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 Practical hints on painting, composition 
 
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 study of a head from the oil painting 
 (in direct method). 
 
 BY HENRY F. W. GANZ. 
 
PRACTICAL HINTS ON 
 PAINTING, COMPOSITION, 
 LANDSCAPE, AND ETCHING 
 
 HENRY F. W. GANZ 
 
 " L^ dessin est la probiU de Part." 
 
 Ingres. 
 
 PHILADELPHIA 
 
 J. B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY 
 
 LONDON : GIBBINGS & COMPANY 
 
 1905 
 
 3' 
 

 K 
 
 'xx^%\x:> 
 
TO 
 
 M. LliONCE BliN]^DITE 
 
 CURATOR OF THE LUXEMBOURG GALLERY 
 
 PARIS 
 
Cornell University 
 Library 
 
 The original of tiiis book is in 
 tine Cornell University Library. 
 
 There are no known copyright restrictions in 
 the United States on the use of the text. 
 
 http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924020704270 
 
INTRODUCTORY NOTE 
 
 IN a practical treatise it is not possible to touch in 
 any but the most superficial way on the theories 
 and traditions of the " Old Masters.'' Yet it must be 
 remembered that apart from the interest that is awakened 
 in the student by the attention being drawn to fine 
 works of art, a sense of Taste is thereby cultivated 
 which will materially help his progress in learning 
 painting, while the sight of beautiful statues and pictures 
 of the great Masters will lead him to try and trace 
 the methods by which ' Art ' has been practised and 
 perfected in former periods. One fact which will be 
 observed is, that there is a scientific basis to the study 
 of Art, and another that Art was taught on a 
 classical tradition from master to pupil in the early 
 days. The result was that certain " schools " were 
 founded^ — schools in which the several artists chose in 
 common either the same method of painting or a similar 
 point of view in looking at a subject. In drawing the 
 student's attention to the general facts of Art, he will 
 be led to interest himself in the outlook which English- 
 men have exhibited in Art, and to note the causes which 
 have prevented a British School from existing in the 
 sense that one has existed abroad. 
 
 We know that in Italy within the centuries that saw 
 the growth and development of the great Renaissance, 
 Dante and Giotto revived poetry and the art of design, 
 Brunellesco built the dome of St. Maria del Fiore, 
 
Vlll 
 
 INTRODUCTORY NOTE 
 
 Ghilberti cast the gates of the Baptistery, and such 
 great men in art as Leonardo da Vinci, Raphael Sanzio, 
 and Michael Angelo Buonarotti created their immortal 
 works, and were followed by Titian, Tintoretto, and 
 Paolo Veronese and others, themselves the outcome 
 of a long-existing school. This period led to the artistic 
 development of which the modern school of figure- 
 designers have inherited the ideas and principles. 
 Without tracing the eventual transition to later periods 
 at all closely, it will suffice to say. Art eventually 
 became conventionalised, and died out in Italy. 
 
 In France, without going farther back than Poussin, 
 we see a school based on classical tradition ; and this 
 may still be said to exist. His influence followed later 
 by that of Watteau, and then again by the classical 
 talent of Ingres (to name only a few masters), was 
 followed by J. F. Millet and Corot, showing genius under 
 different manifestations. What has happened since ? 
 
 Men acknowledging no school, such as Manet and 
 Monet, appear, the former with unerring knowledge paint- 
 ing his picture ' direct from life,' and the latter his 
 original " Impressions " of Nature ; and another. Degas, 
 building his ' new ' view of the figure on classical lines. 
 W^e also find in Flanders, Germany, Spain, and the 
 Netherlands, schools of painting in which one man, 
 achieving perfection, passes away and gives place to 
 another ; but in England, except fpr the efforts of Sir 
 Joshua Reynolds (1723) and Hogarth, no one before 
 their time ever tried to make or found one. It is 
 true that a certain decided although superficial art 
 movement was at times created ; but it was by no 
 means the result of native-born talent. 
 
 From the fifteenth century onwards a long succession 
 of painters came at the invitation of various kings and 
 nobles, and lived and worked here, but till the end of 
 the eighteenth century no artists, except those mentioned, 
 stood forth independent of foreign influence. 
 
INTRODUCTORY NOTE ix 
 
 Among the succession of painters, such men figured 
 as Hans Holbein, Zucchero, Moro, Rubens, and Van 
 Dyck. Rubens received the commission to decorate' 
 Charles the First's banqueting-hall at Whitehall, and 
 obtained for this art-loving king the Raphael cartoons 
 as an addition to his collection, which numbered four 
 hundred and sixty pictures, amongst them being eighty- 
 two from the Duke of Mantua's collection, including 
 , Mantegna's series of " The triumph of Julius Csesar." 
 But their visits. Sir Anthony Van Dyck's excepted, pro- 
 duced few pupils. Lely and Kneller followed, and it 
 was left for Hogarth (1697) to break the spell. 
 
 Since thqn certain artists have worked in groups, 
 e.g. the Norwich School, with such men as John Crome 
 and his son, G. Vincent, J. S. Cotman, and James 
 Stark ; and later, the pre-Raphaelites, from 1 848 ; but no 
 national tradition was formed. 
 
 The development of the national character also had 
 much to do with the matter. Like the nation itself, 
 how many of our painters . seem to stand alone ! 
 One consequence is, that the ' English . groups ' are 
 full of originality of view. Each of our Masters seems 
 to have made a study of Nature itself, as may be 
 seen in the works of Hogarth (169 7- 17 64), Sir Joshua 
 Reynolds, Gainsborough, Raeburn, Wilson, Constable, 
 Lawrence, Girtin, Cozens, and Turner (1775-185 i), to 
 name only a few. 
 
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 
 
 From Drawings and Paintings by the Author 
 
 With four Reproductions from J. Muller, Andrew Geddes, 
 H. GoLTzrus, and Marc Antonio. 
 
 Study of Head {in direct method) (^Reproduction in Colors) 
 
 Girl's Head (Method of Starting) 
 
 Study of Head . 
 
 Chart of Features of the Face . 
 
 Drawing of Michael Angelo's ' Giuliano ' 
 
 Study of Old East Anglian Fisherman . 
 
 Study of Head [in four colors) (Reproduction in Colors) 
 
 Preliminary Drawing of Head 
 
 The ' Rub In ' of a Head (Reproduction in Colors) 
 
 Study of a Head (indirect method) [Reproduction in Colors) 
 
 General Lines of Figures . 
 
 Study op Girl's Head in Solid-Oil Colors 
 
 Giorgione's ' Concert ChampAtre ' . 
 
 A Spanish Wineseller 
 
 Don Quixote and the Goatherds . 
 
 Sunday Morning, Harwich . 
 
 Study of Don Quixote (Pencil study) 
 
 The Storm Cloud (Pencil study) 
 
 The Wood Sawyers .... 
 
 'The White Mill,' by John Muller 
 
 Study for 'The Avenue' . 
 
 Study of Tree 
 
 Study of Trees and Water 
 
 PAGE 
 
 'iece 
 3 
 S 
 
 II 
 . i6 
 
 Facing 21 
 
 ■ 23 
 Facing 26 
 
 29 
 
 • 42 
 
 • 49 
 
 • 51 
 55 
 
 • 57 
 59 
 
 . 61 
 
 ■ 63 
 
 ■ 6s 
 
 ■ 69 
 
 ■ 70 
 
 ■ 71 
 
 ■ 72 
 
XIV 
 
 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 
 
 PAGE 
 
 First Oil Study of ' The Avenue ' . ■ • 75 
 
 'The Avenue'. ..... -77 
 
 Rain— Thames Dust Barges .... -79 
 
 Morning . ..... 8i 
 
 Afternoon . ...... 83 
 
 Sky and Sea ......■■ 85 
 
 Study of Old Water Mills . . . . .86 
 
 Study of Old Water Mills . . . . .88 
 
 Study of Old Water Mills {Evening Effect) . . -89 
 
 H.M.S. Powerful off Durban . . -93 
 
 An Avenue in France . . . ■ -98 
 
 Study for an Avenue . ... 99 
 
 Study of a Head . ... ■ 103 
 
 Dusk : Leicester Square . . ■ 105 
 
 Specimen of Etching, etc. . . 108 
 
 Drawing on prepared Ground . . . 109 
 
 Hammersmith (.£fc/«2»^) . . . 11 1 
 
 Study for 'Dry-point' . . . . 116 
 
 The Fisherman's Hut (Dry-point) . . . .116 
 
 Solitude {Etching) ... . 117 
 
 Tower Bridge, London . . . . . . ii8r 
 
 Mantegna's ' Mars and Venus,' engraved BY Marc Antonia . 119 
 
 ' Dry-point ' by Andrew Geddes . . . 121 
 
 Engraving by H. Goltzius ..... 123 
 
PRACTICAL HINTS ON 
 PAINTING 
 
 METHOD IN PAINTING 
 
 ANY treatise which should profess to set forth a 
 method or system of painting, and claim for it 
 exclusive recognition, would misread all the teachings 
 of modern artistic progress, and be misleading to the 
 seekers after a proper understanding of the subject. 
 I do not therefore claim on behalf of the present sugges- 
 tions towards a method that they in any way are better 
 than others which have been put to the practical test. 
 At the present day old methods have given place to 
 new, and the whole attitude of mind of the artist towards 
 the subject is changed. There has been a loosening of 
 all ties which in former days were supposed to bind 
 the artist in the practice of his art. This is apparent, 
 not only in the choice of subjects, but in their treatment. 
 Much valuable time is lost by the student when he leaves 
 his Academy, as — except for his materials and technique, 
 which he has at his fingers' ends-^he has no knowledge 
 of the art of making pictures, or experience of the 
 different arts and crafts that exist. This slender equip- 
 ment is all he has with which to face the difficulties that 
 meet him at the start of his life. The few theoretical 
 text-books on Art and exploded theories of color are 
 
2 PRACTICAL HINTS 
 
 not as useful to him as theoretical books are to the 
 officer who leaves the Staff College, the doctor or the 
 lawyer. I contend that something more than mere 
 technique, important as this is, is necessary to him. He 
 should know Art out and out, and the why and where- 
 fore of all that has preceded him, so that he may go 
 forth, as the hunter does, with a trusty weapon in his 
 hand, and his mind free to develop the originality he 
 has in him. What would one not give for a book on 
 Art by say Whistler, whose axioms on etching are in- 
 valuable, and Rosetti, Hunt, or Millais, who one and all 
 started their careers with a perfect technical equipment. 
 If I -may claim on behalf of my suggestions that they 
 can be put to the practical test, or that they can in 
 any way meet with the demands of the modern idea 
 for an enlarged field for practical workers, I should be 
 satisfied that I have achieved my purpose. I have found 
 that these hints at the analysis of a Method of Art were 
 of some use to my pupils, and I therefore venture to 
 believe that they may be of interest to others, as well 
 as to the young, in whose hands the future of Art lies. 
 With such subjects around him as the superb beauty 
 of English life, nature, and womanhood, the artist will 
 be able to make ' Art ' live, and contribute to a collec- 
 tion of pictures which the intelligent foreigner may find 
 as interesting as the modern collection in the Luxeinbourg. 
 The greater the interest taken in Art the better for the 
 artist. 
 
 In view of the importance of figure-painting, and 
 the value which the study of this branch of the Art 
 has as an introduction to other fields, I have chosen 
 it for a special description. 
 
PAINTING 
 
 LESSON I 
 The Essentials in Painting 
 
 Let us consider what painting means. 
 
 Painting is the art of representing by pigments the 
 appearance of reality ; that is to say, it seeks to depict 
 not so much realism, as the impression conveyed to the 
 artist's eye. 
 
 Painting consists in the juxtaposition of certain 
 tones to one another ; thus, paint a round dab of yellow 
 and it would not be an orange, but direct the attention 
 to the effect of light and shade on the object, and means 
 will be found of giving the " appearance '' of an orange. 
 
 The next fact to be deduced, is that the essentials of 
 painting may be divided into three things — 
 
 L Drawing. 
 IL Light and Shade. 
 in. Color. 
 
 Therefore to go 
 straight on to our sub- 
 ject we begin with a 
 demonstration on draw- 
 ing, which is the founda- 
 tion to painting. 
 
 L Drawing 
 
 Choose some simple 
 object by itself for study ; 
 this will give an insight 
 into the qualities of form. 
 To save time use char- 
 
4 PRACTICAL HINTS 
 
 coal, and the stump or chalk for shading. Take a sheet 
 oi paper and a stick of charcoal sharpened. 
 
 Establish either a real or imaginary perpendicular 
 and horizontal line on your paper. 
 
 By this means, by holding up a ruler, whether 
 upright or slanting, you will be able to compare the 
 bearing of the parts of the figure in relation to these 
 lines, and thus get yo\xt proportions correct. 
 
 With your charcoal, held by the thumb and first 
 finger, indicate your model by slight points, and draw 
 lines, connecting the dots, which will at once give you 
 the outline. 
 
 Your aim should be to draw in pure outline in as 
 direct a way as possible. The expressional power of 
 line can suggest modelling in the blank spaces it 
 encloses. 
 
 II. Light and Shade 
 
 The object of first studies being simple effects of 
 light and shade, you will now look at the model 
 through half-closed eyes. (This enables you to observe 
 breadth of effect, and causes details to disappear.) 
 
 Direct attention to the larger divisions of ' light and 
 shade,' which you will now draw. They are — 
 
 1. Shadow. 
 
 2. Half-tint. 
 
 3. High light. 
 
 1. The Shadow will give and explain the shape 
 of the object. 
 
 2. The Half -tint modifies the shadow, and by 
 joining with the light helps the modelling of the form. 
 
 3. The High light you easily obtain by leaving the 
 white of your paper. 
 
 These will constitute the chief elements of your 
 drawing. 
 
STUDY OF A HEAD. 
 From a Chalk Drawing by H. F. W. Ganz. 
 
DRAWING 7 
 
 Next observe where are the highest light and the 
 strongest dark. These, when once put down, riiust never 
 be exceeded. 
 
 In regard to the shadow, in order to give it depth, it 
 should be put in with decided touches. 
 
 Having got so far, you now look at the model with 
 open eyes, and add — 
 
 4. The details to your drawing, and then introduce 
 more — 
 
 5 . Delicate gradations between the shadow, the half- 
 tint, and the high light. 
 
 6. The reflected light must also be shown ; that is to 
 say, the reflection of a neighbouring object in the shadow 
 of your model. This reflected light may be added by 
 rubbing the shadow with a wash leather or a little bread, 
 
 ' and the modelling of the object should now be nearly 
 \ complete. 
 
 7. The cast shadow can then be marked. This is the 
 shadow that falls from the object you are drawing on to 
 a neighbouring surface, either behind, on either side, or 
 below. '' ' - 
 
 It .only remains to note the — 
 
 8. Texture of the model, for which purpose your 
 touch must vary — according as you wish to give a 
 representation of smooth plaster, rough cloth, flesh, silk, 
 or stone. 
 
 The taste of the artist must suggest to what extent 
 the drawing should be carried out. 
 
 To acquire fapility in your art it is highly important 
 from the . first to make life-size studies direct from the 
 living model. 
 
 This gives insight into qualities of form. 
 
 Before attempting color, apply the foregoing hints, 
 and be careful to observe the process explained in the 
 next lesson. 
 
 Fixitive may be used to fix a drawing, and for safety 
 should be sprayed on the back of the paper. 
 
PRACTICAL HINTS 
 
 THE FEATURES OF THE FACE DESCRIBED 
 
 To explain how to draw a head we will take the 
 different features first separately, i.e. the nose, eyes, 
 ears, mouth, chin, forehead, etc., and find what lines, they 
 are composed of. 
 
 Nose. — The nose (the front view) starts from the 
 eyebrows with two lines, which curve inwards and then 
 outwards over the bony part of the ' nasal bone ' down 
 to the bridge, under which they curve gently inwards. 
 The cartilaginous part below follows, the lines curving 
 slightly inwards and then outwards, circling down to the 
 point where they meet. On either side are the wings 
 (alee), composed of curved lines, which run rather 
 straighter along the nostrils, giving them in this view 
 a rather small elliptical shape. 
 
 The profile of the nose consists of a short straight 
 and- then two slightly outward curved lines (as the case 
 may be). 
 
DRAWING 9 
 
 The nostrils are of a longer elliptical shape, and the 
 top. edge is rather straighter than the lower edge, being 
 slightly hidden by the wing of the nose; under the 
 nostril is a slightly rounded line from the tip of the nose 
 to its base. 
 
