iiir,' m ifipi!"*ili 1" 'II ■iiiin I pii II e' ■ I I Mr'' ' ! t'l'lil ' I'l'lilitiirtmmfiiititiHinmiiiH iiliii,liiiii"'fi; WMM BOUGHT WITH THE INCOME FROM THE SAGE ENDOWMENT FUND TH5 GIFT OF Hctirg HJ. Sage 1891 A.xh.7L^.:z.\. .^.\vii3,\.:g;^.. Cornell University Library LB1061 .R87 Habit-formation and the science of teach olin 3 1924 030 592 400 p^ Cornell University Library The original of tliis book is in tlie Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924030592400 HABIT-FORMATION BT THE SAME AUTHOR The Lighting of School-Booms. Longmans, Green, and Co. 1904. The Physicaii Nature of the Child astd How to Study It. Revised edition. The Macmillan Company. 1905. HABIT-FORMATION AND THE SCIENCE OF TEACHING BY STUART H. ROWE, Ph.D. HEAD or THE DEPARTMENT OF PSTCHOLOOY AND PRINCIPLES or EDUCATION, BROOKLYN TRAINING SCHOOL FOB TEACHERS, BROOKLYN, NEW YORK; LEC- TURER ON EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOL- OGY, ADELPHI COLLEGE, BROOKLYN, NEW YORK NEW IMPRESSION LONGMANS, GREEN, AND CO. FOURTH AVENUE & 30TH STREET, NEW YORK LONDON, BOMBAY, AND CALCUTTA 1911 COFTBIOHT, 1909, Bt LONGMANS, GREEN, AND CO. All rights reserved. First Edition, September, 1909. Reprinted, Msroh, 1910 Reprinted, July, 1911 THE • PLIMPTON • PRESS • NORWOOD • MASS • U • 8 • A Co MY MOTHER THIS BOOK IS AFFECTIONATELT DBDIGATED HABIT So, then I Wilt use me as a garment? Well, 'Tis man's high impudence to think he may ; But I — who am as old as Heav'n and Hell — I am not lightly to be cast away. Wilt run a race ? Then I will run with thee, And stay thy steps or speed thee to the goal ; WUt dare a fight ? Then, of a certainty, m aid thy foeman, or sustain thy soul. Lo, at thy marriage feast, upon one hand Face of the bride, and on the other — mine I Lo, at thy couch of sickness close I stand. And taint the cup, or make it more benign 1 Yea — hark ! The very son thou hast begot One day doth give thee certain sign and cry ; Hold thou thy peace — frighted or frighted not — That look, that sign, that presence — it is 1 1 — Makgaret Steele Andekson. American Magazine, September, 1907. 71 PREFACE This book had its origin in an investigation, made several years ago, of the formative value of Latin and Greek. That inquiry resulted in the conviction that training in these languages owed its chief disciplinary merit to the habits engendered in connection with attention, rapid inter- pretation, classification, and contemplation of life from another's point of view. The absolute lack, however, of any systematic scheme of securing any particular habit was staTtlingly emphasized. Subsequently, the writer made studies concerning various other phases of educational procedure. In each case the conclusion was reached that in none of the aspects of edu- cation investigated was there a scientifica,lly established method of securing the habits sought. In the end it became evident that here is an extensive subdivision of methodology, the general principles of which have not been formulated, though educators past and present have united in insisting upon the fundamental importance of good habits. The design of this book is twofold : first, to present in scientific form the relation of habit to education; and secondly, to treat the subject of habit-formation in a way that will render practical assistance to the teacher, the supervisor, the parent, and the clergyman. Their problem is not merely to impart ideas, but even more to form habits ; for habit plays an essential part in the acquisition of knowl- edge as well as in the development of ability to contribute to the general welfare. viii PREFACE A formulation of method is needed in which this basic position of habit is duly recognized. The fact that there is a fundamental tissue of habits permeating ideational processes has been practically ignored in methods of instruc- tion, while in methods of guidance or training the problem of habit-formation has been overshadowed by specific prob- lems of mere management and control. It is clear, how- erer, to the student of habit that thorough acquaintance with subject-matter — the aim of instruction — implies some- what of habit and much of understanding, while the be- havior sought in school management should imply some understanding and much habit. It remains to elaborate the mode of selecting habits, the conditions of making and breaking them, the vital phases of their formation, their relation to subject-matter and discipline, and the means of overcoming hindrances. These, then, are salient features of the present undertaking. The real importance of general principles for the main- tenance of discipline and for making effective all varieties of drill is too evident to need elaboration. Moreover, a recognition of these principles should simplify the problem of special method and school discipline, since each subject or form of training must to some degree at least contribute to the advantage of others. From the practical side the need of a methodology of habit has been of late strongly evidenced. In two recent meetings of the l^ational Education Association especial emphasis was laid on the drill side of education. But an abundance of drill or repetition does not necessarily produce the habits, intellectual or moral, which are desired. Such exercises conducted unskillfuUy often defeat themselves. A systematic and practical study of the subject should be helpful to superintendents and teachers alike. For him whose time is very limited, the summaries of Chapters III, IV, V, VI, XI, and XIV may be substituted PREFACE IX for the text. If he is interested in the problem of habit- breaking, however, Chapter XI must be read. Grateful acknowledgment is made to Miss Emma L. Johnston, Principal of the Brooklyn Training School for Teachers, for many suggestions and for active help in put- ting to the test of practice many of the principles here laid down ; to Dr. J. Carleton Bell, my colleague, and Dr. Grant Karr for critical examination of the manuscript ; to my wife for much valuable assistance ; and to many others for help- ful suggestions and criticisms. TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER I PAGE The Teacher's Problem 1 1. Nature of education. 2. Definition of education. 3. Teacliing and educating. 4. Relegation to the teacher of all kinds of training. 6. The primitive child's learning. 6. Befinition of teaching. 7. The fourfold relation of the teacher to the child's environment. 8. The function of the teacher with regard to the child's experiences. 9. Typical differences in attainment. 10. Organization of experience the essential of progress. 11. The condition and limits of organization. 12. The mistake of modern pedagogy. 13. Summary. CHAPTER II Dominant Modes of Organizing Experience . . 10 1. The narrov^er meaning of experience. 2. Experience as a psychological term. 3. Phases of experience. 4. Un- learned capabilities, automatic and purposive learning. 6. Two types of automatic learning. 6. A definite end necessary for all purposive learning. 7. The concrete as a factor. 8. The intermingling of ways of learning, 9. The effect of previous experience on purposive learning. 10. The teacher and the two ways of organizing experience. 11. Nega- tive teaching. 12. Neglect of the automatic. 13. Five fundamental principles. 14. Summary. CHAPTER in Typical Forms op Organized Experience ... 27 1. The variety of the child's experience. 2. Knowledge as a type of organized experience. 3. The error of neglect- ing the doing phases of experience. 4. The two marked xi XU TABLE OF CONTENTS PAsa types of organized experience. 6. Confused f ormB of organi- zation. 6. Habit and memory. 7. The function of habit. 8. Seeking automatisms a fundamental of teaching. 9. A point of difficulty. 10. The combination involved in idea- habits. 11. The difficulty merely theoretical. 12. Practice in making the distinction desirable. 13. Automatisms in- volved in courses of study. 14. Summary. CHAPTER IV The Difference between Habits and Ideas . . 44 1. Nature and definition of idea. 2. Nature and defini- tion of habit. 3. Philosophical objections. 4. A psycho- logical objection. 6. Habit an automatism. 6. Habit as serial activity. 7. Habit as a preservative. 8. The disre- gard of detail and feeling. 9. The minimizing of attention and fatigue. 10. Habit aa implying repetition. 11. Habit as specific aptitude. 12. The reflex and instinctive basis of habit. 13. Summary of the eight differences. 14. Princi- ples of education involved. 16. Habit-getting as a sequel to idea-getting. 16. Transition of automatically gained ideas into habits. 17. Habits as precedent to ideas. 18. Summary. CHAPTER V The Basis of Habit 69 1. The development of habit from instinct. 2. The de- velopment of habit out of habit. 3. The nature of instinct. 4. Instincts important in training children. 6. Comments on useful instincts. 6. The overlapping of instincts. 7. Clas- sification of instincts. 8. Three principles derived from the duration of instincts. 9. The two modes of modifying in- stincts or habits. 10. Principles following from the depend- ence of instincts on stimuli. 11. The child's basis of habits. 12. Summary. CHAPTER VI Important Phases op Establishing Habits ... 85 1. The teacher's preliminary action. 2. Automatic prepa- ration. 3. The four phases of habit-getting. 4. The f ormu- TABLE OF CONTENTS xiii PAGE lations of James and Thomdike. 6. Other important formalations. 6. The sabdivisiona of the method of habit- getting. 7. These divisions not necessarily successive. 8. Summary. CHAPTER VII The Selection and Demonstration of Habits . . 95 1. Scope of the chapter. 2. Selection of subject-matter assumed. 3. Habit and incidental practice. 4. The analy- sis of the lesson into ideas and habits. 5. Complex combi- nation of habit. 6. Thecomplexity and difficulty of analysis illustrated (a) by a writing lesson. 7. (b) By drawing lessons. 8. The teacher's study of the habit. 9. Considera- tions for the study of the lesson in complex cases. 10. Illus- tration of the study of a complex case. 11. Suggestions resulting from the study of the arithmetical illustration. 12. Study of the stimuli of habits. 13. The study of the essentials of the reaction. 14. The study of habit as in- volved in spelling. 15. Demonstration of the habit to the pupil necessary. 16. Four important principles for demon- strating habits, (a) By concrete presentation. 17. (b) By using past experience. 18. (c) By preliminary mastery of difficult points. 19. (d) By leading the child to actual per- formance of the act. 20. Summary. CHAPTER Vm Methods of Evoking Initiative 120 1. The meaning of initiative. 2. Sources of initiative. 3. Self-activity as initiative. 4. Distinction between instinct and feeling, instinct and motive. 5. Threefold basis of the development of initiative. 6. What is meant by appeals to reason. 7. The use of instinct. 8. Instinct as a factor in getting erect writing posture. 9. The wide range of appeal provided by instinct. 10. Difference in the moving power of appeals to the same instinct. 11. Emotional incentives. 12. The value of a classification of feeling. 13. The classi- fication of feelings. 14. Feeling and interest. 16. The verbal distinction. 16. The objective reference of interest. xiv TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE 17. The three levels of interest and their twofold reference. 18. The usefulness of the classification of interest. 10. Di- rect and indirect interest. 20. Resulting satisfaction as a source of initiatjve. 21. The statement and illustration of the law of " resulting satisfaction." 22. The application of the principle of resulting satisfaction. 23. (o) Experimenta- tion for initiative. 24. (6) Reenforcement of initiative. 25. (c) Testing and weighing initiative. 26. Motives as sources of initiative. 27. Motives as validated impulses. 28. President Eliot's emphasis of the permanent motive. 29. The development of motive. 30. Motives and appeals through reason. 81. The necessity of connecting initiative with the habit to be formed. 32. Adolescent initiative. 33. Judicious plying of initiative. 34. The preference of positive over negative incentives. 35. Summary. CHAPTER IX Methods of Securing Practice 159 1. Repetition the desideratum of practice. 2. The amount of repetition. 3. Thoughtful and earnest practice essential. 4. Relation between repetition and initiative. 5. The appointment of specified periods for practice. 6. Specifying the number of repetitions. 7. Furnishing abundant and agreeable stimuli. 8. Associating stimuli with the child's customary acts. 9. Practice as an outcome of environment. 10. Keeping in practice. 11. Decadence of neglected habits. 12. Need of actual not perfunctory practice. 13. The re- newing of initiative. 14. A definite degree of skill or facility as an aim. 15. Efiort as a factor in practice. 16. The direction of attention to special points. 17. Desirability of the method admitting of the most practice. 18. Psycho- logical experiment and practice. 19. Summary. CHAPTER X Methods of Preventing Exceptions .... 177 1. The danger of exceptions. 2. The two sources of exceptions. 3. Need of studying tendencies to modification. 4. Reenforcement of uncertain initiative. 5. Removal of TABLE OF CONTENTS xv PAOB Stimuli. 6. Fatigue as a stimulus to modification. 7. The reduction of stimuli. 8. The checking of variation. 9. The elimination of difficult points. 10. The use of inhibition. 11. The stimuli and motive of inhibition. 12. Guarding against probable temptations. 13. Warning against first tendencies to lapse. 14. Positive and negative initiative. 15. Resolving against lapses. 16. Preventing exceptions by combining positive and negative initiative. 17. Use of con- crete reminders. 18. Picturing painful consequences of lapse. 19. Making painful experiences elective. 20. Natu- ral and artificial punishments. 21. Promoting self-criticism and self-testing. 22. Two cautions. (a) Don't nag. 23. (h) Don't expect a child to distinguish automatisms. 24. Summary. CHAPTER XI Methods of Breaking Habits •. 200 1. Misconception of the function of habit. 2. The origiii of bad habits. 3. United effort of home and school neces- sary. 4. Relation between habit-forming and habit-break- ing. 6. Nature'sway of breaking habits. 6. Habits formed unconsciously. 7. The necessity for confidence of success. 8. The situation to be met in habit-breaking. 9. The re- moval of stimuli. 10. The interruption of the reaction. 11. Selection and combination. 12. Bad habits as lines of least resistance. 13. Need of offsetting advantages in substi- tute habits. 14. The overcoming of inherent difficulties. 1 5. Advisability of attacking one bad habit at a time. 16. The substitution of a counter habit. 17. Danger in substituting undesirable habits. 18. The possibilities. 19. Emphasis on preventing exceptions. 20. Relation of breaking habits to the methodology of forming them. 21. Initiative for break- ing habits. Positive initiative. 22. Special incentives to. Inhibition. Negative initiative. 23. The double use of initiative. 24. " Will-power " as Initiative. 25. The asso- ciation of initiative with the stimuli. 26. The association of the initiative with the reaction. 27. Initiative and inhibi- tion as related to the reaction. 28. Practice and habit-break- ing. 29. The obstruction and counteracting of stimuli. XVI TABLE OF CONTENTS PAOK 30. Importance of variations. 31. Variations related to the stimulation. 32. Variation and the reaction. 33. Natural versiis artificial variations. 34. Dangers of injurious variar tion. 36. Preventing lapses into the old habit. 36. Need of nice judgment and study of individual cases. 37. Appli- cation to a concrete case. 38. (a) The study and demon- stration of a concrete habit. 39. (6) The calling up of the initiative. 40. (c) The practice of a good carriage. 41. (d) Preventing lapses into the shufSing gait. 42. Sum- mary. CHAPTER XII HABiT-FoRMma as Applied to School Discipline . . 235 1. Meaning of discipline. 2. Important school habits. 3. The complexity of school habits. 4. Additional habits involved in moral training. 6. Development of habits of service, (o) Analysis and demonstration. 6,. (6) The ini- tiative of service. 7. (c) Practice and habits of service. 8. ((2) The prevention of exceptions. 9. Meaning of the term " general habits." 10. The possibility of common ele- ments. 11. The possible common method of procedure. 12. The extension of habit by variation and suggestion. 13. Other arguments for general habits. 14. The teacher and general training. 15. Protracted habit-formation. Spe- cial cases. 16. The importance of a systematic scheme. 17. Summary. CHAPTER XIII Habit-Forming as Applied in Drill .... 257 1. Drill more specific, less protracted; 2. Meaning of drill. 3. Habits involved in the course of study. 4. Habit- forming versus informational subjects. 6. Beading. 6. Com- position. 7. Penmanship. 8. Arithmetic. 9. Music (singing). 10. Drawing and other forms of manual training. 11. Natural science, geography, history, and civics. 12. High school subjects. 13. Unconscious repetition in drill. 14. Summary. TABLE OF CONTENTS xvii CHAPTER XIV PAGE Conclusion 277 1. The limitations in application. 2. Habit-formation and the lesson period. 3. A criterion for experience. 4. Over- habituation. 6. The future scientific study of habit-forma- tion. 6. Summary. Appendix 285 Bibliography 287 Index 301 HABIT-FOEMATION CHAPTER I The Teachek's Problem " Effective power in action is the true end of education." — Eliot. 1. Nature of education. — Education is a broad term. It involves growth and, so long as this leads to greater effi- ciency, growth of any kind. It is not restricted to the sort of growth that takes place in the schoolroom or with the aid of the tutor, — the library, the church, the street, the theater, the symphony are alike educative. The process by which a person gradually falls into the ruts of habit and fossilization is not necessarily an educa- tive process. Education implies increased power, facility, knowledge, skill, and at the same time the disposition to use these for the good not only of the individual but also of his associates, his country, and even of his age in so far as capacity and opportunity fit him for service beyond his immediate environment. The college graduate who returns to his native town with bad habits and lowered ideals may have added to his knowledge and skill and even to his power and facility in certain directions, but he is trained rather than educated, if his college years have resulted in a real decrease in his ability to serve. His teachers may even have conferred upon him a degree, but he is not educated so long as there are gaps in his attainment likely to interfere seriously with his final efficiency. 2. Definition of education. — Education is most satis- factorily defined in terms of its aim which in turn must be 1 2 HABIT-FORMATION derived from the end of man as determined by ethics. This has been stated in the perfection-theory of ethics as " the reaUzation of the highest self." In a social environ- ment this " realization of the highest self " consists in con- tributing the highest service that it is possible for the indi- vidual to render that environment. Nor does this imply any silly self-obliteration. The individual has his own definite value to society both actually and potentially, and therefore the need of the individual is one of the needs of the social whole. Dr. Arnold Tompkins well illustrated the over-emphasis of the altruistic point of view in his reference to the two jewelers whose stores located across the street from each other started to burn simultane- ously. Since each ran to the store of the other instead of rescuing his own stock, their altruism resulted in an avoid- able loss to both. The student in particular should ap- preciate the fact that, as a student, he best serves society by furthering his own development, in so far as this fits him for service of wider scope. Education, then, is the process by which an individual develops toward the highest service possible for him. 3. Teaching and educating. — Teaching, on the other hand, is a much narrower term. Only by analogy can we speak of the street, the library, or even the college as a teacher. In education the center of interest is in the organ- ism to be developed; in teaching it is shifted to the activity of the developer. This is so true that during many periods in the history of civilization the child has been well-nigh lost sight of in the emphasis upon the teacher's method. The process has been considered without sufficient con- sideration of its beginning or end. Our preslent interest in child-study represents a wise reaction due to the rec- ognition of the one-sidedness of our former point of view; and, as the fervor of that movement sinks to a more THE TEACHER'S PROBLEM 3 normal level, the individual is in danger of being lost sight of again, though the extended establishment of schools for defectives and special treatment for exceptional children have all been outgrowths of the child-study movement, which abundantly justify its enthusiasms. When the bright child, the only type for which no really satisfactory provision has been proposed, is suitably provided for, and when these adaptations to individuals of all types have been realized practically, even then teaching can be con- sidered only one of the factors uniting in the process of educating. 4. Relegation to the teacher of all kinds of training. — Another result of the too exclusive focus on the teacher has been the tendency to expect him to furnish the youth- ful mind with all forms and kinds of training. The practical duties of the home, recreation, care of the health, and religious and moral training have too frequently been relegated to the teacher by parents who could offer far superior advantages at home to any the school could possibly afford. 5. The primitive child's learning. — In primitive life the race left the child to learn as best he could. Each factor of his euAdronment contributed its mite toward his education. Now his father, now other members of the tribe, were imitated; his playmates, brothers, his mother, were busy about tasks or recreations, and he learned by watching them to engage in similar activities. Gradually, as civilization advanced, this hit-or-miss method was replaced by the appointment of a special person whose duty it was to see that certain definite things (and many of them) were learned. These definite things might vary all the way from holding the bow in his left hand and arrows in his right to the recital of the heroic deeds of his tribal ancestors, while what the boy of the 4 HABIT-FORMATION present has to learn varies from a way of holding the pen to a series of facts in the history of the United States. 6. Definition of teaching. — Anything known may be taught, not only knowledge apart from action but action itself. The child is taught both to do things and how to do them skillfully, i.e. unerringly, rapidly, or automatically. The teacher may so modify the environment of the child as to bring about situations that arouse feeling of one sort or another and tend to refine or direct his emotional activity. In short, teaching is the process by which a person possessed of a definite knowledge or skill guides an- other to the possession of similar knowledge or skill. This does not mean that a person may not lead the child to learn what the teacher does not know himself. But in that case the teacher teaches what he knows, and then sets the pupil to work out that which the teacher does not know and therefore, strictly speaking, cannot teach. In the meantime the teacher may also be learning, and thus become able to teach what he did not know before. No matter how significant or insignificant the knowledge im- parted may be, it is still teaching, and without regard to whether it leads to greater or less efficiency. 7. The relation of the teacher to environment. — The teacher is then a factor placed in the environment of the child with a fourfold function. In the first place, he may add to that environment desirable features otherwise in- accessible. Secondly, he may emphasize features of the environment, which would otherwise escape notice or be only hastily regarded. Thirdly, he may forestall and remove undesirable features of the child's environment. Fourthly, undesirable elements of the environment, which are inevitable, may be slurred over with a passing notice or presented in their most favorable aspects. Teaching has, therefore, a definite, positive function. THE TEACHER'S PROBLEM 5 8. The function of the teacher and the child's experi- ences. — As Professor Adams has pointed out, the verb do- cuit in the sentence, " Magister Johannem Latinam docuit," takes two accusatives. There is the boy taught and the subject or lesson that he is to learn. The nature of this something to be learned deserves a little further attention. We often speak of it as if it had some separate existence. We speak of giving knowledge as we might of giving dollars. We ask the child if he has the idea as we might if he has a new hat. We hope that he may get a desirable habit, as we hope that he may secure some prize. We forget that what the child learns is a phase of his growth, and in for- getting this we lose much of the real nature of the learning process. The child gets experiences. He finds himself in real situations. He finds in one particular that it is pleasanter on the whole to act in this or that way, or in an- other to stop and think before he acts. He manages to remember somewhat of these situations, and in subsequent situations which are similar makes some use of his previous experience. He is or should be in better shape to meet the same situation the tenth time than he was the first. Even the good teacher is not he who never makes a mistake, but he who never makes the same mistake twice. Hvn manum est errare, sed insipientis in errore perseverare. What is the difference between the first and the tenth instance? Simply one of organization. Previous expe- riences in one case have been sifted or have sifted them- selves; the most satisfactory or successful ways of dealing with the given situation have been noted ; and this knowl- edge or ability has been turned to account in later cases where it did not exist in the first. This means that ex- periences have been organized, sorted, useless impulses have been thwarted, helpful ones have been reenforced and encouraged. One person pictures for a child the ocean 6 HABIT-FORMATION in a calm. Another, who has seen it in a storm, speaks of the big waves pounding in, the white foam, and the tossing of the big ship. The child asks his mother which is right. He gets through the answer an organization of his ideas of the sea which will help him in understanding future statements of that nature. Similarly, we ourselves say we " can't make head or tail out " of an obscure para- graph when we mean we can't organize it satisfactorily. 9. Typical differences in attainment. — If we examine children or grown persons who differ in what they have learned, we recognize certain types. One seems crammed with what is called information rather than knowledge, the distinction being that knowledge implies organization, while information may mean mere scattered scraps of knowledge. On the other hand, the lawyer noted for his keenness is one who not only has his knowledge organized, but also has definite {i.e. organized) ways of using it in getting at fine distinctions and discovering applications. Cleverness implies a somewhat similar but looser sort of organization, while brilliancy, like general quickness of action, refers rather to natural readiness to make and use organized experience than to any magical ready-made equipment. In skill the gradual elimination of unnecessary and hindering movements, the discovery of little swings and twists assisting in the task imply organization. In accu- racy the same organization is found. Executive ability, whether in the schoolroom or in the oflBce of a great mercantile establishment, is almost a synonym for ability to organize. The training of teachers is an attempt so to organize the various kinds of knowledge and activity in teaching, that, given any concrete situation, the best possi- ble use may be made of it. ID. Organization of experience the essential of progress. THE TEACHER'S PROBLEM 7 — In all types of learning it is evidently the organization of experiences which is the underlying important element common and essential to all. In, the realm of knowledge it implies classification, generalization, system, or orderly arrangement of ideas; in the realm of practical skill it implies automatic action, appointed times, places, and even ways of acting, — in a word, habit. We thus see that the organizing tendency which has resulted in nations, the division of labor, the use of ma- chines, and of late in our labor unions, big corporations, and political parties is a tendency to be counted upon and rendered effective in the chUd's development. There are, however, so many useless and even hindering forms of organization that the child, if left to himself, is bound to waste much of his effort. With the aid of the teacher his energy is directed to channels of proved effi- ciency, resulting in an enormous increase in the effective- ness of his organizations. Organization of experience is, then, the excuse for the existence of the teacher. The child would in many en- vironments get a sufficient number of experiences; but if he is to profit by them, they must be of a useful character and he must be led to select here and combine there until he has so arranged elements of his experience as to make them yield the maximum of utility. II. The conditions and limits of organization. — Nor are organizations taught for their own sakes; there would be no limit to the possibility of useful combination and selec- tion except that set by memory. The organizations im- plied by scientific knowledge alone are far beyond the possibilities of memory processes, even though organiza- tions so intimately connected are most easily remembered. Education, in so far as it makes its aim service, character- building, or efficiency, whether individual or social, necessi- 8 HABIT-FORMATION tates teaching that adapts itself to the definite and concrete situations of life. The object of that education must be enabled not only to gain a concrete understanding of the situation, but also to work out his own course of action in accord with the wisdom born of past experience, rendered fruitful, perhaps, by experimentation and purged by mis- take and failure. 12. The mistake of modern pedagogy. — Modern peda- gogy has shown a tendency to follow false gods and has sought the elusive general notion or the more definite practical skill, but nowhere has there been more than the faintest glimmer of recognition that the teacher's airn is always the organization of the child's experience, whether that experience is made up largely of sense impressions, of thought elaborations, or of muscular movement. By- no verbal juggling can this organizing tendency be escaped. It has developed the general notion itself; habituation is a phase of it; custom, fashion, system, classification have all resulted from it. Disorganization is a synonym for confusion. Organization insures increased efficiency and potentiality for the pupil who has secured it, — in a word, success for the teacher. 