinking the matter over, I feared the utilisation of these ants on .an extensive scale would be found impossible in practice. But now I have good reason to think otherwise, as I see that ants have actually been used tor this very purpose for centuries, in China. 1 quote a paragraph from a recent number of the Gardener s Ghro- nice which bears out my idea, and leaves no doubt, 1 think, as to its feasibility : — Professor Riley contributes the following note to a recent number of Nature : Dr. C. J. MacGowivn has sent me from JEianchow, provinco of Hainan, China, a little P.apcr on the utilisation of Ants as Inncct tlodtrnyors in China. It hochls that in many parts of the provinco of Canton the orange-trees aro injuied by certain worms, and to rid th.-mselves of these pests the inhabitants importants from the neighbouring hills. Tile hill people throughout the summer and "Winter iind the nests of two species of ants, red and yellow, suspended from the branches of various trees. The orange ant-breeders are provided with pig or goat bladders baited inside with lard. The orifices of these they apply to the entrance of the bag^like nests, when the ants enter the bladders and. as L)r, RIacGowan expresses it, become a marketable commodity at tho orangeries. The trees are colonised by placing the ants ou their upper branches, and bamboo rods are stretched between the different trees, so as to give tho auts easy access to the whole orchard. This remedy has been in constant use at least since 1640, and pro- bably dates from a much earlier period. Itantshave been turned to such good ac- count by the Chinese, in the management of orangeries, why should not the same be found to answer in the case of tea plantations ? The ants I experimented with so successfully were the ordinary large black kind, so familiar to everybody in India, and are easily procurable everywhere. Slight bamboo rods could be used from hush to bush, to facilitate their spreading over the plantation, while a circle of tar and kerosine mixed round the stem of each bush would prevent their running oS on to the ground. — ALISTB. MOSQUITO BLIGHT, &c. ^Fromour Ceylon correspondent.'] The mosquito blight or Helopeliis Antonii is attracting a good fleal of attention in our local papers, — more so, may be thought, than the extent of its ravages justify. Bnt Ceylon planters are resolved nor. to be caught napping, as they were over the advent of Hemilia Vastatrix or lenf-disease in their coffee, and are determined to attacl^: this new enemy, whenever found, before it has thoroughly established itself in their estates. A planter sent some of the eggs" of this little inpect to Dr, Trimen, the Director of our Botanic Gardens, and asked his opinion regarding tho probability of the pest extending on tea as it has on cacao, and, indeed, as it has done on tea in some places, though not in many. Dr. Trimen says in reply : The extracts from Mr. Wood- Mason's treatise on HelopeUis in Assam, which have lately been reprinted from Indian papers, are of much interest. 1 have not had an opportunity of seeing this Book as yet, Mr. Wood-Mason's descr ptions of the eggs agree with my own, above refer- red to, as also that of their position in the young. These points are not novel, being only confirmatory of Van Gorkom's observations on chinchona in Java. Tlie proceed- ings of Helopeltis are clearly identical on chinchona, cac.to, and tea, and what I have stated with reference to cacao applies, mutatis mutandis, to the other plants. From the observation of only two eggs in situ I do not like — having no pretensions to any entomological knowledge or training — to generalize as to their position in the shoots, but I have recommended the removal of the latter in cases where the presence of the eggs could be detected. It is to be hoped that Mr. Wood-Masou will give some help as to how this is done. ' There are no data as yet to enable us to determine whether this small creature has been recently introduced, or whether it is indigenous to the jungles of the country. On this point our Director says : " That the insect should prove to be native to tlie island is perhaps on the whole a matter for satisfaction ; as experience teaches us that organisms which have in course of time established a balance with their surround- ings in nature, hare less opportunity for great increase in numbers than is the case ( 104 ) witli ni.iny introilnceil species which fonnd their Jiew onvironment to be in their favor. But, no doubt, our cultural operations do much to upset or modify the easily-influ- enced equilibrium which has resulted from ages of a complicated strife." It appears that the Helopeltis has been scientifically described in the Annals of the French Ento- mological Society, by Professor Signoret. Sib, — In your valuable paper oE the 2nd Sep - tember — article " Ceylon Notes" — your corres- pondent writes of the Helopeltis or mosquito, wliich is the same pest that troubles our Indian Tea gardens, and is called the mosquito blight, the insect being a good deal larger than a mosquito, with long legs and pToboscis. There is but little doubt that this ia the most destructive and formidable of all blights, Red spider has been much commented on, though I doubt if it is nearly as destructive as the green-fl-y, which is becoming most com- mon in the Darjeeling Hill Gardens, the effect of which is to deprive the leaf of its ordinary amount of sap. The leaf is small and stunted, as is the length of the flush, which would not weigh one-fourth of its ordinary weight ; and this takes more than twice the ordinary time to come on, and if left, the bushes shrivel up, and the buds or tips die oft. No efficient remedy has been found that could be applied for this blight, up to this, that would be cheap enough. I am anxious to know if any of your readers have tried placing small pans on the garden, filled withkerosine oil, and put some- where near the bushes affected, lighting the kerosine in the night so as to attract the in- sects to their destruction 1 I have no doubt this would be a valuable method of destroying the mosquito when mature, for it is well known how all insects are attracted by lights during the night. A muster of coolies with lighted torches, parad- ed in lines through the bushes, and made to pass the torches quioldy under and around the bushes, so as to avoid scorching them, would, I presume, do great havoc among the mosqui- to. I should say a tin of castor oil, mixed with about three or four quarts of kerosine, would be the best oil to use with the torches, as it would create a large flame, and not be so liable to be extinguished by wind. The ex- periment is simple, and would destroy more mosquitos than could be killed with the hand by ever so Inrsje a staft of coolies. I would much like to know how this suc- ceeds, and if the writer of " Ceylon Notes," or any other person, would let me know through you, Mr. Editor, or through your valuable jour- nal, I would feel gratified, for simple as the medium is, I am sure it has not had a fair trial, if anij at all. I do not think that the mosquito would be extirpated by it. but the attack would be greatly lessened, I feel sure. I have seen some gardens in low-lying flats and hollows in the Darjeeling district, closed by mosquito for two or three months of the manufacturing season, and at that time I never thought of trying the plan above men- tioned, or rather I should say of suggesting it, for the gardens in question were not in my charge. "Green Fly." OTHER BLIGHTS. Wither Blight. No. 1 Question. — Does the blight attack so- litary plants, certain areas, or the whole gar- den? No. 1 Ansrver. — Very seldom solitary plants ; of course it begins on one, and in the space of three weeks thirty to forty bushes grouped will be suffering from it ; and the surrounding plants quite free from it. Groups varying from five to as many as sixty bushes are to be found over all the gardens. No. 2 /Question. — The .age of the plant 1 No. 2 Answer, — 25 down to 15 very badly attacked. 15 „ ,, 9 not as heavily 9 „ „ 3 lightly, groups of five. 3 to pullies, rarely. No, 3 Question. — Class of soil most liable to attack, and lay of land ? No. 3 Ansn-er. — Any soil seems to suit, as there is soil varying from rich red loam, through yellow down to blue, which may be flat, with no drainage, and high well drained : the latter comprises the greater portion of Tingri, say 75 per cent., medium 20 per cent., and low 5 per cent., of the whole. No. 4 Question.— Season of appearance, and weather 1 No. i Answer. — End of July and begin- ning of August, with heavy rains and occa- sionally hot blazing days, after one or two of which the blight begins by the edge of the leaf getting black, which gradually spreads till a fringe of green is left on top, the under leaves being withered of a brown color, with a perceptible white thread on them, which ex- tends to the stem or stems of the bush. No. 5 Qncstion. — Does it attack same plants or areas yearly ? No, 5 Answer. — No. I have marked down several bushes of three successive years' at- tacks, and have not found it attack two years iu ( lOo ) succession the same plant (and it is as well it does not.) No. 6 Question. — Is attack a gradual or simultaneous one ? No. 6 A^iswer. — The attack goes on for a month, appearing in several places at the same time. After the first mouth is over, the blight seems not to spread further. No. 7 §«esMo».— Answered under No. 2. No. 8 Questkm. — Bifeot of heavy rain ? No. 8 Answer. — Heavy rain, if continu- ous, checks its spreading till the first day's sun sets it agoing ; after second week from its ap- pearance, rain or sun have no effect, either way ; it simply runs its course. ManuHiig has no effect upon it, as it is to be found in the Hybrid near the coolie lines, possibly as well manured tea as could be found. Pruning down does not root it out entirely, but considerably reduces its ravages, but then these same low-pruned bushes gradually get more and more of it as they are pruned up year by year. It began here six years ago on a piece of old tea near the river Tingri, then striking some eight or ten bushes in one group only ; now there are groups equal to at least ten acres or 2,400 bushes attacked by it. the rate of increase to this having been gradual. Class of plants. — It attacks all sorts otjdt indiscriminately — China, Hybrid, and indigen- ous ; goes even to the forest seed-gardens, and lays hold of those (30 feet high,) seed-trees which are growing in their natural soil and condition, with the same ease as it strips a China bush of 1-J feet high, three feet plucking- surface. That is about all I know of this Wither Blight, and my notes are from experience of it for the past six years. In Europe the following methods are pur- sued for this purpose : — I- Collectlvg Vie beetles — Thla may be dono by pick- ing them from the low bushes :ind shaking thorn from tho trees in tho plantation on to sheets spread undtir- noath, as practised in tlie forests of tJorraauy and France. Smaller trees are shaken by the hand, whilst the beetles may be precipitated from the larger trees Toy a smart blow with a heavy hammer against the trunk . Trees which stand singly or at tho edge of a plantation, and the leaves of which arc eaten by tho beetles, shelter generally the largest number. Tho early morning is the best time for collecting the Euro- pean species, ns they are then most torpid. In the evening and during the night they are in full activity. 2 Collecting the larvce. — Care should be taken to des- troy all grubs found in manure-heaps and in manure when it is spread out over gardens. 8. fhe soil also should be frequently ploughed or dug up, and tho larvas should be sought for and destroyed. In nurse- ries and in vegetable gardens, when the plants are in rows the grubs generally follow the rows, making their progress iDy tho dead plants above ground, and in such cases the grubs will generally be found near the plants that last died. 4. All birds feeding on the perfect in- sect, such as crows, jays, magpies vVe. . should be strict- ly preserved ; likewise shrews and moles, which feed on the larvM, and also such carnivorous ground-bee- tles as the Carabidce. Mr. F. P. Hainworth, of Debrughar, says : — " I would like to know in what Garden it is to be seen. I have an idea that it is no blight, buta white thread-like parasite, that creeps all over the leaves and branches of the tea, and causes the bush to appear as though it were withering away ; it requires pretty close obser- vation to find it out. I had a quantity of it in the gardens under my charge when I first took them over, but by cutting out year after year I have got rid of a very great deal of it. I find it most near the jungle round the skirts of the garden, and in damp shady places. " The Beetle Pest. Some time back a reference was made to the Botanical Gardens, Kew, regarding this, and it was very correctly replied that one of the conditions which has been ascertained to conduce to the spread of this pest is the pre- sence of manure or decaying animal refuse, which the insect selects by preference in which to lay its eggs. When once the beetle ap- pears on a garden, it spreads with great rapi- dity, and therefore instant detection should be made wherever possible, and every means should be taken to free the soil from the larva, and the bushes from the insect itself, Cateepillae. We have to acknowledge the receipt of a box containing specimens of a, species of caterpillar, of a dark brownish color, which has done a considerable amount of damage to a garden in the District of Mungledye, Assam. This pest has devoured every leaf, both young and old, on all the bushes of about 75 acres, and off one bush alone 2 Ihs. of caterpillars were taken. The trees visited by this insect, although baiv as regards leaf, have not received any injury to their wooii, and it is further noticed that as soon as the caterpillar turns into the chrysalis stage the bushes begin again to " flush." The Manager says that all ttie hands are employed " picking" them ofi the bushes. These insects are no doubt identical with those described in the following communica- tion : — About the end of May numerous caterpillars, about an inch long, and of a dullish brown color, were no- ticed; but they did not at first attack the tea plants. However, they shortly began to do so, eating the bark of the one, and two-year old shoots, and causing tho plants to die back ; in gome caaes nearly to the ground level. Small low j(2i plants suffered most. .\t first only a patch separated from the rest of the garden by a road was attacked, but later they spread over the rest of the garden. I have only just finally got rid of the caterpillars. I had millions gathered and destroyed, and in this operation X found that laying down pieces of mango. which attracted large numbers of caterpillars, was of some assistance. In gathering the insects it was necessary to use a small piece of bamboo as a pair of tongs, as the caterpillars induced an itching sen-satiiai if touched with the skin. This pest has hitherto been unknown in Lower Assam, as far as I can ascertain. White Blight. White Blight, a pale livid white leaf, resem- bling Leprosy on the human system in first stage, but afterwards turning quite pale. Caus- ed from a red mildew or fine red mould, a very minute fungus, which attacks the petiole or ( 106 ) foot-stalk that supports the leaf, as seen through a powerful magnifying glass. This species of blight is more fatal and deadly than any pest I have seen attack the tea plant. Whichever stalk it grows on, it gradually extracts the sap, thereby killing the vitality of the stalk, vyhich dies. This fatal pest may by degrees ran over all the petioles of the buah, or only attack- ing the weak parts, or where the sap is defi- cient on the bush, and prevalent on poor ex- hausted soil. Remed-r/. Careful pruning, with good men to supervise. To have all twigs andoldunbearing wood removed, there- by allowing free circulation of air and moisture to nourish the bush : not to b- serve them making for the base of the bush, or hiding under the foliage, should any be left at this stage of their attack ; but that is wlj.it generally goes first. Afterwards, they attack the bark, and Tea being a hard wooden plant, is very likely to be killed should the pest remain long enough — as you will be able to judge from the specimen of shoots sent you along with the insects." Mr. Mackenzie goes on to say that the bush- es even when first attacked are easily recogni- sable from a distance, the young leaves on the plant then appearing riddled. On examination the insects will then be found under the leaves. INSECTICIDES. Keuosine to kill Insects, — An American Paper Siiys that since ParaiEre oil came into general use, it has largely been employed in agriculture as an insecticide, and with consi- derable success, and that it has not been found to destroy plant-life as might have been sup- posed. Why not try it on tea ? This is what the Amerioan Agricidturist says on the sub. ject : — '•The oil in its concentrated form can be to- lerated by but few plants. The first improve- ment in its use was to add a very small quan- tity to a bucket of water, enough to make but a mere film upon the surface, then diffuse it through the water by violent stirring, and ap- ply before the oil and water had time to sepa- rate. This answered fairly well, but was troublesome. The next step was to divide the kerosine, not by dissolving it, but by dif- fusing it in the form of an emulsion. It is well known that oils may be suspended in water by means of gum, sugar, etc., and may be kept thus for some hours or even days. It has been discovered that milk, either fresh or soured, is a convenient medium to unite ke- rosine and water. Mix together kerosine and half as much milk, stirring them thorough- ly to form a cream-like mixture. When the two are so completely united that no oil is visi- ble, dilute the mixture with twelve times its bulk of water, adding the water gradually, and stirring thoroughly. This emulsion has been found especially useful in the treatment of the ■various scale insects, so difficult to destroy by ordinary insecticides, and is used for various other insect pests. For trees use a syringe or force pump, and for house-plants, often injur- ed by scale insects, apply with a sponge or swab," A aooD Insecticide,— We take the follow- ing recipe from Land and Water. The ex- periment is worth trying on a small scale, for getting rid of Ked spider : — Dissolve camphor in methylated spirits to saturation, and mix with soft soap to the cou- sistenoe of cream ; dilute this as you require it until it is thin enough to be served with n syringe, and you will find it most efficacious in destroying scale, red spider, and mealy bug, together with other greenhouse pests. The hon. and rev, J. Boscawen discovered this remedy. Anti-Blight gbowths.— The Colonial Mail refers to a statement made in the Cape papers, that insects shun land on which tomatoes arc grown, and the cultivation of the Lycoperxi- cum esculentum is accordingly recommended. Now, as this vegetable will grow readily un- der shade, there would be little difficulty in having a large cultivation scattered over tea land, amongst the bushes. As the esculent would be grown not for profit, but as a pro- phylactic against the inroads of insect pests, its destruction in hoeing and clearing seasons would not much matter, and it is probable that its growth would keep down jungle. The ex- periment is, at any rate, worth trying. SECTION xiir. PRUNING. Sap in Tea. Pruning Tea. Correspondence re Pruning. ( 109 ) SAP IN TEA— A QUESTION OP IMPORTANCE. A QUESTION of the utmost importance to those interested in our Tea-gardens is be- ginning to crop up, which, though occasionally pooh-poohed, will have to be answered some day, and perhaps at no distant date. The question is, whether, (is the plants grow older and the old stems in consequence become tough and gnarled, the sap does not, in penetrating the tissues, lose a great deal more of its vigor than when rising through the stems of the new plants ; and, in consequence, is there any soundness in the assertion that the teas from our old gardens show a marked deteriora- tion in strength and flavor as compared with the produce of young plantations 1 So large is the capital now sunk in Tea, that no subject connected with the business is too trivial to be discussed. The matter under present consideration can be easily set at rest by chemical analysis. Let, for instance, the constituents of some fresh leaves from two or three indigenous and ordinary class of hybrid bushes, each about two years old, be carefully investigated, and let the result form the standard of excellence : it will be easy tlieu to deduce a formula by which any planter may from time to time ascertain whetlier or not any deterioration is perceptible in his plant. It is of little use seeking to solve the problem by testing manufactured lenf, as even if one uniform system of manipulation were pursued in the tea districts, atmospheric exigencies, be- gotten by the different sites on which the tea houses are built, would alone lead to confusion. But by whatever process, should a deterioration be established beyond doubt, we should have then the question to consider, first — whether such deterioration is due to the old wood and knots formed by pruning retarding the distribution of the sap and consequent loss of the plant's vigor, or whether the virgin constituents of the soil have been exhiiusted. In either case Science must bo resorted to. Were not our tea planters hounded on to get as much as possible off the gardens, there can be but little doubt that periodical ' cutting back,' almost to the ground, of certain portions of the Concern, in rotation, would be beneficial, inasmuch as it would result in having fresh, straight, bearing stems, springing direct from the roots, with no knots in them to re- tard the circulation of the sap. We cannot help thinking, however, that an immense amount of mischief is done by the severe ' cutting back' of young plantations. No doubt the first effect, where the soil is rich and the growth of the plant vigorous, is a prolific yield, but it is at the expense of future crops, and the formation of knots and contortions which must retard the distribution of the sap. The subject of pruning has not received that amount of attention, when considered from the sap distri- bution poiut of view, that its importance demands. Our planters' efforts appear to have been directed too much towards obtaining the greatest possible yielding area, without ensuring that the distribution be equal over that area. It has been in this way that, in a iive-year-old plant, while we may have a large quantity of leaf, a small proportion only is contributed by fresh wood springing direct from the natural reservoir, the root. Hence we are of opinion that a considerable difference in the strength of the usual properties that form the constituents of the flush will be found. Assuming our opinion to be correct, it is manifest that in a garden of, say, twenty years old, the proportion of leaf taken from fresh-bearing wood must bear but a small proportion to that taken from stems full of knots and old pruning obstructions. And herein lies perhaps the reason of the falling-off in strength and flavor of teas from what wore once known as favorite gardens. We do not dogmatically assert this as tlie only reason ; we express merely an opinion based on many years' experience, with a view of directing attention to the matter. The remedy will strike any professional man, but the difficulty will be to get proprietors and managing agents to give their assent. Great care and attention will be required in carrying it out The old, and all gnarled stems, must be thoroughly excised down to the ground, and all growth em- anating from the old stem, systennatioally cut away and discouraged, the object to be kept in view being to evolve fresh upright growth direct from the roots. The crop meantime, would be considerably diminished, but it would possess nniforra strength, The question as to exhaustion of soil requires the assistance of tlie analyst. A sam- ple of soil, similar to that on which the Garden is formed, should be taken from some ( no ) nncleared portion of the grant, and compared with a sample taken from near the roots of a Bve-year plant. We have little doubt in our own mind but that considerable loss in valuable constituents will be discovered j for not only will evaporation have, thrown off the more volatile elements, but the organic ones must be more or less absorbed by the plants ! and it wonid indeed be a wonder if even the best soil should be found little affected by the demand made on it. If this latter experiment is carried out, we venture to assei t that impoverishment will be found to be very considerable. The analyst however would be able tell us what particular constituents had lieen exhausted, and, as they must all exist in the neighbourhood, there is no reason to doubt but that many gardens that are now referred to as "old and worn out" could at a small outlay he made to resume their old pristine position. During the period that new growth is being trained from the roots it would be better if no leaf were taken from that portion of the plantation under treatment, as the difficulty in preventing " pluckers" from cropping the new shoots would be insurmountable ; but the interval might be profi- tably occupied in returning to the soil those properties that the researches of the ana- lyst would indicate had been taken from it. Instead therefore of going to the expense of large extensions, the renovation of certain plots in rotation are recommended, and the jhuming system, whicli some proprietors have of late years adopted, should be discontinued, — Indian Agriculturist. SiB,-^About the question " Sap in Tea" I shall merely point out some facts which I hope will satisfy the inquirer, and solve the question to a certain extent. It is erroneous to attribute the deteriora- tion, in strength and flavour of the old tea- gardens, to the plant. The tea-plant shows, by the pruning, and cutting back, of the stem every year, its readiness to renew itself and to throw out new shoots, and as long as a plant keeps its vitality in such a degree as is the case with the tea-plant, it keeps also the full capacity of converting the nutritive substances of the soil into strength and flavour, if these substances are present. The reason why the tea-plant from year to year loses in strength and flavour (which is an indispu- table fact) especially if left without manure, is only to be attributed to the exhaustion of the virgin constituents of the soil : and to nothing else. Try, after the lapse of two or three years, when you think the strength and flavour com. mences to decline, to dig out the ground round the plant to a depth of only 5 to 6 in- ches, and fill up again the space with virgin soil, and you will get the same strength and the same flavour from that plant as you had the first year : no other manure will produce that effect. You may, to a certain extent in- crease the lost strength and flavour by apply- ing animal manure and ashes to the plantsi but you will never obtain the same aromatic flavour and strength of the tea unless you give the plant virgin soil round the rootlets, aa manure. It is with the tea-plant the same as with all plants, that they absorb first the nutritive substance of the surface soil, which always contains the chemical substances necessary for the plants (potassium and phosphoric acid, besides other organic matters) in a more ac- cessible and easily soluble form than the un- dergronnd ; and this virgin surface ground just contains the matters which the plant con. verts into flavour and strength in a higher de- gree than the underground. The chemical analysis of Tea, and all con- nected with it, has been done many times by Liebig, Stenhouse, Mulder, Saunders, Siebold, Fortune, Chevreul, Peligot, Dr. ZoUer, and many other scientific men, and they all con. firm that young leaves contain more potas- sium and phosphoric acid than old leaves, which are richer in lime and silic acid j and Dr. ZoUer has proved that the more or less ab- undance of mineral matters in the vital or- gans of the tea-plant thoroughly depends upon the more or less abundance of mineral mat- ters in the soil; so that if the ground is rich in potassium, the plants also contain a greater proportion of potassium and a lesser proportion of other matters ; and also, old leaves, in that case, are richer in potassium and poorer in lime and phosphoric acid. S, Bandong, Java, 31st July. Sib, — Your correspondent " X." from Ban- dong, Java, seems to take quite an erroneous view of the tea-plant, its habit of growth, and nourishment. The tea-plant accommodates itself greatly te circumstances. For instance, in the Darjeeling Terai, in some gardens, where water is to be found by digging only a few feet, the tea bush has only a bunch of lateral roots and barely a tap-root worthy of the nam e, whereas, where water is to be found at a griat- er depth, it has a tap-root six feet and over that length considerably. In the first case "X." might be correct ; not so, however, if the plant was found, as it generally is, with a long tap-root, and barely any laterals, which would suggest that it looks for nourishment deep in the soil, its tap-root increasing in ( 111 ) length with its age, and further requirements as it exhausts the soil. Some of the oldest gardens in Darjeeling bring top prices, and these gardens have not been manured. "X." must evidently look elsewhere for deterioration — in flavour at least. Rank and succulent growth no doubt causa deficient flavour. Let " X." prune Tieavily, and from the flush produced on the top of that, make his tea, and he will find it is wanting in flavour at least, as I said before. Teas want- ing in cup may be produced very easily by various defects in manufacture, also by leaf attacked by mosquito or green-fly blight. Sunshine is advantageous to growth ; but our most flavoury teas are not made then. Wet, cloudy, and cool weather, when the flush is not growing so rapidly, is the time the most flavoury teas are manufactured. Again, les, by which the steam and water are admitted to the glass which shows the water in the boiler, and at the t(^s(, -cocks, by which the height of water is ascertained independently of the gange-glass, thus being a check on it. Tlie manhole and mudhole doors are large openings for the purpose of getting at the inside of the boiler to clean it, and there is another opening at the blow-off cock, which is used for emptving tlie boiler, and for another purpose to bo alhided to further on. All these vah es, cocks, and other " mountings," as they are called, are liable to leak where they are joined to the boiler, and the waW lodging about the boiler, especially in places where it is not easily seen, as beneath the wood and felt, or otlier non-conducting substances with which most boilers are covered, often causes serious corrosion, — the more serious be- cause it is not seen or thonyht of till the boiler has become badly injured. Besides the above sources of leakage, we often find the joints of the plates or some of the rivets leaking. Sometimes through original weakness in the iron, but more generally through over-heating, we find a plate cracked, and leak- ing from the crack. The fireman, in cooling his ashes, often throws water in- to or about the flue or ashpit, and wet jishes are often carelessly allowed to lodge there ; this is a common cause of most destructive corrosion, and should be prevented. The stuffing-boxes of cylinders, &c., in those classes of engines which have the engine placed upon the boiler, are frequently leaky, and the water from them falls on and lodges about the boiler. Tuiies and stay-bolts are often found leaky, with the usual corrosion of neighouring parts ; rain or other water is often carelessly allowed to fall on the boiler ; the drip or drain- cocks from the valves and c)-linders often leak, and contribute their quota to the general destruction. All leakages enumerated above ar<> prcventible and curable, and, when seen, means should be at once taken to stop them. The boiler should be examined from time to time to detect leakage in the more obscure places where it is liable to be passed over unobserved. I have used the word stuffing-box, above. Tlie piston-rod, slide-rod, pump-rod, or plunger, and other parts of the engine which work into and out of auy space containing water or steam, cannot be made such a good fit in th openings through which they pass as to prevent leakage. Were they made to fit the hole exactly, their expansion b)'' heat would cause them to jam, and become immoveable : they are therefore made to pass through a space which can be filled with hemp or cotton saturated with tallow or some other sub- stance, which, while it can be compressed sufficiently to prevent leakage, is still elastic enough to allow the rod or plunger to work freely through it. This packing, or " stuffing" as it is called, is compressed by means of a gland, wbicli is a metal ring, bored inside to accurately fit the rod which slides through it, and outside to fit tlie inside of the stuffing-box, as the space is called where the packing is put encircling the rod. This metal ring has a flange, through which pass two or more bolts, by means of which it is tightened down on the packing — thus compressing it. Stuffinjr-boxes are a fertile source of leakage : when they are allowed to go any length of time without the packing being renewed, no amount of screwing- up will make them tight. When they are observed to leak, the gland should be tightened, care being taken not to tighten it so much that the friction of the packing on the rod will cause the latter to heat, and also that the nuts of the bolts be tightened evenly all round. Should the leakage not cease when the gland is moderately tightened, the packing must be taken out and replaced by fresh packing. Care should be taken that the whole of the packing be re- moved from time to time. Any pieces that are not much worn m;iy be put in again, but the new pieces should be put in first, so as to be at the bottom of e ( 13G ) the stuffing-box. Gau£;e-glas3es havo a small stuffing-box somewhat different- ly constructed, and ni:ide tiifht by the gland compressing an India-rubber ring. If the latter rings are not obtainable, a little lamp-cotton soaked in oil may be used. No red-lead or any such substance as putty should be used in packing a gauge-glass, as some nittive firemen are apt to do. The spindles of communication-valves, slide-valves, cliPck-valves, piston- rods, valve-rods, pump-rods or plungers, and other parts which pass through stuffing-boxes, blow-otf and othei' large cocks, are sometimes made steam and water tight : in the same wav water-gauge glasses, also, as described above. Be very careful that all stuffing-boxes are properly packed and kept perfect- ly steam and water tight : you will thus cause one source of corrosioa and premature decay to disappear. The materials with which the stuffing-boxes are packed are many. In a large marine engine, or in the large class of stationary engines used in spin- ning-mills, &o., many elaborate and expensive kinds of packing are used ; India-rubber, canvas, wire gauz", asbestos, and other substances, entering into their composition. One of the best of these is Tuck's patent packing, which consists of strong linen cloth soaked in India-rubber solution, and rolled spi- rally round an interior square core of India-rubber into the form of a mpe. Packing is also made of hemp or jute, soft rope plaited into a gasket, or lamp-cotton done up in the same way. When being put in, all packing should be cut a little shorter than will go round the rod, so as to allow it to expand lengthways when screwed up. If cut with a bevelled end so that the ends oveilap, so much the better. When being placed in the stuffing-box, the cut end should be at opposite sides alternately, so that the steam cannot pass. Rope or cotton packing should be well soaked in, and Tuck's packing well rubbed with tallow or oil. The duty of attending to the stuffing-box packing belongs to the engine- man's work. Oq Sundays, or other days when the engine is not at work, he can do the necessary packing. Particularly insist on his drawing out all the old packing ; and if going to put in some new, and the best of the old, make him put the new in first, so as to be at the bottom of the stuffing-box. The packing is withdrawn by means of steel rods called packing-screws, having a worm at one end like a corkscrew. The new packing is driven in by a piece of wood, concave on the side next the rod, and convex outside, so as to loose- ly fit a segment of the stuffing-box. The packing should be well driven down by hammering on this packing-stick as it is called, and then the gland screwed down as tightly as possible to compress it. The gland is then removed and more packing put in, and the process of hammering down and squeezing with the gland repeated till the box will hold no more. The gland is finally to be left screwed up, but not too tightly, on the packing. Nothing. looks more untidy and slovenly than leaky glands ; and if the engines are on the top of the boilers, as in portable engines, nothing is more de.structive ; therefore I repeat, and wish to impress upon the reader, that it is of great importance to keep the packing in good order. But sometimes, when the rod or plunger, the gland, or what is called the neck-bush of the stuffing-box, become much worn, it is not possible to keep the packing quite tight. In this case tin drip-pans may be provided to catch the leaking water, and an early opportunity should be taken of sending the rod or plunger to an engineering workshop to be renewed ; or if not very badly worn, to be turned true in a lathe. This involves a new gland and neck-bush if the rod be turned ; but if it be renewed, the old ones may be bored out to fit it. All valves, cocks, &c., which are attached to a boiler are known by the general term of boiler-mountings. With the exception of the smaller cocks, ( 137 ) they are attached to the boiler by means of a flange, which is bolted to the shell of the boiler, the heads of the bolts being in the inside of the boiler. As it would be difficult and expensive to make such an accurate fit as to be steam-tight between the flange and the shell of the boiler, it is usumI to in- troduce some substance which, while compressible while soft and newly in- tioduced, and thus capable of being screwed up so as to fill every crevice, will afterwards harden sufficiently to prevent escape of steam or w;iter, even under very hii^h pressures. One of the most useful substances for this pur- pose is a puitv made vvith two parts of red to one of white lead, moistened with linseed oil. This is mixed with hemp cut in lengths of about an inch, and teased. The putty is then well beaten with a hammer, and worked by hand as a baker kneads dough, for two or three hours, — ^the longer the b-tter. It is then spread evenly and thinly on the flange, a little is put round the neck of the bolt, and a little on the ring or washer which goes under the nut. The whole is then screwed up as tightly as possible. Sometimes a piece of canv.is or wire gauze is cat the size of the flange, with the centre hole and bolt-holes accurately cut in it. This, if canvas, is first soaked in linseed oil and th^u smeared vvith the above putty, without the cut hemp, and thinned considerably with linseed oil so as to be semi-fluid. If wire gauze, the putty can be spread on it as above ; with canvas or wire gauze it is necessarj' to wrap hemp, steeped in the semi-fluid putty, round the neck of the bolt, and also to put a small hemp ring or grummet round the point, under the washer ; the grummet also soak- ed as above. There is a very useful patent cement for the above purpose, superior to red and white-lead putty, called Scott's cement. It is used moistened with linseed oil, &c., as above. Care should be taken, in tightening up a joint, to screw the bolts evenly up all round. This is best done by tightening them in pairs, taking opposite bolts as pairs. India-rubber in thin sheets, from one-sixteenth to one-eighth of an inch thick, and also a kind of cloth prepared with solution of India-rubber, are now more generally used than anything else in making joints. Thev require no red lead or other putty, and should be cut like the canvas or wire-cloth with the centre and bolt-holes accurately in their places. They should then be rubbed on one side with black lead to prevent the joint adhering when re- opened, and screwed up as above. Instead of hemp round the heads and points of the bolts, in this case small rings, cut out of the waste parts of the sheet, should be used. The above prepared cloth is called " insertion sheet, " and any hardware-merchant can supply it. I recommend it as being the best material for making joints, as well as the cheapest, where the flanges are fairly fitted ; but if the flange is very rough, or the part of the boiler to which it is to be attached be very uneven through corrosion, some substimce must be used which will squeeze into and fill up the inequalities. In such a case the aforementioned putties, or a piece of thick India-rubber, miiy be used. Sometimes, although the joints of the flange be perfect, one or two of the bolts may leak. In this case the bolt may be removed the first time ac- cess can bH had to the inside of the boiler, and put in again, carefully lapped, as it is called, with hemp and putty, as explained above. If more than one bolt leaks, they may be taken out one by one, care being taken that each one be tightened up before the next is removed. If the joint of the flange lie leaking ever so little, the first opportunity must be taken to remake the joint, as the little leak will rapidly increase, corroding both flange and boiler, and becoming more and more difficult to make. Boilers are generally covered with some non-conducting substance. In this a space of at least one inch clear should be left round all flanges and other mountings, such as cocks, so that if a leak takes place it can be at once seen ( 13S ) and attended to. The neglect of this precaution has caused many a good Iioiler to \>'d ruined by unseen leakage before the persons in charge were aware of it. We have above considered leakage from stuffing-boxes ; we have also seen what destructive leakage may take place from bolts and flanges. You should bear in mind that whenever you see a leak from a flange, a bolt, a cock, or any other part of the boiler-mounting, you should take the earliest opportunity of remedying it. You will thus eradicate another factor from the destructive agencies at work on your boiler, and proportionally increase its duraltility. The gauge-glass, cocks, test-cocks, and other small cocks about a boiler, are sometimes fastened in their places by a flange, but more generally b}- lieing screwed into the iron lioiler-plates ; sometimes being made more secure by having a shallow nut on the point of the screw inside the boiler. Should they leak, they should be removed, and fastened with hemp round the neck and point of the screw, soaked in red lead as above described for bolts. The hemp round the neck should be wound round in the opposite direction to that in which the screw will revolve when being screwed in ; else it will wind off when the screw is being fastened. The hemp round the point, as in the case of bolts, should be a twisted ring, known as a grummet. These cocks often leak at the plug, — that is, the conical part which re- volves so as to open and close the cock. In this case they should be filed and scraped up, and afterwards ground into their place with a little very fine sharp sand or powdered glass. Bat this requires the services of a skilled mechanic to do it properly, and if not done properly, it is best not done at all. The best plan, if the services of a mechanic are not to be had at the factory, is to remove the cocks at the beoinning of the idle season, and send them to some engineer- ing workshop to be done up. Copper pipes often leak where the flange is brazed on to the pipe. A good bazar brazier can usually repair this, but he should be made to use hard solder or spelter, which is a composition of equal parts of copper and zinc melted together in an iron ladle by the heat of a forge, and poured out thin on an iron or stone slab to cool. To hraze a copper pipe. — File or serape the parts to which the solder is to adhere, perfectly clean and bright ; powder the spelter with a hammer on an anvil to about the size of coarse bait ; cover the parts to be brazed with two-thirds spelter to one-third borax ; hold the article over a clear charcoal or coke fire, which will be the better of having a blast from a bellows until melted ; then remove the article from the fire, or let it cool gradually on tlio fire. The non-conducting material wil,h which most boilers of the Locomotive- shaped description are covere(l consists of one or more layers of felt, covered and kept in its place by wooden staves bound round with iron or brass hoo))s, or by sheet-iron fastened iu a somewhat similar manner. A flued I'Diler is sometimes covered on the top with a thick layer of clay and cowduncr, or ashes : either of these makes a very good non-condui.'tor. Care should be taken in covering a boiler with a non-conducting substance to leave the space of one inch at least clear round all flanges, cocks, or other mountings. The reason has been stated above. But notwithstanding this precaution, it may happen that a joint or seam or a rivet may leak, and, being below the non- conducting substance, may not be observed until serious corrosion has taken place. Flues of flued l)oilers are cleaned out from time to time, and the boiler, as far as can he seen by the flue, may then be examined for leaks; and in this class of boiler any leak on the top would soon make itself apparent bv an es- cape of steam through the ashes, or other non-conductor. Should such a leak niiike its appearance, an early opportunity should be taken to cool and empty I'lo boiler, when the leak may be caulked with a caulking-chisel, which is a ( 139 ) chisel having, instead of an edge, a blunt; face about one-eighth of an inch thick. But in a boiler surrounded by wood and felt, it is possible for such a leak to exist without being apparent ; it is therefore necessary that the lag- ging, as this covering of wood or sheet-iron and felt is called, should be re- moved from time to time, and the boiler examined for leaks. This should be done at least once evei'y year. The man-hole door is an opening large enough to admit of a man, or at least a boy, entering the boiler to clean it. The mud-hole doors are similar openings, large enough to admit of a man's hand and arm. These are some- times jointed with plaited rope-gaskets soaked in the semi-fluid red and white lead above alluded to. Sometimes a ring of Tuck's packing is used, and sometimes with India-rubber. Care siiould be taken that these joints are well made and water-tight. If made with India-rubber, it should be made to tit rather tightly on the projection on tlie door. As it is meant to adhere to the door, and come out with it when taken off, as if it were, in one piece with it, the India-rubber should be rubbed with black lead on the side which touclies the iron shell of the boiler : this will prevent it from adhering. India- rubber need not to be screwed up tight, as it expands a good deal with heat. As it is very expensive, and there is great waste in cutting these joints out of a sheet, it would be well to get them from England, where they can be obtained ready moulded of any size. Cut a piece of paper the size and shape required, and order direct from the manufacturers, sending them the pattern. The North British India-rubber Company, Edinburgh, can supply you, and being manufacturers, you will get the articles cheaper than where middlemen's profits have to be added. Rubber should be kept from the air, either by being placed in water, or thickly varnished, when not in use : otherwise, it will oxidise and spoil. A good roof will prevent any damage from raiu-water, and chimneys ought to be provided with a wrought-iron umbrella. The boiler-tubes often leak at the end next the fire-box. This is caused by the rivetting of the end of the tube being eaten away by the strong action of the flame in the fire-box acting directly on them. Tubes should not be ri- vetted over, but simply made tight with a tool called an expander, and an iron ferule driven into the end. The tubes can be re-tightened by any one by means of the expander, which is a useful liut rather expensive tool. They are gener- ally made to project half an inch at first in^o the smoke-box: when leaky, they can be driven back into the fire-box a portion of this spare half-inch, and then made tight by means of the expander. If mud, scale, or salt, be allowed to accumulate on any part of the plates or tubes exposed to the action of heat, the water, being thus prevented from getting at the plate, and keeping it at a temperature not much higher than it- self, the plate will get over-heated, perhaps red-hot ; a crack will be the al- most certain consequence, extending most likely from a rivet or stay-bolt hole. This crack can be prevented from extending by drilling a small hole in its very extreme end, which can be filled up by screwing an iron pin into it. The Crack can then be carefully caulked with a caulking-tool, but will seldom be perfectly tight. As accumulations of scale in a boiler are preventil)le, as will be seen further on, a crack of this sort is simply the result of bad management and carelessness. Firemen are often careless, when cooling their ashes, in allowing water and wet ashes to lodge about the ashpits or bottoms of fire-boxes in contact with the iron of the boiler. No ashes, either wet or dry, should be allowed to touch the boiler, and the fireman, when quenching his ashes, should be careful not to let any water touch the boiler. Ashes are sometimes allowed to lod<;(> at the sides and ends of the furnace-bars. These should be removed from ( 140 ) time to time, and the iron of the boiler very carfally scraped where they have been. No bricks, lime, or mason-work, should be allowed to touch the boiler, inside or out. A sheet of thin iron should be interposed between the masonry and the iron of the boiler, where masonry is used ; and if inside a flue, such as the brick wall called the bridge at the back of some furnaces, the iron should further be protected by a layer of putty. In the lower part of the smoke-box of Locomotive-shaped boilers theie will be found a tapered screwed plug, which is removable for the purpose of cleaning the lower part of the boiler-sbell. A tapered tap is usually furnish- ed with the boiler, to renew the screw in the plug-hole when it becomes worn and leaky. This must be carefully attended to, as if water l>e allowed to lodge in tlie bcittom of the smoke-box, it corrodes the tube-plate badly; and in any case a hole should be drilled and always left open in the bottom of tlio stnoke-box, to allow the water to drain out which would otherwise collect there. The water which is developed in combustion often lodges about the flange by which some funnels are fastened to the boilers, — in upright boilers especially. The chimney should therefore be jointed to the boiler with putty or cement, which will prevent water from lodging- there and corroding the surrounding parts, as it often seriously does. Boilers are corroded int;ernally, but rarely to the extent that exter- nal corrosion takes place, except in marine and other large condensing engines, where the steam, after being condensed, is used over again for feed-water after passing through many feet of brass or copper tubing in the condenser and feed-apparatus. This tubing being in electrical com-' munication with the boiler, a galvanic action is set up, assisted by the water being more or less impregnated with salt. The iron of the boiler being more oxidisable than the brass or copper pipes, is at once attacked by the oxygen liberated by the glavanic action ; and this takes place in a pecu- liar way : the corrosion does not extend evenly all over the surface of the plates and tubes, but attacks them in spots, as if the iron had been scooped out. These spots, or pits as they are called, are from one-eighth to a quarter of an inch deep, and from a quarter to three-quarters of an inch in diameter. Sometimes the corrosion takes the form of a long furrow. These pits and fur- rows are a dreadful source of annoyance and anxiety to the marine engineer, and speedily ruin a boiler. There is however a partial remedy : Zinc being a metal much more easily oxidisable than Iron, it is usual to hang plates of this metal in the boiler. They are attacked and oxidised before the iron is much touched, and thus the boiler is saved at the expense of a few pounds of zinc yearly. This kind of corrosion takes place, but to a smaller extent, in land boilers, ex6ept in those of which the engine is fitted with sur- fivce-condensers. As it takes place more or less in all, it is well to hang a sheet of zinc in the boiler, taking care that it does not touch any of the iron ; you are then sure that pitting will not take .place. A copper fire-box, as found in some boilers of the Locomotive type, often causes pitting. Water itself, if free from air, will not corrode iron. E'ownes says ; " Pure water, free from air and carbonic acid, does not tiirnish a surface of polished iron, but the combined agency of free oxygen and moisture speedily leads to the production of rust." Water as we almost always find it in nature, contains a certain amount of air. This however i:< expelled by boiling, and its ab-sonce gives water which ( 141 ) has been boiled and cooled the peculiar flat taste which renders it unpalatable, "Water also contains a certain amount of carbonic acid, which is also liberated to a great extent by boiling. When water is heated in a steam boiler, the air ■which it contains is liberated, and parts with its oxygen to the iron of the boiler, forming rust, which is a hydrate of the sesquioxide of iron. As the water is being continually changed, there will always be some air in the boil- er ; but its action is not nearly so strong when the water, steam, and air, are hot as when cold, probably because the liberated air is in a greater state of tenuity when at the temperature of the boihng water. When the boiler is not working, and the water cold, bubbles of air and also sometimes of ox ygen, separated by the galvanic action alluded to in the last para., are formed, and rise to the surface, or adhere to the side of the boiler. When the water is very still, these bubbles often form clusters on the iron just below the surface of the water all round the boiler ; and thus it is that a row of pits and furrows is often found just about the water level. For this reason care should be taken to empty the boiler when it is to be out of work for any time : no water should be left in it. The little that remains in the bottom should be carefully dried out, a gentle fire kindled, — not in the furnace but the ashpit, to evaporate any remaining moisture ; and when the boiler is tho- roughly dried inside, the man and mud-hole doors should be put on, and all other openings carefully closed to exclude damp air. Perhaps the best method of keeping the inside of a boiler free from corrosion when out of work would be to detach all brass and copper pipes and mountings, fill the boiler right up to the very top, boil the air out of the water, and then close the boiler up. I never did this, but the method is theoretically correct, and for boilers in Tea-gardens and Indigo-factories, which are for months out of work, it might be tried with advantage. Water obtained from wells often holds in solution substances which are injurious to iron. For instance the Karachi water contains saltpetre in solu- tion, and as there is often more or less free nitric acid with this salt, it is very injurious, and the locomotives running on the Scinde Railway used to have their boilers destroyed by it. Should the surface-water in your neighbour- hood be brackish, and no river water procurable, it would be as well to save up and use rain water, or sink a well below the saliferous stratum. Steam as usually found in the class of engines here treated of is seldom superheated. This term is used with regard to steam of which the tem- perature is higher than the pressure. As the pressure or tension of steam increases, so does its temperature in a nearly regular ratio. Thus steam of one atmosphere, as that formed from water boiling freely in the open air in an open vessel, has a temperature of about 112'' Fahrenheit. But steam of two atmospheres, or 29| pounds on the square inch, that is one atmos- phere, or 14-7 pounds above atmospheric pressure, showing 14-7 pounds on the steam gauge, has a temperature of about 249° Fahr. In many marine engines and also in some of the larger land engines, the steam in the boiler is allow- ed to pass through an apparatus called a superheater , in which it is raised to a temperature many degrees above that due to its pressure, for reasons which are beyond the scope of the present Papers to explain, as it involves a theoretical principle diificult to be understood by a lay reader. This superheated steam rapidly corrodes iron with which it comes in contact, probably from the hydro- gen and oxygen becoming more easily separated when very hot, or the com- pound becoming more " unstable," as chemists call this state. In small upright boilers, where the flue leading to the chimney passes through the steam space, it superheats the steam to some_ extent, but rarely so much so as to be very destructive. ( 142 ) Tile inside of the fire-box and tubes is usually found covered with a hard black .