 Eye. — From the front view the eye is composed of a 
 globe — the eyeball with the pupil and iris. 
 
 The iris is a circle of various tinted colors, which 
 slightly deepen towards the edge (outside). It sur- 
 rounds the pupil, this being a circular black spot in the 
 centre of the eye. 
 
 The pupil contracts in the light. Above the eyelid 
 a curved form exists, along which the eyebrow grows, 
 the hairs running transversely across it. The complete 
 circle of the pupil is partly broken above and below by 
 the eyelids. 
 
 The top eyelid (the njore important one) is composed 
 of two lines : the upper »i>e — the top of the lid — is formed 
 by a slightly raised curved line ; and the lower one begins 
 with an arched line near the nose, where it springs from 
 the corner of the eye {caruncula lachrymalis'), and then 
 follows a long curved line. Under this line (as it were) 
 the thickness of the skin gives the lower edge, from 
 which the eyelashes spring, cortiposed of slightly upward- 
 curved hairs. 
 
 The lower lid consists of a more gently rounded line, 
 with a fuller one below it (formed by a little fulness of 
 skin), arid a small upper surface (the thickness of the 
 flesh) above this. The eyelashes curve slightly down- 
 wards. 
 
 In the profile the circular form of the eyeball and 
 pupil, under the eyelids, is well brought out. The upper 
 and lower lids having their outlines more in perspective, 
 follow two short full-curved lines. 
 
 Ear. — The ear is a cartilaginous substance. In profile 
 it consists of several rims (called the helix and anti- 
 tragus), inner and outer gently curved surfaces. The 
 
10 PRACTICAL HINTS 
 
 helix is composed of a circular curve, and then a longer 
 curve running down to the lobe of the ear, and has two 
 little thicknesses to it. 
 
 The anti-helix has a circular curve and then a longer 
 curve running downwards, forming the one side of the 
 hollow, making a nearly circular line. The hollow 
 {concha) is bounded by a prominence called the tragus 
 on the side near the cheek (a slightly rounded line). 
 
 The anti-tragus, in a circular line, also forms part of 
 the lobe (lobule). The lobule consists of a line slightly 
 curved downwards, and then circling upwards to the first 
 line (the helix'). The joint of the jaw is above the top 
 oiXn^ tragus. 
 
 From the back view the ear forms a round and 
 longer curved line, with a second circular surface inside 
 it, the underneath of the concha joining it to the 
 head. 
 _ MoUT-H. — The. fronJ view of the mouth, taking , the 
 right half,, is composed of four lines, one above and one 
 below each lip. The bow-shape, formed on the upper 
 edge of the top lip, consists of a line making a short 
 curve upwards, followed by a rounded part, and then a 
 gr'adual curve downwards to the corner of the mouth. 
 The lower line of the upper lip is straighter than the 
 previous one, and consists of a short curve up and a 
 gentle curve to the corner. 
 
 The. upper line of the lower lip runs in a full 
 curve downwards at each end. The lower line has 
 a slightly fuller curve upwards, and then goes upward 
 again to the corner of the mouth. Above the mouth, a 
 slight hollow hdcvjc^n two columnar forms is found, and 
 the surface then runs to either cheek. Below the mouth 
 another concave surface is found, which then gets fuller 
 and runs downwards from the top of the chin. In 
 profile the mouth follows similar lines a little more in 
 perspective. 
 
 Chin,— The chiniixom the front view) is formed 
 

 CI»SSi<Bi {^efilt- 
 
DRAWING 13 
 
 by a long oval-shaped line, having the jaw-bone as its 
 base, and then curving more or less in a long line 
 upwards to the angle of the jaw, and from thence in 
 a gradual curve towards the ear. 
 
 Forehead (the front view). — The forehead is com- 
 posed of a flattened circle. The line formed by the 
 hair at the top of the head usually follows a straight 
 line, and then runs inwards and outwards toward, the 
 ear. 
 
 The hollows of the temple and bones of the cheek 
 complete the face. 
 
 The profile of the forehead is formed by a. line 
 consisting of a short curve and a longer. cilrve. ■ 
 
 The general appearance of the head from the back 
 is globular. From the top the line is slightly curved, 
 and then becomes more curved towards the ear. Below 
 the ear, on meeting the muscle of the neck, a straight 
 line is formed. , ' . 
 
 With a curve towards the base of the skull, the 
 nape of the neck forms a fresh surface. 
 
14 PRACTICAL HINTS 
 
 PROPORTIONS OF THE HEAD 
 
 The head is divided into four equal parts (in height). 
 
 1. From the crown of the head to the roots of the 
 hair. 
 
 2. From the roots of the haif to the origin of the 
 nose. 
 
 3. From the origin of the nose to the lower part of 
 nose. 
 
 4. From the point of the nose to the lower part 
 of the chin. 
 
 The length of neck is a fifth part — from the chin 
 to the top of suprasternal fossa. 
 
 Width. — The line passing in front of the eyes is 
 divided into five equal parts. 
 
 The eyes occupy the second and foujth, the nos^e 
 the third. 
 
 The eye is divided into three parts, of which the 
 middle one includes the pupil and iris ; the opening of 
 the eyes equals one of these parts. 
 
 On the middle of the third line, which divides the 
 height of the face, the nose occupies a space equal to 
 the breadth of the eye; the nostrils in profile equal in 
 length a half length of the nose. 
 
 The breadth of the mouth is one eye and a half; the 
 height of the upper lip is equal to one-eighth of its 
 length, and the lower lip one-fifth. 
 
 The ear extends from the line of the eyes to that 
 of the nose, and in profile is broader by half. 
 
 The width from one shoulder to the other at the 
 line of the collar-bone is equal to twice the height of 
 a head. 
 
STUDY OF AN OLD EAST ANGLIAN FISHERMAN. 
 By H. F. W. Ganz. 
 
 16 
 
DRAWING 17 
 
 LESSON II 
 
 Drawing a Head from Life 
 
 Place your model in a decided light. Then stand the 
 easel about three feet, at least, away. 
 
 The head is to be treated upon the principles 
 indicated in the case of the ball. Carefully note the 
 proportions. Hold a pencil at arm's length, measure off 
 with the thumb a certain distance {e.g. the nose), then 
 find how many times that distance will divide into the 
 whole height and width of the model. 
 
 The same number of distances must then, propor- 
 tionately, be marked in the horizontal and perpendicular 
 lines of the drawing on the paper. 
 
 Having obtained the general size of the head, draw 
 it in, building it up on the same basis that nature does, 
 namely, the bony structure of the skull. 
 
 The leading lines (the direction) of the head having 
 been studied at the same time, carry on the drawing 
 further. 
 
 Get the orbit of the eye well shaded in, the shadows 
 under the nose and under the chin. Add to these the 
 half-tones under the cheek-bones and on the forehead. 
 
 Leave the paper for the high lights. Sketch in the 
 ears, suggest the tone of the hair, and your head in 
 form should be nearly complete. A slight blending of 
 tints and a decided touch here and there will give it 
 life. 
 
 In putting the effect of light and shade, the square 
 character of the drawing should be maintained,' and 
 simplicity of effect obtained. 
 
 The student in carrying on his work will note 
 whether in the light side of the head the outline appears 
 
18 PRACTICAL HINTS 
 
 hard or light against the background; and also in the 
 case of the shadow side, whether it is indistinct or soft. 
 
 It is a good plan in a shaded drawing to avoid 
 making the outline look like a ridge to the head, for 
 it is, after all, only a conventional line, and does not 
 exist in reality. When there is a background to the 
 head, in order to give rotundity and form in the 
 modelling, it is often necessary to draw down one side 
 of the head and up the other ; it will obviate the effect 
 of an outline looking like a tracing. 
 
 When finished, a drawing can be fixed by spraying 
 it from the reverse side with fixitive. 
 
 It will be found that no angle or convex line exists 
 in the body, and that every apparent angle is made up 
 of minute concave lines. 
 
 It will also be noted that by far the most important 
 lines in any drawing are the first four, which indicate the 
 general shape, and that the elimination of unnecessary 
 lines and shades helps to the simplification of the effect 
 produced. 
 
 Where forms appear difficult to understand, it is 
 useful to reduce them to geometrical shapes. 
 
 In general, the principal outlines are more modified 
 and softer in a woman's head than in a man's. The shapes 
 are more ovoid in character in the brow and jaw. The 
 features are slightly smaller. The brow has the appear- 
 ance of being wider. It is less arched, and ^& forehead 
 lower than a man's, which is " square " in shape. The 
 cheek-bones are more prominent and rounder. Another 
 noticeable point is the line down part of the cheek, 
 caused by the formation of the hair. 
 
 In fact, the general slope of the forehead is slightly 
 more accentuated and less curved than in man, and the 
 top of the head farther back. The jaw angle is less 
 pronounced, the chin more pointed, and the lips fuller. 
 The parting of the hair, again, which grows lower on to 
 the forehead, is more marked, and very characteristic of 
 
DRAWING 19 
 
 the sex. The neck will be smaller and the shoulders 
 more rounded. A more delicate or paler coloring will 
 also be noted. In man the head is generally " squarer " 
 in character, the forehead higher, and the mouth flatter 
 and thinner. 
 
 Drawings can be done in charcoal, pen and ink, 
 pencil, colored chalks, or with ' black and white ' oil 
 colors, etc. 
 
 As drawing is the foundation of painting, the student 
 should arrive at a certain correctness and facility in 
 execution before going on to painting or color. 
 
 A NOTE ON THE HISTORY OF DRAWING 
 
 Tracing the history of drav/ing, we find that the 
 earlier efforts in delineation were chiefly in outline and 
 flat washes of color, with no efiect. The study of appear- 
 ances came later. Two survivals of primitive art have 
 come down to us, Coats of Arms and Trade Marks. As 
 a kind of writing for the ignorant or primitive man, the 
 first efforts of drawing were simple. The simple line was 
 studied in Assyrian work and on the Greek vases, form 
 being simplified and amplified. Briefly following the 
 history of the development of humanity, we have 
 Holbein's work, remarkable for skill in line ; a realist, 
 he used lines of great variety of curvature. Renaissance 
 art, with the study of anatomy, brought a more scientific 
 and more ideal view. Chiaroscuro was introduced to get 
 the modelling of the form. Taking Michael Angelo for 
 example, we find that he economised not by rejection 
 of any portion of his art, but by summarising the whole, 
 more or less, with reference to the time he employed on 
 the work and its size. He considered modelling as much 
 part of drawing as the outline itself, and gave both in a 
 
20 PRACTICAL HINTS 
 
 rougher way in a sketch, while in a more highly finished 
 study he made a more careful outline. The principal 
 characteristics in the history of drawing are shown in the 
 difference of thp opposite styles, the Severe and the 
 Picturesque. A style which was simple in Greece and 
 in the purists of the Middle Ages, became elaborate in 
 the great men of the Renaissance. The greatest develop- 
 ment of the picturesque spirit, which is tolerant and 
 observant, occurred in Holland in the seventeenth century. 
 The Severe spirit is an academic protest against the 
 Picturesque. The strongest reaction against the pic- 
 turesque is to be found in the works of the French 
 classicists, originated by G^r6me, who went back to the 
 pure Greek line and flat spaces. The most perfect 
 picturesque in modern drawing is seen in the French 
 etchers and lithographic draughtsmen. 
 
STUDY OF A HEAD, PAINTED 
 IN FOUR COLOURS. 
 (direct METHOD.) 
 
 BY HENRY F. W. GANZ. 
 
PAINTING 21 
 
 LESSON III 
 
 III. • Color '^ — -Materials — First Attempt in Oil 
 
 Before undertaking the use of paint, the student 
 should, by practice, have acquired some skill in drawing, 
 with the ability to grasp the shapes and characteristics 
 of the abject he is studying. 
 
 Thus equipped, he will more readily appreciate the 
 principles of effect in the employment of color, which will 
 now occupy his attention. 
 
 With regard to the necessary materials for this 
 purpose and their handling, he will require a canvas, with 
 not too smooth a surface (single primed), about twenty 
 inches by sixteen inches (or larger), and a fair-sized palette. 
 Having drawn in the head and fixed it, as suggested in 
 the earlier studies, color may then be used. 
 
 In his first attempts, e.^. the study of a head, he 
 should use only a few colors. Such as ivory black, burnt 
 sienna, flake white, and cobalt, and with these get a general 
 idea of what the materials are capable (see illustration). 
 
 He must have large flat hog-hair brushes of sizes 
 varying from \ inch to i inch, two fine sables, two or 
 three round hog-hair brushes, and some cow-hair brushes 
 for finishing-off touches. 
 
 He will require a dipper, to hold equal proportions of 
 turpentine (spirit of turpentine discolors paint less) and 
 linseed oil. 
 
 The brushes and palette must be cleaned every day. 
 The brushes being washed in turpentine, or with soft 
 soap and warm water, then well rinsed and dried with 
 a cloth. The palette should be scraped with a palette- 
 knife. 
 
22 PRACTICAL HINTS 
 
 The palette-knife, of a ' trowel ' shape, may be used 
 to lay on or scrape off paint on the canvas. 
 
 It will be found that Nature only produces eight 
 colors : black, white, blue, yellow, green, brown, purple, 
 and red. Some of these, in painting, are mixed together 
 and modified in different tints. 
 
 In painting, it will be noticed that — 
 
 Black is most beautiful in the shades ; 
 
 Red, yellow, and white in the light ; and 
 
 Blue and green in the half-tints. 
 
 The place where the local color (general color) of 
 an object comes in the effect, is as an intermediate link 
 uniting the shade and light, or rather it is nearer to 
 the shadow than the light. In painting, color appears to 
 us only in relation to the colors that surround it. The 
 grey sky appears dark against a light key, and the blue 
 sky, which is blue and warm, becomes blue not from the 
 pigment itself, but by contrast with warm tones. 
 
 It will be observed that Nature often breaks and 
 subdues color by the penetration of light. This must 
 be reproduced if it is desired to imitate the real appear- 
 ance of an object in relation to its surroundings. 
 
 Further, it will be noted that the color of every 
 object participates in the color of the light it is in, all 
 effect being produced by reflection and refraction. 
 
 In flesh painting, the color is seen more in the 
 lighter parts than in the half-tints or shadows ; these are 
 a slight variation of tones of ' grey.' 
 
 It will be found that the tint in the forehead is 
 slightly yellow, in the cheek slightly red, and in the 
 lower part of the face grey-green. 
 
23 
 
PAINTING 25 
 
 LESSON IV 
 
 Painting a Head from Life 
 
 First place the model in a simple light, that does 
 not vary too much during the day. 
 
 This can best be obtained from a north window. 
 
 The painter should stand at his easel with his back 
 to the light, and occasionally step back to get a general 
 view. He should have the sitter's eye on a line with 
 his own. 
 
 If the easel is placed with the left side to the light, 
 the cast-shadow of the brush will not be visible on the 
 canvas. 
 
 A good color for the walls is a warm neutral grey. 
 
 Draw in on the canvas a life-size head as a study in 
 charcoal. 
 
 Then having carried the drawing so far that the 
 proportion and shape of the model is put in, slightly 
 flick off a little of the dust with a mahl-stick (as in beat- 
 ing a drum), to prevent the dust mixing with the color ; 
 and fix it. 
 
26 PRACTICAL HINTS 
 
 LESSON V 
 
 The 'Rub In' 
 
 Take some such simple color as burnt umber (or 
 Vandyck brown and, vermilion) and make a sort of 
 monochrome drawing. Dip your sable in the oil and 
 turpentine, then into the color, and paint in the outlines. 
 Mass the shadows, then allow the sketch to dry. 
 
 A foundation of the form will thus have been obtained, 
 and the student will be able to study the color freely in 
 the next stage of the painting. 
 
STUDY or A HEAD — "THE RUB IN.' 
 
PAINTING 27 
 
 LESSON VI 
 
 The Under-Painting — Two Methods of 
 Procedure 
 
 To continue the painting, lay the palette with colors 
 in the following order : — 
 
 Ultramarine blue. 
 Ivory black. 
 Vandyck brown. 
 Crimson or Rose madder. 
 Venetian red. 
 Burnt sienna. 
 
 Gold ochre. 
 Yellow ochre. 
 Naples yellow. 
 Flake white. 
 Vermilion. 
 Cobalt. 
 
 There are two modes of painting which I will 
 describe. One is the direct method, employed by Franz 
 Hals, Velasquez, and Manet, putting down the color at 
 once ; the other, and more elaborate method, is that of 
 laying in the drawing with the masses of light and shade 
 in monochrome, followed by thin painting and glazes in 
 color. This is the method of Titian and Rubens. 
 