13. Summary. — Education implies growth, increased power, facility, knowledge, skill, and an ability to use all of these with wisdom. It may be defined as the process by which an individual develops toward the highest service possible for him. Teaching is a narrower term in which the emphasis is on the developer rather than on the organism to be devel- oped. In the past this emphasis has been disastrous and has resulted in the relegation to the teacher of all kinds of training. The primitive child learned as best he could through contact with his environment. The teacher modi- fies and adapts the environment to the growing organism. THE TEACHER'S PROBLEM 9 Teaching is the process by which a person possessed of definite knowledge or skill leads another to acquire similar knowledge or ability. The function of the teacher with relation to the child's environment is (a) to add or (6) to subtract therefrom and (c) to emphasize desirable or (d) to slur over undesir- able features, of that environment. The function of the teacher as regards the child's experiences is to help him organize them and weigh them, to thwart useless and to reenforce and encourage useful impulses. Knowledge, information, keenness, cleverness, brilliancy, skill, executive ability, training, and the like are all types of attainment involving more or less organization, Organ- ization of experience is, then, the underlying process in all learning. In knowledge it implies orderly arrangement of ideas; in practical skill it implies habit. The organiza- tion of experience is, then, the excuse for the existence of the teacher, since it is not the number but the character and use made of experiences, which give them value. This aim of teaching is itself subservient to service, the end of education, which thus gives direction and point to the teaching process. Modern pedagogy has sought general notions and practical skill to the neglect of the basis of both, organization. This key to progress cannot be escaped; disorganization is a synonym for confusion. CHAPTER II Dominant Modes op Organizing Expebience " As the twig is bent, the tree's inclined." Teaching in any phase has for its immediate aim the efifective organization of the learner's experience. Accu- mulated knowledge is old experience made available for future situations. Habits, good or bad, are old ex- periences in performing certain acts so organized that without thought of the details involved, and almost with- out feeling, the complicated reactions take place in a fixed order. 1. The narrower meaning of experience. — This term " experience " is here used with a latitude quite beyond its more ordinary signification, and should be examined if we are to consider the ways in which experience is organized. The word is often employed in a narrower sense to indicate a person's confused feelings, thoughts, and actions at a time of stress. In common speech it refers rather to feelings, and so experiences are classed as pleasant or unpleasant. Our acts, our thoughts, or our memories are less often included. When something happens to us, we have had an experience. 2. Experience as a psychological term. — The psycholo- gist to-day uses the term in a far wider sense. The inti- mate connection between the thinking, feeling, and willing activities of the mind being recognized, the terms " experi- ence " and " phenomenon " have, been drafted into his serv- ice to cover the sum-total, taken as a unit, of the activities of which there is consciousness during a certain period. 10 MODES OF ORGANIZING EXPERIENCE 11 What an experience we say a person had in a railroad acci- dent, during a burglary, in a bargain crush, on a cold day, or at a picnic. But it is just as appropriate to say that a life which has been most uneventful is made up of as many experiences as there are distinguishable units in it, whether they are interpretations of sensory impressions, the fig- ments of the imagination, or the products of more compli- cated mental processes. The reader of the newspaper has as many experiences as there are items that he reads. The tailor has an experience for every movement of which he is conscious, and for such combinations of stitches or move- ments as he is conscious of as combinations, even when not aware of the details involved in the combinations. The teacher must have experience, we say. But every one has experience. Life without experience would not be life but death. We mean that he must have experiences of many and varied kinds in actual teaching; and moreover that they must be in such form as to be of assistance in future emergencies, i.e. in future experiences. The pupil must have experience of a kind that will fit him for life and its contingencies, and these contingencies as they arise will be in their turn experiences. 3. Phases of experience. — Any of life's happenings, provided only we are conscious of them, any of the dullest and most prosaic as well as the most exalted moments, the moment when the maiden declares herself bored to death, as well as the moment when she answers the ques- tion which is to decide whether she is to lead a life of single or of wedded blessedness, the longest and the short- est, the most significant and the most insignificant mo- ments may be considered experiences, perhaps made up of smaller experiences. Thus all our thoughts, ideas, feel- ings, emotions, tendencies to act, and actual actions themselves are so interwoven with some experience or 12 HABIT-FORMATION other that they may be considered only as phases of a wider activity. A case of indecision may illustrate the point. We may ourselves be undecided whether to go to the theater or the opera on a certain occasion. As a whole this case of indecision is an experience, in which first we may be con- scious primarily of knowing that we are undecided; or secondly, we may be annoyed at our inability to make up our minds; or thirdly, we may be conscious of a certain tendency to move this way or the other and note that we are holding ourselves in leash, so to speak, until we have come to a decision. This knowledge, feeling of annoyance, and inhibited tendency to act are phases or elements of the experience, and are inextricably united or even jumbled together; but we may be relatively much more conscious of one phase than of another in greatly varying proportions. So, when confronted with a bill of fare, we have a confused experience as we decide quickly on roast chicken or roast beef and the items of secondary importance on the card. We may dwell on different phases, or on all of them in rapid succession. A choice between the advantages of the shore and the country for vacation, between work and play, between walking with one friend or another, if made consciously, is an experience in which now knowledge, now feeling, and now action or tendencies to action may pre- dominate in consciousness. The term "experience," as commonly applied in religious teaching, is used of some occasion when strong feeling has been aroused, when new and unexpected phases of feeling have manifested themselves. But sometimes those ex- periences involve deep conviction, while on other occasions they may involve heroic self-sacrifice; that is, in one case strong feeling accompanies thoughts and beliefs, while in another it attends external action or conduct. It is a great MODES OF ORGANIZING EXPERIENCE 13 mistake, however, for him whose religious development has been a steady growth, without marked crises or cli- maxes, to assume that he has never had any religious ex- perience. Whatever he has of religious or moral character is the result of a gradual organization of his experience into convictions, principles, and habits of conduct. 4. Unlearned capabilities, automatic and purposive learning. — Nature has provided plants, animals, and man with many ways of adjusting themselves to their environ- ment, but only animals and man organize their experiences so as to make them of use to them in future situations. Some kinds of mice can learn to go to a little house with a blue-colored front, because it suggests food to them, as they have always found it there, and not in a similar one with a red front. Other kinds, the dancing mice, do not learn this so readily, probably because the brightness of colors rather than their color value has played the most important part in the past of this species.' It has been said that bees can distinguish colors and associate them with sweetened water. These animals, and in fact animals in general, have the ability, as we say, naturally to do thou- sands of appropriate things whenever the appropriate stimu- lus presents itself. If the newly hatched chicken spies an attractive piece of corn within easy range, he is likely with a quick dive of the head to snap it up by a series of muscu- lar movements quite complicated in their totality, but all coordinated or organized from the first. The chicken does not have to learn this accomplishment. A young child also can perform many kinds of action without learning, as, for example, in movements of head, limbs, and other parts of the body. Compare the difficulty a child a year old and able to ' See Yerkes, "The Dancing Mouse," pp. 133-177. Macmillan, 1907. 14 HABIT-FORMATION walk has in picking up something with his hands. He makes many motions, sometimes overreaching, some- times falling short, and in the end probably falls flat. The child has to learn both to walk and to pick things up, but he learns both without realizing that he is learning them. His learning is spontaneous. There are, then, some things that man and animals can do without learning, and some things they have to learn, but that they learn automatically. Besides these easier tasks there are many others that man may learn, but only through definite thinking or direction, with a dis- tinct aim in view, rather than automatically, without any consciousness of his learning. The child may recognize his father's authority instinctively even without learning. He may by imitation think of some things as right or wrong without being taught. There are others he must be taught and must learn with a definite purpose and effort, or he will not make the distinction. Life presents man with many complications and involved situations for which he has no automatic adjustment. If he is to meet the requirements of the situation, he must do so by a defi- nite grasp first of the details of the environment bearing on the problem and at the same time of the end to be attained. Man begins life painfully unfitted for these complex ad- justments; but his very helplessness has a function, in that it leaves him free to develop the power to make just the adaptations of attention and effort necessary later in life for the most intricate situations. The fatalist may regard even elaborate thought pro- cesses as automatic, but the term " automatic learning" is here used of a self-carrying or self-working process in which there is no thought or attention given to any aim or result of the process. In sharp distinction the term " purposive learning " is applied to any learning process in MODES OF ORGANIZING EXPERIENCE 15 which an aim is recognized and worked toward, whether by a person's unaided thinking or by the direction and assistance of a teacher. 5. Two types of automatic learning. — These automatic self-working ways of organizing experiences must be a little further examined. As already stated, they are of two types. Some, which aid him far more than we ordinarily realize, are natural, inborn, or instinctive. All imitative tendencies, play tendencies, constructive, experimenting, and expressive tendencies, not to mention the assignment of meaning to various sense stimuli, and thousands of definite impulses to function with involved muscle combi- nations, such as the tendencies to make the eyes focus together, the inclination to reach for things, or to hold the body erect in a sitting posture, — all of these are auto- matic tendencies of a natural or instinctive order. But besides these, man early acquires automatic tend- encies and abilities quite beyond the compass of his natural equipment. Man is gifted natively with a brief and fleeting form of attention, but by exercise and wise guidance its effectiveness may be greatly increased both as to direction and span. Imagination and memory may be natively vigorous in a desultory and disorganized sort of way, and yet be comparatively helpless when confronted with a situation requiring the organization of details into a system or unit. For example, children may get a great deal of pleasure out of fairy stories long before they un- derstand much from the various disconnected and often incorrect interpretations they give to the words they have heard. A two-year-old child of my acquaintance enjoys hearing his father read to him books that he certainly cannot understand, though they furnish his imagination apparently a sort of panorama of pictures by suggestion as various familiar words appear and are perhaps separately 16 HABIT-FORMATION recognized. This tendency is shown also in childish explanations of things. One young man noticed that leaves, sticks, and stones left standing some time on the pond where he skated gradually sank into the ice. He no- ticed also that skate marks and flakes of snow gradually disappeared from the smooth surface. Such data led him to explain to himself the phenomenon as due to the fact that the water worked through the pores of the ice and froze on the top. It is evident that he had not heard of radiation from dark as compared with light surfaces, but he manifested a well-developed, automatic tendency to explain things, which is quite beyond the power of man natively. Similarly, a child wants to know who made God or why this or that action is right or wrong, or what keeps the moon from falling, and where the rain comes from, — questions which plainly show that, untaught, he is seeking explanations. Again, the child finds the world so complex and varied with so many unpleasant and pleasant experi- ences that he soon discovers the usefulness of his elders in providing him with pleasant experiences or in warning or guarding him against the unpleasant whenever he feels uncertain in a new situation. That is, the child tends to fall back on the authority of the older person and auto- matically to accept, up to a certain point, the dogmatic verdict of his elders as to the desirability or undesirability of a course of action. Neither the child nor the grown per- son is, as a rule, conscious of this acceptance of the thought of another as his own, but examples of it are evident enough in the spheres of religion, politics, precedent (in law), fashion, and in fact all of life's activities. This very acceptance on the part of the child of an- other's judgment at this and that point is practically certain to involve him in inconsistency in his thinking. MODES OF ORGANIZING EXPERIENCE 17 When the young man gets his religious truths or beliefs from one authority, his science from another, and his ethics from still another, it is not strange if the automatic tendency to organize these various truths involves him in serious doubts and difficulties. He will automatically work out or try to work out his problems. Shall we com- mand him not to think, whether he belongs to the clergy or laity? That were to end his education, then and there to stop his growth. Shall we stop his speech? That were to rob him of half his manhood. The automatic ways of organizing experience are, then, (1) a wide range (as we shall see later) of instinctive ways with which man is natively equipped, and (2) a large class of modified, combined, or selected ways which gradually develop according as satisfaction has been gained through their chance employment. These acquired automatic ways of organizing experience may be grouped in classes of which the most important are interpretations of and adaptations to complex sense experience, the use of the imagination in suggesting new truths or new ways of doing things, the acceptance of truth or error on authority, the use of reason in criticising and reenforcing suggestions of the imagination, and various subtle feeling and will atti- tudes of mind favorable in the main to bringing experi- ences into such combinations as to make them of in- creased service. 6. A definite end necessary for purposive learning. — By purposive learning is meant the way we always proceed when we set out to learn something and the way we usually have in mind when we start out to teach something. This sort of learning is evidently chiefly distinguished from the automatic mode of organizing experience by its recog- nition of an end to be accomplished, whether the experi- ence embraces a problem to be worked out in thought or a 18 HABIT-FORMATION knack to be acquired like that of balancing one's self in riding a bicycle. This end should always be definite. Neither pupil nor teacher will get farther than he would in a daydream un- less there is a definite idea to be attained, a definite feeling to be worked toward, or a definite degree or kind of skill to be acquired; and even these should not be desired for themselves alone. The principle of service, the highest service, all values being considered, is at bottom that which must decide on the course of development. 7. The concrete as a factor in purposive learning. — There should always be provided either actually or in imagination the concrete situation which gives point and meaning to that which is taught. The unanimity with which the world's great teachers have used the parable, the fable, the dialogue, the historical illustration, em- phasizes the value of the concrete situation for establishing truth. Any situation presents data of one sort or another. It may be organized with a view to the present adapta- tion, or its present significance may be disregarded in favor of a future possible situation for which more data are needed; or a general truth may be sought which is to adapt itself to so many applications in varied concrete situations that we are sometimes in danger of forgetting its definiteness in our contemplation of it as an abstraction. My idea of triangle is just as definite as my idea of any given triangle; the idea that all bodies are subject to the law of gravitation is psychologically just as definite as the thought that this pen is attracted in some degree by the moon. The definiteness of the abstraction is, however, approximately proportionate to that of the concrete ex- amples illustrating or contributing to it. Those truths that lack the red blood of concreteness, those that we fail to apply in our lives, have been aptly termed " bedridden MODES OF- ORGANIZING EXPERIENCE 19 truths/' ansemic, fit only to be kept upstairs, not for con- tact with men. Abstractions must not be regarded as necessarily hazy. When they are obscure, it is proof posi- tive of an inadequacy in our experience, an inadequacy capable of removal only by more concrete experiences. In general,- the more concrete the situations, the more defi- nite the organization of them will be; and the history of education, like the history of philosophy and the history of religion, is witness to the general futility of attempting to organize abstractions without regard to the concrete data on which they are based, and the concrete situations, real or imaginary, to which they are to apply. 8. The automatic and purposive ways of learning inter- mingle. — To illustrate the different degrees or proportions, in which the same action may involve both the automatic and the conscious ways of learning, involves finding a feat of manual dexterity which a boy and an elderly man may both learn to perform. Comparison of the learning pro- cess in the following case, which illustrates the automatic, with one where reasoning is more prominent, will not be difficult, since even those who have not played golf have practiced hitting at something with a stick at some time or other. A young boy learns to play golf largely by taking the sticks as he has seen some one hold them and whack- ing at the ball in a haphazard fashion. Sometimes he hits it squarely, and then he gets a satisfaction that tends to impress on him the memory of the movement resulting in this satisfaction. He tries the next time to reproduce this feeling and to locate the point of difference, though he is or may be conscious of none of these efforts on his part. He keeps trying and trying until he succeeds, noting meanwhile how other people stand, hold their clubs, and swing, and comparing their ways with his. A man fifty 20 HABIT-FOEMATION or sixty years old, on the other hand, tries this method, but makes no such progress. He is not free to establish a dozen new ways of getting a swing, as the boy is. He has one or two already established ways of turning on his feet and of swinging his arms, but these, unfortunately, are not such as to help him in his golf. He must therefore not merely recognize and strive for the details of the right way, but he must more or less consciously break up the old ways. His chances of success are poor unless he is wisely directed, i.e. taught. Suppose, on the other hand, a new gardener is to be em- ployed. The boy and the old man are to discover whether the applicant is likely to prove desirable or undesirable. The boy sees only a man before him. He has features not greatly different from-'those of the average man. He drawls a little, is dressed In farmer's attire, is of medium height, talks softly, and looks physically able. The boy.'o has seen and heard a few things, but in the end this is only '- a man, and the boy does not feel at all certain as to hi^ qualifications, as a gardener. The old man, however, no- tices the applicant's eye especially, and the straightfor- ward glance with the sympathetic and half-anxious look on his face. He questions him as to where he has worked before and notes the readiness with which he replies. He finds out just what his duties were, why he left, what he liked or disliked about his work, gets his taste in arranging trees, shrubs, and flowers, tests him as to his willingness to undertake little jobs aside from the regular work of the gardener, asks about his family and where he lives, en- courages his confidence as to his intentions regarding the future, and so through these and many other questions gets material for an estimate of the kind of person he is. 'All this would have been quite impossible for the boy. The boy automatically noted a few things, but could not MODES OF ORGANIZING EXPERIENCE 21 possibly come to any fair estimate of the man's ability because he lacked resources to work out the problem, although he may have recognized definitely enough its general nature. His only hope would be in being directed, i.e. taught. The man of experience had not only the prob- lem but organized experiences from which he could esti- mate and imagine the man's past, present, and even future work as a gardener in varied situations. In this case his past experience being organized was of distinct advantage, whereas in the case of golf -playing the particu- lar forms of organization were an actual hindrance. 9. The effect of previous experience on purposive learn- ing. — It is evident that in the purposive mode of learning it is necessary at times to break up undesirable and to form desirable connections between our various mental processes, according as a given situation is interfered with by the un- desirable connections or is too complex for the connec- tions already made among our mental processes. The elderly man had to break up the established ways of raising his arms above his head and to find freer and more effective ways which had to be coordinated into one vigorous swing. The boy had almost no basis in his ex- perience which would help him in hiring a gardener. The situation was too complex. The elderly man could, how- ever, teach him in part at least how to meet such a situa- tion. The truths above illustrated may be stated in physiologi- cal terms as follows:. It may be necessary in forming a new path of nervous discharge (1) to inhibit certain established pathways, or (2) to complicate in new combinations brain elements previously functioning with comparatively Uttle relation to each other. Either or both of these principles may operate in any given instance. In reli- gious and in moral training so much emphasis has been 22 HABIT-FORMATION put upon the negative "thou shalt not" and so little on the positive development of good feeling, good traits, good disposition, and helpful mental attitudes in general that it is little to be wondered at that our precepts are not more attractive. ID. The teacher and the ways of organizing experience. — What, then, is the function of the teacher with relation to these two ways of organizing experience? The teacher is an element, thrust into the environment of the child, which not only changes it but is there expressly to ma- nipulate the environment so that the child may learn the essentials agreed upon or left to the teacher's discretion. The teacher may (as indeed he too often does) neglect all the automatic (both natural and acquired) ways of learn- ing which the child has, and insist that he work out every- thing systematically and under guidance. This is to handi- cap the child both seriously and unnecessarily. It ex- cludes automatic experimentation and unnecessarily dissipates the effort of the teacher. Far better is it so to manipulate the child's environment, that he may be incited and stimulated to learn and to do things auto- matically and that he may at the same time be so led as to discover truths and acquire dexterity which would be absolutely impossible for him without this helpful factor in his environment. Thus we see a teacher of geography bring in and en- courage the children to bring in picture books, maps, and objects from Japan. The children's environment is made richer in features suggestive of the life and work of the Japanese than it could well be unless Japan is actually visited. So a teacher, instead of telling children to practice a certain slant in writing, may merely add to the environ- ment the suggestion that a letter home would be welcomed, and the boy tries to improve up to the point where the MODES OF ORGANIZING EXPERIENCE 23 letter may be sent. A teacher is necessary for such sug- gestions. The child would not think of them himself. 11. Negative teaching. — All this apphes to that which should be called positive teaching. In teaching negatively (i.e. what the child should not do), it is the function of the teacher so to manipulate the child's environment that he may be protected from temptations that are greater than he is prepared to resist and are serious in their results, and at the same time to guard him from inevitable temptation by appeals to his fear of danger, and by depicting to his imagination the evils and sorrows that weak courses of action are likely to bring in their train. But in no case should effort be wasted in this direction, unless there is a real danger which calls for preventive action. 12. Neglect of the automatic. — The teacher's error often consists in a disdain of the automatic ways of learning. If he can't "ding" things into the boy's head and make him say them parrot-like, he seems to take it for granted the child is learning nothing. In teaching children en masse this neglect of the automatic is almost certain to play a serious part. It is at the root of all lock-step and routine procedure, the special bane of large school systems, and seems almost to justify splitting them up into separately directed subdivisions. In the hurry and scurry to bring up to the standard those children that are slow and irregular in attendance, the teacher forgets that the brighter children learn much automatically and do not need the formal treatment necessary for others. It is a waste of time to teach a cat to wash itself. This dis- regard of the instinctive and acquired aids in learning has led to serious errors in our practice, and is perhaps nowhere better illustrated than in our religious teaching, where we still insist on preaching, revival meetings, Bible study, — all good enough, but purposive, formal, and often weari- 24 HABIT-FORMATION some to those whom we fain would teach, while little or no account is taken either of the natural or acquired ways of learning, even in so important a matter as the essentials of Christian living. We throw the limelight on the man's belief and fail to emphasize his conduct. Provide places where people may spend their leisure amid uplifting in- fluences, where ideals are built up and lofty motives enkindled; give them literature and encouragement which will aid them in and perhaps even lift them to a higher and less mechanical plane of work; establish more " People's Palaces " and the like and there will be an im- petus given to Christian living through the automatic ways of learning not afforded by hundreds of sermons and a thousand recitals of religious experience. Nor am I underestimating the value of these sermons and recitals in teaching ideals, moral principles, or religious belief. The tendency of the teacher is elsewhere, as in religious teachings, to dwell oh the purposive way of learning, to let the child see what is to be thought out or done, and then to help him to do it formally and pedantically, forgetting that the child's automatic ways of learning must permeate even the purposive ways and are going to give him much knowledge and many kinds of skill not dreamed of even by the thoughtful teacher. A child who had learned only that which he had set out to learn, and only what his teacher had definitely intended to teach, would rival Frankenstein's monster. 13. Five fundamental principles. — In conclusion, na- ture has provided abundant ways of learning. The instinctive ways are the basis. Out of these grow the more complicated habitual but still automatic ways. The teacher must use the instinctive and develop and use the habitual to be successful. They are not to be regarded as helps in time of need, but as the life-giving MODES OF ORGANIZING EXPERIENCE 25 principle of all teaching. Hence (1), in moral, religious, or other teaching, never teach formally what will with equal advantage be learned automatically. (2) In any teaching connect as soon as possible with the automatic ways of learning. (3) Base all future accomplishment on past achievement. (4) In purposive learning let the child not merely realize that a worthy and definite end is sought, but (5) let that aim be nourished on concrete experience, with full appreciation of its practical utility in possible or probable future contingencies. 