DISEASES 
 of POULTRY 
 
 By D. E. SALMON, D. V. M. 
 
ALBERT R. MANN 
 LIBRARY 
 
 New York State Colleges 
 
 of 
 
 Agriculture and Home Economics 
 
 Cornell University 
 
 THE GIFT OF 
 
 Paul Pomeroy Ives 2d 
 
 in memory of 
 
 Paul Pomeroy Ives 
 

 L»ate 
 
 Due 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 jr 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Library Bureau Cat. No. 1137 
 
 Cornell University Library 
 SF 995.S17 1902 
 
 Diseases of poultry; the cause, symptoms 
 
 3 1924 003 233 750 
 
Cornell University 
 Library 
 
 The original of this book is in 
 the Cornell University Library. 
 
 There are no known copyright restrictions in 
 the United States on the use of the text. 
 
 http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924003233750 
 
Relative Position of Skeleton and Soft Parts of fowl. 
 
DISEASES 
 of POULTRY 
 
 THE CAUSE, SYMPTOMS AND 
 
 CARE OF EACH DISEASE, 
 
 AND SIMPLE, EFFECTIVE 
 
 REMEDIES 
 
 By 
 
 D. E. SALMON, D. V. M. 
 
 Chief of the U. S. Bureau 
 of Animal Industry 
 
5/7 
 
 E 6862 
 
PREFACE 
 
 The author has for years given attention to the diseases encountered 
 in the poultry-yard, and long since became impressed with the desirability 
 of a systematic treatise on the subject. The pamphlets, by various authors, 
 which have appeared in the English language have been very useful, but 
 they have been far too brief, they have not contained the results of modern 
 investigations and they have lacked illustrations. There have been more 
 extensive monographs in German, French and Italian, but these have been, 
 for the most part, sealed books to English-speaking poultrymen. 
 
 It has been necessary for the author to examine much of the literature 
 of this subject in order to keep abreast with the progress of science and to 
 reply intelligently to the numerous inquiries which he has received. The 
 notes thus made led to the writing of a number of articles for the press, 
 which were so well received and brought out so many requests for more 
 information, that it was decided to fill in the parts which had not been 
 touched upon and produce a small reference book for the use of those 
 interested in the subject. This volume is the result, and it is hoped that it 
 may prove useful to the thousands who are annually under the necessity 
 of struggling with the problem of disease in the poultry-yard. 
 
 The author has, in the preparation of this work, consulted with much 
 profit the Medeoine des oiseaux of Pierre Megnin, the Encyclopedic Cadeac, 
 The Diseases of Poultry by J. Woodroffe Hill, the Comparative Anatomy 
 and Physiology of Vertebrates by Richard Owen, the Traite de zoologie 
 medicale et agricole by A. Railliet, Die Krankheiten des Hausgefluegels by 
 Friedrich Anton Zuern, Neumann's Parasites and Parasitic Diseases of 
 Domesticated Animals, translated by Fleming, and the bulletins and cir- 
 culars of the Bureau of Animal Industry prepared by Theobald Smith, 
 V. A. Moore, C. W. Stiles and A. Hassall, as well as many valuable articles 
 in the veterinary periodicals. 
 
 If this volume is the means of attracting more attention, in this country, 
 to the diseases of birds, if it saves a part of the loss which now occurs 
 from such diseases, and if it serves to mitigate the sufferings of these 
 uncomplaining but highly sensitive creatures, the purpose of the author will 
 be accomplished. 
 
 D. E. Salmon. 
 
CHAPTER I 
 
 Introduction 
 
 The Poultry Industry — Health and Disease — The Organs and Apparatus 
 and Their Functions — Common Causes of Disease — Hygienic Require- 
 ments — Disinfection — Objects of Medical Treatment. 
 
 THE POULTRY IXDUSTRY 
 
 THE domesticated birds, which we group together under the general 
 term "poultry," constitute a very important part of the "farm animals" 
 of the country. Their number and value are enormous. There were 
 in 1890 according to the census 258,871,125 chickens or dung-hill fowls 
 and 26,738,315 other domesticated fowls in the United States. This 
 gives a total of 285,609,440 individual fowls. The number at present 
 in the country is undoubtedly much larger than in 1890. 
 
 The annual earnings of American poultry amount to an immense 
 sum, and have been estimated all the way from $200,000,000 to 
 $350,000,000. The truth lies somewhere between these extremes, but 
 sufficient data has not been collected to enable any one to reach a very 
 accurate conclusion. It is certain, however, that the poultry industry 
 constitutes one of the most important branches of agriculture, and that 
 it is well worthy of the most careful study and attention. About 820 
 million dozens of eggs were returned in the census of 1890, with no 
 account of dressed poultry, feathers, etc. Nothing relating to such 
 an industry is beneath the talents or dignity of the most learned and 
 able persons in the land. It is only the thoughtless and ignorant who 
 speak slightingly of the "chicken business," or who consider it inferior 
 to any other occupation. 
 
 Health and Disease. The success of poultry raising depends upon 
 the ability of those engaged in this industry to keep their birds thriv- 
 ing, vigorous, and free of disease. From an economical point of view, 
 birds are machines which consume certain kinds of raw material and 
 produce eggs and meat. They should be kept in such a condition that 
 they can most profitably work this transformation. One of the most 
 serious obstacles to profitable poultry keeping is the effect of diseases 
 in arresting the productive activity of the flock and in decimating its 
 numbers. More failures in the poultry business are traceable to 
 
 11 
 
12 
 
 DISEASES OP POULTRY 
 
 disease than to any other cause. A knowledge of the nature, pre- 
 vention, and curative treatment of the more common diseases of fowls 
 is therefore essential to success in this industry; and a treatise on this 
 subject for ready reference must necessarily be one of the most useful 
 articles in the poultryman's outfit. These diseases are treated with 
 considerable detail in this volume, but before entering upon the study 
 of the individual diseases, it will be of great assistance to get a clear 
 idea of what constitutes disease, how it is caused and upon what prin- 
 ciples it may be prevented and cured. 
 
 We say a bird is in good health when it appears lively, has a clear 
 eye, a bright red comb, is quick and active in its movements, has a 
 good appetite and when the various organs of the body perform their 
 functions in the manner in which they are observed to act in all birds 
 that are vigorous and thriving. On the other hand, we say a bird is 
 diseased when some function or functions of its body are not performing 
 as they are in the great majority of individuals, or when some organ 
 presents an unusual form or appearance. Disease has, therefore, been 
 defined as a life, the manifestations of which deviate more or less from 
 the normal. Practically, we say a bird is diseased when we observe 
 that one or more of its functions are not carried on in a normal 
 manner, or when we find unusual growths, injuries, or parasites 
 affecting any of its organs. 
 
 The Organs and Apparatus and Their Functions. In the study of 
 disease, one of the most important things is to acquire the habit of 
 looking at a bird, not as one indivisible object, but as an individual 
 made up of many distinct parts, each of which has its special function 
 to perform. Thus, we find the beak, the tongue, the oesophagus, the 
 crop, the proventriculus, the gizzard, the pancreas, the liver, and the 
 intestines, each separate and distinct in itself, and each liable to be 
 affected by disease. We observe also that these organs taken together 
 make up the digestive apparatus and that they are associated together 
 for the purpose of obtaining, preparing, and assimilating nutritive 
 material for the sustenance of the body as a whole. We are often 
 able to determine that there is something wrong with the working of 
 an apparatus before we are able to locate the trouble in one or more 
 organs. To ascertain the seat of a disease and its nature, we must 
 consequently, know the different organs of the body, we must know 
 what work each organ does, and how the organs are associated for 
 the accomplishment of a common purpose. 
 
 Besides the digestive apparatus, we find in the bird's body the 
 nostrils, larynx, trachea, lungs and air-sacs which together constitute 
 the respiratory apparatus. The principal functions of this apparatus 
 are to supply oxygen to the blood and receive in return carbonic acid 
 gas and watery vapor. Then, there is the circulatory apparatus, com- 
 posed of the heart, arteries, capillaries, veins, and lymphatics, which 
 
DISEASES OP POULTRY " 
 
 carries the nourishment and the oxygen to every part of the body and 
 brings away the waste and worn out material. There is the urinary 
 apparatus, made up of the kidneys and the ureters, which sepatates 
 and removes from the blood the great part of the waste of the body 
 which can not be vaporized and carried away with the air expired 
 fiom the lungs. There is the genital apparatus which in the male 
 consists of testes, vas deferens, and, with some varieties, a penis, and 
 in the female, of ovaries, and oviducts, the purpose of this apparatus 
 being the reproduction and perpetuation of the species. There is the 
 locomotive apparatus and framework of the body, made up of the 
 bones, ligaments, muscles, and tendons. There is the brain and ner- 
 vous system which establishes communication between and governs 
 the different organs and apparatus. And, finally, there is the tegu- 
 mentary system, which includes the skin and feathers and the function 
 of which is to cover and protect the body, and excrete a certain amount 
 of liquid bearing with it some soluble waste products from the blood. 
 
 Common Causes of Disease. In order to act intelligently for the 
 prevention and cure of a disease, we must know something of its cause; 
 and in order to determine the cause, we must know the agencies which 
 are liable to injuriously affect the diseased organ. If it is found that 
 the digestive organs are affected, we are naturally led to inquire into 
 the character and quantity of food that has been taken; the amount of 
 exercise which the birds have had; whether they have had access to 
 gravel or grit; whether the alimentary canal is obstructed at any point; 
 whether the affected birds have been unduly exposed to cold or 
 draughts of air; and finally, whether they have been attacked by any 
 of the parasites, vegetable or animal which are known to cause dis- 
 turbance of the digestive functions. If the respiratory organs are 
 diseased, it is proper to inquire if the birds have been chilled or exposed 
 to draughts of air, or to a damp atmosphere; or whether they are the 
 pray of the parasitic organisms such as multiply in this portion of the 
 bird's body. If the skin, comb, wattles, or feet are affected, the most 
 likely causes are freezing, mechanical injuries, and parasites. If 
 lameness is exhibited it is probably due to injuries or rheumatism. 
 If the general health is affected as shown by mal-nutrition, paleness, 
 and loss of weight, the most common causes are indigestion from im- 
 proper food, and the attacks of internal or external parasites. Diseases 
 of the brain result from exposure to too great heat, and sun- 
 stroke, from over exertion, and from too high feeding with insufficient 
 exercise. Diseases of the ovaries and oviducts result from the bird 
 being too fat; from these organs being over stimulated, or from the 
 ration being improperly adjusted to the needs of the body. 
 
 These are by far the most common causes of disease with the 
 domesticated birds. There are other causes, such as rupture of a 
 blood vessel from weakness of its walls; the degeneration of the 
 
14 
 
 DISEASES OP POULTRY 
 
 tissues of important organs through some obscure influence; the 
 inexplicable failure of some part of the body to perform its functions 
 and the development of abnormal growths. These are more commonly 
 observed, however, in old birds, and, as financial considerations lead 
 to the frequent renewal of the poultryman's stock, such forms of 
 disease rarely occur and are confined to a very few. 
 
 Hygienic Requirements. The conditions required for the main- 
 tenance of health and vigor in a flock of birds, are similar to what are 
 required for other animals. These conditions, however, are more im- 
 portant with birds than with quadrupeds because the activities of the 
 former are more intense. That is to say the bird digests more food in 
 proportion to its weight, it breathes more rapidly, its blood circulates 
 faster, its temperature is higher, and it makes a proportionate increase 
 in weight in a shorter time. The bird may, therefore be compared to 
 a very perfect and delicate machine running under a high pressure. 
 If properly managed, such a machine gives the very best results; but 
 if neglected and run under improper conditions, it soon fails to be 
 satisfactory and may intirely collapse. 
 
 One of the first problems which the poultryman is called upon to 
 solve is the location of the poultry plant. There are some general 
 principles which are of great assistance in considering this question. 
 The building or buildings should be upon an elevated spot where the 
 drainage is good, and any danger of water settling under the building 
 during heavy rains should be guarded against by filling in with a foot 
 or more of earth before the construction is commenced. It is a great 
 advantage to have soil which contains enough sand to prevent the 
 quick formation of mud and which soon dries. Dampness in the 
 houses and mud in the yards are not favorable for poultry raising. 
 
 The next condition of importance is a proper amount of space in the 
 houses and yards. This depends somewhat upon the size of the birds 
 and whether a shed is attached to the house. Houses without sheds 
 should have from six to fifteen square feet to each adult bird, while 
 those with sheds .may be reduced to about one-half this space. The 
 yards should be large enough to allow exercise in the open air, and 
 large enough to supply more grass than the birds will eat. This will 
 vary from 60 to ISO square feet per adult bird. The open shed facing 
 the south, where the fowls can be induced to hunt for their food and 
 take exercise in all seasons of the year, and where they can enjoy 
 the pleasure of scratching and dusting themselves in the sunshine, 
 even during the Winter months, is of great assistance in maintaining 
 the health and productiveness of the flock. 
 
 The ventilation of the poultry-house should be provided for in such 
 a way that draughts of air will not strike the birds. The amount of 
 ventilation required will depend largely upon ihe height of the house, 
 the atmospheric temperature and the velocity of the wind. In northern 
 
DISEASES OF POULTRY 
 
 15 
 
 latitudes, with buildings of moderate height, the problem in winter is 
 rather to keep the cold out than to let the air in. When the weather is 
 not too cold, however, the admission of plenty of fresh air is important 
 and particularly so if the walls and roofs of the houses are made air- 
 tight with one or more layers of building paper. There are various 
 methods by which such houses may be ventilated without endangering 
 the birds with currents of air, but as the details of these methods 
 depends largely upon the plan of building adopted, they will not be 
 discussed in this volume. 
 
 Cleanliness is an essential sanitary condition for all animals, but 
 particularly so for birds. Accumulations of excrement harbor para- 
 sites, vitiate the atmosphere and breed contagion. The poultry-house 
 should, therefore, be constructed with a view to its frequent cleaning. 
 The roosts and nest boxes should be removable, so that all parasites 
 which collect upon them may be reached and destroyed. The floor 
 should be smooth to permit scraping and sweeping. Cracks and knot 
 holes should be avoided as they furnish a hiding place for parasites. 
 Low boxes containing dry earth or road dust should be provided in 
 which the birds can take a dust bath with regularity. 
 
 Disinfection. Disinfection is the destruction or removal of infection. 
 Infection of poultry-houses and runs occurs from the introduction of 
 animal and vegetable parasites, including the various microbes and 
 unknown forms of contagion. There are no precautions which will 
 entirely prevent such infection. The fowls with which the flock is 
 started will probably be already infected with many varieties of par- 
 asites. Wild birds and various animals or possibly the attendant 
 may bring contagion and even the larger animal parasites. Some of 
 these parasites multiply in the birds' bodies, others breed in the 
 houses, still others pass a portion of their life cycle in or upon the soil 
 of the runs. 
 
 The longer fowls are kept upon the same premises the more these 
 parasites will increase, and the greater damage and menace they will 
 be to the flock. Systematic and efficient measures must, therefore, be 
 instituted and regularly imployed in order to keep such pests in check, 
 and, if possible, entirely eradicate them. Some species of parasites are 
 quite easily controlled, but others will tax the ingenuity and skill of 
 the poultryman to the utmost. 
 
 The methods of disinfection applicable to the poultry plant are 
 numerous, and it is important to understand those which are the most 
 available and which can be used with least danger to persons and fowls. 
 For the inside of the houses, including the roosts and nest boxes, hot 
 lime wash is one of the best applications and should be used at least 
 twice a year. If thoroughly applied, it will destroy both animal par- 
 asites and microbes. The disinfecting power of lime wash may be 
 increased by the addition of one-fourth pound carbolic acid to each 
 gallon. When a gaseous disinfectant is needed to reach the ceilings 
 
10 DISEASES OF POULTRY 
 
 of houses and the hangings of brooders, formalin (formaldehyde) will 
 be found by far the most efficient. It may be sprayed over the inside 
 of the house or brooder in a three percent solution, and if the doors and 
 windows are then tightly closed, so that the vapors will be confined, 
 every part of the interior of the structure will be disinfected. Formalin 
 may now be purchased in a forty percent solution and may be diluted 
 with water to the desired strength. One pound of the solution added to 
 a gallon of water makes a mixture of about the proper strength. 
 
 For the destruction of the external animal parasites many apply 
 kerosene oil and crude petroleum to the roosts, but these substances are 
 not to be compared in efficiency with hot lime wash.* The fowls them- 
 selves may be dusted with insect powder or dipped in a creolin solution 
 (2 per cent), and insect powder may be added to the dust ba^hs and 
 strewed in the nests when the vermin become troublesome. Other 
 remedies suitable to special conditions will be given in subsequent 
 chapters. 
 
 The runs should be occasionally plowed, in order to bury the accumu- 
 lated excrement and parasites, and at the same time bring fresh soil 
 to the surface. If this does not prove sufficient for the purpose, the 
 soil should be covered with a good coating of lime or thoroughly satur- 
 ated with a five percent solution of carbolic acid some days before it is, 
 plowed, and no fowls allowed upon such runs for six months or a year. 
 
 If in spite of these precautions, intestinal worms become more and 
 more usurious, or if one or more of the various diseases caused by 
 fungi, bacteria, or protozoa continue to affect the birds, the only resource 
 is to move the flock to fresh ground. In starting a new flock, or in re- 
 moving to a new locality to escape parasites, it is a good plan to leave 
 the old birds behind, and take only the young ones which have been 
 hatched in incubators and which have never been outside of clean 
 brooders. The adult birds would certainly carry many parasites with 
 them while these young birds should be uninfected. 
 
 Objects of Medical Treatment. In the treatment of sick birds, medi- 
 cines should not be administered blindly, but on the contrary there 
 should be a clear idea, before the remedy is selected, of what is to be 
 accomplished. Otherwise, it is probable that more harm than good will 
 result. In giving medicines intelligently there are three distinct objects 
 which one may attempt to accomplish: 
 
 1. To neutralize, remove or destroy the cause of the disease. 
 
 2. To cause the repair of the affected tissues. 
 
 3. To counteract or remove the symptoms. 
 
 1. As to the first object mentioned, it is clear that we can only direct 
 our remedies toward the cause, when that cause continues to act. In 
 catarrh, pneumonia, inflammation of the intestines, and other diseases 
 which result from exposure to cold, for example, the cause may have 
 been a cold draught of air on a windy night. When the bird is dis- 
 
DISEASES OP POULTRY 17 
 
 covered to be sick, a day or two later the cause is no longer acting. 
 On the other hand, in parasitic diseases, the cause continues to act, as 
 a rule, until it is destroyed by remedies or by the vital processes of the 
 body. These examples are simply illustrations of the general fact that 
 there are only a part of the diseases that affect birds, in which an 
 attempt can be made to reach the cause. 
 
 There are special methods of treatment applicable to the epizoa or 
 external animal parasites, and quite different methods for the entozoa 
 or internal animal parasites. In all cases, however, we endeavor to 
 remove or destroy the cause of the disease. Poisoning may be treated 
 upon the same principle; that is, an attempt may be made to neutralize, 
 destroy or remove the poison. Whenever possible, the remedies should 
 be directed to the cause of the disease, since while this continues to act 
 a cure is impossible. 
 
 2. To secure the repair of the affected tissues is also a very important 
 object of medication. Wounds may require stimulating or astringent 
 treatment; inflammations may be reduced by cooling applications or by 
 sedatives; an anaemic condition is counteracted by tonics; the con- 
 gestion of an internal organ may be relieved by inducing increased 
 circulation at the surface of the body either by heat or counter-irritation. 
 These are examples of treatment applied to relieve the abnormal con- 
 dition and secure the repair of the diseased part. When the cause of the 
 disease has ceased to act, this line of treatment should be adopted, if 
 possible. 
 
 3. There are, unfortunately, many cases in which it is neither possible 
 to adopt treatment for the removal of the cause or the repair of the 
 affected part. In such cases we are limited to symptomatic medication. 
 The effort then is to mitigate the alarming and dangerous symptoms. 
 There are many conditions in which such a course is of great advantage. 
 Thus, when the forces of the body are weakened or exhausted this state 
 may be temporarily relieved with stimulants; when the temperature 
 is dangerously high, it may be reduced by appropriate remedies; when 
 pain is severe it may be arrested by drags which act upon the nerves; 
 when there is constipation, laxatives or purgatives may be indicated, and 
 when there is purging it may be stopped with medicines having the 
 opposite effect; for spasmodic contractions of the muscles, there is a 
 class of medicines called anti-spasmodics; there are drugs which increase 
 the various secretions. It is plain, therefore, that while removing the 
 cause of disease, and working for the repair of the affected parts are 
 scientifio and essential plans of treatment, the symptomatic method, 
 also, has its applications which will be found both numerous and im- 
 portant. 
 
 The intelligent treatment of disease will be conducted with one or 
 more of these three objects in view. We may at the same time apply 
 remedies to destroy a parasite, and to allay the irritation or heal the in- 
 juries which it has caused. It is, also, possible in certain cases to simul- 
 
18 DISEASES OP POULTRY 
 
 taniously attack the cause of the disease, to treat the local injury and 
 to benificially modify the urgent symptoms. The skill of the practitioner 
 is shown by the resources with which he is able to meet and over- 
 come the varied conditions of disease which confront him at different 
 times and with different individuals. To be succesful ne must be able 
 to accurately determine the nature of the disease and the condition of 
 the patient. 
 
CHAPTER ll 
 
 Diseases of the Organs of Respiration 
 
 Structure and Function — Simple Catarrh — Roup, Contagious Catarrh — Bron- 
 chitis — The Gapes, Verminous Tracheo-Bronchitis, Syngainosis — Con- 
 gestion of the Lungs, Pulmonary Congestion — Pneumonia — Mycosis of 
 the Air-Passages, Aspergillosis — The Air Ac Mite. 
 
 STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION 
 
 ""PHE respiratory organs of birds differ considerably from those with 
 J- which we are familiar in the other species of domesticated animals. 
 The plan of structure of these organs follows more closely the ana- 
 logous organs of reptiles than it does that of mammals. This should 
 not excite surprise as it is. now admitted that birds are descended from 
 some animal of the reptilian group. 
 
 The lungs are confined, as they are in the tortoise, to the back 
 part of the body cavity, and are firmly attached to the ribs and the 
 spaces between these bones. Large membranous sacs, communicat- 
 ing with the lungs and serving as reservoirs of air, extend to the pos- 
 terior portion of the abdomen and even into the bones. The lungs 
 are not suspended freely and divided into lobes as we see them in 
 other farm animals, and they are attached to the back part of the 
 chest and are accurately molded to the inequalities of the ribs and the 
 spaces between the ribs. 
 
 Notwithstanding these resemblances to the sluggish cold-blooded 
 animals, the bird's breathing apparatus is of the highest order of ex- 
 cellence, and wonderfully effective. The lungs are comparatively 
 small and have little elasticity, but there is a compensation for these 
 features in the free communication with the spacious air sacs which 
 contain an abundant supply of air. 
 
 The upper opening of the trachea or windpipe is on the floor of 
 the mouth just behind the tongue. The larynx at the beginning of 
 the windpipe, which is such a perfect structure in the higher mam- 
 mals, is in birds only slightly developed. The edges of the larynx 
 appear to close together so perfectly that no epiglottis or lid is neces- 
 sary. There are no vocal cords in the larynx as in mammals, and 
 therefore this organ can not produce voice and it only raises or 
 
 19 
 
20 
 
 DISEASES OF POULTRY 
 
 lowers a note by bringing together or separating the stiff margins ot 
 the opening. The true organ of voice in birds is the lower larynx or 
 cyrinx, which is found in no other class of animals and is situated 
 
 where the trachea divides to form 
 bronchi. 
 
 The two primary bronchi, formed 
 by the division of the trachea, pene- 
 trate the lungs, branching as they go 
 and end in the air sacs which have 
 already been mentioned. The primary 
 branches of the bronchial tubes' give 
 off secondary branches, and the sec- 
 ondary branches in turn send off tert- 
 iary branches. These finer branches 
 open upon a dense network of min- 
 ute, almost naked, blood vessels, 
 through the delicate walls of which 
 the oxygen passes to the blood and 
 the carbonic acid and other vapors 
 escape. 
 
 There are in all nine air sacs, four 
 on each side, and one (the intercla- 
 vicular) which has been formed by 
 the union of another pair. These are 
 named the cervical, the interclavicu- 
 lar, the anterior thoracic, the poste- 
 rior thoracic, and the abdominal sacs. 
 With many birds the air sacs extend 
 into the humerus or large bone of 
 the wing, with some, into the breast- 
 bone, the thigh bone, and even other 
 bones of the body. The air sacs act 
 principally as reservoirs of air, feed- 
 ing the lungs between the periods of 
 inspiration and ensuring an abundant 
 air supply at all times. There is pos- 
 sibly some oxygenation of the blood 
 through their walls, and they serve in addition to reduce the weight 
 of the body. 
 
 Nearly all the moisture which escapes from the bird's body passes 
 off through the respiratory organs. With mammals, a large propor- 
 tion of the liquid taken into the body is evaporated from the surface 
 of the skin, and this process serves as an efficient regulation of the 
 body temperature. A considerable amount of liquid is also excreted 
 by the kidneys of such animals. In birds the secretion of the kid- 
 neys contains but a small quantity of water, and the skin has no 
 
 Fig. 1.— Lungs of a Bird. 
 A.— I<ower Surface. 
 B. — Upper Surface. 
 
DISEASES OP POULTRY 
 
 sweat glands, so that but an insignificant amount of moisture is 
 evaporated from the external surface of the body. The lungs and 
 air sacs of birds must, therefore, perform not only the duties which 
 devolve upon the respiratory organs of mammals, but also largely 
 those of kidneys and skin as well. 
 
 On the whole, the bird's respiratory apparatus is very perfect and 
 more active than that of any mammal. The quantity of carboliic 
 acid exhaled is very large, the breathing is rapid, and the oxidation 
 of the blood is necessarily thorough to maintain the high tempera- 
 ture of the bird's body. With all this, birds are capable of great 
 and prolonged muscular exertion; the "wind" of the Homing Pigeon, 
 for instance, being something remarkable. 
 
 The intimate connection which exists between the bronchi and air 
 sacs readily permits of the extension of a disease process from one to 
 the other, and parasites or parasitic diseases may be common to both. 
 Injured birds may even breathe through a broken humerus which has 
 pierced the skin, when their windpipes are obstructed with blood 
 and impermeable to air. In this case the air is drawn into the lungs 
 through the interclavicular air sac instead of penetrating by way of 
 the trachea and bronchi. The respiratory apparatus of birds differs, 
 therefore, to a remarkable extent from that of other animals, in struc- 
 ture, in function, and in the development and extension of the diseases 
 to which it is subject. 
 
 Simple Catarrh. One of the most common diseases of birds is 
 catarrh. It is sometimes mild, attacks but a few birds in a flock, 
 and is easily overcome. At other times it is more severe, affects all 
 or nearly all the birds in a flock and only yields to energetic and pro- 
 longed treatment. In case of long-continued cold and damp weather, 
 birds in different flocks may be affected at the same time, leading 
 to the suspicion of an infectious disease, although it is really due to 
 climatic conditions acting over a large territory at the same time. 
 It is important to make a careful examination as soon as the disease 
 appears and to determine whether it is simple catarrh or infectious catarrh, 
 as the treatment to be adopted in the two cases differs materially. 
 
 Symptoms. In simple, non-contagious catarrh, the affected birds 
 are more or less dull, they are disinclined to move, their appetites are 
 diminished, they sneeze and the mucous membrane is thickened, 
 causing some obstruction to breathing through the nostrils. There 
 soon appears a thin, watery discharge which later becomes thicker and 
 glutinous, the eyes are often watery, the eyelids swollen and some- 
 times held together by a thick, viscid secretion. In very severe cases, 
 the birds are somnolent, the plumage is erect and roughened, the nos- 
 trils are completely obstructed by the thick secretion, the breathing 
 is entirely through the mouth and is accompanied by a wheezing or 
 snoring sound, the appetite is entirely lost, a thin liquid escapes from 
 the mouth and the bird soon becomes exhausted and dies. In the 
 
22 
 
 DISEASES OF POULTRY 
 
 milder cases simple catarrh may disappear without treatment, in the 
 course of two or three days; or, in case the cause is allowed to per- 
 sist, the birds may become worse and die, or the disease may become 
 chronic and continue its effects for a long time. 
 
 Causation. Simple catarrh is the result of undue exposure to cold 
 and dampness or to draughts of air. It is most commonly seen 
 where the houses are damp and filthy, with cracks and openings, 
 through which the wind blows upon the fowls, or with birds that 
 have been exposed to unusual cold and draughts in the show-room 
 or during shipment from one place to another. The birds most apt 
 to be affected are those having their strength already impaired by 
 insufficient or innutritious food, by lack of exercise or by the attacks 
 of parasites. 
 
 Treatment. Catarrh is best prevented by keeping the birds in a 
 strong, vigorous condition through proper exercise, good food, clean 
 houses and ventilation without draughts. In case symptoms of this 
 disease are observed, search out and remove the cause, and give the 
 birds stimulating food with some cayenne pepper mixed into it. 
 
 If the disease appears serious, wash out the mouth and nostrils 
 twice a day with boric acid solution of the strength of fifteen grains 
 to the ounce of water, or ceroline solution (one per cent). The fol- 
 lowing" remedy is highly recommended by Megnin: 
 
 Gentian root 4 drams 
 
 Ginger 4 " 
 
 Sulphate of iron 2 " 
 
 Hyposulphite of sodium 1 " 
 
 Salicylate of sodium 1 " 
 
 These substances are to be pulverized and then thoroughly mixed. 
 The dose is three or four grains a day for a medium-sized fowl. Its 
 effects are stimulating and tonic. 
 
 Roup, Contagious Catarrh. Although much has been written 
 upon the subject of roup, the scientific studies of the disease have 
 been incomplete and there is still much difference of opinion as to its 
 nature. It is particularly difficult, from presenf. knowledge, to say pos- 
 itively whether contagious catarrh and diphtheria are essentially one 
 and the same disease or whether they constitute two distinct and un- 
 related plagues. Considering only the symptoms, it is possible to draw 
 a sharp and definite line, as most veterinary writers have done, plac- 
 ing on the one side all those outbreaks which have only catarrhal 
 manifestations, and on the other those which clearly show diphther- 
 itic patches with false membranes. Dr. Moore's investigations seem 
 to indicate that both diseases are caused by the same germ, the only 
 difference being in the grade of virulence. If this inference should 
 prove correct, it would justify the common usage of applying the term 
 roup to both forms of disease. At present, however, it appears pref- 
 
DISEASES OF POULTRY 
 
 23 
 
 erable and in accordance with the preponderance of evidence to de- 
 scribe them as two diseases rather than as two forms of the same 
 disease. 
 
 Symptoms. The early symptoms of this disease can not be clearly 
 distinguished from those of simple catarrh, though the dullness and 
 prostration are usually greater and there is often a peculiar offensive 
 odor, which are valuable points to aid in reaching a decision. There 
 is at first a thin, watery discharge from the nostrils with some ob- 
 struction to breathing from swelling of the mucous membrane. The 
 discharge soon becomes thicker and more sticky or glutinous, causing 
 the affected birds to sneeze and 
 shake their heads in an effort to 
 free the air passages. The subjects 
 are dull, quiet, without much appe- 
 tite and more or less feverish. The 
 plumage is rough, the wings pen- 
 dant, the comb and wattles dark 
 red. 
 
 As the disease advances, the in- 
 flammation extends, from the mu- 
 cous membrane of the nostrils along 
 the internal surface of the passage 
 connecting the nostrils with the or- 
 bital space or cavity surrounding 
 the eyes. The orbital space in birds 
 is relatively very large and has an 
 angular projection towards the 
 point of the beak. There is, conse- 
 quently, considerable space be- 
 tween the eye - ball and the bony ~ 
 walls surrounding it, which is known as the orbital space or orbital 
 sinus. This space is lined with a mucous membrane which is con- 
 tinuous with that of the nostrils and in such close relations with it 
 that an inflammatory process readily extends from one to the other. 
 Very often in roup, this membrane is inflamed throughout these pas- 
 sages, and the process is so acute that the surface becomes eroded and 
 ulcerated. The secretion, instead of remaining fluid as in simple ca- 
 tarrh, changes at this period, is abundant, thick, yellowish purrulent, 
 and cheesy. This secretion accumulates and obstructs the passages. 
 It forms around the eye and forces the eye-ball out of the socket and 
 at the same time collects under the eyelids or on the corner, some- 
 times simulating a false membrane. It, also, plugs the nasal passages, 
 presses down the palate, obstructs the breathing and may prevent 
 swallowing. 
 
 The affected birds in the advanced stages of the disease present a 
 most miserable appearance. The beak is kept open in order to 
 
 Fig. 2.— Head of bird affected with 
 contagious catarrh. 
 
24 
 
 DISEASES OF POULTRY 
 
 breathe, the sight is destroyed by inflammatory products, the eyes are 
 often closed and bulging from the head, the breathing is very difficult, 
 a thick, sticky discharge escapes from the nostrils, the subjects are 
 emaciated, prostrated, sleepy and perhaps unconscious. When these 
 severe symptoms appear, the strength is soon exhausted and death 
 follows. 
 
 Contagious catarrh spreads rapidly through a flock, affecting the 
 greater part of the birds and causing the death of a variable propor- 
 tion according to the virulence of the contagion. It is always a very 
 serious disease and is difficult to eradicate. 
 
 Causation. That roup is a contagious disease admits of no ques- 
 tion. Its origin in a flock can frequently be traced to the introduc- 
 tion of a bird from some other premises where the disease exists. 
 Often, it is contracted by exposure to affected birds at shows, or to 
 the contagion clinging to coops, houses or infected runs. Many 
 writers teach that roup may originate from exposure to cold or 
 draughts of air. This prevalent opinion is probably accounted for by 
 the fact that the first, stages of roup are almost identical in their symp- 
 toms with simple catarrh or a common cold. It is not likely, how- 
 ever, that such exposure is sufficient to produce roup. Contagious 
 diseases are caused by parasites, each specific disease having its par- 
 ticular species of animal or vegetable^ life to call it into existence, 
 and without its. particular parasite the disease can not be developed. 
 It is therefore, logical to conclude that if the germ or parasite of roup 
 is not already infecting a given poultry-yard the disease will not appear 
 until this parasite is introduced. Colds and catarrh may become ag- 
 gravated and even fatal by neglect and continued exposure to the 
 exciting causes-, but they will not develop into roup unless the con- 
 tagion of the last named disease is present. 
 
 The exact species of organism which causes roup can not be cer- 
 tainly determined from the investigations so far made. A bacterial 
 organism resembling the bacillus of fowl cholera and that of rabbit 
 septicaemia has been isolated from some outbreaks. Whether this 
 organism or some other form of microscopic life constitutes the con- 
 tagion makes little difference to the practical poultryman. The rec- 
 ognition of the existence of contagion in some form is the most im- 
 portant thing. 
 
 Roup is a contagious disease which is localized upon the mu- 
 cous membranes of birds. That is, the microscopic parasite which 
 causes the disease, develops and multiplies upon and within the mu- 
 cous membranes of affected birds; escapes from their bodies with the 
 discharge from the nostrils and eyes; soils their feathers, and, also, 
 the litter and other objects about them; when dried it is dissipated 
 throughout the surrounding air in the form of dust by every move- 
 ment of the bird, or of the soiled objects, and by every breeze that 
 disturbs the contaminated surfaces. This dust, containing the germs 
 of the disease, as it floats in the air is drawn into the nostrils with the 
 
DISEASES OF POULTRY " 
 
 breath or lodges within the eye. When the germs reach the moist and 
 warm surfaces of the membranes lining the nostrils or eyes, they find 
 favorable conditions for their continued multiplication. They pene- 
 trate the membrane, set up irritation and inflammation, and as a result 
 of this action there follow catarrh, ulceration and the formation of 
 purulent and cheesy deposits about the head. 
 
 Treatment. The measures to be adopted for the prevention of 
 roup are the same as for other contagious diseases. Exclude the con- 
 tagion by every means that can be devised. Do not allow poultry, 
 animals or men to come directly from an infected premises to a healthy 
 flock. Be careful in buying new birds, and these as well as all birds' 
 that have been to shows should be isolated for two or three weeks 
 until their healthfulness is demonstrated. If the disease once appears 
 in the flock use disinfectants freely and isolate diseased individuals. 
 If the birds are not very valuable it is sometimes better to dispose of 
 every one, and after disinfection begin with new blood. The contagion 
 is persistent and can only be eradicated by the most thorough 
 measures. 
 
 The medical treatment may be undertaken with good chances of 
 success, but requires time and constant attention. Whether it will pay 
 depends upon the value of the birds and of the services of the party 
 who cares for them. x\ntiseptic and healing applications are indi- 
 cated to the interior of the nostrils, the cleft of the palate, the eye, and 
 other affected parts. If swellings containing thick pus or cheesy mat- 
 ter form upon the head, they should be opened with a sharp instru- 
 ment, the contents removed, and the wound treated with antiseptics. 
 A.itiseptic powders are convenient for treating the wounds caused in 
 such operations. Among these iodoform and aristol are the best. The 
 wound may be kept filled with either of these powders until it is 
 healed. The antiseptic solutions may be injected into the nostrils or 
 into the cleft in the roof of the mouth which communicates with the 
 nostrils, by using a small syringe, a medicine dropper, or even an oil 
 can, such as is used for oiling machinery. A syringe is, of course, 
 the best. The solutions most suited are boric acid fifteen grains to the 
 ounce of water; carbolic acid or creoline in two per cent solution; 
 peroxide of hydrogen diluted with an equal quantity of water; per- 
 manganate of potash one grain to the ounce; or sulphate of copper 
 rive grains to the ounce. Some persons have reported great success 
 from the use of coal oil (kerosene) either pure or diluted with equal 
 parts of olive oil. Megnin has had excellent results with a five per 
 cent solution of sulphate of copper injected into the nostrils, the cleft 
 of the palate, the affected eyes and the wounds made in removing 
 purulent collections from the sinus in front of the eyes. This solu- 
 tion appears rather strong and should be used at first with care and 
 in an experimental way until its effects are seen. When the head 
 shows signs of considerable inflammation it may be anointed with 
 sweet (olive) oil, vaseline, or equal parts of sweet oil and coal oil. 
 
26 
 
 DISEASES OF POULTRY 
 
 in selecting from the remedies mentioned, it is well to begin with 
 the milder ones, such as boric acid, peroxide of hydrogen or carbolic 
 acid. Keep the birds comfortable and free from draughts of air. Give 
 stimulating and easily digested food containing a small proportion of 
 meat scrap. One writer, Mr. Mapes, believes that he has controlled 
 the disease effectually with a properly balanced ration. It is impor- 
 tant to dispose of the carcasses of dead birds promptly by burning 
 or deep burial. 
 
 Bronchitis. Causation. Inflammation of the mucous membrane of the 
 trachea and bronchial tubes, or bronchitis, is sometimes due to the extension 
 of the catarrhal process from the head, or it may be induced by the 
 action of the causes which produce catarrh. The most frequent of 
 these causes are exposure to dampness, to cold, to draughts of cold air, 
 and to sudden and extreme changes of temperature. This disease 
 may, also, result from the inhalation of irritating vapors, dust, and 
 other foreign substances. A careful discrimination should be made 
 between bronchitis arising from such causes and that due to conta- 
 gious catarrh (roup), tuberculosis, gape worms, and the aspergillus 
 fungus. 
 
 Symptoms. The birds are somewhat dull, with loss of appetite, 
 accelerated breathing and cough. On listening 
 to the respiration a blowing or whistling sound 
 may be heard in the air tubes, in the early 
 stages of the disease, caused by the air being 
 drawn over the dry and thickened membrane; 
 later, a rattling or bubbling sound is heard 
 caused by air passing through accumulations 
 of mucus. In the majority of cases the symp- 
 toms are not serious, and, under favorable con- 
 ditions, they soon disappear. Occasionally, the 
 malady increases in intensity, the plumage be- 
 comes rough, the wings droop, the breathing 
 is labored and difficult, the bird frequently 
 opens its beak in order to obtain sufficient air, 
 it is sleepy, torpid and exhausted. In such se- 
 vere forms of the disease a large proportion 
 of the affected birds die. 
 
 Treatment. — The first indication in simple 
 bronchitis is to place the affected birds in a 
 comfortable, dry and reasonably warm place, 
 where they will not be subjected to draughts 
 of air, but where the ventilation is good. Give 
 soft and cooling food, such as stale bread, or a 
 mixture of bran and middlings moistened with milk. Inhalation of 
 steam, or vapor from boiling water in which hops or a small quantity 
 of carbolic acid or creoline has been placed, is beneficial. Give with 
 
 Figf. 3. — Right lunir 
 of a goose; a, primary 
 bronchus; W, openings 
 through which commu- 
 nication Is established 
 with the air sacs; cc t 
 secondary bronchi. 
 
DISEASES OF POULTRY 
 
 27 
 
 the food two grains of black antimony twice a day. A small quantity 
 o." flax seed steeped in hot water makes a demulcent drink that often 
 gives great relief; and, in the absence of this, honey or gum arabic 
 may be added to the drinking water with advantage. If the attack 
 promises to be severe, it may sometimes be checked in the early stages 
 
 by giving ten drops of 
 spirits of turpentine in a 
 teaspoonful of castor oil 
 and repeating this dose 
 after five or six hours. It 
 should not be continued 
 after there are signs of 
 purging, for fear of ex- 
 hausting the strength of 
 the patient. In the very 
 acute cases, where the 
 whistling or snoring sounds 
 with the respiration indi- 
 cate a croupous form of in- 
 flammation, and where the 
 gasping shows great ob- 
 struction of the air pas- 
 sage, relief may be ob- 
 tained by giving from three 
 to six drops of either the 
 syrup or the wine of ipecac. 
 The Gapes, Verminous 
 Tracheo - Bronchitis, Syn- 
 gamosis. The gapes is a 
 parasitic disease of birds, 
 caused by the presence in 
 the trachea or windpipe of 
 a worm called the Synga- 
 mus trachealis. The most 
 prominent symptom of this 
 disease is frequent gaping, 
 affection takes its name. 
 
 Fig". 4. — Lung- of a bird represented in Ideal lon- 
 gitudinal section; aa, secondary bronchi. B, dense 
 network of minute blood vessels which makes up 
 the greater part of the lung- tissue and to which the 
 tertiary bronchi convey the-air. 
 
 and from this characteristic the 
 
 History. The gapes appears to have been first observed and de- 
 scribed as occurring in the United States. This disease was seen by 
 Dr. Wiesenthal in 1799, at Baltimore, Md., where he states it affected 
 hens and turkeys. It was reported by Georges Montagu as prevailing 
 among chickens in England from 1806 to 1809. This author believed 
 that chickens were the only occupants of the poultry yard which be- 
 comes its victims, since he observed turkeys and ducks living on the 
 same premises with infested chickens but remaining free from the dis- 
 ease. He observed that pheasants were similarly affected at the period 
 
* B DISEASES OP POULTRY 
 
 when the appearance of the plumage changes so that the sexes can be 
 distinguished.. He also saw the disease in partridges. 
 
 Both Wiesenthal and Montagu recognized that the disease was 
 caused by worms which inhabited the trachea, producing inflamma- 
 tion and obstructing the passage of the air. 
 
 This disease has been very prevalent among fowls and game birds 
 in England during the last twenty-five years; and it has been estimated 
 that it destroys, there, half a million chickens annually, in addition to 
 the losses among game and other birds. It has, also, caused serious 
 losses in France for' more than forty years, and undoubtedly exists in 
 many other countries. In the United States, it has become one of the 
 most common and most troublesome diseases of young chickens and 
 young turkeys, but adult birds as a rule do not suffer from it. A 
 number of species of wild birds are susceptible to this disease as well 
 as the domesticated birds. 
 
 Causation. The single cause of gapes is the parasitic worm known 
 as the Syngamus trachealis. This worm is represented in Fig. 5, a being 
 the male and b the female. The two sexes are usually joined together in 
 a permanent manner by the union of the integuments, a3 shown in the 
 figure. 
 
 The syngamus is a small round worm, red in color, and both the 
 male and female are found attached by their mouths to the mucous 
 membrane of the bird's trachea. The female is slightly more than 
 one-half inch in length, while the male is only one-fifth inch. 
 