 Of the two methods of painting a head, I will take 
 first the direct and then the indirect process. 
 
 According to the former, the student will start with 
 a dark color as a background to the head, then mixing 
 two or three gradations of color, and using large brushes, 
 he will block in the face in big touches to suggest a 
 rough-hewn . effect. He will try and match the tints, 
 putting them in in their proper places, and painting with 
 solid touches. Different parts of the palette should be 
 used for the mixing of the tints, and a variety of brushes. 
 The right amount oi light &x\6l half -shades being obtained, 
 he will put in a proper tone for the hair, and continue by 
 
28 PRACTICAL HINTS 
 
 adding touches, which will join this mosaic and give the 
 modelling. 
 
 Colors to be used. — In both cases he will take — 
 
 For the shadow, Vandyck brown, burnt sienna, and 
 Venetian red in different tones. 
 
 For the half-tint, vermilion red and cobalt, mixed in 
 different degrees. 
 
 For the light, various tones of vermilion, ochre, and 
 white. 
 
 For the highest light, naples yellow, white, and a 
 little vermilion ; and — 
 
 For the greys, cobalt and white. 
 
study of a head — " the itnderpainting " 
 (indirect method). 
 
PAINTING 29 
 
 LESSON VII 
 
 A Method of how to Paint a Head — 
 Progression 
 
 In the longer (or easier) method, he will begin with what 
 is called an under-painting to the head, to be followed later 
 by the over-painting. 
 
 A slightly tinted effect (in parts with yellow ochre, 
 vermilion, and cobalt), will be prepared on a ground for 
 further over-painting. 
 
 The shadows will be rubbed in, the general tone 
 being kept. 
 
 The chief light should be well marked. 
 
 Then the silver-grey tones of the flesh will be noticed, 
 and painted in in a mixture of vermilion, cobalt, and 
 white, which will be found to be very near these tones. 
 
 The half-darks having been painted over the shadows, 
 the study of the background follows. This must be put in 
 in the right tone in relation to the head, and the canvas 
 filled in completely to the edges. 
 
 Compare the shadows and half-darks on the head 
 with any neighbouring darks, and alter them where 
 necessary. 
 
 It may be noted if the outline ought to be firmer 
 or not. 
 
 A comparison of the tone- relations may suggest that 
 the values of the different lights should be accentuated 
 or softened. 
 
 Next complete with a dry brush, to give modelling 
 to the parts that want it, by dragging one tint into the 
 other. 
 
 Note whether the outline on the shadow side is lost 
 
30 PRACTICAL HINTS 
 
 enough as a line, in contrast to the firmer line that is 
 on the light side. Then leave the painting to dry. 
 
 It will be found that it is impossible to work on 
 paint unless it be either quite wet or quite dry. 
 
 It becomes sticky in the intermediate stages. 
 
 It will help a canvas to dry if it is placed not too 
 near a._fire, and a less proportion of oil to turpentine 
 will hasten dessication. Damp and water are both 
 injurious to a painting. 
 
PAINTING 31 
 
 LESSON VIII 
 
 The Continuation and Finishing of Painting 
 A Study 
 
 The following day, in order to carry this under- 
 painting further, a little poppy (or other slow -drying) 
 oil may be rubbed over the paint, and a little color 
 added here and there to modify the first painting. 
 
 For instance, in the case of theiskadow that was put 
 in at first, it may be rather too dark, and a mixture of a 
 little cobalt and yellow, slightly superimposed, will lighten 
 it. Later, a little vermilion can be introduced. 
 
 And the ligki may be too high, in which case a 
 little more color of the right shade can be glazed over 
 it. (Glazing consists in rubbing a little semi-opaque color 
 thinly over another, as distinct from solid painting.) 
 
 The larger details can be added with as broad a 
 brush as , possible, and the breadth and simplicity of 
 effect must be kept, while getting the general tone and 
 color of the model. 
 
 The effect of the sketch should be the one that you 
 have observed while taking a general look at the model. 
 
 The highest light on the forehead will be the key for 
 observing the relation of tones. 
 
 The great difficulties in painting flesh come from the 
 changing color and the differences of tint and texture. 
 
 Outlines often are soft and lost in places. 
 
 The greatest care must be taken in blending one tint 
 into another, so as to avoid hard edges. 
 
 It will be found that flesh is made up chiefly of 
 grey in tones of slight variation, some parts of the skin 
 being greener, some yellower, and others redder. 
 
32 PRACTICAL HINTS 
 
 Two useful accessory colors will be found in emerald 
 oxide of chromium and cadmium. 
 
 A canvas over which some color thinned out with 
 turpentine has been rubbed, makes an effective ground 
 upon which to start. Or again, there is the brown canvas, 
 or one prepared with red paint, on which whiting is put, 
 and rubbed off in the places where the shadows are to be 
 painted. Spirits of petroleum, to give a matt effect, are 
 also used for painting. Turpentine may be used to take 
 the gloss of oil away, by wiping over a part of the paint- 
 ing — before repainting. But turpentine must not be used 
 alone as a medium, for it will wash off again in the 
 varnishing. Finally, any thickness of pigment can be 
 scraped with a razor. 
 
PAINTING 33 
 
 LESSON IX 
 
 ' Value ' 
 
 There are several terms used in painting which, have 
 two or more meanings. Value (often spoken of as tone) 
 is one of these. 
 
 It may mean either — 
 
 1. The different intensities or shades of a tone, not 
 color as such ; or — 
 
 2. The effect of an object against its background, 
 i.e. whether it tells as a light or dark mass. 
 
 Thus the various tints found in the representation 
 of a white cup on a white cloth against a. white wall will 
 express the different values (tints) of white, or the effect 
 of the cup and cloth against the background will illustrate 
 the second meaning. 
 
 In a portrait, the dress may be black silk, relieved 
 by black velvet, lace, etc., against a dark or black back- 
 ground, making various intensities of the scheme of values 
 of black. 
 
 Colors are the different tones, as red, green, blue, yellow ; 
 but these colors can be more or less deep, that is value. 
 
 Take, for instance, the reds. You get by values 
 several varieties of reds : red absolute, lake red, yellow 
 red, violet red, rose red, etc., and you can have the same 
 variety of values in the other primitive tones and in 
 neutral tones (colors). 
 
 Whistler often introduced schemes of ' grey ' against 
 'grey,' and 'white' against 'white,' etc., in different values 
 in his pictures. 
 
 In painting, the observation of values is now so 
 important that they must be studied by themselves, 
 and quite apart from any principles of drawing. 
 3 
 
34 PRACTICAL HINTS 
 
 A further illustration of the meaning of values will 
 be obtained by studying the effect of color under certain 
 lights. 
 
 In making, say, a study of flowers, begin by putting 
 them in in a gradation of neutral tints, preserving the 
 values ; then add a dash of color here and there. The 
 appearance of light playing on the color will thus be 
 obtained. 
 
 Everywhere try and paint not what you believe you 
 ought to see, but only what is there before you. 
 
 Nature is never extravagant ; she will not stop to 
 leave out shadows, and uses her effects sparingly. 
 
 In the event of the general effect in the painting 
 being too dark, you can use that effect as a keynote, and 
 decide to paint your study in a lower tone. 
 
 This often gives a finer harmony, and even in " out-of- 
 door " work sometimes obtains an effect of more sunlight 
 in the picture. 
 
 Out-of-doors, in certain effects, a figure in white may 
 tell light or dark in the foreground, and as a ' value ' tell 
 dark against the sky-line. Pictorially, it follows that an 
 object only exists in relation to its surroundings. 
 
 As a base, the three notes to strike seem to be grey 
 or yellow for out-of-doors, red for indoors. 
 
 A blue figure will tend to harmonise the tone of a 
 green landscape, and red will brighten a dull one. 
 
 Bearing these principles in mind, the student will find 
 that it is more often the way one looks at Nature, than 
 the way in which the paint is laid on, that in the end 
 makes the picture. 
 
 Harmony of colors comes from the accord of contraries. 
 Often in Nature imperceptible harmonies are produced 
 by the nearness of one colour to another, as red to blue 
 (giving violet) ; but these will not appear in painting, 
 unless deliberately put down as separate tones. 
 
 The natural harmonies of different colors against 
 their contraries must be modified in a picture, for a red 
 
PAINTING 35 
 
 is never complete without green near it, or orange without 
 blue ; these will be softened by neutral tones, white, black, 
 and grey. In the case of opaque bodies of color, white 
 will be found most capable of receiving and participating 
 in all sorts of colors, while black does not reflect color 
 at all. 
 
 Scientific explanations of ' color ' state that it is a 
 special sensation made on the retina of the eye by rays 
 of light of definite wave lengths. The different ' colors ' 
 producing various numbers of waves, red ones being slower 
 than violet, and so on. The spectrum gives the ' simple ' 
 colors of dissolved light as red, orange, yellow, green, 
 blue, and violet, but white and purple do not exist in 
 the spectrum — they are mixtures of two simple colors 
 {^complementary''). When white light falls on a surface, 
 this may absorb all the rays except the red ones. If the 
 red rays are alone reflected, the object will be red ; and 
 so on with the other colors. 
 
 These facts may account for the natural taste there 
 is for harmony by contrast in painting, and for the 
 appearance of a 'complementary' color showing itself in 
 the tint of the shadows of objects in certain effects of 
 light. 
 
36 PRACTICAL HINTS 
 
 LESSON X 
 
 General Hints on Portrait-Painting 
 
 Unlike that necessarj' for sculpture, where a top light 
 in the studio is alone essential, the light required for 
 portrait-painting includes the use of a side-window. 
 
 By this means the light will not fall too vertically 
 and be too hard, but improve the effect on the face. 
 
 While keeping the breadth of effect, to obtain the 
 likeness in painting a head, the indication of the shadow 
 under the brow and of the various planes of the face is 
 more effectual than the attention to smaller details, such 
 as dotting the lights in the eye and imitating the eye- 
 brows. A tone will best suggest their character. The 
 details can be added later. 
 
 In order to get the resemblance and indi'viduality of 
 the sitter it will be advisable to do a careful study of the 
 drawing of the mouth and lower part of the face, which is 
 of more importance than even the eyes or nose. 
 
 A number of brushes should be kept for the varieties 
 of tint and tone. It is useful, in order to sustain the 
 form in painting a face, to put an outline of cobalt and 
 Venetian red, which, having been introduced, can always 
 be painted over with the color required. It will be 
 found that in painting the cheek, softness is not the only 
 beauty to be aimed at — bad oranges are soft. A cheek 
 is soft, but also firm. 
 
 The tint of the cheek does not make the head, but 
 the tone of the orbit for the eye to live in will do so. 
 
 In painting the costume, put in a general color, on 
 which the shadow and high light can be painted over. 
 
 It is often necessary to keep fine gradations in a 
 
PAINTING 37 
 
 background, so as to avoid one that is entirely black or 
 very dark. 
 
 To relieve a clear complexion, you want only delicate 
 or subtly treated tones, in contrast to the effect that 
 nearly any color has on a dark skin. 
 
 If a painting has not turned out well, instead of 
 scraping it out, it is often a good plan to • let it dry, 
 and then rub some dull colour over it and paint afresh. 
 
 Another plan is to blot the colour off with a piece 
 of newspaper. 
 
 Accuracy of feature alone does not always give 
 resemblance, for people are known to their friends not 
 only by their essential characteristics, but also by their 
 eicpression ; this will best be brought out by conversing 
 with the sitter, one of the chief arts of the portrait 
 painter. 
 
38 PRACTICAL HINTS 
 
 VARIOUS PAINTERS' METHODS 
 
 It may be of interest to note certain points in the 
 methods and techniques, that different artists have used. 
 For instance, L. da Vinci worked by light and shade ; 
 and Velasquez, with complete freedom from artifice, 
 by the arrangement of light and shade, got, perhaps, 
 more true and simple interior lighting than any one. 
 
 Rembrandt worked for concentration of light, — a 
 mass of light surrounded by shadow, — the exact opposite 
 to Claude and Turner, with their small spaces of shadow 
 and large expanses of light. 
 
 Rembrandt and Velasquez worked on the principle 
 of ' values,' a method which Carolus Duran and John 
 S. Sargent also follow. 
 
 Veronese, Rubens, and Sir Joshua Reynolds painted 
 chiefly over a prepared under-painting of white and 
 some brown tint, over which they glazed their colour. 
 G. F. Watts often used a way of painting modified on 
 this plan. Rossetti started his painting in vermilion 
 and French blue, Burne-Jones in blue, and F. Madox 
 Brown in violet. Other artists, like Gainsborough, work 
 chiefly from impression and feeling. Sir John Millais 
 used to place his canvas side to side with the sitter, and 
 then try to match the colour, comparing the effect as 
 seen at a distance. Lenbach worked chiefly in slight 
 glazes over a fine drawing, and thinly re-drew the 
 features over this with a thin sable brush. 
 
PAINTING 39 
 
 QUALITY IN PAINTING 
 
 The 'quality' of the handling of paint is seldom ex- 
 plained, and, it is most difficult of explanation, though 
 without it few pictures can rank in the highest class. 
 The ' laying on ' of the paint in flat strokes of the 
 brush sometimes gives it; or again, attention to the 
 ' texture ' of the object represented ; while a toning down 
 of the pigment with brilliant touches superimposed may 
 suggest ' quality.' 
 
 Of the great men of the past, Giorgione, Tintoretto, 
 Velasquez, Ribera, Franz Hals, Tiepolo, and Chardiri 
 will at once suggest themselves as having a peculiar 
 mastery of this technical accomplishment. Rubens, 
 Rembrandt, Van Dyck, and many of the smaller Dutch 
 School, and, in some of his works, Reynolds, and also 
 Whistler, give it. If it is allowable to mention the names 
 of living men, E. Degas and J. S. Sargent are certainly 
 among the first in the art of quality-painting, while Watts 
 and Burne-Jones never had this quality of paint. 
 How far it differs in many artists' work may be seen 
 by any one who looks at the well-known copy of 
 Raphael's figure of the young Christ painted by G6r6me, 
 in the gallery of the Ecole des Beaux Arts in Paris. 
 Retaining all the sentiment of the original, the fine 
 drawing is reproduced again with a more subtle technique 
 by the later artist. This copy is one of several done 
 by French students on their travels after completing 
 their course of instruction in Paris. 
 
 It will be noticed that all artists do not conceal their 
 means. The strokes of the brush of Rembrandt and 
 Hals are decided, distinct, and frank. 
 
40 PRACTICAL HINTS 
 
 MODERN PROGRESS 
 
 As the pupil advances in the practice of his art he 
 will be able to modify his method as required, and will 
 be quite justified in doing so. 
 
 One sees upon an examination of the works of 
 modern artists perhaps a far greater difference in the 
 handling of the paint than existed, say, amongst such 
 masters as Velasquez, Rubens, Van Dyck, Rembrandt. 
 
 Thus observe the contrasts in the handling of paint 
 of our Watts and Leighton. The one paints roughly 
 and the other smoothly, and they are farther apart 
 than even Velasquez or Van Dyck. 
 
 The principles of art and laws of nature being 
 immutable, it is so far easy to theorise on them, but 
 in practice individual qualities in the handling of the 
 paint, etc., produce many unconscious effects, that the 
 artists themselves wot not of. 
 
 The differences which distinguish the broken little 
 dots and dabs of the painter of " out-of-doors " from 
 the solid effects of value aimed at by the brush of 
 the portrait-painter, make it difficult to point out the 
 many practical lessons which the student may derive 
 from looking round a modern exhibition. 
 
 However, there is less difference really between 
 many classical works and more complex modern ' art ' 
 than between ancient and modern 'science.' For 
 instance, there are two kinds of realism — surface and 
 expressive, consistent with light, as in Rembrandt, or 
 combined, as in Holbein and Moroni. J. F. Millet got 
 the type and action, and Bastien-Lepage gets indi- 
 viduality of character. Perfection being arrived at on 
 certain lines, it seems to die and be revived by a new 
 genius. 
 
PAINTING 41 
 
 The truth is, that at one time ' art ' either appears 
 less obvious, or at another, with its ' composition ' or 
 ' light and shade,' more obvious. 
 
 It seems impossible to produce works of the old sort 
 again, for "progress" in art means a change in the kind 
 of matter selected for art, and a consequent change in 
 technique and handling. 
 
 The sincerity and earnestness of the artist will guide 
 him in the selection of his subject. He must express 
 his own life in terms of beauty, and he will find that 
 the secret of his work is to build as Nature does (getting 
 the bold and fine outlines she does), and then allowing 
 his own individuality full play to produce expression. 
 