14. Summary. — The term ' ' experience " is used for any of life's happenings, internal or external, of which there is consciousness. Thoughts or ideas, feelings or emotions, tendencies to act and acts themselves, are interwoven in experiences. Plants, animals, and men are provided by nature with many ways of adjusting themselves to environment. But only animals and man organize experiences. Children perform some sorts of acts spontaneously without having to learn how ; others they learn automatically, without direc- tion and effort, whUe still other acts are performed only as the outcome of thought and purposive effort. In large part, automatically, the fleeting forms of attention native in man become stable and controlled, imagination is transformed from promiscuous fancy to organized construction and reasoning, memory from chaos to system. Automatically the child learns to regard or disregard authority. Much inconsistency re- sults from automatic acceptation of authorities which are contradictory in their implications. The chance variation in conduct of whatever sort, provided it is found satis- factory, tends to become automatic, if the satisfaction continues long enough. Automatisms may be grouped according as they enter into sense experience, imaginative 26 HABIT-FORMATION processes, acceptance of authority, the use of reasoning processes, feeling states, or will attitudes. Purposive learning is distinguished by a recognition of the end to be attained, which should be definite. Reliance must be placed on the concrete as illustrating and contribu- ting to the more general aim and giving it point. All history is witness to the futility of abstractions which lack concrete content. The automatic and purposive ways of learning inter- mingle, and in different proportions for individuals at different stages of growth. The young are quick to attain results experimentally and are free from obstructing habits of movement. The old are rich in the resources of experience and more or less obstructed by previous habits of action. In forming new modes of action, it is often necessary (1) to inhibit certain actions, and (2) to compli- cate into one organization various mental and muscular adjustments of an elementary character. The function of the teacher is so to manipulate the child's environment as to stimulate him to automatic learning and at the same time to lead him to the acquisi- tion of truth and dexterity otherwise impossible. In addi- tion, the teacher must protect the child from temptations and fortify him against those that are inevitable. The teacher's error consists in a disdain of the automatic and over-emphasis of the purposive way of learning. Religious teaching illustrates this neglect; but it is mani- fest in all teaching and culminates in formal pedantry. Automatic must permeate purposive learning. Hence, (1) never teach formally what will be learned with equal advantage automatically; (2) connect as soon as possible with the automatic; (3) base future accomplishment on past achievement; (4) point out a worthy and definite end; and (5) associate with the ends abundant concrete experience. CHAPTER III Typical Foems of Organized Expeeience " Happy is the man whose habits are his friends." — Shakespeare. In the preceding chapter it was shown that the child has automatic ways of organizing his experience, and other ways, the purposive, adapted to the more complicated situ- ations of civilized life. In this chapter the results of these wa^s are to be considered to see if the diversity presented admits of classification. If we know how the child learns, and the nature of what we wish him to learn, we may reasonably expect to get some fairly definite methods of reaching these ends. I. The variety in the child's experience. — Here is a list of some of the child's achievements. He learns, perhaps all in the same day, to tie his necktie in a bow, to jump a post, that Mr. Blank, his neighbor, keeps a jewelry store, that London is the largest city in the world, how to do short division, that his teacher sometimes says things that she doesn't mean (or else forgets), the way to pronounce a few words, how to abbreviate New York, and to spell " business," a short cut from his house to the ball ground, that he can run faster than the new boy at school, that he likes to hear a certain piece of music, that he doesn't like olives, that oil is lighter than water, that Abraham Lincoln did not have the chance to study and learn that he has (though this may not be so), and so on, — a heterogeneous mass of impressions, facts, truths, circumstances, events, principles, names of objects, their properties, dimensions, relations, etc., — a motley ar- ray to which must be added (if we count first efforts as jus- 27 28 HABIT-FORMATION tifjdng us in the use of the word " learned ") how to do many varied sorts of things, how to work various muscles in such a sequence as to produce a required movement, how he feels when he is cross or anxious or angry or afraid, how to treat various people, how he can refrain from responding to impulses which he has learned are unpleas- ant or undesirable in the responses they excite. 2. Knowledge as a type of organized experience. — In all this multiplicity of things to learn or things learned, what common element can be found? Historically, ideas have been emphasized from Plato to Spencer as the objec- tive point in learning. Herbart recognized the com- plexity of what is taught, and expounded the " circle of thought " and the ideas or thought-masses. They are to be formed in building character, but he did not formulate a scheme for securing the habits absolutely fundamental to character. Spencer, while making "complete living" his aim of education, has followed the previous trend by assuming that knowledge was the essential of complete living, as is implied in his chapter, " What knowledge is of most worth" and in his answer, that the knowledge of most worth is science, i.e. organized or classified knowledge. But is knowledge the essential of complete living? More recently Professor De Garmo, in his " Essentials of Method, " and the McMurrys, in. their " Method of the Recitation," fail to recognize any form of teaching that does not assert the claim of general notions to the distinction of furnishing the goal of instruction. Is this still more limited field of human activity the goal of teaching? 3. The error of neglecting the doing phases of experi- ence. — The limitation in the viewpoint of aU these educa- tors has not only added seriously to the necessary clashes between the experienced teacher and the novice, but the worst result has been that it put the novice in the TYPICAL FORMS OF ORGANIZED EXPERIENCE 29 wrong at almost the only point where the experienced teacher was "dead certain" that he himself was right. Schemes of teaching which lacked provision for repetition or drill, or at least substitutes for them, the experienced teacher could from his point of view at least afford to dis- miss on the mere ground of his experience, whether he understood the pedagogical ground for his method or not. Any general scheme for teaching which does not set forth the process of learning as applied not only to general notions but to complex individual notions; not only -to knowledge or science, but to the practical ability to use it, — any scheme which does not show not only how certain things are done, but how to do them with facility, accuracy, and efficiency in general; not only how to discriminate be- tween feelings to be furthered and encouraged but how to set ourselves to the task of developing them, — all such schemes are seriously at fault. They fail utterly to take into consideration the tremendous value of getting in the way of performing all common acts automatically, thus leaving consciousness free to focus on the more complex phenomena presented, and slight at least half of the organizations of experience which the child must secure. Learning to walk or to swim is not (strictly speaking) knowledge, much less science, but it is a desirable and useful accomplishment to acquire. We say we know how to skate or to write, but we do not mean that we know how we do perform these useful acts. We merely mean that we can perform them. These are not bits of knowl- edge essentially, much less sciences, thought-masses or ideas, but rather forms of reaction which have passed an elementary and uncertain stage and have become auto- matic, easy, and certain. No one can for a moment com- pare the disorganized efforts of the beginner at skating with the graceful swings of the accomplished skater with- 30 HABIT-FORMATION out realising that out of these awkward, spasmodic, trembling experiences has come an organization which is perfection itself when contrasted with the beginning. And yet this is not knowledge, but rather skill that has been acquired. In the writings of both philosophers and advanced theorists little is found to show how one secures such automatisms as are involved in learning to write, to sing, to draw, to speak correctly, or even to master the various arithmetical processes. At the most they have indicated only how to get some of the ideas that are, fun- damental to these processes. Even Bagley, who sees plainly the importance of habit,* and touches on the methods of acquiring it in his " Educa- tive Process," treats the subject in the most cursory fashion; and when driven directly to habit t)y the problems discussed in his "Class Management," he does nothing toward working out the implications of his formulation ^ of the law of habit. No reasonable person would deny that ideas are forms of organized experience. But experience covers all of the conscious mental processes involved at the given period. There is no reason for emphasizing the organiza- tion of the idea or stimulation phase to the exclusion of the reaction or feeling and willing phases; the action or reac- tion phase of consciousness must be given the place it deserves in the organization of experience. Surely it is as important in learning from the standpoint of education to get good habitual forms of attention, interest, courtesy, and good will as it is to get clear ideas. It is as important also to organize the feeling side of human nature, but the problem is much simplified, as will be seen later, by the 'See Bagley, "Educative Process," p. 7. Macmillan, 1905. * See Bagley, "Classroom Management," p. 16. Macmillan, 1907. TYPICAL FORMS OF ORGANIZED EXPERIENCE 31 fact that feeling is cultivated only through the ideas which underlie it or the habitual reactions with which it is closely connected. That is, feeling may be perhaps best regarded as a quality or tone involved in ideas and re- actions, with which it is so intimately connected as to be impossible of development apart from them. 4. The two marked types of organized experience. — This is, then, after all, our question, How are the ex- periences organized into automatisms or habits, and how are they organized into ideas varying from fairly simple and concrete to those of extreme complexity? The word "idea" may be appropriately used' of organized experi-' ence whether it represents real knowledge of an object, a judgment, or only a guess, a fiction of the imagination, a memory-image, a general idea, or a notion of the applica^ bility of a certain word to a class of objects. One may say, for example, that he had a clear idea of the paper on which he writes, or that he has an idea that it may rain soon, or he may guess, i.e. have an idea, that a child's name may be John, or he may imagine and so get an idea of himself as a wealthy man or as a prince of the Middle Ages, or he may have an idea of the first teacher he remem- bers, or of a snow plow. All these are ideas, and (going back to our former illustration) it would be manifestly nonsensical to speak of having a habit of the paper or a habit that it may rain, and so forth. On the other hand, we may speak of a child's having a habit of shuffling his feet, pronouncing distinctly, writing with a certain slant, holding his pencil in a certain way, putting the divisor, dividend, and quotient in certain posi- tions, holding his knife in his right hand, and so forth. And it would be equally impossible without changing the meaning to substitute the word "idea" and say he had » See Chapter IV. 32 HABIT-FORMATION an idea of shuflBiing his feet, pronouncing distinctly, writ- ing at a certain angle, and so forth.' 5. Confused forms of organization. — The use of such terms as appreciations, attitudes, abilities, et cetera, is com- mon in educational terminology and invariably covers up a failure to complete an analysis of what is really implied. The practical recommendations growing out of such vague terminology must be vague also. Until educators have pushed their analysis to the point of dis- covering what belongs to the methodology of the idea ' If Andrews, in his article on habit (see American Journal of Psychology, Vol. XIV., pp. 121-149), had been dealing with organ- ized experience instead of mental functioning, he could hardly have escaped arriving at the two types already described. He suggests subsuming all mental experience under the two heads, "habitual and non-habitual functioning," including in the latter all novel experiences. Accordingly, any new act of knowing, feeling, or willing, is a form of non-habitual functioning. But elements of knowledge, emotion, or willing may function together in a single moment of consciousness and never again, such organization as there was at the moment being lost instanter, but the combination would be an idea in so far as it was focalized in consciousness. Evidently, when organization of experience is made the goal of teaching, the thought is of a repetition or continuance of the functioning upon occasion. When various associations call up to focal consciousness certain groups or systems of associated experience, the organization is called an idea. Such ideation Is not, however, independent of habit. When a certain feeling is always evoked by given elements in similar situations, it is organized into habit. As long as it is uncertain and variable, it must be regarded as an associated phase of consciousness not recognized as immediately necessary to the effective organi- zation of experience. Similarly, acts of decision, of persist- ence, or of attention may be constant, i.e. habitual, in a given situation; or on the other hand they may be very uncertain or whimsical in nature to a degree accountable only by the lack of organization in the chance associations which constitute the fun- damental basis of the action. This basis is ideational. TYPICAL FORMS OF ORGANIZED EXPERIENCE 33 (used as I have used it in the sense of any definite com- prehension) and what to the methodology of habit, the science of teaching can be little more than a pretense. If by appreciation is meant at one moment habits of feeling and at another habits of expression and at another the calling up consciously of masses of associations, surely there can be no general method for developing such ap- preciations. If one is ever found, it must develop through the contributions of the general methods, first of instruc- tion and then of habit-forming. The emotions themselves are similarly subject for their cultivation to these two forms of organization. They can be approached only from their idea side or from their reaction (habit) side. Attitude is a similar figurative expression implying often, perhaps usually, habit, while at other times it refers to the particular massing of ideas in response to a given situation. In the word "ability " is implied both knowledge and skill, or either, according to the reference. It is plain, then, that (from the standpoint of method) these are am- biguous terms, to be given meaning by reference to the methodology of imparting ideas or of establishing habits. Professor Findlay ' makes two divisions of his method, the "methods of imparting instruction" and the "method of imparting skill." He evidently is working toward the same fundamental difference in organization that has been outlined here, but in skill he has hit upon another of these unfortunate words. In the first place, skill is too limited in its application. It covers external action fairly well, but habits of thought, habits of feeling, and habits of decision, and so forth, cannot be referred to accurately as forms of skill. Nor does it cover the automatisms developed, which are too insignifi- cant in themselves to be considered as skill. ' Findlay, "Principles of Class Teaching," p. 161. London, 1890. 34 HABIT-FORMATION In the second place, skill often implies a combination of ideas and habits, as it signifies constructive imagination, ingenuity, and invention, together with certain habits of experimentation. Thirdly, it fails on this account to emphasize the auto- matic, self-carrying character of the habit forms of organ- ization, which really distinguish skill from knowledge or the ideational forms. That this side of skill may be neg- lected is further emphasized by the fact that Professor Findlay fails to apply the principles brought out by both Professor Bain and Professor James. Nor does he substi- tute others to cover the same ground. Campe * combines in his use of habit (Gewohnheit) both skill (Fertigkeit) and tendency or impulse (Neigung), illustrating the difference by stating that the galley slave may have skill but no impulse, while the beginner on the piano may have the impulse to play magnificently but may lack the skill. In such a mechanical operation as is indicated by his illustration, skill and habit mean almost the same thing, though even here it is evident that skill applies to general ability in rowing, while the expression, habit of rowing, because of its lack of specificness, fails to satisfy, and immediately raises the question. To which of the numerous habits involved in or associated with rowing is reference made ? The expression " skill in rowing " excites no such query. The case of the galley slave is somewhat exceptional, inasmuch as life had necessitated the acquire- ment of a habit distasteful because of its associations with fatigue and penal servitude. Ordinarily, when a situation recurs and is associated at length with some habit of re- acting, there is a satisfaction attached to the experiences in each instance, which develops into the feeling of 'Campe, " Philosophisoher Commentar ilber die Worte Plu- tarchs : Die Tugend ist eine lange Gewohnheit." TYPICAL FORMS OF ORGANIZED EXPERIENCE 35 familiarity, and constitutes the very prerequisite of the formation of habit. Hence Andrews explains Reid's * "inclination" and Stout's^ "propensity" in part by the feeling of "naturalness" or "of-courseness" which is involved in habitual acts, when he says,' "this affective characteristic of habit, together with its organization as an associated series, explains its impulsiveness." While this position is well taken, it must be remembered that children may be habituated to many actions sufficiently to get this comparatively weak motive to action, but the action will not be forthcoming, because it is completely snowed under by a host of unpleasant feelings which have become attached to the response. The feeling of familiar- ity, of naturalness, etc., is strong enough to impel when no resistance is offered; but it may be met by counter pro- pensities. 6. Habit and memory. — Another objection to the use of the word " skill " for the habit side of method is the fact that it does not with fitness refer to mechanical or rote memory, which is for the most part pure habit. The securing of such habits would fit neither in a methodology of instruction nor in a methodology of skill. In so far as the experiments of Ebbinghaus and others, following his lead, have dealt with pure repetition and practice on the basis of successive association, they are as much studies in habit as in memory, and contribute definitely to the methodology of habit. When a person repeats over and over a list of nonsense syllables, until they can be recalled automatically in a fixed order, with little or no focal atten- tion, he has formed a habit of reproducing the series. In many instances the experimenters use as the basis of their » Reid, "Active Powers," Essay III., Chap. III. ' Stout, "Analytic Psychology," Vol. I., p. 258. London, 1896. ' American Journal of Psychology, Vol. XIV., p. 137. 36 HABIT-FORMATION test the ability to reproduce the series correctly, regardless of the amount of effort or consciousness involved. This undoubtedly means that at least parts of the operation are habitual, but it does not mean that the total recall is one habit. As a contribution to the psychology of habit, there- fore, such studies are less valuable. 7. The function of habit. — The importance of habit can hardly need emphasis when one considers that it is one of the fundamental forms of organization of experience. Modern psychology, however, has so modified our concep- tion of habit that an additional word calling attention to its function in human economy is desirable. Habit is no longer regarded as an exceptional characteristic of certain sorts of action; but, speaking generally, all of our action, physical and mental, is either wholly habitual or saved from the habitual only by the slightest departure or modi- fication. The child begins as a little nervous mechanism and gradually modifies his action into stereotyped forms which persist for a greater or less period and are again further modified and further modified in an almost inter- minable series, according as satisfactions are discovered in connection with these successive modifications. The result is that almost all of man's reactions to situations or- stimuli which repeat themselves at all frequently (and they comprise most of man's actions) are really matters of habit. The child begins with a few instinctive move- ments of lips, tongue, and throat, and develops habits of making sounds to express his meaning. Those sounds grad- ually become specialized into habits of connecting certain words with separate objects or ideas. Later, he puts two or more words together into phrases. Still later he gets habits of making complete sentences, and it may be many years before he groups these sentences into paragraphs, either in his thought or in his writing. TYPICAL FORMS OF ORGANIZED EXPERIENCE 37 What, then, is the function of these automatic tendencies of our nature? Evidently to release attention from these oft-repeated sorts of action, thus making it possible for attention to focus on the new or peculiar elements of the situation or the response. As some one has said, " Habit is a lubricant which reduces the friction of life to a point where progress is possible." Incidentally it minimizes the de- gree of attention, and diminishes fatigue, simplifies action, makes it more accurate, and reduces the time and energy necessary for adjustments. The beginner at tennis tries to focus his attention everywhere. He tires much more quickly than one accustomed to playing. His move- ments include many in excess of the requirement. He gradually becomes more accurate, and able to hit a swift ball which would earlier have eluded him. As a result of this form of organization of experience, then, adjustments to environment are made which form not only the basis of further modification but serve to free consciousness of those idea-complexes which would otherwise be of little service and might even obstruct its effective functioning. 8. Seeking automatisms is fundamental to teaching. — The distinction between the idea and the habit is not in its fundamental aspects hard to make; and yet it has not been made, despite the fact that it is of the utmost impor- tance. The methods by which an idea is learned and a habit gained are distinctly different. As will appear more clearly when the differences are brought out in relief, multi- plicity of association is the basis for one, and invariability in the path of repetition the basis for the other. If this is so, it is evident that the teacher should adapt himself to the situation. The born teacher has done so automatically to some degree. Others have asked them- selves mentally some such question as this: "Now I have taught this point, must I drill on it?" If they 38 HABIT-FORMATION thought that the child might forget the point, and would suffer from that fact, or if they thought he would lose much time through failure to get facility in using it, they gave him drill, often of the most formal and useless sort, not calculated even to secure the habit they were blindly groping toward. The habit side of the teacher's work should be recognized and definitely planned for. After the subject-matter of a lesson (or series of lessons making a unit) has been determined, the first great prin- ciple of teaching is, analyze the subiect-matter and deter- mine what elements in it are to become habitvxd. Wherever continued problems of discipline arise in teaching, they also are caused by the lack of certain automatisms. In each instance the whole situation must be taken into account and analyzed in a search for habit. When found, the formation of the habit will solve the problem of discipline with an effectiveness not to be found in mere decrees or penalties. Failure to distinguish in teaching between knowledge and conduct, between idea and habit, is equiva- lent to forsaking all claims to scientific teaching and taking chances with the empiricist. The important points to be considered in making this analysis are carefully set forth in the following chapter. 9. A point of difficulty. — The only point of difliculty is in those instances where that which begins as idea gradually becomes automatic and so ends as habit. The case of the child who has learned the use and sound of most of the letters, but has never heard the alphabet said, will serve to illustrate.. He is told that it is a list of all the letters, and the list is given. The child gets first an idea of an alphabet as a vague string of letters, and then of this particular kind of alphabet. He sets to work and tries to commit it to memory. The first time he goes through it he has an idea. When he is first able to say it all from TYPICAL FORMS OF ORGANIZED EXPERIENCE 39 memory, it may be considered an idea, though the a-b-c part of it at least may have become automatic by that time. When he gets it so thoroughly as to require little or no conscious attention, the whole thing has become practically one habit, which may or may not be ideated, as we shall presently see. Consequently, a second principle is already allied with the first, where habits are found to be a part of the require- ment of the subject-matter. Determine whether the habit is an automatism which will be hit upon by the child as a result of his own initiative and experimental efforts, or im- plies a definite idea which must first appear in consciousness before it can be transformed into a fixed automatic process. That is, determine whether the method of imparting the idea must precede the method of establishing the habit. Most of the habits gained in school, aside from those which are disciplinary, belong to subject-matter and are of the drill type. 10. The combination involved in idea-habits. — For con- venience, such a habit will be called an idea-habit, because getting it involves using the method of getting an idea and often of forming a habit. Any adult can easily get an idea of what is meant when it is suggested that he repeat the alphabet backward. If he tries saying it, however, he will soon see the difference in the reaction between an idea and a habit. If he persists until he can say it back- ward with as much facility as he can forward, then he will have formed an idea-habit. 11. The difficulty not practical. — It is evident that there must be some point in the above process where it is hard to say whether what is learned is a habit or an idea. This may seem to be a difficulty, but it is really negligible for two reasons. In the first place, there is no difficulty in deciding whether a given idea or combination of ideas 40 HABIT-FORMATION should come automatically or be worked out when needed by the child. If the methods of engendering habits are either different from or supplementary to those employed in imparting knowledge, the necessity from the stand- point of economy, that the teacher know which he has to teach, is evident. In the second place, the transition from idea to habit in the child's mind may involve a theoretical point of difficulty, but the advantage of distinguishing between green and blue is not vitiated because there is theoretically a part of the spectrum intervening which cannot with assurance be named either green or blue. In short, neither the child himself nor the teacher has any use to make of the point of transition. The habit is to be fvUy established. The success of both teacher and child depends upon and is tested in the case of habit by the automatic character of what the child has learned. Conse- quently, the advantages of the distinction are offset by no practical disadvantage. 12. Practice in making the distinction desirable. — A little practice will enable students during observation* to determine (quite successfully) which the teacher is working for. A careful examination of the course of study also should be made to determine just where habits are desired and where ideas. Some practical work in both directions, until the distinction clears itself in the mind, is desirable at this point. This will serve also to emphasize the usefulness of the following chapter. The teacher will of course have abundant opportunities for practice both in making the distinction and in the application of the appropriate method. 13. Automatisms involved in courses of study. — Courses of study should also be searched for indications of the need ' of habit which will be indicated, if at all, by some expres- * See the Appendix. TYPICAL FORMS OF ORGANIZED EXPERIENCE 41 sion pointing out the need of repetition or practice, including the word " drill." '■ With the development of a methodology of habit and therefore of drill, it is hoped that in courses of study much more assistance may be given the teacher in regard to this drill work, that attention may be called to the various automatisms or habits sought, and suggestions may be made for securing them as a part of the child's training.^ This, then, is the first important distinction for the teacher to make after he has reached a decision as to the general nature of what is to be taught. Given a lesson, does it involve or lead toward a habit, or does the lesson imply that an idea is to be gained? If it implies a habit, then the question is whether it is an idea-habit or a mere automatism.' With these distinctions cleared, method is possible. ' In America " drill " is the word most likely to be used in courses of study to call attention to the need of repetition or practice. In England it is used almost exclusively of military or gymnastic exercise in this connection, and instead of speaking of drill in recognizing words, in number facts, in writing, some such expres- sions as " training," " disciplining," " encouraging repetition," or " practice " are used. There are objections to all of these, however, while the word "drill " is used throughout America to cover all that the teacher does in connection with subject-matter to secure habits. ' As examples of a trend in this direction, the courses of study in drawing, in arithmetic, and in English in the city of New York show that the authors have had this distinction in mind, though perhaps not in all cases consciously. It is also apparent In the report of the Connecticut Committee on English, especially in the section devoted to reading, spelling, and grammar. Courses of study in Baltimore, Indianapolis, New Haven, and in some instances elsewhere, indicate more or less of differentia- tion in this regard. ' Of course any habit may be brought to the notice of its pos- sessor, and so he may get an idea of his habit, that is, he has both 42 HABIT-FORMATION 14. Summary. — The child's experience brings to him a heterogeneous mass of impressions. From them, facts, truths, circumstances, events, principles, qualities of ob- jects, and so forth, are learned; and with these a goodly array of actions is either involved or becomes associated. In the past the educational theorists have set forth knowledge in one form or another as the common genus in the variety of experience. But knowledge is too narrow ; it does not include elements of skill, such as accuracy, facility, and efficiency in general. Knowledge and ability to use knowledge are not synonyms. We do not know how we perform certain acts. We merely know we can perform them. The philosophers and educational theorists have been generally silent as to methods of teaching the organizations which should be termed rather of skill than of knowledge, though these constitute a large part of edu- cational procedure. The word "idea" appropriately denominates one kind of organization, while the word "habit" effectually covers the other type of experience. Attitudes, appreciations, impressions, and the like are vague terms whose meaning can only be rationally determined in terms either of idea or habit or both. The term "skill," though implying habit, is not synonymous with it. Skill is more limited in appli- cation and often implies ideation. ^ Accordingly, the first great principle in scientific teach- ing is to analyze the subject-matter and determine what elements in it are to become habitual. "Experiences may the idea of his habit and on occasion the definite form of reaction as well. A man may not know that he has formed a habit of squinting one eye when he looks off into the distance. Some one may call his attention to it, and thereafter he may catch himself squinting. Then for a while at least he may have both the habit and an idea of the habit he has formed, though he may wish, per- haps, to inhibit it, as in this case. TYPICAL FORMS OF OEGANIZED EXPERIENCE 43 become amalgamated into an idea-complex, and later the idea may itself become stereotyped and automatic. That is, it becomes a habit and may be termed an idea-habit. For such the methods of imparting ideas must precede the methods of establishing habits. The fact that there is theoretically a transition point is practically no disad- vantage, since,' if an idea or an act is to become habitual, there should be no attempt just to cross the transition point; the habit must be well established. A little practice will make the distinction easier in its applicMion. Courses of study should indicate points where automatisms are to be secured, and offer suggestions for getting them. In any case, the courses as outhned must be studied for the habits involved. Given an idea, a habit, or an idea-habit, the method of procedure may be outlined. Without such a distinction, no method is possible. CHAPTER IV The Diffeeence between Habits and Ideas " Education is naught but the formation of habits." — Rousseau. In the type of organized experience studied in the previous chapter, the terms " idea " and " habit " were used in a broader way than is authorized by most psychologists, and with a significance not greatly at variance with popu- lar usage. I. Nature and definition of an idea. — When in ordinary experience a person burns himself on a hot stove or radia- tor, he might say, " I had an idea that it was hot, but no idea that it was so hot as to burn me." One may say, "I have no idea what I shall do to-morrow," or, "My idea is that no president should serve a third term," or that " all children have to be vaccinated before they can attend school, because mine were." An old idea of heaven pictured it as a city whose streets were paved with gold, whose buildings were studded with precious stones, and so forth. This is a popular use of the word " idea," which covers practically the whole gamut of what the psychologist considers under cognition, with the possi- ble exception of sensation. An idea must be more or less definite. One may speak of having a vague, indefinite sen- sation of strain, or of nausea, but it would be a contradic- tion to speak of having a vague, indefinite idea of a certain strain, or instance of nausea. As soon as this vagueness changes to definiteness, we may and do speak of having an idea of the strain or the nausea. Just at this point, unfortunately, where the pedagogue 44 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN HABITS AND IDEAS 45 may very profitably joiii hands with popular usage, the psychologists have in the past, for reasons of their own, dis- sented, using the term " idea " with widely varied connota- tion. Hofifding, however, divides the section of his psychol- ogy dealing with cognition into two main divisions, sensation and ideation, the latter evidently covering all forms of cognition except sensation. Miss Calkins,* in her psychol- ogy, states that " the word ' idea ' is applied to any complex experience regarded as one term in a succession." Locke emphasized the cognition side when he referred to " idea " as that term which he thought " to stand best for whatever is the object of the understanding when one thinks." This broader usage more closely corresponds to popular usage, and means to the average teacher what it seems to mean. Consequently I have used the term in this sense, and therefore define an idea as any definite cognitive functioning. Ideas are of varying complexity. Brooklyn is to most people a less complex idea than the idea. New York City, or New York State, or the United States. Various writers have used the terms "idea-complex," "idea- mass," "thought-mass," "systems," "circles of thought," "thought-cycles," "system of the prevalent disposition," etc., where no reference is made to any special organization of the subsidiary idea involved in the larger whole. The term " idea," as here used, is suflJciently broad to include the elaborate and complex idea-mass, as well as the simpler and more direct experience. 