«cale. This is composed of carbon, with a small admixture of silica, and is deposited from the smoke. A scraping-tool is usually supplied by the makers, for the tubes, and for the inside of fir(^-box, Ac, scrapers maybe made of old files. This scale should be frequently removed, as it is a very bad con- ductor of heat. One of the greatest causes of rapid destruction in a steam boiler is the formation of a crust of scale deposited from the water on such parts of the boiler as are in contact with heat. Water obtained from, wells or rivers is usually more or less impregnated with sulphate or bicarbonate of lime. These, by the action of heat, are released, from solution in the water, and deposited in a firm white scale on the tubes, fire-box, &c., the parts getting the most heat having the thickest deposit of scale. More dangerous and destructive than this scale is the deposit formed when river water, carrying a quantity of mud, is used in the boiler. It lodges in the same place as the scale, but in much greater quantities, forming a thicker crust ; and the consequence is that the water, being prevented from being in contact with the heated plate-;, these become heated to redness, and being expanded much more than the other parts of the boiler, they crack, and cause very troublesome leaks, with their consequent corrosive destruction ; and this coating of mud may be even so thick as to cause the risk of explo-. sion. The boiler-plates, becoming red-hot, are unable to resist the pressure of steam, and are consequently borne down or crushed l)y the steam pressure so far out of shape that they ultimately yield altogether, and an explosion follows. The same thing occurs if the water in the boiler be allowed to become too low, so as not to cover the heated pkites. It is therefore of the utmost consequence, both for reasons of economy and safety, to prevent this deposition of mud and scale as much as possible, and to remove it when formed, before it has accumulated to a dangerous extent. I stated before that I would afterwards speak of a second use for the lilow-oflf cock. To prevent as much as possible the accumulation of mud and scale, the fireman should be instructed to do as follows ; — When the day's work is finished, he ought to pump the water in the boiler up to nearly the top of the gauge-glass, and leave it thus all night. Next morning, when getting up steam, as soon as his pressure-g^uge indicates five or six pounds, he ought to open the blow-off cock, and blow the water out until it reaches the ordinary working level. By this means a portion of the mud which has settled at the bottom of the boiler during the night, will be blown out. In spite of this, however, or any other precaution, some mud or scale will form in the boiler. In boilers of the Locomotive type — such as Ransome's, Robey's, &c., the top of the boiler is strengthened by girders through which stay-bolts pass. Underneath these girders there are spaces left for the water to circulate. If dirty water be used, these spaces soon fill up with mud and scale, and a crack then forms between the stay-bolts. The top of the fire- box, the bottom of the water-space round the fire-box, the tops of the tubes, the narrow space between the side tubes and the shell of the boiler, and other narrow spaces, form convenient lodging-places for scale and mud, which, if allowed to remain, would speedily destroy the boiler. It is consequently necessary from time to time to remove the man-hole and mud-hole doors and the mud plug, and, by means of long iron scrapers, straight or curved as may be necessary, to break up and detach the mud and scale. When loosened, it should be wsshed down to the bottom of the boiler by copious douches of water, and then raked out through the mud-holes and plugs by long rakes. The frequency of this operation will depend on the clean- ( 143 )• ness or otherwise of the water supplied to the boiler. Eain-water is the cleanest and freest from impurities, either suspended or in solution. With dirty well or river water, the cleaning-out process should take place every week on the usual off-day. If none but very muddy water can be obtained, it should be allowed to settle, as it contains a small quantity of free sulphuric acid, and more will be liberated by the heat in the boiler. Compositions are sold which help somewhat to soften scale, rendering it more easily removeable by blowing out. These are mostly compounds con- taining soda or ammonia, which act by combining with the acids of the lime sulphate. Common carbonate of soda is often used for this purpose with good results. A handful may be dissolved three or four times a week in the feed- water. It is by this means pumped into the boiler, where it acts as above. A boiler should never be exposed to sudden changes of temperature or pressure, as these are apt to loosen the joints, rivets, and tubes. For this reason steam should be got up slowly, and when the day's work is done, should not bo blown off, but allowed to cool and condense in the boiler. When necessary to empty the boiler, it should be allowed to cool for a night before the water is run off by the blow-off cock. When no lagging or non-conducting material is supplied by the makers, the boiler may be covered with a mixture of cowdung and clay, mixed with hair or chopped tow. This may be laid on layer after layer while the boiler is kept at a gentle heat. Felt may be tied on to the boiler with ropes. I have found cooly-blanliets a cheap and good substitute for felt. It must be borne in mind that the economical working of a boiler, and, what is of more importance, its safety, depend mostly on the care and man- agement exercised by the fireman while steam is up. I have written at length above on the prevention of accident or decay arising from corrosion on the deposition of mud and clay ; but no matter how good, or new, or strong, a boiler may be, or how free from scale and dirt, it is liable to be destroyed, per- haps with fatal consequences, by a rash, ignorant, or careless attendant. This arises from one of two causes, — either pressing the steam to more than the boiler can stand, or letting the water get so low as to cause the parts exposed to the fire to become red-hot. When the maker supplies the boiler, he usually informs the purchaser at what pressure of steam he may work it in safety. Each boiler is furnished with a steam-pressure-gauge and safety-valve ; of the latter there are some- times two, one of which is locked up, and so constructed that the pressure can- not be increased by the attendant. An example of this kind of valve is to be seen in the class of boilers supplied by Ransome, Head, and Jeffries, and other makers, where the valve is covered with a small brass casing secured by lock and key. A lever projects from it, by which the safety-valve may be occasion- ally tested to see if it blow off. Great care shoidd be exercised in seeing that the safety-valves do not become choked up with dirt, or rendered stiff and immoveable from any cause. Should the steam at any time become too high, through excessive firing or a sudden stoppage of the machinery, the pressure may be lessened by opening the furnace door, and also the smoke-box door if any. This lessens the heat, by stopping the draft in the furnace, and thus deadening the fire, and also by admitting a current of cold air through the fire-box and flues or tubes. This method of counteracting excess pressure causes the sudden con- traction of the boiler by admitting a current of cold air, and is therefore injurious, often causing leaks, especially at the ends of tubes and stays ; it is therefore to be avoided as much as possible. Some boilers are provided with means of closing the ash-pit, or with a damper in the chimney, which, when closed, prevents the draft from passing through the burning fuel, and thus, ( 1-14 ) lessening the heat, checks the formation of steam without suddenly cooling the boiler. In urgent cases, as where the machinery is suddenly thrown off the engine, with a heavy fire on, and the steam still rising notwithstanding the above means being taken to prevent it, the safety-valve may be cautiously open- ed, and the engine started to pump cold water into the boiler, which, should it become too high, may be blown off by the blow-off cock. By far the most usual cause of accident is, however, insufficiency of water. Inattention to the condition of the gauge-glass, so as to allow the passages leading to the interior of the boiler to become choked up, and thus cause a false level of water to be shown, is by far the commonest cause of this. The gauge-glass is fastened into two brass stands or brackets, which are fixed to the boiler in such a position that the upper one is some few inches above the working level of the water in the boiler. Through each of these brackets there is a passage leading from the interior of the boiler to the parts of the brackets just below and above the ends of the gauge-glass. These passages can be closed by cocks, and when these cocks are open, as they should always be, the inside of the gauge-glass is in free communication, top and bottom, with the inside of the boiler ; and it is therefore evident that the height of water in the boiler will stand at the same level in and be apparent in the gauge-glass as long as the water level is not above the top or below the bottom of the visible part of the glass. Opposite each of these passages, on the front of each bracket, there is a small brass screw-plug, which can be removed in order to allow a piece of stout wire being introduced to the passage, to clear it of mud or any other obstruction. This can be done even when there is steam in the boiler, provided the wire be bent into an L shape, one part of which can be held in such a way that the escaping steam or water will not touch the hand. A third cock is found on the bottom of the lower bracket, and a screw-cap through which the gauge is put in on the top of the upper one. This lowest cock is called the drain-cock. Now, to test if the gauge-glass is in good order, and clear of mud or other obstruction, first open the cock last alluded to. If both the passages of the other two cocks are clear, a mixture of steam and water will come out, — that is, steam from the top cock mixed with water from the bottom one. Now shut the top cock : water alone should come out. Now open the top cock, and shut the bottom one : steam alone should come out. The top and bottom cocks are then to be left open, and the lowest or drain-cock closed. The water should stand then at about half the height of the glass. If more, the feed should be lessened ; if less, increased. Delay in removing the fire, should the water get too low through the feed-apparatus not working, through leakage in the boiler or through inattention, is another frequent cause of accident. Should the feed- apparatus go wrong, and you are unable to get it to work by the time the water gets down to half an inch from the bottom of the glass, you must remove the fire from the boiler at once. On no account omit this, or run any risk by waiting a little longer to see if the feed will work ; and remember that if at any time your water gets suddenly low through a leaky tube or other leakage, or from any other cause, to draw fires at once without a moment's delay, as lots of accidents and explosions have occurred through shortness of water. Some feed-apparatus have, and all should have, a cock between the dis- charge feed-valve and the boiler, and also a cock on the suction-pipe, to shut off the water supply. With these, should the valves cease working, you can shut the supply of water off, and thus stop the pump from working ; and by closing the cock next the boiler, you can prevent any hot water from getting back. The supply of water should be stopped from the pump before the latter cock is closed, or the pipe may burst. This can be done by shutting the cock on the supply-pipe, or if there is none, by slacking back the cover of the ( 115 ) lowest feed-valve. The valves can then be taken out and examined. If there is a check-valve on the boiler, and in good order, one of these cocks is not needed, as the check-valve will prevent any back-flow of water ; but people frequently allow the check-valves to become leaky. Sometimes the feed-valves cease to work, through vapour forming in the valve-chest above them, and this is often the case when a feed-heating-apparatus is used. In this case cold water thrown on the pump and valve-chest will condense the vapour inside, and the valves wiU start again. Sometimes the valves jam inside. A few taps with a hammer on the side of the feed-chest will often start them. Sometimes chips of wood get in with the feed-water, or cinders or other rub- bish find their way in, and jam the valve. The best remedy for this is pre- vention, by passing all the feed-water through a wire strainer. The boiler is sometimes said to prime. This is said to occur when the water boils over, as it were, and comes into the engine with the steam. This is not as a rule very dangerous to the boiler, but it is to the engine, as the water getting into the cylinder often causes a break-down. Priming is caused either by using dirty water, by allowing it to get too high in the boiler, or by irregular firing. The cure is indicated by the caus- es. Fuel should be supplied a little at a time, and often ; but as this is troublesome to a native fireman, he will, if not watched, pile on a heavy fire so as to have a long spell of rest ; then often go away, and leave the boiler to take care of itself till he thinks it is time to put on another big fire. This is wasteful of fuel, causes the boiler to prime ; and, while the man is away, bis water may get low, or some accident take place. Should a gauge-glass break while steam is on the boiler, it can be replac- ed in a few minutes by closing the top and bottom cocks, taking off the cap on the top of the upper bracket, taking out the broken glass, and sliding a new one down through the hole in the top. The nuts and ferules which squeeze the packing can be put on the glass in their proper positions as it is being slid on. Durino- the time that the gla3S is being replaced, the height of water in the boiler may be approximately known by the test-cocks. These are two, or sometimes three small cocks, fastened in the boiler near the gauge-glass. They should be slightly opened, and the height of water in the boiler should stand somewhere between them, in which case steam should come from the up- per, and water from the lower one. Should water begin to come from the upper one, the feed should be lessened. If steam make its appearance at the lower one, the fieb should at once be ebmoved. I have now concluded my remarks on the Steam Boiler, and will proceed in my next to consider the Engine. I will only say in recapitulation of the first part, that by strict attention to the prevention of corrosion by leakage, by lessening internal corrosion as above directed, and by the prevention, as far as possible, and the frequent removal of, mud and scale, you will keep a boiler in good working order for a much longer period than it would be if these In- structions were neglected. And by careful attention to the Rules laid down for the management of the Boiler while under steam, by selecting a steady fireman, and enforcing on him the observance of these Rules, you wUl almost entirely obviate the risk of explosion. Lastly, eembmbbr, that as long as you kbep the water in the boil- er AT A PROPER LBVBL, AND THE STEAM AT A S.IFE PRESSURE, THERE CAN BIS NO EXPLOSION. ( 146 ) ON MACHINERY IN TEA FACTORIES. Chap. III. — The Steam Engine. We will now proceed to consider the Steam-engine. In a former page I glanced cursorily at the principles of both the condensing and non-condensing engine. I will now describe them both at greater length, as it is important that the reader should have some knowledge of the methods of their con- struction, and working. When a fire is lit in the furnace of a boiler, the water gradually becomes hotter and hotter, until it boils, and gives off steam. If the boiler be open to the external air, as by the safety-valve being removed, this ebullition will take place at the temperature of 212° of Fahrenheit's thermometer, provided that it is at the level of the sea. But if the water be boiled at a high level above the sea, a marked difference in the temperature of the boiling-point takes place. Thus, owners of steam machinery in the Darjeeling hills will find, if they try the experiihent, that their boiler-water is in a state of ebullition at a much lower temperature than 212°. The reason of this is, that the greater the pressure on the water the greater is the resistance to its passing into the form of steam, and as the pressure of the atmosphere decreases the higher we go, so does the resistance to the formation of steam, and consequently the temperature at which it is formed. Following this principle out, we find that it holds good in a closed vessel from which the steam, as it forms, cannot escape. When the steam is accumulating in the boiler, as when steam is being got up in the morning, the pressure gradually increases, as the increasing quantity of steam in the boiler occupies only the same space ; and as the pressure increases, so also does the temperature of the boiling-point, so that steam of 70 lbs. pressure above the atmosphere has a temperature of something like 300° Fahr. Here observe that I have used the term " 70" Fahr. above the atmosphere.'" Steam given off at the boiling-point in the open air just balances the pressure of the atmosphere, and is therefore called " steam of a pressure of one atmosphere," and will thus be, at the level of the sea, equal to a pressure of 14:-7 lbs., or in round numbers 15 lbs. on the square inch ; and the ordinary steam-pressure-gauge only begins to indicate at this pressure, so that st(3a)n showing 15 lbs. on it, is actually at 30 lbs. pressure. But as there is the back-pressure of the atmosphere, in the non-condensing engine, to contend against, only the pressure above the atmosphere, or that shown on the steam-gauge, is effective in the non-condensing engine. In the condensing engine, however, it is different, as the partial vacuum formed removes the greater part of the atmospheric resistance. We will suppose our fire to be lit, and the water arrived at 212°. Steam is now given off' in proportion to the intensity of the fire, and fiUs all the empty space in the boiler above the water. As the safety and all other valves are closed, there is no escape for it, and so, as ounce after ounce and pound after pound of water are turned into steam, which is confined in this space, so the temperature and pressure increase. If there were no safety-valve or other means of escape for the steam, this would go on until a pressure would be attained which the boiler could not stand, and an explosion would occur ; but the safety-valve is so arranged with regard to the strength of the boiler, that it opens, and releases the steam as it forms, at a pressure considerably below that which the boiler could bear. It must be borne in mind, however that few boilers are fitted with safety-valves capable of allowing the steam to escape as fast as it is formed. This is a defect which should be prevented by legislation in boilers onshore, as it is in the boilers of sea-o-nino- steam vessels. The steam having arrived at a pressure sufficient to drive the machinery, a valve is opened, and it is admitted to the engine. Here it is allowed to press ( 147 ) to the piston, which is a disc of metal allowed to move freely in an accurately- bored cylinder. Suppose we were to take a common syringe, strong enough to bear the pressure, and connect the small end with a steam-pipe leading to a boiler. Suppose the piston of the syringe to be steam-tight, that is to say, that the cotton or other material twisted round it to keep it tight was such a good fit in the barrel of the syringe that steam could not pass it. Now, if we admit steam through the small end, the piston would be forced to the other end with a power proportionate to the pressure of steam employed, and to the area of the piston : thus if the piston area equalled one square inch, and the pressure of steam was fifty pounds on the square inch, it is evident that the piston would be pushed with a force equal to fifty pounds ; and if the steam were admitted at the large end, and free egress allowed for that before admitted by the small end, the piston would be pushed back by the same pressure. And this is what takes place in the steam-engine. Steam is admitted to the cylinder, which corresponds to the barrel of the syringe, and pushes the piston from one end to the other with a certain force. As soon as it comes to the end of the cylinder, the steam is allowed to escape, and a fresh supply of steam is ad- mitted on the opposite side, which pushes it back again. This in its turn is allowed to escape, and the same thing is repeated over and over again. The force exerted is, as I said above, proportionate to the area of piston and pres- sure of steam. Thus a piston of six inches diameter has an area of 27-27, or in round numbers 27;^ square inches. Suppose steam is admitted at 50 lbs. pressure, and allowed to continue at this pressure during the whole stroke, it is evident that the piston has been pushed the length of the cylinder with a force of 27|^ X 50 = 1362-5 pounds. Suppose the cylinder to be upright, and a weight be fastened to the bottom of the piston-rod (which we will imagine to project through the bottom-end of the cylinder, as it does in some engines), and that the combined weight of the piston, its rod, and the attached weight, be 1362-5 pounds, it is evident that this will just balance the pressure of steam on the piston, and the piston will consequently remain stationary, or if pushed up in the cylinder, will remain in any position in it. Again, suppose a portion of the weight be removed, the piston will travel upwards ; and the more weight we remove, the quicker it wiU travel. So that, you see, the power of an engine is in a direct ratio to the area of its piston and the pressure of steam upon it ; and its speed is as the same quantities in a direct ratio, and modified in an inverse ratio by the load on the engine ; and every time the piston moves from one end of the cylinder to the other, it does a certain amount of work, which work is represented by the pressure on the piston. As above, suppose that pressure is 1362 lbs., it is evident that the work consists in moving 1.362 lbs. through a certain space ; and the work done in a minute of any other time will be the number of strokes the engine does in that space of time. Thus if the stroke of the engine, i. e., the distance the piston travels in the cylinder, be two feet, and the piston moves backwards and forwards forty times in one minute with the above pressure, the work done in a minute will be 1362 lbs., moved back- ward 40 times 2 feet, and 1362 lbs. moved forward 2 feet : that is to say, 1362 pounds moved 2 -|- 2 = 4 feet 40 times in a minute, or 5148 lbs., moved 1 foot 40 times in a minute, or 217,920 lbs. moved one foot in one minute. Now, engineers use as a unit of power what they call a foot-pound. This compound word signifies one pound moved (you will understand better if I say raised instead of moved) one foot. So in speaking of the power exerted in the above example, an engineer would say that the engine had exerted a force of 217,920 lbs. in one minute. Suppose this power was exerted in raising water to a height of 30 feet, you have only to divide 217,920 by 30 to find 75,964, the number of pounds of water raised. But there is a term doubtless more familiar, to you, namely, Horse-power. James Watt made a large number of ( 148 ) experiments with horses, to determine an average horse's work ; and the mean of his experiments with many animals gave the average power of a horse as 33,000 foot-pounds per minute. Therefore, to find the actual horse-power of the engine in this example, you have only to divide 217,920 by 33,000, which gives it as 6f f actual horse-power nearly. But you must here notice that actual horse-power does not mean the H. P. which you generally hear spoken of. You often hear it said " so-and-so is get- ting a ten-horse engine." In the old days, when the non-condensing engine was hardly used at all, and ordinary pressures were only 4 or 5 pounds above the atmosphere, engine-makers used to calculate their horse-power at such pres- sures ; hut now-a-days, when much higher pressures are used, and the same old rule retained for calculating the H. P., it is evident that the power actually exerted is much greater than the power stated by the maker, and which is called the Nominal Horse-power. Ordinary land-engines are usually capable of exerting from 2i to 4 times their nominal H. P., the best class of them 5 times, and some of the finer marine engines 6 or 7 times their nominal H. P. Nearly every maker has his own method of calculating the N. H. P. of the engines he turns out, and all their rules are empirical, and of no value to the engineer, who usually indicates the capabilities of an engine by stating the diameter of the cylinder or cylinders, the length of stroke, and the boiler- pressure. But I will give you one of the most common rules for determining the N. H. P. : Multiply the square of the diameter of the cylinder in inches by the cube-root of the stroke in feet, and divide by 47. Result equals nominal horse-power. Of course if you have two cylinders you just double the result. I have endeavoured to show you that the pressure of steam acting on alternate sides of the piston, and pushing it back and forward in the cylinder, exerts a certain amount of power, and does certain work in a certain time, limited by the conditions above specified. What often puzzles a person unacquainted with the Steam-engine, is how the steam is admittel to and allowed to escape from the alternate sides of the piston automatically, and with such regularity. This is done by the opening and shutting of a valve or valves acted on by the engine itself, and the commonest of which is the slide-valve, as it is also probably the only one with which the reader will have to do. Steam is conveyed from the boiler through a pipe to an oblong box or chamber on the side (sometimes, but seldom in small engines, on the top) of the cylinder. From the inside of this box or chamber, which is known as the valve-casing, three passages lead, one to the external air, the other two to the opposite ends of the cylinder. The flat face in which the openings to these passages are situated is made extremely smooth and straight, so that no steam can pass between its surface and that of a metal valve working on it. This metal valve has a hollow space in its centre, wide enough to cover one of the end openings and the centre one, as also the plane space between them. When the valve is so placed that it covers two openings in this way, it is evident that, as the centre opening communicates with the open air, and as the end one does so with the inside of the cylinder, any steam which may be in the cylinder, if above the pressure of the atmosphere, will rush back through the opening, or port as it is called, leading into the cylinder, thence passing through the hollow space in the valve through the central opening into the open air. At the same time the steam from the boiler passes the outside of the valve, and round its end, into the opening leading to the cylinder at the other end. The end-openings are called the steam ports, the centre one the exhaust port. The steam ports allow the steam to pass from the boiler into the cylinder, and after it has done its work, back again into the inside of the slide-valve, and thence to the exhaust port. The slide-valve is so arranged, that as it slides back and forward on the smooth face containing the ports, it is u little open to the ( 1-19 ) steam for one side and to the exhaust for the other, wlien the piston is at the end of its strolce. This is effected by connecting it by means of a rod to a ■wheel called an excentric (usually, but incorrectly spelt eccentric), so called because it has the hole in the centre through which the shaft passes out of its centre ; and this excentric is so placed on the shaft, and in connection with the slide-valve, that the latter opens for the admission and release of the steam at the proper time. No description can give you nearly so perfect an idea of the working of this vahe as an actual inspection. Take oiF the cover of the valve-casing, and turn the engine slowly round by hand. You will see that when the piston comes to the end of the stroke, that the valve is very slightly ojDen. Keep turning the engine in the direction it works, you will see that the valve opens more and more for a portion of the stroke, and then begins to close again. In most engines the valve closes long before the stroke is completed, sometimes when only one-third of it has been completed. When the piston has arrived at the opposite end, you will see the valve slightly open at the opposite end, and so on. If you could see the inside of the slide-valve, you would see that the opening through which the steam passes out is brought in communication with each end of the cylinder by means of the hollow space in the slide-valve, so that as the steam is beginning to enter at one end, it is beginning to escape at the other. The valve does not close to the exhaust, however, at an early part of the stroke, as it does to the steam, but continues open nearly for the whole stroke. We have seen how the piston is forced from end to end alternately of the cylinder, and how the steam is automatically admitted and released. We will now consider how the power which is exerted by the steam on the piston is communicated to the machinery to be driven. A round piece of iron or steel, turned very smooth, is fastened into the piston, and passes out of the cyhnder through a stuffing-box at one end. A cross-piece is attached to the outer end, which, moving in guides, keeps the piston-rod, as this is called, rigid. To the end of the piston-rod there is attached, by a sort of hinge arrangement, another iron rod, called the connecting rod. The other end of this grasps the crank- pin. The crank is just a modification of the ordinary crank by which a grind- stone is turned, and the connecting rod may be likened to the man's arm and hand which grasps it to turn the grindstone. As the motion of the piston-rod is quite straight, it is evident that when it comes to the end of its stroke the connecting rod and crank are in a direct line with it, and therefore, no matter how much pressure might be applied to it, it cannot of itself turn the crank any further. On the end of the crank-shaft, therefore, there is fastened a wheel having a weighty rim which turns with the shaft. During the time that the piston, through its rods, is acting on the crank and turning the shaft, this wheel acquires a certain amount of impetus, which it in its turn com- municates to the shaft and other working parts when the piston is at the end of the stroke and ineffectual, thus carrying the engine and all the machinery attached to it forward until the crank is over the centre, when the piston begins to puU or push it again. Even in engines with two cylinders, which having the cranks set at right angles pull or push each other over the dead points, a fly-wheel is usual to steady and equalise the motion of the engine ; Only, in marine engines, or locomotives, it is not used, as the screw or paddles in the one, or the momentum of the moving engine in the other, equalise the motion sufficiently. There are, however, marine engines, those having only one crank, in which a fly-wheel is necessary : the vessels of the well-known Star Line for instance. The motion to the machinery is usually communicated by means of leather belting. Sometimes this leads direct from the fly-wheel, as where a circular- saw has to be driven, and a high speed attained, or a centrifugal pump ; but ( 150 ) more generally from a separate pnlley on the shaft. A pulley is the technical name for the iron wheel on which the leather belting runs. In large Works, such as Spinning-mills, &c., the power is communicated by toothed wheels, or by pulleys having their edges grooved, round which pass several ropes to the next pulley. Both these systems have their advantages and disadvantages. The first, although entailing a much higher first cost, lasts a very long time without requiring repairs, while the second costs less at first, but entails the expense of keeping up and renewing the ropes. In our next, after glancing briefly at the condensing engine, we will consi- der the accidents to which engines are liable, their deterioration, and the means of keeping them in good order and repairing them when out of it. Chapter IV. — Engines, theib Vaeiett and Tkbatment. In a former paper I alluded to the great economy of the condensing engine as compared to the non-condensing type. Fuel is yearly becoming scarcer in the tea districts, and although the gradual introduction of tea-drying machinery in which wood is used, thus utilising the gases which are wasted in making- charcoal, helps to stave off the evil day, still there is little doubt that before long a time will come when the scarcity of fuel will be much more felt than it is at present, and probably for wood-fuel coal will be substituted to a great extent, — coal probably brought from a great distance and at great expense. This inconvenience is already felt in not a few tea-gardens, and will certainly increase. It is therefore advisable that those who are interested in Tea should turn their attention to the more economical forms of steam-engine, the con- densing engine, and the still more economical compound engine. The latter may be either condensing or non-condensing. The condensing engine can only l)e used where there is a ready supply of cold water. For every cubic foot of water evaporated in the boiler there are required in India about 30 cubic feet in the condenser to bring it speedily from steam to water, to condense it. As I mentioned before, this used to be effected in the cylinder itself, and the loss of heat, and therefore of work, was very great, as the jet of water used to cool the steam and condense it, cooled at the same time the cylinder, piston, &c., and these were re-heated at the expense of a portion of the steam admitted for the next stroke. It occurred to a voung man named James Watt, a mathematical-instrument maker, then employeil at this business by the faculty of the University of Grlasgow, that the steam might just as well be condensed in a separate vessel. By allowing the steam from the cylinder to escape into a closed chamber separate and detached from the cylinder, and there causing it to meet the jet of water which condensed it, he effected the formation of a vacuum in the cylinder and condenser without the cooling of the cylinder by being brought in contact with water. Some people have supposed \Vatt to be the inventor of the steam-engine, but this, however, is not the case. He converted what was before a crude and scarcely profitable machine into what is, with a few alterations of detail, the modern steam-engine ; and the first beneficial effects of his Invention were seen in the immense impulse he gave to mining. Mines which were before unworkable on account of heavy flooding were easily and economically pumped dry, and thus an immense amount of till then useless property was rendered valuable. But more import- ant results followed. His in^■ention of the crank, (for which he had for a time. Owing to his invention having been pirated by a workman, to substitute a contrivance called the " Sun and Planet" motion), enabled people using revolving machinery, such as flour-mills, &c., to use the steam-engine for their ( 151 ) ' pvimo mover," as the driving-power is technically called, whether steam, water, or other engine. Several of bis other inventions are not only of great utility, btit of great mechanical ingenuity and beauty ; gnch as the governor, the parallel motion, etc. AVatt was a man of great and varied attainments. While yet a young man he suggested, if not actually demonstrated, the discovery generally attributed to (Javeudisli, the composition of water. And his correspondence with the celebrated Dr, Black on the then imperfectly Understood doctrine of latent heat is extremely interesting from a scientific point of view. Like many groat inventors he did not realise anything like the large fortune which one would suppose the immense value of his invention would have brought him. He made money, howe^'er, and with his partner, Mr. Boulton, founded the well-kiiown engineering firm of Boulton and Watt, Soho Foundry, Birmingham, which is still in existence, and retains its reputation as a first-class establishment. Watt hinted at the compound engine (to be explained later) which was subsequently patented by Woolf and Hornblower ; and to the condensing engine we are indebted for the immense fleets of ocean-going steamers, which but for this invention would never have been able to carry coal enough for their voyage. In fact Watt was a man, — one of those who only spring up occasionally in the history of the world, who has left an indelible mark on the page of time ; and if to-morrow another inventor should arise who would show us a method of practically using electricity, hot air, or any other means as a motive power, and the steam-engine were to become a thing of the past, still the name of James Watt would live as one of the greatest benefactors of mankind. There is a form of condenser which, it is said. Watt suggested, but did not make : I mean the surface condenser. In this vessel the steam is not brought in contact with a jet of water. The water used for condensation is forced by a pump, called the circulating pump, through a large number of brass tubes from five-eighths to seven-eighths of an inch in diameter. These are fastened by their ends in a large air-tight vessel. The steam rushing from the cylinder through the exhaust-pipe into this vessel comes in contact with these pipes, and they being kept cool by the current of water passing through them, condense the steam just as the et>ld jet of water does in the other condenser. The steam is condensed by being brought in contact with the cold surface of the tubes, and this form of condenser is therefore called a surfacB condenser. In another modification of it the steam passes through the tubes, and the water outside them. The surface condenser is useful chiefly in marine engines, w-here it is not desirable that the salt water used for condensing should be allowed to come in contact with the condensed steam- water, which thus remains fresh, and is used over and over again in the boiler. With the old jet-condenser the condensed steam necessarily mixed with the salt injection-water, and in consequence a great quantity of salt was pass- ed into the boiler with the feed. As a very large quantity of the boiling water had to be blown out of the boiler to remove this salt, a loss of fuel occurred, re- presented by the quantity of fuel required to bring the water blown out to the boiling point, — ^a very serious loss. The surface condenser obviated this, as with it little or no water was required to be blown out ; and it was therefore used in the days of 20 and 25 pounds pressures on tho boilers from motives of economy alone. But now, when pressures of 100 pounds or even 150 pounds are not uncommon, it is imperatively necessary to use the surface condenser, as it is found that water containing salt or other substances in solution, when bi-ought to the temperature corresponding to these pressures, rapidly deposits the salt, or whatever else it may contain in solution, on the tubes, &c., of the boiler, and thus produces the bad eiiects alluded to in a former Chapter. u ( 152 ) It is evident that in either form of condenser there must be some means of removing the condensed water as well as that used for condensation, or elso the condenser would in a few strokes of the engine be full of water. There is also mixed with all water a certain quantity of air, which, as I said above, is separable from it bj boiling. This air, passing with the steam through the cy- linder, enters the condenser, and if not removed, would soon be in a sufficient quantity to vitiate the vacuum, In the jet condenser the air and water are re- moved by a large pump driven by the engine and usually called the " air pump," although the " air and water pump" would explain its functions better. In the surface condenser the condensed steam and air are removed in the same way, but the condensing water is forced right throng h the condenser by the circulating pump, and is pumped out through the ship's side in a marina engine, or into a large pond called a cooler in a land engine, where it is cool- ed and then used over again. There are difficulties in the way of the adoption of the condensing engine in most of the Tea-districts. During the rains, when the rivers are swollen, and their surface-level probably only thi-ea or four feet below the level of the ground on which the engine stands, the injection-water from the river would rush into the vacuum formed in the condenser without the aid of an extra pump. But we must remember that from the beginning of the season till the beginning or middle of Jime, there is but little rain, and the level of the river-water is low, — in fact in many rivers passing through tea-gardens there is no water. "When the river-water is low, those using a condensing engine would have to use the sams means on a smaller scale for storing their water and using it over and over again as is used in many large factories ; that is, allowing their injection-water to escape into a pond, where it is cooled suffi- ciently to be available for use over and again. Of course there will be some loss of water from this pond from evaporation, but this is made up by working from time to time a small pump attached to the engine. The power required to work this'pump is not much, and is amply compensated by the great economy of the engine. Should any of your reailers take a trip to Calcutta during the cold season, a visit to one of the large jute or cotton factories on the banks of the Hooghly will amply repay them for the time they occupy in going there. A very fine specimen of the compound surface condensing engine is to be seen at the Ganges MUls, of which Messrs. Macneill & Co. are Secretaries, and probably that firm would grant permission to visit the Mills. The large masonry-lined tank at the bank is the " cooler" alluded to above. A visitor will usually find the managers and engineers of these mills extremely obligino- in showing everything to be seen, provided those gentlemen are not busy, which however they mostly are. The reader will probably now look back a few lines and ask, " But if, as is often the case, there is for a couple of months at the beginning of the season no water available, how are we to use a condensing engine ?" Of course you cannot ; but you can convert it very easily into a non-condensino- engine for the nonce by temporarily disconnecting your air-pump from the engine, removing the exhaust-pipe, substituting a plain exhaust-pipe leadino- through the roof, and let the steam puff out through it. We must not how- ever overlook a certain amount of disadvantage here. With the condensino- engine, owing to the increased power of the steam through the vacuum on the other side of the piston, a smaller-sized cylinder, and other parts in proportion, are required for the same power than in the non-condensing eno-ine ; whereas if we were obliged to work the condensing engine as a non-condensin'T one for part of the season, we would require to have the cylinder big enouorh to give us sufficient power to do this. But notwithstanding this disadvantage ( 153 ) the economy of the condensing engine is so great that it would soon repay the additional first cost. But what of Gardens where during the whole year the supply of water is too scanty or at too great a distance from the eiiiijine to be available for a condenser? In this case I would recommend the non-condensing compound engine. In describing the compound engine you will note that the difference between it and the ordinary engine lies in the cylinders, and that the conden- sing and non-condensing types differ just in the same way as the ordinary en- gine, that is, — in the use or non-use of the condensing apparatus on the tubes, flues, &c., of the boiler, and thus produces the bad effects alluded to in a former Chapter. We rarely in those days find an old-fashioned engine in which the steam is allowed to enter the cylinder during the whole length of stroke., I only know ofone such rubbishy old engine in India. With the ordinary slide-valve, without a separate expansion-valve, the valve and its gearing can be so fash- ioned as to cut off the supply of steam to the cylinder at any part of the stroke of the piston more than about one-third. Some engines are made to shut off the steam at half the stroke, some at two-fifths, and at other fractions of the stroke : if, however, the engine be provided with a variable expansion- valve, as all engines should be, the valve may be so altered as to cut off the steam at an earlier period than can be done by the slide valve, even at one- tenth of the stroke, as is sometimes the case in large marine and land engines. But why does not the engine stop when the steam is cut off? Because steam is an elastic vapour, and expands in the cylinder, becoming lower and lower in pressure as its bulk increases, but still exerting power on the piston in proportion to its decreasing pressure. If we used steam kept free from any condensation in the cylinder, we would find that in expanding, it nearly followed the rule of its pressure, decreasing in the same ratio as its bulk expanded, — that is, if steam entered the cylinder at 100 pounds pressure and was cut off at half stroke, it would have expanded into twice its initial volume when it reached the end of the stroke, but would have only half its initial pressure, viz., 50 pounds.