 They suck the blood of the bird, which forms their nourishment, 
 and, in doing this, set up considerable irritation and even inflamma- 
 tion. The large and vigorous birds are not seriously disturbed by the 
 presence of this parasite, particularly if the worms are not very nu- 
 merous. Small and weak birds, however, are unable to successfully 
 resist the combined effect of the loss of blood, the inflammation of 
 the trachea, and the obstructed respiration. The strength is rapidly 
 lost, and the windpipe becomes obstruated until finally the bird dies 
 of exhaustion or asphyxia. 
 
 In Fig. 6 D the worms are shown attached to the mucous mem- 
 brane of the trachea. This is a drawing from the windpipe of a pheas- 
 ant, that has been slit open to show the worms as they are found in 
 affected birds. In this bird about thirty pairs of worms were found 
 in various stages of development, and it can be seen that the obstruc- 
 tion of the air passage was almost or quite complete. A larger draw- 
 ing of a pair of worms is seen in Fig. 7 E, which also illustrates the 
 attachment of the worms by means of their mouths to the mucous 
 membrane of the trachea. A pair of worms is shown still more en- 
 larged in Fig 5, in order to give some idea of their structure. The 
 cup-shaped mouth, technically called the buccal capsule, the oesopha- 
 gus and the intestinal canal can be easily made out. In the female, 
 b, can be faintly seen the uterus and its horns filled with ova, or eggs, 
 
DISEASES OF POULTRY 
 
 C a 
 
 29 
 
 Sl'lF 
 
 and coiled around the uterus 
 and intestines is the clearly- 
 defined ovarian tube. In the 
 male a the elongated testicle is 
 shown coiled about the diges- 
 tive tube. A, shows the mouth 
 of the female as seen from its 
 face ; and B, shows the same 
 part as seen from the side. 
 
 The reproductive organs of 
 the female are seen in Fig. 7 G, 
 in which a represents the ute- 
 rus, bb the uterine horns, cc 
 oviducts or Fallopian tubes, and 
 dd ovaries. The reproductive 
 organs of the male are shown 
 in Fig. 7 H, a being spicules, 
 b spermatic canal, c vesicula 
 seminalis, and d testes. Fig. 6 I, 
 is a drawing of the ova, or eggs, 
 in different stages of develop- 
 ment. The segmented vitellus 
 appears at a ; at b the vitellus 
 
 is granular and becoming constricted at its middle, 
 the embryo developing laterally, c shows the ovum 
 with embryo fully developed and folded like the fig- 
 ure 8, d the ovum with the valves at the extremeties 
 detached and the embryo emerging. 
 
 The characters of the embryos are clearly shown 
 in Fig. 6 K, where a represents the embryo directly 
 after it leaves the egg; b is an embryo somewhat 
 older and undergoing the first molt; c is the nymph, 
 the rudiments of the genital organ showing at x. 
 
 Young birds become infected with this parasite either by eating the 
 adult forms, containing eggs, which are coughed up by affected birds, 
 or by taking the embryos with the food or drink. It is not necessary 
 that the syngamus should pass any period of its existence outside of 
 
 Fig. 5.— A pair of 
 syngames (enlarged 
 seven diameters); a, 
 male: b, female; A, 
 mouth of female seen 
 from its face : B, 
 mouth of female seen 
 from its side. 
 
•>U DISEASES OF POULTRY 
 
 the bird's body, although it is capable of living and partially develop- 
 ing under such conditions. The eggs may escape from the adult fe- 
 male worm in the trachea of the bird and these eggs may hatch and 
 the embryo develop in the trachea of the same bird. Hence this is a 
 parasitic disease in which the parasites may continue to develop and 
 increase indefinitely in the body of the host, after the first infection 
 has occurred. As the syngamus does not lay its eggs, however, and 
 as these are only freed by the rupture of the body of the adult worm, 
 usually after its death, the most frequent course of reinfection must 
 be through the digestive organs of the bird. 
 
 When the adult egg-bearing worms are coughed up by diseased 
 birds, these worms are eagerly seized and devoured by chickens or 
 grown fowls. In such cases, while the worm is no doubt digested and 
 destroyed in the alimentary canal of the chicken, the eggs which it 
 contained are hatched and some of the embryos find their way to the 
 trachea of the bird. It is not known how these embryos travel from 
 the digestive organs to the trachea. No doubt the path is a difficult 
 and dangerous one for them; because, although there are some thou- 
 sands of eggs in the adult worms, ten or fifteen worms have been fed 
 to a single chicken, and, as a result, not over four or five embryos 
 would reach and develop in the trachea. Probably a great many of 
 the eggs pass through the intestines and are voided with the excre- 
 ment before they hatch. 
 
 The eggs, or the embryos, or both, of the syngamus are undoubt- 
 edly scattered oyer the grounds where the infested chickens run. Some 
 of these pass through the digestive organs and are scattered with the 
 excrement as just, suggested; others are coughed up and out of the 
 mouth, or the adult worms may be coughed up, and the eggs and em- 
 bryos are set free by the disintegration of the worm. The eggs re- 
 quire warmth and moisture to hatch, and similar conditions are needed 
 for the life of the embryos. These newly-hatched embryos may be 
 at once taken up by birds, with contaminated food or drink, and thus 
 cause infection or they may be taken into the digestive canal of earth 
 worms, as has been shown conclusively that earth worms from in- 
 fected poultry runs will cause gapes if fed to chickens. Whether or 
 not the earth worm plays an important part in sheltering and pro- 
 tecting the embryos of the syngamus and in thus maintaining the in- 
 fection upon certain premises is not definitely known. 
 
 Walker considers the earth worm a very important factor in keep- 
 ing up infection, and has proposed the destruction of these worms by 
 saturating the soil with a solution of common salt. Whether this will 
 kill or drive away the earth worms which are in the soil has not been 
 satisfactorily demonstrated. 
 
 Symptoms. The disease is observed most frequently in young 
 birds from one to four weeks old. The affected individuals are seen 
 to be less lively than usual; they extend the head frequently and 
 
DISEASES OP POULTRY 
 
 Fig. 6. — D, trachea of pheasant opened to show syngames (two-thirds natural size). 
 I, ova in different stages of development, a, segmented vitellus, b, granular vitellus 
 becoming constricted at middle, c, ovum with embryo fully developed, d, ovum with 
 valve at extremity detached and embryo emerging; K, embryos, a, directly after leav- 
 ing egg, b, undergoing the first molt, c, nymph with rudiments of genital organ show- 
 ing at x ; L, diagram illustrating manner of removing syngames with wire, horse- 
 hair or feather. 
 
3 2 DISEASES OF POULTRY 
 
 widely open the beak — that is, they gape. If watched, they are seen 
 to gape every minute or two, and as the disease progresses, this gap- 
 ing is repeated several times a minute. 
 
 The birds soon begin to cough, making a sudden, whistling sound 
 something like a sneeze, whitish mucous may be rejected from the 
 nostrils or mouth, or worms (syngames) may ■ be coughed up. If 
 badly affected the birds become anaemic and weak; the feathers are 
 roughened; the wings droop; the neck is shortened or drawn up, ex- 
 cept when extended for gaping; the bird shakes its head, often con- 
 vulsively, as if trying to get rid of a foreign body in its throat. The 
 affected birds are no longer able to keep up with the flock to which 
 they belong, they lag behind, stop as if exhausted, stand with closed 
 eyes and aUow themselves to be easily caught. At this period they 
 are liable to attacks of suffocation, from which they may die suddenly. 
 Others apparently die from weakness and exhaustion. 
 
 The stronger birds, particularly if only infested with a few worms, 
 and the older 1 and larger birds, are not so severely affected. They 
 gape occasionally, but their general health is not impaired. Their 
 strength is retained, they search for and take the usual quantity of 
 food and they soon regain their former activity. 
 
 The nature of the disease may be readily determined from the 
 symptoms above enumerated. If, however, there is any doubt, the 
 trachea of a bird which has died from the disease should be slit open 
 and examined for the syngamus. In case no birds have died, one of 
 the methods for extracting the worms from the trachea of the living 
 bird should be tried (see treatment). It is important to the poultry- 
 man that the nature of the disease should be detected as soon as pos- 
 sible after it appears upon his premises in order that precautions may 
 be taken to stop the spread of the infection and to eradicate it from 
 the place. 
 
 Treatment. . Separate the sick birds from the well ones as soon as 
 the disease is detected and clean up the coops, pens and houses where 
 they have been. 
 
 Disinfect all these places and also the drinking troughs or cups 
 with a five per cent solution of crude carbolic acid or with boiling 
 water. Burn the bodies of the birds which die. Keep the infected 
 birds in a house which can be easily cleaned and disinfected, and see 
 that this house is kept disinfected with hot water or five per cent car- 
 bolic acid solution. Megnin recommends for disinfecting enclosures 
 and contaminated runs, sprinkling with a solution of one part of 
 salicylic or sulphuric acid in one hundred of water. Provide pure 
 water and uninfected food. 
 
 By careful manipulation the worms may often be removed from 
 the trachea and the chicken radically cured in that way. To accom- 
 plish this either a feather or a long hair from the horse's tail may be 
 used. If a feather is selected it is stripped of the web except near the 
 tip. This may be used dry or it may be moistened with coal oil or oil 
 
DISEASES OF POULTRY 
 
 Fig. 7. — Syngamus trachealis: G, reproductive organs of female (enlarged six 
 diameters); a, uterus, bb, uterine horns, cc, oviducts, dd, ovaries; H, reproductive 
 organs of male, a, spicules, b, spermatic canal, c, vesicula seminalis, d, testes; E, 
 pa.r of syngarr.es, illustrating attachment to the mucuous membrane. 
 
 of turpentine. If a horse-hair is to be used it is folded and the two 
 ends twisted together so as to leave a small loop at the folded extrem- 
 ity. To extract the worms the chicken's mouth is forced open with 
 the fingers of the left hand (Fig. 6L) and, when the glottis opens for 
 breathing, the feather or hair is thrust into the opening and downward 
 
" DISEASES OF POULTRY 
 
 into the trachea. It is then turned or twisted around several times 
 and withdrawn, when one or more worms may be found adhering to 
 it, or in other cases are coughed up, having been loosened by the 
 feather or hair. These worms should all be burned, as they are capable 
 of spreading the infection. Great care should be used in these _ manip- 
 ulations, as the larynx and trachea are very tender and sensitive and 
 are liable to serious injury from a broken or rough feather; or the 
 bird may be suffocated by obstructing the breathing for too long a 
 time. 
 
 Internal treatment is highly recommended by some authorities. 
 Megnin had excellent results in treating affected pheasants with garlic. 
 
 Fig. 8.— Chicken affected with gapes 
 
 He made a mixture consisting of hard-boiled eggs, boiled beef's 
 heart, the crumbs of stale bread and salad. These ingredients were 
 chopped, pounded and thoroughly mixed so as to make a paste. To 
 this paste was added pounded garlic in the proportion of one bulb to 
 ten pheasants each day, the garlic being thoroughly distributed 
 through the paste. This mixture was greatly relished by the birds. 
 Others who tried this remedy found that the birds refused to eat it, 
 but that they would eat garlic in the form of a salad. Megnin also 
 recommends assafcetida, seven and one-half grains daily to a pheasant, 
 used as a powder combined with an equal quantity of yellow pulver- 
 ized gentian and mixed with the paste that was fed to the birds. He 
 asserts that this treatment succeeded completely within a few days. 
 
DISEASES OF POULTRY ■" 
 
 Some have obtained satisfactory results by administering camphor 
 in the form of pills, the dose being one-half to one grain twice a day. 
 Others have succeeded with sulphur, giving one to three grains at a 
 dose. 
 
 Those engaged in raising birds should depend rather on prevention 
 than cure. The value of a three-weeks-old chicken is not sufficient to 
 justify a great expenditure of time in its treatment. The effort should 
 be made to place the young birds on uninfected ground, or the runs 
 should be kept thoroughly disinfected. On the first appearance of 
 the disease remove and isolate the affected birds and take the neces- 
 sary precautions to secure the destruction of all the parasites they 
 contain. By such measures the propagation of the worm will be pre- 
 vented and the extension of the disease will be avoided. 
 
 Syngamus Bronchialis. A worm closely related to the Syngamus 
 trachcalis has been described in Europe as affecting young ducks and 
 gosling. It is found in the finer bronchial tubes preventing the in- 
 gress of air and causing death from asphyxia. It sets up much irrita : 
 tion and even causes croupal pneumonia. The symptoms are similar 
 to those cauced by the Syngamus trachealis, but more violent, and sudden 
 deaths due to obstruction of the air tubes are common. This form has 
 bc;n named the Syngamus bronchialis, and is combated by the preventive 
 measures and internal remedies recommended for the Syngamus trachealis. 
 
 Congestion of the Lungs, Pulmonary Congestion. Congestion of 
 the lungs, or engorgement of the pulmonary blood-vessels is a disease 
 which quite frequently affects birds that are molting, and also young 
 chickens, ducks, goslings, pheasants, and cage birds. The distention 
 of the blood-vessels which are very abundant in the lungs, causes 
 pressure upon the finer bronchi and air cells and may lead to death 
 from asphyxia. Or there may be rupture of the vessels and the escape 
 of blood, which blocks up the bronchi and alveoli and collects in the 
 air sacs. In either case death soon results. 
 
 Causation. This disease is generalh- caused by exposure to cold 
 and the chilling of the surface of the body, which leads to contraction 
 of the external blood vessels and forces an undue amount of blood 
 into the internal organs. It is seen in fowls that are molting and 
 which are exposed to cold draughts or rain while the skin is over-sensi- 
 tive and partially denuded. It also occurs in young birds which, for 
 any reason, are not kept sufficiently warm. It is common among 
 young chickens and turkeys allowed to run out in the rains of early 
 spring, and among incubator chicks that are allowed to get chilled. 
 
 Congestion of the lungs may also occur in full-fed, plethoric 
 birds from over-abundance and too great richness' of the blood. This 
 liquid then becomes thick and circulates with more difficulty than 
 when in a normal condition; the delicate vessels in the lungs become 
 clogged, distended and finally ruptured. This form of the disease is 
 the result of improper feeding and lack of exercise and is seen most 
 frequently in cage birds. 
 
•"> DISEASES OP POULTRY 
 
 Symptoms. The affected bird breathes rapidly and with difficulty. 
 It is indisposed to niOVe, stupid, sleepy, and does not notice what is 
 going on about it. Thick mucus tinged with blood may escape from 
 the mouth. The comb is dark red or bluish from lack of oxygen in 
 the blood. The symptoms appear suddenly and the bird lives but a 
 few minutes or hours. 
 
 Treatment., The treatment of congestion of the lungs in birds 
 must consist entirely of measures for its prevention, since the course 
 of the disease, when it has once developed, is exceedingly rapid and 
 fatal. Young birds and fowls which are molting should be guarded 
 from exposure and cold, particularly when wet. Birds in confinement 
 should be given a varied ration with green food, roots, or fruit and 
 plenty of exercise. When birds are dying from any cause a careful 
 examination of the carcasses should be made. If the lungs are found 
 very dark in 'color and distended with blood, particularly if blood has 
 escaped into the bronchi and air sacs from ruptured vessels, this indi- 
 cates the nature of the disease and should lead to the adoption of 
 proper measures of prevention. Medical treatment of sick birds is 
 impracticable on account of the rapid progress of the disease. 
 
 Pneumonia, Inflammation of the Lungs. One of the most common 
 diseases with our four-footed animals is inflammation of the lungs, 
 technically called pneumonia, but this malady appears to be much less 
 common with birds. Some veterinarians who have given considerable 
 study to this subject state that they have never seen typical pneu- 
 monia in these creatures. There is no doubt, however, that it does oc- 
 cur quite frequently, and that it is essentially the same in symptoms, 
 nature, and effect as the pneumonia of mammals. 
 
 Pnemonia is an alteration of the lungs which is one step beyond 
 congestion. If a bird is affected with congestion of the lungs and does 
 not die or recover within a few hours, the disease may develop into 
 pneumonia. In this disease there is not only distention of the blood- 
 vessels, as with congestion, but there is thrown out from these ves- 
 sels a liquid which fills the air-cells and by coagulating forms a semi- 
 solid, gelatinous substance, that excludes the air and renders the. 
 lungs useless for respiration. The lung is then darker in color than 
 in health, and when pressed upon gives a sensation of firmness and 
 solidity comparable with the liver; therefore, the lung in that condi- 
 tion is said to.be hepatized. 
 
 Causation. Two factors are believed to work together in the pro- 
 duction of pneumonia. There must be the conditions which produce 
 congestion, viz., refrigeration, chilling of the surface of the body, dis- 
 turbance of the general circulation from some cause, inhalation of ir- 
 ritating vapors or plethora; and there must apparently be something 
 else. This additional factor is in many cases, at least with the larger 
 animals and man, a species, of the bacteria. The same probably holds 
 true wtih birds. 
 
DISEASES OP POULTRY 
 
 37 
 
 It appears that the bacteria which change congestion into inflam- 
 mation are germs which under ordinary circumstances are harmless, 
 and which may often be found upon the surface of the mucous mem- 
 brane of healthy animals. Now, if there are simultaneously in the 
 same animal, germs which are sufficiently active, and, also a conges- 
 tion of the lungs, there have been brought together the conditions 
 required to develop pneumonia. 
 
 Symptoms. The symptoms are similar to those seen in pulmonary 
 congestion. The breathing is rapid, difficult and painful. There may 
 be coughing with discharge from the mouth or nostrils of thick, ad- 
 hesive mucus, grayish or yellowish in color or tinged with blood. The 
 bird stands with ruffled plumage, drooping wings, head drawn in, and 
 every appearance of severe illness. There is loss of appetite from 
 the first, with thirst and constipation. 
 
 On examination of the lungs after death one or both of these 
 organs are found dark in color, engorged with blood and solidified. 
 The pneumonia may take either one of two forms. There may be 
 what is known as broncho-pneumonia, in which case the inflammation 
 affects more particularly the bronchi and the lung is not much solidi- 
 fied. The bronchial tubes in this case are more or less filled with thick 
 mucus and exudate. In the other form, called croupous pneumonia, 
 the tissue of the lung is principally affected. It is then that the lung 
 is solidified by the filling up of the air-cells. A piece of lung so 
 affected, if dropped into a bucket of water, sinks to the bottom while 
 healthy lung tissue will float. The bronchial tubes and air-sacs are 
 also in some cases filled with a thick, yellowish fibrinous exudate 
 which blocks up these air-passages and becomes partly solidified. 
 
 Treatment. This is a rapid and fatal disease with birds and one in 
 which treatment is very unsatisfactory. The bird should first of all be 
 taken into a warm room and covered with a piece of blanket, if the 
 weather be at all cold, leaving its head uncovered, so that there will 
 be no obstruction to its supply of fresh air. It should be given linseed 
 tea frequently, but a small quantity at a time, as a drink. This tea is 
 made by pouring a pint of boiling water on an ounce of flaxseed and 
 keeping the mixture hot but not boiling for two hours. The seeds 
 are then removed by straining and the mucilaginous liquid which has 
 valuable demulcent properties may be kept before the affected bird as 
 a simple drink or it may also be used as a vehicle for certain medicines. 
 Sufficient nitrate of potash should be dissolved in the drink so that 
 the bird will take about one grain three times a day. If the patient 
 appears to be failing and becomes very sleepy with a dark bluish color 
 of the comb and gills, mix fifteen drops of tincture of digitalis with 
 one ounce of water and administer ten drops of this mixture every 
 two hours. In dropping such medicines it is best to use a medicine 
 dropper, as drops of more uniform size are obtained. Great care 
 should also be observed in administering the medicine to avoid its 
 
38 
 
 DISEASES OF POULTRY 
 
 getting into the air-passages and causing strangulation. When the 
 bird begins to improve, a grain of quinine or ten drops of cod liver 
 ojl twice a day, will hasten recovery. The food during sickness and 
 recovery should be nutritious and digestible. A small quantity of 
 warm milk, or milk and egg beaten together, or chopped raw beef may 
 be offered from time to time, while the attack lasts and as the appetite 
 returns gradually replace with mash or more solid articles of food. 
 The disease may be prevented by the measures mentioned in the article 
 on congestion of the lungs. 
 
 Mycosis of the Air-Passages, or Aspergillosis. Several species of 
 fungi or molds may develop within the air-passages of animals, and 
 particularly of birds, and cause serious disease. These fungi all belong 
 to the genus Aspergillus, the parasitic species being in the order of 
 their importance as follows : Aspergillus fumigatus, Aspergillus nigrescens, 
 
 Aspergillus glaucus, and As- 
 pergillus candidus. Usually 
 the.e fungi are found in na- 
 ture growing upon dead or- 
 ganic matter ; but they have 
 great vegetative and resisting 
 power and are able to adapt 
 themselves to various condi- 
 tions of existence. Many spe- 
 cies of birds are affected by 
 them, the disease caused by 
 their development having been 
 observed in pigeons, pheasants, 
 fowls, ducks, geese and swans, 
 as well as in various cas;e and 
 wild birds. Pampered and 
 delicate birds are believed to 
 be most frequently attacked. 
 The disease may take on the 
 characters of an epizootic and 
 attack a large number of in- 
 dividuals. 
 
 Symptoms. — In the early 
 stages of the disease no svmp- 
 toms are noticed, and \* is 
 only after it has progressed . 
 considerably that these become 
 apparent. The affected birds 
 do not follow the flock ; they 
 are very weak, scarcely able 
 to stand, and, consequently, re- 
 main by themselves and move 
 
 Fig. 9.— Diagrammatic representation of the air" 
 !MCS showing: their relation toeach otlier, and to 
 the limps. A, trachea; B, interclavicular sac; 
 (", D, E, F,extensions of the interclavicular sac; 
 G, anterior thorocic sac; H, humerus; I, poster- 
 ior thoracic sac; J, entrance of bronchial mem- 
 brane: K. abdominal sac. 
 
DISEASES OF POULTRY 
 
 ,39 
 
 about very little. The}' remain in a recumbent position, resting upon the 
 sternum, are sleepy, and, if forced to run, soon fall from exhaustion. 
 The plumage is dull and rough, the wings are pendant, the eyelids partly 
 closed, the head depressed. The respiration is accelerated and accompanied 
 by a rattling or snoring sound, particularly during the expiration, and 
 becomes difficult and labored, the bird opening its beak from time to time 
 in order to take a long inspiration. The temperature of the body is ele- 
 vated, the thirst increased and the appetite is diminished or disappears. 
 There is more or less catarrh of the trachea and bronchi, with emaciation 
 and diarrhea leading to death from exhaustion in from one to eight weeks. 
 When the disease is limited to the air-sacs of the interior of the body, 
 emaciation may be the only symptom ; but when it extends to the . bones 
 there may be lameness with swollen and painful joints. 
 
 In examining the birds after death, the seat of the disease may be 
 found in the trachea, bronchi, lungs, the various air-sacs, and other 
 internal organs. It is sometimes, though rarely, found in the nostrils 
 
 T\g 10. Asfergillui glatirus, 
 no. mycelium.**, spore bearing 
 stains: re. supports of the spores: 
 ft. chains of spores; gg, bluish 
 preen spores. 
 
 Fig. 11.- -Aspcrg/7/its jumignlus 
 with" conidia bearers; atf.fruii 
 heads in optical cross-section; 
 *, fruit heads seen from above. 
 
 and in the air-sacs of the interior of the bones. Two kinds of lesions 
 are found. There may be tubercles resembling closely those of tuber- 
 culosis. These are whitish or yellowish nodules varying from the size 
 of a pinhead to that of a pea. They may be isolated or joined together 
 in masses of considerable proportions. These tubercles are generally 
 found in the depth of the tissues, and even in the marrow of the bones. 
 On the mucous membrane lining the air-tubes and air-sacs, the second 
 form of disease process is seen. This consists of a membranous forma- 
 tion, an eighth of an inch or more in thickness, which bears upon its 
 surface a growth of the fungus. These membranous patches are at 
 first soft, but become firmer with age, and are yellowish or greenish 
 in color, resembling a fibrino-purulent exudate. They adhere closely 
 to the mucous membrane which is there thickened and inflamed. The 
 air-sacs are sometimes obstructed by these growths which may in time 
 
40 
 
 DISEASES OF POULTRY 
 
 become caseous or even calcareous. These changes may also be seen 
 in the intestines, the mesentery, the liver and in other organs. 
 
 The membrane lining the air-passages may, also, be found ulcer- 
 ated, and the ulcers may be either naked or covered with a growth of 
 the fungus. There is often seen in the mouth of pigeons a whitish 
 nodule, the size of a pea or larger, which is called a canker. This is 
 believed by some authorities to be caused by the aspergillus. 
 
 In the very acute and rapid cases, the lungs may simply show 
 inflammation, or there may be formation of pus or abscesses in the 
 lungs, kidneys, liver and spleen as in pyaemia or septic infection. In 
 some of these cases there may be extensive hemorrhages, either locally 
 or throughout the body, and these may constitute the only apparent 
 alterations. 
 
 A microscopic examination reveals the spores or filaments of the 
 
 fungus in most of the lesions, whether these are acute or chronic. The 
 
 , nature of the disease may consequently be determined by a post-mortem 
 
 examination, but the diagnosis is uncertain and difficult during the life 
 
 of the bird. 
 
 Causation. The various species of Aspergilli which causes this disease • 
 exist abundantly in nature and develop, particularly in some warm 
 summers, upon all kinds of straw and grains. When musty straw or 
 musty grain is thrown to the fowls the exciting cause of the disease 
 is placed before them. As little care is exercised to remove this dust 
 before straw is placed in the scratching-pens, or before grain is fed, 
 vast numbers of the spores of these parasitic fungi are inhaled. This 
 explains why the disease is generally found in the air-tubes, the lungs, 
 and the air-sacs. Although many birds are exposed, but a compara- 
 tively small number are affected. These are probably more or less 
 predisposed. It has been observed, in fact, that the delicate breeds, or 
 the delicate and weak individuals, are most subject to the disease. 
 Some authors are of the opinion that colds, irritation of the mucous 
 membrane, or other forms of disease generally form the starting point j 
 of this mycosis. It is, also, probable that the number of spores taken 
 into the air-tubes or digestive organs has great influence in determin- 
 ing the result. 
 
 Prevention. As this disease is caused by the spores of pathogenic 
 fungi which have developed upon grain or straw, or similar substances, »1 
 and as these spores must be inhaled with the breath or swallowed with 
 the food, it is generally easy to guard against them. To accomplish 
 this, avoid musty straw, or musty or moldy food. If grain or straw 
 is very dusty remove this dust by appropriate means before it is put 
 where fowls have access to it. Keep the houses clean, dry, and well 
 ventilated in order to prevent accumulation of such spores. Destroy 
 by fire or deeply bury the carcasses of birds which die. 
 
 Treatment. Thij disease when once established is usually fatal, 
 notwithstanding medical treatment. Fumigation with tar vapor has 
 
DISEASES OP POULTRY 
 
 been recommended. This is accomplished by shutting the fowls in a 
 tight room, placing a tablespoonful of wood tar on a pint of water and 
 stirring with a red-hot iron. The fowls are forced to breathe this 
 vapor, which should not be so dense as»to cause much irritation of the 
 respiratory apparatus. The experiments of Lucet indicate that Fowler's 
 solution of arsenic and particularly the tincture of iodine injected hypo- 
 dermically have considerable influence in retarding the disease in rab- 
 bits. In the canker of pigeons, if other treatment fails, tincture of 
 iodine may be applied to the affected part with a small brush or swab. 
 In other forms of the disease in birds the internal administration of 
 tincture of iodine or iodide of potassium should be tried. No form of 
 treatment yet suggested, however, is very promising and the effort 
 should be to prevent rather than to cure. 
 
 The Air-Sac Mite. The peculiar arrangement of the respiratory 
 organs in birds has led to the development of a form of parasitism 
 which is not seen in our other domesticated animals. One of the mites 
 has domiciled itself in the air-sacs of the gallinaceous birds, especially 
 in poultry and pheasants, and is found at times in great numbers even 
 in the abdominal sacs and in those which penetrate the bones. This 
 mite, called the Cytodites nudus, is closely related to those mites which 
 live upon the skin and cause mange or scabies. Indeed, when first 
 discovered it was supposed by Gerlach to be one of the mange insects 
 and to cause an internal form of that disease. 
 
 Careful study has shown that while the Cytodites is closely related 
 
 to the mange acari, it differs from 
 them in very important characters. 
 The mouth parts in the mange mites 
 are formed to cut and tear the flesh 
 and enable the mite to burrow into 
 the skin, or, at least, to puncture the 
 skin and obtain blood or serum for 
 its sustenance. In the air-sac mites 
 the mouth parts are grown together 
 and form a tube through which 
 liquids may be sucked, but which is 
 not adapted for tearing or punctur- 
 ing the flesh. It would appear, there- 
 fore, that these mites can only pro- 
 duce a superficial irritation by their 
 presence and movements upon the 
 delicate surface of the mucous mem- 
 branes, or possibly by depositing a 
 virulent saliva such as is supposed to 
 be the cause of a part of the irritation of mange. Nevertheless, Holzendorff 
 states that in addition to the infection of the air-sacs he nas found in the 
 lungs, liver, kidneys and other viscera, a great number of yellow 
 
 ?ig. \1.— Cytoiites nudus. male. 
 
42 
 
 DISEASES OF POULTRY 
 
 military tubercles in which he also recognized this parasite. 
 
 When the air-sac mites exist in very small numbers, no signs of 
 irritation or ill health are seen in the affected birds. When they be- 
 come very numerous, however, they cause considerable irritation of the 
 lining membrane of the air-sacs and they are crowded into the bronchi, 
 where they set up inflammation, which may take the form of bronchitis 
 or broncho-pneumonia. Megnin states that in such cases there may be 
 obstruction of the air-passages causing fits of coughing and even 
 sudden -death from suffocation. Gerlach accused the Cytodites of 
 causing enteritis (inflammation of the intestines), and Zundel thought 
 they caused both enteritis and peritonitis (inflammation of the serous 
 membrane lining the abdominal cavity). They probably cause anaemia", 
 loss of flesh, and general unthriftiness, even if no form of acute disease 
 develops. 
 
 This parasitic affection of 
 the air-sacs is, of course, a 
 contagious disease. The mites 
 can not live for a very long 
 time outside of the bird's 
 body; they are brought upon 
 a farm with affected birds and 
 as opportunity offers they pass 
 from bird to bird until the 
 greater part or the whole of 
 the flock becomes contami- 
 nated. No doubt the mites 
 penetrate the body by crawl- 
 ing into the nostrils and fol- 
 lowing the trachea and bron- 
 chial tubes until they reach 
 the air-sacs. How frequently, 
 or under what circumstances 
 they leave the air-sacs and 
 seek the outside aii is un- 
 known. 
 
 Symptoms. In many cases birds affected with the air-sac mite 
 show no symptoms of disease, and the existence of the parasite is only 
 discovered accidentally when the carcass of a bird which has died 
 from some other cause is being examined. In other cases the fowls 
 are listless, inactive, with pale comb, and loss of flesh. Occasionally 
 one dies without any apparent cause. The acute cases may come on 
 without premonitory symptoms. The affected birds are found quite 
 ill, standing by themselves, with neck retracted, wings drooped, and 
 labored breathing. There may be rattling of mucus in the throat as 
 in bronchitis, ''Or paroxysms of coughing. Death may come suddenly 
 
 FifT. IX— Cytodites IVudus, female. 
 
DISEASES OJ POULTRY 
 
 43 
 
 from obstruction of the air-tubes with plugs of mucus, or in other 
 cases the illness may be prolonged and the birds die of exhaustion. 
 
 The mites are readily discovered on the walls of the air-sacs after 
 the death of the bird. They are about one-fiftieth of an inch in length 
 and, therefore, easily seen with the naked eye. They are often so 
 numerous that the surfaces of the air-sacs appear as though dusted 
 with a whitish or yellowish powder. By careful watching, the points 
 of which this powder is composed are seen to move and may be made 
 out as the individual acari. The mucous surface of the air-sacs may 
 also be covered with yellowish points of exudate, the result of the 
 irritation caused by the parasite, while the bronchi are congested and 
 partly filled with mucus. In extreme cases there may also be 
 pneumonia. 
 
 Treatment. Megnin recommends giving sulphur mixed with the 
 food and states that the small quantity volatilized and eliminated by 
 the lungs is sufficient to kill the parasites. Others advise fumigation 
 with the vapors of burning tar or the steam from boiling tar water. 
 If this mite is discovered in the flock, efforts should be made to 
 entirely eradicate it. No birds from an infected flock should be sold 
 for breeding purposes. Feeding sulphur and fumigations may be tried, 
 but the flock should be carefully watched, and if the parasite persists 
 in spite of this treatment, it would be better to kill off all the birds, 
 disinfect thoroughly and start with new birds from a flock known to 
 be healthy. One of the best plans to secure a flock free from parasites 
 of all kinds is to purchase eggs, hatch them in an incubator, raise the 
 chicks in a clean brooder and put them on ground that has not been 
 used for fowls for several years. There are so many parasites to which 
 birds are subject, that may be avoided in this way, that we would 
 recommend the plan to all who have discovered that their fowls are 
 infested with parasites, or who for some mysterious reason have failed 
 to make poultry thrive and yield satisfactory returns under ordinary 
 conditions. 
 
CHAPTER III 
 
 Diseases of the Organs of Digestion 
 
 General Remarks Concerning the Digestive Organs — Obstruction of the 
 Beak — Inflammation of the Mucous Membrane of the Mouth, Pip, 
 Catarrhal Stomatitis— Thrush, Aphtha— Diphtheria— Psorospermosis- 
 Aspergillosis — Croupous Angina — Obstruction of the Pharynx — Catarrh 
 or Inflammation of the Crop — Paralysis of the Crop, Impacted Crop, 
 Obstructed Crop — Abnormal Appetite, Aberration of the Appetite — 
 Catarrh of the Proventriculus, Inflammation of the Stomach, Gastritis. 
 
 GENERAL REMARKS CONCERNING THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS 
 
 IT IS necessary to know something of the form, structure, situation and 
 use of the different organs which constitute the digestive apparatus in 
 order to fully understand the diseases to which these organs are sub- 
 ject. Birds do not masticate their food as do mammals, but this is 
 swallowed in the condition in which it is found, and, after passing 
 along the upper part of the oesophagus, drops into the crop. The crop, 
 or first stomach, Fig. 14-4, is a dilatation of the oesophagus; or we might 
 call it a pouch attached to the front of this tube before it reaches the 
 second stomach or succentric ventricle. It may be compared with the 
 rumen or paunch of cattle and sheep. The food which is eaten and 
 other substances which are swallowed drop first into the crop where 
 they are macerated and softened in the liquids secreted by this organ. 
 The contents of this crop are under normal conditions soon forced by 
 the contractions of its muscular walls into the lower part of the 
 oesophagus, which carries them on into the second or true stomach, 
 the proventriculus or succentric ventricule, where they are mixed with 
 the gastric juice and rapidly passed onward to the gizzard. 
 
 In the grain-eating birds, the gizzard is a remarkably firm, thick 
 muscular organ which takes the food that has been softened and mixed 
 with digestive liquids, and grinds it by pressing and rubbing it against 
 pebbles that "the bird has swallowed. Even the hardest grains and 
 seeds are reduced in this manner to a paste upon which the digestive 
 liquids can readily exert their dissolving action. This paste is pressed 
 onward into the small intestine where it is mixed with the secretions 
 of the liver, pancreas, and intestines, which complete the solution of 
 the nutritive principles and render them proper for assimilation. 
 
 Under natural conditions birds are compelled to hunt their food, 
 they find and eat but a small quantity at a time, and the crop, while 
 
DISEASES OF POULTRY 
 
 Fig. 14.— DIGESTIVE APPARATUS OF THE CHICKEN. 
 
 In this figure all of the head has been removed except the lower jaw, which has 
 been turned sidewise to show the tongue and the openings to the trachea and 
 oesophagus. The neck with the exception of the oesophagus, the breast bone, the 
 heart and the superficial muscles have also been removed. 
 
 1, tongue; 2, pharynx, showing opening to larynx; 3, upper portion of oesophagus; 
 4, crop; 5, lower portion of oesophagus; 6, succentric ventricle; 7, gizzard; 8, origin 
 of the duodenum; 9, first branch of duodenal flexure; 10, second branch of the same; 
 11, origin of the floating portion of small intestine; 12, small intestine; 13, free ex- 
 tremities of the caeca; 14, insertion of these two organs into the intestinal tube; 15, 
 rectum; 16, cloaca; 17, anus; 18, mesentery; 19, left lobe of the liver; 20, right lobe; 
 21, gall bladder; 2, insertion of the pancreatic and biliary ducts; 23, pancreas; 24, 
 lung; 25, ovary; 26, oviduct. 
 
1° DISEASES- OF, POULTRY 
 
 designed by nature as a reservoir for storing food, is not overloaded 
 by receiving a day's ration in a few minutes. In the domesticated 
 state, these conditions are more or less changed, the birds are fed only 
 once or twice a day and from lack of gravel, indigestion, and insuffi- 
 cient exercise, acquire abnormal appetites and eat feathers, straw, dry 
 leaves and other indigestible substances. Diseases and obstructions of 
 the digestive tract occur from such causes, and while these are more 
 or less preventable, even the most careful manager may occasionally 
 find some of his birds affected. It is, therefore, advisable to study the 
 form and functions of each organ so that the slightest variation from 
 the normal working may be appreciated, and, also, that the proper 
 change in management may suggest itself for the correction of such 
 derangement. 
 
 Obstruction of the Beak. It is seldom that the upper part of the 
 -digestive tract of birds becomes obstructed. Megnin has, however, 
 recorded the case of a bird in which a sunflower seed had become 
 tightly wedged within the space formed by the branches of the lower 
 mandible. This seed compressed and completely paralyzed the tongue, 
 and as the bird was unable to dislodge it, the result was death from 
 inanition. If the cause of the trouble had been recognized before the 
 death of the bird, the offending body could have been easily removed 
 with a toothpick or any pointed object and an immediate cure would 
 have been thus affected. When a bird is seen to jerk his head suddenly 
 as if to rid itself of something which adheres to the beak or head, par- 
 ticularly if there is difficulty of picking up and swallowing food, a 
 careful examination should be made for some obstructing body such 
 as a seed or a piece of bone. By raising the tongue, the angle of the 
 lower mandible may be readily explored. No special directions are 
 needed for the removal of such obstructions further than to use due 
 care and to avoid as far as possible any injury to the sensitive tissues. 
 
 Inflammation of the Mucous Membrane of the Mouth, Pip, 
 Catarrhal Stomatitis. A catarrhal inflammation of the mouth is seen 
 in fowls and may be either an independent disease or a complication of 
 certain inflammatory diseases of the respiratory organs. The term 
 "pip" is commonly used with birds such as "hollow horn" and "mur- 
 rain" are applied to cattle diseases; that is, it is made to cover a large 
 part of the diseases to which birds are subject, and it is sometimes 
 believed to exist by over-anxious poultry keepers when a careful exam- 
 ination shows that the birds are perfectly healthy. 
 
 Symptoms. Inflammation of the mouth is a rare rather than a 
 common disease. The symptoms consist of the drying of the mem- 
 brane of the mouth and particularly of that covering the tongue. A 
 hard opaque deposit accumulates along the edges and upon the under 
 surface of the tongue, and may firmly attach this organ to the adjacent 
 parts. The dried epidermis may partly separate from the sensitive 
 
DISEASES OP POULTRY 
 
 47 
 
 tissues, and form a hard shell which remains attached to the free 
 extremity of the tongue, causing more or less painful constriction and 
 interfering with the movements of this important organ. 
 
 Cause. This disease arises from any form of local irritation or 
 injury which is sufficiently serious or long continued to set up inflam- 
 matory action. In the majority of cases it is probably causer by micro- 
 organisms of feeble virulence which are able to make some headway 
 when the digestive organs are deranged and the circulation of the 
 parts somwhat disturbed. In most other cases, there is nothing more 
 than a drying or desiccation of the mucous membrane caused by 
 breathing through the mouth on account of obstruction of the air 
 passages, or disease of the lungs affecting the respiration. 
 
 Treatment. The common treatment which consists of tearing the 
 dried epithelium off the tongue, before it has entirely separated by 
 the natural process, is cruel and injurious, often leading to the death" 
 of the bird. In case of simple drying of the mouth, it is sufficient io 
 moisten the tongue with a few drops of a mixture of equal parts of 
 glycerine and water. In case there is redness of the membrane, or if 
 the epithelium is beginning to separate, or if a deposit has formed, 
 add twenty grains of chlorate of potash to each ounce of this mixture. 
 An excellent remedy for such cases is made by dissolving fifteen grains 
 of boric acid in an ounce of water. Both of these solutions are harm- 
 less and may be freely and frequently applied. When the epithelium 
 is separating, it should be kept moistened with the glycerine mixture 
 and its detachment may be somewhat facilitated by loosening it with 
 a pin or the point of a penknife, but great care should be exercised, 
 the sensitive tissues should not be touched and no blood should be 
 drawn. If properly treated the disease remains localized and is of 
 slight importance. The exaggerated idea prevalent as to the dangerous 
 character of "pip," probably arises from its being associated with 
 serious diseases of the respiratory organs and from the fatal results 
 which follow the forcible tearing away of the dried epithelium, leaving 
 a bleeding and ulcerating surface. Should the drying and irritation 
 of the membrane be the result of breathing through the mouth on 
 account of disease of the air passages or lungs, the latter must, of 
 course, be treated to effect a permanent cure. 
 
 Trush, Aphthae. In human medicine the terms thrush and aphthae 
 are applied to an affection of the mucous membrane of the mouth, seen 
 particularly in children, and which is characterized by the production of a 
 white cheesy substance, composed of the filaments and spores of a vegetable 
 parasite, called the Oidium albicans (or Sacoharomyccs albicans) and of 
 the cells of the epithelium which have undergone exten'ive proliferation. 
 Veterinarians have applied the name to several distinct diseases of the 
 mouth, seen in various mammals and birds, which are characterized by a 
 white or yellowish deposit on various parts of the mucous membrane lining 
 
48 
 
 DISEASES OF POULTRY 
 
 that cavity. It is supposed that the term thrush has been applied to 
 diphtheria and chicken pox in birds and possibly to other diseases. True 
 thrush, although a rare disease, has been noted in at least two instances 
 where a reliable diagnosis appears to have been made. 
 
 One of the two cases recorded in birds was described by Eberth as 
 follows : At the autopsy of a very emaciated fowl, which had died after 
 violent convulsions, there was found on the mucous membrane of the 
 oesophagus, from the middle of that tube to the crop, several white but 
 not extensive deposits firmly adhering to the surface. The internal surface 
 of the crop was covered by a white layer, similar to the deposit of thrush. 
 Below the crop, the oesophagus also had some more patches of a brownish- 
 yellow color. The microscopic examination of this layer proved it to be 
 
 Fio. IS.— Microscopic elements of thrush; a, a, and c, c, epithelial cells; 
 p t p, isolated spores of the Saccharomyces albicans; d y d, filaments of the 
 mycelium; e,#, /, k, terminal portions of the mycelium; A, spores; /', ovoid 
 frminal cell. Magnified 360 diameters. 
 
 composed of the spores and filaments of the Saccharomyces albicans. The 
 second case, recorded by Martin, was observed in a young turkey. At the 
 autopsy, there was found at the posterior part of the oesophagus and 
 reaching as far as the proventriculus, a layer of thrush having the same 
 appearances to the naked eye and under the microscope as were described 
 by Eberth. 
 
 Although, in the two recorded cases, ' the disease existed in the lower 
 part of the oesophagus, it is very probable that it also occurs in the mouth 
 of birds, a location favorable- for its development with most species of 
 
DISEASES OP POULTRY 49 
 
 animals. The disease does not appear to be very common, although it 
 might be quite frequent and still not be recognized, as but compara- 
 tively few investigators have given systematic attention to poultry 
 diseases. Thrush can be distinguished from other diseases causing a 
 similar deposit only by a microscopic examination. The mycelium 
 and spores of the fungus are found in abundance between the epithelium 
 and the mucous surface. 
 
 There are no characteristic symptoms in addition to the whitish patches 
 upon the affected membrane. The patients are depressed, the mouth exhales 
 an acid odor, the head may be swollen, the appetite is preserved, but there 
 is rapid loss of weight and strength. Death is preceded by convulsions. 
 
 The canker of pigeons is believed by some investigators to be caused 
 by this fungus. 
 