42 
 
 PRACTICAL HINTS 
 
 
 LESSON IN DRAWING A STUDY OF A 
 FIGURE FROM LIFE 
 
 In starting a study mark your points at the exact 
 top and bottom of the paper, so that the figure may 
 completely fill it. (This will train the student to draw 
 figures to fit certain spaces.) 
 
 Get the proportions and carry out the drawing as 
 in previous studies, noting well the ' direction ' of the 
 body on the pelvis, the various undulations and curves 
 of the torso, etc. 
 
 The ' square ' character of the drawing must be 
 maintained, and particular attention should be paid to 
 the study of the bones, the joints, muscles, and their 
 overlappings, a simple effect being kept. 
 
 It must be noted whether the outline appears ' hard ' 
 or ' light ' against the background in the ' light,' or 
 
DRAWING 43 
 
 whether, as is the case in the shadow, it is indistinct 
 and soft. 
 
 Avoid making the outline look like an edge to 
 the figure. In the case of a background it will vary 
 materially, and is only a ' conventional ' line for use 
 in drawing. ,, 
 
 To help to give rotundity and form to the model, 
 it is often necessary to draw down the one side of the 
 figure and up the other; the one line will give the 
 drawing (taking the head, for example) of the face on 
 the one side, and of the background on the other. 
 
 In carrying out the drawing the same principles of 
 effect will hold as in the other studies, namely, light and 
 shade, value (the different intensites of a shade), etc. 
 
 It will be found that no angle or convex line exists, 
 but that every apparent angle is made up of minute 
 concave lines. 
 
 It will also be noted that the first four lines in any 
 drawing are the most important, and are the leading lines 
 for character and form, and that where forms appear 
 difficult to understand, it is useful to reduce them to 
 geometrical shapes. 
 
44 PRACTICAL HINTS 
 
 LESSON IN, AND THE PROGRESSION OF, 
 PAINTING A FIGURE FROM LIFE 
 
 Use the palette of colors already mentioned, and 
 have some large and small brushes, etc. 
 
 Having drawn in in charcoal, which you slightly 
 dust off, and then fix, paint a sort of "monochrome" 
 drawing, as before, and allow it to dry. 
 
 Slightly tint in parts with yellow ochre, vermilion, 
 and cobalt, as a ' preparation ' of the ground for the future 
 painting. Rub in the shadow and proceed, keeping the 
 general tone. The chief light must be well marked. 
 Notice and paint the light, silver-grey tones of the flesh, 
 using vermilion, cobalt, and white in different degrees, 
 and proceed in the painting. 
 
 Paint the half-darks into and over the tones of the 
 shadow. 
 
 Then study the background, which must be painted 
 the right tone in relation to the figure. 
 
 Compare the shadows and darks on the figure with 
 any neighbouring darks, and continue painting. 
 
 It may then be necessary to make the outline firmer ; 
 to compare one part with another in their relation of 
 value, etc. ; to accentuate or soften values of different 
 lights, in effect ; to soften off the modelling, etc. 
 
 Another thing to note is that the outline on the 
 shadow side should be kept soft, in contrast to the 
 firmer line on the light side. 
 
 It will be found that flesh color consists chiefly of 
 grey in tones of slight variation, some parts being 
 greener and others redder, etc. 
 
 There are great difficulties in painting flesh, not 
 only from the change of the color, but also from the 
 differences of tint and texture, the skin being partly 
 transparent and occasionally rough, or covered with 
 wrinkles. Great care must be used in the blending of 
 one tint into another, so that the modelling may be delicate. 
 
PAINTING 45 
 
 LESSON XI 
 
 Use of Materials in Oil-Painting 
 
 Ground. — The ground of the canvas may be prepared 
 with pure white lead mixed with linseed or poppy- 
 oil and a little turpentine. (This may also be applied 
 to old canvases.) 
 
 Panels. — Mahogany, poplar, chestnut, sycamore, and 
 cedar- wood panels are used. 
 
 Cardboard. — Grey cardboard prepared with size, or 
 strawboards. 
 
 Oils. — For vehicles — linseed oil and poppy oil may 
 be mixed without injury to colors. 
 
 Varnishes. — Never use the quick-drying ones. 
 The following are safe : copal, yellow amber, turpentine 
 of Venice, pounce, mastic, camphor, animi, elemi, and balm 
 of copaiba, and Scehn^e freres varnish. 
 
 The dessication, or drying of colors, is produced by 
 the solidification of the oils ; these last absorb oxygen 
 from the air, and become heavier and more bulky. 
 
 Dessication is always variable and uncertain in 
 rapidity, but open air and heat greatly help it. 
 
 In the process it is at first slow, but quickens as 
 soon as the oil solidifies. When the painting is dry 
 there is no longer any absorption of oxygen, and the 
 colors petrify and shrink. Siccatif de Haarlem is some- 
 times used. In blacks, browns, and lakes cracks may 
 appear. 
 
 Turpentine. — By the use of turpentine the oil in 
 the color is destroyed. 
 
 To ungrease a canvas, turpentine; water and pumice 
 powder can be used, and then a little oil rubbed over it. 
 It is better for finishing to use thin glazes of mars 
 
46 PRACTICAL HINTS 
 
 brown, mars yellow, cadmium, ultramarine, green oxide of 
 chromium, cobalt violet, and the ochres in place of black, 
 burnt sienna, or bitumen used thickly. This last color 
 had perhaps better not be used at all. 
 
 With flake-white it is safe to mix blue, violet, and 
 pale madder. 
 
 With white it is safe to mix the following colors : mars, 
 Venetian, and Indian reds, carmine and rose madders, 
 burnt sienna, mars orange, cadmium, and yellow ochre, 
 Italian earth, green oxide of chromium, cobalt and French 
 blues, cobalt and mars violet, brown ochre and mars 
 brown, and ivory and vine black. Dark madder discolors 
 when used with white. Vermilion blackens. 
 
 Naples yellow must not be used with colors con- 
 taining iron. The chromes are not permanent, and are 
 damaging to Prussian blue. Emerald green is dangerous 
 to many other pigments. Indigo is likely to be destroyed 
 by colors containing iron or lead. 
 
 Colors with Synonomous Names. — Brown ochre 
 or Roman ochre, charcoal grey or blue-black, emerald 
 oxide of chromium or viridian, cobalt red or cobalt violet, 
 mars red or Indian red, mars orange or Venetian red, 
 mars yellow or Roman ochre, Veronese green or viridian. 
 
 Unstretched canvas, with oil-paper placed over it, 
 may be rolled face outwards. 
 
PAINTING 
 
 47 
 
 INGREDIENTS OF PIGMENTS 
 
 Reds 
 
 Orange 
 
 Yellows 
 
 Greens 
 
 Blues . 
 
 Violet . 
 Browns 
 
 Blacks 
 
 White . 
 
 I Carmine . . Cochineal insect (not durable). 
 
 Red lead . . Massicot (oxide of lead). 
 
 Indian red . . Ground heeraatite ore (Bengal). 
 
 Vermilion . . Sulphide of mercury — cinnabar (China). 
 
 Light red . . Burnt ochre. 
 
 Venetian red . Heating sulphate of iron (waste product from 
 tin and copper works). 
 
 Lakes and mad- Precipitated colored vegetable tinctures by 
 . ders alum and carbonate of potash. 
 
 {Chrome orange . Chromate of lead (not permanent). 
 Mars orange . Artificial ochre. 
 ' Lemon yellow . Chromate of barium. 
 Chrome yellow . Chromate of lead product (not permanent). 
 Naples yellow . Salt of lead and antimony. 
 Mars yellow . Hydrated oxide of iron and oxide of alu- 
 minium. 
 Cadmium yellow Sulphide of cadmium. 
 Yellow qchre . Natural clay coloured by oxide of iron. 
 Raw sienna . Clay stained by oxide of iron. 
 Aureolin . . Nitrate of cobalt and potassium. 
 ■ Verdigris . . Acetate of copper. 
 Emerald green . Verdigris mixed with solution of arsenic acid 
 
 (not permanent). 
 Emerald oxide of 
 
 chromium . Oxide chromium (very durable). 
 Terre verte . Natural coloured clay. 
 
 ^ Chrome green . Chromate of lead product and blue. 
 Prussian blue . Ferro-cyanide of potassium mixed with salt 
 
 of iron (not permanent). 
 Indigo . . Certain plants (Asia and America) steeped in 
 
 water and fermented. 
 Ultramarine . Lapis Lazuli (French) from mixture, soda 
 
 silica, alum, sulphur. 
 Cobalt blue . Oxide of cobalt. 
 Cerulean blue . Oxide of cobalt and tin oxide. 
 Cobalt violet . From the metal cobalt. 
 ( Raw umber . A clay coloured by oxide of iron (Turkey). 
 Mars brown . Artificial ochre. 
 Vandyck brown . Earthy mineral pigment. 
 Roman ochre . Calcined earth. 
 Asphaltum . Bitumen (pitch). Never dries. 
 
 '^ Sepia. . . From cuttle-fish. 
 
 {Ivory black . Waste ivory and grinding. 
 Bone black . Vine twigs charred. 
 Lamp black . Soot by burning oil, rosin, etc. 
 / Flake white . Carbonate of lead and lead hydrate. 
 \ Zinc white . . Oxide of zinc. 
 
48 PRACTICAL HINTS 
 
 LESSON XII 
 
 'Solid-Oil' Colors 
 
 A NEW invention of materials, that of solid oil colors, 
 by M. Raffaelli, has lately appeared, and no treatise on oil 
 painting would be complete without mentioning it. This 
 artist, discarding the usual brushes, palette, and vehicles, 
 offers the painter the colors ready mixed in different 
 shades, in the form of what may be called " solid pastels." 
 The various colors are numbered. I have found that 
 with these a method may be used in painting and draw- 
 ing a head similar to what I have already amplified in 
 my lessons, taking Nos. 28, 27, 70, 200, and 124 for flesh. 
 Sketch in with a sort of ' neutral ' color, a general 
 outline being indicated. Certain tones, say for the 
 modelling of the head, can at once be put down. In 
 this, manner one uses a sort of blue-grey for the shadows 
 of the eyes. A sort of red-grey for the shadows of the 
 nose, similar tints for the shadow of the chin, and yellow- 
 grey tones for the forehead, getting the various tones on 
 the same principle described in the lessons on painting 
 a head. The colors may then be gently rubbed with 
 the finger and then blended together, or the brush and 
 turpentine, etc., may be used. In working in this process, 
 the artist's knowledge of the principles of ' art,' such as 
 effect, value, and drawing, will come as much to the fore 
 as in the other methods. 
 
 Whether he uses oil or water color, or other medium, 
 the personality of the artist will appear in the choice of 
 his subject and manner of his treatment. 
 
STUDY IN 'solid-oil' COLORS. 
 
COMPOSITION 
 
 51 
 
 COMPOSITION— THE LAWS GOVERNING 
 COMPOSITION EXPLAINED AND ANALYSED 
 
 How far the elements of composition enter into a 
 modern picture, and to what extent they are tolerated 
 nowadays, must be a matter of taste. Certain it is that 
 in the case of the four greatest masters whom art has 
 known — Michael Angelo, Veronese, Tintoretto, and 
 Rubens, we find that although the passionate quality of 
 their work lies in its conception, the execution is elabor- 
 ately calculated. 
 
 Let us see how far certain rules, formerly deemed 
 to be essential to the construction of every design, still 
 hold good in a picture, and which do not. Concen- 
 
 CONCERT CHAMPfiXRE. 
 Sketch from Giorgione. ij'ke Louvre^ 
 
52 PRACTICAL HINTS 
 
 tration of effect on the ' subject ' of the composition 
 comes first. It is to be found in them all, and is particu- 
 larly important in art. It will at once be apparent that 
 line by itself cannot entirely constitute composition, for 
 effect of light and shade, colof, and perspective also enter 
 into the subject. This is seen in Leonardo da Vinci's 
 fresco of " The Last Supper." In the compositions of the 
 earlier landscape painters it appears that no effect of air 
 or atmosphere was sought for. A certain artificial contrast 
 of a strong dark shadow in the foreground was used in 
 many of their paintings to accentuate light. Albert Cuyp 
 is a good example. This could hardly be tolerated 
 nowadays, for art has advanced too far. Such simplicity 
 would not be accepted as it was in the days of Poussin 
 and Claude. Another fixed rule was what was called 
 angular composition ; the idea being that by drawing a 
 diagonal line from one corner of the picture to the other, 
 one could cover the lower half with dark and the upper 
 with a light tone, and allow a small portion of each to 
 be admitted into the other, to bring together the strongest 
 contrasts of light and dark. This effect seems a little 
 too marked, for there is no reason why there should not 
 be numerous lights oi various shapes and different valuep 
 of dark scattered about the picture according to taste. 
 An obvious and useful rule is that of obtaining an effect 
 by concentration of a mass of light surrounded by dark ; 
 or the reverse, a dark part or dark spots surrounded with 
 light. Another rule, which still holds good, is that in 
 every subject there must be balance. Again, there are 
 certain parts of a picture that take ikvt light; some that 
 are dark against light; those that are light against dark ; 
 and others that are more lost or divided in effect. All 
 this helps to give variety. 
 
 It is a good thing to repeat lines and forms which 
 play round a figure through a part or the whole of 
 a picture, and either in harmony or contrast to a 
 figure. Raphael frequently followed this rule of re- 
 
COMPOSITION 53 
 
 peating lines and forms to emphasise his subject, a large 
 form being used for the principal figure, and smaller ones 
 filling up the other parts of the design ; and he occa- 
 sionally treated his background like a piece of tapestry, 
 and allowed the principal group, by an accentuation of 
 color in various shapes and sizes, to stand out from it. 
 Geometrical shapes and forms were often used in the 
 arrangement of figure pictures to give importance to the 
 subjects ; thus Raphael, again, composed several " Holy 
 Families " in the shape of a triangle. A diamond shape (as 
 in Raphael's " Sistine Madonna ") was used in order that 
 the many features of the subject should be so grouped that 
 each part might help to tell the story. Circular and ellipti- 
 cal composition was also used (often by Botticelli), being 
 adapted for variety of light and shade. In the beautiful 
 cartoon of Raphael in South Kensington, " Christ's Charge 
 to Peter," he has based his design of the figures on a 
 serpentine line. This allows an opportunity for alternate 
 masses of light and shade to come into the group. It 
 was in reference to this picture that Constable noted the 
 " beautiful pastoral landscape.'' The old masters often 
 introduced their horizons very low, to give fuller play to 
 their cloud effects. This seldom happens in "nature," 
 unless the spectator looks upwards or is situated below 
 the figures. 
 
 Another rule which holds good is that the composi- 
 tion of figures in a picture must not be so obvious as to 
 suggest ttiat they are only there to fill some otherwise 
 empty space. 
 
 No figure or principal subject should be exactly in the 
 centre or central line of a picture. It will be found that 
 horizontal lines tend to give an effect of repose. These 
 may occasionally be broken by a notch, and then con- 
 tinued, so as not to be too severe. 
 
 Again, perpendicular lines, it will be noted, give decor- 
 ative effect. Michael Angelo, to suggest greater action 
 in his figures, used a broken line. When masses of 
 
54 PRACTICAL HINTS 
 
 light are separated from each other, in order to 
 extend the brilliancy of effect, a spot of white or a 
 light-colored object (cis a cloud or sail) may be intro- 
 duced. This will add to the quantity and shape of the 
 light, and also give breadth. 
 
 In composing single figures to fit given spaces the 
 square shape is the most difficult to fill. Generally the 
 most symmetrical shapes look best. Then again, a part 
 of the design was emphasised by lines leading to it, as in 
 Leonardo da Vinci's " Last Supper," or by putting in most 
 of the heads and figures complete, as in Raphael's " The 
 Dispute of the Sacrament." Rembrandt did the same in 
 his plate of " Christ Healing the Sick," in which he drew 
 nearly all the heads complete. Although there are forty 
 figures in the composition, not more than two heads are 
 cut off in part. His wonderful drawing, of course, makes 
 each face a special character. 
 
 In composition, to fill a given space, it will be found 
 that it is quite easy to turn a figure round, if necessary, 
 for the front and back view have often nearly the same 
 outline. Again, the distance can be extended between two 
 figures standing one in front of the other by suggesting 
 more space in the perspective of the " ground plan." 
 This is due to short and long distance perspective. It 
 will be found that the point of sight and horizon deter- 
 mine many of the lines in a composition. Again, in 
 decorative art there must be a ' beautiful pattern.' This 
 is the most distinctive difference between that art and 
 picture composition, for it is not the " thick line " in the 
 drawing that makes the "decorative" effect, but the 
 qualities which the pattern must have — unity, balance, 
 shape, etc. 
 