* If a cylinder could hold three cubic feet of steam, and steam at 100 pounds was admitted, but cut off when the piston had tra- velled one-third of its stroke, that is when one cubic foot at 100 poimds had been admitted, the steam would still expand, and the end of the stroke would be found to fill the cylinder, but at one-third the pressure, or 33'33 pounds. During this period of expansion the steam is still driving the piston before it, and consequently the machinery driven by the piston, but with a gradually decreasing power owing to its gradually decreasing pressure. We have thus the benefit of the initial pressure of the steam while passing from the boiler, but we have also the additional benefit of using the steam after the communi- cation with the boiler has been shut. This was lost sight of in the earlier engines partly owing to the engineers depending more on the 14 fbs. pressure of the atmosphere for their motive power than the 4 or 5 lbs. steam pressure they then used. But with improved and stronger boilers came higher pres- sures, and then the benefits of expansion began to be seen. Engineers then began to design their engines with regard to the economy obtainable from using steam expansively. Higher pressures were introduced, until gradually the present pressures of from 50 to 150 pounds were attained. The slide cannot be constructed to cut off the steam at a lesser distance than one-third from the beginning of the stroke, as the exhaust begins to open too soon, thus causing a loss of steam, and to close too soon, before all the steam * This is not strictly correct, but is near enough Jor practice. ( 154 ) has escaped from tlie cylinder, thus causing a certain amount of steam left in the cyHnder to be compressed between the piston and the end of the cylinder, causing a loss of power by its back pressiire. A separate expansion-valve wa,? then introduced, and steam cut off up to very high ratios of expansion, one- tenth of the stroke being quite common. It was however found that beyond a certain point expansion not only began to ceas(i to be profitable, but that the consumption of fuel increased. This led to an investigation of the causes, and the conclusions arrived at led to further improvements in the Steam-engine, the latest of which we will come to pre- sently. These causes we will now proceed to investigate, A good deal of heat necessarily radiates from the outside of the cylinder and valve-casing. The effect of this is not so much observed when working the engine at low rates of expansion, but still even then it makes a palpable difference in the consumption of fuel. It was sought to obviate this by covering the cylinders with some non-conducting substance, generally felt covered with wood ; and this is the kind of " lagging," as it is called, mostly seen on the cylinders of Tea-garden engines. But still it was found that there was a practical limit to the profitable expansion of the steam. For the cause of this we must look a little at the nature of Steam itself In a former Paper I mentioned that steam, taking a given weight at a high pressure, contains a good deal less heat than the same weighc at a lower pressure. The latent heat of steam is not invariable, and therefore, although in the open air at the ordinary boiling temperuture of 212' Fahrenheit, it takes five and one-third, in round numbers, the quantity of heat to boil the water all off into steam than the quantity of heat required to raise it from the freez- ing to the boiling point, yet, as the pressure increases it takes more heat to raise it from the freezing point in proportion to what it takes to boil it off ; and if for the sake of simplicity we imagine heat to be a substance, and in com- bination with water when in a state of steam, that is, if we suppose steam to be a chemical combination of heat and water, we will find that the proportion of heat to water in a pound of steam at one hundred pressure is much less than the proportion at twenty pounds. Now, therefore, if ^ve admit one pound of steam at one hundred pounds into the cylinder, and expand it to five times its bulk, we would, provid- ed certain precuutions which I will describe be not observed, find that al- though we expected to find it at one-fifth the original pressure, namely twenty pounds, we actually find it much less ; because, as steam at twenty pounds requires more heat for a given weight than steam at one hundred pounds, if no external heat has been supplied, a portion of the steam must condense in the cylinder until, the latent heat parted with by this condensing portion beino' mostly given to the remaining steam, it remains at a pressure somewhat below 20ths ; and the higher the ratio of expansion, — that is, the earlier in propor- tion to the length of stroke the steam is cut off, the more steam will be con- densed in the cylinder. It was therefore sought to remedy this by two methods. The first, which is in use in every properly-constructed engine of large size, and in many small ones, is to surround the cylinder with an outside cylinder, so as to leave a hollow annular space round the steam cylinder. This space is filled with steam from the boiler direct, being thus at the temperature and pressure of the steam in the boiler. As the steam expands and tends to cool, the steam in the casing parts with a portion of its heat to it through the walls of the cylinder, and thus tends to keep up its pressure and temperature. By the use of the steam-jacket, a much higher ratio of expausion can be obtained than without it. ( 155 ) The second method of attaining this object is by the use of what is known as superheated steam. Confined in a close vessel, and not in contact with water, steam can be heated to a temperature indefinitely higher than that due to its pressure. Steam thus heated is called surcharged or superheated steam. It is evident that a quantity of steam thus surcharged with heat when allowed to expand in a cylinder, contains such a quantity of surplus heat as to maintain the expanding steam at something like the temperature and pressure it would have if it were an incondensible gas. And thus great benefit was obtained and to a certain extent is still obtained by the use of the superheater. It was in fact rare to see a marine engine v.-ithout one, and that it did not come so much into use in the larger class of land engines is difficult to account for. But in these later days of very high pressures the superheater has fallen somewhat into disuse for a very simple and unfortunate reason : The very high temperature of steam at the high pressures common now-a-days, increased by superheating the steam, burns up and destroys any oil or other lubricating substance with which we are as yet acquainted, and in consequence the piston, slide-valve, inside of cylinder and valve-face, also expansion -valve if any, being deprived of a lubricant, get cut up and rapidly destroyed by friction. Also, the carbonised oil aided by heat unites with the iron of these parts, and destroys it by forming a carburet of iron, a substance chemically identical with black lead. I have found parts of the cylinder near the steam ports, and also the edges of the steam ports in the valve-face, so softened by conversion into this substance that I could pare the quondom iron with a penknife, or even scrape it with my nail. But should any one discover a lubricating substance which would stand a heat of from 400° to 500° Fahr. without carbonising, we should again be enabled to use surcharged steam to the same extent as formerly, with great economical benefit. But notwithstanding all these useful improvements, all tending to lessen the condensation of steam in the cylinder, there was still a loss from this cause, especially when high rations of expansion were used. For this reason the cy- linder, although jacketed, cannot pass the heat through its interior jacket, owing to its thickness, so rapidly as to keep the interior of the cylinder up to the same temperature as the steam entering the cyliuder. And as, when using high ratios of expansion, the difference of temperature between the steam on en- tering and when leaving the cylinder is very great, so it is evident that the cylinder must be at a temperature somewhere between the two, and that the greater the ratio of expansion the greater will be the difference between the initial temperature of the steam and the temperature of the cylinder. And steam rushing into a cylinder of lower temperature than itself, becomes partly condensed. To obviate this as much as possible the compound engine was designed. In this engine the steam is expanded in two cylinders. In is first used in a small cylinder at a higher pressure, where it is expanded in the usual way, and then allowed to pass into a larger cylinder, where it is finally expanded as low as possible. By this means, although the steam is ex- panded just as much or more than in any engine of the old type, there is not nearly so much loss of heat from diff'erence of temperature, as the cylinders are not cooled nearly so much in proportion to the initial tem- peratures of the steam entering them, the expansion being as it were divi- ded over two steps. The reason why one cylinder is made larger than the other is in order that the total pressure on the two pistons may be equalised, and as the steam in the second cylinder is at a lower pressure than in the first, it requires a larger piston-area to do this. One great advantage of both the ordinary condensing ens^ine and also the compound type is that they are so constructed that most non-condensing en- ( 15G ) gines can be converted into either. It is not difficult to add a small conden- ser and air pump to most garden-engines, nor would it be difficult in many cases to alter them into compound engines. Should your machinery be too much for the engine, it would be well to consult a competent engineer as to whether this could be done or not. Sometimes, through weakness of parts of the engine, or through insufficient steam-pressure in the boiler, or perhaps through some peculiarity in the construction of the engine, it might be diffi- cult or impossible to convert it into a compound engine, but these difficulties would rarely arise in the case of an attempt to convert an engine into an ordinary condensing one. It is no unusual thing to convert an engine of the ordinary type into a compound engine. The writer has superintended this operation in several large marine engines, where one of the cylinders has been removed, and a smaller high pressure cylinder introduced. Several of the British India Company's steamers, in which Company the writer was formerly chief engineer, were thus converted, and Captain Scott has done the same with several of the steamers of the Company of which he is secretary. I would therefore advise planters, in adding new machinery to their plant, to find out whether it could not bo converted by one or other of the methods described above into a more powerful engine. I think I have now said all I can venture to say to a non-profession.il reader about the Steam-engine in repair. In the next Chapter we will look at it out of repair, and consider the necessary preventives and remedies. Chapter V. — On Rbpaies to Steam Engines. If a Steam-engine, new from the makers' hands, were to be allowed to remain in a merchant's godovvn without being worked, a certain amount of decay would take place. Or were an engine worked for a time and then allow- ed to remain at rest for some months, some decay would take place while the eno-ine was standing stiU. Damp air is a great producer of rust, and unless all parts of the engine liable to be affected by rust were protected by one or other of the compositions in use for the purpose, corrosion by rust would assuredly take place. And as is the case in the boiler, the most obscure parts are these which suffer first. Of course we see our slide-rod getting rusty, and our piston-rod and connecting-rod, in fact all polished iron about the engine following suit. These are visible, and we put a man on to scour the rust oil them. But the more important inside of the cylinder, piston, slide-valve, valve-face, &c., are forgotten, simply because they are not seen. At the close of the season the planter ought to remove his cylinder cover and valve-casing cover. The latter is the plate which screws on to the back of the slide-valve casing, except in the Robey aud one or two other engines, where it is very improperly placed at the end of the casing, — a cheap and nasty method which is to be condemned for several important reasons. On removing them he ought to disconnect his piston and piston-rod. He ought also to disconnect the slide-valve from the eccentric rod and from its spindle, and remove the valve and spindle. If the engine is to be laid up merely from the end of the season till the beginning of the next, he should make a mixture of half tallow and half white-lead and apply it to all parts lia- ble to rust ; the inside of cylinder, the valve-face, the cylinder cover if polish- ed, the piston-rod, connecting-rod, crank, shaft, and every other part liable to rust. The mixture should be applied hot. ( 157 ) If he takes a little further trouble, and disconnects his shaft and takes it out, as also all other working parts where iron is in contact with brass, he will remove another cause of corrosion. A galvanic action takes place between the metals, aided by the fatty acids in the oil, and sumetimes serious corrosion takes place. In the Navy, where some of their men-of-war are laid up for months, and even years, they have a crude method of partly reducing the effects of this : they keep one junior engineer on board each vessel with one watch of stokers, whose duty it is to turn the engine partly round every day, so that the parts will corrode equally. But it is not a long job in a small engine to disconnect them altogether, and this is by far the best plan. So you see that even when an engine is laid up, harm will come to it if not attended to. If the machinery is to be laid up for an unknown time, as when it is replaced by newer or more powerful machinery, and put aside to be sold, all the above Ijright parts should be painted with two or three coats of thin red lead paint laid on hot, instead of the white lead and tallow mixture. But it is when an engine is running that the wear and tear takes place, and the risk exists of breaking down. If an engine works 27 days per month, 10 hours a day, and runs at the rate of 100 revolutions in a minute, you will find that in the month it has made 1,H20,000 revolutions. It is quite evident that some wear must take place when two surfaces are rubbed against each other such a number of times ; and this is only for one month's work. Multiply this, again, by the number of months in the tea season, and see the enormous sum it comes to. The only wonder is that the wear and tear is not much more than it is. But of two engines similarly constructed and doing the same amount of work, one will be found at the end of the season to have worn more, and to be in generally worse order than the other. This points to the neglect of some precautionary measures by the adoption of which this extra wear and tear might have been prevented. There can be no doubt that bad oil has a good deal to do with this. After a good number of years' experience in machinery the writer has come to the conclusion that there is no oil equal to castor oil for heavy machinery. It is used for all parts of the heaviest marine and stationary engines except the cylinders and slide-valves, where mineral oil is used, as it does not so readily carbonise as castor or other vegetable or animal oils. But for oiling the bear- ings of a steam-engine, or even for use in the cylinder of a small engine, cas- tor oil is far superior to any other ; and since the opening of the Suez Canal its use is spreading very much even in Great Britain. But the ordinary oazar castor oil is often full of grit and other impurities which tend to wear down the working parts of the machinery ; and when one considers the mil- lions of times that an engine revolves during the tea season, the importance will at once be seen of keeping the lubricants as free as possible from grit or dust or any foreign substance which can have a grinding effect. Therefore all oil or other substance, such as tallow or melted suet, used for lubricating machinery, should be strained before use through the finest wire gauze procurable. Dust flying about the engine-room is a still worse cause of destruction. Therefore, the engine-room ought to be separated from other parts of the building by a wall, or wooden partition carefully put together, so as to be dust proof. And in doing this it ought to be carefully separated from the boiler. When the boiler fire is being cleaned or removed, clouds of very gritty dust fly about, and portions of this, settling on the engine and finding their way into the corners and crevices about it, into the oilcups and bearings and small oil-holes in the smaller parts of the machinery, form a deposit ready to begin its destructive grinding work when the engine starts in the ( 158 ) morning. A good deal of dust is brought in with the tea leaf, — dust blo-wn on to the bushes on a dry day ; and lots of this also finds it way into the engine-room. Just prove this for yourself in a very simple manner. Go into your engine-house and pick up the tin oil-feeder used for oiling your engine. Unless you have an exceptionally elean engine-man, you will find it pretty well covered with a mixture of coal-dust, ashes, sand, &c , and every object in the neighbourhood of the boiler will be just the same. Lay a small clean piece of plank anywhere in the engine-room in the morning, and examine it at knocking-off time. Just see how much dust and grit has collected on it. Surround your engine with a dust-proof wall or partition, reaching right up to the roof, leaving only an aperture for the driving-belt to pass through, and leading your steam, exhaust, and feed pipes through the partition, so as that the whole arrangement will be as nearly as possible dust proof, and repeat the experiment with the plank. You will see scarcely any dust on it after a day's work, and you will find a remarkable difference in your bills for repairs to machinery at the end of the season, as your bearings will not have worn down much, and the engineer may perhaps not need to touch them. Your engine will run a much longer time before having the very disagreeable knocking or thumping noise caused by slack bearings. When an engine has been badly fitted by the makers, when the working parts are not well adjusteil to each other, it is evident that at first a good deal of wear and tear will take place, and sometimes serious and irremedi- able consequences may take plac(^ through the bad fitting of parts. I will endeavour to give a simple illustration. Suppose the bearing-brasses in which the crank-shaft runs have not been set exactly in line,^that, say, the inner end of one of the lower brasses is very slightly lower than it should be. It is evident that the shaft, having been turned in a lathe, and being therefore presumably perfectly straight and round in its journals, will rest on the outer end of the lower brass, which will have to sustain the whole weight of that end of the shaft plus perhaps the weight of the fly-wheel, and all the strain thrown on the bearing l)y the working of the Engine. This weight and strain, instead of being distributed over the whole bearing, is confined to one end of it : instead of having many square inches of bearing surface, the crank-shaft at that end has only a few, and a difference in the proper adjustment of the brass of less than the thickness of the paper on which this is printed would be sufficient to cause the mischievous consequences I am about to describe. The iron jour- nal on the shaft not having sufficient bearing surface to rest on, soon, by the friction of its working, heats the Ijrass in which it runs, and becomes hot itself. As the brass heats, it expands, and gi'ips the iron journal tighter. This of course increases the friction, and the Engine labours away nntil, all the oil in the bearing being consumed, the brass becomes red-hot and partial- ly melts, while the iron journal itself becomes deeply scored all round, leavino- marks which can never be got out without putting it in the lathe, and re- ducing its diameter considerably. Contrast this with the well-fitted machine : the parts have been well ad- justed, — friction is consequently equally distributed. In course of time, in a couple or three months' working, the surfaces of the brass and iron have been toughened and hardened instead of destroyed by the constant rubbino-, and a " skin is formed," to use the technical term, on both the brass and iron, much harder and tougher than the body of either metal, and which offers a great re- sistance to wear and tear. Once this skin forms on the metals, with clean oil and guarded from dust, the Engine ought to run perhaps two seasons with- out the brasses becoming so slack as to cause very much knocking or thump- ing. ( 150 ) But bad adjustment is not the only cause of hot bearings. Dirty oil, dirt or grit getting in, or the neglect of the engineinan to keep up a proper sup- ply of oil, also sometimes the brass being tightened up too tight, are very com- mons causes of the same thing. I have seen more than onco an enormous marine engine brought dead up to a stand-still through one of the bearings fetting hot ; the friction actually becoming so great as to stop the engine, his occurs through the neglect of the man whose duty it is to oil the engine, and through the neglect of the engineer on watch not seeing that the 'gTeaser', as the oil-man is called, does his duty. Then is to be seen and heard in the en- gine-room no end of a row. The chief engineer silent but sulky, the second ditto, giving loud orders (he is the working head of the department) accompani- ed probably by a considerable amount of unparliamentary language ; and the engineer whose watch it is, working hard to repair his error, looking very sheepish all the time. Meanwhile the work is going on, however ; the trained firemen, under their engineer's directions, know exactly what to do ; and without any noise or talldng, except the second engineer swearing, buckets of hot water are brought from the boiler, and poured on the blazing-hot bearing crank-pin, very probably : it oftenest gets hot. As soon as the hot brasses, &c., • have been cooled down to about the temperature of the boiling water, or as soon as the water ceases to fizz when thrown on, cold water is supplied by a hose kept for such an emergency, until the hot parts are cooled down to their nor- mal temperature. The reason hot water is first supplied is, that if cold water were suddenly dashed on, it might cause injury by the too sudden contraction; a brass might crack, or even the journal itself, or the frame of the engine might give way wholly or partially. As soon as the parts have been cooled down, the brass is slightly slackened back, and the b(?arint!; supplied with a mixture of oil and sulphur. The reason sulphur is supplied is as follows : the brass and bearing have probably been partially destroyed, and their surface roughened by the heating and friction. Of course these two rough surfaces rubbing against each other cause abnormal friction and heat. Now, the capa- city for heat of sulphur is very great, and consequently it takes a great deal of this extra heat. It is therefore often supjilied with oil when the bearing is threatening to become hot, and when it is not desirable to stop. Now, the above course, as adopted for large Engines, is precisely what should be adopted for small ones. First, when a bearing is becoming or has become hot, stop the engine if it has not stopped itself, cool the parts first with hot and then with cold water, slack off the brass, and start again, using a mix- ture of oil and sulphur. At the earliest opportunity take out the shaft, or whatever may have been hot, and file the journal smooth with a smooth file ; also file the inside of the brass with a half-round smooth file. The journal and brass must be filed so that the file-marks will be round the shaft, that is, in the direction in which it revolves. If the shaft is very deeply scored, it should be sent to a workshop at the end of the season to be turned smooth. As this will make its diameter somewhat less, the old brasses will be useless, and therefore they ought to be sent to the workshop to have a new set made, off them. On the return of the shaft and brasses from the workshop, the latter will have to be carefully fitted in their places, and the shaft bedded down into them. This can only be done properly by a vei-y skilful mechanic. No native or Eurasian fitter should be trusted with it, as these gentry are in the habit of performing what little work they can do about Engines in a very perfunctory manner, 'the Eurasian or country-bred European fitter being in this respect not a whit better than a native. The late Lieutenant-Governor got a hobby in his head, and founded that Training-school at the Bishop's College, Seebpore, for Civil and Mechanical Engineers. The boys there, especially in the mechanical en- w ( 160 ) gineerino' department, will learn just as much, or less, than they do in private workshops in India. In an engineering workshop at home, whether the ap- prentice has paid, as in some instances, a heavy premium, or been admitted free, he is subjected to the same rigid discipline. Strict silence at work, a certain amount of work expected, and a stem rebuke if both the quantity and quality of the work is not up to the mark, is the custom there. Besides, the minimum apprenticeship is five years in the workshop. The lads in the shops at home are imbued with an honorable spirit of competition, and strive to do their work well and quickly, so as to meet with the approbation of their foremen. Here, taught by native example, the Eurasian lads strive to do as little as possible. They often, after being two or three years, only, in the workshops, obtain situations as junior so-called engineers in some of the inland steamers. AVe won't have them in seagoing steamers, as we find them useless. The de- plorable consequences of employing such men are sometimes to be seen, as in an accident to the " Bengal," by which five men lost their lives. The so- called engineer, Pierrio, i'^ now in jail for the consequences of his ignorance, (not carelessness as the judge seemed to think j, and this is the second serious accident which has occurred on board the same steamer through the gross igno- rance of a country-bred soi-dhant engineer. I therefore warn you on no ac- count to let one of these people touch your machinery, unless under the eye of a competent European mechanic. How many instances have I known where irreparable injury has been done to machinery by men of the above country- trained class. If Sir Ashley Eden had known the facts of the case, he would have spent the money wasted on the Seebpore Training School in a School for teaching village blacksmiths and carpenters. A Bengalee, and Oorya, or better still Madrassee, makes a capital blacksmith or carpenter when properly taught. You ought to see some of the mechanics in the Madras Sappers. Just fancy what a comfort it would be if you could get the numerous blacksmith and c.u'penter jobs needing doing in a Tea-garden, done neatly and well by men from your neighbouring villages. ^Ve now come to the bearings in which the journals have a revolving motion : and the first of these is the crank-pin. All these brasses, crank-pin, and shaft brasses, wear in two ways: first, larger in internal diameter ; and second, the ends wear a little, allowing sideways-play to the shaft. When the crank- pin brass begins to get worn slack, it soon makes you acquainted with the i.ict by knocking at each end of the stroke : in fact, every slack brass knocks, but the crank-pin brass more tl;an any. A slack brass should be removed, and the edges very carefully filed until the two halves of the brass are sufficiently close together to prevent knocking, and yet not so close as, when screwed up, to press tightly upon the pin so as to cause heating. Now, to do this properly it requires a mechanic, and unless I know the man well, I never trust a native fitter to do it. Care should be taken that when the brasses are being filed, they be from time to time applied to a face-plate, so as to keep the two edges " out of twist" as it is called, — that is, in the same plane. Also, the two should be put together from time to time and measured with a pair of callipers, to see that the diameters at the inside of each end are alike. Sometimes brass- es are not made so that the edges come close together : the edges are left A or \ of an inch apart ; but to prevent the brass from being screwed too tight on the journal, wooden liners are put in between the cover of the bearing and the block in which the brasses are fitted. When it is required to tighten up the brasses, a little is planed or filed off the wooden liners. In other brasses, again, fand this is the usual plan in large engines) a brass liner called a " distance- piece" is interposed between the edges of the brasses, and when they are to bo tightened, these are taken out and filed instead of the brasses, which thus never ( 101 ) reqiiire touching. The above remarks apply to all brasses, either about an engine, a machine, or a line of shafting in which anything revolves. The neck-bushes of pumps as well as their glands often wear down. Some- times there is no neck-bush, but the pump is bored out to the size. In this case the pump may be bored out larger, and a neck-bus h fitted ; but if the pump be a small one, it is perhaps better to get a new pump at once. When the gland is much worn, if a small one, a new gland will be required ; but if large, it is generally lined with a bush, which can be renewed. If not, it may, if thick enough, be bored out, and a bush fitted. Pump-plungers frequently wear down, causing great leakage at the glands, — so much so that sometimes the engine cannot pump sufficient feed-water into the boiler. There is no remedy for this but a new plunger. The same remarks are applicable to the slide and expansion-valve spin- dles. They get worn down when they come in contact with their glands, and neck-brasses require to be renewed ; but this wear and tear may be lessened to a very great extent in them by having them case-hardened. The valves of the feed-pumps are generally of the kind called conical or mushroom-valves< They are called conical because the narrow edge which fits water-tight on the seat is a very short truncated cone ; but the term mushroom-valve very much more nearly describes the shape of a valve of this description. After long working, these valves become uneven and leaky. The seat also becomes worn uneven, — perhaps slightly oval. By the aid of the file and scraper a skilful mechanic will be able to get the seat and valve nearly round, trying them from time to time with narrow chalk-marks made across the edge, turning the valve round a few times in its seat, then re-marking where the chalk-marks are off, both in the seat and on the valve. These are the high points, and are to be filed on the valve, and scraped with a steel scraper in the seat, if a file cannot be applied. When the chalk-marks rub off evenly all round in both valve and seat, you proceed to grind them as follows : take some verj^ fine clean sharp sand or very finely-powdered glass, or in the absence of both, a little bath- brick, and mixing it with water apply it to the valve-seat, and seizing the valve with a pair of tongs keep turning it round in the seat, lifting it up from time to time to let the sand and water get in ; thus grind it, water and air-tight, into its seat. A familiar example of the effect of this sand-grinding process may be seen in the glass stoppers of bottles, which are thus ground tight. If, how- ever, the valve and seat are very bad, nothing can be done but send them to a workshop to be done up in the lathe. The above remarks all apply to cocks, which are made tight in the same way, and if too bad to be filed or scraped and ground true, have to be put in the lathe. The shell of the cock, if much is taken out of it to bring it true, will become so large that a new plug will require to be made for it. If the feed or other pump-valves are what are called ball-valves, as is the case in Messrs. Ransome's engines, they cannot be filed up true, but must be turned in the lathe in precisely the same manner as a billiard-ball. I will describe the process, as it may interest some of your billiard-plajnng readers. The latter is fitted with a wooden chuck, having a recess in the centre, lined with leather, and hemispherical,— rather deeper than half the diameter of the ball. The ball fits pretty tightly into this, and is from time to time shifted round, so as to expose a new surface or portion of the surface to be operated on. The tool, for there is only one, is a portion of a steel pipe somewhat smaller inside than the diameter of the ball. The edges are filed away to a level from the outside, and sharpened on an oilstone, so as to make the inside edge a sharp circular cutting edge. The tool is used without a rest, being firmly grasped by both hands, and moved in all directions over the surface of the ball, which is from time to time shifted round in its leathern seat so as to ( 1C2 ) .bring all parts equally in contact with the tool.. The ball is thus, by the cir- cular tool, soon brought to a perfect sphere. The seat for the ball-valve being •similar to that for the conical valve, is to be treated in the same way. Unless an engine has been carefully put down at first, it is liable in course of time to work slack on its seat, and no amount of tightening up of foundation- bolts will keep it from moving somewhat, as it works. The foundation may also sink a little on one side more than the other. Should either of these contingencies occur, the services of a competent engineer should be applied for at once. He may be able- to suggest some means for temporarily putting the engine to rights, or he will tell you at once whether the movement or the loss of level is so great as to cause any apprehension of breakdown. The earliest opportunity should be taken to take the engine down, and replace the defective foundation by "a proper one. There is no foundation like good hewn stone or artificial stone ; next to them, good straight well-burned bricks and good mortar, — one-half strong slow-setting lime to one-half fresh soorkey : to this add about a quarter of the whole of good sharp well-washed river (not .s(\i.) sand. Use your mortar quickly : as you u.^e it, mix it. Use no stale mortar. Steep your bricks well before using them. Lay the mortar as thinly as possible between the bricks. Never allow on any account your enginemento do any jobs about the en- gine. AH he has to do with the engine is to start it, stop it, oil it when work- ino-, keep it clean, and pack his stufling-boxes when required. Never allow them to tovJili a file. They very often pretend to be fitters, and attempt work which, although you may not perceive it, they completely botch, laying the seeds of breakdowns and all manner of trouble. Remember that there are no Mahomedan fitters in Bengal, or very very few. If anything goes wrong with your engine or machinery, don't try to remedy it yourself unless it is something simple ; don't let your engineman nor your amateur engineer-friend touch it, but send for the nearest engineer. It is better to be sure than sorry. As I mentioned (Jondensing-engines, and as it is possible that ere long we may see them on Toa-gardi-ns, and where small machinery is required, it is necessary to mention the few additional repairs they take. The valves or the air-pump bucket, and of what are called the foot and discharge valves, are mostly made of India-rubber. India-rubber, like everything else, does not last for ever, and the valves require to be taken out from time to time, and renewed. The pumps are sometimes made with one large valve for each of the above, and sometimes several small ones. These, as well as their seats, become coated with a greasy black substance, which is in fact partly carbonised oil from the cylinder, and this, by preventing the valves from shutting quite airtight, impairs their efficiency, and the vacuum falls. The valves must therefore be removed from time to time, and this dirt removed. The air-pump bucket resembles a piston, but instead of metallic packing it is generally made tight by twisting very accurately and tightly round it, in a recess made for the purpose, a few turns of hard white Blanilla rope. As the rope is twisted into its place, it is beaten well down with a stick and hammer. The rope has previously been well soaked in hot tallow. This rope will run for months, but of course will from time to time require renewal. I think I have now said all I can say about the repairs required to small engines. Most of these can only be done by a mechanic, but a deal of good will be done by adopting the precautions alluded to above regarding clean oil and the prevention of dust, and by selecting a tidy, clean, engineman. For fin engine of eight or ten horses' power one man should be sufficient to fire the boiler and attend to the engine. Above this power, he might be assisted by a boy. ( 163 ) ('HAPTteR IV, — Summary and Conclusion. The resider will perceive from the previous Articles that it is in the power bf the non-professional steam-nser to greatly extend the time during which his Machinery will last, and greatly decrease his bills for repairs, and the risk of breakdowns or accidents, by attending to certain precautions which 1 have en- deavoured to indicate in as simple a manner as possible, and which can be ad- opted by any person who gives the matter a little study and attention, with- out occupying much of his time, and without the necessity of any previous mechanical training. Great care should be exercised in the prevention of cor- rosion in the boiler, in preventing as much as possible the deposition of scale in it, and in removing such deposits when formed. To prevent burning the boiler, or the risk of explosion, great attention should be paid to the feed-ap- paratus : so that there will be a constant and regular supply of water to the boiler. When the boiler becomes old, and parts of it are worn, then the work- ing pressure should be reduced. It is, however, for an engineer to ascertain the condition of the boiler, and what its safe working-pressure should be. It is probable that the Government will introduce compulsory inspection of steam- boilers in the Mofussil, in which case an engineer-surveyor would, from time to time, inspect the machinery in Tea and Indigo factories, and grant certificates permitting the owner to use a certain pressure of steam. Such a Law is at present in force in Calcutta and Bombay, and has recently been extended to the Mofussil near Calcutta. Fortunately, explosions of steam-boilers have as A'et been very rare in India. This is difficult to account for, as the native fireman or engineman is not too careful. I have given ample instructions as to the care and management of the Steam-engine, as far as this can be done without a mechanic. Cleanliness about the machinery is of great importance to its preservation, and attention should be paid to my remarks on this subject; and it should be remembered that a " stitch in time saves nine :" this proverb is nowhere more applicable than to the Steam-engine. As soon as any slackness or knocking be perceived, a mechanic should be sent for at once, and he may probably put to rights something which, if allowed to go on without repair, would result in a breakdown. The machinery should be all carefully overhauled in the cold season by an experienced mechanic, and these repairs should be done as early after the season closes as possible, so that the mechanic or engineer may have as much time to give to the work as possible. The same remark applies to machinery got out from home. It is too often late of arriving, and turns up when all the available mechanical engineers in the district have their time fully occupied, so that the season has sometimes becun a month or two before the machinery can be put up. Regarding the machinery in use for the preparation of Tea or Indigo, the same remarks that I made about the care of the Steam-engine apply to it. Brasses will wear and get slack, and other working parts require touching up and repairing, just as in the engine. It is no part of the object of these Papers to enter into detailed descriptions of the different machines used. My desire is simply to give a few Instructions as to the care and management of Steam Machinery. Attention should be paid to my remarks regarding the use of condensing engines, and also of the condensing or non-condensing com- pound engine. Fuel is getting scarcer and dearer every day, and timber-land less easily procured from Government than formerly. It behoves every plan- ter, therefore, to pay great attention to the means of economising fuel. Water-power is available in some districts, and should be used if possible. The first cost of macliinery in this case is the only cost. The form of water- motor which I invariably recommend is the Turbine. It is cheaper, more com- pact, and does more work for the quantity of water used, than any otlier motor. ( 164 ) Unfortunately, the water has sometimes to be brought from a great distanca in pipes or wooden troughs, and makes the first cost mount up considerably. When first the plans are under consideration for the position of the Factory, attention should be paid to this, so that when the time comes for the machinery to be erected, it may be close to the water-supply. A great head of water is not required for a Turbine, but it must be remembered that the less the height of fall of the water, the greater will be the quantity required for a certain power, and a larger Turbine will be necessary. I mentioned, when speaking of Compound Engines, that Capt. Scott of Calcutta had patented one, and also a very meritorious Boiler, which I can highly recommend to steam-users whose supply of feed-water for the boiler is muddy. Full particulars regarding both engines and boilers can be had from Messrs. John King & Co., Victoria Iron Works, Howrah, who make them. The boiler has a mud-receiver underneath it, into which the mud settles, and as this receiver is not exposed to the action of the fire, the danger of burning the boiler, through thick deposits of mud, is obviated. Amongst the many excellent styles of engines and boilers imported from England, I must give the palm to the C-class Engine and Locomotive Boiler of Messrs. Marshall, of Gainsboro. One of the principal things which recom- mends this engine is, that the governor works direct on the separate expansion- valve, and not on a throttle-valve, as in all or at least most other small-class engines. This enables the piston to have the full initial pressure of the steam, and thus to derive the fullest benefit from its expansion. Messrs. Balmer, Lawrie, of Calcutta, are the agents for these Engines. I now bring this series of Articles on the care and management of Steam Machinery to a close. It has been my study in writing these Papers to remem- ber that I was not writing for an engineer, and therefore to put my explana- tions in a form which would be readily understood by men of education, as the class of gentlemen who are in charge of Tea-factories, are. I hope I have succeeded in this, and that these Papers may have the effect of enabling your subscribers to have a better idea of what Steam Machinery and its requirements are. C. B. F. SECTION XVII. TEA MANUFACTURING MACHINERY. Machinery : its General Principles. Green-leaf Cutting Machine. Drying Machines. Rolling Machines. Sorting and Winnowing Machines. &c. &c. &c. ( 167 ) MACHINERY : ITS GENERAL PRINCIPLES, &c.