 Treatment. The system of the bird should be strengthened by good 
 food and tonics. The part affected should be treated with antiseptics and 
 particularly with a ten per cent solution of borate of soda or with boric 
 acid solution fifteen grains to the ounce of water. These solutions should 
 be applied quite frequently in case the affected part is in the mouth, where 
 it can be reached. When the disease is localized in the lower part of the 
 cesophagus it can not be diagnosed during the life of the bird and hence 
 can not be treated. 
 
 Diphtheria. Whitish, grayish, or yellowish patches of false mem- 
 brane are frequently seen upon the mucous membrane of the mouth with 
 various species of birds. This is generally due to diphtheria, a serious, 
 contagious disease described in the chapter on generalized infectious dis- 
 eases, to which the reader is referred. 
 
 Psorospermosis. Diphtheritic processes, pustules and ulcers of the 
 mouth in poultry and pigeons have been attributed by numerous authors 
 to psorosperms, or parasitic protozoa. While such organisms have un- 
 doubtedly been discovered in connection with these lesions it is somewhat 
 doubtful if their presence is more than accidental. The sore head, chicken 
 pox, or pigeon pox, which invades the mouth, in certain cases, was long 
 considered to be a form of psorospermosis. The most recent investigations, 
 however, attribute this disease to a fungus of the group of blastomycetes. 
 It is, also, stated that the tongues of poultry and pigeons may be invaded 
 by psorosperms. These observations must be confirmed by use of the most 
 recent methods of research before they can be accepted and before the 
 disease, if any, which they cause can be described. The article on Chicken 
 Pox or Sore Head in the chapter on Diseases of the Skin may be con- 
 sulted in this connection. 
 
 Aspergillosis. It has been shown by Dieulafoy, Chantemesse and 
 Widal that young pigeons are frequently affected with a disease which 
 appears in the form of a white nodule in the floor of the mouth. This is 
 apparently caseous and in size varies from that of a pea to that of a small 
 nut. It may be accompanied by miliary tubercles in the lungs which are 
 either isolated or agglomerated in caseous masses. Similar tumors may 
 
50 
 
 DISEASES OV POULTRY 
 
 be found in the oesophagus, intestine, liver and kidneys. These nodules 
 which closely resemble those of tuberculosis do not contain the bacilli of 
 tuberculosis but there is found in them the fungus known as the Aspergillus 
 fumigatus. This fungus also, affects the mouth and air passages of poultry, 
 and has been described in the chapter on Disease of the Organs of 
 Respiration. 
 
 According to Dieulafoy, Chantemesse and Widal the "crammers of 
 pigeons" are affected with a chronic disease of the lungs probably caused 
 by this fungus and due to contagion. In certain establishments in Paris, 
 these men feed daily several thousands of pigeons, filling their mouths with 
 a mixture of water and grains, then applying their own lips to the open 
 bill of the birds in order to blow down a portion of this mixture. It is 
 probable that they in this way become infected with the spores of the 
 aspergillus from diseased pigeons. Culture and inoculation experiments 
 made with the expectoration of the affected "crammers" confirm this 
 explanation. 
 
 Treatment. The appearance of this disease among poultry or pigeons 
 should be at once accepted as a signal for thoroughly cleaning and disin- 
 fecting the houces and appurtenances liable to be infected. The diseased 
 birds should also be isolated and treated or killed. Medical treatment to 
 the nodules in the mouth has not been reported upon sufficiently to allow 
 of an opinion being formed as to its efficacy. The remedies to be tried are 
 boric acid solution fifteen grains to one ounce of water ; sulphate of copper 
 ten to fifteen grains to the ounce ; carbolic acid in two per cent solution ; 
 flowers of sulphur to be applied in powder. 
 
 Croupous Angina. A form of croupous angina has been described 
 by Rivolta and Delprato as affecting pullets and young pigeons, and which 
 they believe to be caused by flagellate infusoria. They have named this 
 organism the Monocercomonas galling. This germ is a round or discoid 
 body of a pale tint, and from 14 to 25 micromillimeters (1-2000 to 1-1000 
 of an inch) in length by 5 to 7 micromillimeters (1-5000 to 1-3500 of an 
 inch) in breadth. It has flagella at its extremities which enable it to move 
 in any direction. 
 
 The symptoms are whitish points, spots or elevations upon the mucous 
 membrane of the pharynx, oesophagus, crop, and more rarely upon the 
 palate, ba~e of the tongue and lingual canal. A microscopic examination 
 of the affected spot shows it to be made up of epithelial cells, leucocytes, 
 red blood g'obules, and granular matter, among which thousands of the 
 infusoria are moving. Beneath the spot or patch, the mucous membrane 
 is congested or inflamed. 
 
 The disease may cause death from loss of appetite and weakness. It 
 r. distinguished from diphtheria by the fact that the exudate is onlv slightly 
 adherent to the mucous membrane and is easily detached from it Some 
 authors doubt if the infusoria cause the disease and are inclined to con- 
 sider it a form of diphtheria. The treatment should be the same as recom- 
 mended for diphtheria. 
 
DISEASES OF POULTRY 
 
 51 
 
 Obstruction of the Pharynx. Occasionally- a bird attempts to swal- 
 low a particle of food, or a piece of green bone, so large or irregular 
 in conformation that it becomes lodged in the pharynx. The condition may 
 be recognized by the efforts of the bird to swallow the object or to rid 
 itself of it; and by passing the fingers over the throat a hard swelling 
 can be made out. Prompt relief should be afforded in such cases or death 
 may result from suffocation. The treatment consists in the removal of the 
 obstructing substance. This can generally be accomplished by carefully 
 pressing on the sides of the throat in such a manner as to force the body 
 into the mouth. If it is dffiicult to move it in this way, a teaspoonful of 
 olive oil poured into the back part of the mouth may assist in dislodging it. 
 A small pair of forceps or any small blunt-pointed instrument may in 
 certain cases be serviceable. Careful manipulation with the fingers may 
 usually be relied upon, however, to accomplish the removal of the 
 obstruction. 
 
 Catarrh or Inflammation of the Crop. The mucous membrane lin- 
 ing the interior of the crop may be the seat of more or less irritation or 
 even of inflammation. As a result of this process the functions of the 
 organ are disturbed or arrested and serious conditions develop. The disease 
 does not appear to be very common except as a complication of other 
 disorders. 
 
 Causation. Catarrh of the crop may be caused by irregular feeding 
 and by too much food being taken at one time. When the crop is over- 
 distended the muscular coat is partially paralyzed, the secretion of the 
 glands is interfered with, there is congestion of the internal coat, and 
 fermentation or decomposition of the contents. If fowls eat feathers-"~oV 
 other indigestible substances, these may irritate the mucous coat of the crop 
 and produce catarrh. Partially decomposed meat, of putrid food of any 
 kind, is also irritating and liable to produce the same result. The same 
 disease occurs when birds eat substances containing phosphorus or arsenic, 
 either by gaining access to rat poison, or when they are intentionally 
 poisoned. Catarrh may, also, result from the presence" of animal parasites 
 (worms) such as the Dispharagus nasutus and uncinatus and the Trich- 
 osoma contortum. It is also a complication of thrush, diphtheria and 
 cholera. With pigeons which have lost their young, it results from engorge- 
 ment of the follicles that secrete the milky liquid with which the young 
 pigeons are fed. 
 
 Symptoms. The most prominent symptom is distention of the crop, 
 and on examination the swelling is found to be soft and due to accumulated 
 liquid or gas, mixed with more or less food. The birds are dull, indis- 
 posed to move, and there is belching of gas, loss of appetite and weakness. 
 Sometimes there is nausea and the affected bird attempts to vomit. Pres- 
 sure upon the crop causes the expulsion through the mouth of liquid and 
 gas having an offensive odor due to fermentation. 
 
 Treatment. A clean, dry pen should be provided for the affected bird 
 
52 DISEASES OP POULTRY 
 
 or birds where proper attention can be given to the treatment and where 
 the food can be regulated. The first step in treatment is to empty the 
 crop of its irritating and decomposing contents by careful pressure and 
 manipulation while the bird is held with its head downward. When the 
 crop appears to be entirely freed of . its contents,' give two grains of sub- 
 nitrate of bismuth and one-half grain of bicarbonate of soda in a teaspoon- 
 ful of water. This will relieve the irritation and correct the acidity. Some 
 authors recommend salicylic acid to be given immediately after the crop 
 is emptied. It may be conveniently administered by dissolving one grain in 
 an ounce of water and giving two or three teaspoonsful as a dose.* The 
 bird should be kept without food for eighteen or twenty hours, and then 
 fed sparingly upon soft, easily digested material.' If one-half grain of 
 quinine is given morning and night for two or three days the recovery 
 is hastened. If treatment is commenced in time most of the birds will 
 recover'. 
 
 Paralysis of the Crop, Impacted Crop, Obstructed Crop. The crop 
 may be overloaded with dry grain, and its thin muscular walls distended, 
 exhausted and paralyzed so that the organ can not be emptied ; or, the 
 opening into the lower portion of the oesophagus may be clogged with dry 
 leaves, feathers, straw, and- other indigestible substances swallowed by the 
 bird; or, finally, the walls of the crop may be paralyzed in some diseases, 
 as, for instance, in cholera and diphtheria, and, as the bird continues to 
 eat, this receptacle becomes over-distended and packed solidly with food. 
 In these different cases the symptoms are almost identical and the treatment 
 must be conducted on the same principles. It is convenient, therefore, to 
 group these different conditions together and consider them for practical 
 purposes as constituting one disease. 
 
 Causation. Improper feeding is to a great extent responsible for 
 impaction of the crop. Birds that are half starved or that have had no 
 grain for a long time are liable to eat too much if they at once have access 
 to a large quantity. Again, birds which have contracted catarrh of the 
 crop from improper treatment frequently have depraved appetites and may 
 fill the crop to repletion with food and all sorts of indigestible substances. 
 It appears, therefore, that, with the exception o'f those cases of paralysis 
 due to the poison developed in the course of the contagious diseases, and 
 of those cases of obstruction resulting from the accidental swallowing of 
 pins, nails, large pieces of dry bones, pieces of thread or cord and similar 
 substances, this disease is caused by irregular or improper diet and a 
 failure to maintain those hygienic conditions necessary to good health. 
 An insufficient supply of drinking water is, also, regarded as a cause. 
 
 Symptoms. The affected bird has difficulty in swallowing or entirely 
 loses its appetite. The crop is greatly distended, the swelling sometimes 
 being of remarkable size. It is hard and more or less firm and unyielding 
 on pressure. Sometimes a fermenting or decompo;;ing liquid escapes from 
 the mouth and nostrils. The bird is slow in its movements, dull, stupid, 
 
UXS£AS1SS OF POULTRY 
 
 53 
 
 and sleepy. The comb is pale, the beak is kept open on account of the 
 pressure on the trachea, and the feathers appear rough. In some instances 
 sharp-pointed nails or other pointed objects are found to have penetrated 
 the crop and skin and remain projecting from the puncture. 
 
 The pressure of the distended crop upon the wind-pipe and blood- 
 vessels may cause asphyxia, the crop may become affected with gangrene, 
 or it may even be ruptured. As much as three-fourths of a pound of 
 moist or even sprouted grain has been removed from the crop in these 
 severe cases. 
 
 Treatment. The treatment of affected birds should be prompt and 
 energetic to avoid the fatal complications which have been mentioned. 
 Pour a small quantity of sweet oil into the mouth and cause the bird to 
 swallow it. Then manipulate that portion of the crop nearest the throat by 
 careful pressure and squeezing between the thumb and finger in such a 
 manner as to break up the contents of the crop and force it towards the 
 mouth in small portions. Suspend the bird head downwards from time to 
 time and press the loosened particles of food towards the head so that they 
 will escape from the mouth. With care and patience the crop may be 
 entirely emptied in this way, if oil is administered as often as is required 
 to soften the contents. After this is accomplished give two grains of bak- 
 ing soda in water, keep without food for a day, and then feed sparingly 
 on soft diet until recovery is complete. 
 
 In case the crop con+ains hard-pointed objects which can not safely be 
 manipulated in the manner just described, or if such attempts at removing 
 the impacted matter are for any reason unsuccessful, the crop must be cut 
 into with a knife and the contents removed through the artificial opening. 
 In order to perform this operation properly, the feathers should be clipped 
 off with a pair of scissors over the most prominent part of the crop so that 
 they will not obstruct the cutting or get in the operator's way when he is 
 removing the contents of the crop. Now take a sharp, clean knife and make 
 an incision through the skin and the wall of the crop until the food in this 
 organ is reached. This opening should not be much over an inch in length, 
 and should be rather high on the crop so that the food will not have the 
 same tendency to press it open when healing as it would at the most de- 
 pendent part. The contents of the crop should be carefully removed with 
 the finger, or with the handle of a spoon or some other convenient object. 
 The wound may now be washed with a solution of carbolic acid, five drops 
 to one ounce of water, and closed with stitches. White silk is the best mate- 
 rial to use for this purpose. Some stitch the walls of the crop first, allow- 
 ing the ends of the silk to hang outside, so that after five or six days the 
 thread may be cut and the stitches pulled out. The skin is drawn together 
 in the same way. Other operators prefer to stitch through the skin and 
 the walls of the crop at the same time, drawine them carefully and neatly 
 together. In five or six days if the union of the parts has taken place, cut 
 the stitches and carefully draw them out so that they will not interfere 
 with nerfect healing. After the operation has been performed, give no 
 
54 
 
 DISEASES OF POULTRY 
 
 food and only a small quantity of water, to which a grain or two of salicylic 
 acid has been added, during the first twenty-four hours. Then feed with 
 milk for two or three days, gradually changing to mush or more solid food, 
 and finally return to the ordinary diet when the wound heals. 
 
 With fowls,- this operation is not serious, if performed in time, the 
 wound readily heals and the birds are soon well. With pigeons, it is usually 
 fatal on account of the sensitive and vascular condition of the mucous menr 
 brane of the affected part. 
 
 Abnormal Appetite, Aberration of the Appetite. Depraved and ab- 
 normal appetite is generally the result of some disease of the digestive 
 organs, although, frequently, it may be an acquired habit. It often accom- 
 panies and is a symptom of catarrh of the crop, parasites of the oesophagus 
 and crop, catarrh of the proventriculus, and partial obstruction of the giz- •• 
 zard from lack of grit. It is easily understood why these troubles should 
 affect the appetite. The sensations of appetite and hunger are produced 
 apparently by physiological variations of the circulation in the stomach, act- 
 ing upon the nerves of this organ. Variations of the circulation occur from 
 the diseases mentioned to a much greater degree than under physiological 
 conditions, and, hence, the sensations produced are more acute and more 
 urgent. They lead the birds to swallow the most convenient substances 
 without much regard to their nutritive qualities or whether they can be 
 digested. Among the numerous substances which are swallowed under such 
 conditions, are dry grass, leaves, particles of dry bone, pieces of cloth, nails, 
 and feathers. Birds with such depraved appetites often pull the feathers out 
 of other members of the flock, in order to satisfy their abnormal craving. 
 In this way they acquire the habit of feather eating. Very often the feather- 
 eating habit is acquired by imitation, and thus it may be introduced into the 
 flock by a new bird which had contracted.it elsewhere; or, it is spread 
 through the flock from a bird which was led to it by indigestion, or other 
 disease . of , the stomach. Lack of exercise may affect the digestion suf- 
 ficiently to lead to feather eating. 
 
 Treatment. Give the birds a good run in a grass-covered yard. Feed 
 easily digested and cooling food, including green vegetables. Onions are 
 said to be particularly efficacious. If the yard is small, prepare a scratching 
 shed, covering the floor deeply with straw, and scatter grain in the straw 
 for the morning meal so that the fowls will be compelled to scratch and 
 work to find it. Add bicarbonate of soda to the drinking water in the pro- 
 portion of about twenty grains to the quart and put a small quantity of 
 salt in the -food. Salting of food should, however, he light, as large quan* 
 tities of salt are injurious and may be fatal to poultry. 
 
 Catarrh of the Proventriculus, Inflammation of the Stomach, Gas- 
 tritis. The true stomach or proventriculus of the fowl is a compara- 
 tively small organ. It has the appearance of a dilatation of the oesophagus ^i 
 below the crop and just in front of the gizzard. The capacity of the pro-'* 
 ventriculus is slight, and with those birds which live upon vegetable sub- 
 
DISEASES OF POULTRY 
 
 Gannet. 
 
 stances the food is fed to it gradually and almost constantly from the crop. 
 Bi'Fjis which eat insectJ, fruits, or flesh exclusively have either no crop 
 or only a simple dilatation of the oesophagus, as such food is easily digested. 
 In ' the walls of the proventriculus 
 are the gastric glands which secret the 
 gastric juice required for the diges- 
 tion of the albuminoid constituents of 
 the food. The different forms as- 
 sumed by the gastric glands in various 
 species of birds are illustrated in Fig. 
 16. The simplicity or complication 
 of these glands indicates to a certain 
 extent the kind of food which is 
 natural to the species. The gastric 
 juice may digest flesh, fish, and ground 
 feed while still in the proventriculus, 
 but it can not act upon grains and 
 seeds until these have been crushed 
 in the gizzard. Catarrh or inflamma- 
 tion of the mucous membrane of the 
 stomach ii a not uncommon disease, 
 and one which seriously interferes with 
 the vigor and productiveness of the 
 flock and may cause considerable 
 losses, as it often ends fatally. 
 
 Causation. Gastrities may be caused 
 by anything which interferes with 
 the proper digestion of the food. 
 A lack of grit may prevent the giz- 
 zard from triturating the food with 
 sufficient rapidity, the passage is, 
 therefore, blocked, the aliments are 
 held back in the stomach, the latter is 
 unduly distended, and the contents, 
 being retained too long, cause irrita- 
 tion. The ingestion of too large a quantity of food may act in the same 
 way. It is said that a long-continued ration of stimulating food, too much 
 condiments or condition powder, and lack of exercise are all exciting causes; 
 as are, also, impure drinking water, mouldy food, and putrefying flesh. In 
 certain cases this disease is produced by irritating poisons, such as rat 
 poison, phosphorus from matchea, and similar substances obtained acci- 
 dentally or given maliciously. Occasionally it is found to be due to pins, 
 nails, pieces of bone or other sharp objects which have become lodged and 
 may have partly or completed penetrated the walls of the organ. It may 
 be observed as a complication of various contagious diseases, such as fowl 
 cholera and diphtheria. 
 
 Turkey. 
 
 Rhea. 
 
 Ostrich, 
 
 Fig. 16.— Gastric glands of birds. 
 
56 
 
 DISEASES OF POULTRY 
 
 Symptoms. With inflammation of the stomach there is loss of appetite 
 and marked thirst. The birds are dull and have some fever, with accele- 
 rated breathing. The plumage is erect, the wings drooping, and there is 
 usually constipation. In serious cases there is great prostration and indis- 
 position to move, loss of flesh is rapid, and the strength is soon exhausted. 
 
 Treatment. If the disease is identified in its early stages, seek for its 
 cause, and endeavor to overcome it by removing the cause. Change the 
 ration and give more easily digested food, with some meat. Feed regularly, 
 often, and a small quantity at a time. Give some cooked food, with barley 
 water or milk for drink, or put twenty grains of bicarbonate of soda to a 
 quart of drinking water. In severe cases, give two grains sub nitrate of 
 bismuth three times a day in a teaspoonful of water. Counteract constipa- 
 tion with Epsom salts (twenty grains) or castor oil (one teasponful) 
 once a day as long as may be necessary. Let the fowls run on young grass 
 with plenty of range. In case the disease is due to poisoning or to sharp 
 objects imbedded in the stomach, it generally ends fatally before its nature 
 is discovered. 
 
CHAPTER IV 
 
 Diseases of the Organs of Digestion (continued) 
 
 G 'astro-Intestinal Catarrh, Simple Diarrhea, Gastro-Enteritis, Enteritis- 
 Constipation, Intestinal Obstruction — Toxic Gastro-Enteritis — Bacterial 
 Enteritis — Asthenia, Going Light — Psorospermic-Enteritis — Infectious 
 Entero-Hepatitis of Turkeys, Black Head — Parasitic Worms Which 
 Infest the Digestive Apparatus — The Nodular Tzeniasis of Fowls. 
 
 GASTROINTESTINAL CATARRH, SIMPLE DIARRHEA, 
 GASTRO-ENTERITIS, ENTERITIS 
 
 THE conditions known' as gastr'o-intestinal catarrh and gastro-euteritis 
 may be regarded as different degrees of the same process, or as the 
 same disease but much more intense in one case than the other. The stom- 
 ach and intestine are both affected. With" enteritis the inflammatory process 
 is confined to the intestine. During the life of the bird it is somewhat diffi- 
 cult to make a distinction between these three conditions and it is, there- 
 fore, more convenient from a practical point of view to group them to- 
 gether. By postmortem examination; it is seen that the catarrhal process 
 produces comparatively slight changes in the v/alls'bf digestive 'organs and 
 that these are superficial and near the epithelial surface, while in gas- 
 tritis and enteritis there is more redness and thickening, and the inflamma- 
 tion extends not only to the deeper layers of the mucous membrane but 
 to the other casts of the stomach and intestine. 
 
 Causation. The cause of simple inflammation of the digestive tract 
 is to be sought either in the quantity of the food, the quality of the food 
 or of the drinking water, or the atmospheric conditions to which the bird 
 has been exposed. This form of inflammation should not be confounded 
 with that which is caused by irritating poisons, or by the various kinds of 
 parasites which are liable to develop in the digestive tube. 
 
 Inflammation of the stomach and intestines may result from overload- 
 ing the stomach ; from too stimulating rations or from too much pepper, 
 condiments or condition powders; from eating tainted, moldy or putrefy- 
 ing food; from drinking water which has been contaminated with filth and 
 which has stood in a warm place or in the sunshine until it has become 
 putrid; from exposure to draughts, cold rains or damp coops, particularly 
 durino- the molting-, season. It most frequently affects young birds and the 
 improved breeds. 
 
 Symptoms. There is loss of appetite, roughness of the plumage, depres- 
 
 57 
 
58 DISEASES OP POULTRY 
 
 sion and indisposition to move. The crop is generally distended, its walls 
 are partially paralyzed and it empties slowly ; in some cases it may contain 
 no food. There is frequent expulsion of soft, whitish, yellowish or green- 
 ish excrement, which is irritating to the cloaca and to the neighboring parts. 
 The droppings gradually become more liquid until a severe diarrhea sets 
 in. The expulsion of the excrement may be accompanied by a spasmodic and 
 painful contraction of the bowels which causes the bird to strain or to 
 stop suddenly when walking. The mucous membrane of the cloaca becomes 
 inflamed, and the feathers surrounding it are stuck or glued together. 
 There is increased thirst, elevation of temperature, hemorrhages from the 
 intestines may occur, and the progressive weakness and exhaustion soon 
 end in death. In the mild cases of gastro-intestinal catarrh there may be 
 no symptoms other than those of diarrhea, but in the more severe" cases 
 of this .disease and in gastro-enteritis and enteritis the greater part or all 
 of the symptoms mentioned above are observed. 
 
 Treatment. In the treatment of this class of disease it is especially 
 important that the cause should be sought and removed. See that the 
 birds are comfortable and not exposed to draughts, cold, or dampness. 
 Give pure drinking water and regulate the food. Allow small quantities 
 of mash or cooked food, with some chopped beef. Put a handful of oat- 
 meal in the drinking water or give milk for drink. Give a tablespoonf ul 
 of olive oil as a laxative to carry off any irritating matters that may be 
 in the intestine, then follow with y 2 to 1 grain of bicarbonate of soda and 
 2 grains of subnitrate of bismuth in a little water three times a day. In 
 cases where the diarrhea becomes serious, with symptoms of pain, fever, 
 or bloody discharges, omit the bicarbonate of soda and give y% grain 
 powdered opium and 2 grains subnitrate of bismuth every four hours. 
 If the diarrhea persists after the fever has disappeared and the appetite 
 is returning, it may be checked with laudanum, 5 to 10 drops; or give 
 10 drops of a mixture of equal parts of laudanum and tincture of 
 catechu; or in mild cases add one to two drams of sulphate of iron to 
 the pint of drinking water. 
 
 Constipation, Intestinal Obstruction. Constipation is due to an ab- 
 normal dryness and hardness of the contents of the intestines, which leads 
 to the accumulation of the contained substances, and the consequent disten- 
 tipn and obstruction of the intestinal passage. It is sometimes caused by 
 dry, astringent food ; in other cases it results from some irritation of the 
 mucous membranes ; it may be due to the unnatural dryness of the intes- 
 tine, which often occurs after attacks of diarrhea. The intestine may also 
 be obstructed by masses of gravel and by quantities of parasitic worms. 
 These obstructions may be found, in. any part of the intestinal tract. Fre- 
 quently, obstruction occurs at t the lpwer. end of the intestine near the 
 external opening. This is caused either by irritation of the cloaca or by 
 the drying of excrement upon the feathers, about the anus, and its con- 
 tinued collection until the expulsion of the intestinal contents can no longer 
 be accomplished. In all of these cases there necessarily follows a great 
 
DISEASES OF POULTRY a » 
 
 accumulation of matter in the intestine above the obstructed point, the 
 moisture is absorbed from ' this, it becomes dry and hard, irritation and 
 inflammation are produced sooner or later and the life of the bird is seri- 
 ously threatened. 
 
 Symptoms. Birds which are affected with serious constipation or intes- 
 tinal obstruction become dull, lose their appetite, stand with arched back, 
 roughened plumage, walk with more or less difficulty, are at times uneasy 
 and make frequent attempts to expel the excrement. By careful examina- 
 tion, the hard impacted intestine may often be felt through the abdominal 
 walls or the obstruction of -the cloaca may be discovered. Frequently, the 
 dried mass of excrement may be seen adhering to the feathers and blocking 
 the external opening of the bowels. 
 
 Treatment. When the obstruction has commenced and is maintained 
 by accumulations of the excrement upon the feathers) the first step is to 
 get rid of this obstructing mass. It should be soaked in warm water until 
 softened, and then by clipping some of the feathers about the vent it is 
 easily removed. If the cloaca is filled with a hardened mass, this too 
 should be softened with warm water or with olive oil, and carefully ma- 
 nipulated until it can be pressed out or otherwise removed without injury 
 to the bird. Oil may be inserted around such an obstruction with a small 
 syringe, or, in the absence of a syringe, an oil can. such as is used for oil- 
 ing machinery, answers the purpose very well. After the oil has been 
 applied freely, it may be necessary to wait an hour or two for it to pene- 
 trate and soften the obstruction before much progress can be made towards 
 its removal by manipulation. The handle of a small spoon or a similar 
 blunt instrument is often of assistance in clearing out the contents of the 
 cloaca. 
 
 When there is serious constipation or when obstruction has taken place 
 higher up in the intestine where it can not be reached by external appli- 
 cations, laxative or purgative medicines are necessary. The most suc- 
 cessful of these are Epsom salts twenty to thirty grains dissolved in a 
 tablespoonful of water; castor oil, one to two teaspoonfuls ; or calomel 
 one to two grains made into pills with butter or lard. The constipation 
 should also be corrected as far as possible by regu'ating the rations of the 
 birds. Give soft, watery mashes, green feed and bran until the bowels 
 appear to be once more in a normal condition. The skillful feeder will 
 generally prevent both diarrhea and constipation by careful attention to 
 the diet. 
 
 Toxic Gastro-Enteritis. Acute inflammation of the intestinal tract 
 is frequently seen in poultry as a result of taking irritant poisons into the 
 stomach. The symptoms are inflammation of the mouth, diarrhea, trem- 
 bling convulsions, prostration and drowsiness. The affected bird seeks a 
 dark and quiet place and is found with roughened plumage, the head drawn 
 down to the body, and is usually in a sleeping or comatose condition. Un- 
 fortunately, the poisoning is not usually discovered until t o tlate for suc- 
 cessful treatment. 
 
° u DISEASES OF POULTRY 
 
 The general treatment is the same as for simple gastro-enteritis, and 
 with some poisons antidotes may be administered, though in most cases 
 treatment is without avail. The most common poisons to which poultry 
 gain access are the following : 
 
 Chloride of sodium or common salt, concentrated lye, and nitrate of 
 soda. Common salt is obtained generally from brine when pork, beef or 
 fish barrels are emptied, or from eating salt meat. Concentrated lye is 
 often carelessly left about the premises where birds can reach it. Nitrate 
 of soda being frequently used as a fertilizer is one of the most accessible 
 poisons. Treatment should consist of abundant mucilaginous drinks, such 
 as infusion of flaxseed, together with stimulants, strong coffee and brandy- 
 being particularly useful. 
 
 Arsenic, lead, copper, sine and phosphorus may cause accidental poison 
 ing with poultry. Arsenic in the form of Paris green, London purple, etc.. 
 is commonly used on the farm for poisoning incects ; lead and zinc are used 
 in paints ; copper is used to destroy fungi on grain, fruit trees, vines, and 
 plants ; and phosphorus exists on the heads of matches. Treatment of arsen- 
 ical poisoning should be with sulphate of iron and calcined magnesia, white 
 of egg, and flaxseed mucilage. For lead, copper, zinc and phosphorus give 
 large quantities of white of egg, mucilage and sugar water. Eulenberg 
 recommends charcoal pills for phosphorus poisoning, or sulphate of copper 
 may be given to cause formation of insoluble phosphate of copper. Sul- 
 phates of soda, potash, of magnesia may be given in lead poisoning with 
 the object of forming insoluble sulphate of lead. 
 
 Among the vegetable poisons ergot of rye is one of the most common. 
 It causes trembling, vertig'O, intoxication, coma, great weakness, and gan- 
 grene of the comb, beak, tongue or limbs. As treatment give stimulants 
 as coffee, brandy, camphor, and quinine. 
 
 Bacterial Enteritis. Inflammation of the mucous surface of the 
 intestines due to the multiplication of irritating bacteria must be classed 
 among the most common and most injurious diseases of fowls. This disease 
 occurs in chickens, turkeys, ducks and probably most other kinds of birds 
 and is frequently mistaken for cholera. It is caused by several distinct 
 varieties of bacteria, and may, be either acute or chronic in its form. 
 
 Causation. The principal germs' which have been studied in connec- 
 tion with outbreaks of enteritis in birds are : 
 
 1. The bacillus gallinarum (Klein, Lucet), a short bacillus found in 
 great numbers in the intestines of affected birds, and, also, in the blood. 
 The disease may be produced in chickens and turkeys by inoculating this 
 germ beneath the skin. If the germs are fed with ordinary food they do 
 not cause disease, but if fed with animal food the disease may be pro- 
 duced. Fowls die in about five days after inoculation. Infection occurs 
 from contaminated food or drinking water. The bacillus does not remain 
 localized in the intestine, but may be found in the liver, kidneys and blood 
 of birds which have succumbed to the disease. Pigeons are insusceptible 
 
DISEASES OF POULTRY 
 
 61 
 
 2. The bacilli described by Cornil and Toupet are short rods found 
 in outbreaks of this disease among ducks. They are found in the intes- 
 tines, heart, liver, spleen and blood. The disease may be transmitted to 
 ducks by inoculation or feeding with the germs. Chickens and pigeons 
 are not affected by it. 
 
 3. TheVibrio Metclmikovi, also called the Spirillum Metchnikovi, is a 
 spiral-shaped germ resembling the comma-bacillus. Chickens are very sus- 
 ceptible to these germs, and whether they are introduced by the air-pas 
 sages or digestive organs, or inoculated beneath the skin, they find their 
 way to the intestines and cause inflammation with the symptoms of cholera. 
 Pigeons may be infected by inoculation, but do not suffer from this germ 
 when it is fed to them. It is seen from this brief summary that bacterial 
 enteritis affects principally turkeys, ducks and barnyard fowls. The out- 
 breaks of this disease are usually confined to a single farm. They gen- 
 erally begin early in summer, but gradually diminish in intensity uuHl they 
 finally disappear. Birds of all ages are affected, though the younger ones 
 are apparently more susceptible. 
 
 Symptoms. In the acute form the symptoms develop rapidly. The af- 
 fected birds are dull, listless and indisposed to move. They have considera- 
 ble thirst, but are without appetite. The comb becomes pale, the excre- 
 ments at first solid and of greenish color, later are soft, liquid, abundant 
 and bluish green. As the disease advances, the sick birds stand with the 
 back rounded, the plumage erect, the wings drooping, the head drawn down 
 to the body, and the eyes closed. They gape frequently, their walk is slow, 
 hesitating and unsteady. The diarrhea persists, the excrements are colored 
 with blood, the strength is rapidly lost, and walking becomes more and 
 more difficult. In the later stages of the disease, the bird sleeps most of 
 the time and can scarcely be aroused, a viscid, grayish liquid escapes from 
 the mouth, its comb becomes purple, and it finally falls upon its side and 
 dies after a few struggles. 
 
 In the early stages of the disease the temperature is elevated two de- 
 grees to four degrees F., but later drops three degrees to five degrees F. 
 below normal. The birds die in from one to two weeki after they art- 
 attacked. The chronic form of the disease is characterized by slower 
 development and less marked symptoms. The birds are sick three or four 
 weeks before they die. Their appetite is capricious, the feathers are rough 
 and have lost their lustre, the comb and flesh are pale and bloodless-, and 
 there is an exhausting diarrhea. If the birds are handled the owner is 
 surprised at the great loss in weight, as the flesh appears to have almost 
 disappeared. This loss of strength and flesh continues until the bird dies 
 from exhaustion. In some cases temporary improvement is seen ; the diar- 
 rhea disappears ; the comb partially regains its colors ; the bird appears 
 stronger; but suddenly there comes a relapse, the symptoms are intensified, 
 and death follows in a day or two. In a few cases the improvement is 
 permanent, and the affected birds finally recover their health and flesh. 
 
°^ DISEASES ' OF POULTRY 
 
 In examining the carcasses of the dead birds, the liver is found greatly 
 enlarged and distended with blood, and if a cut is made into it considerable 
 blood escapes. The spleen is also enlarged, but pale ; the intestines and par- 
 ticularly the casca are red and contain considerable mucus. In the chronic 
 form of the disease the liver may be found smaller than in health. 
 
 The disease is distinguished from the cholera by its longer duration 
 the tendency to the chronic form, by its limitation to a single premises and 
 by the fact that it is not transmitted to rabbits by inoculation. It is very 
 destructive and from fifty to eighty per cent of the fowls on a farm maj 
 die before the disease disappears. 
 
 Treatment. To prevent outbreaks of bacterial enteritis cleanliness 
 should be enforced about the poultry buildings, and the birds should be 
 allowed only pure and clean drinking water and food that is not undergoing 
 putrefaction. When fowls are compelled to slake their thirst by drinking 
 the foul water of stagnant ponds, or the ■ seepage from the barnyard, 01 
 when they are fed with rotten grain or vegetables or with putrid meat 
 this disease is liable to develop. It is, therefore, important to avoid this 
 exciting cause of the malady. The troub'e may also be introduced with 
 sick fowls that are brought upon the place, and, hence, the necessity of iso 
 lating or quarantining all new arrivals until their perfect health is assured 
 By such a precaution not only this disease but all other forms of contagion 
 may in many cases be avoided. 
 
 After the disease has broken out among the poultry on a farm, the 
 first effort for its eradication should be a general cleaning up and disinfec- 
 tion. The disinfectant may be a five per cent solution of carbolic acid for 
 saturating the floor and woodwork of the buildings, followed by a thorough 
 application of lime wash. The drinking vessels and feeding troughs should 
 be well scalded with boiling water. This cleaning and disinfection should 
 be frequently repeated until the disease disappears. The medical treatment 
 of the birds has three objecti in view: 1. To disinfect the intestinal pas 
 sage. 2. To arrest the diarrhea. 3. To renew the strength. A good treat 
 ment is to give subnitrate of bismuth three grains, powdered cinnamon or 
 cloves^ one grain, powdered willow charcoal three grains. This may bf 
 given twice a day mixed with the food or made into pills with flour and 
 water. If not successful with the formula just given try subnitrate of bisr 
 muth three grains, bicarbonate of soda one grain, powdered cinchona bark 
 two grains, mix and give three times a day in a paste made with rice flour 
 When the diarrhea is arrested the bismuth and soda are no longer indi- 
 cated, but a tonic is still advisable. For this Megnin recommends : Pow- 
 dered fennel, anis, coriander and cinchona of each thirty grains, powdered 
 gentian and ginger of each one dram, powdered sulphate of iron fifteen 
 grains. This is thoroughly mixed and may be given in the feed so tha*- 
 each fowl will receive from two to four grains twice a day. 
 
 As intesinal disinfectants are especially indicated in this disease/naph- 
 tliol, benzonaphthol, betol and salicylate of bismuth have been tried and 
 
iiiaEAiE5 OF POULTRY OJ 
 
 are highly recommended. The dose of each of these drugs is from y 2 to 1 
 grain for a full-grown fowl. The following combinations will be found 
 useful : Betol l /2 grain, subnitrate of bismuth 1 grain, powdered opium 
 y& grain. Mix and make into pellets with a little syrup. Give at one dose 
 every four hours. Or, benzonaphthol and salicylate of bismuth of each 
 Yz grain, Dover's powder Y<\ grain. 
 
 The food of affected birds should be nutritious, easily digested, and 
 not too wet. Middlings and meal, rice flour or dry bread may be mixed 
 with boiled milk into a stiff paste and fed either alone or with the addi- 
 tion of boiled and finely-chopped beef or hard-boiled egg. The ration should 
 be light until the diarrhea is checked and" other symptoms of improvement 
 are seen. 
 
 Asthenia, Going Light. A disease in fowls in which the most 
 noticeable departure from the normal condition was their extreme emacia- 
 tion has been investigated by Dr. Dawson of the Bureau of Animal In- 
 dustry. The appetites of the affected birds were voracious ; there was no 
 evidence of existing diarrhea, but on the contrary slight constipation. The 
 disease was chronic, ending in death in about three months. There was 
 no increase in temperature. The comb and wattles were paler than usual 
 There were 350 fowls on the premises, 30 of which had died and 100 were 
 sick at the time of the investigation. The diet consisted of a morning meal 
 of mash made of six parts bran, four parts of middlings, and two parts of 
 meat meal with condition powder and charcoal. They had plenty of small 
 gravel and crushed oyster shells. At night, wheat, corn and oats were fed. 
 Adult Brahma fowls seemed must susceptible. The disease makes itself 
 known through loss of flesh and was, therefore, called "going light." The 
 symptoms appeared to be aggravated by damp weather. The disease did not 
 exist, so far as could be ascertained, upon any of the neighboring premises. 
 
 Examination after death reveals extreme emaciation of the muscular 
 system and almost complete absence of fat. The walls of the duodenum 
 were reddened and there was catarrh of the mucous surface. A peculiar 
 bacterium was found in the duodenal contents. A guina pig was inoculated 
 subcutaneously with a small quantity of material from the duodenum and 
 died in the course of twenty-four hours with an extremely cedematous 
 and necrotic condition of the tissues over the abdomen. The germ was 
 found in the tissues at the point inoculated and, also, in the liver, spleen, 
 abdominal exudate, heart-blood and lungs. Rabbits were inoculated and 
 fed with cultures of the organism without result, except when half a cubic 
 centimeter was injected into the abdomen, in which case death followed 
 within twenty-four hours. In the rabbits treated in this way, there was 
 severe inflammation of the duodenum and omentum, and the germ was 
 recovered in large numbers from the walls and contents of the duodenum 
 and from the liver. Chickens were inoculated subcutaneously, into the 
 abdomen and into the veins, and were also fed upon cultures without caus- 
 ing disease in them. Pigeons, mice and rats were refactory. 
 
<" DISEASES OF POULTRY 
 
 The presence of this germ in the diseased intestines of the fowls and 
 its pronounced disease-producing powers when inoculated in guinea pigs and 
 rabbits warrants the suspicion that it is the cause of the duodenitis and 
 emaciation of the fowls. It is probably necessary for it to reach the in- 
 terior of the duodenum before it can cause disease in birds. This germ 
 differs materially from the microbes of bacterial enteritis described by 
 other investigators, but the diseases are of a similar nature and the treat- 
 ment should be the same. 
 
 Psorospermic Enteritis. This is a disease bv the lowest forms of 
 animal parasites, viz., the protozoa. The varieties of protozoa which caus<- 
 enteritis are genarally spoken of as psorosperms and the disease which 
 they produce is known as psorospermosis or psorospermic enteritis. There 
 are two species of psorosperms which have been found to produce inflam- 
 mation in the intestines of fowls: The Eimeria dubia (Gregarina avium 
 ititeitinalis) and the Coccidium tene'.htm. As the symptoms, the appear- 
 ance of the intestine:;, and the treatment varies considerably from bacterial 
 enteritis, it is necessary to devote a special article to the psorospermic form. 
 
 Causation. These parasites, probably in the condition of spores, are 
 taken into the digestive tube with the food or drink. They multiply along 
 the course of the intestine, penetrate the mucous membrane, produce irri- 
 tation and set up a series of changes in the tissues which very seriously 
 affect the functions of the invaded organs. 
 
 The Eimeria dubia multiplies also in the connective tissue beneath the 
 mucous membrane, forming small cysts, seen as whitish points, which are 
 found fil'ed with its spores. The inflammation may extend even to the 
 peritoneal coat of the intestine, thus producing a complication of peritonitis 
 with enteritis. The lesions resemble, more or less, those of diphtheria and 
 tuberculosis, and as the liver and lungs are often invaded we can under- 
 stand why the disease has been called tuberculo-diphtheria by Megnin, 
 Cornil and others. 
 
 The Coccidium tcncl'um is generally found localized in the caeca. It mul- 
 tiples in the mucous membrane, producing whitish patches, denuded sur- 
 faces, and ulcers, and causes a very intense inflammation. 
 
 Symptoms. When only a small number of the nodules of the Emicria 
 dubia exist in the intestine of a fowl, no symptoms of disease are seen and 
 the bird does not appear to suffer. When, however, the lesiom are more 
 numerous, and particularly when the germs are multiplying on the mucous 
 surface, considerable inflammation results, the processes of digestion and 
 assimilation are interfered with and death may result. The principal symp- 
 toms are depression, loss of appetite, diarrhea, weakness, and rapid loss of 
 weight. 
 
 The Coccidium tcncllttm produces a more acute and rapidly fatal dis- 
 ease. There is progressive weakness, stupor, loss of appetite, difficulty of 
 walking, diarrhea, sometimes constipation, plaintive cries and death in a 
 
DISEASES OP POULTRY 
 
 65 
 
 few days. With young chicks there is diarrhea with whitish excrement 
 followed by constipation. With adult fowls the diarrhea is abundant and 
 the excrement may be of a brick-red color or even streaked with blood. 
 It is very destructive to young chickens, frequently a whole brood dies of 
 it, and it may destroy the greater part of those which the possessor of in- 
 fected premises attempts to raise. An examination of the caeca generally 
 shows active inflammation, though with the chicks which showed consti- 
 pation the organs named were found of a normal color, but distended with 
 a hard yellowish exudate containing many of the parasites. 
 
 Treatment. Preventive treatment is the most ?atijfactory. Disinfect 
 the houses and runs with strong carbo'ic acid solution (three to five per 
 cent), and scald out the feeding troughs and drinking vessels with boiling 
 water. If possible, change the birds to fresh ground that has never been 
 infected. 
 
 As medical treatment, hyposulphite of soda five grains, quinine (sulphate) 
 one grain, subnitrate of bismuth two grains may be given two or three 
 times a day to grown birds, and less, in proportion to the size, to the young 
 chickens. A mixture of equal parts of powdered fennel, anis, corriander, 
 gentian, ginger, and aloes has been recommended and may be given in the 
 dose of about five grains for adults, mixed with soft feed. 
 
 The chief reliance in combating this disease should be placed in the 
 efforts to eradicate the contagion. If disinfection and change of ground are 
 not successful, dispose of all fowls for a time, plough up the ground, clean 
 up thoroughly and start with new stock, preferably incubator chickens, from 
 healthy flocks. 
 
 Infectious Entero-Hepatitis of Turkeys — Black Head. For . ten 
 years or more, reports from certain sections of the New England States 
 have indicated the existence of a serious disease of turkeys, locally called 
 "black head," which differs in important respects from any malady pre- 
 viously known as affecting poultry. How widely this disease is distributed 
 over the world is not yet determined, but information from the Middle, 
 Western and Southern States points to its prevalence in those sections, and 
 accounts have also come to hand of its ravages in Europe. From these 
 facts it may be concluded that the disease is one which has been affecting 
 turkeys for many years and has been extensively disseminated, and that, 
 owing to the lack 'of systematic investigation, it was not described until 
 i^s study was undertaken by the U. S. Bureau of Animal Industry. Con- 
 siderable time was devoted to this subject by Smith in 1893 and 1894, and by- 
 Moore in 1895 and 1896. 
 