2. Nature and definition of habit. — Habit, on the con- trary, is popularly used in an extremely narrow way, not that its meaning is different from that which has been im- plied in this book, but rather that the application of the term is limited to an infinitesimal part of the actual ex- • "Introduction to Psychology," p. 150. New York, 1906. 46 HABIT-FORMATION periences to which it properly applies. The uneducated person thinks of his eating and drinking and smoking in terms of habit, and of his real or fancied personal peculiari- ties as habits. He does not think of his recreaftons, skating, swimming, hitting and catching a ball, his business calcula^ tions, and reactions as habits. Nor does he consider the movements of his eyes, the manner of reading a paper, appreciating pictures, jokes, and architecture, and much less his religious and political beliefs as habits. To be sure, many of these ought not to be purely habitual, and often are not, but habit enters in to a degree unappreciated except by the students of habit. Rousseau' said, "Education is certainly nothing but the formation of habits." Even the psychologists have often made the serious mis- take of classifying habit in the realm of volition, neglecting its equally potent force in cognition, feeUng, and even volition itself. Even where they have defined it as a state of mind or body in which acts previously performed tend to repeat themselves in exactly the same way, they limit it to the body and external action. It is only comparatively recently that memory, at least where it is secured by repeti- tion, has been thought of as habit. Surely it is as much of a habit for a child to secure as an automatism, 6 X 9 = 54, even if there is no perceptible external action (whatever the motor tendencies), as it is to take his pen in his right hand as he starts to write. Stout treats of habit in two ways : (1) as in process of formation, (2) as fully established. In this second sense, as a fully established organization of experience, habit is, then, following closely Maher's definition,^ an acquired 'Quoted by Radestock, "Habit in Education." Trans, by Caspari, p. 5. Boston, 1897. 'Maher, "Psychology," p. 388. The definition is his except for the word "automatic," which seems to me needed. DIFFERENCE BETWEEN HABITS AND IDEAS 47 aptitude for some particular mode of automatic action. This includes habits of decision, of feeling, or thought. It includes the habits which " have us," and the habits " we have," as Professor Ladd happily phrases it.' They evi- dently may be neuro-muscular ; they may be highly intellec- tual or central in character.^ All training and all eflBciency are based on habit. Spontaneity or involved accommoda- tion, in the main, functions only as accessory to and built upon previously acquired habit, and as itself contributing to further improvement in adjustment, which, if perma- nent, is habitual. Habits, like ideas, may be tremendously complex, and make themselves over into systems, one reaction ' setting ' Compare Aristotle on Memory. Also his Ethics, for extension of term in general. 'Compare Kussmaul, "Storungen der Sprache," p. 34. Leip- sic, 1885 (3d edition). "Das Band, was die Eintibung unserer Central-organe zwischen dieser und jener Stationen der Em- pfindung, Vorstellung, und Bewegung kntipft, nennen wir Gewohn- ung. Stationen, die gewohnt sind mit einander zu correspondiren, beantworten sich ihre Depeschen sehr prompt, wehrend sie die von anderer nicht oder nur zogemd und unsicher beantworten. Es sieht ganz so aus, als ob Erregungen, die wiederholt von einem Punkte zum anderen sich fortpflanzen, Widerstande aus der ver- kntipfenden Bahnen zur Seite schoben und die Wege freier, glatter und gelaufiger machten." ' The word "reaction" is used here as elsewhere to indicate those responses to situations which are not involved in pure receptivity, while the term " stimulus " is used of a change external to the or- ganism, the words " stimulation " or "excitation'' of those changes in the organism which are receptive and serve to waken responses. If one response arouses another reaction, it is evidently first a re- action and then an excitation. A sigh, a sound, a taste, a touch, an odor just perceived, a muscular movement, may all serve sepa- rately as stimulations for the respective reactions of shuddering, singling, smacking of the lips, turning the head around, sniflSng, or for stepping up to the next stair. 48 HABIT-FORMATION off the next in order, and so on; but as a rule they are so specific, at least in the reaction to which the term " habit " is applied, that no occasion has arisen for such terms as "habit-masses" to correlate with "idea-masses." Ideas differ infinitely in complexity. Habits differ only to a very limited degree in the length or amount of what is considered as one habit. 3. Philosophical objections answered. — The pedagogue has not merely to reconcile these uses of terms, but the philosopher interposes his objection that ideas and habits are treated here as though they were real entities or ob- jective existences. He seems to be right; ideas do not exist except whUe we are having them; habits do not exist except while some act is being performed in a habitual way. But on the other hand, the following illustration may clear up the situation. I left my watch the other day at the jeweler's to be cleaned. Several times in the next few days I caught myself either feeling for it in the accustomed place, or about to do so. Is not this tendency of mind to reach toward my vest pocket upon occasion as real as the watch itself? May it not be treated as an exist- ent somewhat? Moreover, is not the idea I have of my watch as real as the watch itself? Does not one whole school of philosophers regard the idea as the reality? The watch does not function except as I look at it, hear it, or handle it. Is it unreal because it ceases to function when no one is thinking about it? Again, a curious inconsistency lies in the fact that the philosopher seems willing to acquiesce in this objective treatment of habit, but balks at it as applied to the idea. Surely the idea is in essence no more and no less a function than habit. If not, where does the idea-habit come in? All functioning implies something to function and condi- tions under which the functioning takes place. DIFFERENCE BETWEEN HABITS AND IDEAS 49 There is a further answer to the philosopher's objection which might be made. This book could have been written, and the functional point of view now rendering so much aid to the pedagogue could have been preserved throughout. The difficulty was simply that it was impossible to preserve it without a very frequent use of circuitous phrases which, though more satisfying to the philosopher-psychologist at the present moment, would end in a desert of words which would render the book unserviceable at precisely the point where I trust it may prove to be of genuine value. As long as something must exist which corresponds either to what we call ideas, or to what we denominate habit, there can be no serious objection to ridding ourselves of verbal incumbrances and circumlocution by referring to these phenomena, that is, ideas and habits, as though they existed. 4. A psychological objection. — Another type of psychol- ogist raises an objection which is more serious. He claims that habit enters into all thinking, that all forms of cognition are largely infusions of habit, each experience combining with this fundamental habit-basis certain elements, develop- ments, ramifications, adaptations, or superimposed associa- tions. The writer believes that this is true, — that, in general, being given sight impressions, we see what we are in the habit of seeing, that we remember what we are in the habit of remembering, imagine, judge, and reason very much as we are in the habit of imagining,, judging, and reasoning. But even the acknowledgment of the complex- ity in cognition does not invalidate or devitalize the utility of the distinction between idea and habit, since whatever may be the elements involved, either the superimposed associations or developments predominate in the attention in the guise of an idea, or they are unnoticed, and the experience is therefore dominated by habitual reactions. 50 HABIT-FORMATION It must be admitted that this difficulty is perplexing to the teacher. It has already been referred to in the case of idea- habits, and will be again. One of the reasons for entering in this chapter into the detailed study of this difference is not only to show the basis for the principles derived, but also to enable the teacher to distinguish between that which is predominantly idea or predominantly habit. In various parts of the book occasion has arisen to refer to the difficulty in the hope of removing it. In the writer's experience, and that of others who have tried it, few cases offer any real difficulty after some practice. Even though these words (ideas and habits) were denied me in the sense I have used them, I should still have to insist on the distinction, for practical purposes in teaching, be- tween that which may be described as a relatively completed organization which is automatic and consists of units func- tioning in a fixed succession (habit) and that which rep- resents an organization of associated experiences, which is regardable from many points of view and is capable of in- definite addition to and arrangement or rearrangement of its unitary elements (idea).' The contrast of definitions in the preceding paragraphs, however, fails to bring out into very positive relief impor- tant differences which will appear upon close observation, — differences which will also serve as a basis for important principles and to clarify a distinction otherwise hard to make.' ' See also footnote on p. 60, where the purpose and function of this distinction are further discussed. ' The following may serve to enlarge our general point of view in advance of the detailed analysis : " Habit is a serial reproduc- tion of associated ideas and movements which has by frequent repetition become a matter of mechanical finish." Lindner, "En- cyklopadisches Handbuch der Erziehungs-kunde." Leipsic, 1891. The "first requirement of education is that the pupil shall ao- DIFFERENCE BETWEEN HABITS AND IDEAS 51 5. Habit an automatism. — The first essential difference is that habit is automatic in character. It is an automatism.^ It is self -moving in a definite direction. Its initial features suggest only one set of conse- quent features. If a person starts to lace up his shoes, he will not stop until he has finished, unless interrupted by some new contingency. On the other hand the initial phases of an idea are not followed by any given consequents directly. Ideas may be variously suggested, interrupted, and obstructed. If a woman is shown a new bonnet, little automatism on her part is necessarily involved. It is im- possible to say what part of the bonnet she will look at first, or how she will examine it. The second, third, and any other subsequent times she sees or thinks of it she may do so in different ways and from new points of view. Various experiences are called up at different times. Now one name or another occurs to her, under changed conditions different people are thought of as wearing that style, and so forth. One set, automatic kind of reaction appears in lacing up the shoes, while in the case of the bonnet no set form of reaction appears, but the person gets an idea now of quire the habit of subordinating his likes and dislikes to the attain- ment of a rational object." ..." Passive habit teaches us to bear the vicissitudes of life with such composure that we shall hold our ground against them, being always equal to ourselves, and that we shall not allow our power of acting to be paralyzed through any mutation of fortune." Harris, in the Introduction of Rosen- kranz's "Philosophy of Education," pp. 32 and 33. Appleton, 1890. "Habit is the tendency of an organism to continue more and more readily processes which are vitally beneficial." — Baldwin, "Mental Development in the Child and the Race," p. 476. Mac- millan, 1903. ' This is not to say that automatisms do not enter into ideas, but to emphasize the fact that the idea is based not on one but many, the succession of which is not to be predicted. 52 HABIT-FORMATION the bonnet, now of its advantages or disadvantages, now of persons wearing it, now of the occasions or times of the year when it is most suitable, — all according to the point of view or the general mental tendency at the time. 6. Habit serial, ideas approachable from many points of view. — This illustration brings us to the second impor- tant difference. Habit is always a serial affair.' Even when in its simplest form of a single unitary experience, it always suggests a related experience. The swinging back and forth of the hand until the shoe is tied is not only automatic but represents a series of subsidiary reactions. No such series appears in the consideration of the bonnet. Not only is the experience as a whole lacking in settled automatic action, but, even granted an established avenue of approach, it is almost immediately forsaken, interrupted, crossed or recrossed. The elements in the habit series may be little separate habits combined into a more complex one, just as buttoning one's waistcoat must be a more complex habit than just buttoning one button, though that in itself would be a habit as soon as it is done automatically. The consciousness of finishing with one button acts as a stimulus for starting on the next. An idea, on the other hand, may be called up automatically and yet itself not be a habit. Thus a certain sound may suggest automatically a whistle. But the kind of whistle suggested, — locomotive, factory, steamboat, tug, bicycle, or automobile, — and the trains of thought set in motion will vary greatly, even when evoked by the same sound. There is no established series. If an idea could be repeated in exactly its original form, it would be either an extremely vivid impression, and therefore Ukely to become habitual, or it is already an idea-habit. ' Compare footnote, p. 60. DIFFERENCE BETWEEN HABITS AND IDEAS 53 7. Habit's function to preserve unchanged, the function of the idea to adapt itself. — In the third place, habit rep- resents a conserving tendency of mental life. That is, after it has once been established, it tends to remain un- changed, always produced in response to the same or a similar suggesting stimulus, always characterized by the same reaction. Desirable forms of action thus become permanent. They persist, though there is a period during the inception of the habit when there is a certain amount of experimentation and an attempt to improve on it. It is these attempts to improve which put a good golfer " off his game." When some mere chance variation of his stroke becomes habit without his noticing it, it may take him weeks to get back to where he was before he made this unfortunate attempt to improve. The habits once estab- lished beyond this experimenting stage, become fixed, and change only as new conditions compd new adaptations. The function of habit, then, is to conserve in its original form a definite reaction. There is a constant warfare between the forces of habituation and those of experiment, adaptation, or, as Baldwin ' would say, accommodation. But let habit once gain the upper hand, and experiment soon retires from the field, though seldom finally. The idea, on the other hand, has just the opposite function. Its usefulness consists in its ability to adapt itself and be- come modified in accordance with additional points of view. It may be combined in synthesis with other ideas, or it may be resolved into its elements by analysis, or it may be fused with other similar ideas, or applied to some given situation either by deduction or analogy. In short, its very function is to change, to be modified. Of what use wovild our idea of St. Petersburg, Westminster Abbey, banking, auto- •See "Mental Development in the Child and the Race," pp. 214 ff., and 476-480. Macmillan, 1903 (2d edition). 54 HABIT-FORMATION mobiling, sailing, be if we were obliged always to think of them in exactly the same way, from the same point of view, including just so much and excluding always the same amount. The truth is, such words represent, to use Her- bart's figure, masses of ideas relative to which we have accumulated some knowledge, and hope to get more. We may with comparative freedom modify them, add new material, subtract wrong impressions, and in general organ- ize the ideas we have into some useful form of practical import to us, even if it be of no more satisf3ang kind than that teachers cannot afford to neglect the study of school sanitation. 8. Habit disregards detail and feeling, ideas accentuate both. — In the fourth place, as a habit becomes more and more fixed, we lose sight of the details involved. Think of the detail a pianist must master in the way of smaller ideas and habits of manipulating the keys. But in render- ing a difficult but ennobling piece of music, all of these years and steps of practice are lost to consciousness in the enjoy- ment of the harmonies now easily rendered, as symbolized by the little dots on the lines of the staff, which form the stimuli that keep the automatic processes going right. But in the course of the practice there must have been many a detail to learn or smaller automatism to acquire before the mind was freed for more involved functioning. With this disregard of detail the feeling element tends to fade out, the enthusiasm of the boy's first successes at swimming fades away into the staid matter-of-courseness which char- acterizes his swimming in later life. Our disappointment, too, over failure to perform long-tried tasks begins to lose its vigor in the late efforts and may even sink into a dreary sort of satisfaction in the mere effort, regardless of results. Here, again, in both phases the idea is radically different. We must have detail to get any satisfaction or service from DIFFERENCE BETWEEN HABITS AND IDEAS 55 our ideas. A vague idea of New York City will prove useless in assisting a person to find his way around the city. The more details the better the organization may be, and the better the organization the more completely it must cover the details. Even an abstraction loses its vitality and becomes mere empty verbiage if completely isolated from its data. To one unacquainted with electricity it is not particularly edifying to know the principle that the strength of the current varies directly as the electromotive force and inversely as the resistance.' In contrast with habit, the feeling accessory of the idea tends to rouse itself or vary, the longer the idea is in focus, as new aspects strengthen or weaken the prevailing mood. A small boy may hitherto have left the impression on his teacher that he was "mean" and wanted to annoy her, when quite unexpectedly and willingly he puts himself out to do her a special kindness. The idea of this act might at first give her a feeling of pleasure, but the contrast with other acts of a different nature may lead her to other feelings. Then there may ensue an oscillation back and forth in con- sciousness now of thought of the old acts and now of the new, each with its appropriate accompaniment of feeling, until * The fact that this principle may be used automatically by an expert in electricity as an idea^habit, and that many concepts may be used practically as idea-habits does not invalidate the distinc- tion. When ideated as objects of attention, they carry with them their manifold of association, suggestion, etc., i.e. both detail and feeling. The author of the following must have appreciated not only the detail but the conscious attention involved in ideation : — "The centipede was happy quite. Until the toad in fun Said, ' Pray, which leg comes after which When you begin to run?' This wrought her mind to such a pitch. She lay distracted in a ditch, Considering how to run." 56 HABIT-FORMATION the teacher has finally organized the new act as representa- tive of the child's real feeling, and those others as an outcome of an instinct to tease or of some other native propensity — good in itself but often ill adjusted. 9. Habit minimizes attention and fatigue, ideas increase the amotmt of attention and fatigue. — With these differ- ences in detail and feeling a fifth characteristic of the habit, as distinguished from the idea, is closely connected. In case of a habit, if the attention strays, a resulting movement or even mental reaction is likely to proceed as well and very likely even better than if it had remained definitely centered on the reaction. For the whole tendency of habit is to release the attention while at the same time increasing the accuracy and reducing the fatigue characterizing the movement. An engineer just struggling with the problem of starting a new fifty-horse-power marine engine proved to be an interesting subject for observation. He knew his engine and what was to be done, but there was still just enough of the knack to be acquired to make large drafts on his attention, and the release of the starting lever re- quired an accuracy in the time of the movement to slip it off that demanded the utmost qui vive. The resultant fatigue in the muscular effort was considerable; but in a short time a few turns and a little attention sufficed.' He had gained the " knack." An habitual act calls for less attention and therefore entails less fatigue than the same act would if not habitual. Where ideas influence movement, they do it directly through habit or by minor alterations or modifica- tions of previous habit paths. If effort is required, as is usual, to keep the idea in the focus of consciousness, ' James makes this minimizing of attention a function of habit. Compare Baldwin: habit "means loss of oversight, diffusion of attention, subsiding consciousness." " Handbook of Psychology, " Feeling and Will, p. 49. Holt, 1891. DIFFERENCE BETWEEN HABITS AND IDEAS 57 fatigue is necessitated, and the more attention is demanded the greater the attendant fatigue. But if an idea is in- volved, and it is necessary to keep many phases of it in mind, it is evident that the conscious attention must be proportionately increased. A lawyer, in convincing a jury, must keep an elaborate case in its various phases constantly before him. The amount of effort, attention, and mental fag involved is necessarily very much greater than is ex- pended by the engineer of many months' experience with the same engine. 10. Habit implies repetition, an idea may be gained through one experience. — Sixthly, habit implies repetition, practice, traversing over and over the same neural path. Even in the case where a left-handed child just beginning to write is told that he must write with his right hand, and is so convinced of its advisability that he never writes again with his left hand, he has not yet acquired a habit. He has an idea firmly grasped, and a habit is sure to grow out of it, but not until he has written often enough to start in auto- matically with his right hand can he be said to have formed this habit. An idea, whether it be gained more directly through the medium of the senses, or through judgment or reasoning, may be learned, as is evident enough, through one experi- ence only. The victim of a railroad accident needs no repetition of the occurrence to get an idea of what such an experience is like. 11. Habit specific, ideas variously considered and modi- fied. — Seventhly, a habit is, properly speaking, always specific, although this fact does not necessarily preclude the possibility of a number of specific habits having certain parts of a neurone pathway in common, nor does it preclude the possibility of one habit furnishing a suggestion which may easily become a habit in a new situation. For ex- 58 HABIT-FORMATION ample, a boy may form the habit of always hanging his hat on a certain nail in school without necessarily develop- ing the habit of hanging it on a certain nail at home. On the other hand, it may suggest and in time produce the fixed reaction at home. So, too, a habit of keeping papers clean may suggest to the boy the desirabihty of washing his hands morning and noon before school. Washing his hands ought very readily to suggest washing his face as well, and so the habit is extended to several different re- actions. It is not Ukely that it will lead to the habit of cleaning his nails or washing his ears, unless by a very gradual process and added suggestion. Some of our psy- chologists in their perhaps justified opposition to formal discipline in theory seem to have lost sight of this possibility of the use of neurone pathways in common and the possibil- ity that by suggestion one pathway may set into action a similar one in a new but similar situation. This is especially important in its bearings on habit, as implied both in moral conduct and school discipline, and will later be taken up again. The point that needs emphasis and has perhaps been over- worked in exceptional cases is that habits always apply to single paths of reaction. They are specific, not general. Moreover, they can be regarded from only one point of view, as the habit series works only one way. The habit of saying the alphabet forwards is an entirely different habit from that of sajdng it backwards. The idea, on the other hand, is not well defined as to associations implied. Its beginning and end, its implications are variously prominent or obscure either in part or as a whole. It may be regarded from many points of view and is subject to modification (not always desirable) according to the point of regard.' It is ' In answer to the objection that ideas are also specific, atten- tion must be called to my point of view as including the time DIFFERENCE BETWEEN HABITS AND IDEAS 59 said of Russell Sage that he consulted a lawyer as to his chance of winning a certain case ; the lawyer listened to him and said, " Yes, you have a very good case there." " Thank you," said the shrewd financier ; " that's the other man's side of it." There are usually many points of view in- volved in ideas, whether they be derived from legal cases, objects presented to the senses, or plays of imagination and reasoning in general. Moreover, the point of view modifies sometimes seriously the nature of the idea; and it requires much shrewdness to keep free from bias or prejudice in favor of the point of view most acceptable. 12. Direct reflex and instinctive basis for habit, none for ideas. — The remaining distinction (the eighth) between habits and ideas is one which is of pronounced significance in teaching. It consists in the fact that there is an extensive background of reflex and instinctive hereditary possibilities of reaction, which form the basis of the child's first move- ments. On these or out of these he gradually develops all the subsequent special habits or habit combinations so nec- cessary and useful in enabling him to adapt his reactions to the varjdng complexity of his environment. Thus, out of the general exuberance of hand, leg, and body movements made when the child sees a bright object, he gradually comes to select the specific movement of stretching out his right hand and grasping until this becomes habitual when- ever a sufficiently attractive incentive is offered. Although it was long believed that there were native or innate ideas from Plato's and Herbart's ethical ideas to the acceptance of the mathematical axiom as native, it is now element. The chameleon has no specific color, red, green, etc., if periods of time are involved, although at any given moment it has a specific color. Habit, on the other hand, is comparable rather with the form of the chameleon, which is specific any time after it has matured. 60 HABIT-FORMATION generally agreed among psychologists that there are no native or innate ideas. Nor is there an original, ready-made function by which ideas may come to consciousness. But the same background of reactions fundamental to the devel- opment of habit is also fundamental in that it not only fur- nishes data for the interpretation of the outside world but none the less for the interpretation of itself. Thus Herbart's ethical idea of benevolence is easily accounted for, if it is ad- mitted that any form of reaction instinctive or otherwise may in part at least be brought to consciousness as knowledge first of all, as an act, perhaps, but sooner or later as a re- action having certain qualities ( in this case a feeling quaUty) in common with other reactions. Our feelings and our re- actions become (or may become) therefore conscious ex- periences of the cognitive t3^e, on the basis of which new intellectual experiences are gained by analysis of or by combination of elements, or by mingling analytic and syn- thetic processes. 