* One of the reasons, probably, which delayed for so long the introduction of Machinery on Tea Gardens was the expense, or supposed expense, of skilled supervision ; and where this took the form of a highly paid European engineer, no doubt there was good ground for the objection. We believe, however, that, except upon some few very large Gardens possessing a considerable am- ount of machinery, a native stoker or little better does duty as engineer ; and if anything goes wrong, the Factory has to rely upon the services of some prac- tical man in the district whose business it may be to make the round, profession- ally, of the different Gardens employing machinery. Under such circumstances it is somewhat surprising that managers do not cultivate more a knowledge of elementary engineering and mechanical construction, such as might enable them to supervise eflftciently the plant which is now more or less contained in almost every large Factory. Of course it is not to be supposed that every tea- planter should qualify for an engineer, but we mean that he might easily ac- quire sufficient knowledge to keep his engine and gear in good order, and to be able to direct the remedy of any trifling defect ; for with machinery, nothing is too trifling sometimes to set all out of order, and a piece of grit in the wrong place may stop an engine as even the breakiuij of a crank. We propose now to glance at some of the leading principles which regulate the invention and construction of Machinery. The powers, then, employed to give motionj through machinery, to any object may generally be considered as " pressure." In the employment of any machine, a certain portion of the power is expeiuled in overcoming the iner- tia and friction of the materials, and that which remains is the only efficient force by which the useful effect is to be obtained. The loss of power from inertia is doubled when a reciprocating motion exists in the same machine ; for a momentary state of rest takes place between every two contrary directions of the movement, and immediately afterwards a new inertia has to be overcome. The retarding forces above mentioned are evidently greater as the quantity of machinery in an engine is augmented ; and hence every machine should be as simple as possible consistently with the requisite relation between the mo^dng power and the opposing resistance. In the construction of Machinery it is evident that all abrupt variations of velocity should be prevented, on account of the irregularity which they in- duce in the action. When, for example, one wheel drives another by means of the teeth on their circumference, the pressure of the teeth takes place wholly on one side of the latter, and the movement may be steady if the teeth are well formed ; but on a sudden diminution of the velocity of the driving-wheel, that which is driven, continuing for a time to move with its actual velocity, tends further to retard the movement of the other, and the pressure of the teeth ao-ainst each other takes place on the opposite side. Thus a shaking-motion is Written expitooly tot tho Tea fttccUc by C. B. t'Eitcus, Muchauicjl Eub'iueer, ic. X ( 168 ) produced, which diminishes the efficacy of the machine. The disadvantage atte nding such variations in the movement of the machinery renders it advis- able to gain the required effect by continued pressure,.if possible, rather than by the employment of percussive forces. It is also a maxim assented to by engineers, that the impelled point of a •machine should not be allowed to move with a greater velocity than that with which the motive power can act upon it ; since in this case the excess of velo- city in the machine will be employed in accelerating the motion of the povver, and thus the general acceleration of the machine will suffer a corresponding diminution. The velocities of the impelled and working points should there- fore be properly adjusted to the pressures, the inertia, and the friction, in order that all possible advantage may be derived from the machine. The motion in machines may be of two kinds. On the application of force to a machine previously at rest, a certain movement is induced, and this move- ment for a time is acoelerative ; but in some machines, after a while the resist- ing power and the friction of the materials destroy the acceleration, when, un- less the machine is subject to variations of force, as is the case with those which are impelled by the wind, or by the force of men or animals, th<3 move- ment will become uniform. On the other hand, there are machines which are acted on by a constantly accelerative power, as when a weight at one end of a rope passing over a wheel descends from an elevated place, and raises a weight attached to the other extremit3\ From the endless modifications of Machinery it must evidently be im- possible here to notice all their component p arts ; but a few general observa- tions upon wheels, shafts and spindles, cranks and eccentrics, drums and band- wheels, clutches and coupling-gearing, may suffice to call attention to some of the leading principles connected with the composition of Machinery. Wheelwork, whereby the power is transmitted by means of teeth working into one another, is usually known under the name of gearing, but it may per- haps be worth while to add that wheels are technically subdivided into ttsethedj trundle, pin, crown, annular, and bevilled wheels, a'-cording to the shape, or the position, of the p.ats gearing, or working, into one another. Sometimes also, a pinion may be made to revolve in, or upon, a straight piece of o-earino- for the purpose of changing a continuous rotary to a horizontal motion, or vice versa ; or, again, the wheels may be susceptible of motion in alternate directions, or they may be intended only to revolve in one, in which case they either are made of such a form as themselves to act as ratchet-wheels, or they are prevented from turning in the wrong direction by such a i.,,.itrivance. In gome cases, also, motion is given by the mere friction of the peripheries of the wheels upon one another ; but evidently this can only be accomplished in very small machinery, or where the force to be transmitted is small. Spindles, or shafts, are the axes upon which the various wheels are fixed and the initial motion is distributed as may bo desired. They may be of ( 169 ) Wood, ot of metal ; and if of the latter class of materials, either solid or hol- low, square, hexagonal, or circular, as may be desired ; the object to be aimed at beingj in all cases, to make the shaft as light as possible consistently with the requisite degree of strength, and to reduce the dimension of the bearings to the minimum in order to diminish the friction. When shafts are made to revolve on a vertical axis, they turn on a pivot, or gudgeon ; when horizon- tal shafts of great length are used, they turn in plummer-blocks, or carriages. As it has been found, practically, that two loaded surfaces work upon one an- other with the greatest amount of friction when they are of the same material, it is usual to make the bushes or steps in which the shafts or gudgeons work of a different material to those parts of the machinery themselves ; or in fact to make iron work on brass or gun-metal, wood upon iron, &c. Cranks and eccentrics are the contrivances by means of which, in addition to wheels, the direction, or the nature, of the initial motion of a machine is transmitted to the work ; or in other words, by means of which circular and rectilineal motion are reciprocally converted, or uniform velocity is changed into a variable one. The bell-orank lever is the best illustration of the parts of machinery for transmitting a rectilineal motion in one direction to a shaft working in another direction ; and according as the other end of that shaft may be attached to a crank working on a fixed axle around which it may re- volve freely, or be attached to a part of the machine susceptible only of recti- lineal motion,- it will be able to convert the original rectilineal motion into ano- ther one of the same description, or into a curvilinear motion. The rack-and- pinion have been already cited as an illustration of the means of converting cir- cular into rectilineal , motion ; and the common bow-drill may be cited as an ordinarily-adopted method of converting alternate rectilineal motion into alternate circular motion. Eccentric wheels are, however, the most generally- adopted means of converting curvilinear into rectilinear motion, and they may be either formed of circular wheels keyed upon shafts, whose axes do not pass through the centre of the former ; or they may be what are called heart-shaped eccentrics ; or they may communicate movement by pins working in slots. The cam is a contrivance frequently used for the purpose of converting conti- nuous circular motion into an alternate vertical one, and this is effected in the case of tilt-hammers by means of a series of eccentrics able to lift a lever, fixed at one end, in a gradual manner through a path corresponding to the highest point of the cam itself, after attaining which, the lever is suddenly re- leased, and of course falls. Varying rectilinear motion may be produced by modification in the shape of the cam in any way which may be required ; and there are countless modifications of the traverses of machinery, whereby con- tinued alternate motion is obtained from wheels or axles revolving in a circle. A reversing motion may be obtained by the use of a sliding-bnsh working in a groove ; and in the numerous tool-making machines of Mr. Whitworth, every ( no ) description of change of motion, from circular to horizontal, may be observed. The crank is, it may added, the most important element of Machinery, for the purpose of converting an alternate vertical, or horizontal, motion round a fixed centre, into a circular motion ; and the parallel rods, so universally applied to connect the piston-head to the balance-beams of steam-engines, may be cited as amongst the most important combinations for the conversion of alternate ver- tical motion into a partial alternate circular motion round a fixed axis. Drums and band-wheels are contrivances by means of which motion is communicated from one shaft, revolving on its axis, to another able also to re- volve in a parallel diiection, and either in the same or in opposite directions, through the interposition of straps of leather, gutta-percha, or elastic web. The advantage of this method of transmitting power is, that directly the resis- tance to be overcome exceeds the adhesion of the strap upon the band-wheel, the former slips, and is unable to produce motion ; whereas when teethed wheels are used, if the resistance should be suddenly increased, there is a danger of producing a rupture, or at least a serious derangement, of the machinery. On the contrary, there is often a practical inconvenience in the use of straps, from the extension of the materials of which they are composed ; and it is not therefore customary to resort to their use in heavy or important machi" nery. When it is desired to change the direction of motion of the shafts, the bands are crossed ; and it is essential that, whenever it is possible so to do, the faces of the wheels should present slightly convex surfaces, in order to keep the bands steady. Band-wheels, equally with teethed wheels, admit of an infinite variety of velocity combinations, of which the speed-pulleys of the turning-lathe may be cited as characteristic illustrations. Among practical men, the first-motion band-wheel is usually called the drum, and the second wheel is called the pvlley ; and the pulleys, where more than one are used, may either be fixed or loose, and made to work, by means of ratchets or of clutches, in any way that may be required. Clutches, or the other varieties of loose coupling-gearing, are used for the purpose of connecting or disconnecting parts of a machine when it may be desired to start its motion at will, or to arrest the same ; whilst boxed coup- lings, or fixed connections, are used when the resjtective parts are intended to revolve continuously. The fast-and-loose pulley, the friction-clutch, and the conical friction and reversing-gear, have been introduced in order to obviate the danger wliich attends the abrupt connection of moving gear with portions of a machine in repose ; but in spite of the inconvenience arising from this cause, and of the danger of stripping the teeth of cog-wheels when suddenly connected, through the inertia of the materials themselves, it is almost con- stantly the practice to allow the follower to fall upon and to fit into the driver by means of a series of projections and recesses. Clutches or couplings should be placed as near to bearings or plummer-blocks as possible, in order to secure the greatest possible amount of rigidity in the portions of the shafts connected. ( 171 ) The following are "Notes" of the Machinery now more or less employed in Tea Factories : — GREIG'S GREEN-LEAF CUTTING MACHINE, The Green-leaf Culting-inachine is so entirely novel and successful an iden, that we feel justified in drawing very special attention to it. By its use there is no doubt that a very great saving can be yearly effected. The size of leaf being rendered equal by this machine, the after rolling becomes eqnnl in effect also. There is thus a prevention of " dust." Ceylon, we see, is adopting this machinery, and the local Paper speaks very highly of it. Messrs. Greig & Co. say of this machine, that it is intended for several purposes, and for cutting up into squares and triangular pieces the large succulent leaf of the Assam and hybrid leaf, particulnrly at the first of the flushing-season, when the leaf has grown rapidly, and is soft enough to roll up into tea. This saves an enormous amount of broken tea and dust compared to the present barbarous method. Greig's Green-leaf Machine, as exhibited in the late Calcutta Exhibition, con^ sisted of two rollers mounted in a cast-iron frame, and driven by either hand, steam, or other power. The rollers are grooved, and the edges of the square grooves fit close to each other, like scissors. The leaf is fed into the machine through a hopper, and rapidly clipped into little squares, the points of the leaves being little triangles; and as the stems are clipped, the tip is free and separated from the rest. The leaf being thus equalised and sized before being dried, can be much more easily separated, without taking the bloom off, than if the separating process took place when the tea is dry. Of course the tea will have to be sifted after being dried, but one passage through the sieves will be sufficient to separate it. No equalising or breaking machine will be needed, and no hand-breaking through the sieves ; consequently the bloom of the tea is not destroyed, and a larger portion of fine tea and a much smaller quantity of dust are obtained. Speaking of this Machine, Me. C. B. Fergus says : — Now if the theory be correct that we as a rule do not snflSciently roll our leaf, in tact simply roll it to give it the necessary twist requisite for appearance-sake, and for- get, neglect, or do not know that the strength of the liquor is improved to a very great extent by rolling to a pitch quite unusual in tea manufacture ; if it be admitted that the leaf-cells should be more broken than they usually are, and that it would be desirable to avoid this in the tip, rolling it to a less extent than the other leaf, so as not to darken it and destroy its appearance, the value of the sifting process when the leaf is half rolled will be admitted. Then as a natural sequence to this the value of a machine to cut the leaf just before being rolled will be at once seen. GREIG'S XL-ALL DRYING AND WITHERING MACHINE. This is a very compact Machine, and stands in a space of 8 ft, by 3 ft. It is di- vided into two working parts, the Machine proper and the brick-built choolah, contain^, ing the globulous pipes, the former being connected with the latter by an iron pipe thrown out from the Machine itself, in the form of an iirm. The Machine proper is stated to require no foundation, with the exception of two planks of wood sunk into the ground, to stand level upon ; and when working, is said to do so without »ny appreciable noise. The rolled leaf when ready is fed into a capacious drum, which is divided into four wire-cloth boxes, with wire-cloth doors, together with the divisions between each box, also composed of wire-cloth. The drum itself revolves slowly in an opposite direction [to that taken by the exhaust and force-fan, which latter is worked at the rate of 1,200 revolutions per minute, thus showing the great exhaus- tive power available for drawing healed air through the globulous pipes into the drum of the machine. The hot air when so drawn into the drum is caught by the fan, which in shape resembles somewhat the propeller of a steam-ship, and whirled round into and through the boxes in which is deposited the rolled leaf. The fan itself is protected from contact with the leaf by a concentric circle of No. 14- mesh wire-cloth. The ( 172 ) great principle clftimeJ in this Machine appears to be, that leaf tn motion can stand a greater degree of heat than leaf laid on motionless trays, with the result that they are enabled to use air heated to a temperature of over 600°, and the out-turu is necessarily larger. GRETG'S PATENT GLOBULOITS PIPE8, Bearing fully in mii\d that most small estates are unable to use rnachinety, on the ground of the high rate o£ original cost, Messrs. Greig & Co. have " struck oil" in making these Pipes serve for an efficient, and, at the same time, a very economic dfy- ing-stove. We will quote their own Words — " A splendid stove can be made by merely taking eight ot these Pipes, and placing them in rows, in the form of the letter X, four at each side, and building them into brickwork. By having a long grating between the legs, the heat acts directly on the Pipes, and as there is a splendid draught, any number of sections or Driers can be heated by the same fire. Wooden hot-air chambers and trays could be made by the local mistree, the same as Used in Assam over charcoal fires," ALLEN'S PATENT DRYING MACHINE. The Inventor states of this Mnchine, that it can dry one maund oE tea per Lour, or about equivalent to 4 maunds of leaf. It cannot burn the tea as in other machines, yet it thoroughly dries it, at one fill of the Machine It takes i md. tea at each fill , and every leaf of this is done in exactly the same time ; no turning over, changing of trays, or further looking after the tea, after the roll has been plnced in the Machine on the trays. Temperature can be lowered from 300" to one 100° in 2 or 3 seconds, and run np again in 5 to 7minntes. It will burn any fael. Fireplace 2^' + 3'> when kept regularly | full of firewood or coal about 6 to 8 inches thick, while Machine is drying, will suffice — '(^ md.of fuel to a raaund of tea should be ample.) The appearance and fine flavour of tea dri^d in this machine by fan beats charcoal ; no gloss is lost on the tea from shaking up and turning over, and the tea is black, with glossy appearance and good flavour. JACKSON'S NEW COMPOUND DRYER. Messrs. W. & J. Jackson's new Self-acting Tea Dryer consists of an iron f rnma ond casing about 9 feet long, 3 feet 6 inches wide, about 8 feet high, and inside this casing on a light foundation of brickwork is placed an air-heating stove of an im- proved type and construction, and over this stove is carried an inclined lead-coated iron compound concentric cylinder, which is composed of a number of cylinders fixed within each other on the same shaft, leaving an annular space between each cylinder thronghont the length. These annular spaces are again subdivided by peculiarly T- perrated carriers or racks, which carry the tea well round on the top side, and when it falls, it does not go to the bottom ot the cylinders, bnt only on to the serrated carriers on the outside of the next cylinder within it : thus, therefore, the tea-leaf is spread out over the whole area of the cylinder, and is slowly but steadily turned over, disentangled, and individually presented to the action of the heated air, ensuring a regularity in desiccation that cannot possibly be obtained from any tray-system of drying. In working the machine, the fermented leaf has simply to be fed into a hopper at the higher end, by a boy, after which it requires no more attention till it is dis- charged dry. ( 173 ) I The speed of the cylinder can be varied to bring the leaf throngh quiclfly or slow- ly, and it is estimated that tlie machine will dry four inaunds of green leaf per hour, with one maund of firewood. There is no fan whatever about the apparatus, and the cylinder can be turned by one man, when the Engine is stopped, if required. The advantages of this Self-acting Dryer, therefore, are — (i.) After the leaf is fed into the machine, it requires no more attention till it is discharged dry. {ii.) Every individual leaf is simultaneously exposed in precisely a similar man- ner to the action of the heated air, thus producing an unvaried and perfectly even- dried leaf. (in.) The tea is steadily but very slowly kept in motion, thereby dispensing with the tedious and tiring watchfulness of attendants, and the loss of heat and fuel hi- therto required in tea-drying on the tray-system. (iv.) There are no trays or woodwork about the machine whatever : it is there- fore thoroughly durable, and cannot get out of order. DAVIDSON'S SIROCCO. This Machine has recently been very considerably altered and improved, and the Inventor asks attention to the following points : — 1. The new machine, at no greater cost, turns out double the quantity the old one did. 2. The ironwork will not now burn : a coating of fire-clay tiles all round the stove, besides improvements in ribs of stove, and double metal sides with air between, all round the machine, makes it impossible. 3. The tea was apt to burn formerly, because the lowest tray was too near the fire, and because no arrangement existed for diffusing the heat equally. Only two trays are now above the stove, and the lowpst is 6 feet above it instead of 3 feet as formerly. An excellent arrangement for diffusing the currents of hot air now exists. 4. The machine being constructed on entirely new lines, the iron does not heat as it did formerly, and the tea is dried by the current of hot air alone. 5. The smoke-chimney is now attached to the bottom of the machine. It take s away none of the waste hot air ; and going out through the side wall of the factory, it has not the objections to it which the old chimney had. A Ceylon Paper thus describes in detail the nature of the improvements :— The castings of the Stove have been improved in construction very materially. The Diaphragm-plates do their work best when of thin metal, but where heat is trans- mitted to air through metal there must always be wear and teiir by scaling, but tlie new castings now hold these plates so well that they cannot buckle or part company from one another. The smoke-chimney is now at the middle of the horizontal flue, and this arrange- ment not only removes its heat from the coolie, but also does away with the smoke- bend and box, which mterfered with draught at times, and are certainly better left out. The base of the vertical air-duct is now made same width as the stove-casing, and the sides come up at an angle, forming hopper-shoots at each side under tlie two middle trays and part of each end one. Any dust falling on same gets deli- vered out at once into the receiving-pans, now carried on brackets outside the tea iron frame, and quite clear and apart from the stove-cashing, that they cannot receive much heat therefrom, and have not the remotest chance of being charred. There is a flap-door on each end of the horizontal flue, through which a brush can be intro- duced, so that occasionally :he dust that lies on the flat piece of sheeting, may be swept down the sloping hopper without interfering with the working of the trays in any way. It may however lie there without any danger of scorching, being so far off from the stoTC. The new shape of the machine also obviates the necessity for a web ( 171 ) travelling the length of the horizontal flue, as suggested by one or two Ceylon planters. The new tray? are much improved : — the slips of mahogany at each end run solid aerosB, and the handle is a dat brass stamping, over a small half-round finger-hole instead of handles let in, and dividing the cross slips. The new trays are quite rigid, and they will have iron an^lc-plates on the 4 under corners of the trays, so that they bear only on these points, and iron to iron slips along quite easily. One man can push 8 loaded trays as easily as he did 4 when bearing all along the wood slips. If this plan be not found sufficiently satisfactory, Messrs. Davidson intend to put on rollers; but they try as far as possilile to avoid anything that weakens construction in its application, whereas the things they have now added vastly increase the strength of the trays, and serve the purpose, we believe, generally as well. The question of a hopper at each end of the horizontal flue to receive dust from the trays when being turned on the projecting slides, had consideration, but tlie Patentees came to the conclusion that it was an impediment to the man working the trays, by preventing his getting; close up to the end when pushing in the trays, and thought that if the dust were allowed to fall on to a clean cloth or platform, it would sufficiently answer the requirement However, hoppers could ensily be applied to a machine if a person specially wished it. We may point out, in passing, that the dis- tribution of the hot uir under the trays is, in the new machine, more evenly and better effected by means of deflecting plates ; and also as it has only half the distance to travel to each end of the horizontal flue, and the sloping sides of the air-duct facilitate the distribution. BARRY'S NEW DRYINGr MACHINE. We paid a visit to Chowkidingi, the head-quarters of the Debroo' Combination Company's estate, on purpose to see Barry's new Drying Machine, bitely ereoteil here, at work. We think it a great success, and capalile of great things in the way of Tea-drying. A huge cylinder, in which are innumerable cells, is made to revolve slowly round a tube containing hot air, forced thereinto by means of a fan erected over a furnace. This fan is driven by the same engine that drives the Drying and Rolling Machines at work in the Factory, and revolves with great rapidity. The cylinder is slightly elevated, and the withered leaf is put in at the higher end, which falls, as the machine revolves, from one cell into another until it reaches the lower portion, from whence it drops into trays placed ready for its reception. The tea is then placed for a short time on an ordinary chula, to finish it off. The consumption of fuel is very email, two or three mauuds of coke being sufScieut for about twenty maunds of leaf. ROBERTSON'S TYPHOON. Mr. J M. Robertson, manager of the Arcnttipore Tea Company's Gardens, has invented a new Tea-drying appar.atus which he has named the Typhoon. A number of the planters of his district met at his Garden, by invitation, to test the merits of his machine. We quote the verdict recorded by them on the teas which were manufactured in their presence during the trial : — The "Typhoon'' is a simple and inexpensive eonstruotion of brick and iron, which can be erected without skilled labor. The heating material used is coke, and the quantity of coke required for a mauud of tea is stated to be one quarter of a maund. The out-turn from the " Typhoon" we found to be at the rate of one-half maund of thoroughly dried Tea per hour, and the manner in which the work was done ivas to our entire satisfaction, some of us thinking that the apparatus was capable o£ doing more. The inventor leads us to understand that the entire cost of construction and material will not be over lis. 300, and we do not see that this sum need be exceeded. ( 1'5 ) SHAND'S NEW TEA DEYER. As Uiis msicliine can be mado any length and width, the quantity of leaf whicli Can be manufactured is only limited by the extent of drying surface. One, five feet ^ide, and fifteen feet long, will admit of about forty pounds of tea being spread as thinly as on Sirocco trays, and, if heated to 150° Fahrenheit, would dry a niiuinJ per hour. The steam for heating the thin galvanized iron drying-surface is generat- ed in the space (3 inches) between it and the thin boiler-plate bottom. The machine, which is made steam-tight, is partially filled with water, and plac- ed on afire-stove. It is evident that a comparatively small quantity of fuel will gene- rate sufficient steam to heat a large surface, especially if the smoke-flue is placed un- der the whole length of the machine. BICKNELL'S SELF-ACTING TEA DRYER. This appears to be the cheapest Dryer yet introduced. Including the royalty charged by the inventor, and the cost of erection, with all the appurtenances, it is stated that a snm-total of Us. 175 will not be exceeded. The Dryer turns out SOlbs. of tea an hour. For small Gardens this Patent seems to offer a great advantage. KELSON'S ROLLING MACHINE. There is, or was (for we do not know whether any are now in use) a Roller intro- duced by Mr. Nelson, who was the first to introdnce a Machine for Rolling. Neces- sarily, since that time, great improvements have been made. In Nelson's machine, the Bag was used ; and the same principle has been subsequently adopted, with many improvements, by Grrig ; but to Mr. Nelson belongs the credit of the first initiation, we believe, of the Bag system, which has now been perfected by Grbig, JACKSON'S ROLLER. This machine will be well recollected as being the cause of a heavy law-snit, in which Mr. Kinmond sought, and successfully, to prove that the machine was an in- fringement on his Patent. In the result, parties using Jackson's Machine had to pay a royalty, we believe, to Mr. Kinmond. Subsequently an arrangement was come to between Jackson and Kinmond. The object of the Invention was to imitate as near- ly as possible the motion of hand-rolling, and it proved very successful, the peculiar motion given to the ball of leaf rendering it very effective for hard leaf. It is not necessary to enter into any detailed description of Jackson's machine, as a reference to that of Kinmond will almost suffice. Some planters, however, still prefer Jackson's Roller to Kinmond's, as they say it is more simple. There will al- ways be differences of opinion on such matters, but there is no doubt that the simpler the construction of a machine, the less liable it is to get out of order. Price has necessarily, also, much to do with the selection of any machine — especially for small factories. In this respect Greig's Roller carries off the palm. In selecting a machine, regard should, of course, be had to the extent of work it is required to perform, for it is not every Estate that can afford or requires the large and expensive machines of Jack- son and Kinmond, ( 17G )' KINMOND'S CENTRIFUGAL ROLLING MACHINE. The inventor has very wisely made small sizes of this machine, to roll as little as a maund at a time, and we do not see why he should not make them even smaller, so as to be worked by hnnd. 'I'his would meet the requirements of very small estates. Tlie inventor claims that his No. 1 size (the machine we are speaking of (cost f.o.b. £100), will roll 6| maunds of leaf per hour ; but seeing that 6 fillings and dis- cliargings have to take place, — there being space for only a little over a maund at a time— we should be inclined to put the capability down at not more than 5 maunds an hour. The motive power required to work the machine is a 2-hor3e power engine, but of course it would be well to have at least a 3-horse power engine, as there would doubtless be shifters, &c., to drive, from the shafting. The principle of the machine is centrifugal force, the leaf being thrown and re-thrown perpetually from the centra by the effect of carefully-regulated set wooden flanges on the two opposite discs. The discs revolve in the same direction, but apparently at different rates of speed, and the pressure is regulated by a delicately-threaded screw, working against a spiral spring, under the most perfect control, the action of which, in separating or drawing the discs together, can be regulated by a boy. It is as well to have two sets of springs of different streno;tli, as although the springs are guaranteed not to break, they may compress hard up before the full pressure is exerted on the leaf being rolled ; and the springs should never be hard up, although they may be »«ry near. Every part of the machine is simple, and extra strong. It is easily erected, and has a neat, compact Machine-like look about it. The driving-pulley on the Rolling-machine is 20 inches in diameter, and should be driven at a speed of 150 revolutions per minute. This causes the plates of the roll- ing macliine to have a speed of 60 revolutions per minute, which is attained with a minimum of noise (no smnll advantage). Owing to the short time in which the rolling process is completed, the leaf comes out specially green and fresh, while from its being so thoroughly shaken up and turned over and over in the process of rolling, the leaf is softened, and prevented trom being bruised or broken. ■ The machine is fed from above,,and the inside of the discs iu contact with the tea is entirely of wood. LYLE'S IMPROVED TEA ROLLER. The present machine is stronger in make than the original one, and can roll off a; larger quantity of leaf. Eight maunds of leaf can be double-rolled in an hour, or 12 maunds single-rolled in the same time. This is very rapid work, but the leaf has a good twist, and those who have used the machine say that the outturn in the cup is always of a very even colour. The machine is remarkably simple in construction, and cannot well get out of order. The pressure can be regulated at will, by a ratchet movement. This is a great desideratum, as the tendency of some machines is to smash the young leaf, or insuf- ficiently twist the hard pluckings of the finish of the Season. Although the model we were shown is for steam power, the machine can be readily fitted with a fly-wheel for hand-driving ; and as no foundation is required, its erection is simple and cheap enougli. As to working capabilities, the machine can roll 100 niaunda of leaf daily, and no hand finishing is said to be required. ( 177 ) THOMPSON'S CHALLENGE ROLLER. The cry is " Still they come." Mr. Thompson has invented a new Roller, The special features of the " Challenge." are ; firstly, hea contact of tlie leaf throughout the roll with the outer air ; oheapuess ; simplicity of mechanism ; perfection of feed, discharge, and pressure ; minimum of power required. GREIG'S LINK-AND-LEVER ROLLING-MACHINE. A correspondent writes as follows : — I have just seen the drawings and description of n new Rolling-machine invent- ed by John Greig & Co., of Regent "Works, Regent Road, Edinburgh, that can be worked by either bullocks, water, or steam. It is called "Greig's Patent Link-and- Lever Tea Roller," and rolls from 10 to 20 maunds per hour. It can be worked by one man, and rolls easllj/ 2 bags at once, and these cost less than one anna per maiind of dry tea. It is somewhat on Ha^orth's principle, and is a capital machine, which I can strongly recommend. It is also cheap. GREIG'S SIFTING MACHINE. For the sorting of the dried leaves the inventors have provided an nnique circu- lar-motion Sitting-machine, which, while it occupies less room thiin any of the existing machines, possesses the advantage of being self-delivering, and of separating the tea into the various qualities. There are four sieves. The tea, after being rubbed over the upper sieve by hand, falls, by the action of the machine, into No. 2 sieve, where the souchong is deposited, while on the two lower sieves respectively pekoe souchong and pekoe and tips remain, the dust fulling through beneath. After having been again dried, the tea is packed for the market. The inventors claim for their Patent, originality, combined with simplicity and cheapness, and that both space and motive power are economised, Mr. Fergus, Tea Factory Engineer, thus speaks of Greig's machine : — "Another machine which is well spoken of by those who use it, is Mr. Greig's im- proved circular-motion machine. In it he uses sieves twenty-seven inches in diame- ter, but, as they are placed above each other, the objection to the sieves in the Jack- sou's machine does not apply, as the tea falls from the one to the other. It consists of a cast-iron frame-work, on the top of which runs a horizontal shaft driven in the usual -way by a belt and pulleys. From this cast-iron framing there project two flexi- ble springs something like fishing-rods, to the ends of which are suspended by chains a box with a semi-circnlar back, something like a cupboard with four shelves. On these shelves are placed four sieves made of Nos. 5, 8, 10, and 16 meshes respectively. The shelves of course are open in the centre to let the tea fall through. Attached to the cast-iron framing are two small upright shafts, which are driven by mitre-wheels from the shaft formerly spoken of. At the bottoms of these shafts there are cranks which are connected to strong wrought-irou brackets attached to eacli side of the box or cupboard, or sieve-holder, or whatever we may call it. When these cranks are set in motion they communicate a horizontal circular motion to the box, and consequent- ly to the circular sieves inside of it ; and as it is intended that the machine be driven at from 80 to 100 revelations per minute, there can be no doubt that it will p.-iss through a good deal of tea. The inventor claims for this machine that the nibs (dried tip) pass through it without being broken, as they fall "end on" to the next sieve. How far this is the case I don't know, but I do know that it would be very desirable to have the nibs fall perpendicularly from sieve to sieve, as there would be a much less percen- tage of broken nibs, which means a higher price for the tea. I have not seen Mr. Greig's machine at work, but see no reason why it should not be as good a Sifter as .any. I saw it in the late Calcutta Exhibition, and can vouch fur its being well made, strong, and very compact. The inventor says that it can put through about 8001bs. per day. ( 178 ) Its price is £28 F. O, B. at Glasgow. This should rentier it' a favourite in small factories where a larger machine is not required. N. B.— TIio Agents in India for Meagrs, Grelg & Co. 's various machines are the Tea Planters' Agency, 10, Hare Street, Calcutta, from whom Prices, and further particulars, oau be obtaijaed, -and who, we believe, keep Bome of the miichlnes in stock. ANSELL'S PATENT TEA SORTING AND WINNOWING MACHINE. A correspondent, writing of this maoliine, says : — " I consider it a moat useful machine, and a greivt saver of labour. With 4 men, I do with it in one day an amount of work which, without it, I would have to employ from 20 to 25 men to accomplish," DALGARNO'S SIEVING MACHINE. We have no hesitation in pronouncing this the simplest contrivance we have seen. The action is the closest possible imitation of hand motion, and by au ingenious cradle-arrangement connecting the sieves, the gradient can be altered at pleasure. There are two sets of sieves, the first fitted with Nos. 6 and 8 mesh, and the second with Nos. 10 and 12 mesh. One further advantage is, that the whole can be easily put together at the Factory. SIFTING MACHINE. Colonel Money states as follows : — "I see a Sifting-machine is now being advertised — ' Jackson's Sifting-machine.' I have seen drawings of it, but not the machine itself. In the one respect that it is much larger than anything used hitherto, it is more likely to succeed. There i^ a machine for sifting and fanning Tea at one and the same timi^. I know not who invented it. It is a simple winnowing-machine, with sieves placed in front of the fan. By means of a rod and crank attached to the axle of the revolving fan the sieves are made to shake from side to side when the fanners are turned. The Tea is put into the upper sieve, a coarse one, and passing successively through finer ones, is thus sorted into different Teas. The open leaf at the same time is blown out by the fan. I purchased one, but I do not find it does the work well. 8il:ting Tea is a nice process, and 1 did not find it sorted the Teas with any nicety. I have taken out the sieves, and use it now only for fanning, which it does very well, though no better than au apparatus which could be constructed at one-third the cost." TEA SIEVES, A Ceylon planter writes as follows : — " Reading the local papers some days ago, I noticed some tea-men found it a difficulty to separate the large from the small leaves : I mean the pekoe from sou- chong ones. I got my carpenter to make two large sieves, (one for each of my estates) 8 by 3, with a depth of say six inches, meshes | of an inch square, made out of the strands of an old wire rope : a simple contrivance. So I suppose many tea planters have the same sort of thing— cAeap, but not nasty. The sieve is sluug ( 179 ) from the four corners with a wire from the floor above. One man can sift SOOlbs. leaf per hour jnst as it arrives from the field. Pekoe leaves, of course, go through, leaving Souchong ones in the sieve. Leaves being thus separated enables me to get even withering : as the small leaves will be ready before the large, if put together to wither, I do. not see how a man can get even or proper withering. Leaves will be ready ifor rolling, and will have more white tips, of course, than if the large and small ones were all rolled of a heap ; tips will not be discoloured by the juice from the largo leaves. Common-sense tells us all that. My sieves have been in use with mo between two and three years, and they are a great help indeed. 60 to 70 per cent, of Pekoe leaves pass through. When leaves come in wet, several of the leaves will be found clinging together ; the sieve shakes them adrift." TEA-BREAKING MACHINES. Mr. Ansel], of Kurseong, lias invented a very good Breaker, simple, and easy to work; and another Tea Bueakbr is that of Mr. Geo, Reid's invention. The prin- cipal is that of cutting the leaf between toothed rollers. It is spoken well of by plan- ters in Assam, and the price is moderate. SECTION XVII r. MANUFACTURE. PART I, — Leaf-Weighing, Withering, and Rolling. PART If.— FERMENTATION :— Chemical Process of Fermentation. Phases of Fermentation. As TO the eight degree of Fermentation. Discussion regarding Fermentation. PART III.— FIRING :— Firing. Panning. PART IV.— MISCELLANEOUS :— Generally- admitted facts. Causes from which different Results arise. Jottings from a Planter's Note Book. Tea Manufacture in Dehba Doon. Manufacture of Green Tea. Tea Tasting. ( 183 ) MANUFACTURE-PART I. LEAF-WEIGHING. When leaf is brought in from the Garden, the Tea-honse Assistant mast see to the weighing of it, and should carefully examine the contents of each picker's basket, before weighment, to see that shoots have not been plucked off, or coarse and hard leaf gathered. The rate for plucking in different districts varies, but a full rate for e.ich woman may be taken as 8 seers per day; and over that, 1 pice per seer. Where there is a lack of surveillance in taking in leaf, pluckers may, and are ever ready to, make money at the expense of the Estate. Tlie leaf being weighed, is to be laid thinly on trays, and placed in the rack for withering. TEA WITHERING. We are all aware that to make good Tea a good " wither" is a sine gud non, and we are all equally aware that it is a department in the mannEacture that has not yet been touched by the machinist, or thoroughly mastered by the tea-planter. Kollingand firing are under control at the present day ; and fermentation, the result of study und experience, may be said to be quite mastered by many in Ceylou ; but " withering" is still at the caprice of climates and seasons. Our distinguished machinist, Jackson, is said to have been pertinently addressed at the late Kandy Show by a no less expe- rienced tea-planter, somewhat as follows : — "Mr. Jackson, — We are under obligations to you for the facilities afforded in tea-making, now: when are you going to give us a machine for withering V His equally pointed and suggestive answer was : " I leave that to my successors." This, therefore, is a branch of the art that has baffled plan- ters, both in Ceylon and India, and which is still, more or less, left at the mercy ul! the elements. According to one of the best Indian authorities, Col. Money, " the agents are sun, light, heat, and air. Light is a powerful agent, for, if some leaf be placed in a partially dark room, and some in a well-h'ghted verandah, the latter will wither in half the time the former will take." In fact, Col. Money was so satisfied as regards light, that in his note to the third edition he says : " I am now sending out the glass necessary for a glass withering-house." In Ceylou. with its monsoon and heavy rain- fall. Withering is one of the sulijects that should enoage our best attention : and there is no season like the present to fully appreciate the question in all its intensity. To such of our readers as have Siroccos, our advice is to make timely arrangements to conserve the heat rising from the Driers. If the withering-rooms are above the Drier or Driers, the plan would be to make the rooms as airtight as possible on the sides by means of ceiling-cloth, lime, washed thickly. The top should also be ceiled, leaving small openings only to allow the moist air to escape without too rapid an escape of heat. To those about to build withering-sheds we would suggest large windows to ad- mit abundance of light. As for air, atmosphere laden with moisture is hardly to be courted as a favorable agent for withering. It is all good and well at a milder period of the year. The sun, whenever it is possible to catch a glimpse of his face, may safely be employed for a few minutes to expel moisture, and start withering; after which the leaf should be allowed to wither in the lofts; or, if sufficiently withered, rolled ofi^. One word in conclusion. We would recommend our friends not to try with- ering in Driers unless they have the labour and the patience to do so at a max- imum of 100 or so. For, if they do so at a high tempeniture, a light liquor and an out-of-the-ordinary flavor will be the result. It is better to wait putiently till the leaf withers than to hasten it, and spoil the tea to a certainty. Perhaps a fan would prove one of the best auxiliaries in a Tea-house to expedite withering. Z ( 184 ) To exhaust tlie air of a well-ceilcil room, a small stove may be placed at one end of it, and a fan at the other. — Ceylon Adrcrtixer, One of the important processes of tea-making is the withering. It is of not little consequence tliat this process should be under control so that it may arrive at com- pletion at a convenient hour, not too late nor too soon. It js inconvenient to have all the machinery Tparting for the withering, and not quite consonant with either conveni- ence or comfort that a planter may get up at one, two, or three in the morning to call his coolies to work to suit the withering. This process is one that may be well under control, where a planter has got tea-drier-heated air, or other heated air at command. The quickness of the process depends on the dryness of the air, — not merely on the temperature, though that lias something to do with it : the dryness of the air is the chief thing. With a clerithew arrangement and fan, the speed of the fan could be regulated to regulate the withering ; or by tnrning on the heated air from the tea- ilrier, the process might be expedited; and by turning it off, and if need be saturating the air with a chinchona-waterer or other spray-producer, the process could be delayed, Bnt to do any of these with anything approaching to accuracy some implement to measure tlie dryness of the air must be used. Mere temperature is no measure of dryness. Air at 60' may be very dry, while air at 100° may be at the point of satu- ration. Some hygrometer must therefore be used to detect the dryiess of the air used for withering the leaf. Perhaps no simpler or better can be got than the v:et-and-dry- lidb thermometer. These can easily be constructed by using two thermometers that are fairly accurate. Wrap a piece of rag round the bulb of one, and keep the other end of the rag in water, in a small cup fixed to the thermometer, and kept full of •water; as the air, when dry, allows of rapid evaporation from the rag on the bulb, and this evaporation cools tlie bulb of the thermometer, the mercury in tlie wet bulb tube descends, so that the difference of the reading of the two thermometers shows the dryness of the air. Some calculations are needed for great accuracy, but for withering purposes the observation of the difference will probably be enough. A few experiments with such an Instrument, and comparison of its indications with the withering of the leaf, would enable the planter to have a pretty accurate idea of how to regulate his withering. — Cor. Ceylon Observer. In very wet weather, it may be desirable to turn out the contents of the basket, and allow the surface-water to be driven off before weighing. Care, however, should be taken that green leaf is as little knocked about as possible. After the le.if is weighed, it should at once be spread thinly over bamboo trays. Avoid pressing on the leaf with the hand ; forenoon's leaf to be laid out where it is not so hot ; afternoon's leaf to be placed where heat is to be obtained. Next day, if the leaf is perfectly withered and soft for rolling, it should be put into the rolhng- maohine, — Tea Gazette. The agents for withering leaf are sun, light, heat, and air. Of these the most powerful is sun, for it combines all the others with it. Light is a powerful agent, for if some leaf be placed in a partially-dark room, and some in a well-lighted verandah, the latter will wither in half the time the former will take. If light and moderate ventilation be present, heat is a great accessory to rapid withering. There is often great difficulty in withering leaf in the rain. It can be withered in Tea-pans, but 'the out-turn' is then more or less injured, for after infusion the out- turn comes out green instead of the proper ' new penny' colour. Withering in dholes is also objectionable for the same reason, though if the heat is moderate, the green effect is less. It is further a long and tedious operation. 8paoa and light are the great wants for withering leaf in wet weather. Bamboo mecbans, tier above tier, should be constructed in every available space. Large frames, covered with wire mesh, may also bo made (by means of weights running. over pulleys) to run up to the roof of any Tea building. The leaf withers well in such frames, as heat a-icends, and much heat is given out by dholes. ( 185 ) It signifies nntwiiore leaf is spraaj, ns long as there is space and light. In dry weather, when leaf comes in from the gnrdcn, spread it thinly anywhere, and turn it once early in the night. It will generally be withered and ready to roll next morning. If not quite ready, then pnt it outside in the sun. Half an hour's sun- ning will probably finish it. In wet weather, if there is any sun when it comes in, or any time that day, take advantage of the sun to wither the leaf partly, so much that, with the after withering all night under cover, it will be ready next morning. If not ready next morning, put it out in the sun, if there is any, till it is ready. In very wet and cloudy weather, when there is no sun, and continual rain, so that the leaf cannot be put outside (for remember that outside, when there is no sun, the light aloae will wither it) artificial withering of some kind must be resorted to. Unwithered or under-withered leaves break in the rolling, and give out large quantities of a light-green-coloured juice during the same process. The Tea is much broken, and of a reddish grey-colour. The liquor is very pale in colour, — cloudy weak, soft, and tasteless. Over-wiihered leaf, on the other hand, takes a good twist in the roUin,?, gives out but little juice, which is of a thick kind, and of reddish-yellow colour. The tea is well twisted, ' chubby' in af.pearanoe, and blacker than ordinary • the liquor of an ordinary depth of colour, — clear, with a mawkish taste, — Col. Money. Tea-leaves commence to decay shortly after they have been removed from the bushes, sooneror later dependent upon the state of the weather and their condition of moisture, and this is accelerated or retarded by the temperature of the withering house amount of air and light they are exposed to, degree of thickness spread oti machans and finally, though the most important of all, to the number of hours that have elap- sed prior to rolling. To make tea of really ffood quality, strength, and flavour, all the conditions being similar, the leaves should he plucked and manufactured separately, and as soon as practicable after being brought in. The application of artificial heat to raise the temperature of the " leaf-house" has often been tried, and in many quarters this is now done at the height of the rainy season. Almost all planters, however, are agreed that this is not condncive to high- class quality, and is only I'esorted to as a last resource. Several machines and pro- cesses have been invented and tried for the artificial withering of the leaf, and al- though it is possible that some suitable system for drying the air without absolutely heating it may yet be found, yet, so far, no satisfactory method has been discovered. It is, however, of course, fuUy recognised that the Withering-process is the most prucial one in Manufacture, Excepting in very fine warm weather it is next to an impossibility to "wither" the leaf in the way best suited for preserving its " active principle" in the subsequent operations of numufacture. The humidity of the atmosphere is such during the greater part of the season in the province of Assam, the Terai, and the Dooars, that the evaporation of moisture from the larger quantities of leaf now produced cannot be effected without some change in the present piethod of dealing with the process of Withering. Some means must be adopted for " drying the air" to be used for this purpose. Air, we repeat, when saturated with moisture, cannot take up any more, and till it is dried at a high temperature, and cooled and distributed at a lower one, it is out of a planter's power (do what bo will) to oxidise and subsequently manufactui e ( 186 ) even]y. Proper withering is inclisponsably necessary to the preparation of black tea, and there is art in the management of the process. It is impossible to make good tea from badly- withered leaf, and although this is an universally-recognised axiom, still a good many planters do not calcuhite before- hand what is the largest space they are likely to need in the Season — while perhaps in August a great rush of leaf comes with a long-continued spell of wet weather, and tea-houses get filled with leaf that will not wither, and vThich has to be manufactured anyhow. A poor invoice of tea is the result. Withering- space of 600 square feet to the maund is required to dry leaf in per- forated Bamboo trays in damp weather, or say 67 trays of 3 x 3 with a spread of 1;^ ft. per tray In dry weather a seer of leaf per tray, or 40 trays per maund, will be found BuiEcient. Withering in the sun is objectionable, but in bad weather wet leaf is better wither- ed in the sun or in the wind than by artificial heat. The operation should not be hur- ried, as dried leaf is not necessarily withered leaf. Under-withered leaf breaks in the roll, and gives a green out-turn. Over-with- ered leaf gives tips, but a dark out-turn. Leaf withered in the sun gives a reddish tea, A bright coppery out-turn can only be obtained from properly-withered leaf. Leaf is best withered when there is free supply of light, and cool air. Wet leaf is better withered in the sun or in the wind than by artificial heat. Dried leaf is not necessarily withered leaf. Under-withered leaf breaks in the roll. Over-withered leaf gives most Pekoe tips. Leaf withered in the sun gives red tea. Under-withered leaf gives a green, and over-withered leaf a dark, out-turn, A bright-coppery out-turn can only be obtained from well-withered leaf. Under-withered leaf will take longer to fire than well-withered leaf. Withering should be done rather slowly, and avoid exposing the leaves to arti- ficial heat. There are several tests to show when leaf is withered. Fresh leaf squeezed in the hand, held near the ear, crackles, but no sound should be heard from withered leaf. ( 186a ) WITHERING. By Percy Swinburne, late of Sjlhet, Cachar, anil Assam. The old method of withering was to spread the leaf 2 to 3 inches thick on a my- chan, and to turn it over several times during the night to prevent its heating too much. In wet and cold weather it was placed in small quantities at one time, on a inychan, over the fiiing-dhools, where the heat quickly softens and prepares it for roll- ing. But now great improvements have been made in the factory buildings and ac- comraodation. It is generally recognised that the leaf must be thinly spread out, and the withering-process most carefully conducted, to turn out good tea. Withering, sheds admitting air and light freely, and fitted with tier upon tier of bamboo trays, are made. Large pucka iron-roofed tea-houses are fitted with lofts for witherino-, and arrangements are made for regulating the heat and admitting or shutting out the air. Natural withering, as generally understood, means that the leaf is placed in open or closed houses in which the draught of air may be regulated ; while artificial wither- ing includes the use of heated air, or of machinery. A large proportion of the best tea which is sent to the market is now made from artificially-withered leaf, that is to say, from leaf which has been withered by heated air. The lofts of the pucka tea-houses are heated by the sun, to a temperature of over 100 degrees, and are often intolerably and sulfooatingly warm. In dull and wet wea- ther, also, the temperature in these places is still considerably higher than that of the surrounding atmosphere, as they are heated by Siroccos or other firing-machines, the chimneys of which pass through them. There has for a long time been a strong prejudice against artificial witherino-. Closed hot-houses were used because the weather so often proved unfavourable, but natural withering, under favourable circumstances, is always supposed to give the best results. In natural withering, the faster the process the better the result, so we may con- clude that perfect withering would consist iu removing all superfluous water from the leaf instantaneously, without disturbing the oils, juice, &c., wlule sufScient heat was applied to reduce the fibre to the soft condition required for rolling, 1'he finest tea was made from leaf withered in 3 hours, at a temperature of 140 degrees. The tea was on several occasions carefully assorted, and true samples of the bulk were sent down to Calcutta to be valued, and the quality of the liquor, as well as the appearance, were pronounced excellent. The average valuations were about 14 annas, and the leaf was good, but not finer than that plucked on most estates m Dar- jeeling, or Sylhet, or Cachar, being two leaves and a bud. The market at the time was depressed, and tlie average price of the teas of the districts named was, at that time, between 9 and 10 annas. In 1883 the entire crop of the Kaina.gar Estate, Sylhet, just under 900 mds., was withered in hot- houses, heated by smoke-flues, and realized 11 annas per lb, average. The houses were " kutcha" ones, built of l)amboo and plastered ekur. Tbey were 14 feet high in the roof, 7 feet high walls — breadth 20 feet. Two four-feet wide passages, and 4 rows of chalnies 3 feet wide. The pipes were 9 inches in diameter, and i inch thick, and ran along both sides of the house underneath the outer row of chalnies. The heat was much greater near the furnaces than at a distnnoe from them, and the house gets thoroughly heated for a distance of about 15 to 20 feet only from the furnace. The heat is also uneven ; and the greater it is, the more difficult it becomes to equalize the withering. The leaf must be thinly spread and carefully watched. One part of the house withers much more quickly than another, and if the'leaf is left for an hour only, after it has reached the right stage, much quality is lost. These houses, defective as they are, are preferred to those of the old style. When the men have learnt how to arrange the leaf, and work the fires, the roll- ing can be commenced at 5 a. m. every day in all weathers. The leaf does not turn red unless it is bruised in some way during the witherin"- process, and its juices become exposed to the air. This may happen from the leaf being gathered up a second time, and removed from one place to another. ( 1865 ) If it is once established beyond dispute tbut the best tea can be made from artifi- cially-withered leaf, there should be no difficulty in making a hot chamber in which the leaf could be very thinly spread jout, and the heat equalized and regulated, and the moisture removed. One of the great disadvantages of open houses is, that the damp cold air which checks the withering is admitted, as well as the warm air whicli favours it. Withered leaf absorbs moisture, and is refreshed by it — as a bouquet of faded flowers is revived by sprinkled water. But when the leaf has withered a second time, it loses its fresh- ness, and when the flowers have again faded, they begin to give out an offensive smell; the first stages of decomposition having set in in both cases. Leaf which has once lost its volatile freshness and delicacy, never recovers it, and can never be converted into fine tea. The fine qunlities in the loaf may be chemically altered in the hot withering process, but they not are lost altogether, as is proved by the quality of the tea produced by it. In the same way, however, as the flavour of the tea is affected by different firing processes, so it is probably also affected by the degree of heat applied in the withering as well as by the manner in which it is applied. Good tea can be made of leaf which is carefully withered, rolled, fermenfpd, and finally baked ; but although strong, it is peculiar, and has not the delicate flavour and smell of tea which is roasted over charcoal in the usual way, and this again is not so aromatic in flavour as that which is dried by the rapid hot-air draught of the " Sirocco." It would appear that the best withering would be accomplished by a strong draught of moderately warm and quite dry air passing over the whole surface of the leaf. If the juices can be kept uninjured, the more the leaf is withered the better the quality of the tea. The presence of water in the rolled leaf appears to afi'ect the fer- mentation injuriously. It is not accurately known at present what chemical changes take place in the various systems of manufacture, but we know that we are more or less dependent on the weather, and that the changes which take place satisfactorily one day, will not do so on another, under apparently exactly the same condition. Lightly- withered leaf makes tea without strength or body, and this is probably due to the ]'rpsence of too much water in the rolled leaf, which causes an injurious fermentation. C>u the other hand, over withering, or bad withering, by which the juices have been injured or destroyed, have the same effect, aui produce weak pale-liquored tea. ( 1?7 ) ROLLING. Wa object to lieavy rolling, either by hand or machine, unless the leaves have been gathered during very rainy weather, and they are themselves also over-charged with moisture, in which case it must be resorted to, but merely to expel the superfluous water. In all other conditions we maintain that the less pressure is exerted upon them, the better ano hold a high position get to think that they must know more than those below them, — though, really, those below them may be more experienced than themselves ; bnt hijih position makes people forget all this, and it is only natural, (so thought A ) ; .ind as his opi- nion was not asked for, (it being no donlit thought worthless, he being an assistant), he thought it best not to dispute the matter, and so avoid his Manager's displeasure for shewing up his ignorance. (Exit B. and C.) So said A. to me after B. and C. liad departed. After some conversation I remarked to A. that he did not seem to agree quite with B. and C.'s mode of manufacture. A. — " Well, 1 was about to explain my ideas on fermentation, when 1 was inter- rupted by C." (After asking for his ideas, he said) " that no stated time could be given for fermentation, as far as his exfierience went." He said (and truly) " that some days are hotter than others ; that morning and evening was cooler than 12 at noon ; that some tea-houses were hotter than others ; that some were drafty and cold ; also that March was cooler than May or June ; that April was generally subject to great varie- ties of temperature through tlie day ; that June, July, and August, were damp, &c. &c. ; and he found that it was very rarely the same length of time for fermentation could be given day after day to produce the best tea. His experience also went to show him tiiat it (lid not pny a Garden to leave blianjee leaves on the bushes, and that the length of time for fermentation greatly ilepended on the (iesuription of leaf (coarse or fine) plucked ; ''but," said he, "what is the nse of all this experience? and it grieves me that I slfuild simply be male a tool or a machine of, instead of being able to apply my knowledge to the Company's and my own welfare." 