 Symptoms. The symptoms of infectious enterohepatitis have not been 
 very carefully observed and recorded. It is not until the disease has 
 made considerable progress that any signs of ill-health can be detec- 
 ted. The affected birds show more or less loss of appetite, weakness 
 and emaciation, though one or more of these symptoms may not be 
 constant. 
 
DISEASES OF POULTRY 
 
 K 
 
 M 
 
 1 
 
 Diarrhea is the most marked and constant symptom and may be 
 expected sooner or later in the course of the disease. It results from 
 the inflammation in the caeca, which is the starting point of the affec- 
 tion, and this inflammation exists in all cases. Pecu- 
 liar discolorations of the head occur at the height 
 of the disease, which led to the popular designation 
 of "black head," but Smith is of the opinion that 
 these are not constant and that they may accom- 
 pany other conditions. 
 
 The disease attacks quite young turkeys, having 
 been recognized in a bird only three weeks old, and 
 in this it had already made considerable progress. 
 The young birds seem to be most susceptible, and, 
 as in the older birds the organs have the appear- 
 ance of long standing disease, the conclusion has 
 been reached that the infection usually occurs at 
 an early period of life. The infection is most ac- 
 tively, propagated during midsummer, but whether 
 :his is due to the fact that there are more young 
 birds at that time, or whether the warm season 
 favors the dissemination and the development of 
 the disease is not clear. That infection may occur 
 in older birds and in cold weather is demonstrated 
 by Moore's experiments in which turkeys five 
 months old and weighing six to eight pounds were 
 exposed in November and December, and in which 
 the disease was well developed by the latter part 
 oi December and the early part of January. 
 
 The disease begins in the caeca; sometimes it is 
 found in but one of these organs but oftener it af- 
 fects both. With the progress of the disease, the 
 mucous membrane may be* shed and a coagulable 
 fluid poured out into the caecum. In some cases 
 this exudate appears as isolated masses, which ad- 
 here to certain spots in the mucous membrane; 
 in others, it fills the entire tube with a yellowish- 
 white mass or plug, built up of concentric layers, 
 and consisting of a mixture of blood corpuscles, fibrin and round cells. 
 The wall of the affected caecum is thickened, and the inflammation may 
 extend to the outer or serous coat upon which yellowish exudates are 
 sometimes seen that may bind the organ to the other caecum, to other 
 parts of the intestine or to the abdominal wall. In no case were other 
 regions of the digestive tract found affected. 
 
 Associated with this disease of the caeca, there is in nearly all cases 
 i more or less serious disease of the liver. This organ is enlarged 
 in proportion to the amount of its tissue which is effected. It may 
 
 !'ig:17.— Cseca 6t 
 .^a 1 thy turkey. 
 
DISEASES OF POULTRY 
 
 67 
 
 be twice the normal size, and over its surface are seen roundish dis- 
 colored spots, varying from one-eighth to two-thirds of an inch in 
 diameter. Some of these spots are sharply defined circular areas of a 
 lemon yellow or an ochre yellow color. This 
 yellow substance represents dead tissue. In 
 other cases the spots are whitish and shade off 
 somewhat gradually into the surrounding tis- 
 sue. Another class of spots are of a mottled 
 brownish color, darker than the surrounding 
 liver tissue. These may have a central yel- 
 low nucleus of dead tissue, and a narrow outer 
 border of the same character, or the border 
 may be a dark brownish circular line. The en- 
 tire spot has an indistinct appearance and is 
 flattened or even slightly depressed below the 
 surface. The liver may have a few or many 
 of these centers of disease, which when cut 
 across are found to be deeply imbedded in the 
 tissue of the organ and to have in general a 
 spherical form. Occasionally the lesions are 
 very extensive and the death of large portions 
 of the liver tissue follows. 
 
 Causation. The disease is caused by one 
 of the protozoa, which Smith has named the 
 Amoeba meleagridis. This parasite is taken 
 into the digestive organs with the food or 
 drink, it attacks the mucous membrane of the 
 caeca, causing the development of infllamma- 
 tion and leading to the changes already de- 
 scribed. The affection of the caecum is due 
 primarily to the multiplication of the micro- 
 organism, which takes place chiefly in the mu- 
 cous membrane or the sub-mucous tissue, or 
 it may, though rarely, extend into the muscu- 
 lar coat. According to Smith, the parasites do 
 not invade the epithelium at any time. 
 
 The changes in the liver are most easily ex- 
 plained by assuming that the micro-parasites 
 are conveyed by the blood directly from the diseased caeca into the liver and 
 there deposited in different places. In this organ, they begin to multiply and 
 spread in all directions, thereby forming the spherical centers of disease 
 which appear as circles on the surface of the liver. This theory is borne 
 out by the results of the microscopic examination. 
 
 The course of the disease is variable. In some cases, it develops 
 rapidly after infection and the affected birds die in from two to six 
 weeks. In other cases, the morbid process may come to a standstill, 
 
 Fig. 18.— Caeca of diseas- 
 ed turkey. 
 
Fig. 19.— Idverof healthy turkey. 
 
 Fig 1 . 20,— Liver of diseased turkey. 
 68 
 
DISEASES OF POULTRY 
 
 69 
 
 but the amount of dead tissue in the caeca and liver may be so great 
 as to favor the entrance of bacteria, which are directly responsible 
 for the death of the bird late in the summer or fall. In still other 
 cases, regenerative processes may begin and lead to complete and 
 permanent recovery. 
 
 During the course of the affection, the parasitic protozoa multiply 
 in the caeca, they are mixed with the intestinal contents, and many 
 
 
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 Fig. 21. — Sections of diseased liver; a, protozoa in space 
 Formerly occupied by liver cells; b, capillaries dilated and filled 
 with red corpuscles; c, round cells or leucocytes, x 500. 
 
 of them are discharged with the excrement. In this way the con- 
 tagion is spread. The food and drinking water become contaminated 
 with particles of excrement containing the parasites, the latter are taken 
 by healthy birds into the digestive canal along which they proceed 
 until the cseca are reached, and here they multiply, penetrate the mu- 
 cous membrane and set up the changes which constitute the disease. 
 Treatment. It is evident that the treatment of infectious entero- 
 
70 
 
 DISEASES OF POULTRY 
 
 hepatitis must be principally of a hygienic and preventive nature. 
 Where the disease has existed long upon a farm, the roosting places, 
 runs and feeding grounds must be infected, and the breeding stock 
 are affected in a chronic form and are continually disseminating the 
 contagion. This being the case, adequate measures must be adopted 
 to free the premises from the parasite before healthy stock can be 
 raised. Thorough disinfection should of course be carried out, using 
 a solution of carbolic acid five parts to one hundred parts of water. 
 
 
 
 
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 Fig. 22. — Section of mucous membrane of diseased caecum; 
 a, nuclei of the epithelium of a crypt; a', mucin cell; b, spindle- 
 shaped cells; c, protozoa situated within the meshes of the 
 ,-eticulum; d, multinucleated (giant) cell, which has~eo$aaioped 
 some of the protozoa, x 500. 
 
 All of the turkeys on the farm should be killed in order to certainly 
 get rid of the infected ones. In starting a new flock, obtain eggs 
 from healthy stock and hatch them under common fowls or in an 
 incubator. Raise the young turkeys, if possible, on a part of the farm 
 that has not been infected. By following this course, it should be 
 possible to eradicate the disease and obtain a healthy flock. 
 
 The medical treatment of diseased turkeys has not been successful 
 and it is doubtful if it could be profitably undertaken in any but excep- 
 
DISEASES OF POULTRY '' 
 
 tional cases. Among the remedies most likely to be beneficial are 
 sulphur, sulphate of iron, quinine, salicylic acid, benzonaphthol and 
 betol. Where a flock has recently been infected it would be well to 
 try these remedies with a view of arresting the disease in the mildly 
 affected birds, and of preventing the infection of others by making 
 the intestinal contents unsuitable for the multplication of the para- 
 site. Sulphur S to 10 grains, sulphate of iron 1 
 O/ \ grain may be combined and given at one dose. Or 
 ( J give benzonaphthol 1 grain, salicylate of bismuth 1 
 
 \ < * y / grain. Or give sulphur 10 grains, sulphate of iron 1 
 O grain, sulphate of quinine 1 grain. Hyposulphite of 
 
 sodium may be useful in doses of 2 to 4 grains, or 
 betol in the dose of 1 grain. It is necessary that such 
 remedies be repeated two or three times a day and 
 tozoa as they appear continued for a considerable time to obtain results, 
 when separated from The doses mentioned are for birds weighing four or 
 frer-n tissue, x 1000. r , 
 
 five pounds. 
 
 Parasitic Worms Which Infest the Digestive Apparatus. A large 
 number of species of animal parasites are found in the various organs 
 of the digestive apparatus of the domesticated birds. Some of these* 
 parasites cause disturbances of the digestive functions or serious dis- 
 ease, while others are apparently harmless. Those only are referred 
 to in detail which are of most importance as disturbers of nutrition 
 or producers of disease. The parasitic worms may be grouped as 
 tapeworms, flukes, roundworms, and thorn-headed worms. 
 
 Parasites of the Oesophagus and Stomach. The Dispharogus spiralis, 
 a round worm about one-third inch in length, is found in the oesopha- 
 gus of fowls. A worm supposed to be of the same species is some- 
 times found encysted in the connective tissue around the oesophagus, 
 crop, and proventriculus, also in the walls of the intestine and in the 
 mesentery. The Dispharagus nasutus, a worm about one-fourth inch long 
 has been found in the walls of the fowl's gizzard. Legros reported an 
 epizootic disease caused by this worm in a poultry-yard where several 
 breeds of fowls were kept, of which the Crevecoeurs suffered most 
 severely. The affected birds became emaciated, were dejected, and 
 died exhausted without having lost their appetite. During their last 
 days they were unusually voracious. The gizzard was studded with the 
 Dispharagus nasutus, some of which were entirely hidden in the substance 
 of the mucous membrane, while others were fixed in it by one extrem- 
 ity, the other floating freely in the cavity of the organ. In certain 
 places they were packed together in a compact mass. 
 
 The Trichosoma contortum is a round worm, the male of which is one- 
 half to three-fourths inch in length and the female one and one-fourth 
 to one and one-half inches. It is found in the cervical dilatation of 
 the xsophagus where, according to Raillet and Lucet, it causes in 
 
12 
 
 DISEASES OP POULTRY 
 
 Pekin ducks an engorgement or obstruction by accumulation of food. 
 This obstruction is analogous to the impacted crop found in fowls 
 and pigeons. 
 
 The disease caused by these parasites has been called the ingluvial 
 indigestion of ducks and has been attributed to the food being too 
 dry, or too abundant, or swallowed too hurriedly. The chief factor 
 in causing the disease appears to be this 
 worm, which lives in the walls of the oeso- 
 phagus, where it bores channels or galleries 
 and weakens the tissues. In examining, 
 after death, the affected birds, the cervical 
 portion of the oesophagus was found enor- 
 mously distended with food, while its walls 
 were very thin and congested. To the naked 
 eye or through a hand lens the mucous 
 membrane at that part shows white or light 
 yellow lines, sometimes slightly raised above 
 the surface. These lines are found on ma- 
 croscopic examination to be galleries be- 
 neath the mucous membrane which have 
 been formed by the worms in their move- 
 ments, and in these worms and their eggs 
 may be readily seen. As many as thirty of 
 these worms have been found in the oeso- 
 phagus of one bird. 
 
 The action of this parasite is believed to 
 be mechanical. In boring through the walls 
 of the oesophagus, the tissues are weakened, 
 leading to imperfect contraction of the mus- 
 cular fibres. The food collects in the cer- 
 vical dilatation, the contractions of the walls 
 are not sufficiently vigorous to force it on- 
 ward, the dilation with impaction follows. 
 The impacted oesophagus presses upon the 
 pneumogastric nerve and may produce as- 
 phyxia. The disease appears to be confined 
 to young Pekin ducks. The symptoms are 
 arrest of growth, emaciation and weakness 
 with sometimes epileptiform attacks. In 
 about five to ten days a swelling at the 
 lower part of the neck is observed which 
 rapidly increases, leading to death in one or two days. 
 
 Treatment. Garlic may be mixed with the feed as recommended for 
 the Syngamus trachealis or gape worm. Probably one of the best remedies 
 is essence of turpentine. It may be mixed with twice its quantity of 
 olive oil and one to two tablespoonfuls given for a dose. 
 
 Tiff. 24. — Heterakis perspi- 
 
 Ctllum. (Ascaria infiexa.) a, 
 
 male, 6, female, x 2- 
 
DISEASES OF POULTRY 73 
 
 Parasites of the Intestines and Peritonteum. The following list 
 comprises the parasitic worms of the intestines and of the neighboring 
 parts. It is given in condensed form in order to convey a clear idea 
 of the number and location of these parasites and the species of birds 
 which they infest. The word fowl is used to designate the common 
 barn-yard fowl (Gallus domesticus). 
 
 Tapewords (Cestoda). Bothriotaenia longicollis. Fowl; 3-4 to 1 in. 
 long; 1-6 in. wide; intestine. 
 
 Cotugnia digonopora. Fowl; 1 1-2 to 3 in. long; 1-3 in. wide; small 
 intestine and casca. 
 
 Davainea cesticillus. Fowl; 4 to 5 in. long; 1-2S to 1-12 in. wide; 
 intestine. 
 
 Davainea crassula. Pigeon; 8 to 16 in. long; 1-6 in. wide; intestine. 
 
 Davainea echinobothrida. Fowl; 2 to 4 in. long; 1-25 to 1-6 in. wide; 
 intestine. 
 
 Davainea proglottina. Fowl; 1-16 to 1-12 in. long; 1-50 in. wide; 
 intestine. 
 
 Davainea sbruthionis. Ostrich. 
 
 Davainea tetragona. Fowl; 1-2 to 8 in. long; 1-16 to 1-8 in. wide; in- 
 testine. 
 
 Dicvanotaenia coronula. Duck; 5 to 8 in. long; 1-15 to 1-8 in. wide; 
 intestine. 
 
 Dicranotaenia sphenoides. Fowl; 1-12 in. to 1-6 in. long ; 1-25 in. wide; 
 intestine. 
 
 Drepanidotaenia anatina. Duck; 8 to 12 in. long; 1-12 to 1-8 in. wide; 
 intestine. 
 
 Drepanidotaenia faciata. Goose; 2 to 6 1-2 in. long; 1-25 to 1-12 in. 
 wide ; intestine. 
 
 Drepanidotaenia gracilis. Duck and goose; 10 in. long; 1-16 to 1-12 in. 
 wide; intestine. 
 
 Drepanidotaenia infundibuliformis. Fowl and duck; 1 to 8 in. long; 
 1-25 to 1-12 in. wide; intestine. 
 
 Drepanidotaenia lanceolata. Duck and goose; 1 to 6 in. long; 1-4 to 
 1-2 in. wide; intestine. 
 
 Drepanidotaenia setigera. Goose; 8 in. long; 1-25 to 1-8 in. wide; 
 intestine. 
 
 Drepanidotaenia sinuosa. Duck and goose; 2 to 7 in. long; 1-25 to 
 1-12 in. wide; intestine. 
 
 Drepanidotaenia tenuirostris. Goose; 4 to 5 in. long; 1-25 to 1-8 
 in. wide; intestine. 
 
 Echinocotyle Rosseteri. Duck; young specimens 1-16 in. long; 1-100 in. 
 wide ; intestine. 
 
 Taenia cantaniana. Turkey ; 1-2 in. long ; intestine. 
 
 Taenia Delafondi. Pigeon ; intestine. 
 
■"> DISEASES OF POULTRY 
 
 Taenia exilis. Fowl; 1 in. long; 1-25 to 1-12 in. wide : intestine. 
 Taenia Krabbei. Goose. 
 
 Taenia malleus. Fowl and duck; 1 1-2 to 8 in. long; 1-6 in. wide; 
 intestine. 
 
 Taenia megalops. Duck; 1-5 to 2 in. long; 1-20 in. wide; intestine. 
 
 Flukes (Trematoda). Cephalogonimus ovatus. 1-6 to 1-3 in. long; 
 1-12 to 1-6 in. broad; fowls and geese; bursa of Fabricius. 
 
 Crossodera linearis. 1-2 in. long; 1-16 in. broad; fowls; caeca and rectum. 
 
 Echinostomum echinatum. Light red in color 1-6 to 1-3 in. long, 1-2 in. 
 broad ; fowls, ducks and geese ; caeca and rectum. 
 
 Mesogonimus commutatus. 1-3 in. long; 1-12 in. broad; fowls and 
 turkeys ; caeca. 
 
 Notocotyle verrucosum. Pink in color, 1-12 to 1-4 in. long; 1-30 to 
 1-20 in. broad; fowls, duck and geese; caeca. 
 
 Round Worms (Nematoda). Ascaris crassa. Male 1-2 in. long; fe- 
 male 2 in. long ; duck ; intestine. 
 
 Heterakis compressa. Male 2 in. long ; female 3 3-4 in. long ; towl ; 
 intestine. 
 
 Heterakis differens. Slightly larger than papulosa; fowl; posterior por 
 tion of intestine. 
 
 Heterakis dispar. Male 1-2 to 2-3 in. long; female 2-3 to 1 in. long; 
 goose; caeca. 
 
 Heterakis maculosa. Male 2-3 to 1 in. long; female 1 to 1 1-2 in. long; 
 pigeon; intestine. 
 
 Heterakis papulosa. Male 1-3 in. long; female 1-2 in. long; fowl, 
 turkey, guinea fowl, goose, and peacock; caeca. 
 
 Heterakis perspicillum. Male 1 to 3 in. long; female 2 3-4 to 5 in. 
 long ; fowl and turkey ; small intestine. 
 
 Strongylus tenuis. Male 1-4 in. long; female 1-3 in. long; goose; in- 
 tsstine. 
 
 Trichosoma anatis. Male 1-2 in. long; female 1 in. long; goose; caeca. 
 
 Trichosoma annulatum. Male 2-3 in. long; female 3 in. long; fowl; 
 intestine. 
 
 Trichosoma collare. Male 1-3 in. long; female 1-3 to 1-2 in. long; 
 fowl ; intestine. 
 
 Trichosoma longicolle. Male 2-3 to 1 in. long; female 3 in. long; fowl; 
 intestine. 
 
 Thorn-Headed Worms (Acanthocephala). Echiiwrhyiu'uis filicollis. 
 Male 1-3 in. long; female 1-2 to 1 1-4 in. long; duck; intestine. 
 
 Echinorhynchus polymorphous. 1-6 to 1 in. long; orange-red; duck and 
 goose ; intestine. 
 
 Echinorhynchus sphaerocephalus. 1-4 to 2-3 in. long; duck; intestine. 
 
DISEASES OP POULTRY 
 
 Symptoms. The symptoms which indicate the existence of worms in 
 the intestines are not very characteristic, but are such as would be ex- 
 pected from ill health due to 
 any chronic disease. The birds 
 become dull, weak, emaciated, 
 isolate themselves, are indis- 
 posed to search for their food, 
 are stiff in their walk, their 
 plumage loses its brilliancy and 
 becomes rough, they have diar- 
 rhea and sometimes epilepti- 
 form attacks. In certain cases 
 the symptoms develop rapidly 
 and birds die as though from 
 an acute disease. The most 
 certain evidence of the nature 
 of the trouble is the discovery 
 in the intestines of large num- 
 bers of one or more of the spe- 
 cies of worms mentioned 
 above, upon examination of 
 birds from the flock which have 
 died or which have been killed. 
 According to Nessl, the 
 young fowls which harbor nu- 
 merous tapeworms lose their 
 appetite, become emaciated, 
 dull and feeble, isolate them- 
 selves and hold the head under 
 the wing. Other authorities 
 have observed diarrhea, some- 
 times epileptiform attacks, stiff- 
 ness in movement and the legs 
 straddling. The only certain 
 sign is the presence of sections 
 of the tapeworms in the excre- 
 ment. 
 
 An enzootic of taseniasis 
 (tapeworm disease), which 
 killed 30 out of a flock of 36 
 geese on one farm, was re- 
 ported by Lucet. These birds 
 had been gathered from differ- 
 ent places, were about two 
 months old, and it was supposed they had acquired the germs in a pool 
 where they drank. The disease was at first obscure, and was manifes- 
 
 Fig. 25. — Drepanidotaenia inf undibuliform- 
 is. a, worm, natural size; £, an inverted 
 piece of chicken's intestine with numerals 
 tapeworms attached. 
 
'° DISEASES OP POULTRY 
 
 ted by arrest of growth, emaciation, difficult and stumbling walk, a yel- 
 low and fetid diarrhea, and plaintive cries emitted from time to time 
 The appetite remained normal until nearly the last — death ensuing in 
 five or seven days after the appearance of the first symptoms. The dis 
 ease was due to Drepanidotacnia setigera. The number in each goose was 
 always high, as many as 93 being found. With these worms were also 
 found 3 or 4 of the Drepanidotaenia lanceolata. 
 
 Various authors have reported enzootics due to the Hcterakis perspicil- 
 lum {Heterakis inflexa) . Megnin gives the symptoms as loss of appetite 
 emaciation, indifference, somnolency with sudden starts of wakefulness, and 
 diarrhea. In one outbreak about thirty worms were found in each fowl 
 that had died ; in another, pellets of the worms as large as a pigeon's egg 
 were found obstructing the duodenum. 
 
 Lucet observed verminous enteritis in poultry-yards, due to the asso- 
 ciation of various species of worms. The affection made slow progress 
 and the fowls attacked preserved their appetite, but lost condition and be- 
 came dull and indifferent. Later, the plumage lost is lustre and became 
 erect; while the wings were drooping and the movements languid. A 
 fetid diarrhea set in, wasting became more marked, and the appetite was 
 diminished. Soon the creatures remained immovable and huddled up, with 
 their eyes half closed; the comb and mucous membranes lost their color; 
 the temperature was below normal ; the appetite disappeared, and the feet 
 were swollen. These fowls often yawned, and their torpor and anaemia 
 were extreme; death ensued in a tranquil manner in the course of one oi 
 two months. On postmortem examination there was observed, in addition 
 to the emaciation, the lesions of a chronic diarrheic enteritis and the follow- 
 ing parasitic worms : Davainea proglottina, Drepanidotaenia infundibuli- 
 formis, Davaiena cesticillus, Heterakis papulosa, Heterakis perspicillum and 
 Trichosoma collare. The Davianea proglottina was the principal cause ol 
 the malady and in each case was found in thousands. The Heterakis papu- 
 losa and Heterakis perspicillum were less constant, though they had taker 
 a good share in the development of the disease. 
 
 The Heterakis maculosa often exists in enormous numbers in the in- 
 testines of pigeons and may be so disastrous in their effects as to prevent 
 the raising of these bird.;. As many as 400 to 500 of these worms may be 
 found in the intestine of one bird. A microscopic examination of the affected 
 bird's excrement reveals innumerable masses of the ova or eggs of the 
 Heterakis. In about 7 grams (2 drams) of excrement passed by a diseased 
 pigeon in twenty-four hours, Unterberger found on an average 12,000 oi 
 these eggs. Some of these eggs ware placed on damp blotting paper in a 
 flask and their evolution studied. The embryos were well formed in about 
 17 days. These ova were then given to perfectly healthy pigeons, when 
 they were, in abou,t three weeks, transformed into adult worms. When 
 on the other hand, healthy pigeons were given the ova immediately after 
 their expulsion with the faeces, or their discharge from the oviducts, they 
 
DISEASES OF POULTRY 
 
 did not develop, and were passed with the excrements intact or slightly di- 
 gested. The evolution of the parasite, therefore, can only take place be- • 
 yond the intestine, without the necessity, however, of an intermediate host. 
 Infestation takes place from pigeon to pigeon, through the medium of the 
 food soiled by the excrements of the diseased birds. 
 
 Treatment. Parasitic infestation of the 
 digestive tract should be guarded against by 
 hygienic measures so far as possible. One 
 of the most important of these measures is 
 to move the fowls upon fresh ground every 
 two or three years, or certainly in all cases 
 where such parasites are frequently observed 
 in the intestines of the birds. Another prac- 
 tical measure, which may be adopted at the 
 same time, is to remove the excrement daily 
 from the houses and destroy any parasites or 
 their eggs which may be in it, by mixing it 
 with quick lime or saturating it with a ten- 
 per-cent solution of sulphuric acid. The acid 
 is cheap, but requires that great care be taken 
 in diluting it, owing to danger of its splash- 
 ing upon the clothing and flesh and causing 
 severe burns. It should always be poured 
 slowly into the water used for dilution, but 
 on no account should water be poured into 
 the acid as it will cause explosions and splash- 
 ing. 
 
 When treating diseased birds these should 
 always be isolated and confined, and their 
 droppings should either be burned or treated 
 with lime or sulphuric acid as just recom- 
 mended. Without these hygienic measures, 
 medical treatment can only be partially suc- 
 cessful. 
 
 One of the best methods of treating tape- 
 worms in fowls is to mix in the feed a teaspoonful of powdered pome- 
 granate root bark for every fifty head of birds. In treating a few birds 
 at a time it is well to follow this medicine with a purgative dose of 
 castor oil (two or three teaspoonfuls). According to Zurn, powdered 
 areca nut is the best tapeworm remedy for fowls, but he states that 
 turkeys are unfavorably affected by it. It may be given in doses of 
 30 to 45 grains mixed with butter and made into pills. Male fern is 
 also a very effectual remedy and may be used in the form of powder 
 (dose 30 grains to 1 dram) or of liquid extract (dose IS to 30 drops). 
 It should be given in the morning and evening, before feeding. Oil of 
 turpentine is an excellent remedy for all worms which inhabit the di- 
 gestive canal. It may be given in the dose of one to three teaspoonfuls, 
 
 ? ig. 26.- Notocotyleverrucosum. 
 
DISEASES OF POULTRY 
 
 —Jrt 
 
 and is best administered by forcing it through a small flexible catheter that 
 has been oiled and passed through the mouth and oesophagus to the crop. 
 This medicine is less severe in its effects if diluted with an equal bulk 
 of olive oil, but if it fails to destroy the para- 
 sites when so diluted, it may be given pure. 
 The method of administering medicine by de- 
 positing it directly in the crop can be advan- 
 tageously used with many other liquid reme- 
 dies, and should be adopted in all cases where 
 it is important to have the full dose in the 
 stomach in a short time. It does away with 
 the uncertainty attending the giving of medi- 
 cine in the feed or drinking water, and with 
 a little practice is more expeditious than mak- 
 ing and giving pills. The open end of the 
 catheter may be inserted into a rubber bulb 
 having one opening. Just sufficient air should 
 be expelled from the bulb, so that the dose of 
 medicine will be sucked up without being fol- 
 lowed by much air. The bird's head is then 
 brought in a line with the neck, which is ex- 
 tended, the catheter is passed carefully to the 
 crop, when a s'ight pressure on the bulb forces 
 out the medicine, and the instrument is with- 
 drawn. The operator should be sure that he 
 avoids the trachea. 
 
 For the treatment of the heterakis, Magnin 
 recommends mixing santonin with the food 
 given to the fowls. The powdered santonin 
 may be incorporated in a cake, the dose being 
 7 to 8 grains for each bird. An efficient 
 remedy is made by boiling" an ounce each of 
 male fern, tansy and savory in a pint of water. 
 The resulting liquid is mixed with flour, which 
 is then made into pills and administered to the 
 affected birds. Lucet has successfully treated 
 verminous enteritis caused by tapeworms and 
 the heterakis, by giving intermittent doses of 
 calomel, 1-6 to 1-3 of a grain, and mixing with 
 the .feed the heads of santonin, artemisia vul- 
 garis and wormwood. 
 
 In treating heterakis infestation in pigeons, 
 the healthy should be separated from the dis- 
 eased; the walls, perches, ceilings, nests, floors 
 and feeding and watering vessels must be kept 
 scrupulous'}' clean and frequently disinfected; 
 the grain upon which they are fed should not 
 
 \~-k 
 
 fig. 2" ' .—Echinorhynchw* 
 f'o/ymorp/nis, male; magni- 
 fied 20 diameters. a, probos- 
 cis; r, nerve yanylion; e, 
 suspensory ligament; f : 
 lemnisca; g^g' testicles;//, /, 
 deferent canals; k„ prosta<*» 
 glands; /, seminal reserv 
 * perns; w, caudal pouch. 
 
DISEASES OP POULTRY 
 
 79 
 
 Fig. 28.- (a) Piece of the intestine of a fowl showing the 
 nodnles (reduced one-third). (£) The mncosa of the in- 
 testine showing' ulcerated areas; also seveial small and 
 one larger tapeworm attached to the intestine (reduced 
 one-third), (r) A cross-section of the intestine illustrating 
 f he thickening of the wall due to a large number of the 
 nodules; also a portion of a tapeworm which has pene- 
 trated the mucous membrane, magnified. 
 
 be scattered over the ground but placed in proper receptacles which are not 
 likely to be contaminated with the excrement. It is well to mix aniseed, 
 salt, and other substances appetizing to pigeons, and also coarsely powdered 
 areca nut, with the grain. Each diseased pigeon may be given 1-10 of a 
 grain of calomel worked up with soft bread or made into pills with but- 
 ter (Zurn). Some authors recommend feeding peas which have been mace- 
 rated for several hours in a cold decoction of wormwood. The remedies 
 which have been used for heterakis in fowls are also applicable to pigeons. 
 
 No treatment is given for fowls affected with trematodes or flukes as 
 these parasites so far as is known do not affect the health of the birds 
 which they infest. 
 
 The Nodular Taeniasis of Fowls. An intestinal disease of fowls, 
 characterized by nodules closely resembling tubercles in the walls of the 
 small intestine and colon, was described by Moore, in 189S, as the result of 
 investigations conducted for the Bureau of Animal Industry. On the serous 
 surface of the intestine these nodules have the appearance of closely set 
 protuberances, some being so small that the elevation caused by them is 
 scarcely visible, while others are larger, reaching 1-6 inch in diameter. 
 The larger nodules are of a pale or dark yellowish color, while the smaller 
 ones vary in shade from this to the neutral gray of the normal serous 
 membrane. To the touch they give the sensation of small, oval, solid 
 
DISEASES OF POULTRY 
 
 bodies in the wall of the intestine. The mucous surface presents similar 
 elevations and attached to this over the elevations a number of tapeworms 
 are seen. In the more advanced cases a variable number of small ulcerated 
 depressions, 1-25 inch in diameter or less, are seen over the larger nodules 
 caused by sloughing of the mucous membrane. 
 
 The larger nodules contain a 
 greenish-yellow necrotic substance. 
 The contents of the smaller nodules 
 is more purulent, while the smallest 
 appear simply as an area of infiltra- 
 tion. Microscopic examination shows 
 that the heads of the tapeworms 
 have penetrated the mucous mem- 
 brane and are situated in different 
 layers of the intestinal wall. They 
 are frequently observed between the 
 villi. The heads are not readily de- 
 tected in the necrotic mass contained 
 in the larger nodules but may al- 
 most invariably be seen in the 
 smaller ones. In some cases the 
 tapeworm can be traced through the 
 mucous membrane to the nodule in 
 the muscular coat in which its heat? 
 appears. The worms attached to 
 the mucous membrane are usually 
 small, but larger ones believed to be 
 of the same species are found in the 
 intestinal contents. If the intestine 
 is opened and the mucous surface 
 carefully washed under a stream of 
 water, the small worms are clearly 
 observed hanging from the mucous 
 membrane. The nodules are most 
 numerous in the lowest third of the 
 small intestine, but are occasionally 
 found in small numbers in both the 
 to all appearances the older nodules 
 
 Fi#. 29. -,a A cross section of a nodule 
 containing a sequestrum situated in the 
 outer or longitudinal muscular layer, 
 circular layer of the museular wall not 
 affected), {b) A section showing a tape 
 worm and a necrotic mass within the 
 muscular wall. (i ) A portion of a cross- 
 section of the intestine showing the head 
 of a taneworrn within the muscleand one 
 lying between the villi with its head 
 resting on the basement membrane of 
 the mucosa, magnified 
 
 duodenum and colon. The larger and 
 are found in the ileum near the caeca 
 
 The only symptom noted in connection with this disease is emaciation in 
 the advanced stages. The affection probably can only be recognized by a 
 postmortem examination of the affected birds. It is of particular impor- 
 tance that the principal features should be known, in order to prevent this 
 disease being confounded with tuberculosis. 
 
 The tapeworm which causes this maladay is believed to be the Davianea 
 tetragona, though on account of the unsettled condition of the classification 
 
DISEASES OF POULTRY 
 
 81 
 
 of avian tapeworms it is difficult to make a positive determination of the 
 species at . this time. 
 
 No experiments have yet been made as to the best treatment for this 
 form of tasniasis, but the hygienic measures and medical treatment recom- 
 mended for tapeworms in general are applicable to this, as well as to other 
 species. Vigorous measures should be instituted as soon as the malady is 
 recognized or all of the birds running together will soon become infested, 
 and a long time will be required to eradicate it from the flock and from 
 the premises. 
 
CHAPTER V 
 
 Diseases of the Peritoneum, Liver, and Spleen 
 
 Peritonitis, Inflammation of the Peritoneum — Chronic Peritonitis. Ascites, 
 Abdominal Dropsy — Diseases of the Liver — Congestion of the Liver- 
 Inflammation of the Liver, Hepatitis — Icterus, Jaundice, Biliary Reple- 
 tion — Atrophy or Wasting of the Liver — Fatty Degeneration of the 
 Liver — Fatty Liver — Tuberculosis of the Liver, Spleen and Peritoneum. 
 
 PERITONITIS, INFLAMMATION OF THE PERITONEUM 
 
 THE peritoneum is the delicate serous membrane which lines the ab- 
 dominal cavity and covers the surface of the organs situated in that 
 cavity. Inflammation of this membrane sometimes occurs as a result of 
 the extension of a severe inflammation of the intestine, liver or kidneys 
 to this neighboring tissue ; or from perforation of the intestine and the 
 escape of a portion of the intestinal contents into the abdominal cavity, or 
 from rupture of the oviduct. It is also caused by injuries or bruises of 
 the abdominal wall ; and by the irritation due to parasites in the obdominal 
 cavity, or by the introduction of septic matter in the operation of caponizing. 
 
 Symptoms. The acute cases develop rapidly and with much intensity. 
 There is loss of appetite, fever, restlessness, and painful efforts to void 
 the excitement. The abdominal walls are hot and painful if pressed upon, 
 the birds rapidly lose strength, until no longer able to stand and there are 
 convulsive movements of the limbs followed by death. 
 
 On opening the abdominal cavity of birds which have died the lining 
 nembrane is found to be deep red in color, and is sometimes covered by 
 an exudate which may consist of a thin transparent fibrinous layer or it 
 may be thick, yellowish or reddish-yellow and opaque. The abdomen may 
 contain more or less liquid which may be transparent or it may be turbid 
 and tinged with a yellow, or reddish-yellow color. If the trouble is due 
 to perforation of the intestine, this liquid will have a very offensive odor 
 from the multiplication of putrefactive germs. If it has resulted from 
 rupture of the oviduct, an egg, either intact or broken, will generally be 
 found in the abdominal cavity and the ruptured place in the wall of the 
 oviduct is easily discovered. 
 
 Treatment. Peritonitis is a very difficult disease to treat and it is 
 only in the milder cases that success can be reasonably expected. The 
 affected birds must be kept quiet and protected from currents of air, and 
 
 82 
 
DISEASES OF POULTRY 
 
 83 
 
 opium in doses of one grain every four hours is recommended to quiet the 
 pain and reduce the movements of the intestine, or mix 3 or 4 drops oi 
 tincture of aconite in half a glass of water and give a teaspoonful three 
 or four times a day. Injections of tepid water are indicated to counteract 
 constipation. Flannels dipped in hot water should be squeezed partly drj 
 and applied to the abdominal wall, renewing them as often as necessary to 
 keep up a moist heat. This treatment should be continued for half an houi 
 to an hour, and repeated three or four times a day, drying the surface 
 well, afterwards, so that the bird will not take' cold. If there is great 
 weakness one or two drops of ether or four or five drops of tincture oi 
 camphor may be injected under the skin as a stimulant. 
 
 In case the disease is due to rupture of the oviduct or perforation ol 
 the intestine, treatment is useless ; if it has followed inflammation of the 
 intestine, the treatment for enteritis should be combined with that foi 
 peritonitis. Peritonitis from caponizing should be guarded against bj 
 sterilizing the instruments and applying a germicide (corrosive sublimate 
 1 grain, water 4 ounces), to the skin before beginning the operation. 
 
 Chronic Peritonitis, Ascites, Abdominal Dropsy. Liquid in the ab 
 dominal cavity may result from a mild or chronic case of peritonitis, and 
 it is said by some writers to be due to anaemia in young birds, and to the 
 obstruction of the venous circulation in older ones. The condition is showr, 
 by the enlargement of the abdomen which is distended until it nearly oi 
 quite reaches the ground when the bird is standing. If examined by slight 
 pressure of the hand the swelling is found to be soft and fluctuating; i,-. 
 will yield in one place and cause a greater distension at another. That 
 is, it gives the sa*sation of a sac filled with liquid. 
 
 Fowls affected in this way are dull, disinclined to move, generally feeble 
 with pale comb and diminished appetite. 
 
 The treatment of this condition is not profitable, but, in special cases 
 stimulating diet with considerable animal food, tonics and diuretics, maj 
 be tried. Iodide of potassium or iodide of iron in doces of 1 grain is par 
 ticularly indicated. 
 
 Diseases of the Liver. The liver is one of the largest and most 
 important organs in the bird's body. It not only prepares the bile, which 
 is one of the principal digestive liquids, but it assists in some of the most 
 necessary chemical changes which occur in the blood. This organ con- 
 tains numerous blood vessels through which passes a very large quantity 
 of blood, and it is particularly subject to the attacks of various kinds of 
 parasites. Most of these parasites probably find their way to the liver 
 through the blood channels, lodge in the minute capillary vessels, and begin 
 their multiplication and disease-producing action. 
 
 Among the parasites which most frequently affect the liver of fowls are 
 the chicken cholera bacteria, the tubercle bacillus, the protozoa of black- 
 head (turkeys), and the aspergillosis fungus. These variously cause con- 
 gestion, inflammation, and death of the tissue. 
 
 The liver is very subject to congestion and this frequently occurs from 
 
84 
 
 DISEASES OF POULTRY 
 
 errors in feeding and as a result of irritation in the neighboring intestines ; 
 it is, also, frequently affected with atrophy and fatty degeneration. 
 
 Congestion of the Liver. The liver of fowls is often found in a 
 congested condition as the result of lack of exercise combined with over- 
 feeding; also from the birds taking tainted or moldy food or poisonous 
 substances of various kinds into their digestive organs ; from the effects of 
 infectious diseases, particularly cholera; and from obstruction to the cir- 
 culation of blood by disease of the heart or lungs. It is often seen in birds 
 which are in plethoric condition or very fat. 
 
 The symptoms are obscure and it is difficult to make a diagnosis during 
 the life of the affected bird. The postmortem examination reveals a great- 
 ly enlarged liver engorged with blood, tender and easily torn or crushed. 
 
 If the condition is suspected in time for treatment give sulphate of 
 magnesium or sulphate of sodium in a purgative dose (20 grains to a 
 dram) and follow with sulphate of magnesium 10 grains, bicarbonate of 
 sodium 2 grains, repeated daily for a week. 
 
 The disease should be prevented by proper feeding, regular exercise, 
 and protection from parasites and infectious diseases. 
 
 Inflammation of the Liver, Hepatitis. This disease is due to the 
 causes enumerated as producing congestion of the liver and is a different 
 and more advanced stage of the same process. 
 
 The symptoms are loss of appetite, sluggishness, tenderness over the 
 abdomen and sometimes a yellowish color or jaundice of the skin. 
 
 The treatment of birds so affected is not profitable unless they are 
 very valuable for breeding or exhibition purposes. It is well to begin with 
 1-2 to 1 grain of calomel, followed with 20 grains of Epsom salts and 
 2 grains of bicarbonate of soda after twelve hours. Naphthol or benzo- 
 naphthol may be given twice a day in 1 grain doses to disinfect the in- 
 testinal canal. If the diarrhea is excessive and weakens the bird, treat as 
 recommended for that disease. 
 
 When marked improvement is shown, give green food, tonics, and raw 
 beef, and allow the bird free exercise in the open air. 
 
 Icterus, Jaundice, Biliary Repletion. According to Megnin, moder- 
 ate and persistent congestion of the liver, whether due to plethora or to 
 long continued use of food containing a large proportion of starch or oil, 
 such for example as corn, may lead to an exaggeration of the functions 
 of the liver characterized by the accumulation of a large quantity of bile 
 in the gall bladder, or in the gall ducts of birds, like pigeons, which have 
 no gall bladder. The bile is so abundant that it penetrates the adjoining 
 organs by imbibition and colors them for a considerable distance. In some 
 cases the bile is thick, dry and hard like a piece of black soap. 
 
 In these cases the bile distends the gall bladder and the ducts, sometimes 
 because of its abundance, at other times because owing to its thickness it 
 does not flow freely into the intestine, and in still other cases because the 
 caliber of the duct has been reduced by inflammation. In all of these 
 cases the result is the same — the bile is absorbed by the blood vessels, 
 
DISEASES OF POULTRY 
 
 85 
 
 causes jaundice and poisoning, which soon leads to the death of the bird. 
 
 Unfortunately, the nature of the disease is only occasionally suspected 
 before death. With birds having combs and wattles, or those which- have 
 the borders of the eyes or cheeks free from feathers, a close observer may 
 detect the yellowish or mahogany Color of these parts. 
 
 When this symptom is observed, or when upon postmortem examina- 
 tion of a bird the distention of the biliary reservoirs is made out, and other 
 birds are thought to be similarly affected, Megnin recommends purging 
 with 1-2 to 1 grain of aloes, arid a complete change of food giving as 
 great a variety of ingredients as is convenient. 
 
 Atrophy or Wasting of the Liver. The wasting or shrinkage of the 
 liver, known, technically, as atrophy, is generally associated with hard- 
 ening and sometimes with a marked yellow coloration. It has been 
 considered by some authorities as due to compression, and may result 
 from this cause when there is a great accumulation of fat in the abdom- 
 inal cavity. In most cases, it probably results from chronic inflamma- 
 tion. Some excellent authorities regard it as caused almost entirely 
 by infections and intoxications. No doubt most forms of irritation 
 which set up chronic inflammation, will produce atrophy. 
 
 In this disease the surface of the liver is often more or less granu- 
 lar, the small centers of glandular tissue being shrunken, undergoing 
 degeneration, and surrounded by thickened connective tissue. This 
 process is accompanied by the obliteration of old vessels and the forma- 
 tion of new ones, there is even a formation of new bile ducts, which, 
 however, is more or less incomplete, as most of the new ducts fail 
 to perform their functions. 
 
 The symptoms are obscure and the disease difficult to recognize 
 during the life of the bird. There is seen only dullness, drowsiness, 
 stupor and possibly convulsions. 
 
 This disease should be guarded against by giving a properly bal- 
 anced ration, being particular to avoid an excess of starch or fat. 
 Allow plenty of exercise with green feed, avoid grain or meal that is 
 musty or moldy as well as decomposing food of any kind. 
 
 The early stages of atrophy should be treated with calomel, saline 
 purgatives and alkaline salts, as recommended for hepatitis. 
 
 Fatty Degeneration of the Liver. This is a rather common disease 
 of birds, and has been attributed to lack of variety in the food, too 
 close confinement and insufficient exercise. 
 
 On postmortem examination the liver is found shrunken, hardened and 
 marbled or spoHed with areas of grayish or yellowish tissue. A mi- 
 croscopic examination shows the liver cells to contain droplets of fat 
 and the liver tissue degenerated and largely replaced by yellow fat 
 
 globules. 
 
 As the disease is not recognized during life, treatment is out of. 
 
 the question. If a number of cases occur in the same flock, give 
 
 greater variety of food and a run on grass. In addition, bicarbonate 
 
°° DISEASES OF POULTRY 
 
 of soda may be given in the drinking water to the amount of one 
 or two grains a day for each bird. 
 