13. Restatement of the eight points of difference.* — The ' In this antithesis between idea and habit I am conscious of raising numerous questions in the mind of the psychologist who looks at mental development by analogy with neurone complica- tion. I am myself an advocate of that type of psychology, and recognize, therefore, that the idea itself includes numerous habits. This, however, is not saying that the ideas are habits. Just as long as you have such a complexity of habits involved in the idea that at different times they function in different orders and in varying limits, the total consciousness involves no svch serial fixed character as we have postulated for] habit, and the complete auto- maticity of the idea is not assured. When an idea reaches a stage in consciousness where it is serial and fixed as a single automatism from beginning to end, it has been transformed into a habit. Of course, too, this automaticity, serialness, and fixedness of habit are necessarily more or less relative, that is, ideas may have them to some degree, but habits must have them in high degree. The reason for making the distinction is its great importance for DIFFERENCE BETWEEN HABITS AND IDEAS 61 following contrast may serve as a summary of the distinctions emphasized: Habit is automatic, serial, and fixed. Habit disregards details with their feeling accom- paniments. Habit minimizes attention and fatigue. Habit implies repetition, is specific, and is built up on a reflex and instinctive basis of action. Ideas, on the other hand, are not automatic, except as habit enters into them. Ideas imply a mass of smaller elements not regarded serially but according to point of view. Ideas function only by change, modification, analy- sis, and synthesis. Ideas emphasize the detail and also the feeling element. Ideas increase the amount of con- scious attention, effort, and fatigue. Ideas may be gained through one experience, are considered and modified from many points of regard, and are not based on any native knowledge. 14. Principles of education involved in these differences. — We are now in a position to consider more definitely the fundamental differences in method which are necessitated by these differences in the nature of the two functions. We may think of the typical habit as analogous to a row of dominoes standing on end, each successively ready to topple over its neighbor in its fall, or as a series of digits in their conventional order, and the typical idea as like a spi- der's web or the jumbled mass of streets in an old European town. The row of dominoes and the stereotyped order of digits stand for specific neural paths. Evidently, to get these neural pathways established, they must be traversed the teacher. Teaching of the type to produce the most effective habituation is not calculated to produce the most efficient idea- tion, adaptability, or originality. The bringing to consciousness a complexity of associations as completely as possible is different from bringing into play a muscular or mental series involving the minimum of consciousness. But these are the typical forms of activity involved in the aims of teaching. 62 HABIT-FORMATION again and again. As habit is to be automatic, self-carried, and fixed, repetition is again the essential. If habit is serial, the same elements should invariably precede the next in each case, and the habit may often be learned in sections. Since habits are fixed, care should be taken at the outset that the right ones be established, so that no un- learning or corrections need be made. If they tend to disregard details and the feeling accompaniments, let it be certain, before it is too late, that the function of the detail in making good adjustments and the function of feeling in warning against poor adjustments and guiding toward good ones have both served as fully as possible. If effort of attention is to be minimized, let it not be until the reaction is safely established in its most efficient form. Since habit is specific, any given habit should be the one adapted to the situation for which an adjustment is desired and not a blind attempt to make real some abstraction. And again, inas- much as habit is based on reflex and instinctive activity, the nature of that basis and its usefulness deserve most careful study. The main point in the case of the idea must be, first of ail, to add definitely to its nucleus ; and secondly, to elaborate its elements into an orderly system. Also in ideation atten- tion should be held more or less closely to its focus on the idea or its elements and associations. Detail and feeling in this idea-process must each continue to function fully. The idea must function as a whole, no matter what the outlying association may be that called the idea to conscious- ness, and the mind should be able to survey this idea from many other points of view than the first one suggested. Moreover, ideas must undergo a constant reconsideration, criticism, or tendency to revision, whether by way of adding or subtracting to the sum total of elements composing them or by way of reorganizing them into forms more DIFFERENCE BETWEEN HABITS AND IDEAS 63 suitable for purposes of adjustment or application. If effort of attention is desirable, the various incentives and aids to attention should be studied. If fatigue is increased, greater precaution should be taken in exercises dealing with idea-getting, that the child may have the energy to expend. 15. Habit-getting as a sequel to idea-getting. — It must be borne in mind that these are distinctions which hold where the idea is essentially an idea and where the habit is purely an automatism. Where an idea is to be transformed into a habit, the mental processes must begin with the qualities of the idea, and later the qualities of habit will grow out of it as the idea slowly crystallizes, loses its variability, fails to be analyzed or associated in manifold ways, be- comes serial and automatic. This process may take place soon or extend over days, weeks, or years, according as its complexity and the opportunity for practice vary. In such a habit the methodology of the idea must precede and then be followed by the methodology of habit. Many a teacher has taken a period for bringing out an idea, followed it up with exercises for home work, and devoted the next period or more given that subject to drilling on it without once being conscious that he first taught an idea and then tried to fix it as an automatism. 16. Transition of ideas into habits. — In many cases, however, the ideas are so easily and automatically * gained as to need no special emphasis on the method of acquiring them and to sink into insignificance beside the task of getting the habit. In teaching a person to ride a bicycle the ideas necessary may be taught perfectly in five minutes. But the person, if an adult, is not likely to acquire the necessary habits satisfactorily in less than five hours. What was happening during the four hours and fifty-five minutes? ' See Chapter II. 64 HABIT-FORMATION Merely the formation of certain habita. " Turn the handle bars the way you are going to fall" is a direction simple enough, but to do it soon enough and not too soon or too vigorously is not so simple. So with the only other direc- tions necessary : "lean over to the side opposite the one you tend to fall," and "keep pedaUng." Easy enough, to be sure, but it takes a long time to get the habit after the ideas are taught. To get the ideas is not the problem. They will be gained automatically with any sort of teaching. The habit is the difficult thing, and were it attended by occasional unpleasantness, such as characterized first at- tempts at riding the old-fashioned high wheel, or such as attends early endeavors to swim, the result would not be so readily attained. Again, in the child's early learning, which is almost wholly habit-forming, the part played by the few hazy ideas he may have succeeded in clearing up out of the mist of his experience is so limited, and the ideas are so detached and scrappy in character, that they are almost entirely negligi- ble, as far as his early efforts are concerned. 17. Habits as precedent to ideas. — In general, man in his development made a new adjustment, afterward found it satisfjdng, and endeavored to repeat the acts involved. It may have been a chance combination or a fortunate circum- stance that suggested and provoked the original reaction; but when the advance was attended by pleasurable feeling or appreciative knowledge of the desirable attainment, at least the immediate antecedents of the action were in time also enkindled with consciousness. Thus an act (it may be habitual) often becomes father to the idea, or conscious knowledge thereof in its various phases. The child learns to walk and talk as complicated adjustments long before he has formed any idea of doing so or of the nature of the reactions he is making. The child's first naughtiness is DIFFERENCE BETWEEN HABITS AND IDEAS 65 ethically no worse than his first good acts. In both cases he reacts according to his inherited structure. He experi- ments unconsciously for better adaptations. Where the experiment results favorably, he is commended. Where it is unsatisfactory, he is condemned. Sin came into the world not as idea, but as adjustment. Since habit-forming, then, precedes idea-getting in the child's development, and since in a large percentage of cases the idea part of the more complicated habit-getting is acquired automatically, and furthermore since the methods ^of imparting ideas have already been treated in several books on general method,' it has seemed both logical and practical first to set forth systematically this neglected field in the science of education. Consequently the discussion of teaching as discipline and drill is made to precede that of teaching as instruction. i8. Summary. — An idea, as here defined, is any definite product of cognition. This is not far from the popular usage of the term, and is in effect sanctioned by the usage of eminent psychologists. It is thus made to include not merely simple, but also complicated, idea- or thought-masses as well. The term "habit" is commonly used in far too narrow a meaning. It enters into man's whole mental and physical existence. As a fully established organization of experience, habit is an acquired aptitude for some particu- lar mode of automatic action. The philosophical objection to speaking of ideas and habits as real existences is answered by showing that the usage is figurative, and that all function presupposes some- ' As will be shown later, the method of instruction needs elabora- tion from the standpoint of modern psychology and especially to be freed from a formalism detrimental or impossible in good teach- ing and decidedly at variance with the automatic processes, the importance of which has been indicated in Chapter 11 above. 66 HABIT-FORMATION thing to function. The complicated mingling of idea and habit and action is a more serious difficulty. It forces us to look for the predominantly automatic, and is the chief reason for making a detailed study of the distinction between idea and habit. Eight points of difference are noted: — (1) Habit is automatic or self-carrying; ideas are sub- ject to hesitation, obstruction, interruption, and varied suggestion. (2) Habit is serial; ideas function with features variously prominent and lacking in settled continuity. The habit series may involve lesser habits themselves serial in the elements comprising them. (3) Habits are the product of a conserving tendency, — are relatively fixed; the very function of the idea is to modify and adjust itself to new experience and situations. (4) Habits tend to the disregard of and ideas to the emphasis of details and the feeling tone of experiences. The details are vital to the organization of ideas, but are in the way of the finished organization of habit. (5) Habit minimizes conscious attention and fatigue. The more involved and the less familiar an idea may be, the greater the amount of attention and of consequent fatigue necessary for complete functioning. (6) Habit is the product of repetition; ideas may be gained through a single experience. (7) Habits are always specific, although we may and do sometimes denominate as habit a whole class of similar automatisms. Ideas, even of concrete experiences, are gained through the medium of similar past experiences with which they are fused or classed, and in which the separate experience often loses its identity, while consciousness may be definitely focused on the total result. (8) Habit is developed out of native tendencies to act; DIFFERENCE BETWEEN HABITS AND IDEAS 67 there are no native ideas. On the other hand, native re- actions may be brought to consciousness (ideated) and thus contribute indirectly to ideation, incidentally rendering these native tendencies doubly important. Certain typical sorts of procedure in method are plainly implied by the above comparison : — (1) Habit can become automatic, sdf-carried, and fixed only through repetition. (2) One member of the habit series must invariably (not intermittently) precede the next. Subsidiary habits, how- ever, may be gained before the including habit is sought. (3) Care should be taken that only right habits be estab- lished. (4) Detail and feeling are not to be lost until a satis- factory reaction has been made. (5) Effort of attention must not lapse so long as needed for correct action. (6) No bUnd substitute for the specific reaction adequate to the situation must be accepted. (7) The instinctive equipment of the child must be known. On the other hand, (1) Ideas must be increased by added association. (2) Their elements must be elaborated into a more or less orderly system. (3) The idea should function as a whole, including its feeling connections. (4) Ideas must be viewed from many points of view, must undergo criticism and revision. (5) Attention is to be encouraged in as many directions as contribute to the idea. (6) Precautions should be taken against excessive fatigue. Idea-habits begin as ideas, and more or less slowly crystal- 68 HABIT-FORMATION lize into habits. In many instances the methodology of imparting ideas must therefore precede that of habit-getting. In fact, this must always be the case except in the numer- ous instances where the ideas or the habits themselves are gained automatically. Many ideas are not grasped until the habits they represent have been established. The methodology of habit is a subject never before treated in detail. CHAPTER V The Basis of Habit-Foemation " Habit, second nature? Habit is ten times nature." — DtTKE OP Wellington. I. The development of habit from instinct. — Any one who has come into contact with infants has noticed how few, how crude, and how uncontrolled are their early types of movement. The baby sitting on the floor stretches his hands toward some alluring object. Venturing too far, he falls prostrate. As a result of his fall, however, he gets near enough to touch the plaything sought. His success in reaching the toy leads him thereafter to repeat the same method of reaching for things, until he becomes quite profi- cient. The habit of stretching himself out on the floor has developed out of the crude instinctive reaching. Later it may be noticed that sometimes, when he fails even by this method, he makes an involuntary movement of the knee and, putting his weight upon it, throws himself forward by chance at first, but soon automatically coming within range of the desired object. This may be the first form of creeping. Again instinct has become habit. This phase of locomotion is gradually improved upon until it becomes a fairly direct and effective means of moving about. But the development does not ■ rest there. Before long the child reaches instinctively for things above him. He seizes hold of the side of the crib or the side of a heavy chair, and pulls. This pulling is accompanied by reflex move- ments of the feet. After a number of efforts the feet reach a position favorable to the getting-up process, and after many struggles with combined pulling of arms and straight- 69 70 HABIT-FORMATION ening of legs, the baby stands. The fortunate combination is afterward repeated and soon becomes a matter of course, that is, of habit. Soon the standing is itself varied by various instinctive movements, such as jumping up and down in glee, moving sUghtly back and forward, stepping off to the side, and turning round. These begin as very tentative modifications of the act of standing, but are slowly extended according as they accomplish desirable results, until finally the baby walks. One little girl, a year old, was able to shake her head very proficiently from right to left in imitation of her parents, but her efforts to imitate the up-and-down (bowing) move- ment resulted only in the twisting of the head to the right and left, possibly a little obliquely and with nothing like the freedom with which she executed the " no " movement. A month later, as a result of watching a toy goose that swung its head vertically, she developed the abihty to move her own head correspondingly. Thus the instinctive, again under favoring circumstances, has become habitual move- ment. So, too, in handling a book the child begins by very crudely fumbUng at the pages, but gradually more and more facility is gained until the process of turning leaves has been relegated almost entirely to the automatic. What is the secret of this modification? In a word, it is the satisfaction gained. Man is so constructed that he cannot help noticing and remembering distinctively pleas- ant and unpleasant experience. The pleasant he notices and endeavors to continue. The unpleasant he notes but tries to avoid. In learning to reach, to creep, to stand, to walk, or to nod, habits have been formed from combined native and acquired tendencies. Given a specific sort of situation, the habit reaction follows mechanically. That is, in each case a particular situation has become associated with a definite reaction. The resultant satisfaction, espe- THE BASIS OF HABIT-FORMATION 71 cially since it leads to the repetition of the connection, is a great factor in developing the association. These habits are representative of hundreds of habits formed in a similar manner during infancy, in course of school life> through youth or adolescence, and to a limited extent even in later life. One's slant in handwriting, form of signature, choice of words, devices in using implements or performing various acts, — aU represent in some degree at least instinctive or chance variations from established forms of movement. The result in each case is habit. 2. The development of habit out of habit. — Continuing the illustrations above, it is plain that modification does not cease when an instinctive has been transformed into an habitual movement. Indeed, it has already been insisted that these modifications are made very gradually but progressively, so that instinct appears, strictly speaking, only at the beginning. All the rest of the modification is from one habit to another, though new instinctive tendencies are often combined with these habits in the new adjustment. Instinctive stretching out of hands leads to habitual reach- ing and grasping. Instinctive leg-and-arm movements com- bine in habits of creeping. Instinctive pulling up results in a habit of standing, and soon of balancing. The latter is modified into various habits of walking, running, side- stepping, jumping, dancing, skating, and so forth. Pro- fessor Thorndike thus formidates the principle — " In any given situation the thoughts, feelings, and acts manifested wiQ be those to which instinctive tendencies, or capacities, and also previously formed habits impel one." • Another remarkable instance of the gradual modifica- tion and ramification of instinct into habits is furnished by • Compare Thorndike, "Elements of Psychology," pp. 199-204. Seller, New York, 1905. Also Klrkpatriok, "Fundamentals of Child-study," pp. 82 fif. Macmillan, 1903. 72 HABIT-FORMATION language. Here the instinctive elements are practically unrecognizable in the complex of linguistic abilities shown by the child even of school age. The child's first instinctive babblings become modified into words used habitually as a means of expressing certain ideas. These words gradually combine themselves into phrases and sentences, according to certain habitual forms which are found to convey meaning, and hence to give satisfaction. It is hard to recognize the instinctive babbUngs of the child in the forceful and finished appeal of the skilled public speaker. They have been selected and combined in thousands of ways which have in turn been re-selected and recombined again and again into the wonderfully involved forms of a well-devel- oped language. The basis at the beginning was instinct; later it became almost exclusively habit.' ' See for general accounts of the formation of habit and the modification of experience in animals : — Morgan, "Habit and Instinct." London, 1896. Jennings, "Behavior of the Lower Organisms," pp. 253-259. Macmillan, 1906. Washburn, "The Animal Mind," pp. 205-269. Macmillan, 1908. For detailed accounts of the formation of specific habits in animals, see Yerkes, "Dancing Mouse." Macmillan, 1907. For additional accounts of habit-forming in children, see Major, "First Steps in Mental Growth." Macmillan, 1906. Shinn, "Biography of a Baby." Houghton, Mifflin, 1900. O'Shea, "Language and Linguistic Development." Macmillan, 1907. Johnson, "Researches in Practice and Habit," Studies in Yale Psychological Laboratory, Vol. VI., 1902, pp. 51-103. For accounts of habit from action in adults, see Swift, "Mind in the Making," pp. 169-218. Scribners, 1908. Bryan and Harter, "Telegraphic Language; the Acquisition of a Hierarchy of Habits," pp. 346-375, Psychological Review, Vol. VI., 1899. Judd, " Practice and its Effect on the Perception of Illusion," Psychological Review, Vol. IX., 1902. THE BASIS OF HABIT-FORMATION 73 3. Nature of instinct. — Instincts have been defined as guiding impulses whicli are native and aid the organism in adjusting itself to its environment. The teacher should not only acquaint himself with the most useful classes or kinds of instinct, but he should know at least the im- portant habits that grow out of these in the child's early- years. Professor James, in the chapter on Instinct in his " Principles of Psychology," ' gives a very concise treatment of the subject. He calls attention to the fact that there is always a physical stimulus and a motor response along paths of connection natively transmitted, with a certain tendency or impulse to make use of them. A squirrel of my acquaintance carefully secreted a nut under a corner of a rug at the house where he had called. Some associa- tions with nuts, based on prenatally established nervous connections fundamental to secreting the nut, led him to perform the act. At his next visit some time later he looked for the nut, i.e. the sight of the place where he had secreted the nut called up the associated muscle move- ments necessary for finding it, and he seemed disappointed at its disappearance. In each case the situation was fol- lowed by the response usually appropriate according to a tendency inevitable, unless supplanted by another or inhibited. Whether these native capacities reach their complete development before birth, or are gradually and automatically completed by nature after birth, is not important. The teacher needs to concern himself most with those instinctive tendencies that are actually at his service. Instincts represent reactions which have proved them- selves useful in the conquest of environment, and are so well established that an appeal to them is much more certain ' See James, "Principles of Psychology," Vol. II., pp. 383-441. Holt, 1890. 74 HABIT-FORMATION of response because of their impulsive character than an appeal to the more prosaic and recently formed habit paths. 4. Instincts important in training children. — The larger the Usts' of available instincts at the teacher's command, the greater are his chances of influencing the child. Lists should be worked out by the teacher indepen- dently, and no classification which is not carefully made by the teacher from his own point of view can be of very great value. Those classes of instinctive activity which seem to be of chief importance to the teacher both in instruction and discipline are: imitation, play, construction, curiosity, or investigation, collecting, ownership, love, sympathy, sociability, expression, manipulation, ambition, emulation, rivalry, love of approbation, pride, independence, defiance, courage, aesthetic and ethical appreciations (as in approval and disapproval), tendencies to avoid inactivity and pain (whether mental or physical), pugnacity and fear. The list hardly needs very much elaboration for the teacher or parent, since hundreds of illustrations must suggest themselves as instances of one or another. Imita- tion is a most powerful factor in life, witness fashion, prece- dent, and authority, in the life of the adult. Every act striking enough to catch the eye is likely to be imitated, and every sound reaching the ear to be attempted. Miss • Such a list Professor James has presented and described severally in the last half of his chapter. See pp. 403-441 of his "Principles of Psychology." Holt, 1890. Professor Ladd says that a young squirrel has as many in- stincts as there are separate things that a young squirrel can do. It is evident that even such classification of instinctive tendencies as follows in this book must be forced and incomplete. On the other hand, its great practical usefulness to the teacher, whether used conscioiisly or unconsciously, is indisputable. THE BASIS OF HABIT-FORMATION 75 Haskell ' has described a list of a thousand or more concrete cases. The natural energy of the child is released by play often with great satisfaction ' on the part of the player. It finds multitudinous forms, falling back on the other in- stincts for reenforcement. It needs no illustration.^ The constructive impulse is fundamental to the traits of originality shown by the child. Some opportunity for the exercise of construction in the outer concrete and coarser physical processes is the prerequisite of useful mental con- struction. This instinct deserves wider recognition and encouragement throughout the formative period, the kinder- garten and manual training schools being at present the chief agencies to use it intelligently. The child's questions and his general curiosity lead him to accumulate knowledge and adapt himself in many ways that would otherwise never be discovered. The very nuisance he makes of himself is evidence enough of the value of this impulse. The collecting instinct leads him to gather together objects of all sorts, from postage stamps, cigar labels, cigarette pictures, buttons, and so forth, to collections of minerals, plants, birds, insects, and so on. It is fundamental to classification, and the orderly arrangement of knowledge, besides playing the part of the New England attic, a gath- ering place for that which may "come in handy" in ways unforeseen. Ownership, the instinct to appropriate as one's own, is not only very evident in the young child, but is funda- ' Haskell- Russell, "Child Observation; Imitation." Boston, 1897. For general treatment of imitation, see Tarde, " Laws of Imitation," New York, 1903. 2 See Groos, "Play of Animals." Appleton, 1S98. Also his "Play of Man." Appleton, 1901. 76 HABIT-FORMATION mental to both thrift and to thieving, to legitimate accumu- lation of wealth and to swindling. It is manifestly worthy of wise direction, and dangerous if undirected. Love and sympathy on their instinctive side prompt to actions furthering the welfare of those toward whom they are directed. These actions imply neither deliberation nor purpose so much as a spontaneous unpremeditated im- pulse. A little girl's whole-souled giving of her pocketbook and all her money to the desolate Armenians was a beautiful illustration of an instinctive reaction. Whenever simple childish expressions of love and sympathy are anything more than passive experiences in which self-enjoyment is the prominent feature, and whenever active expression regard- less of the self predominates in these manifestations, they should be classified as instincts rather than feelings. Sociability is variable, being strong in some children from the first, but being counteracted by shyness in others. Its value is linked with that of imitation and moral appre- ciation. The expressive instinct is the root of all tendencies to act, to move muscles, but it particularly applies to speech tend- encies, gesture, drawing, painting, making things, and the like. It may be counted upon for valuable assistance in habits of that sort. Manipulation, the instinct to handle objects apparently for the mere sake of handling them, is an extremely valu- able early instinct, giving the child an abundance of in- formation for future use, especially in assisting the eye to do the work of the hand, and so doing away with the trouble in later experiences of actually getting touch impressions. If an object is wet or sticky, hot, cold, corrugated, smooth, furry, rough, pointed, dull, and so on, it is almost always a sight impression which tells us conveniently how the object would feel if we did touch it. THE BASIS OF HABIT-FORMATION 77 Of the many forms of ambition, emulation, rivalry, and love of approbation, little need be said. They are incentives that have stood the test of years. They have been proved to have their uses and their abuses. Emulation has been given a bad name, but it is certainly capable of doing benefi- cent work. Pride and independence are related. There are forms of pride which should be inhibited. Pride in really worthy traits of family, friends, or one's self is a good and useful motive. Independence is the source of considerable power, and, where it is in danger of being lost, should be en- couraged. Defiance is the courage of despair, buoying the child up when he bids fair to be overwhelmed by difficulties. It needs to be directed against difficulties, however, with deeds rather than words, and not against the persons or in- fluences working for the child's welfare. Courage is likewise an instinct useful in a variety of ways, but capable of distortion into bullying and foolhardiness if not directed toward worthy ends. Brute courage, the rush or stand against danger, is not alone the function of this instinct. The rush or stand against temptations, wrong- doing, moral weakness, is no less a phase of this instinct. Esthetic and ethical appreciations, while strongly tinged with feeling, have characteristic reactions in expressions by word or deed. The act or utterance of commendation or condemnation is in itself largely instinctive. Play should be given these feeling tones with reference not only to the child's own acts, but also to those of others, whether found in those about him, in fiction, or in history. The importance on the one hand of freedom, and on the other of comfort for the development of mankind, or, in other words, the importance of the tendencies to avoid inactivity and pain are indicated by the child's resistance to all at- 78 HABIT-FORMATION tempts to limit the scope of his activity and by his shrinking from pain. Pugnacity, like courage, has its uses and its abuses. Moreover, it too has a very definite application both to the problems of life involving brute force, and those situations demanding mental persistence and energy. Fear ■ is a familiar and a much perverted instinct. We usually fear most the situation least dangerous, while those situations most to be feared are lightly regarded. This instinct needs direction on a more rational basis, and espe- cially with emphasis on the fear of recognized wrongdoing, fear of sinking to a lower level, fear of failure to attain the highest possible. Fear of physical pain must be regarded as inferior to these other forms of fear in its claims for recog- nition. This extremely cursory treatment '' of the important in- stincts will serve to call attention to them, will suggest examples, and at the same time will point out the direction the development of instinct should take. 5. The overlapping of instincts. — Besides these, all of the typical native forms of mental activity may be con- sidered instinctive in so far as they function automatically and without guidance. All of these instincts represent classes of instinctive' reaction, which may overlap; but there is an advantage in having the multiple classification, since it is likely to suggest a possibility that might not other- wise be discovered. For example, play often covers imita- * The author has treated of the uses and abuses of fear in an article in the Outlook, Vol. LX., pp. 234-236. ^ For more extensive treatment of the separate instincts, see James, "Principles of Psychology," Vol. II., pp. 403-441. Holt, 1891. Also AngeU, "Psychology," pp. 294-309. Holt, 1905. Also Kirkpatrick, "Fundamentals of Child-study." Macmillan, 1903. •AngeU, "Psychology," pp. 308-309. Holt, 1891. THE BASIS OF HABIT-FORMATION 79 tion, construction, sociability, emulation, expression, and pride. But one would be twice as likely to think of the constructive instinct, for example, if it were thought of both on its own account and in connection with the play instinct. 