1 diii not venture to offer an opinion on the subject, as I was not well up in these matters. At the same time I thought there was something in what A. said. — JJyapa. fNoTB BY THE EoiTOR. — A.'s Statements are correct.] Sib, — We are asked to believe that the pro- tion has been RiifBcieTit or otherwise. Person- cess in our manufacture which we cdll " fer- ally I am inclined to think that it is safer to mentation" is the result and the proof of the be guided by the sense of smell than of sight, active presence and motion, amongst the mass but this does not bear very particularly upon of tea-leaves, of innumerable microscopic the points of the matter which I have imme- beings so low in the scale of life that one diately in mind. The question that occurs hesitates to call them animals, though M. to me just now is this — If fermentation cannot Pasteur and other learned authorities have commence before the tissue of the leaf is definitely settled that they really are such, if broken, and if heat is a sign that it has living and breathing entitles them to be so commenced, how are we to account for the classed ; and it seems to be implied that leaf heating and getting discolered too, (may these little creatures are always present on I say/ermewiiBj) as it not unfrequently does, the outside of the leaf, waiting for an oppor- in the pickers' baskets out in the field, if they tunity of entrance by any fissure, to commence press it down at all freely, as they are some- the discharge of their natar.^l functions, times obliged to do. This is one of a few which opportunity is afforded them when the things that I want to ask you, Sir, or any o£ tissue of the leaf is bruised and broken by the your learned contributors, to enlighten me Tolling process. I cannot very clearly or about. I don't aver that heating and dis- satisfactorily understand or account for the coloration are sure signs of the presence or heating and discoloring of the fermenting action (I really hardly know which is the best leaf, but every one knows that it does become word here) of fermentation, bnt I think they heated and discolored during the process. In invariably accompany the process in tea- fact I think it is by the color that the tea- making, brokers or tasters, who are learned in these SlBBIS. things, aSect to judge whether the fermenta- __ ( 193 ) [One of the promoting causes of fermentation la heat, and It is not therefore surprising that leaf in the pickers' baskets lying below preased-down leaf, above t, commenoea to discolor, or in other words to enter Ihe first stage of fermentation. The whole subject thowever is one requiring such close examination and chemical investigation and inquiry, that we shall be glad to have the opinions of those who have studied the subject attentively. — Ed., /. Tea Qazette.] SlR,^The only practical information on the exact point when fermentation should be stop- ed, is the following, from the Tea Cyolopasdia, p. 224 :— " Rolled leaf is in a fit state for firing-off just as the original green colour is turning to pink." Coming from Messrs. George Williamson & Co., this hint is no doubt a right one. But even then this is not definite enough. Every tea-house man knows that leaf that would make Pekoe and Broken Pekoe, ferments some time before the harder leaf. What is one to do in the latter case ? Ad Tat. Dear Sib, — A simple and practical way to make all your leaf ferment evenly, is to sift it with a half-inch mesh sieve immediately after the final rolling, and it will be found that about 40 per cent, of ordinarily-rolled leaf will have fallen through. Put this into your fermenting trays, but in a separate line to the coarser leaf, which has not gone through the sieve, and when ready for opening out (which will vary from a quarter to three-quarters of an hour before the other^ keep and dry it separate, as it will also take less time to dry than the other. One man can easily sift 12 mds. per hour, i. e. by having the sieve suspended from some support to enable him to use it somewhat after the motion or action of Jackson's Sif ting- machine, Tea House!. Dear Sir, — I have found the easiest way to have the rolled leaf fermented rapidly is to have the table on which it ferments close by the fire. One must of course take care to c over the leaf well, as otherwise the leaf, on the sur- face, will slowly dry and become dark. Nathaniel. FERMENTING MACHINES. Sir, — In reply to an enquiry about a Ferment- ing Machine, I beg to state that we have had one in use here for the last two years. It was made on the factory, and has been found very beneficial, as in the Dehra Doon districts, owing to deficiency of sap in the leaf, and moisture in the atmosphere, the " roll" fails to colour properly. By its use the desired colour can be obtained at once without difficulty, at the same time both the pungency and aro- ma of the "out-turn" being considerably in- creased. One of its advantages is, that by its means " roll" may be safely kept for at least six hours without heating or deteriorating in the It'ast, but remaining perfectly svveot and fiesh. I may add that thiR prore s, in reality, iloes notoause the tea to furm-nt At all, but oj;idises it, the chief agents beinj water and a power- ful blast of cold air, "Aebob." ( 191 ) MANUFACTURE-PART III. FIRING. The leaf, after having arrived at the proper state of fermenlation, should lie quickly fired and well dried, which process ought not to exceed one liotir. There is no doubt that quick packing after manufacture tends to keep a ricii aroma in the teas, which it very soon loses on exposnre, even in a goo b^'ijiin, the importance of the question of good and bad box-woods has conr^iderably iueieased. ( 229 ) The 3 samples nf wiod alluded to by Mr. Gamble were kindly forwarded to rao by Mr. Mann, our Cnnspwntor of Forests, lit is not easy to verify a tree from a' sample 2'' square iind i" tliick (more especially if neither bark nor leaf can be seen.) The sample No. 3 that has the bad reputation, and the lead attached to it as a whita film, like paint, may be, as far as I can see, either mango, or wild mango, Moj-Poreni^ or Gondri, (Gondserai) ; these are all extremely alike, and if the wood had a strong aromatic smell when first sampled, I should say it was Gondri, and may tell you that I have had samples of Mango and Gondserai made, and lead attached, closely, between, and shall report the result as time goes on, or the moment I see anything to report. Ere closing this Notice I may tell your readers what no doubt many know — that there is far less danger from a dry seasoned wood thaii one wet or half dry, especially when heated in the hold of a ship. The quantity of moisture in a wet tea-box, or one of unseasoned wood, is also far more than most planters or agents would suppose, ahd in some cases it is exactly half the weight of the box. I append a case wliere a Siraol-wood tea-box was weighed just as it was made up, and the same when quite dry-^in 20 days. lbs. November 15th at 17 lbs. November 6 th at 80 » 7th J) 29 j» 8th H 28^ >» 9 th » 26J^ n 10th 24f ■» 11th J. 23 >> 12th >) 22A )> 1.3th )J ]9f )> 14th l4 November 15th at 17 16th J> 161 17th »* 16-^ 18th >> 16 19th it 16 20th jy 15 21st u 14| , 22nd )» 15f December 6th j» 15i This should show those who insist on even tares, the utter impossibility of get- ting them unless the woods are quite dry ; and in the height of the Season the plant- er is often between two stools. LIST OP TIMBERS USEFUL FOR GENERAL PURPOSES.* Sahm, " Artocarpus chaplasha," is a really fine tree, and remarkably good wood for many purposes if not exposed to the weather, or put in the ground. At times it grows to a great size, 12 and 16 feet in girth, and 60 or 60 in the shaft, with a large rounded head of foliage rising another 50 feet. Though found scattered all through tho mixed plain-forests and along the foot of hills and lower ranges, it is not a gregarious tree, even though the seeds fall and germinate in thousands around the foot. The outer bark is dark brown, and rough ; the sap milky ; the seeds, as large as marbles, are embedded in an acid pulp-like jacket, and form an orange ball, when ripe, 4 or 5" diameter. The fruit is greedily eaten by monkeys, and the seed is thus transported. The leaf is 8 or 10" long x 6" wide : extremely rough and stiff. Sap-wood of Sahm is seldom of use, and clearly divided from the deep-yellow of the heart, which has a tolerably even and close grain, which, when dry, turns brown, and lighter, floating in water. This tree should, like many others, be seasoned standing by ring- ing, so as to prevent warping when cut and sawn. For planking, battens, girders,, joists, and for marolis or wall-plates, it is excellent : also for doors and frames, or such-like work. It is good also for furniture, and when polished often shews nice, figured grain, like coarse satinwood. Large dug-out canoes are cut from Sahm ; and though at times used for posts, it is hardly safe, as it then frequently developes dry- rot near the foot : while the part above ground is quite sound, that below it can be pulled out in large pieces by the hand, all rotten. * Trees not fit to put in the ground as 2>o*i-^i yet fiiiQ timbers and large trees. Some would do for boxes,, but As a rule not plentiful enough : they coustitute the bvikot the valuable timber trees of Eastern Bengal. — s: E. P. ( 230 ) Sfthm would make excellent tea-boxes, but the wood is really too rare nnd too good to use for such a purpose. Jutuli — " Attingia Excelsa," is another fine tree, with wood extremely suitable for certain purposes, and equally unsuitable for others. As a rule Jutuli is a gregarious tree, i. e., found in more or lesg dense patches, and is remarkably tall and straight. The girth is from 6 to 10 feet, and the height of the bole, or shaft, 50 to 60; while the crown is often over 140 feet from the ground. The bark is peculiar, inclined to flake off in large flat pieces, and of a chocolate color. If Jntuli is to be sawn, it should be cut when green, or not quite dry ; the difference between the green wood and dry is remarkable. In the former state it is not at all difficult to cut, and has a close grain ; when dry it is extremely hard, and difBcult to either cut with edged tools or saws. But even when dry, this wood is heavy, and from its appearance likely to mislead as to durability. A large tree of it felled say this year, and left lying, will be quite useless as a rule, by next ( if out of doors), and by the end of the 2nd year be all rotten, — probably clean gone in the 3rd ; yet a forest of Jutuli is often quite a sight, from the beauty and size of the tall straight trees. It is extremely good for planks, or work indoors in dry places, but too heavy for tea-boxes. The leaf is 3 to 4", long by 1' or 2", and serrated like a tea-leaf. The seeds are small, and fall in March. Poma ("Cedrela Toona"). — This is a beautiful wood for many purposes, ond ia really worth preserving or propagating, as it seeds profusely, germinates easily, and grows rapidly. It often attains a great size, 8 or 9 feet in girth, and 40 or 45 in the stem to first branch, and is used for canoes. The bark is dark brown and scaly ; sap- wood not very strongly divided from the heart, which is deep pink color, and has a strong cedar smell. The texture of the wood is rather open, like Honduras Maho- gany, but is remiirkably easy to work. When dry, it is light, and has a reddish hue ; a particularly good wood for planking or boxes, if enough of it could be got : it is also good for doors and rough furniture. I do not know a better wood than Poma for planks for bungalows or godowns, if raised ofif the ground, and on wooden posts or joists. When old and very dry, white-ants eat it as they do so many other of our woods, but it is not so greedily attacked as some of them. It is not more than two-thirds the weight of toon-boxes from Burma ; and a different wood, strong, handsome, and light, — an A 1 wood. The foliage of Poma can be easily recognized, as there are some 12 to 20 leaflets in pairs on each side of a long centre rib ; leaflets 3 or 4" long, not serrated at the edges, and 1* wide, with rather taper points. The seed has wings, and is contained in a pear-shaped case that splits open into five segments when ripe, and the wind blows the seed out, Jamoks are a large Group, called "Eugenia" by botanists, and partly noticed among the post timbers. We have here in Assam seven kinds : 1. Bogi Jamok, Eugenia jamholana. 2. Bor Jamok, E. lancijolia. 3. Bhula Jamok, E. magnifolia, 4. Kofai Jamok. 5. Nahorpatia Jam.k. 6. Bongali Jamok, 7. Toi angoli Jamok. Of tliese the Bogi Jamok, or Jamon, is well known by the very white stem from which it derives its name. It is a fine tree, and the wood is extremely useful, though of very different quality to Poma. Bogi Jamok is at times 8 to 9 feet in girth, and 40 high. I have measured one 13 feet round and 60 in the shaft, straight and round as a mast. It often forks into two equal branches at an acute angle as V, and a capital sledge can be made from such a fork, if a strong piece is bolted across, like the letter A the total length, say 12 or 16 feet. Such a sledge is far better than a low truck on small wheels, for transporting boilers, as it will go easily over holes that would bury the wheels. This tree has peculiar bark, white and flaky on the surface and below it another bright-green, and thin as paper ; the inner bark, \ inch thick, is pink. ( 231 ) The wood is noarly the same, all thronsjh pink, and dries light brown. In texture it is somewhat like beech, even, fine grain and heavy, saws well, and is a good wood for girders, joists, planks, marolis, and such like. There is sore temptation always to use it for posts, but it hardly pays, as it will not last in the ground. It is too heavy for boxes, where lighter woods can be got plentifully. It makes excellent charcoal, like all the other Jamoks, especially for blacksmiths' work. Bor Jamok (Eugenia lancifolia) is not a common Tree. It has a fruit like a Damson, and about as large. It is a superior wood, much like Boji Jamok, but rather harder. Bor J.amok grows to be 6 or 8 feet in girth, and at times 30 in the stem, branching very irregularly, and lower down than most of the preceding trees. The bark, an inch thick, is grey, aud has not got the thin bright-greeu middle-bark of Boji Jamok. The leaf, oblong, 4 to 6" long, pointed at both ends, 1 to 2" wide, has a leaf-stalk \", and the veins are small and close. The fruit is eaten, and makes a good dark-purple jam. A good use for Bor Jamok is to make blacksmiths' char- coal, as it stands a good deal of blowing. Bhula Jamok, or Eugenia magnifolia, is not a large tree, 4 to 5 ft. girth, and 2.5 or 30 in stem. It is known by its very large leaf, — oblong, and about a foot long ; the bark is white, and flakes somewhat. It is reputed to be softer than the other Jamoks, and in all other respects so like Boji Jamok that its description will do for this one. Eotai Jamok is a smaller and very common Tree, seldom straight, and I should strongly urge Government to place it (with a few others) on a List to bo posted in every namgurh and village as one the villagers can use without tax. The Government insist on ten-planters posting a " schedule of work" in some conspicnous place in Tea -factories, to prevent the Bengali being cheated. It would be well if they could get the beam out of their own eyes, so as to see the oppression of villagers by smaller officials, as Police Mozadars and Jungli Darogas. It is simply scandalous, and Assamese can get no redress : mischievous sympathy for the Bengali and gross apathy for the Assamese, — that is the fact. A case has just occurred here where a poor devil of a villager has been told by the Police he must sto]i building his house till he pays Rs 54 for 9 sticks of the Kotai Jamok ; and yet this tree is really not on the prohibited list. Villagers do not know it, as the Lists are not pub- licly posted, as they should be, in every village. This Kotai Jamok is common on all the odd heaps of waste land near and among Potars. It sprouts .almost everywhere, does well for posts of small houses, and is not a fine timber- tree. Nahor Patia Jamok, as its name implies, has the foliage remarkably like Nahor, not only as to form, size, and arrangement in pairs, but the very same bright-crimson of the young shoots and leaves. It is generally mistaken for Nahor by new-comers. The tree grows fairly straight, 3 to 5 feet girth, and 30 to 35 in stem ; occasionally larger, 'I'he wood is extremely like Boji Jamok in color and texture : is also excellent for charcoal. Bongali Jamok is rather a contrast to the others,— seldom more than 3 feet round, even near the ground, where it generally forks, and hence has the appearance of be- ing all branches. Even in the forest it does not always run up, but leans about, as though the crop of fruit weighed the branches down ; said fruit is like a large dam- son or plum. The flower is out in March, and like a puff-ball, 3 inches across,— a huge branch of stamens : the petals are 4, and sepals 4. As a wood it is not much used, except for the best charcoal ; and where for special work very superior wood-charcoal is required, the best is Bongali Jamok, Toi Angoli Jamok was noted among the trees fit for posts, in List No. 1. Maiphak, is a rather fine Tree, and has peculiar qualities that make it especially suitable for certain purposes. So far, I believe it has not been named botanioally. _ Occasionally it grows 6 feet in girth, with a stem 40 feet, generally somewhat in- clined, and not quite straight. The bark is greyish brown, .and pretty even ; sap-wood is pale yellow or white ; and when the heart-wood is first cut (while wet), it is whitish- yellow, rapidly turning brown, or rich burnt-sienna color. If great care is not taken in felling this tree, the most unexpected result may follow, and, with a loud report, g2 ( 23i ) it splits right up. It 13 necessary to cut it almost through on the side to which it will I'iill, and, if possible, break that fall by some large saplings laid to receive the shock. When felled, the butt should have some foliage piled over, to shade it from the sun, and in cross-cutting it is best to cut in alternately from both sides, or it will split. If to be sawn, the sap-wood should be removed, and the planks taken off the outside first. I once started sawyers on a dressed log 16 feet that had the sap-wood left at the sides, and when the pit-saw had gone about 3 feet down the centre, there was a loud report, and the two halves of the log came tumbling down. It is a specially good wood for shingles, as it can be split so easily ; and one tree will often give 1,500 to 2,000, 18" x 6" X 1". For shingling, the stem should have the sap-wood nearly all removed, and then be cross-cut into drums IS" long. These can readily be split by a shingle-knife, and cost about Rs. 6 per thousand. Assamese use this wood in looms, as it ia both strong and very light ; it is also not readily attacked by white-ants. It is almost unique as a very light wood that resists ants and dry-rot. I attribute the lasting immunity to a resin, or the dried sap. As it propagates easily and grows rapidly, it is specially suitable for growing on any reserved waste lands. The heart-wood when dry is as light as pine. The foliage is like that of Poma, but the leaves when bruised have a powerful aromatic sni(?ll, which at once distinguishes it. If the bark is pierced or cut, the sap exudps, and forms into am^er-colored bends. It is rather too easily split to be good for tea-boxes, unless they were thick. I have seen a plank of it that lay for 2 years on the ground, under jun- gle ; wliite-ants had nibbled at it, but did not seem to like it ; there was no decay ; and when dried again, the first sliaving taken off by a plane shewed the 1 lean sound wood at once. Singphos use it as a support under their chang floors, which is an argument in its favour. The seed is glittering black, and about the size of No. 1 shot : the seed case or lining has a most powerful aromatic smell. The peculiar property of the sap, which evidently undergoes some rapid chemical change on exposure to air and light, which seems to enable the wood to withstand dry-rot and ants, points to this tree as one worth the attention of the Forest Department. It should not only be reserved, but, as far as practicable, grown in all forest reserves. It stands to become a valuable Timber in the future. Melai, " Shorea pennicellata," (a Dipterocarpus) is perhaps one of the largest and finest forest-trees in Ea^itorn Bengal. I have measured them 13 ft. girtli at 10 ft. up, where round, and 100 in the stems, clean and true as masts. The foliage forms a dense round head, that looks small in proportion. Leaves are from 6 to 8" long by 3 or 4," and (he veins are strong and regularly parallel. The bark is brown and rough, and the globular seed, of an inch diameter, has two large lobes, or wings, rising parallel from the end, and curvin.s; out. In falling, these act as blades of a screw, a rapid rotation opening them wider, so as to retard the fall. In this way the wind — that breaks them off so high up, — is able to blow them a considerable distance ere they reach the ground. Though found in the mixed pLiin-forestg here and there, it is far more common near and on the lower hills, where it seems to be gregarious. Saplings of it, not a foot thick at the ground, are yet at times 50 ft. liigh, and seem to show that this tree gained its characteristics, in certain features at least, through being so drawn up in forests of its own kind, mainly. The great height and clean stem were evidently not differentiated in low, mixed forest. A good sample of Mekai forest is a grand sight, with the leaf-canopy away up so high, .ind there being often so tew small trees or foliage below. The enormous stems rise all around, and are easily seen. If anything, the tree is so large as to be unwieldy, and it is not felled for sawing. Of course, where they can be easily felled and taken out, the natives till recently dug them into canoes, and though it may sound barbarous to waste 5-6th of a stem in chips, there is some excuse when we see them decaying and falling naturally, through not being worked out ere their time is up. Perhaps the most profitable use they could be put to is to cut up for tea-boxes, if only the requisite- steam-machinery was near enough. A large Mekai tree, if all used up for tea-boxes, should give a profit-return of fully Rs. 200=350 boxes, 9,000 superficial feet \ in stuff. It is a wood, also, that appears good for the purpoge, \l we j udge by itg planking, whgn dry. ( 233 ) The heart is a light broWn or grey, ami not very heavy, while also prelty strong. So far it is rarely felled or used, except for boats, Sum, " Macbilus odoratissimus," is one of the comraonost and most characteristic trees in Assam, and thrives in a country that is only half out o[ water over largo areas. It is the tree on which Mooga silkworms are reared, and is greuarious, As a rule, it might be supposed that Sum was a rather small tree, but in suitable forest it is often found running 4 and 5 feet in girth and 30 in the bole. The tree is seldom quite straight, though not very crooked, and has a large heavy head of foliage. Eark is brown and rough, at times greyish. This tree seems particularly liable to be broken — stem and branches — by wind. It is a bad tree to have among Tea ; and a Garden that has been opened on Sumoni may expect fully 50 per cent, vacancies ere all the stems have rotted and the stumps died out. In clearings of the 2nd and 3rd year, each Sum-tree will generally be found to have killed ten ten-trees (on an average). As many as 40 vacancies and dead tea-bushes have been counted as due to one stem and its stump and roots. But Sum makes uncommonly good tea-boxes,— -a little heavy, but very tough ; it also makes excellent charcoal. Clearings for tea in Sumoni should be avoided ; and where a Sum is found, it is best at once to dig it clean out; and burn stem, stump, and branches. The roots of Sura are a dense matted mass near the surface, and plants rear have small chance in competition, when it is alive. Its injurious qualities for Tea, however, are greatest after its death ; and an old Sum-log lying in a row of Tea li.'is killed every one of the tea-trees near it in the row, covering the roots with a dark rough crust, evidently a disease of the root-bark. Dead MoJar (Eri/thrina Indika) at times causes the same disease and death. Hingor, " Castanopsis," is a very common tree in Assam and the countries nround. There are several species, — C. Rufescens, C. Indika, C. Ar<]enti, and C. Trihnloides, one that causes great tribulation to those going bare-footed over the spined seeds. When travelling east and west of Daphapani in the Singphu country, in January 1882, my party had 3 days of it on them. Aiter the first day of these Hingory-seeds, every soul in the party made knowing sandals, and started next morning jubilant (for the first mile or so) — sandals of simol bark, thick and tough, saudals of flat creepers, sandals of spilt wood, — quite an exhibition. At last I first one, then another, catching his toe in a root, went sprawling, " nose, knuckles, and knees," all full of the thorns — enjoyment for those who had not so far "gone a cropper;" but at last all the sandals li.id departed with a whiz through the air, followed by vernacular curses, and they all hobbled on like a string of cripples. C. Rufescens has the young foliage reddish, and the seed-case densely covered with fine needles : the leaf, 5" x 2," is also serrated, and the veins shew strongly on the back : (leaf-stalk in all, short.) C. Tribuloides has a seed-case covered by sharp, strong, and thick spines; leaf 4 to 5 X li or li", not serrated. Seed of Eehinocarpus tilliaceous, or Phnl hingory, is also covered with needle-spines, and the whole Group allied to the oaks and chestnuts have wood more or less like oak. They run to 6 feet in girth, with a clean shaft for about 30 to 40ft, tolernbly straight, and then generally at once fork into large branch- es. The bark is somewhat fibrous, dark grey outside, and \ to | in. thick. The wood towards the centre gets dark and hard, with strong smell of Tannin ; and in old trees the heart often decays first, and leaves a hollow. When clearing, once, where there wi-re many Hingorys, I fired the felled jungle, and burnt all by evening, but about midnight we were roused by a dull roaring, and on going out, a huge column of sparks was shooting up from the top of a large dead Hingory, fully 200 ft. high, as though out of a tall chimney, and no fire seen below, — the whole forest wonderfully lit up for a long way round. On getting close, we found a hole at the foot where the air enter- ed, and the fire had got to the powdery inside, and resulted in a huge " firework." .Asa rule Hingory will stand as a post 3 years, but is so second-rate that 1 have not put it .among the trees fit for posts. It makes excellent planking, nor. good boxes, and execrable cliaicoal, splittirg np into thin Ihikes and powder. It is bad iu Tea, and dwarfs the growth of all the bushes around or under it. ( ^'34 ) llirih, or Siris, is one of n Group alluded to before as allied to Eoroi [Aca- cias]. Moj and Saw, also Medelloa, are others of the group — peculiar in foliage, seed; growth, and qualities. The heart-woods of Koroi, Saw, Hirih, and Moj, are remarka- bly alike both in appearance and quality. Hirih generally grows tall, has a clean shaft, and forks. The branches rather long and thin — a character carried out even to the branclilets, giving the tree an open growth. It is easily known by its very peculiar bark, pule grey and covered with horizontal markings. If rubbed hard by the hand, or a stick, the outer flakes of grey come off, and shew a cork-like structure and color, quite unlike any other tree. The inner bark is \ in. thick, and fibrous ; sap-wood white, 2 or 3 in thick ; and the heart natural-brown color, that turns grey-brown when dry. The wood is conspicuously fibrous and strong. I onoe had a tall tree of it close to my honse, towards the north-west side, and dreading tlie well-known " Nor-westers," often asked Assamese if 1 had better not cut it down, us it would have collapsed the whole house if it fell. They invariably told me it would never snap off, though so tall and exposed, nor the branches break. It weathered several bad storms that, snapped the Soom-trees near, like carrots. I should say that for girders, and work where there is great cross strain, this wood is particularly good. The foliage is a number of small leaflets, in pairs each side of a midrib : the seed in a flat pod. It is said to last well in the ground, i. e. good for 6 or 7 years, probably. Saw, "Acacia stipularis," is very like the preceding in general appearance, though forking more regularly into 2 and 2. The leaflets of Saw are also very small. It has its name from the large crimson stipules or sheaths at the foot of the leaf-stalks ; when young and soft, these l>end over. Elephants are passionately fond of these shoots, and the most nervous kutoha-trained elephant will eventually get quite spoony on any-one who habitually feeds it with Saw-shoots. The contrast between the sap and heart-wood of this tree is quite remarkable. Saplings, or young saw-trees, are the rotten 3st wood I know, yet the heart of mature ones lasts for many years, exposed to all weathers. In 1881 I took a small sample from an " old log" that I found in making clearances in 1SC5. I have seen several cases like it The heart-wood is also as light as it is lasting, and a Dug-out " Rob Eoy" of it, 12 feet X 22, weighed only 22 fbs., and lasted me many years. If used under water it is said to last for ever! and this is singular, considering that it is one of the lightest woods we know, The color and grain is not unlike rosewood, which is particularly heavy. It generally astonishes those who see it, especially if the plank is mislaid for a year. It will be found curled up in all directions, with a surface like a door-mat. IIoj ( Inga Bigemena) — This is a fine Tree, and at times attains a girth of 6 feet, with a bole or shaft 40 or 45 feet, not always straight or upright: nevertheless, it is a useful wood for many purposes. It lasts in the ground somewhat better than the Jamokt;, probably: so is occasionally used as a post Thehrart-wood is a dark brown, and turns lighter as it dries ; it is very strongly and abruptly divided from the white sap-wood. In general appearance and style oE growth, Moj is somewhat like Koroi and Hirih; the heart-wood also is much the same in grain and quality, and the most conspicuous difference is in the bark and foliage, the latter especially. The bark is even, greyish and has no tendency to flake, nor has it the horizontal markings of Hirih. The disk- like seeds, I inch across, are in a flat pod 6 or 8 inches long x 1 inch wide. The foliage has generally five leaflets, 2 or .3 inches long x 1 or 1-^ inch wide, en- tire, and pointed, on a leafstalk ; these latter often fork, and have a peculiar little wart, or gland, near the insertion where the stem joins the branch. The flowers (out in Jnne) are like small tufts of cotton, and not conspicuous. As a wood ibis good for planking, battens, steps, &c. ; but, like the Acacias, it is not easy to work, unless tools are in beautiful order. Medeloa (Acacia elatn), — This Tree grows very like its allies — Koroi and Hirih; has the same open head, long thin branches, seldom straight, and has a tendency to fork low down. It has no heart-wood, and seems of the same white color and even texture all through. The bark is drab or grey color, and rough, inclined to flake at ^thinch: ( 235 ) it lies in'layers like fcrown paper, and is a total of ^ of an inch thick. The young foliage (oat in May — June) is at first very pale green, and turns to a deep blue-green. 'J'ho leaflets, 2 inches by 1 inch oval, and not pointed, are entire, ;'. e., not serrated at the edge, and are set alternately right and left on the leafstalk, which in young shoots has two stipules or sheaths -j inch long. The pods are 3 or 4 inches by 1 inch, and thin. It is a good wood for boxes and charcoal ; but being so like, and so closely allied to, the foregoing trees, I place it here for more ready comparison. It also makes good pl.-inking, I believe. /:?M/o7i(7(Dipterooiirpu3 Bandii). — This Tree, from its size, straightness, and free- dom from branches, should rank as an important one. I must confess to knowing very little about its qualities as a wood. I see it called " inferior" in our Conservator's List. It is seldom seen in the plains, and is more generally found on the skirts of the hills and among the lower ranges, where it occasionally attains a height of some 70 or 80 feet in the bole, with a girth of 10 or 12. As a rule it is remarkably upright and straight, with a bare shaft ; the foliage all in a dense rounded head, that often looks small compared to the size of the trunk. Like Mekai, to which it is closely related, Hnlong grows more or less in patches; the seed and leaf are also like those of Mekai, already described. As far as I can ascertain, it makes good charcoal, and would be good for planks, joists, and upper savrn-work of houses. From the name, one would suppose that it was at one time largely used for canoes, and occasionally boats of it are seen, but the large trees of it, where near rivers, have all been felled and carried off. It should be a good wood to saw, and valuable for boxes ; a fairly large tree would probably give 200 tea-chests. Hitika 01 Hartuki (Terminalia Citrina). — This is one of a g'onp of 4 or 5 large trees that are fairly common in Assam, as far as I can see, as follows: — 1 Hilika, or Hortuki — Terminalia citrina 2 Hdika ... — Terminalia tomfiitosa, 3 Holoh, or Jhalna — Terminalia bicolorata. 4 Biiumra, or BoHora — 2'. Belerica (I believe.) 5 Urjan ... — T. Arjuna, In most of these the sap is very astringent, with a large amount of tannin in the bark and seeds. The dried fruit of 2'. belerica are sent home for tanning leather, as niyrobolams. Nos. 1 and 2 are occasionally large trees, 40 and 50 feet in the bole and 6 in girth, fairly straight ; but the main stem in all, except No. 4, generally breaks up in the head into large branches. Trees may be roughly classed, as to growth, into A. Those with long clean stems crowned by a small head, as Sotiana, Alstonia, Scholaris ; or Mekai — Sliorea penicellata. B. Those with central stem right through, and lateral branches lower, as Nahor, Mesna ferrea, Roughu, Nauolea cadamba, Simol, &o. C. Those having a clean stem thit ends at base of the crown, and at about half the total height, as Sahm, Artocarpus, Sopas, Michelia, Hiiigory, &c. D. Those, lastly, with little or no main stem, or that often fork low down, as Carya arborea, Falah, .\mluki, Phyllianthus emblika, &c. Holoh or Jhalna (T. Bicolorata). — This Tree, found in the mixed plain-forests, is also seen often near rivers, and generally exceeds the others in size : hence is used for canoes. It is a fairly good wood for all general purposes, and buildings, if not put in the ground. Bhumra, or Boliora (T. beleric!i) is generally very straight and clear in the stem; often branches somewhat radially like Simol. It is found 50 to 60 feet in the bole by 5 and 6 in girth, and is a tall tree ; the bark drab-color, inclined to flake (like Gohora, Preinna hir). The leaf is 4 to 5 inches by 2, not unlike Tea, but not serrated ; and the flowers, small and in dense brandies, emit the most liorrilile smell. One good sniff at the flowers of Bhumra vyUI fix this tree fur ever iu the memory of the most forgetftd ! ( 236 ) Urjan (T. Arjana) — I see plunteJ alongthe rondsiJes near thn stdtion of Sibsagar; it is also in Lower Assam. It seems to fork low, and has a bark like a Jar or Jural ; and tliis is all I know of it. I have received a copy of Mr. Gamble's fine Work on '' Indian Timbers," and in looking over it am surprised to see how very difficult it is to identify many of our Trees from the description. This is partly due to the fact, that, in many cases, the local, or at least Aasiun names are not given ; in some cases, also, there is no des- cription of the seed, flower, or leaves. The rings, pores, and medullary rays, are usually very fully described, but it would hardly do for your planter readers to cut the tree down to find out what it is. We need outward and visible signs, and easy external means, of identifying our Trees, and that will stand good more or less all the year round. For instance, at one time of year there is the flower, later on the fruit and seed. If these are taken to- gether with the foliage and the bark, added to the general aspect, one need not be very far wrong. As an instance I may mention the group of Sopaa (or Michelia), of which I find five in the Book — not one of whicli can I recognize with certainty, as the seed- cone or spike is not mentioned in any, and it is the best and safest guide to go by in this Group. Also we have probably 9, and possibly 12 Sopas ; so, many are omit- ted. I understand Mr. G.inible will consider these matters in future Editions, imd really the space to slightly describe the seed, flower, and leaf, need not be very great. I had purposely refrained from writing until 1 had looked into the Book. But I ■will now go on, and do my best. There is a group of fine Trees allied to the Cedrela or Toon, and the Mahogany, that I will take up. In it we have the Amari, Gendeli-poma, Bandor Dema, Hindur Poma, &c. Amari, " Amoa spectabilis," is at times a really magnificent Tree, and an equally magnificent timber for furniture and such work : at times it reaches 50 feet in the shaft or bole, with a girth of 8 or 9 feet, and quite straight. I have seen an Amari felled across akliiul, and it formed a fine 60-foot bridge. A piece IG feet lon.g was cut off the butt-end, that was sawed down into a slab, 3 feet wide by 1 thick, for a liob-Roy canoe. I planed > cross-wise) a part of it, and the grain, figure, and color, ■were equal to the very best Spanish mahogany. Pianoforte-makers would gladly have given Us. 1,000 for the tree-stem, in Calcutta. The bark of this tree is nither thin, even, and grey, like Bandor Dema (" Guarea, or Disoxylum-binectiferum,") The flower I have not seen, but the leaflets are five or seven, in pairs on a stalk (and one at end,) entire and oblong ; the seed in open bunches like grapes, but with thick opaque-green skin. The tree seems to be a close ally of Mahogany, and why we shduld try to grow the latter so very persistenty and so abortively and expensioely ■when we have an equally fine or finer tree so like it, indigenous to India, I cannot imagine. Bandor Dema, from all I can find out, is Guarea or Disoxylum-binectiferum, and not, as far as I am aware, a very large tree. It reaches at times a girth of 5 feet, and has a tendency to branch. The stem is fairly straight, with a thin, even, .greyish bark ; leaflets entire, 2 or 3 inches long, in pairs, (10 or 12) on a stalk a foot to 18 inches long. Ihis tree is at once easily known, when in seed, by bunches of very red fruit like apples, hanging on stalks 4 or 5 inches long, that look very tempting. The seeds inside are like beans, 3, 4, or 5, and are deep purple, and encas- ed in a yellow aril or skin. Few animals or birds seem to eat them. The wood is hardish and dense, red, ,grey, or pink, making, I believe, good charcoal and planks. Gendeli-poma, which I believe is the Guarea allarea, callei also Disoxylum Ha- miltonii, is often an enormous tree. I have measured them 18 feet round at 10 feet up. As a rule, the bole is from half to ^ the total height, i. e., 40 to 45 feet (total say 90 to 120). The tree has a large and globular crown, with branches hanging down. The stem, straight as a rule, is covered by a browniah-red and very scaly bark; the scales' are large, lon.g, and attached at upper end. On cutting into the bark and wooil, the reason is at once obvious why it is call- ed Gendeli, as it has a most unpleasant smell, which, once cxporiouocd, will not bo ( 237 ) forwntten. Tlip leaflets (17 to 23 or so) are entire ami pointed, in pairs, along a central leaf-stalk, and are 2 to 3 inches long. The seeJa like green plums, in au open bunch on long stalks. The wood is pale reddish-brown, close, even, nnd heavy ; but I have no experience of its durability : it is reported not to last well, though it may do so as planking, in a dry place. I have reason to think it must be the tree we see in lists and books as the ■' Boo;a Poma" of Assam. This name is, I see, applied to another of the Pomaa (or Cedrela) that has much darker and red wood, and that, I have reason to believe, is the Henduri Poma — Chickrassia Tabularis. I see in Mr. Gamble's Book that this tree is called "Roga Poma," and our ordinary Poma {i. e. Jati Poma) is called "Hen- duri Poma." I think it probable that these are mistakes, i.e. that the Boga Poma is Gendeli, ^it is pale for a Poma) and I have never heard the name "Henduri" as applied to our ordinary Jati Poma. Again, the Chickrassia Tabularis is conspicu- ous in all ways for redness ; the sap is like thin blood ; the inner bark is like layers of deep crimson paper. The sap-wood is, if anything, a darker red than the heart of the other Pomiis, and the heart-wood when wet a deep red, and when dry turns light- er, but has a beautiful lustre peculiarly like the sheen of satin-wood. Ag.iin, the flowers yield a red dye, and the young shoots of the early foliage are a most brilliant crimson against the sky. For these reasons I associate this Tree with the name " Hendur," the Assamese name for the red-powder of the bazars. The bark of Henduri Poma outside is very like that of Jati Poma, (Cedrela Toona) rather darker ; and if the same is not cut, might be confounded with it. The foliage, when mature, is much the same. The fruit is about the size of an egg, and hangs by stems, three or four together. The outer part ^ to ^ inch, thick, roots off, and leaves a hard case, that eventually splits at the point that hangs down, and, opening, allows the winged seeds to escape. There is little or no sap-wood in this Tree, and for furniture it should vie with Amari, us it is hard and dense, with a beautiful sheen in the grain that few woods possess. I have seen this Tree 40 ft. in the bole and 10 in girth. There is another tree belonging to this group, called HilaPoma (not to be confounded with the Sila Poma, which is our Lawa, Engleliardtia Roxburghiana). It has a thin grey even bark, and foliage not unlike Bandor Dema ; the wood is softer, and makes good charcoal. Another Tree, the growth and bark of which is very like Bandor Dema, has ser- rated leaflets, and the fruit, in open bunches, turns yellow, and is the size of a crab- apple. In considering the suitability of Wood for Tea-boxes, several qualities have to be kept in view, the disregard of which may end in occasional or systematic loss. It has to be borne in mind, for instance,! that most of the boxes that leave the Tea-districts have not only to stand a certain amount of rough usage en route to Cal- cutta, but often an equal or even greater amount ere they reach the retailer : therefore a comparatively strong wood is needed. Freight, again, has to be paid on the entire package, and hence a very heavy wood is not desirable ; so that a comparatively light yet strong wood is necessary, Bnt this is not all ; many timbers are both light and strong, and yet are very unsuit- able, through splitting so readily, and hence we need a certain amount of toughness. Many kinds of wood are very strong — but generally too heavy ; many again are very light, yet split at the slightest provocation : we need the three' qualities, as .far as possible, combined, i e. strength, lightness, and toughness. One of the lightest woods we have is Simol (Bombyx) or cotton-tree, and I have known whole chests made of it weigh only 121bs., though the wood was ^ an inch thick. Boxes are ofteu made of it, that are sent home ; and if cut, say 5 inches thick, it might be fairly safe if well put together. It is, however, liable fo split if it receives hard knocks. One of the best woods for boxes is Roghu, formerly Nauclea kadamba or Kodom, " Anthocephalus kadamba," — called Kodom in Bengali, and Halamba in Cingalese. When seasoned, it is fairly light, strong, and tough. In Assam it generally has a tolerably straight, clean stem, 30 to 40 feet long, which is continued up through the head or crown, the latter composed of a mass of radial branches. ( 238 ) As a rule the head oE foliage is domml, and the lower branches have a tendency to droop and hang down all around. Roghu is one of the very few trees that gen- erally carries its stem, or central axi^, right through the crown to the very summit; and when young, it is very symmetrical. ExternaDy, the bark is dark brown or grey, and fissured by cracks longitudinally; inside, it is a brown or dark dun-color. When young, the bark is particularly clean and smooth, of a pale-grey green. There is no heart, and the wood is yellowish-white, soft and even in texture, easily cut, whether green or seasoned. The leaves are stiff, large and entire, pointed, and with short footstalk ; on old trees they are from 8 to 10' long x 5 or 6' wide — much larger on young trees ; and I have measured one 31' long x 20' wide, on a one-year old plant 10 ft. high. The flowers are small, and clustered in a ball, 2' diameter, that ripens about Oc- tober. Eoghu has several peculiarities worth recording ; the growth is remarkably rapid for the first six or eight years, becomes slower on to twenty, and then is very slow. During the first two or three years it grows some 10 feet per annum in height, while the girth in same period is often an inch per month. I have cut 10' planks for box- es out of Roghus only 8 years old, and am now felling a good many that are 16 yetir.