 Fatty Liver. It is contended by authors who have examined into 
 the subject, that the fatty livers which are so skillfully developed by 
 certain feeders of geese and ducks, and which are considered a great 
 table delicacy, should not be confounded with livers which have under- 
 gone fatty degeneration. The latter is a disease while the former is 
 simply a physiological condition. In fatty degeneration the liver is 
 shrunken, there is a formation of fat within the cells and destruction 
 of the cells, while in fatty livers the fat is deposited between the 
 microscopic elements of the liver, and this organ is thereby enlarged 
 and rendered more succulent and delicate, but there is no destruction 
 of the cells. If the process of fattening is properly carried out there 
 is, consequently, no disease. 
 
 Tuberculosis of the Liver, Spleen and Peritoneum. This disease is 
 manifested by whitish or yellowish-white nodules and aggregations 
 of nodules varying in size from a mere point to an inch or 
 more in diameter. These develop either in the peritoneum or 
 in the tissue of the liver and spleen. Rupture of the liver with fatal 
 bleeding is said to be sometimes observed in cage birds affected with 
 tuberculosis. The disease is of the same nature as tuberculosis of 
 the lungs, and is treated at length in another chapter. As the disease 
 is incurable, no treatment is recommended, beyond the sanitary mea- 
 sures for the eradication of the contagion mentioned in the general 
 article upon this subject. 
 
CHAPTER VI 
 
 Diseases of the Organs of Urination and Reproduction. 
 
 Brief Description of the Organs of. Urination — Parenchymatous Nephritis, 
 Inflammation of the Kidneys — Abscess of the kidneys — Obstruction of 
 the Cloaca by Urinary Concretions — The Male Organs of Reproduction — 
 Hypertrophy or Enlargement of the Testicles — Cancer of the Testicles — 
 Tatty Degeneration — The Female Organs of Reproduction — Atrophy of 
 the Ovary — Tumors of the Ovary — Gangrene of the Ovary — Inflamma- 
 tion of the Oviduct — Prolapsus or Eversion of the Oviduct — Difficult 
 Laying, Egg Bound, Obstruction of the Oviduct — Gangrene of the Ovi- 
 duct — Cloacitis, Vent Gleet — Anomalies in Egg Production — Egg Incu- 
 bated in the Oviduct — Parasites in Eggs — Sanguineous Eggs — Eggs with- 
 out Shells — Eggs with Tzvo Yolks — Incomplete or Aborted Eggs — Eggs 
 Within Eggs. 
 
 BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE ORGANS OF URINATION 
 
 THE uninary apparatus of birds consists of two kidneys and two 
 ureters. There is no bladder, the cloaca forming a common re- 
 ceptacle for both urine and faeces. The kidneys are elongated in form, 
 commencing immediately below the lungs and extending along the 
 sides of the spine as far as the termination of the rectum. They present 
 inequalities of surface corresponding to the elevations and depressions 
 of the walls of the pelvis. The kidneys of birds are divided into three 
 quite distinct lobes, each lobe connecting with the ureter. The tex- 
 ture of the kidneys is much more frail than in mammalia, readily 
 yielding under the pressure of the finger. The lobes are made up of lob- 
 ules having somewhat the appearance of the convolutions of the brain. 
 The uriniferous tubes do not empty into a cavity or pelvis in the interior 
 of the kidney as with mammals, but unite upon the surface of the gland 
 to form the ureter. 
 
 The ureters are continued along the surface of the kidney towards the 
 inner side, being here and there imbedded in its substance, presenting a 
 series of dilatations corresponding to the principal lobes, and receiving the 
 branches of the uriniferous tubes as they pass along. Beyond the kidneys 
 the ureters pass behind the cloaca, penetrate its walls, and, finally, end 
 in valvular eminences in the lower part of the cloaca. 
 
 The urine as secreted is very thick having the color and consistency of 
 c earn, being composed almost entirely of uric acid. It dries to a chalky 
 paste in the cloaca from which it is expelled with the fasces. The excre- 
 
 87 
 
50 DISEASES OP POULTRY 
 
 ment of birds, as is well known, is composed of two distinct portions, one 
 white and the other of variable color. The former is the secretion of the 
 kidneys, and the latter is the residue of alimentary matters which has 
 passed through the intestines. 
 
 Parenchymatous Nephritis, Inflammation of the Kidneys. A case 
 of this disease is recorded by Megnin as having occurred in a Langshan 
 
 Fig-. 30.— Urinary and reproductive organs of the hen; o, ovary; &, 
 infundibular portion of oviduct; <•, portion of oviduct which secretes 
 the albumen; c\ uterus or shell-forming' portion; d, intestine; <r\ cloaca; 
 t f , e' % opening- of ureters; f "open ing of oviduct ;e tft depression correspond- 
 ing to opening of atrophied oviduct : g, bursa of Fa'oricius"/,/, /, kidney 
 divided ii'to three lobes; r, ritflil ureter. 
 
DISEASES OF POULTRY 
 
 89 
 
 pullet, seven months old. The symptoms were evident suffering in the 
 vicinity of the kidneys. The bird remained continually lying upon its 
 
 abdomen, only occasionally rising 
 . _< 5 ==-<5 ! -__A^-rrr--\ with difficulty in order to eat. The 
 
 •fa rv^/-^^&, ^f^-Sv N ^ post-mortem examination revealed an 
 
 enormous enlargement of the kid- 
 neys, and upon cutting across these 
 organs there were seen numerous 
 black points, each representing a 
 small interstitial hemorrhage. 
 
 The disease has, also been ob- 
 served by Larcher, Semmer, and 
 others. 
 
 It is often seen with pullets. The 
 affected birds stop growing, lose 
 their appetite, become thin, with 
 improperly developed feathers and 
 roughened plumage. The kidneys 
 are found two or three times their 
 normal size, of a grayish color and 
 more firm than in health. Micro- 
 scopic examination has revealed the 
 existence of minute organisms, and 
 Semmer thinks that the disease 
 might be caused by toxic fungi 
 contained in the food. 
 
 Abscess of the Kidneys. A case 
 of this disease was observed by 
 Megnin in a small cage bird. The 
 kidney was found to contain a yel- 
 low nodule formed by dried pus. 
 No other sign of disease was dis- 
 covered. The bird had been ill 
 for a month but continued to eat. 
 No information could be obtained as 
 to the cause of the disorder. 
 
 Obstruction of Cloaca by Urin- 
 ary concretions. Numerous in- 
 stances have been reported of partial or complete obscruction of the 
 cloaca by the drying and hardening of urinary accumulations. 
 This condition is more or less frequent with pigeons, pheasants and 
 fowls. The concretions are usually composed of uric acid or urate of 
 ammonia, but a true calculus made up of the carbonates of lime and 
 magnesia, phosphate of lime and mucus has been found in the kidneys 
 of a fowl. 
 
 The concretions in the cloaca are usually associated with improper ra- 
 tions, containing too much of the nitrogenous constituents. The feeding 
 
 Tig 31.— Reproductive organs of the 
 .cock; a, it, testicles; /•, li, epididymis: c, 
 c t vas deferens; d y cloaca;- d' bursa of 
 Fabricius:*', e',papill£e through which 
 the vas deferens open; /, margin of 
 anus. 
 
90 
 
 DISEASES OP POULTRY 
 
 'e 
 
 should be corrected, animal food reduced, and a cooling non-stimulating 
 ration substituted. The contents of the cloaca should be carefully softened 
 with warm water and removed. A small quantity of oil injected daily for 
 a week will prevent further accumulations and permit any local irritation 
 to subside. No other treatment is required. 
 
 The Male Organs of Reproduction. The male organs of reproduc- 
 tion in fowls consist of two testicles situated in the abdominal cavity, just 
 below the anterior parts of the kidneys, and of two ducts called the vas 
 deferens which conduct the secretion of the testej to the cloaca. It will 
 be observed that the cloaca is the common outlet for the faeces, the urine 
 and the seminal fluid. Each vas deferens opens through a conical papilla 
 in the posterior wall of the cloaca. The papillae are surrounded by a re- 
 markable plexus of arteries and veins, producing erectile tissue, which 
 makes it possible to bring the seminal liquid in contact with the everted 
 
 orifice of the oviduct of the female. 
 In some waterfowls which copulate in 
 water, provision is made for a more 
 efficient coitus by the development of 
 a long intromittent organ from the 
 highly vascular wall of the cloaca. 
 This is seen particularly ;n the drake. 
 In the passive state this organ is oiled 
 up like a screw by the elasticity of 
 associated ligamentous structures. 
 
 Hypertrophy or Enlargement of 
 the Testicles. The testicles of birds 
 vary greatly in size according to the 
 season of the year at which they are 
 observed. In winter they are very 
 small with a comparatively insignifi- 
 cant blood supply, but in spring, as 
 the breeding season comes on, they en- 
 large to five or ten times the weight 
 during the winter, the vessels are dis- 
 tended with blood and the height of 
 fu-nctional activity is reached. The 
 annexed drawing showing the enlarge- 
 ment of these organs in the house 
 sparrow from January to April, serves 
 as an illustration of this process. 
 While the enlargement just described is strictly physiological, it is 
 frequently exaggerated from various conditions and then becomes a disease. 
 Megnin has observed cases where one of these organs was nearly fifty 
 times its normal weight ; and it is not uncommon to find them two inches 
 in length and nearly as broad. 
 
 Symptoms. Diseases of this character are not easily recognized dur- 
 ing the life of the affected bird. As, however, the condition is generally 
 
 1. January. 
 
 2. Middle of February. 
 
 3. Beginning" of March 
 
 4. Latter end of March. 
 
 5 Middle of April. 
 
 Fig. 32. -Testes of the House-spar- 
 row. 
 
DISEASES OF POULTRY 91 
 
 accompanied by some tenderness and pain, there is uneasiness, a tendency 
 to sit down or crouch, or, as Hill puts it, sinking- down and rising again, 
 with inclination to remain quiet. Such symptoms occurring during the 
 spring or early summer should lead to the suspicion that the bird is affected 
 with the disease under consideration. 
 
 Treatment. — Give cooling food with considerable green material in it. 
 Do not allow meat or condition powder of any kind. Keep the affected 
 bird by itself where it will remain quiet. 
 
 Give tincture of aconite root Yn drop to 1 drop, according to size of 
 bird, three times a day. It is, also, well to give Epsom salts sufficient to 
 obtain free movement of the bowels, about a teaspoonful for an ordinary 
 sized bird. Some recommend iodide of potassium 3 grains twice daily in 
 a pill or dissolved in a little water. 
 
 Cancer of the Testicles — Fatty Degeneration. Cases are recorded 
 showing that cancer of the testicles and fatty degeneration of these organs 
 are both common with birds. These conditions, however, can not be de- 
 termined until after the death of the bird and treatment is for that reason 
 out of the question. The diseases mentioned while of scientific interest 
 need not be given detailed consideration in this volume. 
 
 The Female Organs of Reproduction. In birds, the female organs 
 of reproduction consist of a single ovary and a single oviduct. During the 
 early stages of development of the chick the two ovaries are of equal size, 
 but soon the developmental forces appear to concentrate in the left ovary 
 while the right one remains stationary and ultimately disappears in most 
 birds. The single ovary is developed to a remarkable degree. It is situated 
 near the left kidney and approaches the median line. The external ap- 
 pearance is that of a granular or nodular body attached to the spinal 
 column by a fold of peritoneum. The nodules are irregular in size, some 
 small and whitish, others larger and of a yellowish color. 
 
 The enlargement of the ovum is due to the accumulation of the yellow 
 or food yolk, and this causes distension of the ovarian capsule or calyx 
 that encloses the ovum. As the ovum enlarges its capsule becomes more 
 and more separated from the remainder of the ovary until it is seen to be 
 attached only by a narrow base or pedicle. The calyx consists of two 
 membranes united by connective tissue and blood vessels. The vessels 
 converge towards a white transverse line or band which crosses the most 
 prominent part of the calyx. At this line the vessels become so minute 
 as to apparently disappear entirely. This band, called the stigma, begins 
 to appear when the ova are well developed and the line becomes broader 
 and the membranes thinner as the ovum increases in size, until at the 
 proper time the walls of the calyx give way along this line and the egg 
 slips out of its capsule and passes into the infundibular opening of the ovi- 
 duct. The empty calyx collapses, rapidly shrinks and is ultimately absorbed 
 
 The ovum as it enters the oviduct consists of a vitellus or yolk en- 
 closed in a very thin vitelline membrane. . Impregnation or fertilization oc- 
 curs in the upper portion of the oviduct and soon after the egg escapes 
 from the ovary. Having entered the oviduct the ovum is propelled with 
 
DISEASES OF POULTRY 
 
 
 Fig. 33.— Rpprodnctive organs of the lien; a, ovary; b, oviduct; c, infun- 
 dibular portion of oviduct; d, depression corresponding to atrophied 
 rig-ht oviduct; *?, opening- of left oviduct;^ oviduct laid open to show 
 egg surrounded "with first layers of albumen;^, uterus opened to show eg- g 
 with shell forming' upon it; «, cloaca; <t, rectum; /, upper portion of anus; 
 f»t vt,. openings of ureters. 
 
DISEASES OF POULTRY « 
 
 a rotary motion by the peristaltic contractions of that tube, towards the 
 cloaca. The contact of the ovum stimulates the lining membrane of the 
 oviduct to secrete first a dense layer of albumen which is deposited upon 
 the vitelline membrane and is continued thread-like from each pole. These 
 threads or filaments are the chalazae and the dense layer of albumen with 
 which they are connected is the membrana chalazifera. As the egg ro- 
 tates in the oviduct the chalazae become twisted in opposite directions, and 
 the one next the small end of the egg finally adheres more or less to the 
 membrane lining the shell at that point. 
 
 The egg advances into the more glandular and vascular part of the 
 oviduct and here two other layers of albumen are secreted and deposited 
 upon it. Each of these is thinner and more watery than the one which 
 preceded. When the narrow part of the oviduct is reached, two denser 
 layers of albumen are excreted forming the membrana putaminis. En- 
 closed in this manner, having acquired its ovate form and with the small 
 end towards the cloaca, the egg enters the uterine or shell-forming dila- 
 tation. The inner surface of this portion of the oviduct secretes and de- 
 posits upon the membrana putaminis a thick white fluid which condenses, 
 becomes calcareous and forms the shell. The time required for the egg 
 
 Fig-. 34. Fig. 35. Fig. 36. 
 
 Fig. 34. — Egg from upper part of oviduct with coat!*? of dense albumen 
 called membrana chalazifera continued into the chalazae. Fig. 35.— Out- 
 stretched chalazx from opposite sides of the yolk showing opposite turns 
 of the spiral. Fig. 36 -Egg from above middle of oviduct with first layers 
 of soft albumen. 
 
DISEASES OF POULTRY 
 
 to pass from the infundibulum to the uterus, in the common fowl, is said 
 to be from four to six hours, and it may remain here from twelve to 
 twenty hours. 
 
 life' ' ©.■-•*** h~aj|j((( fi';' '• ) s ) ;</; 
 
 \ \ -C 
 
 '/ 
 
 Fig. 37.— Section of fowl's egg; a, shell; *, membrana putaniinis; «, « 
 layers of soft albumen; rf, cualazac; <•, cicatricula and germinal vesicle;/, 
 air chamber. The outline figure shows the yolk made up of layers da 
 posited successively, a, cicatricula, 0, germinal vesicle. 
 
 The color of the egg-shell depends upon pigmental matter secreted by 
 particular foliioles of the villous membrane of the uterus. The appearance 
 of pores on the surface of the shell is due to the impressions of the 
 villi of the formative membrane; but the permaebility of the shell by the 
 atmosphere depends upon a more minutely porous texture. The shell con- 
 sists in great part of carbonate of lime, with a little carbonate of mag- 
 nesia and phosphate of lime arid magnesia (Owen). 
 
 The oviduct is a whitish tube somewhat larger than the large intestine 
 and shows many branching blood vessels upon its surface. It begins near 
 the ovary by an enlarged portion called the infundibulum, and after being 
 bent upon itself several times and forming three principal convolutions, it 
 reaches the cloaca in which it opens. In the non-breeding season, when the 
 parts are in repose, the ovary and oviduct are reduced in size and almost 
 disappear. 
 
 Atrophy of the Ovary. The ovaries, like the testicles of the male, 
 are greatly reduced in size and atrophied during the non-breeding season. 
 This, however, is a physiological atrophy and not a disease. In the same 
 manner, the ovaries become atrophied in old hens which have ceased laying. 
 This is sometimes, but not always, accompanied by remarkable changes in 
 other parts of the body. The spurs develop, the feathers become longer and 
 more brilliant, resembling those of the cock, or usually approaching more 
 closely to the plumage of the capon. Such birds, also, assume to a cer- 
 tain extent the voice and habits of the male. 
 
DISEASES OF POULTRY 
 
 95 
 
 The complete atrophy of the ovaries is sometimes congenital, or, more 
 strictly speaking, thece organs fail to develop. In other cases, rudimentary 
 organs of both sexes are found in the same individual. Birds in which 
 this condition exists, also, have a resemblance in plumage, voice, spurs, 
 habits, etc., to capons, and should be fattened and killed for the table, 
 as they are of no value for other purposes. 
 
 Tumors of the Ovary. There are frequently found tumors of con- 
 siderable size in connection with the ovary. A common variety is com- 
 posed of the yolks of eggs which have matured but which have failed to 
 enter the oviduct. These tumors are yellow in color, and are made up 
 of concentric layers in which the yolk can be recognized, as it has some- 
 what the appearance seen in a cooked egg. Megnin records a case in 
 which this trouble appeared to be hereditary, as all the hens belonging to 
 a particular strain were affected. 
 
 In rare instances, the development of the ovum is abnormal, and in- 
 stead of a mature yolk resulting, the calyx is found to contain only a 
 thin liquid, and the ovary thus becomes transformed into a mass of cystic 
 tumors suspended upon long pedicles. Cancerous tumors of the ovary have 
 also been observed. 
 
 Treatment is, of course, impossible in these cases as the nature of the 
 disease is not determined until after the bird's death. If such abnormal 
 conditions are frequently found, it is an indication that there is a predis- 
 position in that direction in the strain of birds. The only way to correct 
 this is to kill off the flock and obtain different blood. 
 
 Gangrene of the Ovary. This disease is quite common with all 
 varieties of poultry. On examination of the ovary after death, the ova 
 are found in different stages of development, but instead of being yellowish- 
 pink in color, with the blood vessels well defined, they are brown or black, 
 easily crushed and the contents broken down into a putrid liquid. Deatli 
 is caused partly by peritonitis and partly by the absorption of the pro- 
 ducts of decomposition. 
 
 The cause of this trouble is not well understood. It has been at- 
 tributed to the birds being too fat, thus compressing the ovary and hin- 
 dering the evolution of the ova. As it may occur in birds which are not 
 fat, and as it is evidently accompanied by the penetration and multiplica- 
 tion of bacteria, it is possibly an infectious disease. 
 
 Inflammation of the Oviduct. The oviduct, being a highly vascu- 
 lar tube, with great functional activity during the laying season, and sub- 
 ject to injuries of various kinds, is frequently affected with inflammation. 
 
 Causation. Congestion and inflammation may result from irritation 
 due to too frequent laying, from the eggs being too large, from too 
 stimulating blood or condiments, from the breaking of an egg within this 
 tube after the shell has been formed upon it, and from obstruction of 
 the cloaca. 
 
 Symptoms. The bird at first shows indications of a desire to lay with- 
 out being able to produce eggs, or it may la;- eggs containing more or 
 less blood, or eggs without shells, or small and misshapen eggs contain- 
 
yo DISEASES OF POULTRY 
 
 ing albumen but no yolk, or, finally, the yolk may be dropped without 
 any covering of albumen or shell. As the inflammation increases there is- 
 high temperature, straining, and an effort to rub the abdomen upon the 
 ground. In the later stages, the bird becomes dull, indisposed to move, 
 the comb is pale, the plumage rough and the temperature falls to nor- 
 mal or below. 
 
 Treatment. This disease to be treated successfully must be taken in 
 hand early. Give green and cooling food, avoid meat, condition powders, 
 pepper or other irritating ingredients. Keep the bird quiet and administer 
 Epsom salts 20 grains, bicarbonate of soda 2 grains. Follow -.this with 
 one-half drop tincture of aconite root three times a day. 
 
 Prolapsus or Eversion of the Oviduct. Prolapsus of the oviduct 
 is quite frequently observed particularly in old hens which have been great 
 layers. Over-feeding, too stimulating food, constipation and straining to • 
 expel large eggs are direct causes. It may, also, occur as the result of 
 inflammation of the oviduct, or from any condition which prevents the 
 passage of the eggs. 
 
 Symptoms. Prolapsus often occurs from efforts to expel an egg 
 which has become arrested in the lower part of the eviduct and is then 
 first seen as the hen leaves the nest. It may be either complete at first 
 or only partial. In the latter case a tumor may be noticed as just visible 
 within the cloaca. After a few hours or a day, the eversion continues and 
 a large dark-red or violet-colored mass protrudes from the vent. Inflam- 
 mation becomes intense in the part exposed to the air, gangrene may set 
 in, and death occurs from purulent absorption or septicemia. 
 
 Treatment. As soon as symptoms of prolapsus are seen, catch the 
 bird and examine it carefully to determine if an egg has been arrested in 
 the passage. If the swelling is soft, with no signs of the presence of an 
 egg, apply carbolized oil or lard and return the part by gentle pressure. 
 After this is accomplished, treat the bird as for inflammation of the ovi- 
 duct, giving as additional treatment 3 to 5 drops fluid extract of ergojt to 
 cause contraction of the oviduct and keep it in position. If an egg is found 
 within the swelling treat as recommended for obstruction of the oviduct. 
 In all cases of prolapsus, the oviduct if soiled with adhering manure or 
 dirt should be washed clean with warm water before it is replaced. Keep 
 the bird in a small coop where it will be quiet until it has recovered. 
 
 Difficult Laying, Egg Bound, Obstruction of the Oviduct. Laying 
 may become difficult because of irritation of the lower part of the oviduct 
 arresting the secretion of mucous and causing the mucous membrane to 
 become dry and lacking in its normal lubrication. The same trouble re- 
 sults from birds being too fat or from the eggs being too large, and is 
 aggravated by constipation. If the cause is sufficiently pronounced in its 
 action, the affected bird may be unable to expel the egg; this is arrested 
 in the passage where it sets up inflammation and leads to straining and 
 possibly to prolapsus of the oviduct. 
 
 Symptoms. When fowls are egg bound they at first go frequently to 
 the nest, making efforts to lay but are unable to accomplish this function. 
 
DISEASES OP POULTRY 
 
 97 
 
 They are restless and evidently in more or less distress. Later they be 
 come dull, with rough plumage and are indisposed to move. On examin- 
 ing the bird by pressure of the finger about the vent, the egg can be dis- 
 tinguished as a hard body in the posterior part of the abdominal cavity. 
 In case of prolapsus, the everted oviduct may be easily seen. 
 
 Treatment. In the early stages when the irritation is slight, it is suffi- 
 cient to inject a small quantity of olive oil and gently manipulate the parts. 
 Afterwards, give cooling food, and, if hens are too fat, reduce the ration. 
 In case the expulsion of the egg can not be obtained by the injection of 
 oil, immerse the vent and lower part of the body in water, as warm as can 
 be used without injury, and hold it there half an hour or more until the 
 parts are relaxed. Then inject oil and endeavor to assist the bird by care- 
 ful pressure and manipulation, or by dilation or the passage. Fluid extract 
 of ergot is useful in these cases and may be given in five-drop doses three 
 times a day. In some cases it is necessary to puncture the egg, allow the 
 contents to escape, crush the shell and remove it in pieces. 
 
 Gangrene of the Oviduct. If an egg which has been arrested in 
 the oviduct can not be expelled, the inflammation which it produces be- 
 comes more and more intense until it causes the death of the tissue. When 
 the flesh dies it at once begins to decompose and putrify, and this condi- 
 tion is known as gangrene. The gangrenous walls of the oviduct are easily 
 torn and the egg may then escape into the abdominal cavity. No treat- 
 ment is of use in such a case as peritonitis and septic infection occur and 
 lead to death in a comparatively short time. 
 
 Rupture of the Oviduct. The walls of the oviduct are sometimes 
 torn or ruptured in the absence of inflammation or gangrene, and simply as 
 the result of vigorous contractions in the efforts to expel an abnormally 
 large egg. A fissure thus formed permits the escape of the egg into the 
 abdominal cavity. This accident may be suspected by the suspension of 
 laying and the enlargement of the abdomen. By pressure of the finger one 
 or more eggs may be located in the lower part of the abdomen. As treat- 
 ment is unavailing, the better plan is to destroy the bird as soon as the 
 condition is recognized. 
 
 Cloacitis, Vent Gleet. Fowls are sometimes affected with a con- 
 tagious catarrh of the cloaca, which is transmitted from bird to bird dur- 
 ing the act of copulation. The inflammation is usually confined to the 
 cloaca, but in severe cases may extend to the mucous membrane of the 
 lower part of the oviduct, or even to that of the rectum. 
 
 Symptoms. The first symptom observed is the frequent passage of ex- 
 crement which is voided in small quantities almost as rapidly as it readies 
 the cloaca. Often the bird endeavors to drop excrement when the cloaca 
 is entirely empty. This action is due to the tenderness and irritability of 
 the cloaca which gives to the bird the sensation of fullness, and produces 
 spasmodic contractions. If an examination is made the mucous membrane 
 is found in the early stages to be red, dry, swollen and hot. In a day or 
 two a discharge makes its appearance. It is, at first, thin and watery, but 
 soon becomes white, purulent, and offensive. This discharge collects upon 
 
98 
 
 DISEASES OF POULTRY 
 
 the skin and feathers about the vent, obstructs the passage and irritates 
 the parts with which it comes in contact. The soiled skin becomes red ana 
 inflamed, it may be abraded by friction or by the bird picking at it, and 
 thus sores or ulcers are started which may become quite troublesome. 
 
 Treatment. First reduce the inflammation and clean the parts by hold- 
 ing the lower part of the bird's body, including the vent, in a pan or 
 bucket of warm water, in which has been dissolved a tablespoonful of 
 bicarbonate of soda to each quart of water. The water should be as 
 warm as can be comfortably borne by the hand and the application should 
 be continued for one-half to three-quarters of an hour and should be re- 
 peated daily while the inflammation is at its height. After the bird is re- 
 moved from the wa*er, it should be dried off with a .cloth and a tablespoon- 
 ful of the following mixture injected into the cloaca: Water 6 ounces, 
 glycerine 2 ounces, morphia sulphate 1 grain, boric acid 1^4. drams. A 
 pledget of cotton may be saturated with this mixture and placed in the 
 cloaca two or three times a day, allowing it to remain until expelled by the 
 bird. If the discharge is very offensive a solution of permanganate of 
 potash one grain to the ounce of water may be used as an injection, or, if 
 more convenient, a solution of peroxide of hydrogen. Should the remedies 
 just mentioned fail to give satisfactory results, try a solution of carbolic 
 acid of the strength of one per cent. After the inflammation has usb- 
 sided, if the discharge continues, an astringent solution may afford relief. 
 For this purpose acetate of lead 4 grains to the ounce of water is suitable; 
 or, in obstinate cases acetate of lead 3 grains, sulphate of zinc 3 grains, 
 water one ounce. The sores and ulcers which form around the vent should 
 be kept dusted with iodoform or aristol. 
 
 Anomalies in Egg Production. Eggs are not always laid in a per- 
 fect condition. They may be deformed, modified in composition, or may 
 contain foreign bodies. These changes depend upon the condition of the 
 ovary and oviduct during the period the egg is developing. Some abnormal 
 eggs have excited much wonder and discussion, but, if the manner in which 
 the egg is formed is borne in mind there is little difficulty in making a 
 satisfactory explanation. 
 
 Egg Incubated in the Oviduct. It has been shown that the egg nor- 
 mally remains in the uterus or shell-forming portion of the oviduct from 
 twelve to twenty hours, also, that it may become lodged at this point and be 
 held there for an indefinite time. As the temperature of the bird's body 
 is that most suitable for incubation and for the development of the 
 embryo, it is plain that a fertile egg arrested in the oviduct must soon 
 undergo important changes. For this reason some eggs have the odor and 
 taste that are familiar in connection with stale eggs, although they are 
 newly lain. In rare cases, the egg may be arrested a sufficient time to al- 
 low the embryo to become more or less developed. Megnin states that he 
 removed an egg from a fowl, in making a postmortem examination, which 
 contained an embryo upon which the skin and feathers were already 
 formed. Fortunately for the reputation of the egg-producer, such cases 
 seldom occur, and it is doubtful if the hen would succeed unaided in laying 
 
DISEASES OF POULTRY yy 
 
 an egg which had been retained long enough to allow the embryo to de- 
 velop. Some stale eggs may, however, be accounted for by prolonged re- 
 tention in the oviduct. 
 
 Parasites in Eggs. As the egg traverses the greater part of the 
 oviduct, and receives in that tube several layers of albumen before the 
 shell is formed, it is not difficult to understand how any parasites which 
 gain entrance to the oviduct may be caught in the albumen and imprisoned 
 within the shell. The lower part of the oviduct has a free opening into 
 the cloaca for the passage of the egg, and it is not surprising that para- 
 sites occasionally find their way along this channel. The parasite most 
 frequently found in the egg is the Cephalogonimus ovaius (Distoma ova- 
 tum), a small fluke which has its habitat in the bursa of Fabriciu.5. More 
 rarely, the common round worm known as the Heterakis perspicillum 
 {Heterakis inflexa, Ascaris inflexa) is observed. These two worms evi- 
 dently pass into the oviduct from the cloaca. Various fungi and bacteria 
 arc also found in eggs. Among these may be mentioned the chicken cholera 
 bacillus, and probably the bacilli of fowl diphtheria and avian tuberculosis. 
 These facts need not influence any one to avoid eggs as an article of diet, 
 since all of these parasites are destroyed by a comparatively low tempera- 
 ture and cooking would remove any danger that might possibly exist. The . 
 presence of certain micro-organisms in eggs leads to early decomposition. 
 It is important, for the production of good eggs, that cleanliness and sani- 
 tary conditions be enforced in every poultry-yard. ; 
 
 Sanguineous Eggs. Occasionally small bloodclots are found in eggs, 
 usually in the albumen. These result from a slight hemorrhage which has 
 generally occurred in the upper two-thirds of the oviduct. In rare cases 
 the hemorrhage may have taken place in the ovary and then the blood 
 will be found either upon the surface of or within the yolk. Such hemor- 
 rhages are the result of great functional activity and congestion of the 
 b'ood vessels of the reproductive organs. They are excited by any of the 
 causes which led to congestion and inflammation and are to be counter- 
 acted by green feed, less animal food, and suppression' of condiments. In 
 special cases medium doses of perchloride of iron or ergot may be found 
 useful. 
 
 Eggs Without Shells. The production of eggs without shells, or 
 the so-called soft-shell eggs, may be due either to a lack of shell-making 
 material or to inflammation of the shell-forming chamber of the oviduct 
 which no longer secretes calcareous matter. ' It is, also, said that fright 
 may cause the premature expulsion of an egg' before the shell has been 
 deposited. Eggs without shells are more difficult to lay than are those 
 which are perfect, and, hence, they are frequently retained a considerable 
 time in the uterus, adding to the irritation and inflammation. As treatment 
 in these cases, it is sufficient to remove the cause. Give the fowls plenty 
 of shell-forming material such as wheat bran, crushed egg shells, cut or 
 calcined bone, broken mortar, crushed oyster shells, etc. Give green food 
 and avoid the causes of inflammation of the oviduct. 
 
100 
 
 DISEASES OP POULTRY 
 
 Eggs With Two Yolks. Eggs are frequently found in which there 
 are two yolks, and these are popularly known as double-yolk eggs-.' They 
 are the result of two ovarian capsules becoming ruptured : at' about the 
 same time, and the yolks descending the oviduct so near together that both 
 are included in the same shell. Eggs with -two yolks are generally larger 
 than others, and there is more danger . that . they will cause injury to the 
 oviduct. Some hens are habitual layers- of such eggs. If incubated, 
 double-yolk eggs generally produce twins,- . double chicks, or monsters. All 
 such abnormalities are not developed from these eggs, however, as it has 
 been shown by Davaine that a single yolk may contain two germs and 
 give birth to two embryos united in some part of the body. 
 
 Incomplete or Aborted Eggs. - It is common for hens to drop eggs 
 of only half or a third the diameter of those usually produced. These 
 diminutive productions, often about the size of a pigeon's egg, are provided 
 with a shell sometimes more dense than that- of the normal egg. On ex- 
 amination they are found to contain albumen but no yolk. In some cases 
 they contain little but the albumenous membranes twisted so tightly that 
 they have been taken' for worms. 
 
 The production of these incomplete eggs is an evidence of irritation in 
 the central portion of the oviduct. It shows that the albumen is secreted 
 without the normal stimuious that is given by the presence of a yolk, and 
 passing down the tube to the uetrus is there covered with a shell. The 
 hen laying such eggs should be removed from the flock, kept quiet and 
 treated as recommended for inflammation of the oviduct. 
 
 Eggs Within Eggs. This anomaly, which has been a matter of 
 record for something like two hundred years, is closely related to the one 
 just considered, and is of not unfrequent occurrence. The inclosed egg 
 is a small one, with a shell and -contains only albumen. Its production is 
 easily explained. On account of irritation of trie central portion of the 
 oviduct, albumen is secreted without the presence of a yolk ; this albumen 
 is pressed by the contractions of the tube downwards to the uterus where 
 a shell is deposited upon it. In the effort to expel this small egg irregular 
 contractions are induced which force it upwards for a certain distance 
 where it meets a. yolk surrounded with albumen, or a second mass of albu- 
 men without a yolk, becomes imbedded in this soft albumen and a mem- 
 brane and shell are formed around the whole. The compound egg thus 
 formed is usually of normal size. These abnormalities which have excited 
 much wonder in persons ignorant of the physiology of egg production, are 
 in reality very easily understood, and the experienced poultryman will 
 draw the conclusion from their frequent repetition that his flock is being 
 forced beyond the limit of safety. 
 
CHAPTER VII 
 
 Diseases of the Brain 
 
 Cerebral Hyperacmia, Congestion of the Brain, Vertigo — Hemorrhage of 
 Brain, Apoplexy — Epilepsy. 
 
 CEREBRAL HYPERAEMIA, CONGESTION OF THE BRAIN 
 
 VERTIGO. 
 
 CONGESTION of the brain is a disease quite frequently seen with 
 poultry. It may occur in fat and plethoric birds by fright or indiges- 
 tion. It is frequently associated with irritation of the intestines by parasitic 
 worms. It is seen particularly in male birds during the breeding season and 
 in chickens expo:ed to the hot rays of the sun: ' It may,' also, occur as the 
 result of blows upon the head and as a complication with infectious diseases 
 such as cholera. 
 
 The symptoms are giddiness which leads the bird to throw its head up- 
 wards and backwards or to bend the neck to one side. The gait is 
 staggering and uncertain, the bird walking backwards, sidewise or in a 
 circle. Sometimes irregular and unusual movements are made, or the bird 
 falls to the ground fluttering and making convulsive movements with the 
 legs, or may lie for some minutes powerless to move. In some cases there 
 are epileptiform spasms which may often be stopped by a touch, in other 
 cases there is great stupefaction and drowsiness. 
 
 As treatment apply cold water or ice to the head and hold it in posi- 
 tion until the head is thoroughly cooled. Give internally 30 grains of 
 Epsom salts, or one and one-half grains of calomel, or two teaspoonfuls of 
 castor oil. Keep the affected bird in a quiet, cool, and shady place. If 
 there is not entire recovery under this treatment, try bromide of potassium 
 one to five grains three times a day dissolved in a tablespoonful of water. 
 In case of intestinal parasites endeavor to dislodge these with appropriate 
 remedies. 
 
 Hemorrhage of the Brain, Apoplexy. Apoplexy is the result of a 
 rupture of one of the blood vessels of the brain and pressure from the 
 escaped blood. Such accidents are attributed to stimulating food, to over- 
 feeding and mechanical injuries, to violent exertion and to straining in 
 laying eggs (hens being sometimes found dead on the nest from this 
 
 cause ) . 
 
 There are no premonitory symptoms in this disease. The bird is at- 
 tacked suddenly, falls nearly or quite insensib'e, or dies upon the nest. 
 
 101 
 
lu ^ DISEASES OF POULTRY 
 
 In most cases, treatment is impossible as the bird dies before it can be 
 administered. In mild attacks the treatment should be the same as recom- 
 mended for congestion of the brain. As preventive measures, regulate 
 the rations and give plenty of exercise. 
 
 Epilepsy. Epilepsy is a disease characterized by convulsive attacks 
 with loss of consciousness, which occur from time to time and are popu- 
 larly known as fits. It is sometimes caused by pressure upon the brain 
 (tumors), sometimes by intestinal parasites, and often no apparent cause 
 can be discovered. 
 
 When attacked the bird falls to the ground, the legs and wings arc 
 
 . moved convulsively, it may lie upon the back or abdomen, with the legs 
 
 spread, the head thrown back, the bill and eyelids opening and closing 
 
 alternately, and the eyeball turned backwards. After a time, the attack 
 
 subsides and the bird resumes its usual appearance. 
 
 Treatment is not very successful unless it ij found that the trouble is 
 due to intestinal worms. Otherwise, unless the bird is very valuable for 
 show purposes, it is better that it should be destroyed when the symptoms 
 of epilepsy are first observed. Some recommend bromide of potash 3 to 5 
 grains two or three times a day. 
 
CHAPTER VIII 
 
 Diseases of the Heart and Blood Vessels 
 
 Pericarditis, Inflammation of the Pericardium, Dropsy of the Heart Sac — 
 Endocarditis, Inflammation of the Internal Membrane of the Heart — 
 Hypertrophy of the Heart — Rupture of the Heart and Large Blood 
 Vessels. ■ ■ 
 
 PERICARDITIS, INFLAMMATION OF THE PERICARDIUM, 
 DROPSY OF THE HEART SAC 
 
 THIS disease is quite common with poultry, and is often found associated 
 with inflammation of the lining membrane of the heart, with enlarge- 
 ment of the heart, with inflammation of the lungs and air sacs, and with 
 roreness of the joints. Cadeac and Megnin are of the opinion on account 
 of the coexistence of these different troubles that the pericarditis of birds 
 is often of a rheumatic nature. 
 
 Symptoms. — There is great weakness, difficult breathing, the head be- 
 ing thrown backwards, and the breath drawn through the mouth in order 
 to obtain sufficient air. If forced to run the bird soon falls. In a case 
 observed by Hill there was tumultuous action of the heart and occasional 
 spasms. 
 
 Examination after death shows the pericardium or heart sac distended 
 with a considerable quantity of liquid which has been thrown out as a 
 consequence of the inflammation. There are, also, in many cases, thick 
 false membranes adherent to both the heart and pericardium and some- 
 times uniting the two. 
 
 Treatment. — The disease is usually not recognized in a bird until it is 
 examined after death. If there are repeated cases in the same flock it is 
 an indication of exposure to sudden changes of temperature, or to extreme 
 cold and dampness, and these conditions should be removed. Give two to 
 four grains of bicarbonate of soda to each bird daily in the drinking water. 
 
 Endocarditis, Inflammation of the Internal Membrane of the Heart. 
 
 The delicate membrane lining the interior of the auricles and ventricles 
 is subject to inflammation as well as the pericardium, but much less fre- 
 quently. The symptoms are not to be distinguished in fowls from those 
 of pericarditis. On examination after death the internal surface of the 
 heart is found reddened and deposits of coagulated lymph adhering to it. 
 What has been said as to the cause and treatment of pericarditis in fowls 
 applies equally to this disease. 
 
 103 
 
lu * DISEASES OF POULTRY 
 
 Hypertrophy of the Heart. Hypertrophy or enlargement of the 
 heart has been sometimes seen in fowls and particularly in pigeons. It 
 appears to be partly due to the great timidity of pigeons with which the 
 least fright is sufficient to cause palpitations. 
 
 Symptoms. The symptoms of hypertrophy are violent beating of the 
 heart which is sometimes so extreme as to cause rupture of blood vessels 
 and the escape of blood from several points on the body at the same time. 
 Hypertrophy affects most frequently the walls and valves of the right side 
 of the heart (Cadeac).- 
 
 Rupture of the Heart and Large Blood Vessels. Rupture of the 
 heart or large vessels accompanied by . fatal hemorrhage appears to be 
 quite common with birds. The cause is overexertion in trying to escape 
 when being chased, or it may be due to compression of small birds in the 
 hands, or to other injuries. It is most common in full blooded or plethoric 
 individuals. Cadeac has noted its occurrence twice with birds affected with 
 diphtheria. This accident results in speedy death, and can neither be 
 foreseen nor treated. Megnin recommends that parrots, on account of 
 being predisposed to this trouble, should constantly be given, for drink, 
 water which has been made alkaline with bicarbonate of soda. 
 
CHAPTER IX 
 
 Parasites and Diseases of the Skin 
 
 The Epizoa or Parasites Living upon the External Surface of the Body — 
 Scabies or Mange of the Body — Scabies Caused by Epidermoptes — 
 Scabies Caused by Sarcoptes, Depluming Scabies — Favus — Chicken Pox, 
 Sore Head, Pigeon Pox. 
 
 THE EPIZOA OR PARASITES LIVING UPON THE EXTERNAL 
 SURFACE OF THE BODY 
 
 OUR domesticated birds are liable to be infested with a considerable 
 number of species of external parasites. These parasites living upon 
 the surface of the body are grouped as epizoa. Space will not permit a de- 
 tailed description of the various species, but the following list gives the 
 scientific name, the popular name, when possible, and the kind of bird 
 infested : 
 
 Group I. Epizoa Which Suck Blood or Gnaw the Flesh. 
 Pulex avium. The bird flea. Fowls, pigeons, and many other birds. 
 Acanthia columbaria. Dove-cote bug. Fowls and pigeons. 
 
 Dermestes lardarius J Larvee 1 
 
 Tenebrio molitor I „r ' v 
 
 ... . ,. . } ot V Young pigeons. 
 
 _ Necrophorus) Various Cokoptera 
 
 Silpha ) species. I > 
 
 Argas reflexus. Pigeon tick. Pigeons. 
 
 Leptus autumnalis. Harvest bug. Fowls. 
 
 Dermanyssus gallinae. Red mite. Poultry, pigeons, and house birds. 
 Group II. Epizoa Which Cause Scabies or Mange. 
 
 Epidermoptes bifurcatus. Fowls. 
 
 Epidermoptes bilobatus. Fowls. 
 
 Sarcoptes laevis, var. gaUinae. Scab mite. Fowls. 
 
 Sarcoptes laevis, var. columbae. Scab mite. . Pigeons. 
 
 Sarcoptes mutans. Leg scabies mite. Fowls, Guinea fowls, turkeys, 
 and cage birds. 
 Group III. Epizoa Which Live in the Connective Tissue of Air Sacs. 
 
 Cytodites nudus. Air sac mite. Fowls. 
 
 Harpirhynchus nidulans. Connective tissue mite. Pigeons. 
 
 Laminosioptes cysticola. Connective tissue" mite. Fowls. 
 
 Falciger rostratus. Pigeons. 
 
IUD DISEASES OF POULTRY 
 
 Group IV. Epizoa Which Live Upon or Within the Feathers, or Upon 
 
 the Skin, Some Being Inoffensive, While Others Injure the 
 
 Plumage or Cause Itching. 
 
 Goniodes dissimilis. Louse. Fowls. 
 
 Goniodes stylifer. .Louse. Guinea fowls and turkeys. 
 
 Goniodes falcicornis. Louse. Peacocks. 
 
 Goniodes minor. Louse. Pigeons. 
 
 Goniodes numidianus. Louse. Guinea fowls. 
 
 Goniodes parviceps. Louse. Peacocks. 
 
 Goniocotes gigas. Louse. Fowls. 
 
 Goniocotes hologaster. Louse. Fowls. 
 
 Goniocotes rcctangulatus. Louse. Guinea fowls and peacocks. 
 
 Lipeurus anatis. Louse. Ducks. 
 
 Lipeurus ansevis. Louse. Geese. 
 
 Lipeurus caponis. Louse. Fowls and Guinea fowls. 
 
 Lipeurus columbae. Louse. Pigeons. 
 
 Lipeurus crassicornis. Louse. Geese. 
 
 Lipeurus heterographus. Louse. Fowls. 
 
 Lipeurus numidae. Louse. Guinea fowls. 
 