6. The classification of instincts. — In spite of the diffi- culty arising out of this overlapping, the concrete Hst of instincts should be organized in some classification. Pro- fessor Kirkpatrick ' classifies instincts under six heads sug- gestive both of their variety and importance: (a) the individwdistic, or self-preservative (with emphasis on the feeding instinct, fear, and pugnacity); (6) the parental instincts, including protective instincts and instinctive display of adornment and accomplishment; (c) the social instinct, emphasizing the companion-seeking instinct, the sympathetic, love of approbation, and the altruistic; (d) the adaptive instincts, — namely, imitation, play, and curiosity; (e) the regidative instincts, covering moral and religious impulses; and (f) the residtani or miscdlaneoiis instincts, prominent among which are the collecting, the constructive, the expressive, and the sesthetic, with mention of the rhjrthmic and migratory instincts. Whether one uses this excellent basis of classification or another patterned more nearly after the old classifications of emotions into egoistic, social, intellectual, aesthetic, and moral, may not be of vital importance; but it is important that the teacher have at his command as large and com- plete a list as possible of the most usable of these funda- mental impulses. 7. Three principles derived from the duration of instincts. — The usefulness of instincts must depend largely on their persistence as well as their impulsive character. We must therefore find out what becomes of them. • "Fundamentals of Child-study." Macmillan, 1903. 80 HABIT-FORMATION Instinctive tendencies may remain unchanged, may dis- appear, or may be modified. It is necessary, therefore, to observe three principles in availing ourselves of them : (o) Make use of them before they disappear. Many a boy has lost ambition, perhaps never to regain it, because condi- tions for years seemed to furnish absolutely no opening. By the time he has the opportunity to spread his wings, the ambition is practically dead. (6) Let those that are harmful perish of disuse, permitting only those that are useful to remain unchanged. Ambitious children often work themselves up into a highly nervous condition, fearing that they may not be promoted with their classes. Remov- ing the child from school temporarily throws this ambition into disuse. This neglect is best effected either by the re- moval of the stimuli or associating disagreeable conse- quences with the instinct. The substitution of another instinct assists constructively in the removal of undesirable instinctive reactions. It must be explained that instinct is never positively harmful under ordinary conditions; it is at worst relatively not so good as some other form of reaction. Men have killed themselves through inordinate ill-adjusted ambition. The instinct needed modification to meet the limitations of physique, and perhaps of mental capacity. It should have been adjusted to meet the conditions under which it worked. These were evidently abnormal in that excessive fatigue and possibly illness did not safeguard, as they usually do, an impaired physique. With less ambition or a more reasonable pursuit of it, this instinct would have been highly beneficial. No dependence can be placed on instincts under abnormal conditions, such as peculiar circumstances attend- ing the situation or perverted specializations of the instinct. The third principle serves only to lead up to two others, (c) Improve with any modifications possible those instincts THE BASIS OF HABIT-FORMATION 81 that do not of themselves make perfect adjustments. Since very few fulfill this requirement, by far the widest use of instinct is through modification. How modifications are made must next be considered. 8. Two modes of modifying instinct. — Instincts are therefore a sort of raw material utilized sometimes in nearly its original form, but usually, if not always, the original impulse has grafted upon it some new reaction or motor response, and so becomes habit. These modifications of instinct or of habit may be of two kinds : (1) They may be secured by selecting certain satisfactory reactions for repetition, as in the case of the baby's movements' in reaching, creeping, standing, walking, gesticulation, first speech intonation, and so forth. (2) These modifica- tions may take the form of combinations ^ or complications of several movements, as illustrated by the ease with which complicated movements take care of themselves in writing or in framing sentences. However, each of the elements combined here was originally learned by selection long before the combination took place. Q. Principles following from the dependence of instincts on stimuli. — Three possibilities follow from the dependence of instincts on their stimuli : (a) The stimuli may be fur- nished and the instinct preserved. A boy who is forced to mingle with well-dressed boys, while his clothes are ex- tremely shabby, is in danger of losing pride. The teacher may help him earn a good suit of clothes, or at least cultivate his pride in some possession that he has, such as good looks, courage, or brains, (b) The stimuli may be removed, and the instinct thus perish of disuse. The hunting instinct will be lost if it is never brought into service. The city ' Compare page 71. 'Compare James, "Talks to Teachers on Psychology," pp. 41-43. Holt, 1896. 82 HABIT-FORMATION boy who never uses a gun will find it more trouble to carry than it is worth. The country boy would carry it all day for the mere chance of a shot, (c) The stimuli may be preserved, but the reaction modified or adapted so as to make a better adjustment (virtually grafting a habit on an instinct), or the stimuli may be somewhat modified so as to induce a better adjustment. Fear, for example, needs adaptation. When it leads strong men to trample weak women in a panic, the reaction needs decided modification. Instead of reaction in a wild stampede, the terrifying excita- tion should lead to reaction in which the most prominent feature should be the consideration and assistance of the weak. From the impulsive character of instinct, it follows that it can be supplanted only by forces of equal impelling power. The simplest way of inhibiting one instinct is therefore by substituting another. In one instance a child's fear of a muff was overcome by tossing it up and down, and thus enlisting his play instinct. We have as yet no scale of the relative values of different instincts. 10. The child's basis of habits. — As for the early habits acquired by the child, only a few records throw any light at all on this problem, and the student is perforce obliged to find a child to observe in these particulars, getting a few suggestions, perhaps, from the studies of Preyer,' Perez,^ Miss Shinn,' and others. Probably the best way to sum up or classify observations and notes on the child's formation of different sorts of habits would be as habits of functioning ' Preyer, "Senses and Will." Appleton, 1888. "Development of the Intellect." Appleton, 1889. "Infant Mind" (an abridg- ment of the other two). Appleton, 1896. ^ Perez, "First Three Years of Childhood." Bardeen, Syracuse. ' Miss Shinn, "Notes on Development of a Child." Berkeley, California. Also her " Biography of a Baby." Houghton, MiiBin, 1900. THE BASIS OF HABIT-FORMATION 83 through (a) sense processes and processes of (6) imaging, (c) judgment, (d) reasoning, with (e) the affections, and (/) the voluntary and the motor processes. This follows in some degree the ordinary psychological classifications.' The suggestion ' has been made that habits be classified according to various levels into (a) those whose strength depends on the recency of the performance of the act; (b) those arising from experiences of unusual intensity; (c) professional or technical habits; (d) those due to long-con- tinued operation of similar environmental influences; and (e) hereditary habits (or instincts, as we should call them). But this is open to the objection that the connections and implications of each class are not clear, and while the first, third, and fourth are unimportant as a basis for habit- getting in children, the fifth class is not made up, strictly speaking, of habits. II. Summaiy. — Slight modifications or changes in application of instincts often become permanent when found to be pleasant. Similarly habits may be modified and rendered more effective for given situations, since all actions are outgrowths of inherited or previously developed tendencies. The importance of knowing the basis is there- fore evident. ' Instincts are guiding impulses which are native and aid the organism in adjusting itself to its environment. | They begin with an excitation, and end in a motor response. Since they represent reactions which have proved themselves useful in the conquest of environment, they have a demon- strated value. 'Tracy's "Psychology of Childhood" may offer some sugges- tions in this direction. Heath, 1896. * Andrews, American Journal of Psychology, Vol. XlV., pp. 142-145. 84 HABIT-FORMATION In the training of young children the following instincts are most important: imitation, play, construction, curiosity or investigation, collecting, ownership, love, sympathy, sociability, expression, manipulation, ambition, emulation, rivalry, love of approbation, pride, independence, defiance, courage, aesthetic and ethical appreciations, tendencies to avoid inactivity and pain, whether mental or physical, pugnacity, and fear. In any enumeration, there will be overlapping, since all the terms are used of classes of re- sponse. A double association for any instinct doubles the chances of using it and emphasizes its importance. It is important that the teacher acquaint himself with as many of these fundamental impulses in the concrete as possible; but assistance will doubtless be rendered by some form of classification under which a large variety should be grouped. Instincts may be transitory, or they may persist either unchanged or modified. Accordingly they must be used before they disappear ; they must perish of disuse or by inhibition through substitution, if harmful ; they must be modified, if ill-adjusted. Selection and combination are the two possible modes of modifying either instinct or habit. The stimuli of instincts may be (a) furnished, (b) removed, or (c) the consequent reaction may be modified. One instinct is best inhibited by another. The classification of habits early acquired may be made as habits of functioning through sense processes, processes of imaging, judgment and reasoning, the affective, the volun- tary, and the motor. CHAPTER VI Important Phases of Establishing Habits " For use can almost change the stamp of nature And either curb the devil or throw him out With wondrous potency." — Shakespeare. Given the basis outlined in the last chapter, what are the main lines of procedure in establishing habits? ' I. The teacher's preliminaiy action. — Certain prelimi^ naries must be taken into consideration. First, as in the old-fashioned recipe for rabbit stew, "catch your rabbit." That is, decide upon what you wish to incorporate in the child's reaction. Secondly, determine what stimuli or sat- isfactions lead most readily and directly to the reaction desired ; and, thirdly, know definitely the nature of the re- action, which is most characteristic of it. To illustrate the first point, — if a teacher is to teach long division, it is evident that he must decide whether the quotient is to be put opposite the divisor, under it, or above the dividend. The second consideration should now interest the teacher. ' Here, as earlier in the book, it is difficult to express tersely the thought of helping some one else to develop a habit. There is no greater evidence of our neglect of the subject than is found in this fact. Logically, we ought to be able to speak of teaching habits to children as we do of teaching them ideas. Practically, the word has been seldom so used. We may impart ideas but not habits, instruct in knowledge but not in conduct, inculcate moral principles but not behavior. I notice, however, that Dr. Seeley speaks of "inculcating habits" in his "New School Management" (Hinds and Noble, 1903). I find myself gradually adopting the more or less cumbrous word "engender." 85 86 HABIT-FORMATION It will not take him long in this case to determine that a concrete eye-stimulus will lead most readily to correct position of the quantities, while the nature of the reaction (the third consideration) is equally clear. He can make the form concrete and exemplify the reaction by writing down one quantity, then a line, then the other quantity, then another line or not, according to the form of setting down the figures selected for the habit. If the teacher cannot or does not think out the relative value of these possibilities at the outset momentarily at least, he can be but a blind and vacillating leader of the blind. 2. Automatic preparation. — This is not the same as saying that all are blind teachers, who do not consciously decide on the habit they wish to teach, determine the stimuli leading to it most readily, and know definitely the nature of the reaction. The same law that made it possible for the baby to select and make habitual the movements necessary for reaching a bright-colored ball makes it possible for the teacher to select and make habitual prelimi- nary decisions and determinations relative to the situation confronting him with a demand for immediate action; and many teachers will confess to rapid guesses, — in one instance at some effective means of drill, in another at some stimulus necessarily producing a certain reaction, and, again, at the nature of the reaction itself. Automatic action of this sort is desirable in the teacher as saving wear and tear, and even adding to the efficiency of results. But it should be watched to see that bad practice is not creeping into the automatisms through carelessness or unobserved variations. Other teachers know that they do not make such analyses, either at leisure br spontaneously. To such, all habit-teach- ing must be one tremendous confusion. Their only hope of progress consists in developing an ability of this sort. IMPORTANT PHASES OF ESTABLISHING HABITS 87 3. The four phases of habit-getting. — All this is neces- sary to get what Professor Bagley calls focalization on the part of the child. How can a teacher explain to a child or demonstrate to him a certain way of reacting unless he has picked out in advance the habit, its stimuli, and characteris- tic reaction? Even if he relies on imitation, he must act out all of these, or fail. The first phase of habit-getting is to acquaint the child with the nature of the reaction as defi- nitely as possible, — to hdp him devdop the idea of the habit. This degree of preparation is incumbent upon the teacher before the real work of establishing habit is begun. It has been assumed that something has been selected for teaching which is worth while. This selection would necessarily be based on the instincts, capacities, and interest of the child. The discussion of this basis is not a part of the present plan, since here not the curriculum but the teaching process is the object of our study. What then can be done to make the child the more ready for the new reaction? First, we may start in to work up his initiative, his ardor. We may make him as eager to acquire the habit for himself as we are for him. When we know what we want him to do, and as soon as he knows what he is expected to do and is eager to get at it, we are ready for our second step of practice, or repetition, — not any formal or time-serving sort oTrepetition, but an earnest, whole-hearted seizure of every opportunity pre- senting itself, and an alertness to make opportunities when they do not present themselves. It must be what Bagley calls a "repetition in attention," not careless, shiftless, or formal, but active, living, painstaking practice. The only danger left, if the child is well started on a definite line of reaction in response to a definite situation, is that he may stop or lapse. A section of the methodology of habit (exclusive of the preliminaries) must therefore deal with modes of guarding against exceptions, lapses, and 88 HABIT-FORMATION modifications. To this end a renewal or rekindling of his initiative may contribute much, but other devices may be fully as important. These three -phases, combined with the selection and demonstration of reactions, constitute the four essentials of habit-getting. 4. The formulations of Professors James and Thomdike. — The student of Professor William James's books will doubtless recognize the likeness between the results of this analysis of the situation and Professor James's formula (after Bain)' for the formation of habits. This similarity is, as the writer has endeavored to show, inevitable. No ex- position of habit has forsaken or can forsake this point of view without losing in point, practicality, and closeness of relation to the fundamental nature of habit. Professor Thomdike has expressed the law on which habit depends as follows : " The likelihood that any mental state or act will occur in response to any situation is in proportion to the frequency, recency, intensity, and resulting satisfaction of its connection with that situation or some part of it, and with the total frame of mind in which the situation is felt." ^ It will be readily seen, as is shown later, that each of these factors may be placed appropriately in the above classification. Frequency is naturally provided for in the methods of practice; recency serves as a factor both in practice and in eliminating exceptions. Intensity may be, like resulting satisfaction, a factor in getting initiative. When pleasant, it may contribute to practice, or it may, when it is unpleasant, contribute to the methods of eliminating exceptions. The "frame of mind in which the situation is felt," if favorable, is one filled with eager- ' Professor Bain's statement Is quoted on p. 177 of this book. "Thomdike, "Elements of Psychology," p. 207. New York, 1905. IMPORTANT PHASES OF ESTABLISHING HABITS 89 ness and initiative to embark upon the formation of the habit, and so bring about the necessary "situation." If a frame of mind is unfavorable, it must be so because of its lack of initiative or disposition to work out the situation necessary for forming the habit. Professor Thorndike's greatest contribution comes from his insistence (a) on the importance of the resulting satisfaction, and (b) on the fact that every reaction, whether instinctive or an adjustment through a modification of instinctive or habitual paths, must be an adaptation to a definite " situation." We say neither to ourselves nor our pupils: "Goto! We will now proceed to form a habit of keeping our desks in order." On the contrary, we become disgusted with ourselves or them. We convince ourselves of the advantages of this habit, while at the same time we set about making such reactions as will make those advantages clearer and more prominent. If our memories and our resolutions are strong enough and our temptations are not too strong, we succeed in forming orderly habits. 5. Other important formulations. — Professor Home ' gives five maxims for the " forging or breaking " of habits : — " First, act on every opportunity. " Second, make a strong start. " Third, allow no exception. " Fourth, for the bad habit substitute something good. "And fifth, summoning all the man within, use effort of will." These again will be seen to fit into the scheme of James, since the fifth is merely an elaboration of the second and also of the first, while the fourth applies only to breaking habits. Professor Bagley^ formulates his law of habit-building, ' Home, "Psychological Principles of Education," pp. 300, 301. New York, 1906. 'Bagley, "Class-room Management,'' p. 16. New York, 1907. 90 HABIT-FORMATION perhaps too concisely, as follows: " Focalization of con- sciousness upon the process to be automatized, plus atten- tive repetition of this process, permitting no exceptions until automatism results." Although the "initiative" (James), the "strong start" (Home), is not included in this formulation, incentives are provided for in the discussion of the problem of attention. It is certain that they must be given a much more general application in educational processes. Bagley's contribution is really his insistence upon getting before consciousness the thing to be done, not blindly telling a child to get a habit of doing some sort of thing quickly, but how it is to be done so as to secure the facility desired. Another strong point ' is his advocacy of "attentive repetition" or "repetition in attention." Mere repetition is far from a successful way of forming habits, — that is to say, the habits intended. It may form some not intended. Attention converts what may be only formal or perfunctory practice into actual practice. Dumont divides the conditions essential to establishing habits into two classes — the conditions appertaining to the excitation (which he also calls the positive), and the condi- tions imposed by nutrition, which he considers negative. In connection with the conditions of excitation, he says there must be sufficient /orce to reach the organ whose move- ments are to be facilitated. The conditions must besides be able to apply power to overcome the resistance of other organs to the increase in movement in this one organ. Lastly, they must supply intensity enough to enable these other organs to change and establish themselves in an • Compare also Andrews on habit, in American Journal of Psy- chology, 1903, Vol. XIV., p. 149. "The important conditions favoring the development of habit, are repetition, attention, in- tensity of the experience, and plasticity of the nervous system." See also pp. 167-174 in Chapter IX. IMPORTANT PHASES OF ESTABLISHING HABITS 91 equilibrium with modification (augmentation) of the organ exercised. If this last condition can be met completely, a habit may be secured at the first stroke.' But more often the excitation lacks sufficient f6rce, and is obliged to make up for that which it lacks in intensity by frequency of repetition. By each repetition obstacles are removed, and the energy on each next occasion will penetrate and modify strata further and further removed. The prolongor tion of an excitaiion has on account of the renewal of force from without an effect similar to its repetition, and for the same reason repetition is most effective when occurring at short intervals. If the intervals are great, opposing forces destroy its effects. Relative to the conditions of nutrition, Dumont empha- sizes the need of healthy and comfortable physical condi- tions. The flow of blood must permit adequate assimila- tion and " disassimilation," It is useless to study when fagged out. Attention as a factor is explained by reference to both positive and negative conditions. An excitation, to pro- duce an enduring effect, must completely absorb the atten- tion so that contrary or distracting impressions may leave no trace, the flow of blood to the organs corresponding to those impressions being obstructed.^ The earliest good formal statement for habit-formation I have found is that of Curtmann: ' " A child is accustomed ' This is Dumont's position, — The present loriter is not willing to admit that habits may be secured by a single reaction. No matter how certain it is that the reaction will be repeated, the ease, facility, automaticity, which help according to our definition to distinguish habit, will not be found. * Translated and condensed from Dumont, " De I'habitude," Revue Philosophique, Vol. I., pp. 341-343. ' Quoted from W. J. G. Curtmann by Kadestock in his " Habit in Education," pp. 5-6. Trans, by Caspari. Boston, 1886. See 92 HABIT-FORMATION to an action by giving it the opportunity to practice this one especially, and by removing any opportuni- ties for other actions colliding with it; thirdly, by heightening the pleasure in the action by a union of pleasant impressions with the deed, and, on the other hand, making the conflicting habits unpleasant by uniting them with pain." Here again are found the main points of emphasis. It is doubtful if either Bain or James had read this passage from Curtmann. But the coincidence in the main points se- lected is evidence of their importance in methods of habit- getting.i In one of the most recent German treatises on educational theory, Dr. Barth^ says: "Habit has at its disposal, as indicated above, only the mental mechanism, and can func- tion therefore only with the aid of supervision, by working upon the feelings (rewards, punishments, and the direction of^ the emotions), and through examples, according as the various sorts are developed." Unfortunately, however, the chapters which follow, covering supervision, rewards, punish- ment, cultivation or repression of emotions, and example are too brief and lacking in connection to offer any system- also Curtmann, "Lehrbuch der Erziehung," p. 133. Heidelberg, 1846. ' It may be interesting to compare Herbart's statement, " that the function of training is to support, to determine, and to regu- late; to keep the pupil on the whole in a tranquil and serene frame of mind; to arouse him occasionally by approval and reproof; to remind at the proper moment and to correct faults." The de- scription, which at some length follows this brief statement, en- ables one to see that Herbart has made some provision for the main divisions of habit-getting, except (very oddly) repetition. Herbart, "Outlines of Educational Doctrine," translated by Lange and annotated by De Garmo, pp. 160 fiF. New York, 1901. ' Barth, " Die Eleraente der Erziehungs- und Unterrichtslehre," p. 45. Leipsic, 1906. IMPORTANT PHASES OF ESTABLISHING HABITS 93 atic scheme for the formation of habit. Even habit itself is regarded from the traditional narrow point of view of German pedagogics, being considered under the head of the training of the will,jind there only. 6. The subdivisibns of the method of habit-getting. — Each one of the divisions of method here outlined involves so many devices and implications that it will be necessary in any adequate treatment to take them up in separate chapters. These will therefore treat, first, the principles involved in analyzing courses of study, lessons, and general situations to find the habits needed for the best adjustment to life and the method of demonstrating the habits dis- covered; secondly, they will deal with methods of getting initiative; thirdly, with methods of securing practice; and, fourthly, with methods of preventing exceptions. 7. These phases of method are not necessarily a succes- sion. — Right here a grave error must be guarded against. It must not be thought that these subdivisions of method represent a fixed succession of stages in the development of habit. It may be appropriate to speak of successive stages of the process of imparting ideas, commonly called "the formal steps," but in establishing habits the word " phase " must be used instead of " stage," since there is no uniform succession. It would very naturally follow that the teacher acquaints himself with his problem first of all, but it by no means follows that the securing initiative precedes guard- ing against exceptions. The demonstration or explanation of the nature of the habit may precede the getting initiative, but perhaps oftener follows it. Getting initiative seems especially to pervade the whole habit-forming process. It is prominent both in getting practice and in preventing exceptions. It must be remembered, too, that any of these phases of the teaching process may be rendered unnecessary by the fact 94 HABIT-FORMATION that in many cases the necessary initiative, the repetition, or even the preventing of lapses comes to the child automati- cally. In this case it is manifestly bad fonn to waste time and energy laboriously trying to produce at best only the same result that could be obtained without effort. 8. Summary. — As preliminaries to habit-getting, (o) decide what habit is to be formed, (6) determine the stimuli or situations evoking the reaction, (c) know definitely the essentials of the best reaction. A teacher may fulfill these requirements automatically without consciousness of the fact. If they are not fulfilled, whether consciously or not, only confusion results. When fulfilled, the teacher is in position to demonstrate the habit and teaching may begin, involving three additional factors — (a) working up a strong initiative, (&) securing abundant and genuine practice (repetition in attention), (c) preventing exceptions. The recommendations of James, Thorndike, Home, Bagley, Dumont, and Curtmann either concur with these or offer suggestions for the formation of habit which may be reconciled with the four main diArisions of the methodology of habit stated above. Each of these divisions involves so many devices that it is best treated as a chapter by itself, though the method of selection of the habit by analysis either of subject-matter or of the situation is linked with that of demonstrating the habit. These subdivisions of the general method of habit- forming are not, however, successive. They may vary widely in their order. The demonstration usually precedes the others. The initiative may be worked up first of all, or at various points, fairly pervading the whole process. Nor must it be forgotten that the automatic learning pro- cesses may at any of these points relieve the teacher from effort worse than wasted and from danger of obstructing instead of twstructing the child. CHAPTER VII The Selecjtion and Demonstration of Habits " He fixed thee 'mid this dance Of plastic circumstance, This Present, thou, forsooth, would fain arrest : Machinery just meant To give thy soul its bent. Try thee and turn thee forth, suflSciently impressed. — Browning. 1. Scope of the chapter. — As has already been indicated in the preceding chapter, the scope of this one is to cover, (a) how habits are to be discovered in subject-matter, (6) how they are to be studied, both as to their stimuli and their reactions, and (c) how they are to be demonstrated to the child. 