^ old, and at six feet up measure an average of 5 to 5' 5" girth, while at 30 feet up they measure 8' 8" in girth. Up to eight or ten years old it grows so rapidly as to be ■worth planting; but after fifteen or twenty years, is so slow that it is most profitable to fell when about twelve years old. Another peculiar feature of this tree is the difficulty of propagating it from seed, while at the same time it springs up in millions, naturally, on new clearances. I once estimated that I weeded out 450,000 Roghu seedlings on 25 acres of clearance. Tak- en altogether, this Tree is one of our best for Tea-boxes, both on account of ils natu- ral qualities us a wood, and us a tree ; and the pity seems that it is not more exten- sively grown by Planters and Government, especially as it takes such a short time to reach useful size. It is on this latter account that I place it first on the list of Box timbers. Sotiana, " Alstonia scholaris" — called in Bengali Chatin, and Hind. Satni, Cha- tiwan in Ni|iali — is very good Box-wood, thnugh somewhat lighter and more brittle than Roghu. The tree has a peculiar growth, i. e. a remarkably tall and branchless stem, surmounted by a dense and globular liead, that generally looks small in compa- rison to the size of the stem, 80' hii^'h by 8' in girth. The bark is a drab grey, toler- ably even in the main, but with small reticulations that give a roughish texture : the sap is milky. The leaves are 5 or 6' long x 1 or lA' wide, smooth, entire, and lanceolate, set in whorls. The flowers are small and tubular — cream-colour — scented, and the seeds in long thin pods. The wood when fresh is particularly easy to work, is whitish, or creara-colour, and has no markings or grain. It is said to be difficult to season, but I have not experienced it. If cut in wide slabs 1 to li inches thick, it makes beautiful draw- ing-boards. Being clean, even in texture and colour, liesides fairly light and strong, it makes very good tea-boxes, tliough it should not, for this purpose, be less than | in. thick. Dry boxes of sotiana weigh about 20 to 25 lbs. each. ,_ Patihonda, " Oinnamomum obtusifolium" — cidled Ramtezpat, Beng. ; Eara Sin- goli, Lepcha, — is another very tjood wood for Tea-boxes. It is a little heavier than Roghu or Sotiana, and much the same strength and colour. It is a beautiful wood to work in, and has very little grain or crossness in the fibre ; also no heart-wood. I have never seen this Tree very large, and it seems to have a clear stem and irregular head, some branches rising from the stem below the true crown. The bark is reddish grey, ^ inch thick, and aromatic, the tree belonging to the Cinnamon tribe. The leaves are easily recognized by having but three conspicuous veins and a blunt point, or rounded tip ; they are thick, shiny, and aromatic, G or 8' Ion" by 3J,-.' ( 239 ) The Patihonda, often called Honda Gos, is pretty commonly scattered in the forests, but it is not gregarious, and Assamese do not seem to use it maoli except for charcoal. It is, however, like Uoghu and Sotiana, a capital wood for planking of all sorts, provided it is kept from the weather. Neither this tree nor Sotiana grow quick- ly, and, as far as I can see, neither would be suitable for plantations. The Patihonda, too, does not always grow quite straight, but has generally a bend in the stem somewhere. In my last I drew attention to Roghu, or Kodom, formerly " Nauclea Kadam- ba," as one of our best box-timbers ; also to Sotiana Chutni, or " Alstonia scholaris," and Patihonda, which is " Cinnamomum obtusifolium." I omitted to notice that tlie last is called Obtusifolium, — perhaps in consequence of the way in which the points of the leaves are damaged. I have frequently searched the foliasce of a felled tree for an entire leaf, and ge- nerally failed to get even one perfect, — all seem eaten by some insect. It would be interesting to know if this peculiarity is local or common. Poma — " Cedrela tuna," or the Tun-tree, before noted, is an excellent box- wood ; it is both light and strong, though not very tough. Unfortunately it is not a very common tree, and if used for boxes, the supply would likely run short. It is easily propagated, and grows rapidly, so that it is a good one to have in reserve. It is apt to split in felling, unless care is tnken. Poma boxes weigh about from 20 to 251bs., and this is not the same wood that comes to us as " Cedar" from Burma : the latter is heavier, harder, and less attacked by white-ants. Sum, or " Machilus odoratissima," I have already noticed as a good box-wood. It is strong and tough, but rather too heavy compared to Koghu, Poma, and other woods. A whole chest of Sum, when dry, weighs 30 lbs., and a 21 inches cube (out- side measure), about 35 lbs. Being the tree on which muga silkworms are reared, the felling of it is prohibit- ed on Waste-lands, and the supply is thus limited to that on Grants under Pee- eimple. It does not grow particularly fast, nor yet straight, so is not worth planting for box-making. Kohan, " Duabanga Sonneratoides," or the Bander bulla of Bengal, according to Mr. Gamble, is a good box-wood, being light, strong, and tough. The tree is easily recognized by its peculiar growth. The stem generally rises bare, and the crown is composed of long branches, carrying a lot of large leaves : these branches, also, seldom fork, and at a little distance the tree often looks very like a Palm. It is not very common in the plains, and is more generally seen on the lower slopes and spurs of hills, and near rivers. Mas Koita is a largish tree, the wood of which is very good for boxes, but the botanical name of which I cannot yet find out. I have seen them 30 feet in the bole, with girth of 5 and 6 feet. The bark is grey and roughish, :|- to | inch thick. There is no heart, and the wood is a dirty white, — clean, even grain, light, and strong. The leaves are 6 or 7 inches long by 2^ inches ; lanceolate, serrated, and white underneath ; by which it can be recognized. It flowers in May and Juue, and the seeds are clusters of small purple berries, the size of No 4 shot, Sasi or East (Hind. Ugiir) " Aquillaria-agallochn," is a tree the wood of which is so very light, that, in these days of exorbitant freights and small dividends, I feel inclined to recommend for boxes. A few years ago I should have thought it too soft, and not lasting. I have, however, now the most conclusive proof on several hands that, if kept from exposure while seasoning:, it lasts remarkably well, and, strange to say, seems, when cut up and dry, to resist the attack of white-ants : it is even said to do this before it is seasoned, and in many Estates is split up, and used for walls of houses that are afterwards mudded, — a very severe test indeed. As a tree, Sasi grovfs generally tall and straight, with a clear shaft (if in forest) and a conical head. This is the tree often barked by the natives for writing on, as the bark is thin and tough, and very even in surface and texture. I have often, also, when camping out, seen my men go and cut themselves large mattrasses, and even coun- ( 2-10 ) terpaiiPS of it, and Iny thorn on ferns. The tree is gpiierally round and not grooved ; anil, to bark it, a series of cuts nre made in a circle below, and another ring o£ cuts above, at 5 or 6 feet ; these are then connected by one vertical cut, and the barlt roll- ed back right and left, till the entire piece is ofi, leaving the stem bare, smooth, and white. The tree does not seem to resent this, but appears rather to like it, and thrive under this skinning process. The leaf, 4 x 1, is lanceolate, entire, and smooth. A peculiarity of the wood seems its freedom from the attacks of insects, and mildew or rot ; it is however very soft, tongh fairly though and strong, becoming harder as it dries ; and if used for tea-boxes, should be of planking f inch thick, when the box would weigh from 18 to 20 lbs. only. I hope to cut up some Sasi ere long, and shall have a tew boxes ma;le up of it as an experiment. As the tree grows naturally fast and straight, it seems one well worthy tlie attention of the Forest Department. The tree often attains a great size— 6 and 8 feet in girth by 40 in the shaft. I pre- sume it is the same tree as on page 316 of Mr. Gamble's "Indian Timbers," as natives report that it often has " irregular masses" of scented wood inside the old trees. GaJiori Sopa, Miohelia Sp., called a Champa, though not much like the majority of them, is fairly good wood, pretty common, of good size, and straight. It has no heart, but right through is white, soft, and even, — more or less destitute of ring- markings ; is also light, and pretty strong. The tree generally is straight, and 30 to 40 feet long in the bole by 5 to 6 feet in girth : onter bark dark grey or neutral color, with longitudinal markings — very like the bark of Konka Sopa. The flower is extremely small, and quite unlike the Sopas ; the leaf is 5 to 6 inches 1^ by 2, entire and pointed, with footstalk an inch long ; veins conspicuously parallel. It dies yellow, then black. The other Sopas have leaves much the same as to size and shape, but they die brown. The general growth is not as a rule peculiar, though I once saw a Gahori Sopa that had escaped the many accidents and enemies that all trees are liable to, and the regularity with which the branches radiated in fives, at every 4 to 5 feet up throngh the crown to the top, was most extraordinary. Taken all round it is perhaps, as a rule, the most irregular in its growth of all the Sopas. I have liad sawyers complain that it is not easy to cut up ; this I do not believe. It is simply not quite so easy as Simol, nor so " cheesy" as Sotiana or Roghu ; it is however rather more fibrous in grain, and involved, but as we do not plane up onr box- es, this does not matter. Boromthuri, which is closely allied to the Sopas, or Miohe- lia, called "Magnolia Sphenocarpa," is very good for Tea-boxes. It is a tail deci- duous tree, and, like its allies, the foliage is bunched radially at the ends of branch- lets, from whence, also, the flowers eventnally issue ; these latter are like those of the Sopas in form and odour, but much larger. It is called an Evergreen, I see, by Mr. Gamble (on page 5 of the " Indian Timbers"), but here in Assam it sheds its leaves about March. The young leaf-shoots, as a bunch, are all enclosed in a sheath like » " thuria" (or silver ear-plug) : hence the name. These thuris are collected by Nogag at Bihu in April, and sold or exchanged to Assamese, who chew them with sali, hav- ing an aromatic taste. The leaf is very large, and often 15 inches by 6 inches. The wood of Boromthuri is white, rather soft, very even in grain right through, and fairly light and strong : also not fibrous, like G. Sopa. It is excellent for Tea-box shocks, but, like so many other woods, will not bear exposure to wet if used as planking. Rudai, called also Rudrak, is " Elosocarpus Ganitrus," the tree that yields the so- called Brahmini beads, made into rosaries, and often seen trying to grace the persons of those criminally-filthy impostors called faquirs. The wood of Rudai is particular- ly even and white, — one of the whitest I know, so tar, — and works, as far as I have known it, easily, with straight and fine grain ; is strong and tough. The tree is gene- rally tall, and branches above, not unlike the Roghu, having also a straight stem, 30 to 40 feet in the bole by 5 in. girth. It has a thin dark bark, and the leaves, 5 inches by 1 inch, seem long and narrow, pointed like bamboo, and serulated or slightly ser- rated ; footstalk \ an inch long. The flowers are small, and hang like a row of 10 or 20 little bells on a small stalk, the seed being the well-known bead, rough and hard, I of an inch diameter. Toloa, Eloeocarpus, is another large tree of the same kind, though different in ap- pearance and detail. Generally it has a clean stem 40 to 45 feet long, heavily but- • ( 211 ) tressed at the ground, and in girlh attains to 5 and 6 feet. The head of foli:ige is dense and globular ; the bark is dark-grey, ^ inch thick, and oven. The tree is easily- recognized by its leaf, 8 inches or 10 inches long by 3 inches, with footstalk of one inch, bulbed where it joins the leaf, and again enlarged at the attachment to the branch. It is somewhat pear-shaped and pointed, and dies a bright-red to brown. The flowers are like tliose of Rudai, but larger ; and the fruit, like a small green plnm, hangs in bunchep. The wood of Totoa is whitish-pink, tolerably soft, but hea- vier than Rudai ; there is no heart. " Elceocarpns Aristatus," or Poreng, another of this Group, is generally too small to be of much use as a box-timber. Phul Kat is another Eloeocarpus, conspicuous for its profusion of blossom, but is seldom very large in the stem : the wood very white, even, soft, and light ; leaves with much longer footstalk, and, like the others, die bright crimson ; the wood is apt to split. Jalpai, or Sakalang, ■' Eloeocarpus Lancefolius," is another of this Group, a very largo tree, and said to be good for boxes. Very likely true, but I cannot vouch for it. Bheht, or Kondlo, is, I see, called by Mr. Mann, our Forest Conservator, " Tori- cellin Tiliapolia," an immense tree, with a girth up to 20 feet, and tiiU in proportion. The stem often runs up clear for 60 or 70 feet, clean and round, the foliage generally in a globular crown ; bark, ^ inch thick, is of a clean grey color, granulated. There is no heart, and the wood is the same all through, and a yellowish-white color : very little grain, or markings, or fibre ; it is soft, light, and easy to work — but attacked oc- casionally by insects, called guns, so badly, as to be reduced in a year to a mass of powder ; no doubt if seasoned this would not occur. It is said to go this way if cut during full moon. Bheln is such a large tree, and so short in texture, that unless felled with care, the stem may snap or be " shaken" in several places. The leaves are heart-shaped, 6 or 8 by 4 inches, pointed, and on a long stalk, turning deep yellow when dead. The flowers are in masses on a terminal spike, and very minute. It is very easily sawn, but, being so large, is at times not easy to handle. I have never yet used it for tea-boxes, but I am told it is good for that purpose, and is clean, easily worked, and light ; a large tree of it, also, would give quite 100 to 150 Tea-boxes. I note Mr Gamble calls it " a small tree," at page 211. This shews how much we need a visit from that gentleman, ere he gets out a second edition of his " Indian Timbers." It is astonishing what a large number of trees there are in these forests that, so far, seem uukuown, Some have no local name, even ; and though large, are rare. S. K Peal. SECTION XXL PACKING. Size of Packages for Foreign Markets. The Packing of Indian Tea. Packages and Size of Bkeaks. Miscellaneous. Tin Tea Boxes. ( 245 ) SIZE OF PAOKAGES FOR FOREIGN MARKETS. If any argument were wanted to impress upon our readers interested in Tea the all-importance of not sending ivhole chests of tea to the Australian market, the following table, extracted from the Comparative Statement of Stocks in Bond at Melbourne at the end of the years 1880, 1881, and 1882, given in the Australasian Trade Review of January 17, 1883, would furnish it : — 1882. 1881. 1880. Chests ... 6,774 1,171 1,614 Half-chests ... 179,108 163,126 68,466 Boxes ... 122,021 146,647 45,172 We have very little doubt that the increase in 1882 (six times the number of 1881) is owing to the mistake made by Indian exporters, and the figures above given will show that there is simply no demand for whole chests, and any one who now sends these, does so with his eyes open, and must not be surprised if he throws away good tea. It will be seen that although the number of whole chests is but a very small percentage of the whole, yet the market is unable to absorb them without, as advices indicate, a serious loss to exporters from this country. This also points to the fact that the population of Australia is scattered, and that families up country send for the half-chests and boxes for their own con- sumption, these sizes being convenient to handle, and not lasting too long. Another point against whole chests is, that being heavy, porters at the port of debarkation find them difficult to handle, and with a labour-market as indepen- dent as that of Australia, this is a most important matter. Although the question never appears to have arisen, it is a point worth the consideration of Tea-agency Houses in Calcutta, whether half-chests, which are so popular in the Colonies, would not find a ready sale in the London and other markets. THE PACKING OF INDIAN TEA. Size of Packages. — All packages weighing over 28 lbs. gross are subject to the draft of 1 lb. per package. Boxes grossing over 28 lbs. should if possible not be sent, as the draft and the loss by the system ot weighing amount to a heavy percentage on the contents of the package. Tea in boxes, if of good quality, na a rule realize on the home market from Id. to 3d. per lb. more than the same quality in chests. Half-chests are subject to the draft and loss by weighing, and as nearly the same quantity of Tea packed in a chest would only incur one loss by draft and weigh- ing, it is doubtful whether the slightly-enhanced price sometimes obtained would com- pensate the extra loss that occurs. Fine and Finest Teas often sell better in boxes and in half-chests, but any ma- terial increase in the quantities so packed will lessen this advantage. Where the Garden is small, or the quantity of Tea insufficient for fair-sized breaks, it is perhaps a better plan to pack in half-chests, so as to increase the number of packages, and en- sure a better clianoe of buyers seeing them. The smallest quantity placed on show at the Warehouseg for public sale, unless special orders are given, is 8 chests, or 8 ( 246 ) hfilf-chests, or 20 boxes : many buyers do not find it worth while to see breaks of less than 15 chests. Gross and Tare. — Teas, on first arriving at the Warehouses, are weighed for gross ; the contents of the chest are then turned oat, and the empty package together with its lid, lead, cramps, and hoops, are weighed to ascertain the tare, the Custom House authorities taking no notice of the Garden gross and tare. In weighing for gross, all fractions of a lb. are not reckoned ; and in taking the tare, any fractions of a lb, are reckoned as a lb. more, thus :— cwt. A chest weighs grops, say ... 1 the tare, say qr. lb. oz. 10 14 1 2 Exact weight cwt. qr. 1 1 or 01 lbs. 122 ■ 28 oz. 14 2 94 12 But the Customs enter the gross and the tare lbs. 10 or 1 or lbs. 122 29 On which amount duty is paid ... 93 Further, the buyer is allowed by the Importer draft to the extent of 1 lb., which reduces the weight to 92 lbs., or a total loss of 37o- The above Example, for the sake of an illustration, is somewhat extreme ; still it serves to shew what loss is liable to be incurred unless some attention is devoted to the weighing of the empty chests and of the Tea at the Garden. This heavy loss can be partly avoided by making the tare to be just below an even number of lbs., that js, had the tare been 27 lb. 14 oz. in- stead of 1 qr. lbs. 2 oz. in the Example given, and- the gross just over the lb., say 1 cwt. qr. 10 lb. 2 oz instead of 1 cwt qr. 10 lbs. 14 oz., the net weight, exclud- ing draft, would have been 94 lbs. Attempts should be made to fill up the packages so as to weigh somewhat over the lb. ; but when doing so, some allowance must be made, for the smaller the size of the Tea the greater the loss by leakage. If the tares are fairly even, it is allowed to turn out a certain proportion, usually 10 per cent., to ascertain an average tare for the whole break. This is an advantage if the Teas are carefully bulked in India ; but if the Teas are not bulked, or run un- evenly and the tares uneven, no advantage is gained, as in the one case all the Teas will have to be bulked, and in the other turned out to obtain separate tares. Paching Tea. — See that the lend lining of the boxes is free from holes. Pack the tea when perfectly dry ; after wliich, solder up sharp. Boxes, — Frequently, mistakes and oversight occur in this department. Boxes are ordered and sent up by the agents of soft and cheap wood, but they pruve very in- jurious to the tea. Why should one not get good boxes, such as teak-wood, which is g^enerally well seasoned, dry, and best adapted for tea-boxes, being neat, clean-joined, no shrinking or opening, as often is the case with boxes made of other woods. Teak- wood boxes may be a little expensive, but what is that tn what is attained — a good strong chest, not liable to shrink or warp, or be attacked by dry-rot ; and a lasting box After all the care in cultivation, manufacturing, ha,, fee , for teas to be packed and sent oft in soft-wood and common-wood boxes, is folly — " Penny wise and pound foolish." All boxes ought to have corner-pieces put in, which strengthen them ; and after being packed, uU to be bound with hoop-iron, and neatly marked. ( 2^17 ) PACKAGES AND MARKS. Owln^ to the convenient size and weiglit of the usual " half-chest" for carrying from the Garden, this partioular package is in favor with growers, but for estates which are near a means of transport, we certainly recommend full-sized "chests" of from 80 to 100 lbs. nett, as they are more liked by London dealers for home trade; some of the choicest kinds might be packed in "half-chests," or even " boxes." When packed in the latter, care should be taken not to let the gross exceed 28tb3., otherwise n loss equivalent to five per cent, in weight will result, owing to the trade custom of allow- ing 1 ib. draft on all packages over that weight. The only marks requisite on the packages are — the description of contents, Garden numbers, and the name of Garden, in preference to any elaborate device. SIZE OF BREAKS. As regards Sorting, the tendency to make as tew sorts as possible is gaining ground steadily, and we strongly advocate it, especially on small Gardens. We still look forward to the days of unassorted Tea, but the time for that has not yet arrived. The proportions of breaks under 20 chests in Garden invoices, and of subdivided lots in Calcutta purchases, has been less this season (1884). Now that it has been arranged that all parcels under 8 chests are sold by themselves after the Sale, it is the more necessary that the breaks should be large, so as to ensure the attention of all the buyers. For fine and finest 20 to 50 chests (or half chests), and 50 to 100 chests for common and medium descriptions, are the best. On the subject of Breaks, it may be remarked that while it is desirable to have these of a good size, the system of rebnlking in London renders it nniiecessary tbiit the tea in each break should be of uniform character and quality, so long as it is of the same class, and so long as unsound or very inferior teas are not mi.\:ed, or breaked, with sound and decidedly superior sorts. This admits of packing being carried on uninterruptedly with each day's teas, simply putting the chests containing each class by themselves till they are numerous enough to form a Break, which should not, if possible, consist of fewer than fifteen chests. Col. Money says, the larger the quantity of Tea of any one kind to be sold at one auction, the higher the price it will probably fetch. Sell, if possible, twenty or thirty chests of one kind of Tea at the same time, for small quantities, as a rule, sell below large, both in Calcutta and London. Dear Sib, — I must admit that the exteat fauaings, and Congou fannings, and broken to which multiplication of breaks is carried on tea and broken black ? makes it impossible to classify the auction _ The style of sieving varies so much that it sales in four or five columns. The Brokers are the is impossible to make & fair comparison. The best persons to know whether this is not in the rule I follow, which I believe is the general way of getting good prices. My Brokers value rule, is to sieve with No. 13 mesh wire-sieve my teas to be so much in a large break, and so for Broken Pekoe, with No. 10 for Pekoe, and much in a small break, and the difference is with No. 8 for Pekoe Souchong. What is fully 30V„. This is no slight matter, as you must still left on the stop is broken with No. 8, know. It is rather strange that most tea pro- and sieved with No. 10, for equalising it; prietors persist in disregarding the unanimous all fannings of Pekoe, Broken Pekoe, and advice in these respects. There should be a Pekoe Souchong, are mixed up with it ; this few breaks, say four, but every break should forms Broken Tea. I think this style of siev- be a large one, consisting of at least 1000 ing is the simplest and best. Some persons, lbs. of tea, at any rate,— two fine teas and when they have taken P. and B. P. from the two coarse teas, or two whole teas and two bulk with Nos. 10 and 13 sieves, break the rest broken teas. By sieving into, say, four on No. 8 sieves,JAffir( winnow) out the fannings, breaks, a break of lOOOlbs.of any description remove the heavy flat broken teas, and sieve is completed in half the time than it would it through No. 8 for equalisation, and call it take if teas were sieved into eight classes. Pekoe Souchong. There are others who sieve Thus, teas might be put into market sooner. the P. S. thus made with No. 10 ; what pu^s- Peopietalkof bulking: why not bulk Pekoe es through is mixed up with Pekoe, and the fannings, Pekoe Souchong fannings, Souchong rest is classed as Pekoe Souchong Ad Tat. l2 ( 248 ) TEA AND BOX TO BE WEIGHED AND NOTED SEPARATELY. Weight of Tea in each Box. — The boxes, ready lined, witli a lead cover, loose must be all weighed before the Tea is packed, and again after they are filled and Boldered down, but before the wooden lid is put on. The difference of these weights, minus the weight of the little solder used in fastening down the top lead (for which allow say one pound, to give a margin, also), will be the net weight of Tea in each box. The invoice you send with the break must give for each box the number, the gross weight, the tare, the net Tea, and the kind of Tea, with a declaration at foot that the Teas of each kind have been respectively well bulked and mixed together before packing. Equality of tares is the most important point to attend to in packing Teas. It ma,y be difficult, bnt with machine-sawn boxes nearly the same weight, any difference must be made up with extra hooping, lead, solder, or nails. Anyhow, it must be done, so that no tares shall differ more than half-a-pound. — Col. Monet/. PACK HOT, AND DRY THOROUGHLY. Whether you use sun or charcoal, put the Tea hot into the boxes. The only ob- ject of the final drying is to drive off the moisture which the Tea will certainly, in a more or less degree, have imbibed since its manufacture. Even the large zinc-lined bins which should be fitted up in all Tea stores, and in which the Tea is placed after manufacture, will not entirely prevent damp: so in all cases a final drying is necessary. Keep it in the sun, or over the charcoal, until it is hot throughout, hot enough to ensure all the moisture having been driven off. — Ibid. HOW TO FULLY FILL THE BOX. Then put into the box enough to about one-quarter fill it. Now, let two men rock the box, over a half-inch round iron bar, pliiced on the ground, until the Tea has well settled. Then place a piece of carpet over the Tea, the exact size of the box, and let a man stand inside and press it down a minute or two with his feet. Now fill up nearly another quarter, and press it again over the carpet as before. Repeat this, putting less and less into the box each time, as you near the top, until it is quite full, but do not rock it at all the last two or three times : only press it wiih the feet, as described. No patent screw-press, or anything else, will pack the tea better or more closely than this plan, I have seen a machine advertised for packing Tea, that is to say, for so pressing it down that a large quantity shall go into a chest. I huve never seen the machine, and so cannot say how it works, but I do not think such a machine at all nwoessary. As much Tea as a chest will hold with safety, should be put into it. If more were forced in, the chest would probably come to pieces in transit. — Ibid. COMPLETING THE PACKING. It is sometimes the custom to defer soldering and nailing down the lids of a break till the whole is ready for the process, but this should be avoided. Each chest should be finished off as it is ready, and not kept waiting for others. SIZES OP WOOD FOR TEA-BOXES. The ordinary chest, to contain 80 lbs. Pekoe Souchong, is made up of 16 boards as follows : — 1 Side— 24 by 6, 24 by 6, 24 by 7 =3 boards. 1 „ Ditto ==3 „ 2 Top and Bottom, 3 of 24 by 6 =6 „ 2 Ends, 2 of 17 by 9^=4 „ 16 boards, or ( 249 ) ten bofinls of 24 by 6, two of 24 by 7, four of 17 by 9|. Tlie ontsiJe mp.asnremflnt is 24 by 20 by 18, or exactly 5 cubic feet ; and tan of these go to a ton of 50 cubic feut. Some other outside measurements are — 100 ibs. Pekoe Souchong ... 24 by 22 by 20 60 „ do. ... 20 by 18 by 17 40 „ do. ... 19 by 19 by 13 25 „ do. ... 16 by 14 by 12 20 „ do. ... 15 by 15 by 11 10 „ do. ... 11 by 11 by 11 SIZES OF TEA-LEAD. Sizes are 37 inches by 22 inches, boxes of 2 cwt. = 12G sheets. 25 „ by 19 „ „ „ „ = 210 „ A full-sized Tea-chest of five cubic feet takes two slieets of each of above sizes For 100 chests 1'58 box of largo and -95 box of small lead are thus required; or, for all practical purposes, one-and-a-half box of large, and one box of small lead per 100 Tea-chests. SOLDERING TEA-LEAD. The following is the easiest and cheapest way of soldering tea-lead, and one that an ordinary native understands, and does very well : — First cut the lead so as to ex- actly fit the inside of the box : edges of sheets must slightly overlap. Three pieces are required : one long piece, that covers two sides and the bottom, and two small side pieces. Now, with the fingers or a flat bit of wood the packer smears the overlap- ping ends with rosin 'native name Gunda Boroza.) After this he takes a heated sol- dering-iron and rubs it in a vessel containing soldering-lead, and then runs the iron along the ends of the lead sheets where the rosin had previously been placed. The sheets immediately unite, and form a perfectly close-fitting ami air-tight case inside the box. An experienced man can cut and solder up the lead for an 80 lb. box in from 10 to 15 minutes. Solder. There are 44 sticks in a bos of 28 lbs., and one stick fastens up 8 Tea-chests- say 352 chests to a box of 28 lb. Soldering Fluid. 1 quart Baker's fluid is sufficient for 300 tea-chests. NAILS. French, 1| inches, 64 are used to fasten a full sized chest (5 cubic feet) or 18| lbs. to 100 chests. If— (800 nails to 1 lb.) „ 2l| „ „ ICO ,, Hoop-iron, French, of \% inch size, 56 go to a chest when clamps are employed (880 nails to 1 lb.) or 6i „ „ 100 „ Clamp Tacks, ^ inch ... ... 6 bundles „ 100 ,, ( 250 ) HOOP- IRON. Of I" size : 8 oz., or 10 fept, to n, tea-chest, when clamps are employed. 1 bundle of 5G lbs. thus goes to 112 chests. Off size „ „ „ 100 „ PACKING OF TEA IN TIN-BOXES. A gentleman largely interested in Tea, but in no way connected with the manu- facturers of the Patent Tin Boxes, writes to us from England, — I made enquiries aa to the condition in which Tea packed in Messrs. Harvey Bros, and Tyler's lacquered Tin Boxes is turned out in London. I found that the tea was not at all injured by this method of packing, but that its condition is quite as good as that of tea packed in chests. Messrs. W. J. & H. Thompson assured me that you were entirely mistaken in your remarks as to the contamination, but they thought that an objection to the packing in the lacquered Tin Boxes was the labour of putting up in these boxes. Catalogues were shewn me in which I saw that the teas in the lacquered Tin Boxes fetched higher rates than the same teas packed in chests, the difference being in one case 3d. per ft. Tliis is certainly a most favour.able testimony, and coming as it does from a disinterested party, who writes simply in defence of what he considers the right, we cannot but accept of his statement in its entirety, Another correspondent writes, — I now give you a few s.^les of th'ise boxes, made at Public Auction, shewing the preference of the Trade for Tea so packed, and the higher prices realized : — d. per ft. Piihlic Sale 3rd November. s. d. Koliabar. K. Assam. 5 28 chests Pekoe \ 28 cases, each 4 boxes PuUio Sale 16th November. ... 1 ... 2 104 1 M. L. B. D. S. A, f 30 chests Pekoe 1 30 cases, each 4 boxes ... 2 ... 2 24 — :0:— f 20 chests Souchong \ 20 cases, each 4 boxes Public Sale 23rd November, ... 1 .,. 1 34 M, L. B. L. P. C 20 chests Pekoe (19 oases, each 4 boxes ,.. 1 ... 1 6f In every case the above teas were packed out of the same heap in India, and the difference in the selling price arises chiefly from the better condition of the tea on arrival, and the grow- ing preference of the country trade for teas so packed. Besides the above there have been numerous other sales, those mentioned being selected because the weight of tea in chests and boxes was about the same, the difference in the price obtained being therefore a more cruci.al test. I have also heard of several instances where buyers have offered, privately, outside prices for teas so packed, as they were desirous of obtaining them before being offered at Public Auction. SECTION XXII. TEA WEIGHMENT. The New Customs Rules. Weighing of Indian Teas in Bond. Tea Weighment.— Advice to Managers. ( 253 ) THE NEW CUSTOMS RULES. Tea planters in India had become so used to the iniquitous way in whicli they and their produce were treated, and they had for so many years fruit- lessly protested against the evil, that the granting of the boon so long asked will have come upon aU with surprise, but with all the more pleasure because of the surprise. As a correspondent expresses it : " No more dilc or worry, needlessly, to managers and assistants ; no more damage to Tea by exposure ; no more loss to proprietors : common sense and the Right triumphant for once, anyhow. The victory is worthy of a history of the fight." To give a history of the fight, so long protracted, would serve little purpose. It was the old story of Red-tape versus Common-sense ; of the Circumlocution Office with all its " Tite Barnacles" against the interests of an important Industry ; and al- though willing now to express gratitude for justice at last done, our thanks, givings to Government are somewhat tempered by the knowledge that but for the pressure brought to bear upon the Customs authorities by the determined and earnest action of our Home Association, matters might, and do ubtless would have remained as they were. The grievance has been over and over again brought to notice, but individual remonstrance has not been heeded, as it hard- ly ever is. Probably no reform of many and many abuses would ever have taken place but for the existence of our Public Associations, which at home are so much more powerful than they are here ; and yet even here they have been able to effect much good. You will generally find, however, that in public movements emanating from Public Bodies, there is one man who has set the ball rolling, and to whose persistent endeavours to keep alive an agitation be_ gun among his confreres, a great measure of credit is due. We believe we are not wrong in saying that it is greatly owing to the untiring energy of one member of the Indian Tea Districts' Association that this important matter of an improved tareing and weighment of Indian tea has been kept alive, until at last that justice demanded by the Association has at length been granted. We refer to Mr. Geo. Williamson, — one well known in all Indian tea-circles- In sa}'ing this, we are far from desiring to withhold praise from the many who have worked so earnestly and to such good effect with him, but we think a special meed of praise is due to him, and we do not believe it will be grudged by his colleagues. To turn to the New Rules themselves, we find that, like everything in this world, it is impossible to give satisfaction to all, and while the importers are jubilant over the amended Custom House system, the buying trade are by no means satisfied with the change. They are quite willing and anxious that injury to the Tea by the process of turning out and bulking at the Custom House should cease, for it was as much in their interests as in those of tea owners that such a state of things should no longer continue ; but they split upon the rock of the declaration of the importer as to the net weight of each ( 254 ) package being accepted in respect to all but 10 per cent, of the parcel. Tliey say in effect, No doubt the Customs have protected themselves fully by stipu- lating that if the difference between the weight stated of any. package and the weight found exceeds Slbs., the whole parcel shall be weighed net ; but is it likely that such an excess will ever occur ? True, the given weight is gen- erally exceeded, but if a package weighing 851bs. is to be allowed to pass as weighing 881bs., though the revenue would not suffer, but quite the reverse, the retail grocers who received the package in question, and lost some 6s. worth of tea and duty, would have serious ground for complaint. This is the view taken by the Trade Organ, the Produce Markets' Review, and no doubt there is something in it. But buyers have hitherto had a very fair allowance in the "draft," and it is hardly to be expected that Gardens will in future throw away more of their Tea than they have hitherto done, by exceeding a fair sur- plus on the net weight of the chest contents ; and now it is ruled that quan" titles over a half pound are to be sul)ject to duty of lib., factories will be care- ful to avoid mistakes in this direction, and they will be more careful in their weighments, because to prejudice the buyer would be, in the end, to prejudice themselves. The interests of sellers and buyers is, or should be, in common, and we believe it is only necessary to draw attention to the difficulty raised by the home trade, to induce owners on this side to see that every precaution shall be taken that the buyer is not injured. There is one thing in connection with this subject which cannot too for- cibly, or too often, be impressed on managers, and that is, careful bulking, wherever possible, on the Factory. If the Trade find that the 10 per cent, of any one class of tea turned out does not tally in the quality and value with the remaining 90 per cent, left untouched, they will surely petition to have the old system restored. In many cases, no doubt, bulking on the factory is ex- pensive and difficult, and involves delay, but if the new system of turning out only 10 per cent, is to continue, it is essential that teas should be properly bulked. The new Rules issued by H. M.'s Commissioners of Customs in London with reference to the weighing of Indian Tea are as follows : — 1. Tbe Tea on arrival to be weighed to ascertain the gross weight of each package. 2. With each entry the importer to give an endorsement of the net contents of each package. 3. To test the accuracy of this endorsement, 10 per cent, of each Break to be turned out and weighed net. 4. If the difference between the weight given of any package and the WPight found exceeds a reasonable margin, say 31bs., the whole parcel should be weighed net. 5. Duty to be charged on the average weight of the packages weighed net, un- less the importer elects to weigh the whole parcel in the nsual way. 6. When the average of the packages weighed net amounts to so many pounds and-n-lialf, an additional pound will be charged on each of the whole parcel ; when the fraction is less than half a pound, it is to be rejected. ( 255 ) Mnnngera of Gardens should make special efforts to ensure the satisfactory work- ing of the new system, by taking extra care to have their teas carefully weighed in India, allowing only a margin of a few ounces ; otherwise, duty will be leviable on an additional pound, under Kule 6. It is also very necessary that each break should be carefully bulked, as this process will not now be gone through in London, and if the quality of Tea in a Break is found not to be uniform, great dissatisfaction will be given to the Trade, and the character of Indian Teas will be injured. ADVICE TO MANAGERS. Tka Weighment. 1. The chest, with lead and lid, to be weighed immediately before being packed. 2. The chest to be again weighed immediately after being packed, and the net weight of its contents (tliat is the difference between the weight of the full chest and that of the empty chest ascertained as abore) marked on the chest. 3. The chest, after having been soldered and nailed down, to be again weighed in order to arrive at the exact tare, by deducting from the gross weight the net as ascertained above. 4. The gross weight and tare to be distinctly marked upon each chest, as well as the net. k2 SECTION XXIII. BRICK TEA AND BURMESE WET TEA. Chinese Brick Tea. Thibetan Brick Tea. Dry Cake and Wet Tea in Burmah. (259 ) CHINESE BRICK TEA. The following accounts of the manufacture of Brick Tea in China and Thibet will prove interesting. There seems to be no reason why Darjeeling planters should not go in steadily for making Brick Tea for the Thibetan market. Only the coarser kinds need be used, and they would, thus, pay well: — "The greatest source of wealth to the city and snrrounding district of Ya-tzow is the Brick-tea, which gives employment to thousands engaged in the manufacture and portage of tea from Ya-tzow to Ta-tsian-Ioo. The tree from wliich this peculiar kind of tea is manufactured grows chiefly along the banks of the Ya-ho, and, unlike that which produces the tea exported to Europe, is a tall tree, often fifteen feet high,' with a large and coarse leaf. Little care is bestowed on the cultivation. It is often planted along the borders of fields and homesteads, each farmer gathering his small crop of tea, and finding a ready sale for it in Ya-tzow, to merchants, who pay the Government enormous sums tor the monopoly. I never had an opportunity of witnessing the process by which the tea is made into the exceedingly hard bricks which find their way to Thibet ; and so great is the jealousy with whicli the monopoly is guarded, that even bribes failed to procure per- mission to enter the warehouse where the tea is packed for exportation. I am in- debted to the landlord of the hotel where I lodged during both my visits, for the following interesting description: — The first quality is gathered in June and July, or shortly after the commencement of the summer rains in the end of May, when the leaf is about an inch long. When gathered, it is spread in the sun till slightly with- ered, and then rolled with the hand until moist from the exudation of the sap. In this state it is rolled into balls about the size of a large tea-cup, and Liid up till it ferments. It is then ready for the wooden brick-moulds, which are made with the ends moveable, and fastened by pegs. The moulds, when filled, are dried over char- coal fires until the tea is baked into a tough solid mass. When taken from the moulds, the bricks are ready for delivery to the meri:hants of Ya-tzow. By them the bricks are enveloped in peculiar yellow-paper covers, bearing a government stamp and the trade-mark oE the exporter, and are packed in baskets four feet long, made of thin strips of bamboo. The bricks thus packed form what is called a basket of tea, weighing about twenty pounds. These baskets are carried by coolies to 'I'a-tsian-loo, a distance of two hundred miles, where they are carefully covered with green hide, as a protection against wet, and are then ready for exportation to Lhassa, and the countries to the west of it, where this particular kind of Brick-tea is principally con- sumed, selling for about fifteen taels per basket, or four shillings and eight pence per pounti. The second quality, which consists of the older and yellower leaves, is manufac- tured in the same manner, and exported principally to Lithang and Bathang, where it is sold at five taels per packet, or about one shilling and sixpence per pound. A third quality is made entirely of clippings, without the leaf, and resembles bricks of chopped twigs. The manufacture of this kind differs from the others, rice- water being used to make the twigs adhere, and retain the brick form. This quality is only used in Ta-tsian-loo and its immediate neighbourhood, selling for ninepence per pound. The quality exported from Ya-tzow to Thibet has been roughly estimated at over six million pounds." In a report of a Journey through the province of Tsu-ch'un, Yunnan, and Kwi- chon, from'February 11 to June 14, 1883, some interesting Notes occur on the vege- table products of the country traversed. At one part of the journey Brick -tea is described as being made up into packets of 18 catties in weight. The tea is first en- closed in what looks like dried Banana-leaf, and then cased with coarse matting. The packets are long and flat, and are pUed one above another on a wooden frame- work extending above the carrier's head. At the bottom are usually a couple of half packets, which afford a good rest for the pole which the carritT plnces under his load when he wants a rest. The maximum load hitherto noticed was ten whole ( 260 ) packets and two half packets, weigliing 198 catties — a ^ond load to have on one's hack for fifteen days — the time usually taken by these carriers between Ya-chou and Ta- chien-lu. The ordinary load was ei^ht and nine packets. The freight between these two places is 300 cash a packet, so that if the journey is performed in fifteen days the wages of a carrier often amount to 200 cash a day. Among carriers of such heavy weights one wonld expect to find men of remarkable ^%s;5'!(«, but they seem to be distinguished for " want of leg." The same applies to the salt-carriers. They travel slowly, resting every few yards, and giving vent to their feelings, which on such work must be anything but over amiable, in a low whistle, or rather half-whistle and sigh. The Brick-tea manufactured at Ya-chou for the Tibetan market is altogether different from that manufactured by foreign merchants a: Hankow. The former is entire leaf and twig loosely pressed, while the latter is tea-dust firmly compressed into actual brick-shape. Beyond Tonij-ching Hsien the valley contract?, and the hills on either side become more precipitous, rocky, and uncultivated ; frequently the bed of the stream occupies the whole valley, while the road runs along the hillside. Some distance south of the cily the hills are thickly dotted with the Tea-shrub growing on very rocky ground, and you meet a number of carriers with bundles of brown leaves and twigs, which might have been taken for dead leaves collected for firewood, but which turn out to be 'tach'a,' or coarse Tea. THIBETAN BRICK TEA. I am in a position to give information anent the making of Brick-tea, as at one time I went in largely for tlie manufacture of it. I had the recipe from a Thibetan, and the tea I made was said to be very good by the Lepchas and Bhootiivs who tasted it, — in fact as good as the Brick-tea from China, of which I believe the Grand Llama of Thibet has the monopoly. I must own i never had the pluck to taste it myself. The manufacture of this tea would be very profitable if it were not for some diffi- cnlty about the sale of it, occasioned, I fancy, by the said monopoly of the Grand Lla- ma. The bricks fetch about Rs. 4 apiece, and cost scarcely anything to make ; but the trouble is in the selling. They cannot be sold wholesale, and even sold retail they have to be smuggled through some influential Llama or Muudle, who sells them for you under the pretence of their having come from China, &c., and of course expects a commission almost as large as a Calcutta broker would. The following is the process, and I have explained the apparatus separately : — • jgt. — It must be understood. Brick-tea is not made from the young leaves, like ours, but from the old ones cut off in the pruning in the cold weather. These leaves, stripped off the branches that have been pruned oflf, are boiled in a laro-p cauldron in water passed through ashes, (keranee ka panee) until the water is nearly evaporated, and the leaves are in a glutinous state, which takes about an hour and-a-half. 2nd. — On being taken out of the cauldron they are beaten with a large wooden mallet, in a box made sufficiently strong for the purpose, until they are in a pulpy state. gj-c;. — They are hammered into the mould with the mallet, and a little conge water, from boiled rice or starch, is mixed with them to help them to cake. Of course the leaves should be slightly above the mould when it is full, as the pressure put upon it soon brings the brick down to its proper size. 4^th. — They are put into the press, and kept there for 24 hours. Of course the press is managed in such a way that any number of bricks can be pnt in at the same time and those that are ready can be taken out without interfering with the rest. 5^/;. — On taking the bricks out of the press, they should not be taken out of the moulds at once, but loft for 12 lionrs or so ; and on being taken out, they should be placed in a rack over a slow fire, that they may tJwroughli/ dry ; — this is very important or they will get mouldy. ( 261 ) 6th. — Tlipy should then be stacked in a dry place, such as the loft of a dryinggo- <1own, and should be occasionally looked to, and wiped^ if any signs of mildew are observable on them. This is the whole process of manufacture. The apparatus reqnired is : — 1st. — The cauldron, — a copper " dekchee." The largest procurable is the best. 2«(/, — A stontly-miide box and mallet. ^rd — The moulds, 15 inches long by 9 inches broad by 6 Inches deep. These should be dove-tailed with a pin to go through the corners, so that they can be opened out and put together again without injury to them or their contents. 