 Lipeurus meleagridis. Louse. Turkeys. 
 
 Menopon biseriatum. Louse. Fowls and Turkeys. 
 
 Menopon latum. Louse. Pigeons. 
 
 Menopon numidae. Louse. Guinea fowls. 
 
 Menopon pallidum. Louse. Fowls. 
 
 Menopon phaeostomum. Louse. Peacocks. 
 
 Docophorus icterodes. Louse. Ducks and geese. 
 
 Trinoton anseris. Louse. Geese. 
 
 Trinoton continuum. Louse. Geese. 
 
 Trinoton luriditm. Louse. Ducks. 
 
 Trinoton lituratum. Louse. Geese. 
 
 Colpocephalum turbinatuin. Louse. Pigeons. 
 
 Cheyletiella heteropaipa. Mite. Pigeons. 
 
 Syringophilus bipectinatus. Mite. Fowls, Guinea fowls and pigeons. 
 
 Syringophilus uncinatus. Mite. Peacocks. 
 
 Dermoglyphus elongatus. Mite. Fowls and Guinea fowls. 
 
 Dermoglyphus minor. Mite. Fowls and Guinea fowls. 
 
 Dermoglyphus various. Mite. Guinea fowls. 
 
 Freyana anatina. Mite. Ducks. 
 
 Freyana chanayi. Mite. Turkeys. 
 
 Meginia asternalis. Mite. Fowls and Pigeons. 
 
 Megninia cubitalis. Mite. Fowls. 
 
 Megninia ginglymura. Mite. Turkeys. 
 
 Megninia velata. Mite. Ducks. 
 
 Pterolichus obtuses. Mite. Fowls. 
 
 Pterolichus uncinatus. Mite. Turkeys. 
 
 Pterophagus strictus. Mite. Pigeons. 
 
 General Considerations. We have grouped together, as epizoa which 
 
DISEASES OP POULTRY 
 
 107 
 
 suck blood or gnaw the flesh, a number of parasites which produce some- 
 what similar effects, although, zoologically speaking, these pests differ 
 very widely. They resemble each other in that they do not remain con- 
 stantly upon the birds, most of the varieties hiding about the roosts or 
 houses during the day, and coming out of their concealment to make 
 their attacks by night. They puncture the skin, and suck blood for their 
 nourishment. The coleopterous larvae gnaw the skin, and even the super- 
 ficial muscles of the neck and abdomen of young pigeons, producing serious 
 wounds and often causing death. 
 
 The bird flea is most commonly found tormenting pigeons and more 
 rarely attacks fowls. The dovecote bug closely resembles the ordinary 
 bedbug, and is thought by some to be identical with it. When the pigeon 
 and poultry-houses become infested with this insect, it multiplies rapidly 
 and is extremely pernicious in its effects. The tick also lives in the 
 pigeon-cotes, and hides during the day in the cracks and holes, coming out 
 at night to attack the birds. . Young pigeons are the preferred victims, 
 and so much blood is taken from them that they die of exhaustion in from 
 ten to fifteen days. The older birds are driven from their nests when 
 sitting, and altogether it may be said that pigeon raising becomes difficult 
 or impossible while these pests are allowed to remain. They are found 
 most frequently on the neck or beneath the breast, but may fasten them- 
 selves to the skin of any part of the body. The mature females are about 
 one-fourth inch in length. These parasites may wander a considerable 
 distance, and are sometimes found in adjacent fowl-houses, and even in 
 dwelling-houses. They are said not to trouble fowls, but as they some- 
 times bite children or even grown people, causing painful swellings, it 
 would not be surprising if it were found that they occasionally also 
 attack poultry. 
 
 This tick lives a long time without fo^d of any kind, and it may sub- 
 sist for generations on dead organic matter. It is, therefore, a troublesome 
 peot to exterminate when it is once established on any premises. 
 
 The harvest bug is a minute red insect about one-sixtieth of an inch 
 long, which is common in some sections in the Summer and Fall. It pre- 
 ferably attacks small animals, but often swarms upon man if its habitat 
 is invaded. It punctures and even penetrates the skin, causing small 
 swellings and almost insupportable itching. Fowls are sometimes attacked, 
 the effects being most serious with chickens hatched late in Summer or 
 in the Autumn. The parasites fix themselves to the skin at the base of 
 the feathers producing such intense irritation as to induce epileptiform 
 symptoms leading to death in a few days. The mortality from this cause 
 is sometimes considerable. 
 
 The red mite, or dermanyssus gallinae, is the most common and most 
 perniciously active of all the parasites which attack birds. It is from 1-35 
 to 1-40 inch in length, yellowish, white, or dark red in color according as 
 it is fasting or is more or less filled with blood. This parasite hides by day 
 in the crevices and corners of the buildings, nests, perches, floors, etc., 
 where it may be found in great clusters, and at night the individuals com- 
 
108 
 
 DISEASES OF POULTRY 
 
 posing these clusters scatter themselves over the birds, and by pricking 
 the skin fill themselves with blood; They are injurious not only on account 
 of the blood which is abstracted, but because of the itching, pain, and- loss 
 of rest which is a necessary consequence of their activity. 
 
 Young pigeons, chickens, and cage birds are the greatest sufferers ; 
 their skin becomes pale and bloodless, they lose their usual vigor and 
 alertness, become emaciated, and may finally die from exhaustion. The 
 red mite is not usually found upon the fowls when they are examined dur- 
 ing the day, for its natural tendency is to confine its foraging to the 
 night, but when it is allowed to multiply until very abundant the fowls 
 are infested both day and night, and it becomes, apparently at least, a per- 
 manent parasite. According to Zurn, these mites sometimes enter the 
 nasal cavities of young pigeons and chickens and set up a" catarrhal 
 inflammation, and they have also been found in the external opening of 
 the ear. 
 
 The red mite may get upon people and cause considerable itching and 
 some irritation of the skin; and it may, also, attack horses and other 
 animals stabled near the poultry-roosts. It causes horses to rub and bite 
 themselves, the hair over the affected places is lost, and there is an erup- 
 tion similar to that which occurs in the common mange. 
 
 The epizoa of our second group are all mites. The Epidermoptes cause 
 a form of scabies characterized by the production of dry, grayish-yellow 
 crusts or scales. The disease is seen on any part of the body, but only 
 rarely about the head. 
 
 The Sarcoptes laevis produces the true scabies of fowls and pigeons. 
 The skin is not much affected but the feathers break and are shed from 
 the affected surfaces. This disease and the scabies of the legs will be 
 treated with all necessary detail at the end of the general article on the 
 epizoa. 
 
 The animal parasites, which live in the connective tissue and air sacs 
 might, perhaps, be more properly placed among the entozoa. They are 
 all mites, and some of them pass a portion of their existence upon the 
 surface of the body. It is most convenient, therefore, to consider them in 
 connection with the other mites. The Cytodites nudus lives in the air sacs 
 and connective tissue of fowls and pheasants. They are found in the 
 trachea, bronchi, lungs, and the various air sacs including those of the 
 bones. They have also been reported as found in the thoracic and peritoneal 
 cavities. Some authors state that they have observed them in yellow, 
 miliary tubercles of the body cavities, lungs, liver, and kidneys. Large 
 numbers of the Cytodites may exist in the air sacs without their presence 
 being suspected during the life of the bird. When they are very numer- 
 ous in the bronchi they cause irritation of the mucuous membrane, catarrh 
 and coughing. Megnin states that they may cause death by congestion and 
 obstruction of the bronchial tubes. Gerlach and Zundel believe that the 
 Cytodites may cause enteritis and peritonitis. In small numbers these mites 
 are not very injurious, but when birds are badly infested they become 
 
DISEASES OF POULTRY 
 
 109 
 
 anaemic, lose flesh, stop laying eggs, show catarrhal symptoms, droop and 
 die. 
 
 The Harpirhynchus nitiulans lives in tumors of the s'kin on pigeons and 
 sparrows. When present in small numbers only it is nearly harmless, 
 and, at most, causes slight local irritation and disturbance to the growth 
 of the feathers. If very numerous, there is impaired nutrition, loss of 
 flesh, and frequently a fatal ending. 
 
 The Laminasioptes cysticola lives in the connective tissue of the Galli- 
 naceae where it may cause irritation and the formation of tubercles, in the 
 center of which are found the mites. They often exist without affecting 
 the health of the birds, but when in large numbers there are the usual 
 symptoms produced by the epizoa, i. c, blpodlessness, weakness, loss of 
 flesh, and" finally, death. 
 
 The Falciger rostratus of the pigeon, which is really one of the feather 
 mites, is able to introduce itself into the connective tissue beneath the skin, 
 which it enters by way of the feather follicles, and there spends a portion 
 of its life. Robertson examined a considerable number of both wild and 
 tame pigeons and rarely found the connective tissue free from this parasite. 
 He found it chiefly in the subcutaneous connective tissue around the large 
 veins of the neck, and on the surface of the pericardium. No disturb- 
 ance of the health has been observed to result from the presence of this 
 parasite. 
 
 Passing now to the fourth group of epizoa, those which live upon, 
 or within, or among the feathers, but do not bite or puncture the skin, we 
 find included an extensive list of lice and mites. The lice of birds belong 
 exclusively to the pennivorous varieties, that is, they subsist upon the 
 feathers, and perhaps also upon the epidermic scales, but they do not suck 
 blood. It is a curious fact that the blood-sucking lice all live upon the 
 mammalia. The lice of birds vary greatly in size, the largest varieties 
 being one-sixth of an inch long, and the smallest not more than one-thir- 
 tieth of an inch in length. 
 
 Young chickens hatched under hens nearly always have lice upon them. 
 These are found upon the head and under the throat, where they have 
 fixed themselves to the feathers near to the skin, and may be mistaken for 
 pin-feathers upon superficial examination. When badly infested, the para- 
 sites may also be seen under the wings and about the vent. A number 
 of different kinds of lice may be found at one time on the same bird, and 
 it may also be added, each species of birds has its own species of lice. 
 The lice are more or less injurious to the plumage of infested birds, they 
 cause itching by roaming over the skin, and they prevent the birds from 
 obtaining their proper rest. 
 
 The mites of the fourth group cause little or no inconvenience to the 
 birds which they infest. Some live between the barbules of the feathers, 
 others live within the quills, and these are sometimes cal'ed feather mites. 
 The Cheyletus lives at the base of the feathers. The Syringophilus lives 
 within the quills of the tail, the wing, and the wing coverts. The quills 
 of the affected feathers lose their transparency and are filled with an opaque 
 
110 
 
 DISEASES OF POULTRY 
 
 powder, which, upon microscopial examination, is found to consist of the 
 parasites, their excreta, the skins which they have shed and the debris 
 of the interior of the quill. It is supposed that this alteration of the 
 feather has no effect upon the health of the bird. The Dermoglyphus and 
 Pterolichus also live within the quills. 
 
 Symptoms. Small chickens do not thrive, and if badly infested they 
 droop and die. The larger chickens and grown birds, when severely tor- 
 mented by external parasites, lose flesh, the skin and comb become pale 
 and bloodless ; the birds are scratching, picking and dusting themselves 
 continually. Unable to rest either day or night, and losing comparatively 
 large quantities of blood, the birds rapidly become emaciated, sitting hens 
 forsake their nests, the feathers become broken and drop out, and the 
 skin becomes abraded and sore. The fowls no longer thrive, egg pro- 
 duction is greatly diminished or arrested, and occasionally a bird is found 
 dead. 
 
 By opening the feathers carefully about the head, neck, under the wings, 
 or about the vent of the fowls, lice may be seen moving about. Persons 
 going about the roosting-places are covered with the vermin, and an ex- 
 amination of the roosts and crevices of the building near the roosts will 
 reveal large clusters of the red mites, some of which are light yellow in 
 color, but the most are dark red and gorged with blood. 
 
 The existence of such pests as the bird flea and the dove-cote bug can 
 only be determined by careful examination of the poultry-houses and 
 pigeon-cotes. The coleoptera larvae should be suspected in case sores 
 are found upon the breast and neck of young pigeons. When pigeons are 
 troubled with ticks, these parasites are often found attached to the skin on 
 some part of the. bird's body. 
 
 When the skin is irritated, inflamed, and covered with scurf, scales 
 and crusts, with loss of feathers, or if the feathers are shed when the 
 birds are not normally molting, an examination should be made for the 
 mites which cause scabies. If the legs become enlarged, roughened, and 
 scaly the effects of the Sarcoptes mutans are indicated. The discovery of 
 small nodules in the skin or of miliary tubercles on the serous membranes, 
 in the connective tissue, lungs, or other organs should be followed by an 
 examination with a hand lens to determine if these are due to the air-sac 
 or connective-tissue mites. 
 
 Diagnosis. It may be said that the diagnosis or determination of 
 such disorders is easily made and unmistakable, if a careful search is made 
 for the parasites. In one sense this is true, but birds are often unthrifty, 
 leave their nests, or even die from the effects of lice or mites without the 
 true cause being suspected. People either neglect to look for the para- 
 sites, and attribute their trouble to cholera ; or if they observe a few lice 
 they conclude that these are normally present with birds and give them 
 no further thoughts. It is only after a careful examination of the roost- 
 ing places by taking down the roosts and removing loose boards and thus 
 uncovering the parasites that the extent of the plague can be appreciated. 
 It should be remembered at all times that the external animal parasites are 
 
DISEASES OP POULTRY 
 
 111 
 
 Fig. 3>%.—Menopon biseriatum. 
 (Fowls.) 
 
 the most common and frequent cause of trouble in the poultry-yard and 
 pigeon-cote. If the birds are not thriving and conducting themselves 
 satisfactorily, look for theoe pests, take measures to repress them, and in 
 most cases the results will be surprising and 
 gratifying. When anything is the matter 
 with a horse the maximum is examine his 
 ' feet, and when anything is found wrong with 
 poultry or other domesticmed birds, the 
 maximum should be look for nee. 
 
 Causation. The louse plague is the re- 
 suit of contagion. The paiasites are intro- 
 duced upon birds, and they multiply and in- 
 crease to a remarkable extent when the con- 
 ditions are favorable. It has been estimated 
 that the second generation from a single 
 louse may number twenty-five hundred indi- 
 viduals, and the third generation may reach 
 the enormous number of one hundred and 
 twenty-five thousand, and all of these may 
 be produced in the course of eight weeks. 
 It is not surprising, therefore, that, although 
 birds have so few parasites upon them when 
 well cared for that these insects can not be discovered, a few weeks 
 of neglect and unfavorable surroundings may bring an entire change 
 and reveal them covered with vermin, ex- 
 hausted and emaciated. 
 
 It is not many years since there was a 
 general belief in the spontaneous genera- 
 tion of lice from accumulations of dirt and 
 filth, and a remnant of this belief still 
 lingers in many minds. We may now safe- 
 ly banish any tendency to this antiquated 
 theory which we may have inherited or 
 acquired through the influence of tradition. 
 The theory of spontaneous generation was 
 first exploded as applied to crocodiles and 
 reptiles of the tropical swamps and rivers; 
 still later it was shown to be untrue with 
 regard to lice and other insects, and finally 
 it was disproved in relation to the very 
 smallest organisms that are revealed by the 
 highest powers of the microscope. Today it is admitted by all scient- 
 ists that every living thing is descended from a living parent of the 
 same nature. 
 
 The different species of lice and mites are as easily distinguished from 
 each other by experts as are the different species of birds. Their peculiari- 
 ties are inherited from generation to generation, and they continue to live 
 
 Tig. 39,—Mmofon latum. 
 (Pigeons.) 
 
112 
 
 DISEASES OF POULTRY 
 
 upon the same species of birds. The hens, the turkeys, the pigeons, the 
 ducks, the geese, and the Guinea fowls each have their peculiar specie:; 
 of lice which live upon them alone, and there are but comparatively few 
 kinds of lice which live upon two or more species of birds. We may, 
 consequently, favor the multiplication of lice by making the conditions 
 favorable for them, but we can not produce lice where none exist. 
 
 The conditions which favor the multiplication of lice and other external 
 parasites are found partly in the birds and partly in the surroundings. 
 Unhealthy or unthrifty birds, or those which from any cause lack 
 strength and vigor are most subject to the attacks of such parasites, and 
 may be found literally covered with them when other members of the 
 flock are comparatively free from their attacks. . For similar reasons some 
 varieties of birds are much more likely to be infested with vermin under 
 the same conditions than are others. There are birds so strong, healthy 
 and vigorous that lice can not thrive upon them. ■ Exercise, proper feed- 
 ing, pure air, all have a tendency to keep the birds in a condition un- 
 favorable to the existence of the parasites. On the other hand accumula- 
 tions of manure and filth, close confinement of the birds, lack of dusting 
 places, buildings with crevices in which the insects may hide, and damp, 
 dark and badly ventilated houses are conditions which favor the parasites 
 and lead to their rapid development. 
 
 The pouitry-yard may be kept practically 
 free from these insect pests, but there is always 
 a liability of their introduction with purchased 
 fowls or with birds that have become infested 
 at shows and other places. Contagion must, 
 therefore, be accepted as th*. cause of this 
 plague, and it should be guarded against on 
 the same principles as are the infective ele- 
 ments of other communicable diseases. 
 
 Treatment. Young chickens hatched under 
 hens almost invariably have lice upon them and 
 should be treated as soon as removed from 
 the nests. An efficacious and safe remedy in 
 this case is pure lard. It should be carefully 
 rubbed into the feathers upon the top of the 
 head and under the throat. Lard obstructs the 
 breathing pores of the lice and soon kills them, 
 mixed with lard to increase its activity 
 as such young birds are very sensitive to the action of irritants and are 
 seriously injured by them. Some recommend mixing ' powdered sulphur 
 with the lard for this purpose; but it should on no account be used on 
 small chickens as it causes inflammation of the eyes and arrests the gro\v f h. 
 Pure lard is harmless and will kill the lice, consequent'}' it can be used 
 with full confidence. A small quantity may also be rubbed under the 
 wings, but this is not usually' considered necessary until the chicks are a 
 week or two old. 
 
 Fig. 40. — Lipeurus cohtmbae, 
 ■ (Pigeons.) 
 
 Nothing should be 
 
DISEASES OF POULTRY 
 
 113 
 
 Tig. 41. — Coniodes dissimilis. 
 ("'owls.) 
 
 Chickens hatched in the incubator should be free from lice, and will 
 be unless the incubator has in some way become infected. It is well to 
 examine even incubator chicks occasionally for lice as the incubator or 
 brooder may have these insects introduced into them in various ways and 
 then become favorable places for the growth of the parasites as well as 
 for the development of the birds. The older birds, but not the hens with 
 a young chickens, may be anointed about the 
 heads, under the wings, and around the vent 
 with an ointment made by thoroughly mix- 
 ing a teaspoonful of flowers of sulphur with 
 an ounce of lard. Some use instead of this 
 ointment or in combination with it insecticide 
 powder, which is blown or dusted into the 
 feathers. This operation is best performed 
 by holding the bird by the legs, head down- 
 wards, so that the tendency of the feathers 
 will be to fall away from the body. Then 
 apply the powder thoroughly with a dredging 
 box or a powder bellows. If the bird is held 
 over a large piece of paper the powder which 
 fails to adhere to the feathers and skin can 
 be saved and used a second time. The pow- 
 ders most generally used for this purpose are 
 pyrethrum, stavesacre seeds, and flowers of 
 sulphur. It is considered a good plan to moisten the roots of the feathers 
 with soapy water in order to make the pyrethrum or stavesacre powder 
 adhere. Some poultrymen dip their fowls in a solution containing one 
 per cent carbolic acid. This solution is made by 
 mixing 1J4 ounces of pure carbolic acid with 1 gal- 
 lon of hot water. Larger quantities may be made in 
 the same proportion. The solution is allowed to cool 
 and is then put in a vessel suitable for immersing 
 the bird to be treated. The fowls should be held in 
 this liquid for about a minute and care should be^ 
 taken to wet every portion of the body and head. 
 Creolin will probably prove more satisfactory for this 
 treatment than carbolic acid, as it is equally effica- 
 cious in killing insects, but is less poisonous to birds 
 and the odor is less objectionable to the operator. 
 It is used in the strength of 2y 2 ounces mixed with a 
 gallon of water. 
 
 The treatment of the birds with some of the sub- '^'^Jg™*' 
 stances mentioned, although it is indispensable for the 
 control of the parasites, is not alone sufficient. The buildings must 
 receive prompt attention and thorough treatment. The droppings should 
 be carefully removed and mixed with fine, dry road dust, ashes or 
 lime. Fine dust is' destructive to the lice and hence should be plenti- 
 
 F\<r. 42.- 
 
DISEASES OP POULTRY 
 
 Fig. 43.- 
 
 Menppon pallidum. 
 
 (Fowls.) 
 
 fully used about the buildings, and given to the fowls in boxes so 
 large that they can thoroughly dust themselves in it. Pyrethrum 
 and sulphur may be mixed with the dust in such boxes and render it 
 more deadly to the insects. 
 
 The floor of the poultry-house or pigeon-cote should be thoroughly 
 scraped, and covered with fresh sand or road dust. The roosts and all 
 loose pieces of wood should be removed and 
 then the whole inside" and also the parts which 
 have been removed should be well wetted by 
 spraying with a solution made by dissolving 6 
 ounces of crude carbolic acid to the gallon of 
 water. This should be mixed with the water at 
 nearly the boiling point as carbolic acid does not 
 readily mix with cold water. At least once a 
 year the inside woodwork and walls should be 
 given a good coat of lime-wash to which 4 ounces 
 of crude carbolic acid for each gallon has been 
 added. The nests shou'd also be cleaned out, 
 drenched with boiling water or carbolic solution, 
 and when dry sprinkled with insecticide powder 
 and bedded with fresh straw. The carbolic 
 preparations should always be used in the morn- 
 ing and the buildings thoroughly ventilated during the day so that 
 the odor will not be so strong as to be injurious to the birds at night. 
 The treatment recommended above, if thoroughly carried out, is 
 sufficient to keep the troublesome external parasites 
 cither eradicated or under such control that they will 
 not prove injurious. For convenience various other 
 methods have been devised which are more or less 
 effectual. Some throw dry lime dust against the roof 
 and walls of the building; others fumigate by burn- 
 ing sulphur and leaving the doors and windows closed 
 for a few hours, there being, of course, no birds left 
 inside at the time; still others fumigate by placing 
 open bottles of bisulphide of carbon about the poul- 
 try-house. Aniseed is distasteful to most of the 
 vermin of birds, and is an excellent remedy when 
 powdered and dusted into the feathers, or when strewn 
 into the nest boxes. A small quantity of the es- 
 sential oil mixed with hot water renders this more 
 effectual in destroying the mites about the roosts, nests and other 
 woodwork. The essential oil may also be mixed with olive oil and 
 rubbed upon those parts of the birds most frequented by lice; and in 
 case of catarrh caused by the red mite this mixture may be introduced 
 into the nasal passages with a small feather. 
 
 In case the larva? of the Coleoptcra attack the young pigeons, the houses 
 should be cleaned as thoroughly as possible, in the manner which has been 
 
 Fig. 44.- 
 Gotnototi-s 
 
 lialeiraster. 
 (Fowls'.) 
 
DISEASES OF POULTRY 
 
 115 
 
 Fig. 45.— DermijnyrsuS geltinx. 
 
 (Red mite.) Magnified 75 etUmcters. 
 
 Upper surface. 
 
 specified, and the nests and floor should be strewn with a mixture of equal 
 parts of pine sawdust and sand. 
 
 When the Argas or pigeon tick is introduced upon a premises it must 
 be destroyed by every possible means. The ticks should be carefully picked 
 
 lrcm the birds,' so that the head (ros- 
 trum) will not be left in the wound. 
 They should " then be crushed or 
 burned. The ' infested pigeon-cotes 
 should be thoroughly cleaned, scalded 
 and whitewashed. Insecticide, powder 
 should be freely used upon the birds 
 and nests. 
 
 The harvest bug may be destroyed 
 and kept away from fowls if creolin, 
 carbolic or sulphur ointment is freely 
 used upon the birds. 
 
 The Epidermoptes are. -.combated 
 with creolin dips, and sulphur oint- 
 ment. 
 
 The mites which live in the air 
 sacs and connective tissue can not be 
 reached by any kind of medication. 
 They can only be eradicated from the flock by constant attention to 
 all the details necessary to ensure cleanliness, by killing affected birds 
 and by burning their carcasses. 
 
 Scabies of Mange of the Body. Two 
 varieties of scabies have been described 
 as affecting the hoodies "of the domesti- 
 cated birds. One, form has been at- 
 tributed to mites of -the genus Epidermoptes 
 and the other is known to be" caused by the 
 Sarcoptes. These varieties being quite dis- 
 tinct will be described separately. 
 
 Scabies Caused by Epidermoptes. The 
 two species named Epidermoptes bilobatus 
 and Epidermoptes bifurcatus have been ob- 
 served by a number of authors, and their 
 presence is generally coincident with a 
 mange-like disease of the skin, although they 
 have also been discovered upon fowls ap- 
 parently free from this disease. There is, 
 consequently, some doubt as to whether these 
 mites produce ■ scabies, or whether they 
 are inoffensive. - The preponderance of evidence at present indicates, how- 
 ever, that they are the cause of the disease which has been attributed 
 to them. 
 
 Fiff. 46. — Dermanyssus gallina. 
 ;Red mite.) Magnified "5 
 
 diameters. Under surface. 
 
DISEASES OF POULTRY 
 
 The Epidermoptes are very small acarina, or mites which generally live 
 
 in the soft plumage or down at the surface of the skin. Usually they 
 are not numerous but under certain conditions they 
 multiply enormously. The skin of various parts of the 
 body or over the entire body, with the exception of the 
 head, becomes irritated, scurfy, and covered with large, 
 thin, yellowish or grayish scales or crusts which accumu- 
 late particularly at the base of the feathers. In rare in- 
 stances the head may be affected; but it is generally the 
 neck, breast, the region under the wings, and the wings 
 themselves, that are found diseased. 
 
 The appearance of the affected parts resembles close- 
 ly that seen in favus — the disease caused by the vegetable 
 parasite known as the Achorion Schonleinii. Some have, 
 therefore, suspected that the disease is really due to this 
 fungus and that the mites are innocent of pathogenic 
 action. The truth must be determined by future in- 
 
 . ,, Fig. 47.— vesications. 
 
 gallina. Scabies Caused by Sarcoptes — Depluming Scabies. 
 
 (Red mite). Eg-g This form of scabies was first observed by Railliet and 
 
 Mag-nifieif 7s'di- Cadiot, in 188S, on a Homing Pigeon from Brussels. It 
 
 ameters. was later found by Railliet to be a frequent affection of 
 
 fowls. It is caused by the "mite known as the 
 
 Sarcoptes laevis. The parasite found on the 
 
 pigeon is not exactly the same as that found 
 
 upon fowb although both belong to the same 
 
 species. The variety which lives upon the 
 
 pigeon is distinguished by the term columbae, 
 
 and that which lives upon fowls by the term 
 
 gallinac. The disease is most common in Spring 
 
 and Summer, disappearing in the Fall when 
 
 the birds molt, and is seen again towards Spring. 
 The principal symptom of this trouble 
 
 is a loss of feathers from spots of various 
 
 sizes, situated on different parts of the body. 
 
 The feathers break off at the surface of the 
 
 skin, and at the root of the feather is seen 
 
 a small mass of epidermic scales which is 
 
 easily crushed into powder. A microscopic 
 
 examination of this powder reveals numer- 
 
 ous mites and the debris which they produce, of^ fo^StetSS.^SflS 
 The disease appears in poultry-yards as ventral surface; magnified 100 
 
 a consequence of the introduction of one or lame ers * 
 
 more birds already affected. It is readily communicated, d:velops 
 
 rapidly and in a few days a whole flock is contaminated. It usually 
 
 begins on the rump, the transfer of contagion being effected by copu- 
 lation, and spreads rapidly to the back, the thighs and the belly. An 
 
DISEASES OF POULTRY 
 
 117 
 
 infested cock will, rapidly infect all the fowls in a poultry-yard. Often 
 the head and the upper surface of the neck are affected early in llu: 
 course of the disease/ The feath- 
 ers fall off at all these points, and 
 finally the skin is denuded over a 
 large extent of surface. The large 
 feathers of the tail and wings and 
 the wing-coverts are generally re- 
 tained. 
 
 The denuded skin presents a 
 normal appearance — it is smooth, 
 soft, of a pinkish color and not 
 perceptibly thickened. By pulling 
 out the feathers which remain near 
 the invaded parts, it is easy to M ff ^BSS^liifpjMiy ^S^?\ 
 
 find, with both fowls and pigeons, 
 
 a mass of epidermic scales at the 
 end of the quill which contains a 
 number of the parasites. 
 
 The general health of the birds 
 is apparently not disturbed. They 
 
 remain in good flesh, and continue Fig _ w.-Epidermoptts bilobatus of the 
 
 fowl; female, seen on the ventral surface; 
 magnified 150 diameters. 
 
 to lay as though they were not 
 affected. It seems probable that 
 much of the irregular molt- 
 ing, feather pulling and 
 feather eating are due to 
 the irritation caused by the 
 Sarcoptes laevis. 
 
 Treatment. The treat- 
 ment of scabies of the 
 body is not very difficult 
 but must be persisted in 
 until a cure is effected. 
 Helmerich's ointment is 
 usually recommended. A 
 modified form more suit- 
 able for use on the bodies 
 of birds may be prepared 
 by thoroughly mixing the 
 following ingredients: 
 Flowers of sulphur, 1 
 Fie. SO.—Sarro/'/es Ixvis. var. galliiut; male, seen dram; carbonate of potash, 
 on'tlip veiuial surface; magnified 200 diameters. 20 grains; lard or vaseline, 
 
"° DISEASES OF POULTRY 
 
 Yi ounce. This ointment should be rubbed over- the affected portions 
 
 of the skin and the adjacent parts. In place of this there may be 
 
 substituted creolin or carbolic ointment, made by mixing 1 part of 
 
 .u/^vij/ either of these substances with 10 
 
 cti«sftd3^.a parts by weight of lard or vaseline. 
 
 j^^^^^^^^^kt. ^ very large surface of the body should 
 
 jiSBslliwlBBJlPllIk " ot ' ,c covered with carbolic acid 
 
 J§||||gg§Sj||||j|||j|||||^ preparations on account of the danger 
 
 of absorption and poisoning. 
 i>j. Convenient liquid preparations for 
 
 the treatment of scabies are made by 
 mixing Peruvian balsam, 1 ounce; 
 alcohol, 3 ounces; or, glycerine, 3 
 ounces; water, 1 ounce; carbolic acid, 
 1 dram ; or, glycerine, 2 ounces, alco- 
 hol, Yi ounce; water y 2 ounce; creolin, 
 1 dram. The affected parts of the body 
 may be rubbed with either one of 
 these preparations every four or five 
 days until a cure is affected. 
 
 Fig. Sl.-Sarcoptes lavis, var. gal- j t ; s we i] to fi n ; s h t h e treatment by 
 
 Itiae; ovigerous female, seen on the ... ..... 
 
 dorsal surface; magnified 100 diam- dipping the birds in a two per cent 
 
 eterSl creolin bath (2J4 ounces creolin. to' 1 
 
 gallon of water) and to whitewash the house with carbolated white- 
 wash. This will kill any mites which may be left in the feathers or 
 about trie roosts. 
 
 Favus. This disease is popularly known as "baldness" or "white 
 comb." It is caused by a fungus named the Achorion Schonleinii, which 
 also attacks mankind, dogs, cats, rabbits and mice. When it affects people 
 the disease is known as tinea favosa and favus, the tendency being to 
 accept the latter name. The parasite was discovered in the disease of 
 man by Remak in 1837 and more completely demonstrated by Schon- 
 lein in 1841. It was discovered as affecting cats by Jacquetant in 
 1847, and on mice by Bennett in 1850; while Gerlach, Muller and Lei- 
 sering each published cases of it on poultry in 1858. Saint Cyr de- 
 scribed the first case of favus on the dog in 1868 and in 1869 he 
 discovered it on the rabbit. 
 
 Symptoms. Favus is a disease of the skin which in birds generally 
 commences upon the comb, or other fleshy parts of the head and grad- 
 ually extends to and affects the skin of the body. In rare cases it 
 begins upon the body before the head is affected. The disease mani- 
 fests itself by small white or light gray, round or irregular spots, from 
 the size of a pinhead to that of a dime, that extend and increase in 
 number, until nearly all of the skin of the affected part is covered. 
 An examination of these spots shows that a thin scale or crust has 
 formed on the surface of the skin. This crust often develops in round 
 
DISEASES OF POULTRY 
 
 or concentric deposits, raised at the border and depressed at the center, 
 giving to the spots a cup-shaped appearance. The crust increases in 
 thickness until in the course of a month it may be one-fourth inch 
 or more in depth. It is then of a dirty-white color, scaly and irregular 
 on the surface. When the crust is removed the skin is seen to be irri- 
 tated and sliffhtly excoriated. The disease extends from the bare parts 
 
 of the head to the parts of the 
 body covered with feathers. 
 The neck, the region about 
 the vent, and the adjoining 
 surfaces are soon invaded. 
 The feathers become dry, 
 erect and brittle, they break 
 and fall off, leaving the skin 
 denuded and covered with 
 crusts, which are often cup- 
 shaped, having in the center 
 the depression in which the 
 feather was fixed. 
 
 At first the general health 
 of the bird is not visibly af- 
 fected, it appears bright, eats 
 well and conducts itself as 
 usual. After a time, however, 
 when a considerable area has 
 been invaded, it manifests 
 weakness, loses flesh, its ap- 
 petite becomes irregular and 
 it fails into a decline which 
 continues until the forces of 
 the body are exhausted and 
 it dies. During the course of 
 the disease the affected birds 
 
 Titf. SZ.—Sareoptes Uvis, var. gallinx; larva, 
 seen on the ventral surface; magnified 200diam 
 eters. 
 
 give off a disagreeable odor which has been likened by some to that 
 of moldy cheese and by others to the exhalations from mice, cat's urine, 
 or macerating animal substances. 
 
 Causation. Favus is a contagious disease, and, as has already 
 been stated, it is caused by a fungus which has been named Achorion 
 Schonleinii. If a small particle of one of the crusts is taken, placed upon 
 a glass slip and moistened with water or dilute acetic acid and submit- 
 ted to microscopic examination at a magnification of 300 to 500 diam- 
 eters, it is seen to be made up of threads of mycelium of the fungus 
 held together by a thick, viscid, gelatinous substance which it secretes. 
 Numerous spherical or ovoid spores are also visible both within the 
 filaments and in a free condition. An examination of the "feathers on 
 the affected parts reveals the fact that the fungus has penetrated the 
 
120 
 
 DISEASES OF POULTRY 
 
 shaft, filled it -with crusts, and has in some cases even reached the 
 barbs. 
 
 The disease may be inoculated from bird to bird and probably also 
 from -mice, rats, rabbits, cats and dogs to birds. On the other hand, 
 if'rhay probably also be communicated from birds to these animals 
 
 and to children. Some au- 
 thorities consider the poultry 
 favus a distinct form of the' 
 disease and not communicable 
 to mammals, but. the weight 
 of evidence favors the conclu- 
 sion that the disease in all of 
 these species is identical and 
 intercommunicable. Appar- 
 ently a wound or abrasion of 
 the skin is necessary to enable 
 the fungus to obtain a foot- 
 hold. The filaments and 
 spores suspended in water 
 have been placed upon the 
 combs of poultry without "ef- 
 fect, until the surface of the 
 skin was scratched or abrad- 
 ed. As fowls come into close 
 contact with each other and 
 often have wounds of the skin 
 from fighting or other causes, 
 the disease spreads rapidly 
 imong them and unless proper 
 measures are adopted for its 
 arrest the results may be dis- 
 astrous to the flock. Young birds appear to be more susceptible to 
 this disease than old ones, and large birds particularly of the Asiatic 
 breeds, are predisposed to it, though no varieties are altogether exempt. 
 
 Treatment. Favus yields readily to proper treatment if it is not 
 allowed to develop too far before remedial measures are applied. When 
 confined to the parts of the head that are bare of feathers, it is not 
 difficult to manage, but when it spreads to parts covered by feathers 
 and also affects the plumage it becomes much more serious. 
 
 It is important that the remedy used should penetrate beneath the 
 crusts to the skin, and to secure this the crusts may be rubbed off as 
 thoroughly as possible with a blunt instrument, such as the handle 
 of a spoon. This should be done gently so as not to cause bleeding. 
 After the crusts are removed dress the affected part once a day with 
 any one of the following preparations: Tincture of iodine. Benzine, 1 
 part; soft soap, 20 parts; mix thoroughly before using. Or carbolic 
 
 Fig. S3. — Head and neck of a fowl affected 
 with generalized favus. 
 
DISEASES OF POULTRY 
 
 121 
 
 acid, 1 part; soft soap, 20 parts, to be well mixed. The carbolic prep- 
 aration should not be applied to a large surface at one time as the 
 acid may be absorbed and cause poisoning. A good ointment may be 
 made with either calomel or red oxide of mercury 1 part to 8 parts of 
 vaseline. If the above mentioned remedies fail a more active, but also 
 more dangerous ointment may be made by mixing 3 grains of nitrate of 
 silver with y 2 ounce of vaseline. This ointment should be made by the 
 
 druggist and carefully rubbed 
 upon the diseased surface. An- 
 other remedy, which on account 
 of its poisonous character should 
 only be used as a last resort, is 
 made by dissolving 10 grains of 
 corrosive -sublimate in an ounce 
 of water. 
 
 In the remedies here mentioned 
 the means are provided for ef- 
 fectually arresting this trouble- 
 some malady and eradicating it 
 from the poultry-yard. If taken 
 in time, the application of the 
 milder preparations daily for a 
 few days will be sufficient; but in 
 case a number of birds become 
 iffected and particularly if feath- 
 ered parts are involved, the more 
 active agents will be required. It 
 is, also, necessary to adopt sani- 
 Fitf.S4.-The Arhcrhn Sohonlrinii ol the tary regulations. The affected 
 favus of poultry; magnified 800 diameters. , . \ . . . , t r - 
 
 tv, empty tubes; tfi, tubes filled with nirds should be separated from 
 
 protoplasm and containing spores; s, iso- 
 lated spores. 
 
 the well ones, and the houses and 
 runs should be disinfected with 
 
 limewash and carbolic acid solution. 
 
 Chicken Pox — Sore Head — Pigeon Pox — This disease has been for 
 many years familiar to students of veterinary medicine, both in Europe 
 and America. It was at first thought to be a form of variola, allied to 
 cow pox if not identical with it. Careful study has shown, however, that 
 it is an entirely distinct disease. Some persons lacking a better name have 
 called it warts. More recently it was described by Bollinger as epitheliom'cv- 
 contagiosum and was by him and others supposed to be caused by the 'low 
 forms of animal parasites known as psorosperms. The disease has, there- 
 fore, been called by some writers cutaneous psorospermosis. In 1897, San- 
 felice published a notable paper on the subject from which it appears that 
 chicken pox is caused by a fungus of the group now known to scientists 
 as blastomycetes. 
 
 ' Chicken pox affects ordinary fowls, turkeys, pigeons, and, more rarely, 
 geese. Pigeons, and young chickens are particularly susceptible. Grown 
 
122 
 
 DISEASES OP POULTRY 
 
 fowls are only occasionally affected. The malady while widespread and 
 well known is a disease of warm countries, and is usually found in South- 
 ern Europe and the Gulf Section of the United States. It is there .-very 
 destructive, attacking a large proportion of the birds, and unless' it, is early 
 and vigorously treated it causes much damage and many deaths. 
 
 Symptoms. This disease chiefly affects the head of poultry, and ap- 
 pears as an eruption of round- or oblong, yellow nodules, varying from the 
 size of a pin-head to that of a* pea or a grain of corn. The largest are 
 found about the beak, the nostrils, the eyelids, and upon other parts of 
 the head that are free from' feathers. They form rough, yellow masses 
 upon the comb and wattles. The eruption may be localized where it first 
 appears or it may extend to the feathered portions of the body. 
 
 With pigeons the eruption has a tendency to become diffuse and in- 
 
 Pi?. 55. Fig-. St. 
 
 . Fig". 55. — Inoculated pigeon 6 days after appearance of first, symptoms. 
 
 Fig-. 56.— Inoculated pigeon 10 days after appearance of lirst symptoms. 
 
 vades the neck, the lower surface of the body, the inner sides of the leg^ 
 and wings, the rump and even the upper surface of the wings. 
 
 The nodules, which at first have somewhat the appearance of the warts 
 often seen upon the hands of children, reach their full development in from 
 five to ten days. They soon show a central depression, an opening forms, 
 or the summit is rubbed off accidentally or by the bird's beak, after which 
 there is a discharge of a watery, or, later, of a thick, yellowish matter 
 which soils the feathers and which if abundant may become foul and 
 disagreeable. 
 
 When the disease is localized, the general health of the bird does not 
 appear to suffer, and spontaneous recovery may occur. In this case the 
 nodules dry up and form a crust which falls off either as a whole or in 
 particles. Generally, however, the disease extends, the birds become ema- 
 ciated, the plumage is rough, the strength is exhaused, and death results. 
 In the most violent cases, especially with pigeons,- the eruption extends to 
 the mmcqus membranes of the mouth and nostrils, the resulting inflamma- 
 tion- takes on a diphtheritic form, and early death f o'lows. 
 
 Gausat.on. This disease has long been recognized as contagious and 
 to spread from one bird to another. If an affected bird is introduced into 
 a flock, the roosting places become infected, and the contagion is spread 
 about the premises and it is not long before other birds become diseased. 
 
DISEASES OP POULTRY '« 
 
 Rivolta concluded that the dicease was not transmitted by placing the in- 
 fectious matter upon the sound skin; but Pfeiffer succeeded in causing the 
 disease in fowls and pigeons by inoculating it through punctures of the 
 skin. Sanfelice has repeated these experiments with the result that the 
 disease was invariably caused in pigeons by inoculation into the eyelids ; 
 and in the case of ten pigeons with which the infectious matter was simply 
 smeared upon the eyelids, two contracted the disease. It appears, there- 
 fore, that while an abrasion of the surface or a deeper wound facilitates 
 the entrance of the contagion into the tissues, the parasite may in certain 
 cases, at least, penetrate the normal skin. 
 
 Some have supposed that the bites of fleas and mosquitoes, others that 
 the punctures of ticks produce this disease. Undoubtedly these act simply 
 by furnishing an easy entrance for the germs. The blastomycetes or fungi 
 appear to multiply outside of the birds' bodies, probably in the accumula- 
 tions of excrement which exist in many poultry-houses. Some moisture is 
 necessary for the growth of these germs, and hence it is not surprising that 
 poultry raisers have observed that the disease appears in those houses 
 which have leaky roofs or into which water can penetrate through the 
 walls and thus moisten the droppings. It is well known that fungi are 
 most numerous in the atmosphere during wet weather while bacteria are 
 most numerous during dry times. This fact may account for the preva- 
 lence of sore head during wet weather. It is, also, a matter of observa- 
 tion that this disease is much more prevalent and fatal among late-hatched 
 chickens than among those raised early in the season. The development 
 and spread of the contagion is influenced, therefore, by the condition of the 
 poultry-houses, by the season of the year, and to a certain extent by the 
 weather. 
 
 Treatment. The prophylactic or preventive treatment consists in ex- 
 cluding affected birds from the premises; in keeping the poultry-houses 
 and pigeon-cotes clean and dry; and in hatching the chickens early on 
 farms where the disease is troublesome. Disinfection by whitewashing 
 the houses, or spraying them thoroughly with a solution containing three 
 to five per cent of carbolic acid and then opening them for the drying 
 action of the sun and air is a valuable means of guarding against an out- 
 break of the disease. 
 
 The curative treatment consists of the local application of those reme- 
 dies which have been found efficient for the destruction of the parasitic 
 blastomycetes. Some persons have been successful by feeding sulphur, 
 and at the same time, applying sulphur ointment twice a day to the nodules. 
 Others have cured the affected birds by applying carbolic ointment, or 
 glycerine containing two per cent of carbolic acid. Another treatment is 
 to bathe the affected parts with soap and water in order to soften the 
 crusts, and afterwards apply a solution of sulphate of copper (bluestone), 
 a dram to J4 pint of water. Sulphate of copper has been found destructive 
 to many kinds of fungi, and, therefore, is promising in this disease. Tinc- 
 ture of iodine has also been recommended, both by itself and mixed with 
 10 per cent of carbolic acid, but this remedy is rather severe and should 
 
" DISEASES OP POULTRY 
 
 only be applied sparingly and after the others mentioned have proved 
 ineffectual. 
 