 Another method often used by Michael Angelo, and 
 amplified in our days, is the rectangular method. Instead 
 of making the figures "complete" in themselves, the 
 interest is extended by means of architecture and ground 
 lines to a larger whole. The figure, not being made so 
 
COMPOSITION 
 
 55 
 
 important, takes its place as part of the picture as a 
 whole, into which are introduced rectangular lines of 
 buildings, a landscape or sea. The figure will then have 
 a less ' prearranged ' appearance. A modification of the 
 rule of always composing a complete figure in each 
 picture is allowable, and is often don& by cutting off the 
 lower part or any portion of the figure. This helps to 
 give interest to the arrangement. 
 
 In " decorative " composition, a head of a figure 
 bending must not look too cramped, or as if it carried 
 the frame on its head or arm. 
 
 It will be seen that lines, although playing a great 
 part in design, are to be harmonised and merged into 
 the effects which the light and shade require in a picture. 
 The design without the effect of half-tones and values 
 of different strengths cannot fill the scheme ; the study 
 of ' color ' is also important. This will be particularly 
 noticed in some photographs of pictures, which on com- 
 parison will be found to have exaggerated the lights 
 
 A SPANISH WINESELLER. 
 By H. F. W. Ganz. 
 
56 PRACTICAL HINTS 
 
 and darks, and often from scientific reasons will not 
 have the approximate values of the various colors correct. 
 This leads to the classification of the two great divisions 
 of artists : those that look for outline and pure line or 
 classical drawing in their work, and those that give the 
 picturesque aspect and the effect of natural drawing in 
 their efforts; Ingres and Rembrandt being typical ex- 
 amples of the two ideas. In classical drawing, value 
 of color, again, can be used to suit the expression of 
 the idea which is to be conveyed ; for example, Raphael 
 and Poussin purposely laid less stress on it than on 
 their design ; while Rubens, though a great colorist, for 
 the opposite reason made beautiful drawings to aid in 
 the expression of his color values. Paolo Veronese's 
 (Cagliari) drawing is as good as his color. Color, 
 therefore, it will be seen, cannot be entirely disassociated 
 from design, for the ' value ' of execution must be in 
 accord with its conception. 
 
 Color itself can be used either as simple ' color ' or 
 in ' values.' Rubens was a colorist who from the richness 
 of his colas made a black appear red or blue ; while 
 Rembrandt, using only black and white, by the beauty 
 of his values gave a fair representation of light. By 
 arrangement of colors in composition it will be found 
 that they can be divided into certain hot and cold tints, 
 each relieving the other by contrast, thus giving harmony. 
 Naturally, in a picture the colors must be softened by 
 the introduction of neutral tones. That harmony comes 
 from the accord of contraries is a natural fact, for red is 
 never complete without green near it, or orange without 
 blue. Both may be combined in a picture, with the 
 necessary modification of neutral tones of white, black, 
 and ' grey.' With these elements a dominant light, bright 
 and central, may be placed, and the sombre values in- 
 creased towards the extremities, as in the case of the 
 sun setting. Again, an enormous range of the palette 
 may be obtained by judicious arrangement in bunches. 
 
COMPOSITION 57 
 
 and by subdivision of some ' colors ' into more varied 
 values and shades of the same ' colors.' This was 
 Veronese's practice, which he carried out with great skill. 
 From the foregoing remarks it will have been noted that 
 some of the old masters' conventions were based more 
 on tradition than on the study of Nature, the continual 
 observance of which alone can save the artist from 
 mannerisms, and that others worked on rules formed 
 from natural laws. Again, some colorists, such as Titian 
 and Rubens, represented the tones in their value and 
 ' color ' without the magic of light, and others were 
 luminai'ists, such as Rembrandt, who makes light the 
 most important thing. Later, Corot found that by the 
 representation of the color of atmosphere he was enabled 
 to carry the composition of Claude, on which he had 
 based himself, a step further, introducing aerial perspect- 
 ive and open-air effect. Turner, reversing the Rembrandt 
 theory of light and shajle, with a mass of ' light ' and few 
 darks, carried the pitch and luminosity of color and light 
 to a greater height and brilliancy. 
 
 DON QUIXOTE AND THE GOATHERDS. 
 By H. F. W. Ganz. 
 
58 PRACTICAL HINTS 
 
 The key of the picture having been decided the old 
 masters made their base of either yellow for " still life," 
 brown for indoors, or grey for out-of-doors. Then a 
 picture was painted in a scheme of silver (or grey), using 
 white, grey, green, blue, and black tones, or in a scheme 
 of gold with the use of yellow, red, brown, and black 
 tints in combination. It has in later times been estab- 
 lished by the study of values that on first going out 
 into the 'open' the effect of figures is that they are 
 darker in tone than anything else in the landscape 
 (and sky), and the horizon is found to be high above 
 them. It will also be noted that the sky will appear 
 as the lightest part, except sometimes at evening, when 
 the light of the setting sun falling on a figure makes 
 the flesh appear lighter than the sky behind it. 
 
 A great variety and difference of effect will be found 
 in the play of sunlight on color; the blue of night and 
 firelight each have their special characteristics, which 
 modern painters are deeply studying. A number of 
 French artists make a special point of studying the 
 effects of light on color ; also the possibilities of painting 
 a picture high in key by placing white paint, as the 
 highest light we have in pigment, and which it is in 
 the power of the palette to give, and working up to 
 this light, so as to get the height of sunlight and 
 brilliancy of tone. We know that we cannot go beyond 
 a certain pitch, and that certain effects are more possible 
 in an effort of ' imagination ' than in ' realism.' 
 
 The transposition of all the colors to a lower tone, 
 which Whistler practised, would be the exact opposite 
 to the scheme of working up to white. When used, 
 this allows a "richer" effect (even of sunshine) to be 
 obtained. With less use of white in the admixture of 
 tones color may often be used pure as it comes from 
 the tube, thus giving depth of tone. A preference for 
 making a subject from the things that are about us, 
 rather than the invention of " ideal " compositions, is also 
 
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COMPOSITION 
 
 61 
 
 another trait of the modern artist. A feeling for color 
 for itself, as an appeal to the color-sense, and tone studies 
 as " motives," in opposition to the literary story, mark a 
 later phrase in the art of to-day. 
 
 Abroad, decorative painting and the principles of 
 "plein-air" have been much developed, both in figure 
 and landscape work. 
 
 When a subject is not painted as a portrait (which 
 is an exact study and impression from life) or as a piece 
 of realism, it has either to be a " decoration," an " illus- 
 tration," or result of an " impression," all these forms of 
 expression allowing of great latitude. Exact truth of 
 tone and effect is more possible in "interiors" than in 
 " out-of-door work," when the study may have brilliancy 
 of light and illumination observed at certain times of 
 day and season. For the landscape-painter, the effects 
 of nature passing so rapidly, a study of composition 
 becomes an important 
 factor in his work. Pic- 
 tures may be painted 
 from studies or laid in in 
 certain arranged schemes, 
 and the model used to 
 help out the subject. 
 Outline drawings will 
 also be of service. En- 
 largements from small 
 drawings, etc., can be 
 made by squaring them, 
 and placing the forms 
 in larger squares in the 
 same proportion. 
 
 Knowing how to 
 paint is not originality, 
 nor harmful to its de- 
 velopment, for originality 
 consists in expressing don quixote. 
 
62 PRACTICAL HINTS 
 
 your own impressions. Let us take four personal 
 and original men amongst the old masters — Raphael, 
 Rubens, Rembrandt, and Watteau. Raphael expressed 
 beauty in youth and spring and innocence ; his style 
 is youthful beauty and spirit. Rubens, delighting in 
 strength and color, covers his canvases with the rich- 
 ness of the earth, variety of energy and passion ; his 
 style is life and color. Rembrandt, a profound observer 
 and thinker, shows with truth the sad and sombre in 
 life ; his style is suffering and mystery of shadow. 
 Watteau represents all that is charming in love ; his 
 style is grace and beauty. In the manner of painting, 
 Watteau paints like Rubens, with the same freedom and 
 method, yet we never confound them. Rembrandt has, 
 more than is generally believed, the same technique as 
 Rubens. This shows that originality comes not from 
 method but from thought and feeling. What one must 
 seek for is character, which is life expressed in movement, 
 form, and color. These qualities give strength. Origin- 
 ality to-day may be exercised upon subjects which did 
 not exist in the times of the ancients, or they would 
 assuredly have used them. The beauty of the world 
 around ; the force and surroundings of machinery ; the 
 mysterious power of steam and electricity ; the workmen 
 at their labour, at rest, or in conference; woman, the 
 mistress of the art of grace; and other such subjects 
 to the observant will give abundant material for original 
 composition. 
 
 In historical composition there is selection of character, 
 the costume of the period, time of day, effect, quality of 
 painting as to texture, etc., to be noted. Other subjects 
 are genre or small ' figure ' pictures, the reflection of the 
 artistic mood or point of view — painting as document, 
 as " artistic " versus " natural " effect, or as simplification 
 of nature. All these forms of picture allow of immense 
 freedom of action in our day. 
 
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 63 
 
COMPOSITION 
 
 65 
 
 OLD AND MODERN OUTLOOK 
 
 The great originators and masters in their own time 
 were — Michael Angelo, who delighted in the display of 
 human form. His works are epics of humanity and 
 expression. Titian, who painted " The Entombment," for 
 the effect of a white body of the Dead Christ in contrast 
 to the robust, auburn-locked Italians, and for the idea 
 of ' beauty,' not for the sake of anything new. Velasquez 
 himself learned something from Rubens, as may be seen 
 in his early picture of " Los Borrachos." After his sojourn 
 in Italy, the, influence of Poussin and Reni (whom he 
 met in Rome), and of Titian and Tintoretto, whom he 
 greatly admired, is clearly noticeable in the pictures of 
 " Mercury, Vulcan, and the Blacksmiths," " The Siege of 
 Breda," and his later biblical subjects. His greatest 
 originality was in the way he looked at things. What 
 
 ,'t,--.€»S^J!n 
 
66 PRACTICAL HINTS 
 
 he may have thought of " plein air " we do not know, for 
 the fact remains that there is no evidence of it in the 
 landscape backgrounds of his large pictures of mounted 
 noblemen. His great sense of realism, truth of value, and 
 of interior lighting and tone are unsurpassable, as may- 
 be seen in " The Tapestry Weavers " and " Los Meninas " 
 (Maids of Honour). In the same respect Ver Meer of 
 Delft was a great master. 
 
 Amongst men of our time we find important 
 innovators, such as Manet, Whistler, Cezanne, Degas, 
 and Renoir, while in the extension of light and color, 
 Turner and Monet saw fresh beauties. Ingres, Puvis 
 de Chavannes, and Fantin-Latour have carried on classical 
 composition to further limits. Puvis not only painted 
 mural decoration, but made his pictures form part of 
 the wall, by harmonising them to the surrounding stone 
 by the use of grey-blue and white tones, thus obtaining 
 decorative unity and completeness of drawing. 
 
 We find also the realism of Adolph Menzel, J. S. 
 Sargent, and Charles Furse, and the idealism of Flaxman, 
 Alfred Stevens (sculptor) Diaz, Rousseau, Decamps, 
 T. Couture, Segantini, Carri^re, and A. Rodin. The pre- 
 Raphaelite choice of subject was the painting with great 
 finish of marble, gold, and flowers ; while the work-a-day 
 life is depicted with much mystery of light and shade by 
 J. F. Millet, who gave the note of the never-ending labour 
 of the peasant, an entirely new idea in art. Both these 
 styles of painting are appropriate in their way of technique 
 and handling of paint to their different subjects. This 
 last artist, Corot, and Courbet are the three nature-loving 
 Realists of the middle of the nineteenth century. 
 
 A curious modern influence, in that it is an intro- 
 duction of ' Eastern ' into ' Western ' art, has been the 
 adaptation of the decorative method of the old Japanese 
 colored woodblocks. With their spots of color and simple 
 style of drawing, these, though not 'childlike,' have re- 
 tained the clear outline of early art, and their beauty and 
 
COMPOSITION 67 
 
 delicacy of line show a power of interpretation of natural 
 truth with utmost simplicity. The influence of Japanese 
 decorative spacing of color may be noted in Whistler's 
 work ; and in some modern French dry points the 
 influence of the Japanese delicacy of line can be clearly 
 noted. The first lessons learnt from Japan were applied 
 to decorative art — lacquering, enamelling, china-making, 
 etc. Starting in Europe about the middle of the nine- 
 teenth century, this influence led to the abandonment of 
 some old traditions. This movement was the forerunner 
 of the " Modern Style," which, with a tendency to 
 exaggeration that is not in the models of the Japanese 
 masterpieces of flowers and animals (painted or carved 
 with a beautiful realism), has helped certain artists to 
 develop their individuality and expression of original 
 thought. 
 
 In contrast to ancient art, there is a tendency in the 
 art of to-day to become less national and more cosmo- 
 politan. It is a fight not so much of national expression 
 as of principle, in beauty of form, and mystery and 
 intensity of light and color. 
 
68 PRACTICAL HINTS 
 
 LANDSCAPE PAINTING 
 
 Notwithstanding the impatience of modern artists with 
 many of the old masters' traditions, due to their being 
 based more on convention than nature, it still remains 
 a matter of interest to note how far they really ignored 
 " nature " in their landscape work and how far they 
 submitted themselves to custom. Allowing for the fact 
 that the old masters delighted in the display of human 
 form as their chief motive, it was, of course, of paramount 
 importance to attach most study to that side of their 
 art. Soon, however, it was found that hardly any 
 single figure or study could be painted without some 
 principle of " landscape " coming into the background, 
 and on these landscapes they often lavished the utmost 
 skill. That they constantly painted their figures in one 
 effect of light and the landscape in another, without due 
 reference the one to the other, is not of much importance, 
 for the study of " open-air " atmosphere had not been 
 taken up as yet, and even men who looked at things 
 with what may be called a " modem outlook," such as 
 Velasquez and Goya, often did the same thing in their 
 landscapes. We know how even later on Turner " built "■ 
 himself on the works of the old masters before allowing 
 his genius full play, and how Constable in his Lectures 
 on Landscape Painting insisted on the fact that a land- 
 scape artist should study his art scientifically through 
 the art that had gone before, and traced the historical 
 origin and progress of landscape painting from the early 
 attempts in Italy, in the backgrounds of old ''altar- 
 pieces," down to the work of the French and Dutch 
 schools. I can barely touch upon more than the fringe 
 of this interesting speculation, nor can I follow it through 
 the different works mentioned in this chapter. Suffice 
 
LANDSCAPE PAINTING 
 
 69 
 
 it to mention one early picture in our National Gallery, 
 which seems to be essentially the work of a landscape 
 painter pure and simple ; I mean Patinir's picture (No. 
 1298, date 1489-1524). Other beautiful landscapes 
 exist in the work of Giorgione, Titian, Mantegna, and 
 Albrecht DUrer. As Turner himself (i 775— 1 85 i) worked 
 on the " Roman " model of Claude and Poussin, it is 
 interesting to compare the result of his studies with 
 those of Corot, who, although he also formed his style 
 of composition on these masters, had no desire to express 
 anything but beauty and rhythm of lines. Turner 
 worked from the grey, brown, and blue of the Dutch 
 school until 1 805. Then he felt the influence of Claude's 
 work (in mellow tones and classical composition) c. 1 8 1 9. 
 His middle period dates from his return from Italy 
 to 1823— 29, " Ulysses deriding Polyphemus." The last 
 phase from then till 1 843, " Approach to Venice." In this 
 period he heightened the scale of his color scheme in his 
 search for the power of giving luminous effect. 
 
 F7'- 
 
 THE WHITE MILL. 
 By William Muller. 
 
70 
 
 PRACTICAL HINTS 
 
 LESSON IN STARTING A LANDSCAPE STUDY 
 
 One of the most important points to consider in starting 
 a landscape is to find the lines that will give a notion 
 of the planes of the ground. Upon these the rounded 
 or square surfaces of the objects to be represented can 
 be placed, attention at the same time being paid to the 
 atmosphere they live in. Having built up the ground- 
 surface organically, one has to notice how the tree-trunks 
 grow out of the ground, how they are lost at their base, 
 and show most distinctly as a mass against the sky. 
 
 Trees. — It will be found that more character is 
 given to a tree by the few lines suggesting the trunk 
 than by an elaboration of the foliage in detail. 
 