4th. — The press. The best kind to use is a beam about 20 feet long, fixed at one end on an axle, and weighted at the other end. Any amount of pressure can be put on by this means, and it is preferable to a screw, as it is a contiuual pressure. J. P. B. BEY AND WET TEA IN BURMAH. The llevenue and Agricultural Department of the Government of India lately caused inquiries to be made with a view to opening a trade In Indian tea in a compress- ed state (known as Brick-ten) with Cabul, Turkestan, Central Asia, Thibet, and Burmali. From Burraah the Chief Collector of Customs has furnished the following Note, submitted by Mr. Hardings : — " There is little doubt that the fea-leaf used by the Burmese, which is imported from Mandalay in the dry, as well as its wet state, is obtained from the plant Thea Chinensis, the tea of commerce, growing in its wild state on the slopes and liilis in Upper Burmah to the north and north-east from Mnndalay to Bhamo. A leaf taken from a sample of the tea sold in the bazar has the same minute serrations and is like the ordinary tea-leaf in shape, and possesses the same aroma ; moreover, from reliable information received, I find that the Burmese tea-leaf is gathered from a bush or shrub nevermore than eight or ten feet in height, which grows on the slopes ; women and girls being employed in plucking the leaf from the higher branches, and little children from the lower ones. The average price of Burmese dry tea in Rangoon, com- pressed into balls, is from Rs. 85 to Es. 90 per 100 viss (365 lbs.), and is used by them (just as we do) in infusion, sweetened with palm- jaggery, but is not used to a very great extent. It is said that the better classes of the Burmese now prefer the cheaper China tea in infusion. It is noted that the Burmese tea can be pnrchased here by retail at a little over 5 annas per lb. Dry tea-leaf compressed into large cakes of a coarser description is also imported into British Burmah from Mandalay, and sells at from Rs. 80 to Rs. 85 per 100 viss, and is consumed by the poorer classes in infusion. But it is the wet tea-leaf, which enters into all the domestic or religious ceremonials of the Burmese, which is the most consumed by them, for no marriage, or birth, or death, or ear-piercing, feast, or any other event would be complete without the introduction of delicious morsels of the wet tea in (what is known) its pickled state, to be eaten by the guests invited thereat. It is also lavishly given to the pone- gyees, who, no doubt, are large consumers. The information I obtained is, that, after the leaf has been gathered on the hills, it is packed in baskets, and brought down to the waterside, damped, and sent down to Mandalay, where the following process of " curing" or fermenting the leaf is practised : — It is first steamed, and then spread out on mats to dry ; when dry, the leaf is deposited in a pit lined with bamboos, or the large leaves of a tree common in Upper Burmah, and pressed down layer over layer until the pit is filled up, when it is covered over with the branches and leaves of trees and earth heaped over it. The tea leaf is left in that state for a month or six weeks, when it is considered fit for market use, being often sold on the spot while the leaf is in the pit, (each pit, according to size, being supposed to hold a certain number of viss) ; otherwise the leaf is tightly compressed into those curiously-shaped bamboo baskets with two heads or knobs on the top (so familiar to travellers on the Irrawad- dy) : the baskets are than submerged for days in a creek near by, heavy weights being ( 262 ) placed on them to prevent them floating up ; they are then taken out anrl shipped in- to Lower Burniah, the great secret being always to keep the tea wet. The leaf, as prepared above, is eaten in its moist state, and undergoes no process of cooking. The addition of a little tilseed oil, a few slices of fried garlic, a sprinkle of salt and tilseed, and sometimes a little scraped cocoanut, is all that is required to make it the most enjoyable zest a Burman cares to partake of. The wholesale price of the wet tea in Mandalay is from R. 120 to Rs. 150 per 100 viss, and the retail selling price in Run- goon is Rs. 2-8-0 per viss. One Pho Thoung, a wealthy trader of the Kyouktada quarter and also a commissariat contractor, engaged a few Shans and Burmese, and sent them to Bengal, and from thence to certain Chittagong tea-gardeas, to manipulate the tea-leaf in its wet state (as eaten by the Burmese), and since that time similarly prepared wet tea as received from Mandalay has become an article of import into Ran- goon by the seabord, from Chittagong. It sells in the bazaars at from Rs. 120 to Rs. 125 per 100 viss, or a little cheiper than the Upper Burmah leaf, but, it is said, the Burmese prefer the latter. One curious custom which obtains amongst the Burmese engaged in the wet tea-leaf trade has been related to me with the greatest gravity and good faith : — Should any person, male or female, living in the house of a dealer who may have a stock of,, say, 50 to 100 viss in his house, get very sick, and if death is apprehended, he immediately removes his stock into another bnilding, for were such person to die while the tea was in the house, the whole of it would turn bad and be completely spoilt. It appears that they implicitly believe in this incredilde pheno- menon. I have shown the samples received to several people here, who looked grave when told the cost price (9 annas to 11 annas per lb ) in Calcutta, and which led to the remark being made, that ' it would answer as a shop .irticle to be sold in European shops.' To secure a ready market for it in Burmah, the cost of manufacture should certainly be reduced below Rs. 205 and Rs. 250 per 100 viss, which at once goes against it, compared with the price of the dry preparations already alluded to." The Chief Collector of Customs is of opinion that there is little or no hope of opening out a trade in Burmah in the compressed tea prepared in Calcutta. Lar^e supplies of ordinary tea are received from China through the Straits ports, and are retailed in the local markets by Chinese at much lower prices than those quoted for the compressed tea, while the latter cannot take the place of the pickled tea so largely consumed by the Burmese. SECTION XXIY. TEA IN INDIA OUT OF BENGAL. Tea in Dehra Doon. Tea in Cashmere. Tea in the Nilgiris. Tea in the Andamans. Tea in Arracak. l2 ( 2G5 ) TEA IN INDIA OUT OF BENGAL. It is somewhat surprising that Toa-cultivation has not more largely de- veloped than it has done outside of Bengal. We can only suppose that diffi- culty and cost of transport is at the bottom of it. Kangra and Kumaon grow very fine Teas, -which fetch high prices, but their chief sale is local to the Pro- vinces ; and owners seem to hesitate about large extensions, on account, as we say, probably, of the heavy expense involved in bringing the Teas down to port of shipment. The progress of Tea-cultivation in the N. W. P. is also slow, and seems likely to continue so. The climate is somewhat too dry, and the Teas are hardly strong enough in liquor, and do not fetch high prices ; but the cost of cultivation and manufacture is cheap. Cashmere has now entered the field, but for local supply only ; while, in the NiLGiRis, increased attention is being paid to Tea extension, both for local consumption and for export ; but the Enterprise is still on a compara- tively small scale there. Tea Cultivation is also being carried on, on a very small scale, in the Andamans ; but the attempt there, though so far successful, has no Trade significance. The following Notes on Tea in India out of Bengal will show how far progress has been made to date : — TEA IN DEHRA DUN. The origin of the Tea Industry in the Dan dates back some forty years ago. Dr. Rpyle, then Superintendent of the Botanical Gardens at Saharunpore, recommend- ed the cultivation of Tea in the Himalayas to the Indian Government in the year 1827, and again pressed the matter on the attention of Lord Bentinck during his visit to Saharunpore in 1831. In his opinion, Jerrapani, situated about half-way between Eaipore and Mussoorie, at an elevation of about 5,000 feet, was the best site for the experiment. About 1834 Lord Bentinck, with the sanction of the Court of Directors, determined to give Tea Cultivation a fair trial, and the inevitable Committee was appointed to draw up a plan for carrying out this design. Guided by the fact that, " in the mountainous tracts of our northern and eastern frontier, several species of plants are found indigenous which are also natives of China, and are not met with in other parts of the world," plants raised from imported China seed were distributed to several of the Sub-Himalayan districts; and Dr. Falconer, Dr. lloyle's successor, in May 1838 succeeded in growing tea-plants in Saharunpore itself, from seed pro- cured from Nurseries at Koth, in Gurhwal. In 1844 a Government Tea-planta- tion was commenced at Kaulaghur in the Dun, a couple of miles west of the city of Dehra, under the management of Dr. Jameson ; some 400 acres of land having been taken up for the purpose. The soil is described, in Williams's Memoir of the Dun, as " composed of clay and vegetable matter, with a slight mixture of sand, resting on the usual shingly subsoil of limestone, sandstone, claj, slate, quartz, &c., found in the surrounding mountains." In 1850 Mr. Fortune, a gentleman familiar with Tea-cul- tivation in°China, was deputed by Government to visit the various Plantations, and reported rather unfavourably on the condition of the plants at Kaulaghur, making various suggestions for the improvement of the cultivation. Again in 1856 the same gentleman reported much more favourably on the Gardeu. In 1857 Dr. Jameson estimated the tea-bearing capabilities of the Dun as fol- lows :^ Number of acres capable of producing tea ... 100,000 Yield per acre ... ••• ■•• ••• 100 lbs. Total outturn ... ••■ — ••• 10,00,000 ,, ( 26G ) Tliis nppeiirs to be a grently-exnggprnted estimate as regards the area available. Tea in the I)un, though uiiiible, purhiips, to rival the large ont-turns in Assam ami Oachar, which are known in some cages to be as much as 700 to 800 lbs, per acre, is yet capable of producing at least four times as much as Dr. Jameson allowed ; one Garden of the IDehra Dun Tea Company showing an average for 1877 of more than 400ft)S. per acre. On the other hand the area likely to be available for cultivation is considerably over-estimated. Including the southern face of the Mussoorie hills, from the watershed down, and the Northern face of the Siwaliks, the total area of the district is .about 450,000 acres. Of this, fully 250,000 acres must be deducted for forest reserves, the area of the Stations of Mussoorie, Rajporo, .ind Dehra, and for the nnmiM-oas village sites. Of the remaining 200,000 acres, it is improbable that any of the area at present devoted to the cultivation of cereals and other crops will be given up ; nor would] such soil be profitable for Tea Cultivation. Deducting this area, and allowing for the considerable amount of unprofitable land, such as the banks and beds of the broad stony "sots" or streams in which water flows only in the rains, it is improbable that more than 50,000 acres of land are practically available for the cultivation of Tea. Taking into consideration the fact that Tea-gardens required considerable amount of capital to start, and entail waiting several years for any pro- fitable return, it would appear that 15,000 or 20,000 acres is about the largest admis- sible estimate of the area of land in the Dun likely to be brought under Tea, at least for some time to come. Several Tea-gardens were opened out in the Dun within the decade succeeding tlic commencement of the Government plantation at Kaulaghur ; and by the year l,S(l-2, about the same time as the elder Williamson was planting out Garden after Garden in Assam, and several Tea Companies had been formed there, the present D(4ira Dun Tea Company, comprising Hurbunsnala (formerly the North- West Tea Company's Garden) and Arcadia, was started. The Dehra Dun Company has passed through many vicissitudes and changes of management, but now, with a local board of direction, and two thoroughly practical and experienced planters as managers, its Gardens are undoubtedly among the best in the Dun, and are doing fairly well. TEA CULTIVATION IN CASHMERE. The Maharajah of Cashmere having become satisfied with the results of the Ex- perimental Gardens planted in the different Districts of his Territory some years ago, has approved the introduction of Tea Cultivation on a large scale in his dominions. Tlie Superintendent of his Improvement Department, a year or two ago, personally visited the Kangra Valley, for the purpose of selecting Seed. He bought 2000 Maunds of the finest seed obtainable, and this was sown in a carefully-selected site. The Nursery-bed was 4000 feet above sea-level, by the roadside of the Srinagar road, and facing a high mountain with snow-covered peaks. The spot is three stages from Jummoo. The plants are now growing luxuriantly, and there is no sign of Blight. A greater portion of the cultivation, on a first light plucking, yielded 3,0001bs. of made Tea, all of which was sold in Cashmere itself at good prices. The Tea is said to be of good quality and flavour, and readily fetches, locally, from 10 to 12 as. per lb. As the cultivation is sure to increase, the Maharajah should now employ skilled European management ; or perhaps, better, he might lease his Gardens to a European planter or planters. Ho would then know tlie most that could be made of them, and be able to judge as to the wisdom or otherwise of further extensions. TEA IN THE NILGIRIS. As we have before mentioned. Tea in the Nilgiris has been seriously undertaken, and with every promise of suocofs. There is the advantage, also, of nearness to the jiort of shipment. There is little or no Labour-difficulty, but Government are ooca- sionsilly found troublesome in rogn.rd to the acquisition of Land. Another drawback ( 267 ) is, that the smallness of the GarJens prevonla the erection of adequate Buildingfi, &c., whereby a uniEortnity of manufacture might bo secured ; but as Extensions tako place, this will become remedied, doubtless. Mr. Robertson, in his Report on the Nilgiris, writes as follows :— The manipulation and curing of the loaf is the most difEoiilt part of the tea-plnnter'g work' and the valne of the'manufactured tea altogether depends upon the skill and 'care with which this is performed. It matters not that the leaf may have been produced under the most favour- able conditions of climate, soil, and manure, if the curing is defective. The great drawback to the general consumption of Neilgherry teas, is thi-ir varying character, each plantation and garden producing different s.araplcs and qualities : these teas are thus, to a grrat extent, kept out of the wholes.ale market. If tea-planters, instead of each attempting to cure the loaf produced, would raise the capital amongst themselves for establishing, in each centre of Tea-cultivation, large, well-equipped Factories, in which the leaf of the district could be properly cure! under skilleut we are doing if, and m2 ( 272 ) Ceylon is becoming no mean ally in the process. We say, therefore, All-hail and Good-fellowship to our Ceylon Tea Brethren ; and may the imited power of Purity and Eeal Economy, in as early a time as possible, triumph over ' Inferiority and Adulteration,— and so China be left behind ; for in the honest and good Fight we are making, China deserves no consideration, part, or lot. Several Indian planters have, in the last few years, found their way to the Ceylon Tea-fields, and we believe in no case have they had to turn back disappointed. There is, probably, room for still more, and we are sure that the advent of Indian Tea-planters will be always welcomed in Ceylon, where Tea Cultivation is so rapidly increasing, and promises still further to increase. A significant fact as to the confidence which is becoming felt in the pro- gress of CeyloQ in the prosecution of her new Enterprise, is, that the terms upon which a new Cioylon Loan has been lately issued are highly favorable, and if Ceylon can beat India in yield per acre and cheapness of production, "and, further, can equal India in quality of Tea, there is no wonder at the confidence which is being manifested by capitalists at home. According to Messrs. Geo. White and Co., recent sales of Ceylon Teas averaged Is. 3f cZ. per lb. as against Is. l^d. per fb. for Indian Teas as given by Messrs. W. J. & H. Thompson ; but the averages of Ceylon Teas have been even higher. The Ceylon shipping-season closes in September of each year. "Taking the figures, then for eight years, we find that there has been a conti- nuous gradual increase of Export, from 2821bs. in 1876 to 623,292 lbs. in 1882 ; and a further remarkable stride from the figures of 1882 to 1,522,882 lbs. in 1883. It is calculated that there is not less than a total of a quarter million of •acres, in the Eastern Provinces alone, suitable for Tea ; and there seems little reason to doubt that this area will in due time fall under Tea-cultivation. We trust, however, that the Ceylon Tea Enterprise will be allowed to grow gra- dually from natural causes of demand, only, and not be rushed unadvisedly. THE TEA INDUSTRY OF CEYLON. The following Articles appeared some few years back in the Cej'lon Papers, but we have purposely selected them on that very account, as showing the '' faith" that animated the pioneers of the (Jcylon Tea Industry, in its earlier -days. The Lecture delivered by Mr. Armstrong is itself a carefully-thought-out Paper on Tea Cultivation as it should be, in Ceylon, and will be read with in- terest, as a comparison with our own systems. Although the Tea-plant was grown in Ceylon a quarter of a century ago, and has been oaltiyated on a small scale for more than a dozen years, it was only when the increasing depression in the Coffer-trade was sensibly felt, that the area of land under this new Cultivation began vapidly to increase. Tea was grown in half a dozen loca- lities, all more or legs at a good elevation, in what is kuowu a§ the Coffee-zoue, say ( 273 ) from 2,500 to 5,500 feet. For several years, however, tliis new Industry Iia^ to conten(! tigainst prejudice or indifference in the home market, and in some instances against a lack of experience in the manufacture of the leaf on the part of our planters. Two of our oiliest and best-known brands, those of " Rookwood" and " Looleconr dura" estates, steadily rose in public estimation at home; but Ceylon teas, as a rule, nttracted very -little attention from buyers, and were scarcely noticed in brokers' reports nntil a few years ago, when improved cultivation and more careful manufac- tuie enabled far better samples to be shipped. These at once attracted the attention of the Trade : consumers very shortly afterwards found the quality of our teas superior to most China leaf, and eqntxl to the best breaks from India ; and, as a consequence, the article? rapidly rose in public estimation. Tea-bit)kers now notice our brands with' niiirked approval, and one of the leading Firms in Mincing Lane now publishes a fort- nightly Circular devoted entirely to Ceylon Teas, while all give a phice to the now frequent sales of this article. The increasing favour in which our new Product began to be held has led to &r very considerable extension of the area under Tea, and has attracted the attention of tea-growers and sellers generally to Ceylon as a desirable field of investment. Our shipping seasons close on the SOtli September in each year. Taking this period for eight years it will be seen how rapidly our exports of Tea have iucreaaedl from very small beginnings : — Season ending SOth September, 1876 ... 282 lbs. Ko. do. ' 1877 ... ],775 „ Do. do, 1878 ... 3,515 „ Do. do. 1879 ... 81,595 „ Do. do. 1880 ... 10.S,624 „ Do, do. 1881 ... 277,590 ,-, Do. do. 1882 ... 623,2il2 „ .Do. .do. , 1883 ... 1,522,882 „ During the last -five or six years attention to Tea-planting has been extended to the lands of the low-country, both chena and forest, nfinVly all in the Western Province, where a rr.infall of one hundred to a hundred and sixty inch''s occurs in the year, and at altitudes ranging from 2,500 to very nearly sea level. Owners of Coffee- estates, whose lands have ceased to be profitably cultivated, are planting them up -with Tea, shewing very good results both as regards quantity and quality^ The Tea hitherto shipped has been the produce of about six thousand acres of cultivated la"nd, and it is estimated that there are other four thousand acres also in Tea, not yet at a producing age. This area is quite insignificant as corupared with the extent of land available, but the results obtained fmm it enable us to state with accuracy the financial' outcome of this new Industry. There are two estates in their ninth year' of production at altitudes from three to five thousand feet, and there are others at lower altitudes of less age, say,' up to five years. The data obtained from a, dozen or more of these shew that the annual yield per acre on high estates is 350 lbs. to 400 lbs. of Tea per acre, whilst on new laud at lower altitudes, where the heat and rainfall are greater, as much as 600 lbs. and 700 lbs. per acre are obtained. Most of these returns have been obtained from trees which have not yet arrived at maturity, at' an average of only four years. The cost of cultivation of Tea-estates, and of the production of the leaf in all it^. stages until placed on board ship, may be set down at 30 cents for the produce of the low-country Estates. If, on a capital outlay of Rs. 400 per acre (which is a very high figure for bringing into bearing, even with all the necessary permanent build- ings and machinery), we add interest at 10 per cent,, we have Rs. 40 on a yield of COO lbs. = 6 cents per 4b., bringing up the total cost to 36 cents : this is the cost of liand-made tea; if machinery of approved makes be employed, a saving of at least 3 cents per lb, may be effected, reducing the total cost on board ship to 33 cents per lb. Es. Cts. 4 6 9 4 1 1 8 2 ( 274 ) The above cost of production is obtained by an analysis of the expenditure on labour and materials under the various heads of work, thus : — Cultivation, including weeding, and up-keep of roads, and drains, supplying priniing-tools, &c. Supervision, allowances, up-keep of buildings, contingencies, &c. Plucking green leaf, per lb. of dry tea Withering, rolling, and firing Labour, sorting, and packing Charcoal for firing ... Boxes, lead, and all packing materials Transport to Colombo Es. ... 30 The cost of freight, insurance, and home selling charges, amount to 10 cents, so that any average result above 43 cents, local currency, will be profit. Ecoent account- sales of well-known marks have shown averages ranging from Is. 3d. to Is. 9^d., equal to 75 cents and 1'30 per lb. at Is. 8d. to the rupee. Taking only the lower figures for our guide we find a gain of thirty-two cents per lb., which, on an Estate yielding six hundred lbs. per acre, shows a working profit of Es. 192 per acre of land under cultivation, or nearly Jifti/ per cent, on the capital originally invested. The calculations of cost of working Estates and producing Tea are made on reliable data — the result of actual experience ; and that the final results in prices realised are not extravagant may be seen from the following return of averages from the reports of Mincing Lane brokers r— London. July. August. September. Sembawattie ... Is. 7|cZ. ... Is. 9^^ Elackwater Adam's Peak Mariwatti ... Is, G^cL ... Is. 2d. Dolosbagie Dunedin ... Is. ^\■ >■• Is. 6-fZ. ... •■* Is, e^d. ... ... Is. &\d. ■.* ... Is. ^d. . . • ... Is. 4d. • • . * ■* Is. M. ••• ... Is Zd. ... .,, ... .- Is. b\d. ... ... Is. 4|rf. ... Is. 4irf. • .• ... Is. Z^d. ... Is. Z{d. ( 275 ) Mk. ARMSTRONG ON TEA CULTIVATION IN CEYLON. Read hefore the Dikoya Planters' Association, My remarks to-day have more especial reference to the cultivation of Tea in what may be termed our Coffee-zOne : in fact, to the practicability of Tea talcing the place, in some instances, of Ooffee, or of its being planted in foreat-IanJ adjoining our Coffee estates, and which we have thought too high for Coffee, Throughout this Paper, I refer to Assam Hybrid Tea only. At what elevations will tea grow at, in Ceylon, to pay ? From almost sea-level to over 6,000 feet, provided soil and aspect are suitable. Soil. — Should be fairly good — the richer the better — deep and friable ; loam well mixed with sand. A shallow quartzy soil is not good. Tea will not flush readilyjin this, although it may grow to a fair-sized bush. A subsoil, well mixed with sand, or grit, without showing a very good surface-soil, will, although giving a slower growth nt first, turn out a better-paying soil than one with a rich surface and clearly-defined clayey subsoil without an admixture of sand. The more we pluck, the deeper the roots must go, and we must have room for them. The higher our elevation, the richer should our soil be, to make up for climate. Climate.— What is best for Coffee, will, I believe, /or a permanency, be found to be the best for Tea. The heau ideal of a Tea climate is Avisawella, Yatiyantota, and the lower portions of Morawakorale, also portions of Ambegamuwa; but they have not our Coffee-zone subsoil as a whole ; and onr zone will, I think, make np, in its deeper soil, for the want of extreme heat, with moisture, which prevails in these dis- tricts, where, however, Tea will rapidly make a fortune for its lucky propriet irs. The higher the elevation, the leas rainfall is required, and vice versd. Light show- ers, alternating with sun, if we could order them so, would give us 1,003 lbs. an acre at 5,000 feet elevation. At the higher elevations, continued rain at the height of tha monsoon has the same effect in checking the flush for the time being, as a long conti- nuance of sun has in the low country. Perhaps a good thing; for with ns the bush has no wintering, and the only rest that of a lOlb. plucking, instead of a 241b. Site and Lat of Land. — Gently-undulating land, for choice, is the best ; but I have tea on steep land doing as well as that on fairly flat undulating land. In fact, any land that is most suitable for Ooffee is most suitable for Tea. In our new district especially, we find our fields at the higher elevation making wood freely, but even at the best of times not giving much fruit. Where we have Coffee making most wood, there will our Tea do best. In my experience, I have bad poor thin Coffee pointed out to me as beng suitable only for Tea. I say no ; if we are to expect Tea to pay, we must not pick out our thinnest or weakest, because washed Coffee, as being the most suitable site, but our free-growing leafy Coffee, that from either a bad aspect with good soil (and we often see this) or from too high an elevation, has always persistent- ly run to wood, which we call leaf, in Tea. With such Coffee there need be no hesi- tation in at once planting it up with Tea. Again, we have Coffee that in the good old days has borne heavily, but that has now ceased to bear (temporarily or not, is beyond human ken) if we can expect occasional patches. If the soil has not suffered from wash, no matter what the Coffee may have borne in the past. Tea can take its place and flou- rish, as it has that in the soil to give it a start, and it can seek for nourishment far deeper than the Coffee has ever reached. Land at 4,000 feet to 5,500 feet that has failed in Cinchona, provided soil and cli- mate are suitable, will grow good Tea . I have now Tea, 3^ years old, on land that I planted up four times with Cinchona (both officinalis and succirubra), and that failed completely, although no expense was spared in the opening and planting of it, doing as well as could be wished. Again, I have Tea doing well on abandoned Coffee-land that was cleared and planted 7-| years ago with Cinchona, which died out at 3 to 4 years. Elevation, in both instances, was 5,000 feet and over. I have Tea also do- ing well in land that was under Cinchona for ten years. ( 276 ) Altliongli Tea does well, remarkably well, up to 5,600 feet in my own experience —and I have had figures shown me proving that Tea, at over 6,200 feet, gives at 4 + 4, 400 lbs. per acre at 6 years old — it does not follow that all and any land, at these elevations, will give the same results. The higher we go the better our soil must be/ We must be rather dry than wet ; not absolutely without rain for any length of time ; but this we need not fear near our mountain tops ; and the more shelter from- the monsoon winds do we require. I will treat further down of the yield per acre from Tea at the lowest to the highest elevations, and will now enter on seed, nurseries^ opening and planting of Tea, its cultivation and manufacture. Sbbd. — The greatest care must be taken to ascertain that the seed you obtain is from the highest-class hybrid, as, with a poor jat, neither care in the manufacture or cultivation can make a good liquoring tea, or give a profitable yield. Making allow- ances for poor plants, accidents, bad plants, and the having ample plants over for supplies, I calculate on the maund of 82 His. for 6 acres planted 4 by 4 ; a maund of locally-grown gives from 27,000 to 33,000 seed, according to tlis time that is' allowed to elapse in weighing after husking ; the sooner the seed is in the ground after gathering, the better. Nurseries. — Choose the site as near a stream as possible, for the sake of water.. liCt the land be as flat as possible ; make your beds 5 feet by 20 feet, with 18-iiich walks (which act as drains) between them. If you are going to plant out at six months from seed, sow your seed 2 in. apart every way, I find a very useful little tool for this is one I made many years ago for picking out Cinchona — aflat board, with handles on the top, and pegs — 50 — underneath, any required distance apart. Press the board, the pegs being underneath, on to your prepared bed, and you have it marked out in fifties to the distance apart you wish to sow your seed. If your are going to plant them on t at 1 to 4 years, 4 in. by 2 in., or, if space will admit, 4 in. by 4 in., sow 1| inches' deep if no shade. If your plants are to be forced to save a season, munure your beds, BOW 2 in. by 2 in. apart and 1 inch deep, shade with flat tats of jungle-stuff 18 inches to 2 feet deep above the bed, and water freely twice a day. You may begin to remove; the shade by degrees, as soon as the wood at the collar of the plant hardens.. Unless it is necessary for yonr plants to save the season, do not manure, nor pick out too good soil, as plants grown in better soil than it is intended to plant them .out in suffer a check from their first start in the clearing. Give your nurseries time ; do not dig your beds more than 6 in. to 9 in. deep, or the tap-root, always unmanage- able, will run deeper than ever. Every Tea-garden must keep a Nursery for supplies, which is a work we have to attend to every year. Stumps are best for supplies, ami should be at the least two years old ; even up to four, a permanent Nursery can be fcept up in poor soil sown 3 in. by 3 in., and the strongest plants taken out for sup. plies. Lining — In fairly good soil, 4 feet by 4 feet is the best distance ; in poorer soil, 4 feet by 3 feet ; on weak soil or exposed faces, 3 feet by 3 feet. It is as well to have 4 feet between the lines, as each line is almost a thoroughfare, from the number of times the pluckers have to move along it, as well as weeding-contractors, in the course of tiie year ; and the proper growth of the laterals is in a great measure stopped, if the pluckers have to force their way through too much ; and in any ordinary fair soil, »t a nearer distance th.an 4 feet between the lines, no light or air can get at the soil or through the bushes themselves, and they become towards the middle of the season an entangled mass of unhealthy wood. Holing. — If for plants at G months or 1 year from seed, in Coffee, or in new land, 9 in. X 9 in. will do well. Iffor stumps in Coffee or new land 18 in. x 18 in. If seed or germinated seed is to be sown at stake in Coffee, loosen the soil with the ordinary fork ; this is better than holin.g, as we are all aware : the Coffee-roots soon find their way into and fill a hole in which tiie good surface-soil has bona scraped to. in this case the detriment of the seed ; the same holds good with regard to manuring, a young seedling, which I have heard advocated in Coffee. Plants and Planting. — The best plants are those at 6 months from seed, as they do not suffer the game check that a 1-ycar old plant does, aud equal it in growth ( 277 ) *t 12 months from planting out ; liave not snch unmanftgedbla tap-roots, and stand Run better ; will do witii elmllower liolos ; cost less to plant, and have a better hold of the ground at 12 months. The, best of all is 2 to 4 years' stump-roots, which, at this age, are woody, will stand being broken — in fact cannot be raised from the Nursery (which should be in poor soil) without breaking them. They should be stumped as With Coffee at 6 inches, and have roots that will comfortably fit into an 18-inch hole, which they require. In fair soil, a stump can bo topped at 3 feet in a year, and re- gularly plucked at 18 months onwards, giving a fine spreading bush. Seed in Situ has its advocates. Its advantages are — cheapness in sowing out, and the good hold it gets of the ground : an advantage in windy sites. Its bushep, which explains shortness ^ to 7 700 „ ) of yield. Again, I have yield given me nt an elevation of 1,800 to 2,500 feet : — Average age 3 years 224 lbs. per acre. 4 „ 380 lbs. 5 „ 315 lbs. „ ( 282 ) And please note, on this Garden of over 200 acres in extent, there was a consider- able loss of leaf from allowing large areas to grow up during these three seasons, for seed, from which little if any leaf was plucked. Had the full acreage been plucked, the average would have reached 100 lbs. more per acre. Again. I have given me figures of an Estate, at an average of 2,500 feet eleva- tion, 400 lbs. per acre at 3^ to 4^ years old. Another Estate, at an average of 500 feet, gives for the first six months of the year, January to June (being in June four years old) 400 lbs, per acre : the estimate to December is 600 lbs. per acre, and will probably be exceeded. Again, an Estate from 100 to 400 feet, showing an average age all round of 4 years, gives 430 lbs. per acre. This Estate is widely planted, 5 by 6 and 5 by 5, and had it been 4 by 4 would have given a larger yield, as the bushes do not cover the ground ; but 430 lbs. at 4 years is good enough, jou will allow. I have again many instances of Estates up to 3,000 feet giving 400 to 600 lbs. per acre up to 5 years of age ; and at 4,000 to 5,000 feet, from 360 to 420 lbs. per acre. We have all heard of Gallebodde and its 800 lbs. odd per acre ; also of the older portion of Dunedin, with its 730 lbs. per acre. A portion of one of. my fields, 3 acres in extent, has given me at 7^ years 1,200 lbs. per acre at 5,500 feet elevation, well sheltered, with fine soil — an exceptional yield, I will allow. These figures are fairly re- presentative of Tea in Ceylon at this date, and not one of the Estates mentioned is in full bearing. What ivill the yield be when we are in full bearing, from 8 years of age upwards 1 We shall want lots of witliering-room : so be prepared in time. Young as we are, and in the face of these yields at 7 years of age and upwards, I feel perfectly safe in estimating an average yield of 400 lbs. per acre from Tea in Coffee-zone and above it, say from 2,200 to 5,700 feet, in sheltered situations. And in saying 5,700, ft., I do not wish it to be understood I draw the limit even here, but the figures I have had given me above this elevation, viz., at 6,300 feet, are only from a very small area under Tea which, however, gave, at 6 years old, 400 lbs. per acre at 4 by 4. For low-country teas, that is, teas at from 2,500 down to sea-level, at 6 years old and upwards, I shall be very much surprised indeed if they do not show an average yield of 600 fbs. per acre. These estimates may seem excessive, looking at the average yields from Assam and India generally, but compare our yield in this our very infancy with that in India, and you will find we can even now show an average from Estates 3| years old up to 6, which will more than double theirs. Inclemency of weather does not affect us in the same way in which it does our Indian fathers, as we have 11 months in which we pluck. If one month is too wet, we benefit all the more when the sun shines again, as we have lots of time, if we have a spell of dry weather ; on the other hand, this again is sure to be followed by rain, when we at once make up any loss. Cost pee lb. F. 0. B. — I have to thank many friends for furnishing me with cost F. 0. B. at Colombo, and choose the following, which are representative of all, and may be relied on. In all cases the tea was manufactured without the aid of ma- chinery of any kind : — 450 ft)S. per acre cost 36 cts. F. 0. B. ^Incluling cost of 700,, „ „ 30 cts. F. O. B. ) upkeep of young tea 400 „ „ ,. 4( cts. F. 0. B. j not in bearing. 400 „ „ „ 29 cts. P. O. B. ( If we take the average of the four Estates we have, say, 495 ibs. per acre, hand- made, costing 34 cents F. O. B. at Colombo ; London charges, including freight, are under 2^d. ; but tor all practical purposes let ug say i^d. The above teas at an aver- age price of Is. 2^d. (and this is not a high average) leave us Is. nett ; or, at Is. 8d. per 60 cents, a profit of 26 cents per B». at 495 lbs. per acre : say Us. 128,70 profit per acre. With regard to Plucking and Manufacture, I find its actual cost is ag follows '( 283 ) without machinery : — cents; Plucking (including baskets anil cootie-sacks) 7-000 Withering, rolling, firing 6 500 Sorting, refiring, packing (in half-chests) including lead, solder, and chests 4-000 Total... 17-500 The rest of the -work depends upon circumstances, and in many instances can be done cheaper, with regard to some of the items, than I now show. The Factory should be roomy, and have as much light as possible. All green leaf, whether withering or being rolled, should be shut off from the firing, sort- ting, packing, and store-room, or it collects dust, etc. Even with a Sirocco, we should be provided with stoves ready for charcoal-firing, in case of accident. Clean- liness must prevail from rafter ti floor. Our Coffee-stores, when too large for onr crop, as at present, can be at a small expense turned into a suitable Factory, a por- tion being walled off for our Coffee-crop. Land can be opened, not including purchase, of conrse, at the following rates per acre for the first year :— Jungle Its. 80, Patana Rs. 50, and Coffee Rs. 40 to Rs. 50. Coffee should be uprooted when Tea is at 1 to 1^ years old, unless it has on it snfScieiit crop to make it worth while leaving it. Tea at three years of age will prevent Coffee giving sufficient crop to pay, and will eventually kill it out, so the two cannot be grown side by side. Coffee, when uprooted, may be stacked with advantage for firewood or charcoal. We can grow among our tea, to advantage, according to elevation, taking care not to over-crowd it, C. officinalis (best of all, as it gives no shade to speak of, and thrives better among tea than in the open), small- leafed Robusta, and Ledgeriana. The np-keep is nil, harvesting being the only expense after planting. We can grow with Tea, to a large saving of expenditure in both, Coffee or Cacao, according to elevation ; and let us aim, with Tea as our main- stay, to grow all the products the elevation of our Garden will allow of, with it, — " Experientia docet" TEA YIELD IN CEYLON-. A correspondent of the Ceylon Observer writes as follows : — " Sir, — With regard to the yield of Tea on one of the fields of this Estate now under comment, I have only to state that the clearing was planted at the latter end of 1879 ; plants, distance apart 3 x 2^. Yield 1882 ... 450 lbs. made tea 1883 ... 735 „ „ „ 1884 over 1,000 „ „ „ In August, September, October, and Novemlier, 1883, this tea was made along with tea from bushes of same ajje, and realized an average price in London during the 4 months of Is. 5|tZ. Since then it has been made along with the other |ths of tlie Estate, two years and under, and only plucked once a fortnight and over, according to the circumstances. I may mention that about ^rJ of the field in question is of very poor soil, and on this portion a large percentage of the plants died in 1882 from white-ants or other causes. Aberdeen Estate, Dec. 1884." Mr. A. M. Ferguson, junior, writing to the local Ceylon Paper, as regards yield o£ Tea on. the Abbotsford Estate, says :— ■ ( 284 ) " Fancy, 5,250 lbs. mnJe tea in four dayg, find an average per coo-ly for the week of 29| lbs leaf! The trees are in splendid condition The following is a statement of the distribution of the picking for this and last week : — Cattle-shed field, 15 acres, 4,008 lbs. leaf, J,002 tea : rate 1,202 lbs. per acre Bungalow field, 5 acres, 1,225 lbs. leaf, 308 tea : rate 1,109 lbs. per acre. Lower estate, 20 acres, 4,490 leaf, 1,122 tea : rate 1,346 lbs. per acre ; 70-acre field, 13,678 leaf, 2,420 tea: rate 879 lbs. per acre. Of course 1 do not e.Kpect, and hardly desire, such a high rate to continue. To show what Tamil women can do when put to it, yesterday 17 coolies brought over 50 lbs. each, four brought over 60 lbs., one 70, one 73, and one 75 ! My books arc open to any who choose to examine them. As previously stated, our picking con- sists of the bud and a leaf and a half, and the above 21,000 lbs. was almost the finest ganiple of leaf I have ever got on Abbotsford." Over 700 lbs. per acre of Tea yielded by an Estate in Ceylon. The late Mr. Cameron was deemed sanguine to excess when he ventured to pre- dict that averages of 500 lbs. per acre would be obtained on high estates, and 700 in the "low country" (all below 2,000 feet, wa suppose, in the latter case) in Ceylon. But, we believe his prediction will be more than verified in each case. Indeed, evi- dence has been furnished to us that on a low-country estate, about 700 feet above sea- level, and not flat, but with rather steep features, Mr. Cameron's estimate has been exceeded. The following is the statement sent to us : — " As regards the yield of tea per acre in the low country, when there are so many doubters as to the quantities of leaf to be got, it is well to publish ascertained facts as they come to hand. The returns for the year ending 30th June last, from the oldest field of 30 acres on the Dunedin Estate, Yatiyant)ta, has been shown us, and we fiud that 89,212 of green leaf were plucked from this field (now five years old). This, at the usual rate of 41bs. green leaf to lib. of dried tea, gives 22,018 lbs,, or per acre 733. As all teas turn out rather more than 25 per cent, of the green leaf, it will be within the mark to say, that 740 lbs. of dried tea per acre has been made from this yield during the last year. We are informed that there is nothing exceptional abont the soil, and that the situation is rather sleep than otherwise, 'i'his yield should bo encouraging news to tea-growers in the low country, and goes beyond the 700 lbs. of the late Mr. Cameron, an estimate which was considered so very sanguine not so long ago. There is no gainsaying facts like those put before us, and we see nothing now left for doubters, except the broad question, Will it last? That they must work out for themselves : it is sufficient for us that the present is proved. " Our readers will not forget that a result equal to 700 lbs. per acre had previously been announced as obtained by Mr. Armstrong from Rookwood, which must be about 4,500 above sea-level. There is no reason, therefore, why 500 lbs. per acre should not be gathered at altitudes from above 4,500 up to 6,000 feet. Over 400 lbs. per acre, we know, have already been gathered at such elevations. The soil in Ceylon seems eminently suited for tea cultivation; but, we suspect, the secret of the large yield of leaf lies in our constantly hot and moist tropical climate, with no winter, except such as may result from the monsoon winds in their strength. '• When the stormy winds do blow, " flushing ia naturally arrested for a time, and it seems settled that the beSt time to prune, at least on the hills, is June-July. But, as Mr Cameron replied to his Indian friends, who asked " What is your season in Ceylon ? " " Just what the planter chooses to make it," so the season for pruning may vary ac- cording to elevation, sunshine, and rainfall. In the case of Dunedin, we observe that considerably more than two-thirds of the whole produce for the twelve months was gathered in the three months of Alarcli, April, and M.ny. The latter month of this year was specially genial, and the green leaf gathered was equal to 12,657 lbs. Then, there was a fall to 7,534 lbs. in June, while July of the previous severe monsoon gave only 3,000 lbs. But, really, there was an almost steady progressive increase for 11 monthg : there being a slight reaction in June from the enormous yield iu May.. ( 285 ) Tea c.TO, therefore, be gathereil all the year round, but, to prevent exhaustion, rest must be given to the trees by pruning, and after a time manure must, of conrse, be applied to the soil. It seems to stand to reason that the high Estates will not require the application of fertilizers at anything like so early a period as those in hot low dis- tricts ; and when they do, the railway, and good roads, will be of immense help. Our decided conviction is, that for high and low country, in the centre and south-western portions of Ceylon, the prospect of Tea-culture is excellent. — Ceylon Observer. The local Observer has the following, as an example of the capability of Ceylon as a Tea-yielding Colony : — It is stated that, from the area of 100 acres in full bearing on the Mariawatte Estate, tea equal to 900 lbs. per acre has been already gathered, but that, as pruning (which had been delayed; has now been taken in hand, the yield for the year will not exceed 1,000 lbs. per acre, instead of the 1,200 lbs. mentioned by rumour. As iu Chittagong previously, so now in the Gampola valley, 1,000 lbs. per acre will be secured by means of a liberal application of manure. Taking this into consideration, the estimate of 700 lbs. per acre for low-country estates, opened in virgin forest, but unmanured, is what ought to be expected. We suppose Mariawatte will be ranked as a low-country estate, seeing that its elevation is only about 1,600 feet above sea-level, the altitude of the railway-station close by being 1,573. The Tea- estate stands on the site of the first regular Coffee-estate opened in Ceylon, but the place had been long enough in "chena" to allow of considerable recuperation of soil. The climate, as regards copious rainfall alternating with genial heat, is all that could be desired. Add to this that the place has special facilities for procuring and supplying manure, and a case is made out for the exceptional yield obtained. The result is a grand one, even allowing for manuring ; but we see no reason to modify the figures for averages of 700 lbs. per acre on low-country estates (sea-level to 2,500 feet) and 400 to 500 lbs. at higher elevations. From our own Correspondent. There is one Tea-estate which has been visited by many Indian tea-planters, not only because it is very accessible, being within two miles of a railway-station, but because it is an exceptionally fine property, though only 200 acres in extent, and only giving crop from a half of that area. It is very conveniently situated, and is therefore visited by many strangers, all of whom are struck with the marvellous bearing-capacities of the place. The Manager assures me he expects to take off, this year, a crop of 100,000 lbs., equal to 1,000 lbs. the acre, from 100 acres. I must tell you, however, that this Estate has the great advantage of being manured at a very low cost, being close to a railway-station, and to the town of Gampola, whence all the street-sweepings are carted direct to the Estate, by contract. The question of yield of tea per acre has had a new iUustration in the case of the Mariawatte plantation in the coffee districts. An old worn-out coffee-estate, which had lain fallow for many years, about six years ago was planted up with Tea to the extent of a hundred acres : in the third year following a further like quantity was planted. Off the first area of a hundred acres the proprietors have in nine months of this year taken in and packed 90,000 lbs. of marketable tea, being at the rate of 900 lbs. the acre, and they expect to take off a further 100 lbs, per acre before the close of the season, bringing up the yield to 1,000 lbs. of dry tea per acre. Of course, tea-planters in India will say this cannot be maintained : perhaps it cannot, even with continued manuring, but for all that it is a remarkable instance of productiveness from old abandoned land. We have had nothing over 750 and 800 lbs. per acre in low-country, from virgin forest-laud, and an abundant rainfall, but without manure of any kind. SECTION XXVI. TEA CULTIVATION OUT OF INDIA AND CEYLON. Tea in Fiji. Tea in New Zealand. Tea in Johore. The Tea Enterprise in Java. Tea Cultivation in Natal. Tea-Growing in the United States. Tea in Russia. o2 ( 289 ) TEA CULTIVATION OUT OF INDIA AND CEYLON. If we except China and Japan, the Cultivation of Tea in wliicli Countries is so different from our own as to render it unnecessary to enter upon it in this Work, we may be said to have practically exhausted the review of Tea Cultivation. But it may be desirable, nevertheless, to refer to tho efforts that are making in still other places to introduce Tea Culture. A very brief Notice, however, will serve to indicate the further directions in which Tea is being experimented with. We may first refer to Fiji, where the soil and climate appears favorabl e to the growth of the Tea-plant. Experiments are being made there in Tea Cultivation, on a small scale ; and, so far, with practical success. The fol- lowing is a Report on some samples of Fiji Teas, by Mr. J. 0. Moody, of Australia : — " The Teas are excellently fermented, but the firing should have been brisker, but beware of burning or smoking. If you can turn out Tea like the samples, you are sure to sell such teas freely, and at good paying prices; anyway, it proves fine teas can be grown iu Fiji. The analysis is very satisfactory : the soluble salts iu comparison with the mineral ash, are very high. The percentage of theiue, 1-73 and 1 86, is also good; some China teas lately tried only went -43 to '90. The appearance of both teas, with their rich tips, is very good. Fiji Pehoe. — Leaf — handsome, small, even, golden-tipped pekoe, evenly and well fermented. Liquor — very strong, full, rich, and pungent pekoe-flavour, thick with deep-red infusion; an invaluable tea for mixing, and worth about 2s. Gd. per lb. in bond. Fiji Pekoe Souchong. — Leaf well made, wiry, twisted, rich, black tippy leaf ; evenly and well fermented. Liquor — strong, full, rich, and ripe, true Pekoe Souchong flavour, with good, bright-red infusion; a fair tea to drink alone, and worth about Is. 9(/. per lb. in bond. These teas have the character of good Ceylon growths, and are in every respect suitable teas for general consumption, and such samples are sure to meet with ready sale in Australasia or Great Britain. Mr. Frederic Dunn, analyst of the Industrial and Technological Mu'eum Labo- ratory, under date the 12th December, 1882, reported thus on the same samples : — '•LTpon analysis they give Percentage of Moisture. Percentage of Mineral Ash Percentage of Extract (Total). Percentage of Soluble saltp Percentage of Theine. Pekoe Pekoe Souchong ... 