 This local treatment should be accompanied by cleaning and disinfec- 
 tion of the houses, and, if possible, changing to new, uninfected runs. The 
 feeding troughs and drinking vessels should be daily washed with boiling 
 water. 
 
 When the disease first appears in a flock the affected birds should be 
 at once isolated and treated, and the effort made by disinfection to prevent 
 the further extension of the contagion. 
 
CHAPTER X 
 
 Diseases of the Feet and Legs 
 
 Leg Weakness — Rheumatism and Gout — Superficial Sores — Corns — Deep 
 Bruises and Abscesses — Scabies of the Legs and Feet, Scaly Legs 
 
 LEG WEAKNESS 
 
 LEG weakness is a term which is popularly used to designate any con- 
 dition in which birds find it difficult or impossible to support them- 
 selves upon their legs. It may develop in young chickens kept in brooders 
 in which the heat is not properly distributed or where there is too much 
 bottom heat, also in those which are kept constantly upon wooden floors. 
 It is often seen in heavy cockerels, and also occurs in flocks which have 
 been forced or which are kept in badly ventilated and damp houses.. 
 
 This trouble is probably in most cases of a rheumatic nature, affecting 
 the muscles, tendons and joints. Frequently it consists only of bruises of 
 the feet; while, sometimes, its nature is obscure and difficult to understand. 
 Symptoms. The disease may come on gradually or suddenly. In the 
 former case, there is first seen an unsteadiness in the walk or lameness 
 which becomes more aggravated, until the bird, instead of standing upon 
 its feet, sits down upon its legs even when eating. In the worst cases, the 
 birds are unable even to raise themselves to a standing position. 
 
 Treatment. First, examine the birds for bruised feet or inflammation 
 of the joints and if either o_f these conditions is found apply local treat- 
 ment as recommended in subsequent paragraphs. In all cases give cooling 
 food, such as bran, barley, rice, green feed, skim milk or butter milk, and 
 vegetables. Avoid condiments, meat and stimulating rations of all kinds. 
 Give 5 grains bicarbonate of soda daily in the drinking water for grown 
 fowls. See that the heat is properly applied in brooders, and that the 
 birds have dry, well aired quarters. 
 
 Rheumatism and Gout. All species of fowls and especially chickens 
 are subject -to rheumatic affections. The trouble begins with spasmodic 
 jerking of the legs, and is followed by lameness, indisposition to remain 
 standing, painful joints and refusal to walk. The feet and the next joint 
 above (tibio-tarsal), are most frequently affected. After a time small 
 swellings appear upon the sides of these joints, which are at first soft, and 
 somewhat painful, but gradually become more firm until they feel like 
 enlargements of the bones. Sometimes these swellings ulcerate, in which 
 case the sores appear red, irregular in outline and bleeding. A yellowish 
 flaky or springy pus partly fills the sore and when this is removed the 
 
 125 
 
1 ^° DISEASES OF POULTRY 
 
 naked tendons, bones or joints may sometimes be seen. The cavities of 
 the joints are opened to the air, fistulas develop and death of the bone 
 occurs. The disease is chronic in its development and the advanced stages 
 are, therefore, generally seen in old birds. The affected birds may live a 
 long time even when the disease has progressed to the extreme degree de- 
 scribed above. They lose flesh, however, their plumage becomes rough 
 and dull, diarrhea Sets in and death occurs from exhaustion. 
 
 Treatment. — As rheumatism is usually caused by exposure to cold and 
 dampness, the development of the disease in one or more fowls of a flock 
 should be a warning to improve the ventilation and drainage of the houses. 
 The buildings where the fowls live- and roost should be thoroughly dry, 
 free from draughts, yet well ventilated, and not too cold. With proper 
 attention to these sanitary arrangements the disease should be prevented. 
 Affected birds should have frequent change of ration with plenty of green 
 feed. Begin treatment with a dose of Epsom salts 20 to 30 grains. The 
 following day add 30 to 40 grains of bicarbonate of soda (baking soda) 
 to the quart of drinking water, and give 2 or 3 grains of salicylic acid 
 twice a day. Apply camphorated or carbolic ointment to the affected 
 joints. The birds wnich are seriously affected would be better killed than 
 treated, and the main reliance must be under any circumstances in pre- 
 vention by securing proper sanitary conditions. 
 
 Diseases of the Feet. The feet of poultry are very subject to dis- 
 eases which result from pricks, cuts, bruises and other injuries. Al- 
 though the weight of birds is small compared with that of most other do- 
 mesticated animals, the fact that their nights are usually spent upon perches, 
 that in flying from these perches they often alight very heavily, and that 
 they scratch very vigorously in searching for their food, is a sufficient expla- 
 nation of their peculiar liability to this class of injuries. It is conven- 
 ient for our purpose to divide the diseases of the feet, which result from 
 injuries, into three classes; viz., 1, superficial sores; 2, corns; 3, deep 
 bruises and abscesses. 
 
 Superficial Sores. Abrasions, Pricks^ Cuts, Cracks and Fissures. — 
 Such injuries are not very serious, but if the bird is seen to be lame, and 
 particularly if there is any heat or swelling about the toej or foot, suitable 
 measures should be taken to make the bird comfortable and prevent the 
 development of a more dangerous condition. If there is much inflamma- 
 tion indicated by heat and swelling, hold the foot in water almost as warm 
 as the hand can bear for half an hour, adding hot water from time to time 
 to keep up the temperature. Before the bird is released apply a small quan- 
 tity of boric acid ointment (boric acid 1 part, vaseline 5 parts) to the in- 
 jured part. This ointment should also be applied to abrasions, cuts, and 
 cracks where the hot water treatment is unnecessary, as it promotes rapid 
 healing. Confine the bird to a yard covered with soft earth or young 
 grass for a few days and do not allow it to roost upon a perch until its 
 feet are well. 
 
DISEASES OF POULTRY 
 
 Fig. 57.— Skeleton of fowl. A, B, bead; C, D, vertebrae of the neck 
 .cervical vertebrae); D, E, dorsal vertebrae; F, G, coccygeal vertebrae; H. 
 humerus; I, ulna; J, radius; K, carpus; L, metacarpus; M, dibits; N, 
 coracoid bone; O, forculum; P, sternum; £>, keel; R, ribs; S, ilium; T, 
 ischium; U, pubis; V, femur; W, patella: X, tibia; Y, fibula; Z, met- 
 atarsus; a, digits. 
 
DISEASES OF POULTRY 
 
 Corns. The condition known as corns is an inflammation and 
 thickening of the skin on the under surface of the foot, the result or pro- 
 longed pressure, irritation, and bruises. Corns are generally caused by too 
 small or too narrow perches which compel the fowls to grasp them tightly 
 in order to maintain their position. This firm 
 grasp continued night after night affects the cir- 
 culation of the part of the foot that comes in clos- 
 est contact with the perch. More or less irrita- 
 tion and inflammation is set up, which leads to 
 multiplication and enlargement of the cells of the 
 part, and results in swelling and thickening of 
 the skin. A similar condition may be caused by 
 heavy birds flying from their perches and alighting 
 upon a stony surface or hard floor. 
 
 Deep Bruises and Abscesses. Bumblefoot. This 
 is an aggravation of the condition known as corns. 
 It is seen in those cases where the irritation and 
 bruising is most severe or prolonged. The affected 
 part is hot, painful, and more or less swollen. 
 Sometimes an abscess has formed, or in older cases 
 this abscess may have broken and left a sup- 
 purating sore. In the most severe cases the joints 
 may be inflamed, and may even be penetrated by 
 the pus channels which have formed from the 
 i' abscess. 
 
 As treatment employ the preventive meas- 
 ures already mentioned for corns and other 
 injuries to the feet. Soak the feet in warm 
 water for a half hour twice a day and poul- 
 tice until the inflammation is reduced. If 
 an abscess in the sole is indicated by a soft, 
 fluctuating swelling of the part, it should be 
 opened with a sharp knife. After the 
 poulticing is completed apply boric acid 
 ointnlent and protect the feet with a piece 
 of cotton cloth. If the joints have become 
 affected, and particularly if these communi- 
 cate with the pus channels and are the seat 
 
 ,„. f of suppuration, the bird should be killed, a*. 
 
 its treatment would be unprofitable, and its 
 entire recovery would not be probable. 
 
 Scabies of the Legs and Feet — Scaly Legs. 
 
 Symptoms. — In scabies of the legs, the epidermic scales on the anterior 
 surface of the legs and upon the upper surface of the foot, become loos- 
 ened and elevated by the formation of a whitish crust or compacted pow- 
 dery substance beneath them. The raising of these scales gives the leg 
 
 Fig. SS. — SarcoplfS 
 matans of the fowl; 
 male; dorsal surface; 
 magnified 100 diam- 
 eters. 
 
 Fif. 59.— Sareoples 
 the fowl; ovigerous female: 
 dorsal surface; magnified 100 
 diameters. 
 
DISEASES OP POULTRY 
 
 a rough and enlarged appearance which is easily recognized and is very 
 characteristic. ., 
 
 This form of scabies begins in the clefts between the toes and runs a 
 very slow course. The elevation of the epidermic scales is very gradual. 
 At first there is observed only a slight thickening of these scales, and 
 roughness, but the continued formation of the white, powdery crust ag- 
 gravates this condition, causes the scales 
 to become detached and to assume a po- 
 sition nearly perpendicular to the surface. 
 The disease extends up the leg and also 
 along the toes until the whole shank and 
 foot become involved. The two legs are 
 usually affected at the same time and to 
 about the same degree. 
 
 Unless treated the disease continues 
 to progress, the epidermic scales are de- 
 tached, the joints become affected and the 
 birds walk with difficulty. In the most 
 severe cases a joint or even an entire 
 toe may become detached, the birds lose 
 flesh and die from- exhaustion. There 
 appears to be only a moderate degree of 
 itching. The birds occasionally peck at 
 or scratch the affected parts with the 
 beak. They do this most frequently at 
 night and in warm weather. 
 
 Causation. — Scaly legs is a form of 
 scabies or mange caused by the mite known 
 as the Sarcoptes nutans. It" is strictly con- 
 .agious disease although it does not spread 
 rapidly from bird to bird, and there may 
 'be only a few noticeably affected birds 
 in a flock. The Asiatic breeds are most 
 susceptible, to it, and many birds, even of 
 these breeds, resist the attacks of the 
 inites, and never show any symptoms. It 
 
 Filf. 60 Scabie- ■ of the foot attacks quite a variety of birds — fowls, 
 
 (scaly legs,. turkeys, pheasants, partridges and cage 
 
 birds, but has not been observed in ducks and geese. In the production of 
 scaly legs, the Sarcoptes mutatis penetrates beneath the epidermic scales on 
 the upper surface of the foot and the front of the shank and by burrowing 
 there sets up an irritation which leads to a multiplication of the cells of 
 the part, and an exudation of serum. It is by the union of these two prod- 
 ucts that the white, powdery crust is formed, which raises the epidermic 
 scales from their normal position. If the crusts are removed and the un- 
 der surface examined with a lens they are found to contain a large num- 
 
130 DISEASES OF POULTRY 
 
 ber of depressions in each of which a female, egg-containing Sarcopt is 
 lodged. The larvae, males and younger females, are found wandering be- 
 neath the crusts. The crust contains so many cavities that it has very 
 much the appearance of dried bread. As the crust thickens by deposits on 
 the inner surface, the cavities first formed become smaller by the drying 
 of the walls surrounding them, and the Sarcopt abandons this location for 
 a pojition nearer the flesh, where there is more moisture. The mites are, 
 therefore, only found on the inner surface of the crust, although the cavi- 
 ties or honey-combed appearance exists throughout the whole substance. 
 
 Treatment. — When this disease is first observed in a flock, measures 
 should be adopted to eradicate it. The affected birds should be isolated 
 to prevent the spread of the contagion. The houses which they have occu- 
 pied should be thoroughly cleaned. The roosts and other woodwork 
 should be scalded with boiling water or covered with carbolated lime wash. 
 The treatment of the affected birds is the same as with scabies of the body, 
 with the single exception that the loosened scales must be removed in or- 
 der to bring the remedy in contact with the mites. In order to accom- 
 plish this the legs should be soaked for a sufficient time in warm water 
 to which some soap has been added. When thoroughly softened the loose 
 scales may be removed without causing bleeding. Or, a coating of soft 
 soap may be applied to the affected parts, leaving it to act for from twelve 
 to twenty-four hours. The legs are then placed in warm water and the 
 scales softened and removed by gentle rubbing and traction. After this 
 has been done the legs are dried and treated with a good coat of Helme- 
 rich's ointment, creolin ointment (1 to 10), carbolic ointment (1 to 10), 
 or balsam of Peru. The latter may be applied daily for three or four 
 days, and is better adapted than the other remedies to the treatment of 
 young or delicate birds, since it is equally efficacious in destroying the 
 mites and has little if any injurious effect upon the birds. The disease 
 is not a difficult one to cure if the preliminary treatment is thorough and 
 the loose scales and crusts are all removed. 
 
CHAPTER XI 
 
 Infectious Diseases Having a Tendency to Affect More Than 
 One Set of Organs 
 
 Tubercwlosis-Diphtheriu, Diphetheritic Roup — Infection Leukxmia — Fowl 
 Cholera. 
 
 TUBERCULOSIS 
 
 THERE is frequent mention in medical literature of tuberculosis In 
 birds. In Europe this disease appears to be very common, and it is by no 
 means rare in the United States, if the statements of our professional men 
 are to be accepted. The observations recorded previous to 1884, and those 
 made since that time, which are not based upon the demonstration of the 
 Bacillus tuberculosis, can not be accepted as perfectly reliable. There are 
 a number of diseases in which the symptoms and appearances of the dis- 
 eased organs are so nearly alike that a microscopical examination must be 
 made before their nature can be determined. The existence of tubercu- 
 losis is determined by the presence of the germ which produces it. Con- 
 sequently, it is only since the characters of this germ were made known 
 that we have been able to make a reliable diagnosis in suspected cases. 
 Koch demonstrated beyond doubt the occurrence of tuberculosis in fowls, 
 and observed that the bacilli were extraordinarily abundant in the nodules 
 of the intestines and liver, and, also, in the contents of the intestines. 
 
 Sutton observed tuberculosis in grain-eating birds of various parts of 
 England and states that "the occurrence of tuberculosis in these places may 
 be regarded as showing that it is probably met with in most parts of Eng- 
 land." 
 
 Nocard, a French veterinarian, says : "Tuberculosis is a frequent dis- 
 ease with birds of the poultry-yard. It occurs with them in an epidemic 
 form. It attacks fowls, pheasants, pigeons, turkeys, peacocks, guinea 
 fowls, etc., and it may even be produced in small birds experimentally." 
 In 600 autopsies of fowls made by Zuern, presumably in Germany, sixty- 
 two, or ten per cent, were found tuberculous. 
 
 In the cases reported in the United States there appears ,to have been 
 very few instances in which the diagnosis was confirmed by bacteriological 
 examination and the demonstration of the bacillus. 
 
 Symptoms. — The symptoms which are observed in the tuberculosis of 
 birds are common to other diseases, and, therefore, while they are valuable 
 as an indication of the nature of the disease, they are not sufficient to per- 
 mit an absolutely reliable conclusion to be reached. There is rapid and pro- 
 gressive emaciation, made apparent by the loss of weight, wasting of the 
 
 131 
 
132 DISEASES OP POULTRY 
 
 muscles, and prominence of the bones. The comb becomes pale, the 
 bird loses its bright, animated expression, and in the later stages becomes 
 quite dull and sleepy. At this time a persistent ■ diarrhea appears which 
 increases in intensity until the subject dies from exhaustion. 
 
 The symptoms just enumerated are those observed when the disease Is 
 confined to the internal organs. It often affects the joints and bones, when 
 it is revealed by lameness, swellings of the joints and deformities of the 
 bones. Occasionally ulcers form, in the pus of which many bacilli are 
 found. 
 
 The skin and external mucous membranes are frequently affected with 
 parrots but more rarely with other birds. There are first seen small gray- 
 ish elevations which unite and form patches. Thick crusts form on these 
 patches, becoming hard externally and soft and cheesy next to tissues. If 
 
 Fif. 61.— Tubercular tumor of the v;\ng. 
 
 these crusts are removed a red granular surface is exposed. Sometimes 
 the crusts, particularly near the eye or mouth, become horny and develop 
 into excrescences an inch or more in length. 
 
 Appearance of the Organs. — In poultry and pheasants the abdominal 
 viscera are the most common seat of the disease. The liver is most fre- 
 quently and most severely affected. The spleen is also very often attacked. 
 
 These organs are enlarged and more or less filled with tubercles which 
 may vary in size from small whitish or grayish points, to nodules the size 
 of a pea or to tumors the size of a walnut which are fibrous firm and 
 often softened at the center. The tubercle may also be hard and cal- 
 careous. The liver is more friable than in health, and ruptures leading to 
 fatal hemorrhages may occur. 
 
 The peritoneum, or serous membrane of the abdominal cavity, may be 
 covered with tubercles the size of a pin head or smaller; and when this 
 occurs the abdomen usually contains more or less liquid. 
 
 The intestinal walls are often thickened or ulcerated, and contain tuber- 
 cles of various sizes. Sometimes these are so large that they diminish the 
 caliber of the tube or entirely obstruct it. The softening of the tubercles 
 on the inner surface of the intestine cause the ulcerations which are com- 
 monly seen in this disease, and from which the bacilli escape in incalculable 
 numbers. 
 
DISEASES OF POULTRY 133 
 
 The abdominal lymphatic glands may be invaded by the tubercular 
 process and enlarged to the size of an egg. 
 
 Small tubercles, the size of a pin head or less, and sometimes larger 
 tubercular masses, are occasionally found in the lungs, air-sacs, heart and 
 pericardium, but these organs are more rarely affected than are those sit- 
 uated in the abdominal region. 
 
 Generalized tuberculosis is not uncommon and in this form of the dis- 
 ease most or all of the organs of the body are affected — the tubercles be- 
 ing found even in the interior of the bones. 
 
 The joints are frequently the seat of tubercular inflammation leading 
 to swelling, abscesses, ulcers, fistulas and loss of movement. Swellings, 
 ulcers, and cheesy formations are sometimes seen about the mouth, eyes 
 and nose, and horny excrescences may appear upon the skin of the head. 
 These external manifestations are the rule with parrots. 
 
 Cause and Nature. — The tuberculosis of birds, like that of mankind, 
 is caused by a bacillus. The bacillus of birds in a general way resembles 
 that of man, but is larger, more vigorous and hardy, and grows better 
 outside of the body. The disease is strictly contagious, and usually ap- 
 pears in a flock as a consequence of bringing in new birds. That is, it 
 results from contagion carried by birds from other diseased, flocks. 
 
 Many outbreaks have been attributed to infection from eating the spu- 
 tum of persons affected with consumption. The possibility of such in- 
 fection is admitted by some authorities and denied by others. It is cer- 
 tain that poultry and pigeons are not easily infected experimentally with 
 the tuberculosis of people, cattle and other animals which are classed to- 
 gether as mammals. This may sometimes be accomplished; but after one 
 bird is infected in this way it is equally difficult to transmit the disease 
 from this bird to other birds. It appears, therefore, out of the question 
 to produce a rapidly spreading outbreak of disease among fowls or pigeons 
 by the use of human virus. 
 
 The bird or avian tuberculosis spreads rapidly from bird to bird and 
 is easily transmitted experimentally to birds, but it has little effect upon 
 most mammals which are very susceptible to human tuberculosis. There is, 
 consequently, a marked difference between avian and mammaliajn tuber- 
 culosis. The disease in the two cases does not appear to be absolutely dis- 
 tinct, but should rather be regarded as two varieties of the same malady. 
 These varieties have been developed because the bacilli have grown for a 
 long series of years under different conditions. They may still possibly 
 be changed from mammalian to avian and from avain to mammalian, but 
 such a change certainly would require much time and very favorable con- 
 ditions. 
 
 A very interesting fact is that parrots are usually affected with the mam- 
 malian form of tuberculosis. The disease is quite frequently seen in these 
 birds and it shows a great tendency to develop externally. It most com- 
 monly affects the borders of the eyes and mouth, the skin and the joints 
 of the feet. There are at first small swellings, some of which soften, dis- 
 charge their contents and become ulcers ; others remain hard and continue 
 
134 
 
 DISEASES OP POULTRY 
 
 Fig - . 62.— Tubercular tumor of the bead. 
 
 to enlarge, while still others are covered by a horny growth of considerable 
 thickness. When the feet are affected the joints swell and the bones are 
 more or less deformed, leading many who are not well informed on the 
 subject to consider the disease as simple gout. 
 
 It has been shown by experiments that it is very difficult to infect 
 
 fowi-s and pigeons by inocula- 
 tion from parrots, but rabbits, 
 guinea pigs and dogs readily 
 contract the disease by such in- 
 oculation. It is concluded from 
 the various facts whjch have 
 been recorded, that the tubercu- 
 losis of parrots is identical with 
 tuberculosis or consumption in 
 man; that parrots are infected 
 from diseased people and may in 
 turn infect other people. The 
 germs of the disease are found 
 vin enormous numbers in the dis- 
 charge from the ulcers, in the 
 secretion of the nasal passages 
 and often in the excrement. The 
 cages are soiled with these dif- 
 ferent excretions, which soon become dry, are reduced to dust then dis- 
 seminated through the air of the apartment by the flapping of the 
 bird's wings. People breathing in this atmosphere take the germs 
 into their lungs and in that way become infected. Other species of 
 cage birds may contract human tuberculosis and distribute it in the 
 same manner. 
 
 On the other hand, as poultry and pigeons do not readily contract tu- 
 berculosis from persons, it seems probable that mankind is in no great 
 danger of becoming infected from these birds. It is well to use reason- 
 able precautions, however, when the disease is detected in the poultry-yard 
 or pigeon-cote, as there are some cases recorded where it is believed that 
 flocks of poultry have been infected by eating the sputum of human con- 
 sumptives. When a bird is found to be diseased it should, of course, be 
 safely disposed of at once ; but there is no reason for the alarm and panic 
 which have been exhibited by some owners of flocks supposed to be af- 
 fected. 
 
 Diagnosis. — As there are a number of different conditions found in 
 birds which simulate tuberculosis, it is well, when the disease is sus- 
 pected, to have its identity confirmed by an expert. A microscopical ex- 
 amination showing the presence of the Bacillus tuberculosis is the most 
 reliab 1 e and satisfactory evidence. According to Nocard, the tuberculin 
 test may be used as with cattle or other animals. The dose stated by him 
 is 5 to 10 centigrams for fowls, pigeons and pheasants, and 10 to 20 centi- 
 grams for geese, turkeys and peacocks. 
 
DISEASES OF POULTRY 
 
 135 
 
 Treatment. — The eradication of tuberculosis in birds from an infected 
 premises can only be attempted with a fair prospect of success when all 
 the birds are sacrificed. Any individuals that are preserved are liable to 
 
 have ulcerations of the intestines, 
 from which the bacilli are constantly 
 distributed. There should, conse- 
 quently, be no attempt to save any 
 birds from an infected flock. 
 
 When the birds are all killed and 
 disposed of by burning or deeply 
 burying, the premises should be care- 
 fully disinfected. The manure should 
 be carefully scraped and swept to- 
 gether and saturated with a five-per- 
 cent solution of carbolic acid or 
 mixed with lime. The floors and 
 woodwork of the houses should be 
 washed with boiling water or with 
 a hot solution of carbolic acid. The 
 feeding troughs, drinking vessels and 
 nests should be treated in the same 
 manner. Any yards used for penn- 
 ing birds should be sprinkled with 
 the carbolic acid solution. 
 
 After the cleaning and disinfec- 
 tion is accomplished the premises 
 should be opened to the sun and air 
 for a month if possible before new 
 birds are introduced. It is then a 
 good plan to cover the walls and 
 
 roosts with lime wash, to which 4 
 Fig. <B.-Sectlon of liver of bird affected^^ q{ crude carWic acid to the 
 
 witli tuberculosis. ,. , , ,, , , ■, 
 
 gallon has been added, and ventilate 
 
 a few days longer before the houses are used. Those who scrupulous- 
 ly enforce these measures may be reasonably certain that the contagion 
 will be destroyed and that the new flock may be safely introduced. 
 
 Diphtheria, Diphtheritic Roup. Among the several diseases which 
 have been confounded together by modern writers under the general name 
 of roup, one of the most prevalent and destructive is the diphtheria of 
 birds, or diphtheritic roup. While some writers are of the opinion that 
 contagious catarrh and diphtheria are caused by the same species of bacil- 
 lus, differing only in the degrees of virulence, the fact that in extensive out- 
 breaks of the former disease there are apparently no diphtheritic mem- 
 branes to be found, bears strongly against this theory and makes it desir- 
 able, at least for the present, to describe these different forms of disease 
 separately. 
 
136 
 
 DISEASES OP POULTRY 
 
 The diphtheria of birds is a contagious disease which first affects the 
 mucous membrane of the nasal passages, the eyes, the mouth, the pharynx 
 and larynx and which may extend to the trachea, the bronchi, the air- 
 sacs, the intestines and perhaps to other abdominal organs. The dis- 
 ease is characterized by a grayish-yellow fibrinous exudate, called a false 
 membrane, which forms upon the mucous surface of the parts mentioned. 
 This exudate is intimately attached to the living tissues, so that when it Js 
 
 "V*--* 
 
 m 
 
 Tig. 64%— Growth of. horn from reyion of head affected with tuberculosis, 
 forcibly removed a raw, bleeding surface may be left. Its formation may 
 be so abundant as to construct the passages through which the air is 
 drawn into the lungs. The appearance of the diseased parts bears a close 
 resemblance to what is seen in human diphtheria, but the bacillus which is 
 believed to cause avian diphtheria is quite distinct from that which causes 
 the disease in children, and it is, therefore, concluded that the diphtheria 
 of mankind and that of birds are entirely different diseases. There are 
 some striking cases on record, however, which indicate that the diphtheria 
 of fowls may be communicated to children in some instances and cause 
 a serious or even fatal diphtheritic sore throat. On the other hand, it 
 is asserted that the diphtheria of children is sometimes communicated to 
 birds, and that the contagion may be thus preserved for a considerable 
 time and again transmitted to children. The avian diphtheria affects the 
 common fowl, turkeys, ducks, pea-fowls, pigeons, pheasants and probably 
 many other varieties of birds. In some outbreaks, it is very acute, pro- 
 gresses with great rapidity and destroys most of the birds attacked. 
 
 Symptoms. — When first attacked, the affected birds present the symp- 
 toms of common catarrh. There is a watery secretion from the nostrils 
 and often from the eyes, with general weakness and prostration greater 
 than would be expected from simple catarrh. The birds sit with the back 
 arched, the head and neck drawn down towards the body, the plumage 
 roughened; the respiration is more or less obstructed, rapid, audible and 
 strident; the vision is impaired and swallowing is difficult. There is fre- 
 quent shaking of the head, sneezing and expectoration of mucous secre- 
 
DISEASES OF POULTRY 
 
 137 
 
 tions. If the mouth is examined at this early period the tongue is found 
 to be pale, while small grayish spots, shaded with black, and slightly pro- 
 jecting above the surface are seen along the border, the upper surface or 
 at the base. 
 
 The following day the condition is aggravated, the temperature is sev- 
 eral degrees above the normal, 
 the appetite has disappeared, 
 and there is diarrhea with 
 greenish or yellowish evacua- 
 tions. From the open beak 
 there escapes a thick, stringy, 
 grayish mucous. The eyes are 
 unnaturally dilated, projecting 
 and partly covered with the 
 '/""^gSISggjjjJII^^^ thick secretion which has ac- 
 
 cumulated between the lids. 
 The nostrils are obstructed by 
 the thickened and dried secre- 
 tion. Walking is irregular and 
 difficult. The mucous mem- 
 brane of the mouth and phar- 
 nyx is red, congested, inflamed 
 and shows numerous dark red 
 elevations covered with fibrinous 
 exudate. The patches on the 
 
 tongue have increased in size, 
 Fiff.65.-Tutara.IoAi. of the foot (parrot). (hey ^ gray m ^^ dHed 
 
 along the edges of the tongue but soft and flattened upon its upper sur- 
 face and are covered with membranous deposits. The voice often fails. 
 
 The third, fourth or fifth day, the whole interior of the mouth may be 
 covered with false membranes obstructing almost completely the open- 
 ings of the pharnyx and larnyx. Swallowing is very difficult or impos- 
 sible and breathing is liable to be arrested at any time. The false mem- 
 ' brane first appears as a thin yellowish or grayish layer and becomes 
 thicker as the disease advances. With pigeons, it is cheesy (caseous) and 
 easily detached, while with fowls it, is more resistant, fibrous, and can 
 only be removed with some force, generally leaving a raw, bleeding or ul- 
 cerated surface. Later, this membrane becomes irregular and rough on 
 the surface, dry, fissured and of a brownish color. The decomposition of 
 the membranes at this period gives the breath a very marked and dis- 
 agreeable odor of decomposition. At this time it may be removed without 
 causing bleeding, as the surface beneath has partly or entirely healed. 
 
 In certain cases the false membranes form in the trachea and extend 
 to the lungs and air-sacs. There is then great difficulty of breathnig, with 
 panting and wheezing. The bird is compelled to extend its neck and open 
 its mouth to admit the air. The false membranes may also -form in the 
 oesophagus and intestines. This complication is particularly liable to occur 
 
138 
 
 DISEASES OF POULTRY 
 
 with turkeys and waterfowls and is indicated by aggravation of the gen- 
 eral symptoms with copious diarrhea and the escape of blood with the 
 evacuations. 
 
 The membrane lining the nasal passages is often severely affected. 
 This is usually due to an extension of the diphtheritic process by way 
 of the fissure of the palate. By the accumulation of the exudate, the 
 roof of the mouth is forced downwards, the eyeballs are pressed out- 
 wards, swellings appear over or near the orbital space and the head be- 
 comes deformed. The swollen parts are congested, 
 tense, and when cut open there escapes a thick 
 whitish liquid, or soft, yellowish, cheesy masses 
 are found. 
 
 The conjunctiva or membrane covering the eye 
 is, also, very frequently affected and the disease 
 may begin at this point. The eyes are, then, red 
 and weeping; the lids are hot, swollen and pain- 
 ful. The secretions, at first serous, then purulent 
 and caseous, accumulate in the angle of the eye 
 or glue the lids together. If large masses are al- 
 lowed to collect under the lids they press upon 
 the cornea, cause irritation and ulceration and lead 
 to perforation with destruction of the sight. 
 
 The acute form of the disease just described is 
 the more common, but very often it assumes a 
 chronic form with obscure symptoms. The birds 
 are dull, weak, lose flesh and fail to lay eggs. There 
 may be slight catarrh and difficulty of breathing 
 and a careful examination, particularly if it be a 
 post-mortem examination, may reveal patches of 
 exudate in the nasal passages, the mouth, the pharnyx or larynx. In 
 some cases no local manifestations can be detected and diphtheria is 
 only suspected because other members of the flock with similar symp- 
 toms present the false membranes. 
 
 The course of the disease varies from a few days in the acute form 
 to several weeks in the chronic form. In the very acute cases the disease 
 is exceedingly destructive and a large part of the flock may die in a 
 few days. The chronic form may not cause many deaths, but renders 
 the birds unproductive for weeks or months. Between these two extremes 
 there are all gradations of virulence. 
 
 The period between exposure to the contagion and the development 
 of the symptoms may be only three or four days or as long as two weeks. 
 The disease produced by inoculation appears within ten days with fowls 
 and within three days with pigeons. 
 
 Causation. — The diphtheria of birds is undoubtedly contagious. It 
 is usually introduced into a flock by the exposure of the birds to sick 
 ones at shows or by bringing affected birds on the premises. The con- 
 tagion may be carried by birds which have the disease in so mild a form 
 
 Fig. 66.— Floor of 
 he mouth showing 
 he diphtheritic exu 
 ate over the tongue 
 
DISEASES OF POULTRY 
 
 139 
 
 that they show no symptoms of it. There is a general belief that the dis- 
 ease may be developed by exposure of birds to draughts of air, or by 
 keeping them in damp, filthy and badly-ventilated houses. This opinion 
 is probably incorrect and is accounted for by the early symptoms of acute 
 diphtheria, and those of all stages of the chronic form, resembling the 
 symptoms seen in catarrhs and colds. Dampness and lack of ventilation 
 no doubt favor the maintenance and develop- 
 ment of the contagion and predispose the birds 
 to the disease. It is, however, very doubtful if 
 the disease can be originated by such conditions 
 in the absence of direct infection from affected 
 birds. 
 
 Bacteriological investigations made by Loef- 
 fler, Loir and Ducloux, and Moore indicate that 
 the diphtheria of birds is caused by a non-motile 
 bacillus 0.8 to 1.5 micro-cillimeters long by 0.8 
 to 1.2 micro-millimeters broad, resembling some- 
 what the bacillus of fowl cholera, and rabbit sep- 
 ticaemia. There are slight differences in the de- 
 scriptions given by these investigators — differ- 
 ences which may be accounted for by variations 
 of the germs under dissimilar conditions. All 
 who have carefully studied the bacillus agree in 
 the conclusion that it is entirely distinct from hu- 
 man diphtheria and that these diseases have only 
 superficial points of resemblance. It has been 
 Fie. 67 — Roof of the f° un d> however, that a form of diphtheritic sore 
 mouth showing- the exu- throat sometimes occurs in people who are work- 
 date of diphtheria. ; ng . about birds affected with diphtheria; but this 
 
 disease differs radically from the ordinary human diphtheria and is 
 much less serious. There are recorded cases, moreover, in which it 
 appears that the diphtheria of children has been communicated to 
 birds and the contagion preserved for a considerable time in that man- 
 ner. It may be that some of the cases of fatal disease in children 
 contracted from fowls were caused by the contagion of the human 
 form of the disease preserved in this way. 
 
 There are probably several distinct diseases which have been and are 
 generally confounded together as diphtheria or diphtheritic roup. A dis- 
 ease of the nature of croupous angina has been described in pullets and 
 young pigeons by Rivolta and Delprato and also by Pfeiffer which was 
 attributed by these authors to flagellate infusoria. A similar disease in 
 pigeons believed to be caused by bacteria was investigated by Loeffler. 
 Purulent collections about the head and aesophagus sometimes resemble 
 diphtheria very closely. The disease of the skin known as chicken pox and 
 sore head, caused by blastomycetes, has by some writers been called diph- 
 theria. Aspergillosis of the mouth in pigeons and croupous enteritis of 
 fowls produced by coccidia are also diseases which may be mistaken for 
 
140 
 
 DISEASES OP POULTRY 
 
 
 * 
 
 \ • 
 
 » 
 
 • 
 
 • 
 
 * 
 
 • 
 
 • • • 
 
 • 
 
 • 
 
 • < 
 •. • 
 
 • 
 » 
 
 > 
 
 « 
 
 % 
 
 1 
 
 « « 
 
 * 
 • 
 
 1 
 
 
 X ♦ 
 
 % 
 
 % 
 
 
 
 * 
 * 
 
 • 
 
 \ 
 
 
 diphtheria. These various diseases must be borne in mind in determining 
 
 the nature of any outbreak. 
 
 Treatment. — The treatment may be divided into three parts : 1st, 
 
 measures for preventing the introduction of the contagion; 2d, measures 
 
 for suppressing the disease in the flock, and, 3d, treatment of individual 
 
 birds. 
 
 The prevention of diphtheria is much more successful than its cure, and, 
 
 besides, it saves much more time and many valuable birds that will suc- 
 cumb before treatment can be 
 commenced or notwithstanding 
 treatment. Fowls should not 
 be allowed to mingle with those 
 on neighboring premises. If 
 some of the birds have been to 
 a show or if new birds have 
 been purchased for the flock, 
 quarantine them at a distance 
 from the home flock for thirty 
 days before they are allowed to 
 go together. While in quaran- 
 tine they should be examined 
 from time to time for symp- 
 
 Fig. bg.-Bactermm sanguinarium, bouillon cul- tomg of d j p h t heria, with spe- 
 ture, (magnified 2,000 diameters). • , t ., • . 
 
 cial reference to the existence 
 
 of grayish or yellowish patches in the mouth or eyes, or obstruction 
 of the breathing. If at the end of thirty days they have shown no 
 symptoms of this kind the danger may be considered past. Keep the 
 poultry-house clean and dry, have ample ventilation but freedom from 
 draughts or air, and arrange the house so that the sun will shine into 
 it a portion of the day. 
 
 If the disease appears in the flock, notwithstanding the preventive 
 measures suggested, remove the sick birds for treatment as soon as the 
 earliest symptoms are detected. Disinfect the poultry-house and runs 
 with a five-per-cent solution of carbolic acid and repeat this disinfection 
 at least once a week while the disease remains. Feed a well-balanced 
 ration containing a small proportion of meat scrap. Burn or safely bury 
 all dead birds. 
 
 The sick birds should be placed in a warm, ventilated, clean, dry hos- 
 pital room, where they will not be exposed to draughts or air and where 
 they can be readily caught for examination and treatment. Apply three 
 times a day to the diphtheritic spots in the mouth and eyes a two-per- 
 cent solution of either creolin or of pure carbolic acid in water, and if 
 possible inject a small quantity of the same solution into the nostrils. 
 Remove the diphtheritic membranes as soon as this can be done without 
 causing bleeding from the affected surface and continue the application 
 of the remedy. Tincture of iodine has been successfully applied to the 
 diseased parts of the mouth, and a solution of salicylic acid in water 1 
 
DISEASES OF POULTRY 141 
 
 grain to. the .ounce has been recommended for"the eyes. Boric acid solu- 
 tion of .the strength of IS grains to an ounce of water may be applied to 
 the eyes, nostrils or mouth and while often beneficial has the advantage of 
 being one of the mildest and safest remedies recommended. It may be 
 applied as frequently as convenient, and if a pledget of absorbent cotton 
 is saturated with it and held for some minutes upon the affected part, 
 the beneficial effects are increased. Some recommend removal of the 
 membranes, treatment of the affected patches with boric acid solution 
 and then covering the part with flowers of sulphur. An excellent remedy 
 is made by dissolving thirty-five grains of chlorate of potassium and 
 two grains of salicylic acid in one ounce of water and adding one ounce 
 of glycerine. This liquid should be applied to the diphtheritic spots two 
 
 or three times a day and 
 may also be given internally 
 in the dose 01 a teaspoonful 
 for fowls and one-fourth to 
 jne-half as much for pigeons. 
 Fumigation with oil of 
 turpentine by evaporating 
 this in the room so that the 
 affected birds will be forced 
 
 £ 
 
 *Cv/»9.W to breathe the vapors has 
 
 <fe ePsfb® been found beneficial. It is 
 
 g jriyQQ best not to use fire for this 
 
 JO ~ evaporation, as the turpen- 
 
 . * tine is very inflammable. 
 
 X\u. 69. — Jtacterlum suni'uiniiriuni fiom liver of tm j • j i. i 
 
 ... . P f- m „ ,. , I he desired result may be 
 
 fowl, 'magnified 2,000 diameters). . . . 
 
 obtained by heating a brick, 
 
 a stone or a piece of iron at the stove, taking this to the room where 
 
 the sick fowls are confined and pouring the turpentine upon the heated 
 
 surface as fast as it evaporates. In this way the air of the room is 
 
 charged with turpentine vapors which are inhaled by the birds at each 
 
 inspiration. This fumigation should be repeated twice a day. 
 
 Stimulating and tonic remedies have been more or less successful and 
 are especially valuable in the chronic forms of the disease. The follow- 
 ing combination may be used : Cayenne pepper, sulphate of quinine and 
 sulphate of iron, of each one grain. Mix and make into pills with a small 
 quantity of syrup. Give at one dose for fowls, and for pigeons one-third 
 the quantity. Another tonic is made by mixing sulphate of iron 45 
 grains with carbonate of soda, finely pulverized, 1 dram, honey or syrup 
 sufficient for proper consistency. It is divided into 50 pills. 
 
 Vaccination has been practiced successfully by Loir and Ducloux. 
 The weaker vaccine is made by heating cultures of the bacilli to 55 
 degrees C. for half an hour. A dose of one cubic centimeter of such 
 vaccine injected under the skin of fowls causes only a slight elevation of 
 temperature and confers a certain degree of immunity. These birds are 
 
142 DISEASES OP POULTRY 
 
 then inoculated with one cubic centimeter of a culture of the bacilli two 
 months old. This second vaccination raises the immunity to such a de- 
 gree that the birds are able to resist the contagion. 
 
 It has recently been proposed to treat birds with the same antitoxin 
 that is made for human diphtheria, and very successful results are claimed 
 for such treatment. It is just possible that this conclusion may be con- 
 firmed; but the almost unanimous testimony of bacteriologists that the 
 germs of the human and avain diseases are entirely distinct makes such 
 confirmation very doubtful. 
 
 For further suggestions as to treatment the reader is referred to the 
 article on contagious catarrh. 
 
 Fowls which have been affected should not be returned to the flock 
 
 for thirty days after they have ap- 
 parently recovered, otherwise they 
 may still communicate contagion. 
 Infectious Leukaemia. A dis- 
 ease of fowls which appeared to 
 be quite common was investigated 
 by Moore in 1894 and 1895 and 
 described under the name Infectious 
 leukaemia. The term leukaemia (or 
 leucaemia) is used to designate a 
 condition of the blood in which 
 there is a deficiency of coloring 
 matter. In the disease under con- 
 
 ,,, sideration the blood is light col- 
 Fig. iO.—Bacteruim sangumarwm Iroitl , ° 
 
 spleeu of'rabbit. ored or pale owing to a consider- 
 
 able decrease in the number of 
 red globules and an increase in the number of white corpuscles or leu- 
 cocytes. As the malady was found to be caused by a bacterium and to 
 be infectious,.it was decided to call it Infectious leukemia. A sufficient 
 number of cases have not yet been studied to permit a satisfactory de- 
 scription to be written; but such facts as have been noted are sum- 
 marized in this article. The disease has frequently been mistaken for 
 fowl cholera, and has been observed in Rhode Island, Maryland, District 
 of Columbia, and Virginia. A very fatal outbreak of this disease has 
 been observed by the author in a large brooder-house among incubator 
 chickens from one to three weeks old. 
 
 Symptoms. — The disease appears with a considerable elevation of tem- 
 perature, reaching three degrees or more above the normal. There is 
 drowsiness and general debility, with paleness of the mucous membranes 
 and also of the comb, wattles, and skin about the head. The fever is of 
 a continuous type, generally resulting in death in from four to five days. 
 In some cases the duration of the disease is longer and two or three 
 weeks may elapse before the death of the bird. There is then exces- 
 sive emaciation. A microscopic examination of the blood shows a marked 
 
DISEASES OP POULTRY 143 
 
 diminution in the number of red corpusles and an increase in the num- 
 ber of white ones. In one case the red corpusles decreased from 3,744, 
 000 per cubic millimeter to 2,133,000, and the white ones increased from 
 21,000 to 140,000. In another case the red corpusles were diminished 
 from 3,534,000 to 1,745,000, while the white ones increased from 19,000 
 to 245,000. There is loss of appetite with slight ruffling of the plumage, 
 and the head drawn cloze to the body. There appears to be no diarrheal 
 symptoms with this disease, or if they are sometimes seen they may be 
 regarded as exceptional. The period of incubation is from two to four 
 days. The alterations discovered by post-mortem examination arc con- 
 fined to the liver and the blood. The liver is somewhat enlarged and 
 dark colored, and the surface is sprinkled with minute grayish areas. 
 
 Causation. — This disease is undoubtedly infectious and is caused 
 by a micro-organism which Moore has named Bacterium sangninarium. 
 This germ is a non-motile, rod-shaped organism, which as found in the 
 tissues of fowls is from 1.2 to 1.8 micro-millimeters long and 1 to 1.3 
 micro-millimeters broad. It frequently appears in small clumps, but as 
 a rule is in pairs united end to end. This germ is found in the blood 
 and in various organs of the body. 
 