 The leaves should be treated as a mass in the centre 
 of the tree, and modified or lost at the " edges." 
 
 
 (i.) THE AVENUE. FOUNDATION STUDY FOR PICTURE. 
 
LANDSCAPE PAINTING 
 
 71 
 
 Further, they alter in perspective as the point of view 
 is from below or above.. 
 
 The principal trunk has the thickness that the sum 
 of all its branches added together would have, and as 
 much root as the size of the whole tree. The complete 
 tree follows in general line the same form as a single leaf. 
 
 Leaves grow out of 
 the stem either alter- 
 nately or opposite. 
 They may be in 
 bunches of four (horse- 
 chestnut), five, (oak), 
 six, (rhododendron), or 
 more. At the 
 end of the 
 spray they fall 
 y ' in groups. 
 ■^/'■^y Leaves curve 
 ;>?f^; « upwards from 
 '.' ' the law of de- 
 flection. 
 
 The stem 
 will be found to dim- 
 inish in size only after 
 the separation of each 
 branch. In the oak 
 and chestnut the trunk 
 appears lost among the 
 branches. In the fir, 
 the trunk and branches 
 can be traced through- 
 out. The branches of 
 some trees are sub- 
 divided, as in the oak, 
 beech, birch, etc., while 
 the poplar possesses 
 but a few small twigs. 
 
 ''fi'-Vn^'f^r',' 
 
72 
 
 PRACTICAL HINTS 
 
 The angles at which the branches shoot forth from 
 the parent trunk must be noted. In the oak they make 
 abrupt curves, in the ash they start at smaller angles, 
 and so on. The foliage is usually grouped in round or 
 oval shapes ; but such trees as the beech and the cedar 
 have twigs in the form of layers. It will be observed 
 that single trees often show well-defined roots. 
 
 The light spaces between the leaves and boughs 
 should be darker than the sky in tone. 
 
 Taking a landscape as made up of shade, half-tone, 
 and light, one will notice where these tones are, and 
 how they come in relation to one another. For 
 instance, the sky from whence the light emanates is 
 usually lighter in tone than anything else in the whole 
 landscape, although other parts may appear more 
 brilliant from contrast to their surroundings. Noticing 
 the larger division of light and shade will give you — (i.) the 
 
 \'i Ati 
 
 m - v^ 
 
 
 
LANDSCAPE PAINTING 73 
 
 shadows, which explain the shape of the object; (ii.) the 
 half-tint and (iii.) the high light ; (iv.) the reflected light 
 and (v.) the cast shadow. 
 
 As drawing is the foundation of painting, a certain 
 correctness and facility should be arrived at by the 
 student before going to painting or color. 
 
 In landscape painting 'CasxQ will be found more grada- 
 tion and a wider range of colour than in figure painting. 
 The effect of the play of light will alter the tones 
 and colors of objects, and should be carefully studied, 
 colors in painting appearing as such only in relation 
 to the colors surrounding them. 
 
 The first studies in landscape should be careful pencil 
 outline drawings, followed by studies in charcoal in a 
 few tones. The general shapes and masses of the 
 forms should be drawn and put in, with the principal 
 shadows well marked, and the mass of the landscape 
 should be blocked in in full tones in contrast to the sky. 
 
 Suggestions as to kinds of studies to do will be found- 
 in the various illustrations to this book. The original 
 studies by Constable may be seen in South Kensington 
 Museum, and the drawings and proofs of Turner's " Liber 
 Studiorum " will be found in the National Gallery and 
 Print Room of the British Museum respectively. Lessons 
 can be learned from the collection of Cotman's water- 
 colors and sketches in the latter place. 
 
 To the more advanced students the principles of 
 the art of landscape painting will appeal in Hobbema's 
 " Avenue, Dortrecht " (National Gallery), in the works of 
 Corot, Decamps, Rousseau, Cazin, and Daubigny ; in the 
 decorative landscape work of George Mason, Lord Leigh- 
 ton, the German artist Arnold Bocklin, and the pictures 
 of Cecil Lawson and Whistler. If it is allowable to 
 mention the names of living men, the poetical works of 
 Alfred East have a fine sense of composition in them, 
 and those of F. Thaulow of the ' life ' and ' movement ' 
 of funning water. 
 
74 PRACTICAL HINTS 
 
 LESSON IN THE PROGRESSION OF 
 PAINTING A LANDSCAPE STUDY 
 
 The following colours will be found useful : cadmium 
 yellow (Nos. i and 2), yellow ochre, Naples yellow, 
 Venetian red, raw and burnt sienna, burnt umber, golden 
 ochre, crimson lake or rose madder, Vandyck brown, 
 vermilion, cobalt, terre vert, emerald oxide of chromium, 
 French ultramarine, indigo, white, and ivory black. 
 
 Brushes should be of hog's hair, round and flat, of 
 various sizes. One should also have several sables. 
 Spirits of turpentine, linseed oil, poppy oil, a dipper, 
 a palette, and a palette knife will be wanted. 
 
 Having drawn in a charcoal sketch, the general masses 
 and shapes of the forms and shadows should be painted 
 in, in simple colors, with large brushes, different ones 
 being used for the various tones. The general colors of 
 the objects may be rubbed in, leaving the sky till 'the 
 end, special attention being paid to effect. Methodical 
 habits must be cultivated, for it will be found that, as 
 a rule, it is not possible to work for more than two hours 
 at a sitting out of doors, without the effect changing. 
 For this reason it will be necessary to make drawings 
 and memoranda. The sky, for instance, to a great 
 extent must be. done from pencil sketches, and in many 
 parts of England only foreground subjects, and trees that 
 are not in the farthest distance, can be completely painted 
 in on the spot. Memoranda can be made on tinted 
 paper, which stands for the middle tint, the darks being 
 put in with chalk or charcoal, and the lights noted with 
 white chalk. Pastels are useful for making ' rapid ' notes 
 of effect and finished studies in colour. 
 
 As regards the technique of landscape painting in 
 oil, one finds that certain small touches give a more 
 
(ii.) THE AVENUE. OIL SKETCH OF THE SAME. 
 
(iii.) THE AVENUE. FINISHED, COMPOSITION FOUNDED ON THE 
 
 TWO FORMER STUDIES (i.) AND (ii.). 
 
 B3' H. F. W. Ganz. 
 
 77 
 
LANDSCAPE PAINTING 
 
 79 
 
 just effect of the texture of trees, sky, ground, etc., than 
 the full solid tones used in flesh painting. 
 
 Effect. — It will be remarked how sunlight shows 
 up the forms of shadows on objects, and give them 
 character, and how useful cast-shadows are in indicating 
 the shape of the surface on which they are thrown, and 
 the undulation of the ground. This assists in the effect 
 of aerial perspective. 
 
 It will be noticed, when looking from a shaded place 
 into the sunlit part, that the shadow one sits in seems 
 warmer in comparison to the cast-shadows of the objects 
 in full sunshine. These, in painting, must not be forced, 
 or they will look like pools of water. The effects of 
 ' twilight,' ' afterglow,' ' grey days,' ' rain,' and ' snow,' 
 which will be observed to reflect tints from many 
 sources on its white colour, will be separately studied 
 and noted. 
 
 At sunrise, when there is a certain density of atmo- 
 sphere, the disk of the sun is visible in a yellowish light 
 tempered with grey. The scheme of color playing round 
 
 THAMES DUST BARGES. 
 By H. F. W. Gan?. 
 
80 PRACTICAL HINTS 
 
 the sun at sunrise often takes tints radiating from white, 
 pale yellow, and vermilion, to pale cobalt and ultramarine. 
 
 'At sunset, when the atmosphere is less dense, the 
 color of the light is more brilliant and less interrupted, 
 and tinges every object placed within its influence with 
 the same hue. The copper sun may be surrounded 
 by cold green-grey blue tones, or the red sun by a grey 
 tint, the clouds being all the colors of the rainbow. 
 The 'rays' of the sun are visible only when the sun 
 is half-hidden by a cloud, a hill, or trees. 
 
 The Sky should be taken last in painting, in order 
 to keep it higher in tone than anything else in a picture. 
 One can start the effect of a tree against the sky by 
 first painting in a tint made up of these two subjects 
 combined. On this preparation one can get the sky 
 up to height of value in repainting without making a 
 hard edge to the tree. It will often be found necessary 
 to keep a warm tone in the sky, for the patch of blue 
 paint will not give any idea of the effect of light in the 
 sky (the blue is warm, as well as ' blue ' in color). 
 
 The blue of the sky is occasioned by minute reflec- 
 tions and refractions of the sun from particles of vapour, 
 more subtle than those that compose the clouds, and 
 but for which, in place of the azure, there would be 
 a void of darkness. 
 
 Clouds. — It will be observed that clouds in their 
 positions and forms follow the laws of rectilinear and 
 ■ curvilinear perspective. Clouds are visible vapours at a 
 height. 
 
 In their shapes, which, with their shadows, must be 
 carefully studied, variety of cloud -forms will be noted. 
 
 The Cirrus, which is a thin cloud on the blue sky, 
 is seen at a great elevation in fine weather. 
 
 The Cumulus, of dense mass, a cloud of rounded, 
 well-defined shape, towers in form on a horizontal base, 
 and moves with the wind. 
 
 Stratus, the lowest, is often a low, flat mist. 
 
MORNING. 
 Effect on a Grey Day. 
 
AFTERNOON. 
 Effect on a Grey Day. 
 
LANDSCAPE PAINTING 85 
 
 i i j ^,^ jm$^mm^^^^ - ^"- ' m 
 
 SKY AND SEA : CUMULUS CLOUDS MOVING WITH WIND. 
 
 Cirro-cumulus is a united mass of cirrus and cumulus. 
 
 Cirro-stratus, called mackerel sky, is the precursor 
 of tempestuous weather. 
 
 Nimbus is a very dense cloud, and covers everything 
 till it breaks into rain or storm ; when broken, the flying 
 clouds are called " scud." 
 
 Clouds must have movement in painting. 
 
 The Moon's illuminating power is very much smaller 
 than that of the sun's, and its shape when seen in daylight 
 is smaller and fainter. A man about twenty-five yards 
 off would cover its disk with his' head. 
 
 In ^he foreground a tree trunk may run right out 
 of the top of the picture with more advantage than in 
 the middle distance, and the laws of perspective will not 
 be broken. A small tree may be placed in the fore- 
 ground, and the place for the complete tree will be found 
 to be about the middle distance. Farness and nearness 
 have to be pictorially felt, and there is often less to be 
 noted in the foreground than in the distance. 
 
 The selection of effect in a landscape is essential, and in 
 composition there is a way of concentrating or of scatter- 
 
86 
 
 PRACTICAL HINTS 
 
 ing light which is of great importance. The painter must 
 also study the construction of buildings and their effect 
 as masses. See illustrations of same subject MORNING 
 and EVENING on sunny day, and TWO EFFECTS on 
 GREY DAY. 
 
 As to values, the white house over a stream in the 
 distance may have 'grey' walls, and still tell bright 
 amongst its surroundings by contrast, and . may have a 
 light reflection in the water, all these lights being of 
 different 'values' of white. 
 
 Water in certain lights reflects in a lower tone 
 everything over it; that is to say, everything over the 
 
 OLD WATER MILLS. 
 From the Crayon Study by H. F. W. Ganz. 
 
OLD WATER MILLS. 
 Morning Effect on a Sunny Day. 
 
OLD WATER MILLS. 
 Evening Effect. 
 
 89 
 
LANDSCAPE PAINTING 91 
 
 horizontal line is reflected in still water the same size 
 and the same distance below this line as they are 
 above it. 
 
 The horizontal line should indicate the height of the 
 eye, and should not be too high in landscape-painting. 
 (The point of sight is on the horizontal line.) It is an 
 elaborate study to notice the effect and variety which 
 the ' current ' gives a stream, the ' density ' and ' color ' 
 of water, and the effect of ' sunlight,' ' cast shadows,' 
 and ' wind ' on water, and the " oily quality " may also 
 be noted. 
 
 The Sea has its own peculiarities, which include 
 forms of various shaped waves. Waves are " natural " 
 or accidental ; the surface-water is only influenced by 
 the inequalities on the shore ; waves are urged on by 
 wind till broken into breakers and surf. When water 
 is agitated or meets impediments, the waves are higher. 
 
 The horizon and roundness of the globe must be 
 noted. If the water of the sea were motionless we 
 should see the sun's disk exactly reflected, and once only, 
 the rest of the water would reflect the sky ; but as such 
 stillness seldom occurs, the light of the sun is spread on 
 the surface by. innumerable reflections, the spaces between 
 them reflecting the sky. The clouds also reflect the 
 sun and portions of the .sea. When' clouds intercept 
 the reflections of the sun, the reflection of the sky re- 
 mains, causing patches of shade which stripe the sea 
 with blue shadows. A similar effect can be seen in a 
 meadow, the light of the sun being refracted from every 
 blade of grass, and where intercepted, showing the reflec- 
 tion of the sky. 
 
 Ships. — The laden mark in the hull of a ship is 
 the point of equilibrium of a vessel. When heavily laden 
 it has less buoyancy, and the waves pass over the decks. 
 In calm weather certain upright lines describe tranquillity, 
 while the masts will be out of the perpendicular in 
 agitated water. 
 
92 PRACTICAL HINTS 
 
 With advanced study out-of-doors it will be noted 
 that except the distant tone of a landscape, which is of 
 a bluish tint, on a moderately bright day a great part 
 has a decided violet tone, from the atmospheric effect. 
 In painting, this will give the suggestion of aerial 
 perspective. This must not be confused with the 
 condition of atmosphere, or the ' key of color.' Values 
 and the play of light on color must be continually 
 studied ; this will show that the sky-line is more ac- 
 centuated than the foreground. Thus the tree on the 
 top of the hill may tell darker against the luminosity of 
 the sky than a tree lower down the hill, which may 
 itself be lighter than its background. Harmony may 
 be obtained by contrasting hot and cold colors, and 
 modifying them by neutral tints. Aerial perspective shows 
 that a man on the road near at hand is stronger in 
 ' value ' than one farther off. The aerial perspective of 
 all receding roads or streams is greatly assisted by 
 shadows thrown across them. Corot often rubbed in 
 a grey over his foreground, and- led the eye to the 
 middle distance to give reality to the place. His color 
 was got by careful distribution of values, and he often 
 blended grey and green with half-tints, in which the 
 color disappeared. Without ' atmosphere ' a landscape 
 becomes a mosaic. Figures may often be introduced 
 into landscape as notes of color; they also form 
 valuable upright lines and dark values. In composition, 
 greater beauty is to be found in certain lines which flow 
 past in the foreground instead of coming straight out 
 of the picture ; for example, a winding road or the 
 bank at the side of a stream so treated. A feeling 
 of repose will also be obtained by the employment of 
 horizontal lines. 
 
 To give breadth of effect, gne or more spots of 
 light or a light - colored object may be introduced to 
 connect mcisses of light separated from one another. 
 
 Water and moving objects can only be carried out 
 
.,--' 
 
LANDSCAPE PAINTING 95 
 
 by means of notes, assisted by the memory. The French 
 have a method of drawing from memory, on the prin- 
 ciple that as drawing is memory of what you study, 
 you can with practice learn to retain the image for any 
 length of time, and not only its form, but also its tone, 
 color, and effect. 
 
 Landscape painting must be the record of a mood, 
 impression playing an important part. The effect of a 
 church in a dull grey street will suggest nothing unless 
 the painting is interesting; a railway train, from the 
 association of ideas connected with it, without the effect 
 of steam and the play of light in the atmosphere, will 
 not make a picture. It will therefore be seen that the 
 particular effect of the selected subject must be suitable 
 for painting. A grey effect in a street may suggest 
 nothing all day, till the lamps are lit, and give small 
 glimmering dots of yellow on the blue. The row of 
 dingy houses opposite may look ultramarine against the 
 sunrise; the hideous gas-works and chimneys may be 
 red against the crimson sunset, or purple against the 
 yellow afterglow. In pure landscape a meadow that 
 looks uninteresting in the twilight may sing in the 
 morning from the illumination of the sun, and a small 
 stream wandering through it may appear in jewelled 
 light at sunset. Again, the leafless tree has its beauty. 
 