900 8'85 436 4-40 45-80 48-28 2-98 300 173 1-86 The percentage of mineral ash and soluble salts found in these teas closely resemble the amount obtained from the Ceylon Exhibition teas. Taking into consi- deration that the above samples are the result of an experimental trial, the results are highly satisfactory, and the analysis speak well for Fijian teas." ( 290 ) FEASIBILITY OF TEA CULTURE IN NEW ZEALAND, Considerable discussion is going on in the Auckland district over tlie question of the feasibility of growing Tea in the northern parts of the Colony. A gentleman has recently supplied many of the settlers with tea-seed, and we hear that action is being taken to put the question to practical test. From a paper supplied to the Auckland Weekly Neivs on this subject, we quote the following : — " Both the well- marked and the minor advantages of successful tea-raising are, wo think, offered by the interior of Otago and that of a]l the beautiful province of Auckland. If we in- stitute inquiries, it will be found that the climate closely resembles that of the tea and silk districts of China ; that the thermometer indicates from ninety to a hundred degrees of Fahrenheit nearly every summer ; that as high as one hundred and ten degrees have been noted at Alexandra, on the Molyneux River ; that the mulberry, ailauthus, and castor-oil plant, grow luxuriantly, particularly in Auckland ; and that the experience of tea and silk farmers in other parts of the world has led to the Oriental apothegm, that " wherever the Mulberry grows in profusion, there Nature indicates a suitable spot for Tea." These enquiries would also ascertain that through- out the latter province snow is seldom seen, except upon the mountain tops ; that even slight frosts are necessarily a rarity in a land where the forests are evergreen, and semi-tropical fruits grow with lavish prodigality in the open air ; that moderate and vivifying showers to the extent of forty-seven inches fall during about a hundred and eighty-six days of the year ; that the mean of the coldest month is fifty-one degrees, and that of the warmest sixty-eight degrees ; that the grape-vine and olive may in some districts be seen intermingled with the ordinary fences ; and that the hot blasting winds and sandstorms of Asia and Australia, so inimical to Tea and Mul- berry culture, and so deadly to the silk-worm, are unknown. Such are the natural attractions and advantages which invite the Tea and Silk farmer to New Zealand." How many an Indian planter from the Plains would welcome the practicability pf gaining a good livelihood in the lovely climate of New Zealand. Those bent on a few months' holiday might do worse than exploit this portion of Australia, and ascertain whether the chances for Tea Cultivation there are as favorable as the Auckland News indicates. The Trip would hardly be a more expensive one than to England, and by a personal visit reliable information could be obtained, the knowledge of which might lead to very satisfactory results, in defining the practical and profitable emigration there of Planters with a small capital. TEA IN JOHORE, The following is an extract from a Report by Mr, W. Langley, on Tea Prospects in Johore (Malay Peninsula) : — "I have recently visited the little patch of Tea-trees planted at Johore for Big Highness the Maharajah, and was much pleased with what I saw. The little Garden is under charge of a Chinaman, who, however, does not treat the plants as we do in India ; neither is his manufacture conducted on the same plan. Tiie soil is of a reddish-yellow colour, soft, without clay or stone, of a friable nature, through which the frequent showers of rain easily percolate. The growth of the plants, consider- ing their age, is most rapid and luxuriant. The leaf is soft and bright, and most healthy iv\ appearance, the trees being almost entirely free from blight of any des- cription. The jat is a good one— Assam hybrid, I should any, from its appear- ance ; the seed was sent from Assam by Dr Barry. The climate is apparently all that could be desired for Tea, and during my visit I hnd no difSculty at all in withering or fermenting without artificial heat. During my stay at Johore I manufactured some Tea, samples of which (Pekoe and Pekoe Souchong) I am send- ing by this mail to a good firm of London brokers and tea-tasters for their opinion and valuation, and the reports will be sent direct to Singapore. About the Tea I made, I will say nothing at present, awaiting the verdict of the London brokers. I am myself satisfied, however, and have no hesitation whatever in prophesying a suc- cessful future for Tea planting in Johore," Is. Ud. Is 6|r/. Is. O^d. 9c/. O^d. to Is. Hd. H)d. Hd. 8^d. Is > Hd to Is .IK ( 290a ; THE TEA ENTERPRIZE IN JAVA. Java labours under many disabilities in respect to Tea cnltivation, not derived from soil or climate, for both are excellent, but from disabilities due to heavy taxation. This is perhaps one reason why so little Java tea finds its way to London. Yet some very fine Java teas are produced, and occasionally fetch good prices. The teas are, as a rule, very well made, and attractive in appearance. The liquor is also fairly strong. By the Sale Reports of .Tuly 30th, 1885, we pee that a somewhat larger parcel than usual was placed on the London market, and it realized good prices ; the quanti- ties were small, only 1,230 packages having been offered and sold at firm to hardening rates. Pekoe and Pekoe Souchongs with tip were sought after by exporters at firm to advancing prices. A very fine invoice from the Parakan Salak Estate, closely resembling Indian growths, attracted attention, and sold well ; good useful teas were also offered from the Dramaga and Tendjo Aijoe Estates. We quote the following : — Parakan Salak — Pekoe ... ... Is. l\d. per lb. " Broken Pekoe " Pekoe Souchong ... " Souchong Tendjo Aijoe — Pekoe.. ... ... Is " Broken Pekne " Pekoe Souchong ... " Souchong Dramaga — Pekoe .. " Broken Pekoe ... ... Is " Pekoe Souchong ... ... Is, " Souchong ... ... 8hd to 8|d. ,, But the Java Planters are very downcast at the restrictions placed npon their Enterprise by the Government there. Java planters contrast their unhappy position in this respect with that of India, but they are probably not acquainted with the many drawbacks under which Tea-planters in India also labour. The disadvantages of Tea-growing in Java are thus set forth in a Petition to the Second Chamber of the States General, by several leading tea-dealers in Holland, against additional import taxation on that article : — "The undersigned having great interest in Tea, owing to their direct importa- tions of that article from Java into Amsterdam and Rotterdam, most respectfully bring under notice that both with surprise and regret they have heard of the proposal made by the Minister of Finances to raise the import duty on Tea in the Netherlands from the excessively high rate of 25 guilders per 100 kilogrammes, at which it now stands in our tariff, to the amount of 40 guilders. Our surprise of hearing of it arose from the same suggestion having twice before been brought forward by former administrations, but each time it proved fruitless owing to strong representations from Java and the Netherlands against the scheme, while the present proposal is un- supported by any evidence whatever showing that what in two different years has been rejected as unadvisable, lias now become fully advisable. They view it with regret, because, as victim of this purely fiscal measure, one of the principal products of our Eiist Indian possessions has been selected, the cultivation of which could liitherto be only carried on by the utmost exertion. In fact, planters in Java have to bear, besides the import duiy in this country, five additional and different taxes in that Island, while their rivals in British India, now so formidable, though they have to pay in the mother country a higher import duty than that now suggested here, are, on the other hand, wholly free and untrammelled in their planting operations. The British authorities follow a sound policy regarding Tea-growing in their Colonies. They levy duties on the consumer, but leave the producer wholly untaxed, and even energetically encourage production. The Dutch Treasury not only taxes the product but the producer as well, and now that this burden threatens to become heavier still, the Undersigned protest against it. Moreover, the present time is an unfortunate one to choose for laying on Tea heavier charges than those now prevailing. In 1868 and 1876 the proposed increased duty could have been more justifiably imposed than ( 2905 ) now. The average price of Java tea was then 771 and 62^, but nov? it is no higher than 40 cents per hiilf kilogramme. Naturally, the increase suggested would now press much more heavily, and that too on Java tea in particular, than then. As the tea sold here consists half of that from Java, and only the inferior qualities of it are available to consumers in the Netherlands, while the few better kinds are exported to the Levant, the increase of the import duty would drive most of the Java tea out of our markets, if it does not make the production of the same impossible to many of our Java planters. Tea from Java is so seldom classified among the better qualities of that article that some planters there can realize not more than 20 cents per kilo for their product. Such persons will thus be burdened with a duty of 100 per cent, in the mother country ! More probably they will abandon the cultivation of the product. Those, however, who endeavour to defend the suggested enhanced duty by pointing to Britnin,that pre-eminently tea-drinking country, where the import duty amounts to about 67 guilders per half kilogramme, will simply bring out more prominently into notice the sounder policy of the British in taxing consumers only, while the Netherlanders tax both consumers and producers, to wliich arrangement the undersigned have objected above. In Java, the tea-planter pays no less than five imposts, namely, ground-rent, assessment, poll-tax, license-tax, and export duty. In Assam, on the contrary, land is granted to tea-planters on 99 years' leases, free of quit-rent on one-fourth of the area during the whole of this period, and on three-fourths during 15 years, and on payment, then, for the ten following years, and the remaining 74 years, of amounts respectively equivalent to 59^ and 68f cents per bouw. The land leased under these conditions amounts to 338,000 acres, or 221,000 bouws. More- over, 402,825 acres or 230,000 bouws have been made over to the tea-planters in free ownership at prices of from 1^ to 5 rupees per acre, on the express understanding that the State would never demand any land-tax on the same. Finally, tea-planters there are exempt from the license-tax. When it is also borne in mind that, besides the 100,000 acres under cultivation in Assam, ten times that quantity are available to the planters, and that fresh estates are continually being laid out, the difference of the conditions under which planters work in Assam and Java truly becomes strikingly evident. A few years ago many of the now flourishing tea-estates in Java were un- productive forest, unsafe for the whole population, from beasts of prey harbouring therein, while at the present time work and wages are abundantly given on them, to women and children especially. Yet planting enterprize of this kind has to bear heavy taxation both in the colony and mother country. The satisfactory results of the British system are clearly manifest; when Java in 1858 produced two to three million kilogrammes of ten, the production not having since risen mnch above these figures, British India yielded 350,000 kilos. What the yield there is now may be inferred from the fact tliat in 1882 it amounted to 27 million kilos. Against this untaxed competition the taxed planters of Java have now to carry on their cultivation." The petitioners, in conclusion, point oat tlmt the suggested enhanced duty is the more unadvisable now, owing to the danger impending over Tea-growing in Java from the increasing production of Tea in Assam, and that the abandonment of the cul- tivation of that article in Java would be a great loss to the people, from the prosperity it spreads wherever it is established. Hence they pray the States Generiil to with- hold sanction from the proposal to increase the import duty on Tea in Holland to 60 guilders per hundred kilogrammes. One of the best Books of the kind we have ever read on Tea Cultivation is that written by an author signing himself Java Planter. The Book is very well known in India, we believe, and many of our practices in Tea Cultivation and IManufacture liave been imitated from the Work referred lo. Tliose who have not read the Book should try and obtain it. It was some time since ou sale iu Calcutta, and probably may be so now. ( 291 ) THE CULTIVATION OF TEA IN NATAL. "We have rcferroJ to the prospects held out for Tea-pliinting in New Zealand ; bntthere seems even a better fieUl open at the Cape. Mr. Hulett, an old Setller thero, has practically experimented with Tea Cnlture at Kearnsey Tea Plantation, Natal ; and he says that he is more and more convinced that Tea-growing in Natal is certain to suc- ceed, and he believes, in fact, that it will prove a mine of wealth to the Colony, — far beyond any gold-mine that may be opened ont in the Interior. These are bold anti- cipations, indeed, and are almost such as to make the Indian Tea-planter's mouth water. But Mr. Hulett does not speak without personal knowledge. He has be- come a Tea-planter himself, and a successful one, apparently, although his progress has been slow, because for some time he had necessarily to work greatly in the dark. This is what he says, however : The prospect for the future appears to be exceedingly good. My area has increased fronj thirty to fifty acres during the past season. 0£ these fifty acres, only three-fifths of an acre consists of the originally-imported plants put out in November and December,— consequently now nearly five and-a-half years old. My present picking is from 5.5 acres, planted out in Novem- ber, 1880, and three-fifths of an acre unplanted plants, with a slight picking from plants eighteen months planted out. My return from this vrill, I confidently believe, reach 2,0001bs. by the end of the season in May. To define it more distinctly : say 5J acres under 2§ years old at 2501b3. per acre — l,3751bs., and three-fifths of an acre (5J years) say 500 lbs. (or over SOOlbs. per acre), and the balance of 1251b3. from a few plants 18 months' old. Such yield as this, or anything approaching thereto, cannot be surpassed in the world. The Colony possesses thousands of acres of land that may yield an average return, from good culture, of 800 lbs. per acre, and the cost of that tea delivered in London need not be more than lOd.per lb, lam certain that tea can be grown in Natal at less than 9d. per lb. ; that the class we shall produce need not average less than \s. id. per lb. in bond in London ; and that if in the future planters can be certain of 1.?. per lb. in Durban, the Enterprise is one that means wealth to the Colony. The culture of land will not under any circumstances be over £5 per acre per annum (it should be considerably less). This in- cludes weeding, cultivating, manuring, pruning, and cartage of manure, tools, &c., which, allow- ing SOOlbs. of tea per acre (when five years old and above), will give l^^^. per lb., for the annual growth of the tea — total, Gd. per lb, This will not include interest on capital, and personal expenses. B'rora the foregoing, those interested can draw their own eonclasiona. My opinion is that an Enterprise is before the Colony well adapted to the requirements of those possessing but small capital, from £500 and upwards. Especially is this the case when ten or twelve can grow for a central Factory. The advantages are such that proper appliances erected in a convenient position to receive the leaf as picked, from a radius of three miles, could manufacture Tea of more even and reliable quality than can be done by several individual makers. In India, Estates belonging to large Companies have from 300 to 2,000 acres to pick over. Here, the individual owner of from 10 to 50 acres of Tea can bring such to a position of bearing-power which no large Concern can possibly do, and consequently, by merely picking leaf and selling it at once, a large amount of trouble is avoided. Indeed, I should be very glad to know that ten or a dozen people were disposed to settle down in this neighbourhood for the purpose of Tea-planting. I am quite prepared topurchase th^nr leaf in the green state, and give, until export becomes a necessity, not less than id. per pound for the leaf direct from the tree, and afterwards a price based upon the result in the English market. Now, to persons of small capital, tired of Tea-planting life in India, here seems a promising field open for them The climate is all that can be desired, living is cheap, and the country is civilized. A yield of 800 lbs. of made Tea per acre is almost above that of the best of our Gardens in this country; and if, as Mr. Hulett says, the Tea can be delivered in London at lOcZ. per lb , the prospects are, indeed, remarkably promising. It might be worth the while of any who may be seeking for " fresh fields and pas- tures new " and who has a small capital of some £500 or upwards, to put themselves into communication with Mr. Hulett, as he has expressed himself willing to answer inquiries. TEA-GROWING IN THE UNITED STATES. Every now and again this subject crops up, and a good deal of "tall talking" goes on. It has never been denied that Tea will grow in some of the Southern districts of America,— indeed it has been grown ; but the question whether it will paij has never ( 292 ) been satisfactorily answereil, and probably never will be. A recent Note on the sub- ject has appeared from one who has tried Tea-cultivation in the South, and this is what he sajs :^ Perhaps the question ot Tea-cnlture may be oonsidererl exhausted in our region (near Sura- merville, S. 0.), when we see the failure of the Government Tea-farm, which, for a while, pro- mised such favourable results. Any one now visiting the neglected grounds would sigh over the miserable condition of the plants : hundreds dead, and as many more leafless and dying. The farm is deserted, as I believe the Government ref u=ie3 further aid to the scheme. ^ Let me now mention a tew facts with regard to Tea-culture, which cannot be gainsaid : — Six years ago we obtained from the Agricultural Department, at Washington, some small, delicate tea-plants, which were carefully planted in the poor, sandy soil of our Pineland garden. For a while we were rather hopeless as to their surviving — many of them looked yellow-leaved and sickly ; but gradually they assimilated themselves to the uncongenial soil, and put out both buds and flowers. Now, after five years of growth, we have strong, dark, shining-leaved bushes, perfectly healthy, having withstood untouched the terrible killing frosts of the past winter, which have ruined our orange-trees and oleanders, and even affected our roses. We believe the secret of the culture of the Tea-plant is, that where it is planted, there it must remain, undisturbed. We never dig around our bushes, the soil being so light and sandy, ge- nerally removing the weeds by hand, or with a very light hoe. Aneighbour who had his tea-plants long before we got ours has handsome, spreadingbushea growing in the same sandy land as ours. Some seeds from his plants have by accident fallen among the debris along the high-road, and have grown into nice plants, which can now be seen there, showing how perfectly easy is their culture. Here, again, it will be observed, there is no mention of the speculation as a profitable one, nor is Manufacture at all alluded to, — we suppose on the principle of "first catch your hare, and then cook it." Quite right. And we think Indian tea-planters need not get alarmed. If there were no other drawback to Tea-culture in the United States, the Labour-difSoulty would alone prove sufficiently formidable; and when America can have as much as she pleases oE our splendid growths at a price so moder- ate as now obtains, not even our enterprising Cousins are likely to put this iron in the fire. It is quite contrary to the practice of Americans to invest their time and their money in speculations which take years to give a profitable result, and if holders of Tea-property in India had to begin again, they certainly might hesitate to put money into "Tea." There is an old saying : "What's the good of anything except so much as it will bring:" an.l this is how people here now look at Tea, It is of all Properties the most diffioalt to realize. Americans are not the people to put their money into an Enterprise which will give them no return for four years, and the return from which, when it does come, will not be likely to give them any very exceptional profit. It will, therefore, require a very considerable amount of persuasion to make Yankees even " kalkilate" as to Tea en- terprize, and a still larger amount of persuision to induce them to put dollars into. The prospects as to Tea-growing in Natal present many features of advantage which are absent in the case of America. Mr. Sibthorpe, the delegate of the Calcutta Tea Syndicate, reports as follows on some samples of Tea grown in Georgia : — ■ He says : " 1 have seen some fine samples of Teas grown and manufactured in the State of Georgia. The black tea resembles tea from Assam, and the green teas imitate closely fine liquoring Moyune teas from Shanghai." At the same time, he adds : " The samples were only ex[)erimental, and the high cost of labour in this country will always, 1 imagine, prove an in- superable bar to the successful production ot American tea." This is what we have always said ; and the rainfall, again, is insufficient to produce a sufficiently large yield. THREATENED TEA OUTIVATION IN KUSSIA. The Tea-plant has lately been introduced near Soukgoum Kaleli, on the Black Sea, and the Russians are confident, it seems, that they will soon be able to do with- out either Chinese or Indian teas. They are naturally irritated at the thought that sifter all their efforts at direct importation by the vessels of the Volunteer Fleet, Lon- don can still supply Russia with tea more quickly and cheaply than can the Kussian merchants, though next-door neighbours to the Flowery Laud. ( 293 ) The following is an extract from an article which appeared in the semi-oiBcial Kavkaz, published at Tiflis : — " Then comes Tea. But what hinders us even now obtaining it from India, where it is pre- pared by machinery, and not, as in China, by an objeotionable use of the feet, as observed by Dr. Pyasetsky, whoae testimony will doubtless be confirmed by the Potaniss Expedition, now on it3 way ? Even if me mere to co7iquer India, nobody would give us tea for nothing, and our country- men would have to pay all the same for this national beverage. Besides, the question of tea- planting in the Caucasus must now be considered settled in the afiirmative as far as theory goes, and it wants only enterprise on the part of our capitalists to put it into practice. TEA-PLANTING IN THE CAUCASUS. A movement of considerable economic importance is being made with a view to the cultivation of the Tea-plant in the Caucasus, and according to the Nouveau Temps, some plantations have already been made at Soukhoum, both in the Botanical Gardens, and in the garden of Mr. Wedensky. The plants ot the quahties there grown have matured perfectly, and the question of the possibility of a successful cultivation has been practically solved. It is considered that other portions of the Caucasus are equally well adapted for Tea-growing, and especially in the western part of Trans- Caucasia, in the Valley of Alazan, where the climate resembles that of China. The proper methods of cultivation and preparation are not very well known as yet in the districts, and the Agricultural Society of the Caucasus has therefore requested that a specialist be sent to give instruction in the system. It is somewhat singular, con- sidering the enormous quantity of Tea imported and consumed by the Russians, that no effort has hitherto been made to utilise this Region, for even if the highest classes Tea cannot be grown, it will undoubtedly give a good enough quality for Brick-tea, for which 5,000,000 of roubles are annually paid to China. It is proposed, also, to attract a Chinese immigration to the Caucasus, so as to make certain of a proper cultivation and manipulation. SECTION XXVII. TEA MANUFACTURE IN CHINA AND JAPAN. Chinese System of Manufacture, &c. Black Tea Manufacture in Japan. Green Tea Manufacture in Japan. ( 2!)7 ) TEA MANUFACTURE IN CHINA AND JAPAN. ALTHouaa, of course, all we originally knew of Tea Manufacture was derived from our (!olestial neighbours, we have managed in some ways to im- prove on their practice, although it is to be questioned whether we have much altered or can alter the theory. It is stiU a disputed matter whether hand or machine manufacture is able to secure the better results ; but we have evidence, in China and Japan Teas, that, by their more careful hand manipulation, they are able to secure better appearance. As regards actual quality, however, there seems to be little supe- riority in our hand-made Teas over those made, as is now almost the rule, by machinery. In the following Descriptions of the Manufacture of China and Japan Teas, the Reader may, still, gather a " wrinkle" or two, which may not be without service : — TEA MANUFACTURE IN CHINA. Having had esceptional opportunities of studying the whole Chinese economy of tea-growing, pickinjr, sorting, firing, and packing, it is possible that my experience may be of some use to those who may wish to interest themselves in this Subject. In the year 1861, when the Yangtse-kiang had just been opened under Lord El- gin's Treaty, and the extensive tea-growing regions of Hupeh and Hunan were made accessible by that great water-route, 1 was sent by my employers at the opening of the Season to superintend the purchase and manufacture of tlie first pickings of the Tea, under the impression, not always justified by experience, that the nearer one could ap- proach the source of supply, the cheaper one could buy. Europeans had begun to settle in Hankow, so soon to become a great inland seaport, and there my modest ex- pedition was equipped. After three days and nifflits of slow but comfortable travel in an empty tea- junk. Handed at n point of a river 100 miles above Hankow, called Sz'ting, my most lively recollection of which is the uuspeakahle swarm of mosquitoes, which, however, entirely succumbed to the fumes of chemically-prpparod touchwood. 'J'he journey thence to Yung Lau-tung was over a most interesting mountain track, the path consisting of steps cut out of a precipitous wall of rock, round which the coolies who carried the chairs in which we rode stepped HIce cats, gripping the rock with their toes, in places so narrow that their bodies only could pass when turned sideways. I doubt if I should have dared to walk on my own legs along such a truck, and it was not without considerable trepidation that I allowed myself to be carried on the shoulders of other men, who, far from sympathising with my nervousness, kept up a loud discussion with each other, at the most critical turns, as to how much money they were to receive, and how they would spend it. Yung Lan-tung is a town of Tea-hongs, in a valley surrounded by Tea-planta- tions on the hill-sides. The first picking having been finished before my arrival, the sim-dried leaves were being brought into the hongs in baskets, for sale. There is al- ways enough free aeUing to make a market, but a large proportion of the -irop is be- spoken by the hong merchants, who make advances to the growers. A Tea-hong is a large solid brick building on the typical Chinese plan, court within court, covering ground measuring 500ft. by 200ft. The tea-buying is carried on very rapidly The buyer stands on a raised plat- form, the sellers in the large open court jin front. Each, seller hands up a sample of his leaf on a small wicker tray for inspection, when the buyer, with a moment's hesita- tion, fixes the price, and writes it on a slip of paper, which is handed to the seller, who is equally prompt in accepting or rejecting the price offered; and there is no chaffering, time being too precious. If the price be .accepted, tlie leaf is at once carried into the hong, weighed, and the money paid on the nail. There is always keen competition ( 298 ) among the bnying hongs, and the growers are thus secured a full market price. After the buying for the day is over, the qualities are sorted out, the leaves are slightly fired, and then packed away as tightly as hay in a stack, in dark stalls in the interior of the hong, where the tea is left till fermentation commences. It is then put into the hands of the pickers, women and girls, each of whom receives one katty (equal to I l-31b.) at a time, from which they pick out the brown leaves and stalks. The leaf is then winnowed, to throw the dust off. The fresh leaves which are left are gathered together and fired, which is the most important process of all, as the appearance, character and flavour, depend on the skill and care of the firing. A manager sits up all night watching his hundreds of baskets of Tea slowly baking over charcoal fires. When done to a turn, the charcoal-pans are suddenly removed, and the tea allowed to cool. It is then ready to be packed into the familiar lead-lined chests, for shipment to England. A "chop," or one firing of tea, varies from 600 toSOO chests. The hosts are made to order, of uniform size and weight, and the tea is not weighed but carefully measured into the chests. An impression used to prevail that the tea was ell picked with chopsticks, but I found that it was only the samples that were put ahrough this process of selection, and much labour and sorrow it entails on both buyer tand seller, in the rejection of chops of tea for being inferior to sample. James Innes, TEA MANUFACTURE IN JAPAN. The tea-leaves are gathered in May, and quickly dried by exposure to air, and carefully sifted so as to separate dust and fragments of leaves. They are then sub- jected to steaming. This is done by introducing the leaves into a wooden tub, the bottom of which is formed of bamboo meshes, the tub being placed on an iron pan filled with water, and heated from below. After thirty minutes, when the steam rises lip, the wooden cover is taken ofi', and the contents are thoroughly mixed, so as to steam uniformly all the leaves. This done, the tub is covered again with the lid. Thi^ process is repeated, and finally the contents are taken out and cooled. There is a tendency in leaves to adhere to the bamboo rod during mixing. The leaves are now sufficiently softened to be rolled up between the hands by a gentle rubbing, after which the leaves are subjected to drying. This operation is a most difficult one, inasmuch as the quality of the product depends in great measure on the treatment which the leaves undergo during the operation, since it is during drying that fine colour becomes fixed, with simultaneous production of that delicate flavour and agreeable taste which are wanting in the original leaves ; so that it requires excel- lent workmen, whose requisite sldll is only attained after a long practice. The drying is conducted in a shallow rectangular box, the bottom of which is made of a thick paper, stiffened with starch. The box is placed over a copper-wire gauze supported by iron bars, which are provided across the furnace. The furnace is aimply a rectangular box coated with clay. To begin the operation : first of all a charcoal fire is made in the furnace. The rectangular box is now placed over it ; the leaves are next introducod into the box, and the workman continually rubs them between the hands, alternately tossing thera up and letting them fall until they are nearly dried. Thus diieil, the leaves are fur- ther dried by keeping for a night in the same furnace after the charcoal fire is with- drawn. In large factories numbers of these furnaces are arranged in rows, and, during the drying, each furnace is attended by one workman. The tea thus dried is, before it is sent to the market,"subjected to sorting and siev- ina:. The sorting simply consists in spreading out a certain quantity of tea upon a flat table, anil in removing dust, stems, and other foreign matters, by picking them up, which operation is usually done by women and girls. The sorted tea is then sieved. The sieves of different meshes are distinguished from one another by the num- bers 1, 2, 3, &c., and the number of sievings as well as the sieves used vary with the quality of the tea. Thus, in the cage of coarse kinds, it is passed twice or ( 299 ) tlivice flu'ongli each of 1 and 2, and in the hest kinds only once thcongh 2, 3, 4, and twice through 8, which has the meshes of nearly 3 millimetres. The tea thus pre- pared is preserved in earthenware or metallic pots, in order to preserve it from the moisture. Black Tea. In preparing hlack tea, the loaves from wild tea-plants, or those which are culti- vated without much care, are nsed ; otherwise, there will not be much profit. The leaves, after gathering, are scattered on a straw mat, and dried by exposure to air. They are then collected, and softened by tossing and clapping between tlie hands, till they become adhesive. The leaves are made into a number of balls, which are introduced into a large box, which is closed tightly, and exposed to the sun for halt-an-hour, when it is brought into the house, and allowed to lie in this state for one night. The balls are then taken out, and subjected to rolling and drying in the same way as in the preparation of green tea. During the operation the workman turns tlie mass, so as to prevent it from being burnt. This process is continued until the leaves break very easily by simply pressing between the fingers, when they are considered to be perfectly dry. The tea thus produced is freed from impurities and Htalks, and separated into different kinds by passing through sieves having meshes of different size. Tea Firing. The Yokohama Correspondent of the San Francisco Chronicle gives the follow- ing account of the tea-firing process in Japan : — " A description of tiie process of curing or firing the tea will give your readers an idea of the intense heat these women work in, and that for about the sum of eleven cents of American money a day, and a full day at that. These establishments are fitted up with donble rows of iron or copper kettles, or rather deep conical pans, placed over furnaces which are kept fired up to the limit of 212 degrees Fahrenheit. Each pan has its attendant operative, who bends to her labour as a women at the washtub, only she bends more to stir the tea which is being fired. A quantity of leaves, say five pounds, are placed in the pan, and moved rapidly with the hand of the operator for about twenty minutes. Then a little soapstone, finely pulverized, is sprinkled over the leaves, and for twenty minutes more the rapid movement of agitating and stirring them is conti- nued. Then, more pulverized soapstone, or gypsum and tamarak bark, is sprinkled upon the mass, and the stirring process again continued for twenty minutes longer, when the firing process is ended. That the tea may have a finer polish than it has received, during this stirring, it is put into a cold iron or copper pan, and constantly rubbed against its sides for another hour ; then it is the tea of commerce, and ready for packing into boxes as soon as it has passed over a series of screens or series of differ- ent sieves, that all the dust and stem and refuse may be extracted from it. This process of firing lauses a loss of weight of about 10 to 12 per cent. The work must be done over fires at a temperature of 212 degrees. Every thirty minutes the Jiangs are changed, giving the labourers an opportunity to emerge from the building into the yard attached thereto, for the purpose of bathing." Green Tea. The firing and preparation of tea for market, as practised in Japan, is as fol- lows : — The Japanese green tea may be divided into three general classes ; coloured nncoloured, and basket-fired. The leaf used for all these is from the same plant, differing only in quality, condition, &c. All teas used by foreigners are first fired by the natives in the places where grown. If a grade of coloured tea is to be made, this fired leaf (four or five pounds) is taken and put into iron pans or bowls, which are heated sometimes up to a temperature of 212" Fahrenheit. The leaves are then rapidly stirred by hand against the smooth iron surfaces some twenty minutes. A teaspoonful of thoroughly pulverised soapstone (saponite) and five grains or go of powdered Chinese indigo, are ( 300 ) placeJ in tlie pan, nnj thoroughly nibbed into tho leaf for about 20 minutes more, when half a ti^aspoonful of soapstoiie or gypsum and pulverised tamarack bark (a species of larch) is added, and the stirring and nibbing is continned for 20 minutes more. It is then put into cold pans, and simply cold-rubbed against the iron surfaces until it has the required polish, which is arrived at in from 40 minutes to an hour. This is the ordinary way of preparing coloured tea. Other materials are perhaps sometimes usfd, but, so far as I can learn, all are as harmless as these mentioned. Tlie different ma- nufacturers, of course, vary the process a little now and then to produce slight changes of colour. The leaf is then run through three to &ve sizes of sieves, till all the dust' and loose colonriug-raatter is separated. The shrinkage is about 12 per cent. This colouring process is considered beneficial to the leaf, tending to preserve its shape and flavour. There can be no doubt that the Japanese prepared teas is far superior in purity to the Chinese. In colouring Chinese teas various drugs are used that are deleterious to health, unless it be that the heat to which they are subjected renders them innocuous. Prussian-blue is frequently used instead of indigo in their fjreen, and black-lead in their black teas. Uncoloured teas are made in the same way and quanti- ties, and rubbed against the iron pans until the surfaces have the desired polish, and are then sifted until nothing but the whole leaves are left. Basket-firing is done in bamboo baskets, shaped something like our honr-i;h^sses, which are shaken over hot pans. The leaf is put into the upper lobe of the basket and w.orked into the lower, and so back and forth until finished. TIih loss of weight is about 3 per cent. FIXIS, M. S. MEMORANDA. The following few pages of blank, ruled Paper are inserted for the pur- pose of entering any Notes which may be derived from later experience from time to time, in respect to any of the subject-matters treated of in this Volume. The columns are given with the view of entry of the section and page No. to which any Remarks desired to be made, may refer. M. S. NOTES ON Section. Pa£ M. S. NOTES ON Section. Page. M. S. NOTES ON Section. Page. M. S. NOTES ON Section, Page. M. S. NOTES ON Section. Page. M. S. NOTES ON Section. ' Pa^ M. S. NOTES ON Section. Page. M. S. NOTES ON Section. Pa: M. S. NOTES ON Section. Page. M. S. NOTES ON Section. Page. M. S. NOTES ON Section. Pagfi. M. S. NOTES ON Section. Page. M. S. NOTES ON Section. Page. M. S. NOTES ON Section. Page. M. S. NOTES ON Section. Page. M. S. NOTES ON Section. Page. J, M. EDMOND AND CO,, ESTj^^BLISHEID 1833- CABINET MAKERS & UPHOLSTERERS, BILLIARD AND BAGATELLE TABLE MANUFAOTUEERS, Nos. 27 & 28, Bentinck Street, Under the Patronage of Hh Excellency the Viceroy and Governor-General of India, INVITE INSPECTION OF THEIE AUSTRIAN BENTWOOD CHAIRS AND OXFORD STYLE OF DRAWING-ROOM AND DINING-ROOM SUITES Messrs. EDMOND & CO. HAVE BEEN AWARDED PRIZE MEDAL AND FIRST-CLASS CERTIFICATE At the Calcutta International Exhibition. Spcialities. — American Hammock Chairs to fold, with or without foot rest. Camp Chairs to fold up within space of 20" x 15" x 7". The Automatic Invalids' Chair, Invalids' Table — Curio What-nots, &c. AGENTS FOB THE SALE OF J. B. ROWOLIFFE & OO.'S WIRE MATTRESSES & SANITARY BEDS. J. M. Edmond & Oo.'s Self-acting Equilibrium Lounge Chair. Orders Solicited. GREAT EASTERN HOTEL CO., LP., CALCUTTA. THE BEER, WINE, AND SPIRITS DEPARTMENT. This Department is one of the most im.portant in the Company's business, and the management have made it their especial aim to meet the requirements of the Company's constituents by adding to the brands hitherto imported such as are being asked for from time to time. Champagnes and other Sparkling Wines are received monthly. The services of a gentleman well experienced in the Wine Trade at homohas been secured, and who will materially assist the Company in keeping up the stock to the best possible condition, and in perfecting arrangements for the shipment of some very choice brands of Clarets, Sherries, and Hocks. THE GENERAL PROVISIONING DEPARTMENT. Is the most replete of its kind in the country, and a pcrsual of the catalogue of this Department will show that the prices are as reasonable as they possibly can be when duly considered in regard to quality. The stock is renewed by shipments from the First English Pur. veyors, by each Overland and Suez Canal Steamer.thua ensuring perfect freshness. The Cheese, Hams, and Bacon, and our Farm-cured Provisions, claim special -attention. INDIAN CONDIMENTS AND PRESERVES, OBTAINED Gold Medal and Highest Certificate of Merit, Calcutta International Exhibition^ 1883-84, Made from the finest picked Fruits. ALL articles comprised under the head of Indian Condiments and Preserves are prepared at the Company's Farm, with the greatest care and attention to purity, under thoroughly experienced European supervision and warranted free from all deleterious coloring substances. The Company's reputation in this branch of their business is so well established in India, China, England, and the Colonies, that there is no need to advert to it. As "Presents TO Friends AT Home" (esi>eciai/2/ o?(' /()'?ifr,is ) these articles are certain to meet with a grateful acceptance. The Company will have pleasure in selecting and despatching to any address in India or England such supplies as may be required by Constituents. At page 1 of the Company's Catalogue is submitted a list of the ContciitH of a "Saraple,Case" intended for "Presents to Friends at Home " and e. ^'^ ,? ,» O ,, „ Government Securities, Bank, and other shares, bought and sold, or ■received for safe eustoJy. Interest and dividends realized. Home Eemittances— Bills of Exchange and Telegraphic Remittances on London granted at current rates of Exchange. jANUAny, 1885. 1 FREDK. WYJilAN & CO., 10, Have St., Cidctitta. j Agents. JOHN GEEIG & CO.'S PATENT ECONOMIC TEA MACHINERY. [CHIMNEY AND ALL CHOOLA IRON FITTINGS ^5 EXTRA.J Excels all others in every respect, being on the correct principle, and the material is at any moment under perfect Control. Is the first and only perfect Witherer. As a Dryer is perfectly eqnal and rapid for moist tea, or for finishing off. Can neither burn nor stew the Tea. Finishes at the rate of six cliests per hour. T wo more machines sold to one of the most eminent proprietors in Assam, chiefly f'u- Pucca Baltying the Tea left imperfectly dried by several in his possession of the most recent machines, each of which cost about three times tlie money. Complete factory fitted up with power, shafting, and every kind of machinery, <&c. ; plans sent gratis with order. Every machine guaranteed to give the best results as to quantity and first-class Tea. ^- B. — We are entirely devoted to Tea Estate Machinery, and are our own Manufacturers, and give as good value (depending on the kind of machine) at from 50 to over 100 per cent less in price than other makers. H1GHE8T AWAUD, SILVER MEDAL, INTERNATIONAL FORESTRY EXHIBITION. PRIZE MEDAL AND CERTIFICATE, CALCUTTA EXHIBITION. «TOXX3>a' <3^XS,£3XG^ «SS CO., TEA MACHINERY MANUFACTURERS, REGENT WORKS, EDINBURGH. OUR MULTUM IN UNO DRYER, OR THE ECONOMIC, Is intended for those who liave neither steam nor water-power, and acts by its own natural upward draught of hot air passing below and above a series of 4 Trays inside hot-air cham- ber. Each section is fitted with a Cast-iron Chamber containing 4 trays, 2 in. deep and about 3 feet square. Each section contains 8 Globnlous Pipes, and is a complete Drier in itself, and we guarantee one of the three united stoves to dry as much Tea and give the lauded malty flavor as any Drier on the same 'IVay principle, in addition to its being the cheapest in existence. Each section or stove is quite separate from its neighbour, and each has its own current of hot air. No motive power required. Any fnel. £25 per first section or complete Drier; 3 DliorS foi sSSS- iEnormoua outturn of Tea if 5 sections be used; all heated by the same f,re.'\ PATENT GREEN LEAF EQUALIZING MACHINE.-Price f. o. b. Glasgow, LINK AND LEVER-ROLLING MACHINE, can be driven with or without Engine power : proved to roll better than by hand. Now fitted with top hand-driving gear : f. o. b. Glasgow, sQSS- FIRST-CLASS SEAJfLE.'^S BAGS, HEMMED AND READY, ONLY Re. 1^ EACH. CIRCULAR HORIZONTAL-MOTION SIFTING MACHINE, ^o'kng with four ordinary sieves, 27 inclies diameter, greatly strengthened, ^2Z- Fibst-Class Horizontal Engines, and Upright Boilers, with modern steam and fufl-saving fittings. Orders per Telegraph Ccde/rdg with the Tea Planters' Ag'ency, 10, Haro street, Calcutta, From whom all plans, prospectuses, &c., can be obtained. Indentions by JOIIN GREIQ, JUN., for fourteen years General Manager and En- gineer of Estates in India and Assam ; atvarded by the Government of India for his Invention, 1882, Rs. 15,000, /or the best Machine for preparing the Rhea Fibre. THE G^X^EXO- FITBHT {JLOBULOXTS PIPES. Tlie adaptability of these pipes, for Snia>ll Toa< EstatOSi on the score of cheapness, is without question. A splendid stove can be made by merely taking eight of these pipes and plnoing them in rows, iu the form of the letter X, four at each side, and building them into brickwork. By having a long grating between the legs the heat acts directly on the pipes, and as there is a splendid draught, any number of sections or driers can be heated by the same fire. Wooden hot-air cham- bers and Trays could be made by the local niistree, the same as used in Assam over charcoal fires, so that Planters have no difficulty as far as that goes. The pipes will not burn so long as air is passing upwards through the interior of the same ; they are in fact everlasting. Thus at a ridioulonsly cheap cost, it is within the power of small proprietors, and small outlaying gardens, to make themselves independent of the use of charcoal altogether, and the somewhat tedious process of drying over charcoal tires. Price per section of 8 pipes .£4. Furnace frame, double doors, Furnace-bars in 8 sections, dranght-door, smoke damper, and 15ft of Chimney Pipe 9" diameter in five pieces £6. Total cost for a first-class Tsa Drier> without top-box or almirah with trays, i^lO. Working Drawing supplied with order. Full particulars to be obtain- ed from the undersigned. Price! Packed, f. o. b. Glasgow, JBIO- THE G-REIG LINK AND LEVER TEA ROLLING MACHINE. Simple and Cheap. — Can be erected and started to work by unskilled labour in two or three hours ; cannot get out of order ; has only two frictional parts requir- ing oil, viz., the jonrnals of the revolving barrel. Powerful- — Having so few fVirtional parts, about 95 per cent, of the engine power is developed direct upon the Tra Leaf, and the power of conipression upon the bags while rolling by -a coniliination of links and a long lever, is so great that a boy can easily work the Machine. Each Machine is provided with a heavy fly-wheel, which insures regularity of speed and power. Rapid. — Can be driven at almost any speed without risk of injury to the Machine or its setting ; the outturn of Tea is thus greatly increased. Two bags can easily be rolled at the same time. Efficient. — Two or more Mnchines can be coupled together in a line, and all driven by one bolt, as tlie work increases in factory. The finest young nibs can be rolled to any decree of nicety by the feel of the hand on the lever without breaking them, or the coars(>st leaf crnslie;! into broken black at will ; quick at expanding and contracting the segments. The slots for the segments run at a tangent to the drum (not towards the centre), and the rounded bars inside the segments change their piisition on the bays ns they become smaller by compression, thus rolling up the mass more quickly and perfectly in the bags. A large-size Machine ha^ been working for nearly two seasons on the Luokea Moung Lung Tea Estate, Sonadn, Darjeeling, driven by water-wheel power. The Agent in Calcutta gives the following testimonial: — "The Machine is doing its work in a most satisfiictory manner, rolling better than by hand rolling. I am pleased to have to state this. The principal proprietor has since stated it rolls a bag perfectly every five minutes, and with more water-power they could do more work." The bag is 3 feet 9 inches long, and li inches diameter — thus it is equal to 12 niaunds per hour. Price, f. o. b. Glasgow, £7B. A. Smaller size, witli l)ag;s " fort l inch Ions, M(1 12 inclies diameter, will roll fi-oiu G to 8 uiaiiiuls per hour, has hi'avy fly-whoel, and all the advantages of larger size. Now fitted with toy hand-driving gear. Weight of machine about 1 ton. A smaller size started to work by hand labour at Mr. llnllot's, Kearnsey Tea Estat<(, Natal, who says he thinks very favourably of it. Also working in Assam, and Kangra. Price, f. o. b. Glasgow, £BB. Agents :-T3i9 Tea PLANTERS' AGENCY, 10, Hare Street, Calcutta, WHO HAVE SOME OP THE FOREGOING MACHINES AND PIPES Nov) in Stock, in Cnlcutta, EEADV FOR DELIVERY, lEstahUsTied June 1877.2 THE INDIAN TEA GAZETTE, DEVOTED TO THE INTERESTS OF THE TEA INDUSTRY OE INDIA, AND OP ALL THOSE ENGAGED THEREIN. OFFICE: 10, HARE STREET, CALCUTTA, -:o:- This high class Specialist Journal is now in the Ninth Year of its existence, and, without boasting, may fairly claim to have effected great good for the TPLV INDUSTRY, and all connected therewith. This it will still be its earnest effort to continue to do. It is the onbj Journalistic AUTHORITY on TEA in INDIA, and is fully accepted as such both in this Country, in England, and Abroad. RATES OF SUBSCRIPTION. Published twice a month. Advance Rate. Arrear Rate. Yearly Half-yearly ... Rs. 16 9 'i'early Half-yearly Es. 18 „ 10 N. B. — The advance Rates hold good only within the first '6 mouths of the year. GENERAL FAMILY PENSION FUND. Accumulated Capital in the hands of Government aJbout Twelve and a half Lakhs of Rupees. The advantages of subscribing to a Fund of this nature over an ordinary insurance, where provision for one's family is intended, are ver}- great. For an insurance of Rs. 10,000 a man of 25 to SO years of age would have to pay annually about Rs. 360, and at his death the lump sum received would, if judiciously invested, so as to yield a return of 5 per cent per annum, procure his family a monthly income of about Es. 40 By the same annual payment (Rs. 360) to this Fund a man of the same age could secure to his widow a fixed monthly pension of about Rs 100 (or £10 at home,) which would continue to be paid until her death or re-marriage, without the perplexities and trouble which would inevital)ly be her lot if left with the responsibility of a large sura to invest as a source of income. The rates of subscription for Children are lower still. For Rules, Tables, Forms, &c., apply to the undersigned, stating name of paper in which you saw tbe advertisment. Accumulated Capital, about 1 3 lakhs of Rupees. ' By order of the Directors, SYKES & CO.. 1, Grant's Lane Calcutta. Secretaries.