2. The selection of subject-matter assumed. — It is not intended to discuss these points by showing how habits are related definitely to the aim of education or by indicating the specific importance of any habit in the organization of experience. This selection of subject-matter is assumed at the start and, moreover, is usually specified by the authorities above the teacher as far as the course of study is concerned. Usually those same authorities have little to say about discipline and even moral training, leaving the teacher to infer what he pleases in that regard, within the broad limits of what is allowed.' It must inevitably happen that the teacher, when con- ' Some of the habits needing especial notice are later treated in Chapter XII. 95 96 HABIT-FORMATION fronted with actual teaching, will have a fairly definite notion of the general nature and scope of the subject-matter to be taught. In city schools the courses of study for the various subjects in the various grades indicate often too specifically the nature and scope of the subject-matter to be covered in a given term. In country schools, while a free rein is often given as far as prescribed courses of study are concerned, the traditions of the locality influence decidedly both teaching and school management. Thus a written or unwritten course of study is shaped, which may sturdily resist the new almost without regard to its practicality. "What was good enough for me is good enough for my child " is an implied premise in the reasoning of the mob, and it will be found from pulpit to pew, from capitalist to labor- ing man, from college professor to washwoman. Only a few of the progressive see that, if the race is to advance, if our country is to keep its advantage, if labor and capital are to be better adjusted, our children must have advantages such as their fathers did not possess. Accordingly, except in isolated instances, even a subject like nature study, which might contribute practically to the farmer's culture of the soil and raising of live stock, finds no welcome. Even greater resistance is met to the introduction of studies which would tend to equip the girl with the various forms of knowledge and skill essential to her happiness later as a wife and mother. Cultural studies, or such as contribute to finer forms of feeling or enjoyment, are generally reduced to the minimum. Hardly a manufacturing city in the country thinks of drawing and painting as other than fads and frills, in spite of the fact that the selling quality of one product over another is often due solely to its superior artistic design or packing. Consequently in both city and country the courses of SELECTION AND DEMONSTRATION OF HABITS 97 study are more or less fixed, and the teachers select from them certain material which is to be covered during the term and accordingly divided up into large sections or natural divisions. Then each of these is subdivided until certain units, usually thought of as lessons, are reached. These lessons are sometimes preparatory, sometimes review, now setting forth new truths, now drilling on old knowledge, now inspirational, now mechanical, here organization, here apphcation. In many instances the relation between the subject- matter and the ultimate aims of education is carefully thought out, and the relation of possible subject-matter to those ends considered. When this preliminary work has been done, however, no matter what the aims that lead to the choice of subject-matter, it will always be found that either some definite knowledge, the formation of certain habits, or the cultivation of certain feelings is the immediate aim in the choice. Of these the last resolves itself into one or both of the others, since the cultivation of feeling is in no way possible without securing appropriate ideas or appro- priate motor states, and since the latter are the outcome either of ideas or of habits. It is assumed, then, that the teacher knows in the main what he wants to teach; that he has to teach a lesson of some sort involving habit, i.e. a practical problem to be solved. This may include ideas also, but at any rate it must involve at least one habit that the child is to form. This , assumption may be more or less difficult for the Herbartian who studies in detail the selection and arrange- ment of subject-matter before he gets to the point of work- ing out the detailed adjustment of subject-matter to the learning process. From his standpoint we are beginning after the preliminary selection and arrangement of subject- matter have been completed. It is an open question which 98 HABIT-FORMATION is the more logical, — to assume that subject-matter may be selected without detailed acquaintance with the process of teaching it, or to assume that method possibilities may be exhaustively treated without a detailed consideration of the subject-matter. In contrast to the Herbartian point of view, the latter course has been taken in this book. 3. Habit and incidental practice. — In many cases an- other difficulty will be met right here. The teacher may say it is evident that a certain habit must be secured if this lesson is to be really learned, but it is impossible to give the amount of practice necessary to secure its formation in the time allotted. If this is true, the habit will probably be fundamental enough to recur, or to be easily made to recur, in subsequent lessons. Certain it is that, if these lessons taken together are unitary in leading toward implanting the habits, such fundamental habits will be much more likely to be secured than if the teacher makes no special provision for them beyond a momentary exertion at first. The teacher either of the facts of the multiplication table, or of Latin inflections, or of chemical formulae, who does not realize that these are to become habits, and does not teach them, whether separately or incidentally, in such a way as to insure the incentive and practice necessary for making them automatic, should thank his students for whatever valuable results he may attain. They are due rather to the good habits of study inculcated by former teachers than to any merit of his teaching. 4. The analysis of the lesson into ideas and habits. — Having decided, then, that a particular lesson is to be taught, our first principle of action, as already suggested in Chapter III., is to analyze the lesson into its possibilities. It must be made up of ideas to be taught, or habits, or both ; and inasmuch as ideas and habits are not taught in the same way, but with very different stress of emphasis, it is SELECTION AND DEMONSTRATION OF HABITS 99 incumbent on the teacher first to analyze the lesson and discover which features are to become habitual and are therefore to be drilled upon, if the lesson is to be really taught.' In this analysis of the lesson the important principles have already been laid down in Chapter IV., and need rather illus- tration than new formulation here. 1. Look for the automatic element. In pointing off in multipUcation and division of decimals, is it the ability to reason out what should be done or the habit of pointing off correctly that is important to the young child, supposing this reasoning and the correct habit could not both be se- cured? 2. Look for the serial. In the series of operations necessary for tying a cravat, each follows the preceding in an invariable succession. If no special order is important, but a group of ideas or movements can function as well begin- ning at one point as at another, then no one habit is funda- mental, though perhaps there are several involved. On the other hand, if a poem or statement is to be memorized exactly as it stands, the whole thing makes one habit com- prising a more or less extended series. 3. Search for elements entering into the lesson which are fixed and do not lend themselves to change. No habit- ual element may be apparent in a lesson on the notable victory of Captain Perry on Lake Erie, but his memorable message,^ if it is remembered at all, must be fixed as a habit verbatim, and is no more to be distorted than is Csesar's famous "veni, vidi, vici." ' For an example of an analysis of a writing lesson from a slightly different point of view, see Judd, "Genetic Psychology for Teachers," pp. 161-235. Also for reading process, pp. 236-264. Appleton, 1903. ' " We have met the enemy and they are ours." 100 HABIT-FORMATION 4. Decide whether the details and the feeling elements involved in the lesson are to be kept prominent, or to be gradually relegated to the lower levels of consciousness. In learning to crochet or knit, one must be told first how to hold the needle and the yarn and then how to work the needle in and out in a constantly repeated series of move- ments. At first, interest may be definitely directed to each stitch, but finally both interest and the details of each stitch are entirely lost, either in the contemplation of the work as a whole or, more likely, in some entirely foreign train of thought. 5. Determine whether it is desirable that the atten- tion be focused on the operation or whether other processes may occupy the mind and the process go on apparently as well. The automatic character of whisthng and of mechani- cal processes in mathematics is nowhere more evident than while the boy is working his algebra or arithmetic and whistling a tune most of the time, except when he is thinking out the problem or has found some hitch in the process. 6. Discover if possible the amount of repetition implied. It would not take a teacher long to determine that a very perfect handwriting was the result of much practice. Each lesson must therefore assist in forming a habit. 7. Note whether the point of view can be changed or not. We may ordinarily think of the battle of Bunker Hill entirely from the standpoint of the American troops. There is nothing, however, to prevent our looking at it from the point of view of the British soldiery. As long as we are not bound to our past point of view and are open to new ones, our mental ability with relation to the battle of Bunker Hill is not specific, but general and subject to various lines of approach. It is a very different case from the very specific one, 16 minus 9 equals 7. 8. Look for a basis of reflex or instinctive movements. SELECTION AND DEMONSTRATION OF HABITS 101 If the child is learning to dance, his instinctive apprecia- tion of rhythm should be made use of and made to con- tribute the aid it is sure to render. 5. Complex combinations of habit. — But in the above illustrations, cases have been taken where it is perfectly clear that habits are to be formed. Often, even when the lesson is definite enough, it is quite difficult to determine just what habits are to be formed. In many cases they defy the most careful analysis the psychologist can make, and in others they are so numerous and demanding that there seems to be no chance to get in half what is neces- sary. How these difficulties may be overcome may be shown better by taking a few concrete cases than by any attempt to prescribe in a general way for the varied sort of situations which may arise. 6. The complexity and difficulty of analysis illustrated : (a) by a writing lesson. — In a writing lesson, for example, the pen is to be held in a more or less definitely stated way, — the paper also, — the feet in a certain position, the body held erect, the paper to be kept clean, the copy to be followed at a certain general rate of speed, and atten- tion paid to various directions and suggestions of the teacher aside from the lesson of the day (which may be the way of making a "Z"). All of these are habits, some practically secured already, some partially formed, others perhaps not begun. The problem is not so hard as it seems. The children get practice every day in holding the pen and paper, in placing the feet, holding the body erect, taking a certain rate of speed, and in profiting by the suggestions of the teacher. Most of these acts are sure to become auto- matic, and the problem is, on the average, to get the habit of making the "Z" and at the same time to keep the children from leaning over too much. For they may 102 HABIT-FORMATIOF lapse from the habit of erect position either because of fatigue, or in their eagerness to get good results. A failure to keep up the practice in posture while attention has been centered on the letter " Z," or on some other minor point, has resulted in many a case of spinal curvature. 7. (6) By drawing lessons. — If a lesson is given in drawing a vase, the habits involved are not so clear at first sight as in the writing lesson just mentioned. It is evidently a lesson in habit-getting. The teacher wishes the children to get the ability to reproduce objects of that nature. What are the habits? The writer remem- bers well what an enigma to him as a child was the mean- ing of a noted illustrator who said, all that was neces- sary to draw well was to be able to see. The boy knew he could see as well as anybody, but he knew equally well that he could not draw. What was meant by see- ing in this case ? He had not yet observed enough to learn that often square surfaces are not seen as square, and, in fact, that forms are seldom seen exactly as they are. He had still to learn that colors are not always what one would think, and that black surfaces with a little light reflecting from them ordinarily must be drawn or represented by white, while white surfaces in the shadow must be pro- portionately shaded. If, now, he could use these points to just the degree necessary in reproducing objects, he would not only have a general habit of observing accu- rately, but also one of executing or representing accurately, the object observed. Seeing in the sense used by the illus- trator covered, then, all these sorts of activity, and more. When the teacher wishes the children to draw the vase, it may be because that lesson is set by the drawing inspec- tor or supervisor. Little will be accomplished if each child merely makes a drawing, shows it, and hands it in. He will know neither more nor less than he did before, SELECTION AND DEMONSTRATION OF HABITS 103 and will be only the slightest trifle more accurate and easy with his pencil. If the teacher has a chance to measure by noting the proportionate distances on his pencil, and thus shows the child how to measure for himself, — if from several whites, blacks, and grays he matches the light and shadow on the vase, then he will be on the way toward es- tablishing a habit which will help him to be independent of all guessing and to find out for himself whether the ver- tical lines are really the proper length compared with the horizontal, or where and how much shading is needed. Consequently this lesson, though not contributing much practice, still in getting all the proportions and shades needed will contribute its mite, if we treat it as a habit lesson. It may be a continuation of one begun months before. 8. The teacher's study of the habit. — Where it is hard to discover just what habit is wanted, or where this com- plexity and multiplicity of habit are found, what can be done? Aside from the principles already laid down for distinguishing between the idea and the habit, the teacher should think of the lesson as if he were the learner.' How much of this lesson requires thinking and how much mere memoriter work or skill in making muscular move- ments? Or is there, perhaps, a combination of memory and muscular habit? 9. Considerations for study of the lesson in complex cases. — If there is no element distinctly of that memori- ter or automatic character, then no habit lesson need be given. If some motor or memory formula is found, is ' The habits involved in study are very numerous and complex, when the various kinds of study are considered. For an excellent analysis of the general features of the problem, see Dr. Lida B. Earhart's "Systematic Study in the Elementary Schools," Colum- bia University Contributions to Education, Teachers College Series. New York, 1908. 104 HABIT-FORMATION all the habit involved just one habit, or is it made up of smaller ones either separately or combined with others? If only one habit, evidently it is the one sought. If confusion still exists because of the complexity in- volved, the teacher must think over the whole course of the habit himself still more carefully to see the relative importance and the nature of the combination of habit desired. But better yet, the teacher should perform the act, if he can. If he cannot, still better, the ability should be acquired. He will then know something about that operation at first hand. In one sense, at least, he has an advantage over him who long ago gained the skill and has forgotten how it was developed. If the studied analysis of the situation and the desired reaction is the first desideratum in complex lessons, surely the second and vitally important one is the personal exer- cise by the teacher of the ability he has to meet the situation with the suitable habitual reactions. No study is complete without that, if a habit is involved in what is to be taught. Whatever may be the explanation, any- body would be amused if a man hardly able to swim at all himself should attempt to teach a group of people to swim by reading copious extracts of the very excellent article on swimming in the Encyclopaedia Britannica. But with these two ways of determining with all pos- sible definiteness the nature of the habits involved in the lesson, a number of other considerations must be joined. In this study, observation, or experimentation, certain suggestions derived from the principles already laid down will be found helpful. In the first place, the teacher must observe himself to see in just what particular he directs his reaction. For example, in getting a young child to go up and down stairs carefully, the turns in dark places where even the SELECTION AND DEMONSTRATION OF HABITS 105 adult must be careful are especially pointed out as dan- gerous. Secondly, the teacher notes what tends as separate sort of action to take care of itself, as the server of a tennis ball tosses it up with his left hand with no thought of that part of the process. Thirdly, he tries to trace the effort of attention, i.e. to discover where he is forced to attend. It is evident that the child whose desk is to be kept in good order needs to think of it not all the time, but while he is putting things in or taking things out of the desk. Fourthly, the attempt should be made to find out to just what he attended. In the above case attention must be directed to the books to see if they are evenly arranged in their places, and then to the papers and other materials, to make sure that they are likewise disposed each in its own place. Fifthly, tendencies to inaccuracy, and sixthly, tenden- cies to hesitancy may assist in indicating the nature of the habit. The boy's difficulties in dealing with long di- vision where ciphers appear in the quotient may easily be avoided, if the teacher recognizes the little separate habits to be established for meeting such contingencies. Simi- larly, his hesitation or slowness in performing an operation that should be habitual, as in the case of long division just cited, indicates an inadequacy in the automatisms at the point of hesitation, and thus attention is called to the definite point of weakness. Seventhly, in some cases the subtraction of elements that seem to be variable may aid in centering on others which are fixed in a serial form, and hence habit. If a child is to be taught the action of a steam engine of the old type, first subtract all the ideas relative to its appearance and application. Then teach the movement 106 HABIT-FORMATION of the piston back and forth as a result of the steam pressure brought to bear first on one side and then on the other. Next teach how the piston-rod motion is converted into the rotary motion in connection with the driving wheel. Thus are obtained the important elements necessary to a habit of thinking of the reciprocating steam engine. ID. Illustration of a study of a complex case of two- process problems in arithmetic. — Suppose, for example, the teacher has to teach arithmetic problem work involv- ing two elementary processes. The logic of the situation would involve a number of combinations. The two dif- ferent processes might be represented as follows: — first addition, then addition first addition, then subtraction first addition, then multiplication first addition, then division first subtraction, then addition first subtraction, then subtraction first subtraction, then multiplication first subtraction, then division first multiplication, then addition first multiplication, then subtraction first multiplication, then multiplication first multiplication, then division first division, then addition first division, then subtraction first division, then multiplication first division, then division. The implication is not that the teacher must, therefore, drill and make habitual sixteen sorts of habit. The point is rather that the teacher should know that these possi- SELECTION AND DEMONSTRATION OF HABITS 107 bilities exist; and it is perhaps well that the pupils know them also, so that they can see what a poor chance they have of guessing correctly. The solution of these prob- lems will depend, as wDl appear presently, on the child's powers of interpretation, on the effectiveness of his asso- ciations, and upon his ability to verify and to criticise himself. Many teachers have only a half dozen forms in which such examples are given, and even text-books are likely to emphasize a few to the almost total exclusion of others. Children get used to the wording of a problem. This expression means add, this multiply, and another divide. "How much did they all have together" means add; "if one has" means multiply; and "how much did each have" means divide. If the teacher mixed in all of the sixteen combinations for two-process examples, such sym- bols would be of little service, and an understanding of the problem would have to be secured. Thus the pre- liminary abstract study of possibilities yields definite sug- gestions as to method. But our principle that the teacher should try the process on himself is no less desirable. How is it to be done? Let the teacher find for himself an involved ex- ample of this sort dealing with unfamiliar computations. The following may perhaps serve for those not too expert in arithmetic: A double-tracked street-car line runs its cars at fifteen minutes' headway. Suppose aTperson takes a crippled east-bound car that is going only two thirds as fast as ordinarily. How often will the west-bound cars pass him? Where does the teacher hesitate, and why? He may experience some diflEiculty in interpreting the term "fifteen minutes' headway," though the expression has a very definite meaning for the car-starter. So in many 108 HABIT-FORMATION an arithmetical problepi an expression perfectly clear to the teacher is quite obscure to the child. It may be that the teacher will not readily see the rela- tion between the speeds of the west-bound and east-bound cars and the headway, and so will not be quite certain that he understands the real significance of the problem. Consequently the habit of interpreting problems carefully is one requisite. Having grasped the real meaning of the problem, he finds himself splitting up the problem as a whole into separate manipulations experimentally, at- tending especially to those which seem to promise a con- nection with other data. Certain words serve as keys to the solution, of which more is said below. Having arrived at the result, a habit of criticism will be found perfecting and verifying it. Indeed, this critical attitude may have applied itself to the result of the very first process. Is the result reasonable? Does the answer seem too large or too small? Can it be verified by an- other method? So in the above problem the answer, nine, may be proved correct by showing that the sum of the normal times for both cars must be five sixths of the actual for both, because the loss of speed by the crippled one was one third for one or one sixth of the actual total for both. The actual time being nine minutes, the sum of the time of the east-bound car and the time of the west-bound car is eighteen minutes. Subtract the lost one sixth, i.e. three minutes, from the eighteen, and it should give the headway, as it does ; namely, fifteen minutes. II. Suggestions resulting from the study of the arith- metical illustration. — From this actual study of what the child is to accomplish, the teacher will soon see that three habits are involved: (a) a habit of careful inter- pretation of the problem, followed by (6) a habit of making and trying suggested combinations until one is SELECTION AND DEMONSTRATION OF HABITS 109 found that in the first place is possible in view of what is given, and secondly supplies data needed for use in con- nection with the remaining facts furnished by the problem, and, finally (c), a habit of criticising the process and its results. These habits cannot be taught to advantage at once. Each in turn should receive the maximum of attention. It is best, then, to start on one separately and give a number of examples for practice in interpreting the mean- ing. Examples that are clear and can be acted out or dramatically represented, are to be preferred to those that are more abstract. Next the habit of making tentative combinations ex- hausting the data at hand, may be practiced, and finally various habits of criticising and verifying may be estab- lished. Then in a fairly definite way these separate habits are to be combined in problems which will serve to bring them together into an organization and from that finally into an habitual attitude of mind toward all problem work of this sort. No application which does not cover all of these evi- dent varieties of two-process problems shown on page 106 could be expected to be complete, though, given these three habits, we should expect a child to be able to solve examples of any of the sixteen kinds, whether he had previously solved one of the kind or not. If he cannot, either he has not the fundamental habits needed or, more likely, his ability to interpret is too limited. 12. Study of the stimuli of habits. — Another help to the teacher in studying habits is to study the stimuli provocative of the habit reaction. The interpretive habit just referred to has as its basis written, printed, or heard symbols. We used to think that the eye glanced from letter to letter, and then from word to word, but several 110 HABIT-FORMATION investigators have now shown that the eye pauses a few times in each line at points determined rather by pre- vious habit than by the size or position of word or letter.' However, there is little that we can do to make the stimuli more favorable in the interpretation of problems except by insisting on time for careful scrutiny and re- reading, if the problems are read by the child, and on close attention, if they ai^e read to him. With regard to the habit of manipulating the data, a number of stimuli should be selected for notice. In the above problem the reduced speed of one car ought to suggest finding out, if possible, exactly what part of the intervening distance was covered by the ordinary car. That result obtained ought to suggest the time it would take it to go the whole intervening distance, i.e. fifteen minutes. When the part traversed and the time for the whole is known, the result is easily reached, though other useless suggestions may have delayed the solution. In almost any problem in arithmetic there is some special form of expression, such as the use of "and," "plus," and "with" in addition examples, the words " less, " " away, " and other words denoting separation of some sort in subtraction, words like "times," "if one," etc., in multiplication, while in division it is "what was the cost of each" (or "of one"), "how many did each (or 'one') receive," or the distribution idea in one form or another. A certain familiarity with the stimuli asso- ciated with the separate processes will give them greater suggestiveness and help bring them to the focus. Of ' The investigation has been well summed up, and some im- portant additional experiments described in an admirable piece of work, " The Psychology of Reading," by Huey. Macmillan, 1907. See also Walter F. Dearborn, "Psychology of Reading." Science Press, 1906. SELECTION AND DEMONSTRATION OF HABITS 111 course these words or phrases should not be followed out except as the suggestion is seen to have at least a possible significance. Any one who catches himself getting his cue from some such word cannot but recognize its func- tion in calling to mind the appropriate activity and the importance of putting the child in possession of such cues as far as is possible. To be sure, some teachers may not get any such analysis as they watch themselves. The only response of which they are conscious may be a sort of automatic first mul- tiply, then divide. A little practice, however, will give them the ability to read the main points of their mental process. And, while the analysis of the adult mind in its achievement offers no parallel to the child's mind, in its exposition of the goal of the child's effort it is at least the best the teacher can offer, 13. The study of the essentials of the reaction. — Aside from the help gained by a study of the stimuli, the teacher will be further helped, if he takes into consideration the essentials of the reaction in its simpler or first forms. The reaction in the case of the first habit in the two- process problem is evidently careful absorption of all the data, giving attention to every thought or getting to work on all probable lines beginning with that which suggests itself as most probable. In the stage of verifica- tion the habit of thinking of the parallel implications and other ways of accomplishing the same or similar results, or of making rough approximations is the essential of the reactions. Comparison plays a large part in verification, and the stimulation is in this case the realization that a result has been reached or a process completed. 14. The study of habit as involved in spelling. — The poor results obtained in our schools in spelling are in the writer's estimation accounted for easily, if one considers 112 HABIT-FOKMATION the lack of real analysis of the problem by any except the very unusual teacher. Cornman's ' excellent study of spelling shows conclusively, that, as spelling was taught in the schools where he examined it (and those were good representative American schools), the results were no better than they were in the schools where spell- ing was not taught at all by devoting any special class time to the subject. Though his conclusion has to stand for the conditions investigated, would the same conclusion have followed, if spelling had been better taught, i.e. taught as a habit-getting process and not merely as so many separate word combinations to be learned? Teach- ing that does not attempt to discover the habits at the bottom of successful reaction, whether in spelling, read- ing, composition, or grammar, cannot teach these subjects with real success. What success there is is limited to the brighter half of the class, which always persists in learning automatically in spite of the quality of the teach- ing. The ability of one teacher as compared with an- other is therefore measured rather by what is done with the duller half of his class, and many fail in teaching sub- jects of this sort, because they do not realize that habits •are implied in the ends sought. Four habits ^ have usually been formed by the pupil before he spells accurately: (1) the habit of critically observing the spelling of new words as he comes upon them in his reading, (2) the allied habit of noticing where words differ slightly from his image or his expectation of them, (3) the habit of hesitating to write a word when- ever its spelUng may be in doubt; and (4) the habit of ' Cornman, "Spelling in the Elementary School." Ginn, 1902. ' This point of view has been further elaborated by the writer in the Report of the Connecticut Committee on English, Con- necticut School Document, No. 12, pp. 44 ff. Hartford, 1904. SELECTION AND DEMONSTRATION OF HABITS 113 taking a final glance at the word just written to see that it conforms to the intention of the writer and seems correct. Some teachers, too few in number, have been working for these four habits in their spelling lessons and have suc- ceeded in bringing the spelling of their pupils to a high average because they have looked into their own mental processes and have discovered their working, where the emphasis of attention is laid, what the habits are in gen- eral, what stimuli call them forth, and what the nature of the reaction may be. The spelling habits just referred to will also serve to illus- trate the meaning and value of studying the stimidi and the reaction. Considering the first of these four essential habits, the unfamiliarity of a new word impresses differ- ent minds in different degrees, according as they have developed greater or less sensitiveness. Whatever it is that suggests newness is the important factor of the stimuli. The reaction is not merely looking at each let- ter, but comparing the appearance of the word with what would naturally be expected with other words similarly pronounced; and otherwise associating and attempting to fix the word. In the second case, the stimulus is a vague something unexpected in the appearance of a familiar word, just sufficient to call attention, if the mind has been sensitized to such impressions; and the reaction is the attention or close observation and comparison, as in the preceding case. In the third instance, as the child grows older the hesi- tation becomes less and less on words about the spelling of which he is in doubt. If he gets in the habit of halt- ing definitely when he has any, even the slightest, tendency to hesitate, he will secure for himself a chance either to act with the fullest information he has, or to 114 HABIT-FORMATION consult his teacher or dictionary and make certain. The response to the stimulus is one of definite consultation either of his own resources, his teacher, or the dic- tionary. The fourth important habit, that of taking a final glance at the word just written, has for its stimulus evi- dently the finished word or words in groups; and the re- action is the careful though rapid scrutiny of them as he would examine new words, and the comparison of their appearance with what is expected. 