 The French Impressionist School. — The term 
 derived from the title of a picture by C. Monet of a 
 sunset exhibited in 1863 as " An Impression." When 
 Monet and Pissarro, in 1870-71, came to London, the 
 study of the works of Turner, Constable, and the Norwich 
 School gave them or developed their idea of heightening 
 the pitch of light and effect in landscape painting. 
 These ideas were developed from the theory of the 
 analysis of color into six pure colors — red, yellow, 
 blue, and their contrasting colors — green, purple, and 
 orange ; white being included, but not black. These 
 
96 PRACTICAL HINTS 
 
 colors are put on unmixed, and the eye is suppos.ed to 
 reunite them when seen at a certain distance. The idea 
 germinated in the principle of abolishing the conventional 
 brown of the shadows, and using only those colors 
 mentioned. Their aim was brilliancy of light and 
 illumination observed at certain times of day and season, 
 painted on the spot, and only during the effect. They 
 noted chiefly elusive effects, and treated form in a 
 summary fashion, especially water in movement. C. 
 Monet and the Impressionists knew all art that had 
 gone before their own time, before they worked out their 
 personal views founded on the impression that Nature 
 made on them. The subjects chiefly chosen were — 
 
 Monet. — ' Trees,' ' water,' ' floods,' ' workers on the 
 river-sides,' ' railway stations,' ' snow,' and the effect of 
 sun on cathedral buildings. i 
 
 PISSARRO. — ' Water,' ' roads in sunlight,' ' flowers,' 
 and ' Paris views.' 
 
 Cezanne and STsley. — Landscape and 'flower 
 pieces.' 
 
 Renoir and Madame Morisot. — Figure subjects, 
 portraits, and flowers. 
 
 BOUDIN. — River scenes and seascapes. 
 
 YONGKIND. — Landscapes. 
 
 Manet. — Portraits, figure subjects in Spain and 
 France, and some landscapes. 
 
 E. Degas. — Portraits, figures in ' interiors,' ' racing 
 scenes.' And in pastels, chiefly subjects of the theatres, 
 ballet girls, and ' work-women ' in the laundries, etc. 
 
 This school or group were followed by the Pointil- 
 lists, who continued with the same set of colors unmixed, 
 and put the paint on in small dots. Their aim was to 
 obtain light in all its phases, and the power of making 
 pigment give the " impression " of luminous effects. 
 
AN AVENUE IN FRANCE. WATER-COLOR STUDY FROM NATURE. 
 
WATER-COLOR 
 
 99 
 
 LESSON IN METHOD OF PAINTING IN 
 WATER COLOR, IN REFERENCE TO 
 LANDSCAPE 
 
 There are various qualities of paper employed in 
 water-color painting. They vary from rough hand-made 
 to ' hot-pressed,' which is very smooth, A paper of 
 medium surface is best, such as the Whatman's 
 "Imperial," "O and W," etc. The paper, if not. ready 
 strained on cardboard, has to be well sponged with 
 
100 PRACTICAL HINTS 
 
 water and then stretched on a drawing - board, and 
 pasted or pinned down at the edges. 
 
 A variety of brushes, sable and camel-hair, round 
 and flat, will be necessary ; also a sponge. 
 
 In general, the following will be found a useful list 
 of safe colors : aureolin, cadmium yellow, yellow ochre, 
 Venetian red, burnt sienna, crimson lake or red madder, 
 brown madder, Vandyck brown, vermilion, cobalt, 
 emerald green, emerald oxide of chromium, French 
 ultramarine, indigo, and black. 
 
 An outline having been drawn with a hard lead- 
 pencil or piece of charcoal, a faint tint may be used 
 (as yellow ochre or Venetian red) for painting in the 
 outline and shadows (Turner sometimes introduced red 
 outlines) ; and slight tones, which will give the values of 
 light and shade, can now be painted in in a few big 
 washes of flat tints. This will slightly cover the paper, 
 and counteract the effect of too much blank white paper, 
 which has such a distracting effect when working from 
 nature. Certain lights must be left, for the peculiar 
 whiteness of the water - color paper leiFt untouched 
 cannot be rivalled by body color. In continuing, 
 big washes of color and plenty of water can now be 
 used, and the darker tones added over the first faint 
 ones (keeping gradations with the handling). Some 
 painters prefer to keep their tones darker from the first, 
 and wash them down, to lighten them, with a sponge, 
 rag, blotting-paper, etc. 
 
 Fine brushes can be used to add the drawing when 
 the water - color is dry, and lights can be rubbed out 
 by first damping the paper and then rubbing with 
 indiarubber or a rag. It will be found in painting 
 " water " that broad flat washes, leaving a decided edge 
 of the right form, can be used, as softness of outline 
 prevents transparency. The " art of summary expres- 
 sion " in drawing must be practised, because the effects 
 of nature pass quickly. 
 
WATER-COLOR 101 
 
 Colors should suggest themselves to the artist, but 
 in order to facilitate the first endeavours of the beginner, 
 the following are a few mixtures which can be used in 
 different tones as required : — 
 
 For Sky. — Cobalt may be mixed with crimson lake 
 or Venetian red, or brown madder or Venetian red and 
 black. French ultramarine may be mixed with crimson 
 lake or Venetian red, or brown madder or Venetian red and 
 black. Indigo may be mixed with cobalt, crimson lake, 
 or with Venetian red or brown madder, or cobalt and black. 
 
 For Lighter Clouds. — Red madder or crimson 
 lake, Venetian or Indian red, brown madder, French 
 ultramarine, and cobalt. 
 
 For Twilight. — French blue, indigo, crimson lake, 
 brown madder, ivory black. 
 
 For Trees. — Indigo, cobalt, French ultramarine, with 
 various yellows, gamboge, Indian yellow, burnt sienna, red 
 sienna, and brown madder, and sepia with Indian yellow. 
 
 For Buildings — Roofs. — Burnt sienna, yellow 
 ochre, 'greys', brown madder, indigo, cobalt, and black. 
 Tiles. — Burnt sienna, yellow ochre, red lake, and sepia. 
 Light Buildings. — Yellow ochre, brown madder, sepia, 
 indigo, cobalt, and black. Stone BUILDINGS. — Red lake, 
 burnt sienna, brown madder, French ultramarine, indigo, 
 black, Venetian brown, and French blue. SHADOWS'. — 
 Burnt sienna, Venetian brown, indigo, and grey-blues. 
 
 For Woodwork. — Yellow ochre, sepia, indigo, black, 
 and Venetian red. 
 
 For Thatch. Roof. — Yellow . ochre, sepia, indigo, 
 black, raw sienna, cobalt, and brown madder. 
 
 'For Water. — Yellow ochre, burnt sienna, indigo, 
 Venetian brown, brown madder, cobalt, and French blue. 
 For Boats. — Raw sienna and Venetian brown. 
 For Sails. — Colors from light grey, yellow, to rich 
 burnt sienna, brown madder, or Vandyck brown. 
 
102 PRACTICAL HINTS 
 
 FIGURE PAINTING IN WATER-COLORS 
 
 The flesh is carried out in a modified method of the 
 ' oil ' process already explained, and similar tints may be 
 used. Attention must be paid to the effect of the 
 ' white ' ground of the water-color paper and to the 
 distinction in the use of water, which takes the place of 
 the white pigment that is used in ' oil.' Discretion will 
 suggest where and when ' Chinese white ' should be used 
 in all water-color work. 
 
STUDY OF A HEAD FROM LIFE IN WATER-COLORS. 
 
105 
 
ETCHING 107 
 
 PRACTICAL LESSON IN THE ART OF 
 ETCHING 
 
 Unlike painting, etching does not concern itself with the 
 actual ' color ' of the object you wish to represent. It 
 notes principally 'lines' and 'black-and-white' effect 
 The drawing must be good, as the work on the copper 
 is reversed in the print that is taken from it. It is more 
 suited for character than fleeting effect. 
 
 For etching on copper you require certain materials. 
 
 A ground of wax, which must be laid on the plate 
 to resist the action of the acid. 
 
 A needle, or several of varying degrees of thickness, 
 to execute the drawing. 
 
 In preparing the plate the liquid ground now 
 generally used is poured on gently, the plate being 
 evenly and thinly covered and then allowed to dry 
 naturally. According to the older process, the plate is 
 heated by being held with a handrvice over a gas- 
 jet or ' printer's stove,' then laid flat and the black 
 wax (wrapped in silk) rubbed all over, and equalised 
 with a dabber. This ground is at once smoked with 
 lighted tapers (this is to take the pencil drawing later 
 on), and allowed to dry cool. 
 
 On these grounds you transfer your drawing with 
 tracing-paper, or you draw the line straight in (the 
 needle should just feel the surface of the copper). These 
 " scratches " are afterwards bitten-in with acid, hence the 
 word etch (Dutch " etsen " = to bite). In etched work, 
 in the drawing, attention must be paid chiefly to — 
 (i.) the outline, which can be modified ; (ii.) the light 
 -and shade, beginning with the shadows, which can be 
 drawn either with lines close together or crossed ; and 
 (iii.) the texture. 
 
108 
 
 PRACTICAL HINTS 
 
 Progression of Etching. — Having made a draw- 
 ing you can either copy it on to the prepared plate, or 
 trace it by means of tracing-paper. For this purpose 
 you' use a black-lead pencil or red chalk, and go over the 
 line on the reverse side of the paper. This side you lay 
 on the plate, and then you rub over the surface with a 
 burnisher or piece of used yellow soap. 
 
 A sheet of gelatine and a sharp-pointed needle could 
 also be used, and black lead rubbed on the reverse side 
 will answer a similar purpose; both will give you a 
 faint outline on the prepared ground upon which to 
 work. Except for portraits or copying a picture, a 
 " reverse " is optional in drawing on the plate. 
 
 The kind of line must have reference to the biting ; 
 for if a slight effect of " pen and ink " is sought for, the 
 lines must be close together and laid on with slight 
 pressure equally all over. 
 
 For deep shade the darkest lines may be kept apart 
 and very deeply bitten, for in biting the lines widen. 
 The white spaces between them will vary in proportion 
 to the biting. 
 
 The medium and lighter lines may be ' drawn ' near 
 together, slightly bitten, and stopped out. Having com- 
 pleted your drawing with the needle on the ' copper,' 
 the back and afterwards the sides of the plate are then 
 covered with brunswick black applied with a paint-brush, 
 to prevent the mordant eating into them, and then 
 
 FROM PLATE SHOWING SPECIMENS OF MEZZOTINT, AQUATINT, AND THE 
 BITING OF NITRIC ACID, FROM I TO S AND 20 TO 30 MINUTES. 
 
ETCHING 
 
 109 
 
 PREPARATORY DRAWING WITH NEEDLE ON PREPARED GROUND. 
 
 left to cool naturally. When quite dry the plate is laid 
 face upwards in a porcelain bath. 
 
 Nitric acid (a poison) is used in proportion of 
 I part to 3 parts of water ; this is gently poured over 
 the plate, just covering it, and the action of the acid 
 on the copper is soon apparent. 
 
 The biting-in takes from seven to thirty minutes (or 
 longer). The longer the plate is left in the, bath the 
 'brighter' (and broader) the lines will become, that is to say, 
 the darker the lines will eventually print. With experi- 
 ence in biting the plate can be taken out and the more 
 delicate gradations (which may be bitten enough) can be 
 stopped out with brunswick black applied with a brush. 
 When this is dry the plate can be put back for the 
 " darker " lines to be more' deeply bitten, and so on till the 
 " darkest " are bitten deeply enough. It is well not to 
 bend too much over the bath ; and a splash from the 
 
110 PRACTICAL HINTS 
 
 acid must be avoided, as it will spoil the clothes or burn 
 the skin. 
 
 In taking the plate out of the bath, either dip 
 the hands first in cold water and lift it out, or with a 
 small piece of wood guide the plate to the side of the 
 bath and then take it out. The plate is now laid in a 
 basin of water or under cold running water, and after- 
 wards dried with blotting-paper. The acid is poured 
 back through a glass funnel into a bottle with 
 glass stopper, and should be left standing, locked up 
 for safety. 
 
 The ground is now washed off the plate with turpen- 
 tine and a rag, when the etched work will be apparent. 
 The back and sides are cleaned in the same way, and the 
 plate will be ready for printing. A proof having been 
 taken, the plate can then be carried further, either by 
 regrounding with a transparent - ground, worked on 
 as before and rebitten by the same processes just 
 explained, or the shadows can be darkened with djy- 
 point with the edge of the " bur " which is ploughed 
 up, scraped down with a scraper. To lighten lines 
 that are too dark, the scraper and burnisher with olive 
 oil can be employed, or charcoal and oil may be used. 
 
 The printing wants great experience, and it is well 
 to go to a specialist printer for this purpose. The paper 
 is damped with water and blotted. The plate has to be 
 heated on a printer's stove, and the ink (which is mixed 
 with burnt linseed oil) has to be ground together with 
 it, and applied with a dabber to the plate all over, and 
 then rubbed off with a canvas cloth. Sometimes the 
 lines are " dragged up " with a finer canvas or cloth, which 
 gives them a richer blackness ; this is called retroussage. 
 
 Whiting is also used on a cloth to clean the lights, 
 (the margin, if any) and sides of the plate, which is then 
 slightly reheated and placed on the bed of the press. 
 The proper pinch being adjusted, according to the 
 thickness of the plate and quality of the lines, the paper 
 
ETCHING 
 
 111 
 
 is then laid on the plate, covered with blankets, and run 
 through the rolling press. The blankets are turned back, 
 the paper carefully lifted up, and the first proof will 
 be "pulled" Each further copy will go through the 
 same inking process and printing, after which the plate 
 is cleaned with a rag dipped in turpentine. 
 
 HAMMERSMITH. PROOF FROM PLATE BITTEN, STOPPED OUT, 
 AND REBITTEN. 
 
112 PRACTICAL HINTS 
 
 LIST OF MATERIALS AND TOOLS USED IN 
 ETCHING 
 
 Copper and zinc plates. — These metals being of a porous 
 nature are peculiarly susceptible to rapid action of 
 the acid. On the zinc plates the lines will be coarser 
 .in character. Before grounding, a plate should be 
 cleaned with a soft cotton rag dipped in turpentine, and 
 finished with whiting applied with a dry clean rag, as 
 it is essential that all metals should be properly cleaned 
 in order to take the ground evenly. Copper, for instance 
 (a highly porous ;metal), which has a greasy surface, 
 can be cleaned with lo per cent, of ammonia and 
 whiting. Zinc may be cleaned with benzine and whiting. 
 Copper and zinc plates should never be stored together, 
 as chemical action will ensue. Use diluted weaker acid 
 to etch on zinc. 
 
 Liquid etching ground is poured in the middle of the 
 plate in a small pool, and the plate is then inclined so 
 that it may run to the sides and corners. Superfluous 
 ground may be poured back through its ' proper ' glass 
 funnel into the bottle. Mixed as it is with chloroform, 
 it dries rapidly naturally. It must never be heated. 
 
 Rhind's transparent liquid-ground, for rebiting, is 
 applied in the same way. Another ground is made of 
 oil vf spike, which may be mixed with wax and put 
 on a separate cold plate, rolled with a ' roller ' and 
 applied to the plate, and then smoked with lighted tapers 
 and allowed to cool naturally. 
 
 Tracing-paper or gelatine, on which black lead or 
 red chalk may be used after reversing the drawing. 
 
 Etching needles of various sizes (fine and thick 
 points). — To sharpen a needle, pass it backwards and 
 forwards on an oil-stone, holding it slightly inclined, and 
 turning it continually. 
 
ETCHING 113 
 
 A bottle of stopping-out varnish, which may be 
 slightly diluted with spirits of turpentine if too thick. 
 
 Porcelain baths. 
 
 Nitric acid in a bottle with a glass stopper. IN 
 USE, nitric acid may be in proportion of i to 3 of 
 water ; in the action the bubbles must be removed with 
 a feather ; for they may, with action of air, break the 
 ground away from the sides of the lines. The test for 
 the action of the acid varies according to its strength 
 and temperature. 
 
 The actual test is the number of bubbles that come 
 up from the continuation of action. 
 
 Among other acids employed are — (i) Nitrous acid. 
 Similar to nitric, it is one-tenth less powerful, and may 
 be used in proportion of 10 to 9 parts of water. It 
 gives forth disagreeable fumes and bites in half a minute 
 to four minutes. (The plate may be bitten up to about 
 twenty minutes.) The m.ixing of add with water produces 
 heat, which must subside before the mordant is poured 
 on the plate ; never mix water with acid. 
 
 (2) Hydrochloric acid; 
 
 (3) Perchloride of iron ; and 
 
 (4) Dutch mordant. 
 
 In the event of a splash, spirit of hartshorn or 
 common soda will neutralise the effect of the acid. 
 
 White blotting-paper. 
 
 A bottle of turpentine. 
 
 A scraper. 
 