 Experimentally the disease has been produced by inoculating with pure 
 cultures of the germs and by feeding pure cultures or the organs of af- 
 fected fowls. The injection of 0.3 cubic centimeter of a fresh culture 
 into .the wing vein caused the disease and death in from three to thir- 
 teen days ; usually on the fifth or sixth day. Feeding cultures or viscera 
 of affected birds was followed by death in from seven to fifteen days, 
 but only about half of the birds fed contracted the disease. Pigeons, 
 rabbits, guinea pigs and mice contract the disease if inoculated with 0.2 
 to 0.3 cubic centimeter of culture and die within three to six days. 
 
 It appears probable from these investigations that the contagion in 
 natural outbreaks is taken into the body with the food, but the disease 
 is not readily propagated under sanitary conditions. Healthy fowls placed 
 in cages with diseased ones did not in a single instance contract the 
 disease. When cultures of the germs and diseased viscera were fed, 
 only about one-half of the fowls became affected. Notwithstanding this, 
 nearly all of one flock of about fifty fowls near Washington, D. C, 
 died from this disease; nearly eighty hens and pullets were lost on a 
 farm at Tackett Mills, Va. ; about fifty-five out of seventy died in a 
 flock, on Block Island ; fifty old hens died on a farm in Maryland near 
 Washington ; and several thousand small chickens died in a broiler-rais- 
 ing establishment in the same section. These instances are mentioned to 
 show the destructiveness of the disease under conditions favorable to its 
 propagation. The germ can not be considered a very virulent one, how- 
 ever, and, as suggested by Moore, the outbreaks appear to occur where 
 the requirements of ordinary hygiene are not strictly complied with. In 
 other words, this malady may be looked upon as a filth disease, and as 
 the "erin resembles in some respects the common intestinal germ known 
 as the Bacillus coli communis, it is improbable that outbreaks may occur 
 
144 
 
 DISEASES OF POULTRY 
 
 from filth without the necessity of importing the contagion upon a prem- 
 ises. In the brooder-houses above referred to, the brooders were not 
 bedded with sand as they should be, but the chicks were placed directly 
 upon the wooden floors, which became saturated with the droppings. In 
 the high temperature necessarily maintained in the brooders, the decomposi- 
 tion of such organic material was rapid, and the chicks were exposed 
 both to the foul gaseous emanations, and to the germs which abound in 
 putrefying excreta. 
 
 Treatment. — The prevention of the filth diseases is much easier than 
 their cure, and this malady is no exception to the rule. Cleanliness, good 
 food, pure water and ventilation are conditions antagonistic to the propa- 
 gation of infectious leukaemia. With these conditions, it has been found 
 difficult to keep up the disease experimentally, and it has not been found 
 upon premises where they exist. 
 
 When this disease appears the poultry-houses should be cleaned and 
 whitewashed. The floors should be sprinkled with carbolic acid in solu- 
 tion of five-per-cent strength. Other efficient disinfectants may, of course, 
 be used if more convenient. The sick fowls must be removed and isolated. 
 Quinine in the dose of 1 to 2 grains has been suggested for the sick fowls. 
 Sulphate of iron (copperas) in the drinking water is thought to be a 
 good prophylactic remedy. Probably any stimulating and tonic treat- 
 ment will prove beneficial after proper sanitary surroundings are secured. 
 
 It has been found experimentally that the germ is killed in five min- 
 utes by a one-per-cent solution of carbolic acid, and in ten minutes by 
 lime water. Sulphur fumes were also effectual by three hours' treatment. 
 It is, also, destroyed by a temperature of 136.4 degrees F., and conse- 
 quently, boiling water may be used to cleanse drinking and feeding 
 troughs and other infected articles. As the disease appears to be one of 
 the most common to which fowls are subject, there should be ample op- 
 portunities to make experiments for determining if any other measures 
 of treatment are available. 
 
 Fowl Cholera. This is a contagious disease of birds caused by bac- 
 teria, and transmissable by cohabita*ion and inoculation. It is character- 
 ized by high fever, great weakness and prostration, and usually termi- 
 nates in the death of the affected bird. 
 
 History. — This disease is mentioned in some of the oldest works treat- 
 ing of the diseases of animals. It was studied in 1782 by Chabert who 
 regarded it as a form of anthrax. This error is frequently repeated by 
 writers of the present day. Fowl cholera is not a form of anthrax and 
 has none of the characteristics of that plague which is so fatal in its re- 
 sults upon nearly all warm-blooded animals. 
 
 Since 182S, fowl cholera has been frequently observed in France and 
 caused enormous losses in 1830, 1850 and, above all, in 1860. About 1830 
 it became known in Russia, Bohemia and Austria. During recent years it 
 has been observed in about all the countries of Europe as well as in the 
 United States. 
 
DISEASES OP POULTRY 
 
 145 
 
 Benjamin in 1851 considered it to be a contagious disease and remarked 
 that people and dog« might consume with impunity, the meat of affected 
 fowls. Delafond and others observed that it might be transmitted to 
 birds and rabbits by using the blood, the secretions, and portions of the 
 flesh as infective agencies. They also recognized the virulence of the 
 excrement and the. important part which this plays in the dissemination 
 of the contagion. 
 
 The recent investigations of this disease began with an important ar- 
 ticle by Perroncito in which the specific germ of the disease -was described. 
 This was followed by the contributions of Pasteur, who, in 1880, cul- 
 tivated the germ in chicken broth and showed that its virulence might 
 be reduced to such an extent that it could safely be used for vaccination. 
 This is the first case in which a virulent germ was successfully modified 
 in a laboratory and made to act as a vaccine. It led to the preparation 
 of vaccines for a number of diseases, more particularly anthrax, black 
 quarter, and rabies. 
 
 The disease was at about the same time investigated by the author, 
 who gave special attention to vaccination and the effect of disinfectants 
 in destroying this virus. 
 
 General Characters. Fowl cholera attacks all varieties of domesti- 
 cated poultry — chickens, ducks, geese, pigeons, turkeys, and also caged 
 birds such as parrots and canaries. It also affects some species of wild 
 birds. 
 
 The infection generally occurs by taking food or drink contaminated 
 with the excrement of sick birds. It is, also, possible for birds to be in- 
 fected through wounds of the skin or by inhalation of the germs in 
 the form of dust suspended in the air. They often take the germs into 
 their bodies by consuming particles of flesh or blood from the carcasses 
 of affected birds that have died or have been killed. 
 
 This disease is generally introduced upon a farm, or in a locality, 
 with new birds purchased for improving the flocks, or with eggs for hatch- 
 ing. When it exists in a district it may be disseminated by wild ani- 
 mals or wild birds. 
 
 Fowl cholera is communicable by inoculation to rabbits and mice. 
 Guinea pigs are not very susceptible ; the young animals may rdi,e , but 
 the adult ones usually have nothing more than an abscess at- the : point 
 of inoculation. r 
 
 Symptoms. This disease as it occurs in Europe is more rapid in 
 its course and differs somewhat in its symptoms from outbreaks which 
 the author has observed in the United States. The incubation in Europe 
 is placed at 8 to 16 hours. In the case of 40 fowls inoculated by the au- 
 thor, the average period of incubation was 8 days, and it varied from 
 4 to 20 days. The virus evidently varies in i,ts activity in this country. 
 The duration of the disease, also, varies. With the 40 cases mentioned 
 above it averaged 3 days. 
 
 The sick birds generally stop eating or the appetite is lessened, al- 
 though occasionally they continue to eat almost to the time of death. 
 
146 
 
 DISEASES OP POULTRY 
 
 The earliest indication of the disease is a yellow coloration of the urates, 
 or that part of the excrement which is excreted by the kidneys. This is 
 in health a pure white, though it is frequently tinted . with yellow as the 
 result of other disorders than cholera. While, therefore, this yellow- 
 ish color of the urates is not 
 an absolutely certain proof of 
 cholera, it is a valuable indica- 
 tion when the disease has ap- 
 peared in a flock and an effort 
 is being made to check its 
 ;ourse by isolating birds as soon 
 as possible after infection. 
 
 In a few cases the first 
 symptom is a diarrhea in which 
 the excrement is passed in 
 large quantities and consists 
 ilmost entirely of white urates, 
 mixed with colorless mucous. 
 Generally, the diarrhea is a 
 prominent symptom. The ex- 
 crement is voided frequently 
 and consists largely of urates 
 rig.n.-Bac<en«ms an gu<nen^'nicz P uur X suspended in a thin, transpar- 
 of fowl's liver, (magnified 2,01)0 diameters.) ent, sometimes frothy mucous. 
 The urates have a deep yellow color, which in the later stages of the 
 disease may change to greenish or even a deep green. 
 
 Very soon after these first symptoms appear the bird separates it- 
 self from the flock, it no longer stands erect, the feathers are rough- 
 ened or stand on end, the wings droop, the head is drawn down towards 
 the body and the general outline of the bird becomes spherical or ball- 
 shaped. At this period, there is great weakness, the affected bird be- 
 comes drowsy and may sink into a sleep which lasts during the last day 
 or two of its life, and from which it is almost impossible to arouse it. 
 
 The crop is nearly always distended with food and apparently paralyzed. 
 Tl.ere is in most cases intense thirst. If the birds are aroused and caused 
 to walk there is at first an abundant discharge of excrement followed 
 at short intervals by scanty evacuations. 
 
 With the beginning of diarrhea the body temperature rises to 109 de- 
 grees or 110 degrees F., which is 2 to 4 degrees above the normal. The 
 comb lo:es its bright hue and becomes pale and bloodless. In Europe 
 the comb is described as dark blue, purple, or black, and some writers in 
 the United States have referred to it in the same terms, but the author 
 has never observed a dark comb in the cases he has seen. 
 
 Diseased birds rapidly lose in weight, they are so weak that a slight 
 touch causes them to fall over, and they walk with great difficulty. Death 
 may occur without a struggle or there may be convulsive movements and 
 cries. 
 
I5EA5E5 Or POULTRY 
 
 147 
 
 This disease may rapidly run through a flock destroying the greater 
 part of the birds in a week, or it may assume a more chronic form, ex- 
 tend slowly, and remain upon the premises for several weeks or months. 
 
 Post-Mortem Appearances. The comb is pale and bloodless, but 
 neither dark nor dark blue, as it has often been described, particularly 
 in Europe. The superficial blood vessels generally contain but little blood, 
 and there are in most cases soiled feathers about the arms, to which the 
 excrement may adhere in considerable quantity. 
 
 The liver in nearly every case is enormously enlarged, softened, with 
 blood vessels very apparent, often a very dark or dark-green color. The 
 gall bladder is distended with thick, dark bile. 
 
 The crop is generally distended with food, though no special lesions 
 have been noticed here. The stomach, viewed externally, often presents 
 a number of circular discolorations about one-tenth of an inch in diameter, 
 which on section are found to be small clots of extravasated blood. The 
 small intestines are congested. 
 
 The rectum and cloaca generally present deep red lines upon their mu- 
 cous membrane, evidently the first stage of inflammation, which results, 
 in chronic cases, in thickening of the walls, especially of the rectum, the 
 desquamation of the mucous membrane, and the formation of large ulcerous 
 surfaces. 
 
 The mesentery is generally congested, often greatly thickened and ren- 
 dered opaque by inflammation. The ureters are distended with yellow 
 urates ; the kidneys seem engorged, and on section accumulations of the 
 tenacious, yellow urates are frequently seen. The spleen is generally nor- 
 mal in size and appearance, though frequently enlarged and softened. 
 
 The pericardium is sometimes distended with effusion, in which case 
 there is noticeable hyperemia of the surface of the heart. The lungs 
 are often, though not generally, engorged with dark blood; they are sel- 
 dom, if ever, hepatized. 
 
 The blood vessels are sometimes filled with a firm clot, and contain 
 but little liquid; at other times the blood does not coagulate at all. It 
 seems to be those cases where the duration of the disease has been long- 
 est, in which the blood loses its property of coagulation. 
 
 The brain, in the case examined, was either normal or not very per- 
 ceptibly altered. The muscles at the seat of inoculation are generally red- 
 dened, though sometimes perfectly normal. 
 
 Causation. The cause of fowl cholera is a minute germ which un- 
 der the microscope presents either a circular or oval outline. It is one of 
 the bacteria that has been called by some a micrococcus, and by others 
 a bacillus. It is about one-fifthy-thousandth of an inch broad and two or 
 three times as long. It grows best at from 85 degrees to 105 degrees F. 
 It has no power of movement, does not form spores, and is easily de- 
 stroyed by drying, by the ordinary disinfectants, and by a temperature of 
 132 degrees F. for 15 minutes. 
 
 In the experiments of the author it was found that the virus • was 
 destroyed by salicylic acid 1 per cent ; benzoic acid, 1 per cent ; carbolic 
 
1,0 DISEASES OP POULTRY 
 
 acid, 1 per cent; sulphuric acid, Yz per cent. Substances which failed 
 to destroy the virulence were alcohol, 20 per cent; boric acid, 2 per 
 cent; sulphate of potassium, 2 per cent; iodine, 0.1 per cent. 
 
 This germ may gain entrance to the body through the digestive tract, 
 the respiratory organs, or through wounds of the skin. It diffuses itself 
 through the blood, multiplying in this liquid, and in all of the liquids 
 and organs of the body. Death is caused in acute cases by the toxic sub- 
 stances produced during the multiplication of the germ, and in chronic 
 cases, by the disturbances of digestion, assimilation and nutrition. 
 
 The meat of infected and even of dead birds has been eaten in some 
 countries without injurious effects to the consumers. It is assumed, there- 
 fore, that such meat is inocuous; but its sale should be prohibited in com- 
 mon with all meat from sick animals, or from those which have died 
 from natural causes. 
 
 The germ of fowl cholera is fatal to rabbits, causing death in from 
 twelve to forty-eight hours. When inoculated upon guinea pigs, sheep, 
 horses and mankind, an abscess forms at the point of inoculation, but 
 there are no general symptoms and recovery soon follows. 
 
 Treatment. All forms of medical treatment for cholera have been 
 unsatisfactory when tested sufficiently to prove their exact effects. Many 
 preparations have been recommended, but their sanguine discoverers had 
 not been careful to ascertain that they really were treating cholera, or 
 they had tried them on so few birds that their results were untrustworthy. 
 
 The drugs most frequently used are sulphur, copperas, capsicum, alum, 
 and resin, given either alone or mixed together. The effect of these reme- 
 dies is either stimulating or astringent or both according to the combina- 
 tion that is used. Some recommend a solution made by diluting one dram 
 of carbolic or hydrochloric acid with one quart of water. This is given 
 to adult birds in the dose of a dessertspoonful. We would not advise our 
 readers to put much confidence in internal medication. 
 
 The proper manner of combating cholera is to carry out strict sanitary 
 precautions. Remember that it is a contagious disease and that it depends 
 upon germs which are in some way brought upon the premises from some 
 other place where the disease exists. The contagion may be carried in 
 various ways. Sometimes it is brought with newly purchased birds; 
 sometimes i,t comes with eggs ; sometimes it is carried by wild birds, and 
 sometimes it is transported by animals. The poultryman must guard 
 against the introduction of contagion into his flock by all means at his 
 command. He must isolate and quarantine newly purchased birds for 
 two weeks before they are mixed with his flock. If he hatches eggs 
 from other yards, the nest and the young birds must be kept isolated until 
 it is known that they are healthy, that is, until the chicks are ten days old. 
 
 Dogs and other animals should be fenced out of the poultry-yards if 
 possible. Birds which have been exhibited at shows should be quaran- 
 tined for ten days after their return. 
 
 Should the disease appear in spite of precautions, isolate and disin- 
 fect. The isolation need not require a wide separation of the birds. Ten 
 
DISEASES OF TOULTRY 
 
 149 
 
 feet is sufficient distance to prevent the communication of this conta- 
 gion, if it is not carried in some way from pen to pen by the attendant 
 or by animals. It does not spread to any appreciable distance through 
 the atmosphere. 
 
 Disinfection. Disinfection should be constant while this disease is on 
 the premises. For this purpose a solution may be made by mixing "one 
 
 pound of carbolic acid with twenty-four 
 pounds, or say twelve quarts, of hot water. 
 Or one pound of sulphuric acid to fifty 
 quarts of water may be used. The latter 
 is the cheapest but it is more dangerous 
 to use. When the sulphuric acid is pur- 
 chased have the druggist dilute it with 
 twice its weight of water. If thus diluted 
 it will not burn the flesh or clothing as 
 severely as when concentrated and there 
 is little danger of an explosion when it is 
 further diluted. When diluting it, always 
 pour the acid very slowly into a com- 
 paratively large quantity of water, being 
 careful that it does not splash into the 
 eyes, and remember that considerable 
 heat results. A wooden bucket is, there- 
 fore, better than a glass bottle, and, on 
 account of its corrosive nature, metal 
 vessels can only be used for the most 
 dilute solution. If carefully used with proper precautions to prevent 
 it flying into the face or eyes when diluting, sulphuric acid is the most 
 satisfactory disinfectant. If any gets upon the flesh, apply large 
 quantities of water at once, or it will burn very deeply; if it reaches 
 the clothing it causes discoloration and soon destroys the fabric. It 
 may be neutralized with ammonia or a solution of baking soda. With 
 this digression concerning disinfectants we will now return to the methods 
 of disinfecting. If possible move the fowls to new runs and new houses 
 when cholera appears among them. Before they are moved, however, 
 separate all which are apparently sick and put these by themselves. Now 
 saturate the floor of the old house and all of the manure which is about 
 it with one of the disinfectants just mentioned. This may be applied con- 
 veniently with a watering can such as is used for watering flower beds 
 or gardens. 
 
 The healthy fowls of the flock should be confined to a small run, and 
 this as well as the poultry-house should be disinfected by sprinkling at 
 least once a day. The droppings should be swept up, disinfected and re- 
 moved every day. The buildings should be well whitewashed and the dis- 
 infecting effect of this application may be increased by adding one quarter 
 of a pound of carbolic acid to each gallon of lime. 
 
 Fig. 72.— Baeilliof fowl cholera. 
 
150 
 
 DISEASES OP POULTRY 
 
 Eradicating Cholera. The fowls should be carefully watched and 
 if any show signs of disease they should be removed at once. It is pos- 
 sible to arrest an outbreak of fowl cholera in a very short time by adopt- 
 ing such measures. If they are persevered in for two or three weeks 
 without any more birds becoming sick the danger may be considered at 
 an end. 
 
 The difficutly of arresting outbreaks of cholera is usually due to the 
 fowls being allowed to roam over an unlimited range. By the time the 
 disease is recognized, the contagion is widely scattered through the drop- 
 pings of the affected birds. It is, of course, impossible to disinfect a large 
 range, and, consequently, the birds continue to pick up the infection and 
 one after another contract the disease until the greater part is lost. 
 
 If it is decided to kill sick birds in order to get rid of the contagion 
 as rapidly as possible, dig a deep hole, put the birds into it and kill them 
 there, so that their bodies and blood will be buried together. Otherwise, 
 the blood, which is very virulent, may remain on the surface of the ground 
 to cause another outbreak of this disease. The birds which die from cholera 
 should in all cases be cremated or deeply buried. 
 
 Vaccination. Vaccination can not be recommended as a preventive. 
 The susceptibility of different breeds of birds varies to such an extent 
 that a vaccine which is safe for one may be deadly for another. If we 
 had only one breed of birds to deal with there is little doubt but that vac- 
 cination would be adapted to it and made a practical preventive ; but with 
 so many breeds, each varying from the other, the task of the vaccinator 
 is discouraging. 
 
 An interesting discovery in this connection was made by Dr. Kitt, a 
 German veterinarian. Kitt found that the eggs of fowls that had been made 
 immune to cho'.era contain something analogous to antitoxin, which may 
 be used to produce immunity in other birds. He injects from one to 
 two and one-quarter drams of the white of the eggs under the skin of 
 the bird to be protected. From what we know concerning the antitoxins 
 of other diseases, it is probable that such eggs would be more useful in 
 treating sick birds than in vaccinating well ones against the disease. 
 
 It would not be a difficult matter to vaccinate or inoculate a number of 
 hens until they had a very high degree of immunity, and their eggs should 
 then, according to this doctrine, be of great remedial value. For valuable 
 birds this treatment might be of service, but it is doubtful if there would 
 ever be sufficient call for the remedy to warrant any one in making the 
 necessary preparations to supply it when needed. 
 
CHAPTER XII 
 
 Injurious Habits or Vices 
 
 Egg Eating — FcathcA Eating, Feather Pulling 
 
 EGG EATING 
 
 ONE of the most troublesome and injurious of the acquired habits of 
 poultry is egg eating. Undoubtedly the habit begins in most cases 
 by the accidental breaking of an egg in the nest, but it rapidly spreads 
 among the flock until a large proportion of the eggs laid are purposely 
 broken and eaten by the hens. The heavy breeds of fowls are most sub- 
 ject to this habit because they more frequently break their eggs by step- 
 ping upon them than do lighter birds. When an egg is broken it is too 
 tempting a morsel to be left in the nest. The hen not only eats it, but 
 often carries -large pieces of the shell about the house or grounds, pur- 
 sued by other members of the flock, each of which wants a portion. In 
 this manner a number of individuals soon learn how appetizing are eggs 
 and egg shells, and each in turn becomes a teacher of others. 
 
 It is plain that whatever conditions contribute to the breaking of eggs 
 in the nests may be considered as causes of the habit. Thin-shelled eggs 
 are easily broken, and, hence, a deficiency of shell-forming constituents 
 in the ration may be a cause. In other cases an egg may be broken for 
 want of sufficient straw in the nest to protect it from direct contact with 
 the wood. 
 
 To guard against the formation of the egg-eating habit the fowls 
 should have plenty of lime, oyster-shells, bone, or similar substances to 
 ensure a firm shell upon the eggs. The nests' should be properly supplied 
 with straw, and artificial nest eggs should be used. In this way the dan- 
 ger of breaking eggs is reduced to a minimum. It is, also, well to have the 
 nests rather dark so that if an egg is accidentally broken the hen will 
 not discover it. 
 
 When the habit has been once acquired, these precautions are not al- 
 ways sufficient, and it may be necessary to construct the nests so that the 
 eggs will roll beyond the reach of the hen. Some people place artificial 
 eggs in the nests and about the houses so that the hens may peck at them, 
 and get the idea that they are no longer able to break egg shells. Others 
 blow out the contents of a few eggs through a small hole in the shell and 
 fill the space with a paste consisting largely of mustard, capsicum, aloes 
 or other disagreeable compounds and leave these where the hens will find 
 them. 
 
 151 
 
'" DISEASES OP POULTRY 
 
 Under any circumstances, it is best to remove the egg eaters from the 
 remainder of the flock, and, unless they are very valuable, to kill them 
 for the table. If they are too valuable for this treatment, then dark nests 
 or those in which the egg rolls into a safe receptacle are the only re- 
 sources. 
 
 Feather Eating, Feather Pulling. Fowls often acquire the habit 
 of pulling out and eating either their own feathers or the feathers of other 
 members of the flock. This vice is acquired most frequently in the Spring 
 or at molting time. The first indication that the birds are pulling feathers 
 is the loss of plumage, bareness and redness of the skin over the posterior 
 part of the back. Sometimes the skin has become abraded by repeated 
 pecking and sores result. If the birds are watched carefully, they will 
 be seen to catch one or more feathers in their beaks, tear them out and 
 swallow them. They are apparently most fond of the young, growing 
 feathers, the quills of which are filled with blood. 
 
 Various causes have been assigned for this habit, the most probable 
 being improper rations and insufficient exercise or idleness. In some in- 
 stances, it may originate from irritation of of the skin caused by animal 
 parasites. In general, it may be said that anything which produces an 
 abnormal appetite predisposes to feather eating. 
 
 As preventive measures, the birds should be given a free run or they 
 should at least be made to scratch for a large part of their food. This 
 exercise improves their digestion and gives them something to occupy 
 their time. As in some cases, the habit is due to insufficient animal mat- 
 ter in the ration or to feedng too long on a single kind of grain, particu- 
 larly corn, one of the first measures adopted should be a well balanced 
 ration containing skim milk, meat, bone, vegetables or green feed and fre- 
 quently varied. 
 
 The Geneva, N. Y., experiment station applied to the feathers lard or 
 vaseline in which powdered aloes had been mixed and after continuing this 
 treatment for some time the habit disappeared. This success was thought 
 to be due to the disagreeable taste of the aloes. It is some trouble to ap- 
 ply this mixture, however, and unless the fowls are of particular value, 
 it is probably better to rely upon exercise, variety of food and separation 
 of the most inveterate subjects. The skin and feathers should be care- 
 fully examined for lice and mites, and if these are found the remedies 
 recommended for such parasites should be applied. As lack of grit may 
 be the cause of indigestion, this essential element of the ration should re- 
 ceive attention, and it is well to give 6 or 8 grains daily of a mixture of 
 equal parts of powdered gentian root and ginger. The birds should also 
 1 e examined for intestinal parasites. 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 PAGB 
 
 CHAPTER I. — Introduction 11 
 
 The Poultry Industry — Health and Disease — The Organs and Ap- 
 paratus and Their Functions — Common Causes of Disease — Hy- 
 gienic Requirements — Disinfection — Objects of Medical Treatment. 
 
 CHAPTER II. — Diseases of the Organs of Respiration 19 
 
 Structure and Function — Simple Catarrh — Roup, Contagious Ca- 
 tarrh — Bronchitis — The Gapes, Verminous Tracheo-Bronchitis, 
 Syngamosis — Congestion of the Lungs, Pulmonary Congestion — 
 Pneumonia — Mycosis of the Air-Passages, Aspergillosis — The Air- 
 Sac Mite. 
 
 CHAPTER III. — Diseases of the Organs of Digestion 44 
 
 General Remarks Concerning the Digestive Organs — Obstruction 
 of the Beak — Inflammation of the Mucous Membrane of the 
 Mouth, Pip, Catarrhal Stomatitis — Thrush, Aphthae — Diphtheria — 
 Psorospermosis — Aspergillosis — Croupous Angina — Obstruction of 
 the Crop — Paralysis of the Crop, Impacted Crop, Obstructed Crop 
 — Abnormal Appetite, Aberration of the Appetite — Catarrh of the 
 Proventriculus, Inflammation of the Stomach, Gastritis. 
 
 CHAPTER IV. — Diseases of the Organs of Digestion (Continued) 57 
 Gastro-Intestinal Catarrh, Simple Diarrhea, Gastro-Enteritis, En- 
 teritis — Constipation, Intestinal Obstruction — Toxic Gastro-Enteritis 
 — Bacterial Enteritis — Asthenia, Going Light — Psorospermic-En- 
 t er jtis — Infectious Entero-Hepatitis of Turkeys, Black Head — 
 Parasitic Worms which Infest the Digestive Apparatus — The Nodu- 
 lar Taaniasis of Fowls. 
 
 CHAPTER V. — Diseases of the Peritoneum, Li^er, and Spleen . . 82 
 Peritonitis, Inflammation of the Peritoneum — Chronic Peritonitis, 
 Ascites, Abdominal Dropsy — Diseases of the Liver — Congestion of 
 the Liver — Inflammation of the Liver, Hepatitis — Icterus, Jaundice, 
 Biliary Repletion— Atrophy or Wasting of the Liver— Fatty De- 
 generation of the Liver — Fatty Liver — Tuberculosis of the Liver, 
 Spleen, and Peritoneum. 
 
 CHAPTER VI.— Diseases of the Organs of Urination 
 
 and Reproduction 
 
 Brief Description of the Organs of Urination — Parenchymatous 
 Nephritis. Inflammation of the Kidneys— Abscess of the Kidneys- 
 Obstruction of the Cloaca by Urinary Concretions — The Male 
 Organs of Reproduction— Hypertrophy or Enlargement of the Testi- 
 
 153 
 
 87 
 
154 DISEASES OP POULTRY 
 
 cles — Cancer of the Testicles — Fatty Degeneration — The Female 
 Organs of Reproduction — Atrophy of the Ovary — Tumors of the 
 Ovary — Gangrene of the Ovary — Inflammation of the Oviduct — 
 Prolapsus or Eversion of the Oviduct — Difficult Laying, Egg Bound, 
 Obstruction of the Oviduct — Gangrene of the Oviduct — Rupture of 
 the Oviduct — Cloacitis, Vent Gleet — Anomalies in Egg Production — 
 Egg Incubated in the Oviduct — Parasites in Eggs — Sanguineous 
 Eggs — Eggs Without Shells — Eggs with Two Yolks — Incomplete 
 or Aborted Eggs — Eggs Within Eggs. 
 
 CHAPTER VII.— Diseases of the Brain 101 
 
 Cerebral Hyperemia, Congestion of the Brain, Vertigo — Hemor- 
 rhage of the Brain, Apoplexy — Epilepsy. 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. — Diseases of the Heart and Blood Vessels 103 
 
 Pericarditis, Inflammation of the Pericardium, Dropsy of the Heart 
 Sac — Endocarditis, Inflammation of the Internal Membrane of the 
 Heart — Hypertrophy of the Heart — Rupture of the Heart and 
 Large Blood Vessels. 
 
 CHAPTER IX. — Parasites and Diseases of the Skin 105 
 
 The Epizoa or Parasites Living Upon the External Surface of 
 the Body — Scabies or Mange of the Body — Scabies Caused by 
 Epidermoptes — Scabies Caused by Sarcoptes, Depluming Scabies — 
 Favus — Chicken Pox, Sore Head, Pigeon Pox. 
 
 CHAPTER X.— Diseases of the Feet and Legs 125 
 
 Leg Weakness — Rheumatism and Gout — Superficial Sores — Corns — 
 Deep Bruises and Abscesses — Scabies of the Legs and Feet, Scaly 
 Legs. 
 
 CHAPTER XI. — Infectious Diseases Having A Tendency to Af- 
 fect More Than One Set of Organs 131 
 
 Tuberculosis — Diphtheria, Diphtheritic Roup — Infectious Leukaemia 
 — Fowl Cholera. 
 
 CHAPTER XII.— Injurious Habits or Vices 151 
 
 Egg Eating — Feather Eating, Feather Pulling. 
 
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 
 
 FIG. PAGE 
 
 Skeleton and soft parts of a fowl (Megnin) prontispiece 
 
 1 Lungs of a fowl (Megnin) 20 
 
 2 Head of fowl affected with contagious catarrh (Megnin) 23 
 
 3 Right lung of a goose (Owen) 26 
 
 4 Lung of a bird in ideal section (Williams) 27 
 
 5 A pair of syngames (Megnin) 29 
 
 6 Development of Syngamus trachealis (Megnin) 31 
 
 Diagram illustrating manner of removing syngames with wire, horse- 
 hair or feather. 
 
 7 Reproductive organs of syngames; pair of syngames illustrating at- 
 tachment to mucous membrane (Megnin) 33 
 
 8 Chicken affected with gapes (Garman, Ky. Agl. Exp. Station) 34 
 
 9 Diagrammatic representation of the air sacs (Heider) 38 
 
 10 Aspergillus glaucus ( Cadeac) 39 
 
 11 Aspergillus fumigatus (Ziegler) 39 
 
 12 Cytodites nudus, male (Railliet) 41 
 
 13 Cytodites nudus, female (Railliet) 42 
 
 14 Digestive apparatus of a fowl (Chauveau) 45 
 
 15 Microscopic elements of thrush (Robin) 48 
 
 16 Gastric glands of birds (Owen) 55 
 
 17 Caeca of healthy turkey (Smith, Bur. An. Industry) 66 
 
 18 Diseased caeca, entero-hepatitis (Moore, Bur. An. Ind.) 67 
 
 19 Liver of healthy turkey (Moore, Bur. An. Industry) 68 
 
 20 Diseased liver, entero-hepatitis (Moore, Bur. An. Ind.) 68 
 
 21 Protozoa of entero-hepatitis (Smith, Bur. An. Ind.) 69 
 
 22 Section of diseased liver, entero-hepatitis (Smith, Bur. An. Ind.) 70 
 
 23 Section of diseased caecum, entero-hepatitis (Smith, Bur. An. Ind.) . . 71 
 
 24 Heterakis perspicillum (Hassall, Bur. An. Industry) 72 
 
 25 Drepanidotaenia infundibuliformis (Goeze) 75 
 
 26 Notocotyle verrucosum (Looss) 11 
 
 27 Echinorhytichus polymorphus (Railliet) 78 
 
 28 Nodular tseniasis ; intestine with nodules and tapeworms (Moore, 
 Bur. An. Industry) 79 
 
 29 Nodular taeniasis ; magnified section of intestine (Moore, Bur. An. 
 Industry) 8° 
 
 30 Urinary and reproductive organs of the hen (Railliet) 88 
 
 155 
 
156 
 
 DISEASES OF POULTRY 
 
 31 Reproductive organs of the cock (Railliet) 89 
 
 32 Testes of the house sparrow (Hunter) 90 
 
 33 Reproductive organs of the hen (Magnin) '. ' 92 
 
 34 Egg from upper part of oviduct (Thomson) 93 
 
 35 Chalazse from opposite sides of yolk (Thomson) 93 
 
 36 Egg from above middle of oviduct (Thomson) 93 
 
 37 Section of fowl's egg (Thomson) 94 
 
 38 Menopon biseriatum (Piaget) Ill 
 
 39 Menopon latum (Piaget) Ill 
 
 40 Lipeurus columbae (Piaget) 112 
 
 41 Goniodes dissimilis (Piaget) 113 
 
 42 Lipeurus caponis (Piaget) 113 
 
 43 Menopon pallidum (Piaget) 114 
 
 44 Goniocotes hologaster (Piaget) 114 
 
 45 Dermanyssus gallinae, upper surface (Megnin) 115 
 
 46 Dermanyssus gallinae, under surface (Megnin) 115 
 
 47 Dermanyssus gallinae, egg and young mite (Megnin) .< 116 
 
 48 Epidermoptes bilobatus, male (Neumann) .' 116 
 
 49 Epidermoptes bilobatus, female (Neumann) 117 
 
 50 Sarcoptes laevis, variety gallinae, male (Railliet) 117 
 
 51 Sarcoptes laevis, variety gallinae, female (Railliet) 118 
 
 52 Sarcoptes laevis, variety gallinae, larva (Railliet) 119 
 
 53 Fowl affected with favus (Neumann) 120 
 
 54 Achorion Schonleinii from favus of poultry (Neumann) 121 
 
 55 Sore head (pigeon pox) inoculated pigeon (Sanfelice) 122 
 
 56 Sore head (pigeon pox) inoculated pigeon (Sanfelice) 122 
 
 57 Skeleton of a fowl (Chauveau) 127 
 
 58 Sarcoptes mutans, male (Neumann) 128 
 
 59 Sarcoptes mutans, female (Railliet) 128 
 
 60 Scabies of the foot (Neumann) 129 
 
 61 Tubercular tumor of the wing (Cadiot and Almy) 132 
 
 62 Tubercular tumor of the head (Cadiot and Almy) 134 
 
 63 Section of liver of bird affected with tuberculosis (Sutton) 135 
 
 64 Growth of horn from region of head affected with tuberculosis 
 (Krampf ) 136 
 
 65 Tuberculosis of the foot (Sutton) 137 
 
 66 Diphtheritic exudate over the tongue (Moore, Bur. An. Industry) . . 138 
 
 67 Roof of mouth showing diphtheritic exudate (Moore, Bur. An. Ind.) 139 
 
 68 Bacterium sanguinariinn, bouillon culture (Moore, Bur. An. Ind.).. 140 
 
 69 Bacterium sanguinariinn, from liver (Moore, Bur. An. Industry) . . 141 
 
 70 Bacterium sanguinarium, from spleen of rabbit (Moore, Bur. An. 
 
DISEASES OF POULTRY 
 
 157 
 
 Industry) 142 
 
 71 Bacterium sanguhiarium in capillary of fowl's liver (Mooie, Bur. 
 An. industry) 146 
 
 72 Bacilli of fowl cholera (Moore, Bur. An. Industry) 149 
 
INDEX 
 
 Abscesses, Deep Bruises and, 128 
 
 Air Passages, Mycosis of the, 38 
 
 Air Sac Mite, The, 41 
 
 Angina, Croupous, 5 
 
 Anomalies in Egg Production, 98 
 
 Aphthae, Thrush, 47 
 
 Apoplexy, 101 
 
 Appetite, Aberration of the, 54 
 
 Appetite, Abnormal, 54 
 
 Ascites, 83 
 
 Aspergillosis, 38-49 
 
 Asthenia, Going Light, 63 
 
 Atrophy of the Ovary, 94 
 
 Atrophy or Wasting of the Liver, 85 
 
 B 
 
 Beak, Obstruction of the, 46 
 
 Black Head, 65 
 
 Brain, Congestion of the, 101 
 
 Brain, Hemorrhage of the, 101 
 
 Bronchitis, 26 
 
 Bronchitis, Verminous Tracheo, 27 
 
 Bruises and Abscesses, Deep, 128' 
 
 Catarrh, Contagious, 22 
 
 Catarrh, Gastro-Intestinal, 57 
 
 Catarrh, Simple, 21 
 
 Chicken Pox, 121 
 
 Cholera Eradicating, 150 
 
 Cholera, Fowl, 144 
 
 Cholera, Vaccination for, 150 
 
 Cloaca, Obstruction of the, by Urinary 
 
 Concretions, 89 
 Cloacitis, 97 
 
 Congestion of the Lungs, 35 
 Congestion, Pulmonary, 3 5 
 Constipation, 58 
 Corns, 128 
 
 Crop, Catarrh of the, 5 1 
 Crop, Impacted, 52 
 Crop, Inflammation of the, 5 1 
 Crop, Obstructed, 52 
 Crop, Paralysis of the, 52 
 
 D 
 
 Diarrhea, Simple, 57 
 
 Digestive Organs, General Remarks Con- 
 cerning the, 44 
 Diphtheria, 49-135 
 Diphtheritic Roup, 135 
 Disease, Common Causes of, 13 
 Disinfection, 15 
 Dropsy, Abdominal, 83 
 Dropsy of the Heart Sac, 203 
 
 Egg Bound, 96 
 Egg Eating, 151 
 
 Eggs, Incomplete or Aborted, 100 
 Egg Incubated in the Oviduct, 98 
 Eggs, Parasites in, 99 
 Egg Production, Anomalies in, 98 
 Eggs, Sanguineous, 99 
 Eggs Within Eggs, 100 
 Eggs Without Shells, 99 
 Eggs With Two Yolks, 100 
 Endocarditis, 103 
 Enteritis, 57 
 Enteritis, Bacterial, 60 
 Enteritis, Gastro, 57 
 Enteritis, Toxic Gastro, 59 
 Enteritis, Psorospermic, 64 
 Epizoa or Parasites Living Upon the Ex- 
 ternal Surface of the Body, 105 
 Epilepsy, 102 
 
 Favus, 118 
 
 Feather Eating, 152 
 
 Feather Pulling, 152 
 
 Feet, Diseases of the, 126 
 
 Fowl Cholera, 144 
 
 Fowl Cholera, General Characters, 145 
 
 Fowl Cholera, History of, 144 
 
 Fowl Cholera, Vaccination for, 150 
 
 Gangrene of the Ovary, 95 
 
 Gangrene of the Oviduct, 97 
 
 Gapes, The, 27 
 
 Gastritis, 54 
 
 Going Light, Asthenia, 63 
 
 Gout, Rheumatism and, 125 
 
 H 
 
 Health and Disease, 11 
 
 Heart, Hypertrophy of the, 10# 
 
 Heart, Inflammation of the Internal 
 Membrane of the, 103 
 
 Heart, Rupture of the, and Large Blood 
 Vessels, 104 
 
 Heart Sac, Dropsy of the, 103 
 
 Hemorrhage of the Brain, 101 
 
 Hepatitis, 84 
 
 Hepatitis of Turkeys, Infectious En- 
 
 tero, 65 
 
 Hygienic Requirements, 14 
 
 Hyperaemia, Cerebral, 101 
 
 Hypertrophy or Enlargement of the Tes- 
 ticles, 90 
 
 158 
 
DISEASES OF POULTRY 
 
 159 
 
 Icterus, 84 
 
 Infectious Entero-Hepatitis of Turkeys, 
 
 65 
 infectious Leukaemia, 142 
 Intestinal Obstruction, 58 
 Intestines, Parasites of the, 73 
 
 Jaundice, 84 
 
 Kidneys, Abscess of the, 89 
 Kidneys, Inflammation of the, 
 
 Laying, Difficult, 96 
 
 Leg Weakness, 125 
 
 Leukaemia, Infectious, 42 
 
 Liver, Atrophy or Wasting of the, 85 
 
 Liver, Congestion of the, 84 
 
 Liver', Diseases of the, 83 
 
 Liver, Fatty, 86 
 
 Liver, Fatty Degeneration of the, 85 
 
 Liver, Inflammation of the, 84 
 
 Liver, Tuberculosis of the, 86 
 
 Lungs, Congestion of the, 35 
 
 Lungs, Inflammation of the, 36 
 
 M 
 
 Medical Treatment, Objects of, 16 
 Mucous Membrane of the Mouth, In- 
 flammation of the, 46 
 Mycosis of the Air Passages, 38 
 
 N 
 
 Nephritis, Parenchymatous, 88 
 
 O 
 
 Objects of Medical Treatment, 16 
 Oesophagus, Parasites of the, 71 
 Organs and Apparatus and their Func- 
 tions, The,' 12 
 Ovary, Atrophy of the, 94 
 Ovary, Gangrene of the, 95 
 Ovary, Tumors of the, 95 
 Oviduct, Egg Incubated in the, 98 
 Oviduct, Gangrene of the, 97 
 Oviduct, Inflammation of the, 95 
 Oviduct, Obstruction of t ,ie > 96 
 Oviduct, Prolapsus or Eversion of the, 
 
 96 
 Oviduct, Rupture of the, 97 
 
 Parasites in Eggs, 99 . 
 
 Parasites of the Intestines and Peri- 
 toneum, 73 
 
 Parasites Living upon the External bur- 
 face of the Body, Epizoa or, 105 
 Parasites of the Oesophagus and Stom- 
 ach, 71 
 
 irarasites of the Peritoneum, 73 
 
 Parasitic Worms which Infest the Di- 
 gestive Apparatus, 71 
 
 Pericarditis, 103 
 
 Pericardium, Inflammation of the, 103 
 
 Peritoneum, Inflammation of the, 82 
 
 Peritoneum, Parasites of the, 73 
 
 Peritoneum, Tuberculosis of the, 86 
 
 Peritonitis, 82 
 
 Peritonitis, Chronic, 83 
 
 Pharynx, Obstruction of the, 51 
 
 Pigeon Pox, 121 
 
 Pip, 46 
 
 Pneumonia, 36 
 
 Poultry Industry, The, 1 1 
 
 Pro'apsus or Eversion of the Oviduct, 
 96 
 
 Proventriculus, Catarrh of the, 54 
 
 Psorospermosis, 49 
 
 R 
 
 Repletion, Biliary, 84 
 Reproduction, Female Organs of, 91 
 Reproduction, Male Organs of, 90 
 Respiration, Structure and Function of 
 
 the Organs, 19 
 Rheumatism and Gout, 125 
 Roup, Contagious Catarrh, 22 
 Roup, Diphtheritic, 135 
 Rupture of the Heart and Large Blood 
 Vessels, 104 
 Rupture of the Oviduct, 97 
 
 Scabies, Caused by Epidermoptes, 1 15 
 
 Scabies, Caused by Sarcoptes, 1 16 
 
 .Scabies, Depluming, 1 16 
 
 Scabies of the Legs and Feet, 128 
 
 Scabies or Mange of the Body, 115 
 
 Scaly Legs, 128 
 
 Sore Head, 121 
 
 Pores, Superficial, 126 
 
 Spleen, Tuberculosis of the, 86 
 
 Stomach, Inflammation of the, 54 
 
 Stomach, Parasites of the, 71 
 
 Stomatitis, Catarrhal, 46 
 
 Syngamosis, 27 
 
 Syngamus Bronchialis, 35 
 
 Taeniasis, Nodular, of Fowls, The, 79 
 Testicles, Cancer of the, 91 
 Testicles, Fatty Degeneration of the, 91 
 Testicles, Hypertrophy or Enlargement 
 
 of the, 90 
 Thrush, Aphthae, 47 
 Tuberculosis, 131 
 Tuberculosis of the Liver, Spleen, and 
 
 Peritoneum, 86 
 Tumors of the Ovary, 95 
 
 U 
 
 Urination, Brief Description of the Or- 
 gans of, 87 
 
160 
 
 DISEASES OF POULTRY 
 
 Vaccination for Fowl Cholera, 
 Vent Gleet, 97 
 Vertigo, 101 
 
 W 
 
 150 Worms, Parasitic, which Infest the Di- 
 
 gestive Apparatus, 71 
 
*