 A burnisher. 
 
 Gravers. 
 
 A burin. 
 
 A roulette, used to obtain tone in little dots. 
 
 A hand rest. 
 
 Several camel-hair prushes. 
 
 An oil-stone. 
 
 A blind or paper-shade to work under (made of 
 tissue paper), stretched on a wooden frame. 
 8 
 
114 PRACTICAL HINTS 
 
 The finest emery paper, and crocus powder. 
 
 Clean old rags. 
 
 A steel anvil, hammer, and calipers, to knock up from 
 the back of the plate any lines too deeply bitten. 
 
 Some large pieces of charcoal. 
 
 Copper plates can be hardened for printing a large 
 number of copies by a deposit of iron, applied electrically. 
 (This is called steel-facing^ 
 
ETCHING 115 
 
 VARIOUS FORMS OF ETCHING 
 
 Sand-Grain. — A method for obtaining, tone (used by- 
 Professor A. Legros). It is applied after the ground is 
 laid and dried, by placing a piece of sand-paper face 
 downwards on the plate. This is then passed through 
 the press, when the effect of the grains of sand is 
 obtained, and will give tone. When, accompanied by 
 ' needle '-work, it is bitten in. 
 
 Soft-ground Etching (to imitate pencil-work). — 
 Tallow is added to the etching ground, and a damped 
 piece of tracing-paper is laid upon it and allowed to dry. 
 The drawing is then made with a pencil. When the 
 paper is lifted up it will be found that you have taken 
 the ground off with the ' pencil marks,' and exposed the 
 copper in these parts, which is then bitten in the usual 
 way. 
 
 Aquatint. — The copper plate is either sprinkled 
 with resinous powder, then warmed and allowed to cool ; 
 or the resin may be dissolved in spirits of wine poured 
 on to the plate (the less resin the finer the grain), and 
 allowed to dry. The lights are stopped out, and it is 
 immersed in the acid bath. The forms are obtained 
 in this process by stopping out, etc. (there are no lines). 
 The ink-holding capacity of the plate is obtained from 
 the acid biting between the specks formed by the powder- 
 ing on' of resin. Soft-ground' and etched lines maybe 
 mixed, if desired, with aquatint. First aquatinter, Le 
 Prince. 
 
 Dry-point. — As the point of the needle, held 
 slightly inclined, scratches on the copper, it raises a 
 ' bur,' which retains ink in printing. This, if the darkest 
 'velvety' effect is not wanted, can be reduced by the 
 
116 
 
 PRACTICAL HINTS 
 
 PRELIMINARY STUDY FOR 'DRY-POINT.' 
 
 scraper. Dry-point work soon 
 
 wears out in printing. It is, 
 
 however, useful to sharpen the 
 
 paler passages, should they 
 
 want strengthening. 
 Colored Etch- 
 ings are printed with 
 
 colored inks on a 
 
 plate prepared with a 
 
 mixture of etching 
 
 and aquatint. The 
 
 different tints are 
 
 put on with little 
 
 dabbers or stumps. 
 
 The plate has to be specially cblored for each proof. 
 
 Monotypes are 
 
 ■ ' printed with the ink 
 
 ': . put on and rubbed 
 
 with rags and brushes 
 to obtain the effect. 
 
 In Etching pure 
 and simple, the line is 
 the reverse of the wood- 
 cutting method, in which 
 the surface only prints, 
 the engraved parts 
 producing 'white.' The 
 section of an etched 
 line on copper is U- 
 shape ; it will hold a 
 greater quantity of ink 
 than the V-shape one 
 ploughed by the burin 
 in engraving. Rem- 
 brandt, it seems, often 
 FISHERMAN'S HUT : FROM THE started hisetchings with 
 
 'DRY-POINT.' . dry-point. Whistler, for 
 
ETCHING 
 
 117 
 
 fear of breaking the ground with the mordant in the 
 bath, frequently used a brush, applying weak diluted 
 acid for his delicate work. Mdryon bit his plates from 
 seven to sixty-five minutes ; and Sir Seymour Haden, it 
 is said, bites from three to fifty-five minutes. 
 
 For alterations in etched plates, the deeper lines may 
 be burnished smooth. If very deep, they can be scraped 
 and then polished ; or the places may be ground into a 
 smooth hollow, and the part afterwards measured with 
 the calipers, the plate reversed, laid on a small anvil, 
 the spot marked and knocked up with a steel hammer 
 and punches. This requires extreme care and skill. 
 To make certain passages /a/?r, you can either burnish 
 them, or use charcoal and oil. To efface them entirely 
 the scraper and charcoal can be used. To darken, a 
 transparent ground can be applied, the ' work ' relined 
 and then rebitten to the required strength. 
 
 It will be found 
 that ' fine ' lines 
 and dots make a 
 better effect than 
 heavy lines, for 
 while the ' thick ' 
 line agrees with the 
 nature of a wood- 
 cut, it often gives 
 an unpleasant heavi- 
 ness to the etched 
 plate, and reveals 
 the means by which 
 the 'effect' is ob- 
 tained, which is bad 
 art. Employing as 
 you do a ' fine ' 
 point, it is therefore 
 no use whatever 
 using too large a solitude: (second state). 
 
 ^^;2i-zi:--v^-'-. 
 
 Bd' ^^ ^^^^P 
 
 
 
 w% 
 
 H 
 
 W- ~ 
 
 i 1 
 
 : 
 
 l^f" -' 
 
 Wwk 
 
 1 
 
 ^^lnj^ 
 
 in 
 
 1 
 
 P^^^^^bB 
 
 ^^^9 
 
 I 
 
 ^^^^^ 
 
 B^ 
 
 1^ 
 
118 PRACTICAL HINTS 
 
 plate. The plate ends at the border of the picture, and 
 a margin is unnecessary, and if wanted may be obtained 
 afterwards by laying a cut-mount over the print. To 
 the inexperienced the chief difficulties in etching are 
 technical, in that the artist cannot see his work properly 
 as it proceeds, and the result is not known until the 
 print is pulled. Mistakes are also liable to occur in 
 biting. 
 
 Etching lends itself more than any art to spontaneity 
 of impression. The directness and sensitive rapidity of 
 the . process enables the red-hot impulse to be re- 
 presented with great facility upon the copper. The 
 capabilities of the etched line are infinite. 
 
 The chief difference between etching and engraving 
 is, that in the first the copper is eaten by acid to any 
 depth required without hand-pressure, while in engraving 
 the burin ploughs the furrow. 
 
 The origin of line-engraving, and etching, which 
 was probably derived from it, is doubtful. Some say 
 that it was practically invented by the fifteenth-century 
 goldsmiths of Florence, who ornamented their wares 
 with engraved spaces in which enamel was applied. In 
 " Neillo " work, the space was often filled in with printers' 
 ink and impressions were taken on paper. The Italians 
 claim Tommaso Finiguerra (1400) and Francesco 
 Mazzuolo (i 504) as the first practisers of the art. 
 
 THE TOWER BRIDGE, LONDON : FROM PROOF OF PLATE BITTEN FOR 
 20 MINUTES WITH NITRIC ACID (DIL.). 
 
ETCHING 
 
 119 
 
 MARS, AND VENUS. BY MANTEGNA. 
 Portion of Plate etched by Marc Antonio (dated 150B). Third State. 
 
 Mantegna (1431 — 1506) did much skilful work, 
 using a style of shading in straight diagonal lines on 
 a thick outline, a ' method ' quite his own. 
 
 Albrecht DUrer ( 1 47 1 - 1 5 2 8) is also regarded by many 
 as the inventor of etching. He followed Schongauer in 
 his method of shading in curved lines, a method quite 
 different from the earlier Italian one ; and he certainly 
 used the burin himself, although he did not engrave all 
 his plates or cut all his wood-blocks. He first tried 
 etching by drawing with dry-point on his engraving- 
 plates. The first known by him are dated 1 5 10; "The 
 Knight," 1512; his plate of "The Canon," 1518 
 (size. 12-1 by i8| inche§). 
 
 Etching, being chiefly concerned with the "picturesque" 
 
120 PRACTICAL HINTS 
 
 spirit, which is tolerant and observant, the exact opposite 
 to the ' severe ' and ' academic ' view, had its principal 
 development in the Dutch School of the seventeenth 
 century, which included the names of Rembrandt, Van 
 Dyck, Vander Does, A. v. Ostade, K. du Jardin, P. Potter, 
 A. van Der Velde, and a host of others. 
 
 In later times one finds (in Spain) works by Goya ; in < 
 the early part of the nineteenth century works by Andrew 
 Geddes (40 plates), Sir David Wilkie (14), Crome (30), 
 Constable (2), Cotman (who used soft ground). Turner (in 
 the outlines for the aquatints of his " Liber Studiorum "), 
 and Samuel Palmer. About 1859, Whistler, Hamerton, 
 Sir F. Haden, and others revived the art in England, and 
 in France it is perhaps to be seen at its highest in the 
 etched work of C. M^ryon, J. F. Millet, C. Jaque, Appian, 
 etc., and in later days, in plates by Bracquemond, Lalanne, 
 Rajon, Jacquemart, A. Legros, and others. 
 
 Other Methods of Engraving, — Some of which 
 may be combined with Etching, are — 
 
 Line Engraving. — The plate, generally of steel 
 or copper, rests slantingly on a cushion. The burin is 
 used with the palm of the hand (the engraver pushing 
 it away from him). Engraving is often started either 
 with biting, or the lines are cut in very slightly with 
 dry-point. By a later process the engraver can pull 
 the tool towards him, the cutting point of the burin 
 having been turned back. 
 
 Mezzo-tint Engraving is a process by which the 
 plate is prepared by rocking on it with a ' rocking-tool ' 
 or ' cradle,' the ground being made in lines crossed in all 
 directions, uhtil the requisite effect of ' bur ' is produced, 
 so as to print a rich black. 
 
 Unlike etching, in this process of work you scrape 
 the lights out of a dark ground. It is a ' positive ' 
 process. After indicating the drawing on the rocked 
 plate with red chalk, the dry point is lightly used for 
 drawing in ; but nearly all the work remains in tones. 
 
STUDY IN DRY-I'OINT : (FIRST STATE). 
 By Andrew Geddes. 
 
 121 
 
EARLY DUTCH LINE ENGRAVING. 
 By H. GoLTZius. 
 
 123 
 
ETCHING 125 
 
 For the lighter tones the ' bur ' is quite scraped away 
 to the ground, and for the higher lights the plate is 
 polished with the burnisher. The strongest light will 
 be obtained with the scraper and the use of the smaller 
 burnisher. The first Mezzotinters were Prince Rupert 
 and Lewis Siegen, 1641. 
 
 Lithography. — The drawing may be done direct on 
 to a lithographic stone with a prepared pencil, or it may 
 be drawn with the same ' greasy ' pencil on lithographic 
 transfer paper, which is then laid, face downwards on the 
 stone, pressed, and the paper washed, off. This drawing 
 is then bitten in with nitric acid. From this stone the 
 prints are taken. Lithography was invented by Aloys 
 Senefelder in 1 796. 
 
INDEX 
 
 DRAWING AND PAINTING 
 
 Angles, i8. 
 
 Background, 1 8, 27, 29, 36. 
 
 Bases, 34. 
 
 Brushes, 21. 
 
 Canvas, 21. 
 
 Cast shadow, 7. 
 
 Cheek, 18, 36. 
 
 Chiaroscuro, ig. 
 
 Classical drawing, 20. 
 
 Color, 3. 
 
 Color, appearance of, 22, 33-38. 
 
 Color, contrasts of, 34. 
 
 Color, different flesh, 21, 22, 26, 
 
 27, 28, 29, 31, 33. 
 Color, first attempt in oil, 21. 
 Color in nature, 22. 
 Color of light, 22, 33-38. 
 Composition, 51, 67. 
 Costume, 36. 
 Delicate gradations, 7. 
 Dessication, 30, 
 Difficult forms,, 18. 
 Drawing, 3, 18, 42. 
 Drawing head, 1,7, 17, 25. 
 Drawing, history of, 19. 
 Drawing, materials, 3, 7, 19. 
 Ear, 10, 17. 
 
 Effect, 18, 27, 34, 42, 44. 
 Effect in portrait, 33-39. 
 Execution by different artists, 38, 
 
 39- 
 Eye, 9, 17, 36. • 
 Features described, 8-13. 
 Grey in flesh color, 28, 29. 
 Hair, 27. 
 
 Harmony by contrast, 34. 
 High light, 4, 17, 31. 
 Impression to eye, 3. 
 
 Ingredients of pigments, 47. 
 
 Leading lines, 17. 
 
 Light and shade, 3, 4, 13, 17, 22, 
 
 27, 29, 31. 
 Lines, important, 18. 
 Local color, 2i. 
 Method of drawing, 3-19. 
 Method of painting, 21, 26, 27- 
 
 3S-. 
 Materials for drawing, 3, 25. 
 Materials for painting, 31. 
 Materials used in oil painting, 21, 
 
 32. 
 Modem progress, 40. 
 Mouth, II, 36. ■ 
 Nose, 8, 36. 
 
 Out-of-doors effect, 22, 34. 
 Outline, 4, 17, 29, 31. 
 Painting from life, 25, 26, 27. 
 Painting, meaning of, 3. 
 Palette, 21. 
 
 Palette for flesh, 27, 28. 
 Proportion, 4, 14, 17. 
 Quality in painting, 39. 
 Realism, 3. 
 Shadows, 4, 17, 27, 28, 29, 31, 
 
 36, 38. 
 Solid-oil colors, 48. 
 Study of value, 33, 38. 
 Styles, 19. 
 Technique of painting, 29, 38, 
 
 39- 
 Texture, 7, 39. 
 Under-painting, 29. 
 Use of materials in oil, 45. 
 Value, 33-38, 
 Varnish, 45. 
 Woman's head, 18. 
 
 127 
 
128 
 
 INDEX 
 
 LANDSCAPE AND WATER-COLOR DRAWING 
 
 Afterglow, 79. 
 
 Atmosphere, 70, 92, 
 
 Blue of sky, 80. 
 
 Boats, loi. 
 
 Branches of tree, 70, 71. 
 
 Buildings, loi. 
 
 Charcoal study, 73, 74. 
 
 Clouds, 80, 85, loi. 
 
 Clouds, reflection in water, 91. 
 
 Color, appearance of, 79, 91. 
 
 Color, effect of sun on, 79, 91, 95. 
 
 Color, list of oil, 74. 
 
 Color, list of water (color) 97, 98, 
 
 loi. 
 Composition, 92. 
 Distance, 85, 92. 
 Drawing from memory, 95, 
 Effect, 73, 79, 85, 86, 92, 95, 98. 
 Evening, 86. 
 Execution, 72, 79. 
 Figure study, 92. 
 Figure study in water-color, 102. 
 Foliage, 70-73. 
 Grey day, 79, 95 
 Ground plan, 70. 
 Harmony, 92. 
 Horizontal line, 91, 92. 
 Impressions, 96. 
 Lessons, 70, 73, 74. 
 Light, 72, 92, 95. 
 List of color for oil, 74. 
 List of color for water-color, loi. 
 
 Materials, 73, 74, 97, 102. 
 Memoranda, 74-77. 
 Morning, 86. 
 Out-of-door study, 91. 
 Outline, 70. 
 
 Perspective, aerial, 79, 92. 
 Play of light, 91. 
 'Rain, 79. 
 Rays of sun, 80. 
 Record, 95. 
 Reflections, '86, 91, 92. 
 Roundness of globe, 91. 
 Sails, loi. 
 Sea, 91. 
 Ships, 91. 
 
 Sketching from nature, 70. 
 Sky, 70, 73, 74, 80, loi. 
 Sky-line, 91. 
 Snow, 79. 
 Sun, 79. 
 
 Sunlight, 91, 95. 
 Sunset, 80, 95. 
 Technique, 73, 74, 97. 
 Thatch, loi. 
 Tint of sky, 80. 
 
 Trees, 70, 71, 72, 85, 92, 95, loi. 
 Twilight, 79, 95, loi. 
 Value, 70, 73, 91, 92. 
 Water, 86, 91, 92, 98, loi. 
 Waves, 91. 
 Weather, calm, 91. 
 Wood, color of, loi. 
 
 ETCHING 
 
 Etching, historical note, 118- 
 
 120. 
 Lesson, 108-111. 
 Materials, 107-116. 
 
 Other forms of etching, etc., 
 
 120-125. 
 Technique, 107-109. 112-117 
 The art of etching, 107. 
 
 "S, 
 
 Printed by MoKKisoN & Gibb Limited, Edinburgh