15. Demonstration of the habit to the pupil. — These examples may suffice to direct the teacher in his prepa- rations (before the child is considered at all), and in his preliminary analysis of the problem or lesson in hand with a view to discovering the habit or habits involved, their stimuli, and the nature of the reaction. It is now desirable to consider the important means of bringing the habit as a habit to the notice of the pupil. It is obvious that before he can be expected to learn or ac- quire as an automatism the physical or mental reaction desired, it is necessary to explain, illustrate, or demon- strate to him what is wanted. It is often, but not always, an idea we wish him to get here. If an idea, it is usually one of the simpler sort, consisting of. a comparatively small number of component elements. The various ways of demonstrating habits are reducible to four. 16. Four important principles for demonstrating habit : (a) by concrete presentation. — Among the elements com- posing a habit are usually a number that the child is to acquire by exercise of his muscles in general, and especially those of his vocal cords in a definite order or succession. In either case the reaction must be made as concrete as possible. If it can be illustrated so that the child's SELECTION AND DEMONSTRATION OF HABITS 115 ability to imitate can be given full opportunity, the chances of success will be good. The first principle involved is : Make the habit con- crete by using actual demonstrations either given by the teacher (which is often to be preferred), or by some child who has the skill. The part that pictures, charts, models, and the like can play is only secondary. They may serve to keep before the child a basis of comparison, but are otherwise decidedly inferior to the illustration by the teacher himself, if he has studied his problem. If the habit is too subtle for effective demonstration in this way merely, like whistling or making a clear tone in singing a high note, the description of the sensory phe- nomena which may be noticed when success has been attained, may aid. Too often reliance is placed on de- scription, it being so much more convenient to talk than to act. This is, however, the poorest sort of demonstra- tion, as it is open to constant misinterpretation and mis- understanding, even supposing the description to be per- fect; that is, free from error and omission. 17. (6) By using past experience. — Secondly, it is im- portant to use the child's past experience and his in- stinctive reactions in showing him just what is wanted. A general view of the instinctive equipment of the child is sketched in Chapter V. The basis of his past experi- ence otherwise depends so largely on environment as to make even a general sketch impracticable. Knowledge of it must be gained by a study of the child taught. In certain rural districts of New England a boy may pronounce father fð&h, and not be conscious of any error. At the same time he may be perfectly competent to pro- nounce correctly the sounds, fah and er, separately. In demonstrating to such a child the proper way of pro- nouncing father, one should pronounce it a few times 116 HABIT-FORMATION distinctly. Ask him to pronounce fah, until that sound is fixed, and then the sound er, until that is certain, then fath, and finally faih-er. i8. (c) By preliminary mastery of difficult points. — Aside from these two, another mode of making clear the nature of the reaction wanted, using the term " reaction " for the whole course of the habit in response to any stimulation, mental or physiological, involves special practice on the points of diffkuLty, before the habit in its entirety is tried. The teacher knows in advance from his own study of the habit and his past experience, the nature of some of the mistakes likely to be made. This knowl- edge must be taken advantage of in economical teaching. Thus a certain point of fingering recognized as trouble- some, may be practiced upon separately in learning to play scales on the piano or violin before the scale as a whole is tried. This preliminary practice on the point or points of greatest difficulty also serves to save for the crucial test, time, energy, and satisfaction, which would otherwise be used up or lost in drilling, when there was no need of it. How many children spend the time of their piano practice on the parts of their pieces which they do not know how to play? 19. (d) By leading the child to actual performance of the act. — But desirable as it is to remove all the im- portant known points of difficulty, provision must be made for deviations from the habit reactions which are not foreseen by the teacher. Consequently the last, and perhaps most important, rule from the standpoint of even preliminary demonstration is : Get the pupil to attempt the act. He may feel that it is perfectly easy and yet find a number of unexpected difficulties. If his teacher has a chance to correct his errors before they have become fixed as habits, it may be possible to launch him at the SELECTION AND DEMONSTRATION OF HABITS 117 outset on the habit you really wish him to form. While the teacher can only foresee a moderate number of the possible difficulties the child may encounter, in his actual experimentation they are likely to appear in surprising variety. If the teacher can once secure a correct initial performance, he can stamp it with his approval and give it added intensity. If the initial action is not in accord with the desired habit, it must not only be corrected by further explanation, but there must be, so to speak, a second initial performance to make sure that the correct reaction has been secured, and also that it may be given approval. No idea can be completely mastered until it has been either expressed or applied. With these four points in mind, the demonstration of the habit should be reasonably effective, and the principles are equally applicable, if the habit be an idea-habit,* since a certain amount of presentation is ordinarily involved even in habit-getting. 20. Summary. — Having decided on the lesson or se- ries of lessons to be taught, the teacher is aided in this chapter in determining what part involves habit-getting by the following suggestions drawn from the discussion of the principles and the nature of habit : — 1. Look for the automatic. 2. Look for the serial. 3. Search for elements in the lesson which are fixed, and do not lend themselves to change. ' The automatic learning processes of the child may enable him to see just what is wanted of him without the application of alt of these four principles. It may be that the first alone will be all that is necessary. There is room for much good judgment on the part of the teacher as to which one shall be applied first or how many; but in general all should be applied unless the teacher is certain that the children have found out exactly what is required of them. 118 HABIT-FORMATION 4. Decide whether the details and the feeling elements are to be kept prominent or to be gradually relegated to the lower levels of consciousness. 5. Determine whether it is desirable that the atten- tion be focused on the operation or whether other processes may occupy the mind and the reaction go on apparently as well. 6. Discover, if possible, the amount of repetition im- plied. 7. Note whether the point of view may be changed or not. 8. Look for a basis of reflex or instinctive movements. There are two courses that may be taken by the teacher to determine with all possible definiteness the nature of the habit or habits to be taught or furthered in the lesson. The first of these possibilities is that of thinking it over carefully, and the second (and more important) is the actual performance of the operation. In connection with these two measures, the desidera- tum is alertness in discovering (a) evidence of direction, (b) automatic units, (c) points where attention is required, (d) the object of the attention at those points, (e) tend- encies to inaccuracy, or (J) to hesitancy in the reaction, and (g) any remainder left after the ideas involved in the lesson have been subtracted. A third mode of determining the nature of the habit in connection with the preceding is to study the stimuli provocative of the reaction; and the fourth mode con- sists in the study in the same connection of the nature of the reaction in its first or simpler forms. For teaching the pupil the nature of the habit, four possibilities exist with a distinct advantage in favor of the use of as many as possible : — 1. Make the reaction concrete by actual demonstra- SELECTION AND DEMONSTRATION OF HABITS 119 tioa or illustration. Description is of only secondary value. 2. Use the pupil's past experience or native tendencies as an aid. 3. Give special practice at the points of special diffi- culty. 4. Have the pupil demonstrate what he understands is necessary to be done, and correct any error or omis- sions in his interpretation. CHAPTER VIII The Method of Evoking Initiative "Give me the boy whom praise stimulates, success delights, and defeat brings to tears." — Quintilian. " He who is aroused neither by glory nor danger is in vain exhorted. Fear closes the ear of the soul." — Sallust. 1. The meaning of initiative. — No one has ever seen a confident football eleven waiting for the time of the struggle to begin without being impressed not only with the energy pent up in the men, but the fertility of re- source and mental alertness to take advantage, to the full, of any opening or situation which may offer itself. This combination of alertness, of energy, of incentive back of the energy, and of the resourcefulness with which the energy may be used, may best be indicated by the word "initiative." It is said by the European military attaches at the battle of San Juan Hill, that the American troops showed remarkable initiative. They knew what they were after, and they scrambled up and on with commanders when they had them, but with equal enthusiasm when they had lost them, taking advantage -of all sorts of cover, and of any means of getting ahead that were offered. It is evident that if we can develop in the pupil what Professor Thorndike calls a favorable "mind-set," and if we can get him all eagerness to acquire a habit or as " possessed " to reach the peculiar degree of accuracy or facility desired as he is sometimes to show off or make a racket, we shall have no fear of his failure. But without some vigorous and impelling impetus to activity, we shall never get the energy sufficient to prevail against the 120 THE METHOD OF EVOKING INITIATIVE 121 tedium of practice which, as we shall see later, is a requi- site of all strenuous habit-getting. Habits do not drop from a clear sky. Nothing but a disposition to perform the act automatically can be gained in a moment. 2. Sources of initiative. — How then can this initiative, this enthusiasm, this high-pressure impulse, be secured in specific instances? Although the expression "getting ini- tiative " may be used, it is not to imply the search for a reservoir. It is, rather, necessary to think of initiative as welling up in man's life in springs of conduct which must be wisely directed.* Where are the sources of such energy and resource to be found? In general we may expect to find them in previ- ously established reactions or experience. The instincts and capacities which have functioned, the forms of thought, feeling, and action, selected from those primal reactions ' The writer is aware that this term " initiative " is current in psychology to designate that which is manifested by a more or less decidedly novel readjustment to environment. This is essen- tially the use of the word made by Processor Royce in his "Out- lines of Psychology " (see p. 53, Macmillan, 1904) ; but the latter, too, recognizes the importance of the "feeling of restlessness," of "rational eagerness," or eagerness for "rationally satisfactory change," which he makes the basis of "all that is most characteris- tic of our mental initiative" (see p. 331). In my use of the term it has been extended to include both underlying restlessness and eagerness. Moreover, it is referred rather to the preliminary adjustments or readjustments implied than to the actual adjust- ment, considered from the standpoint of the reaction only. In much this same usage the word " initiative " in a military sense, refers not to the actual running in this direction or that, but to the mental eagerness, alertness, impetuosity, and resourcefulness resulting in reactions perhaps relatively simple as far as external manifestations go. The expression, developing incentive, is too weak and mild to apply to this phase of habit-forming, though it is the term most likely to be used in the books on School Manage- ment. (See White, "School Management"; Button, "School Management"; and Bagley, "Class-room Management.") 122 HABIT-FORMATION which have been woven most deeply into our lives, must be the most ready, the most energetic and impelling. This truth has been summed up in the general biological law that development proceeds from the fundamental to the accessory. 3. Self-activity as initiative. — As soon as we f attempt any differentiation of these fundamental processes, we are quickly confronted with their various phases and overlap- pings. There is, for example, an inherent tendency to keep going physically and mentally, an instinctive avoidance of inaction. This is what some people mean by self-activity, although as a rule it is made to cover the sum-total of the capacity of the mind for inaugurating and maintaining action, with the implied corollary that the child cannot grow except by his own activity. But even in the various forms of self-activity, there is a great difference in the distribution of the various activities and degrees of creativity in different individuals, making a study of the individual necessary. Tremendous as is the aid of a general responsiveness as a factor in the child's development, responsive activity caimot be counted upon indiscriminately nor apart from creative activity, and there- fore the subdivisions of self-activity must be studied for their more concrete suggestions to the teacher. Those who rattle around in the world-measure of self-activity are in danger of losing all sense of proportion in the vastness of space.' Self-expression represents a smaller but still a very large group of activities included under the larger head of self- activity. These capacities again are not only fundamental, but are also representative of whole classes of activities, such as self-expression by sound, self-expression by gesture, by signs, facial expression, or by other movements, emphasizing the responsive rather than the receptive phases of self- 'See Rowe, "Physical Nature of the Child," pp. 44 and 45. Revised edition. New York, 1905. THE METHOD OF EVOKING INITIATIVE 123 activity. All forms of self-activity and self-expression are not equally endowed with initiative. Where these terms suggest to the teacher sources of initiative which are fruit- ful, well and good; but where their suggestions are too vague or indefinite, a search in some smaller group will be richer in results. 4. Distinction between instinct and feeling and between instinct and motive. — Instincts, as we have seen in a previous chapter, represent in each instance large classes of activity. It is often difficult to say positively whether a given case should be called a phase of play, or of the imita- tive, the emulative, or other instinct. To carry the analysis still further, it is very difficult even, except in theory, to distinguish between certain feelings and instincts. Are sympathy, love of approbation, pride, and shame less feelings than most others of a long list? Here, again, overlapping in classification is noticed, and yet it will be found practical to distinguish the use of memories of emotional states and their connections in getting initiative both from the more definitely and externally reacting instincts on the one hand, and from the more crystallized phases represented by what we call motives on the other hand. 5. Threefold basis of the development of initiative. — There are then aside from the general principle of self- activity, which limits the teacher's action to aiding in development and indicates the impossibility of molding, three main forms of fundamental functioning upon which development of initiative in any given instance is to be based. There must be appeals (a) to the instinctive activi- ties, (6) to the emotions,' and (c) to the specialized motives.. ' In order to free myself from a possible misinterpretation, it should be explained that appealing "to the emotions" here means arousing in the child pleasant and unpleasant memories, and in general suggesting the agreeableness or disagreeableness of pro- posed lines of action. There is no implication of any special well 124 HABIT-FORMATION The word " appeal," as here used, means simply to set the organism acting, to rouse it now to instinctive activity, now to activity in which emotion is prominent, and now to activity in which thinking, whether calm judgment or careful reasoning, dominates the feeling factor in conscious- ness. Appeals are directed to the child, and it is only by an extension of meaning we may speak of appeaUng to the instincts, emotions, or other motives. Emotions are powerful in that pleasant experiences tend to be repeated as a result of the agreeable associations linked with both the reactions and the situations or stimuli provoking them, while on account of their disagreeable associations unpleas- ant experiences fail to be repeated. 6. What is meant by appeals to reason. — Appeals to the child's reason are often urged, and seem to indicate an addi- tional mode of appeal. This, however, is not strictly what is meant, and the expression would be more accurate if it were changed to appeals through reason to the child's instincts, emotions (including his interests and various appreciations), or to his motives. If an ignorant mother gives a child a slap when he is playing with fire, it is said she is appealing to fear, and that she ought to appeal to " reason." of human energy from which action may be drawn. The feeling or emotional tone of an experience attracts attention to the details of the experience. These are therefore longer or more vividly remembered, and when recalled or called into play by association and suggestion, the appropriate motor responses follow more readily. It is easier to classify these experiences according to the feeling- tone involved than it is by the sort of action, since the same sort of action, so far as can be discovered externally, may be accompanied by radically different feeling-tone. The term " emotion " has served in the past a generally beneficent purpose as a basis for classifying the kinds of experience tending to certain forms of behavior and considered from the standpoint of their agreeableness or disagreeableness. This usage does not seem to the author at all inconsistent with a modern psychology which recognizes "resulting satisfactions." THE METHOD OF EVOKING INITIATIVE 125 By this is meant that she ought to explain to the child the reasonableness of refraining from playing with fire. On what does that reasonableness depend? Obviously on the fact that playing with fire is dangerous, and might cost him his life, or at least great pain. It really appeals, then, to some phase of the instinct of self-preservation, call it fear, avoid- ance of pain, or what you will. The so-called appeal to reason will be found in all cases as in this to be really an appeal through reason to some phase of instinct, emotion, or involved motive. This, indeed, has always been the real meaning of the expression; but in the past it has been a blind appeal, as shown by the emptiness of the phrase. It should be an appeal in a logical way to some definite spring of initiative. 7. The use of instinct. — Before a teacher can expect to make any wise appeal to the instincts, he must know what they are. A list of twenty-five has been given in the fifth chapter.' The more concretely and in detail a list like this is held in mind, especially if it is the result of his own thought, the more resource the teacher will have. The old- time teacher knew but one instinct to appeal to, and that is the last on the list, fear. A teacher should regard this list of instincts as a whole keyboard on which he is to work out harmonious reactions on the part of the child. It is evi- dent, however, that the teacher must know the keyboard. He may strike one note at a time, or more. The result will depend on his skill as a player. If it is realized that fear more often deadens reaction than provokes it, and that the difficult task is the positive getting of active habits, an * For the convenience of the reader, the list is repeated here : "imitation, play, construction, curiosity or investigation, collect- ing, ownership, love, sympathy, sociability, expression, manipula- tion, ambition, emulation, rivalry, pride, independence, defiance, courage, Eesthetijcal and ethical appreciation, tendencies to avoid inactivity and pain, whether mental or physical, pugnaeity and fear." 126 HABIT-FORMATION effort is much more likely to be made to spur the child's am- bition or his desire to please his parents, to arouse his curi- osity, his imitative or aesthetic impulses, and the like. 8. Instinct as a factor in getting erect writing posture. — Take, for example, the habit of sitting erect while writing or figuring. The old style of training the pupil to sit erect was to hit the pupil, who bent over, a whack with a ruler or a pointer, a distinct appeal to the fear instinct. Even that failed to work, because the fear only acted as an incentive when the teacher was within hitting distance. When this sort of appeal to fear was abolished, many teachers invented other less vigorous and less direct appeals to the same in- stinct, and with less effectiveness. Teachers who through inspiration or direction have discovered the instincts of the children know that they may use dozens of devices, as occa^ sion demands. They may have the children imitate good postures. The children can play that their backs are straight sticks. Their curiosity may be enlisted on how quickly they can fix things so that they are remembered without help. The teacher may appeal to their instinct of ownership by giving them some pretty reward, or enlist their love of their parents by showing how proud their par- ents would be, if they knew how straight the children ordinarily sat as they wrote. Ambition may be aroused by calling attention to the straight back of some great man or military hero, whose picture illustrates this characteristic. Emulation and rivalry may be used by having one child compete with another or one row of children with another. The teacher may call up pride, independence, even courage and aesthetic appreciation, by appropriate suggestions, while the one old-time expedient, fear of physical pain, may be abandoned. Instead, even pugnacity in the form of resistance to a dangerous tendency may serve, or fear of a rational sort by showing how people afflicted with spinal THE METHOD OF EVOKING INITIATIVE 127 curvature are suspended by the head and waist in no pleas- ant posture to bring the spine into its natural position. 9. Instincts provide a wide range of appeal. — The habit in carpentering of making a certain kind of joint with facility may be secured through its application in the con- struction of a special table for the school, while skill in a certain stitch, or perhaps in making a flag for decorative purposes, calls for an appeal to the tendencies to artistic expression, i.e. to sesthetic appreciation and the expressive instinct. As a joint product, making of the flag appeals also to the social instinct as a plan calling for definite co- operation; and to the constructive and manipulative in- stincts as something actually to be made. Progress in endeavor of this sort may even be furthered by the response to an ethical feeling of obligation to make some return to the school for the various advantages afforded the pupil there. These examples will perhaps suflBce in conjunction with the list of instincts to show the wide gamut of appeal possible, and that often very many of these instincts may be applied, though in many cases only a few forms of appeal are needed. There are children, however, who tax all the ingenuity of the teacher; and the greater variety of definite instinctive and habitual tendencies he knows, the greater his chances of meeting the diflBculty. 10. Different appeals to the same instinct vary in moving power. — Nor must it be forgotten that each of these in- stincts as named stands for a large number of different actual reactions; that because one appeal does not stir a child's ambition, it must not be thought that no appeal will. A boy, not attracted by an attempt to rouse his ambition by a citing of the perseverance of a missionary or of a teacher, may warm up perceptibly when instances are drawn from the life of an engineer, a sea captain, or a great financier. 128 HABIT-FORMATION The intensity of an experience ' is a factor in arousing instincts as well as emotion. That is, if the habit is striking or spectacular, there is readiness to strain and endure in that direction. Fundamentally, the intensity of an ex- perience refers to the degree of feeling aroused, which must in turn be pleasant or unpleasant. An experience may be pleasant or unpleasant intrinsically or be made so by the associations in which it is set. All teachers recognize the value of interrupting themselves occECsionally by saying, "now this is important," or "don't forget that," and so forth. This seems to appeal to an importance-assigning in- stinct, and the result is more initiative, because the impor- tance of the habit to be formed is recognized. II. Emotional incentives. — Another phase of giving a habit intensity consists in connecting it with the emotions. The hard labor on a bit of manual practice, a bookshelf or a tabouret, may be done with eagerness, if done for the boy's mother, or if he knows it will be purchased at a fair price, as it would if made by a bona fide cabinetmaker. This brings us to our second point. Appeals may be made to the boy on the side of his emotional nature, and through the motor tendencies of the associations thus called into play, as out of instinct, will arise both energy and resource. The emotions ^ seem to represent peculiar mental states in which the mind trembles in action or for action, but may have at least at the moment no settled form of reaction decided upon, — unlike instinct, where a natural form of reac- tion is provided. This difference is clearer in the case of the child, inasmuch as he has had less time in which to develop habitual pathways of reaction, which in the case of instinct are native. If the habit we wish to form can be afliliated then with such a state of mind, it is altogether likely that the definite path of reaction of the habit will serve as the ' Compare Andrews on habit, American Journal of Psychology, Vol. XIV., p. 143. ' See footnote, p. 123. THE METHOD OF EVOKING INITIATIVE 129 outlet for any vigorous feeling-energy which will in itself therefore furnish the needed initiative. It is practically never indifferent, if noticeable at all. Its very function seems to be, if pleasurable, to provoke a continuance of the re- action so resulting; and, if unpleasant, to warn against the reaction, feeling having therefore the double function of a lighthouse indicating safe courses on the one hand and on the other protecting from harmful courses. If a boy comes to school promptly every day because he realizes that through his neglect his room failed to be the " banner room " the week before, it is a sort of altruistic emotion that the teacher has attached to the commonplace of coming to school on time. It gives him eagerness, per- haps enthusiasm. He finds means of getting to school, bestirs both himself and his parents betimes that there may be no danger of tardiness. 12. The value of a classification of feeling. — Besides the social or altruistic emotion which prompts man to do things for others, there is in the usual classification of the psycholo- gist the intellectual emotion, the sesthetic, the ethical (or moral) emotion and the egoistic. In each case the pleasant forms of these emotions may be appealed to in getting initiative, while the unpleasant are of assistance in checking contrary or obstructing impulses. Here again as in the case of instinct, it is better to keep in mind a concrete list of the most useful forms of feeling. A classification under a very few heads without subdivisions of the classes is not so suggestive as a more elaborate scheme. The modern psychologist tends to ignore the old-fashioned classifica- tion, because of the practical impossibility of making dis- tinctions which will be generally accepted. The very large number of words in our language expressing feeling indicates its importance, and, consequently^ the most im- portant have been indicated below in the various groups of 130 HABIT-FORMATION the traditional classification. If the reader prefers to classify any of these otherwise, its usefulness as a means of appeal to the child cannot be in any wise lessened by the change in classification. If, however, the classification suggests to the teacher possibilities that would otherwise tend to escape his mind, it will be worthy of his attention not as a finality, but as a scheme to be perfected and adapted to his own experience and terminology. 13. A classification of feeling. — There is a considerable difference in the impelling power of emotional forces in the same individual at various times or in different individuals at the same time. Consequently an attempt has been made in the following Usts to select those in the traditional classes which seem more generally adapted to use as bases of initiative.' ■ One of the most complete and satisfactory classifications of feeling is that made by Professor Baldwin in his "Handbook of Psychology; Feeling and Will," p. 243 (Holt, 1891), which follows: Qualitative Feelings Sensuous Ideal I Common Special Organic sensations etc. Common Special Interest Reality Belief etc. Emotions Of activity Of content I I jS adjustment Of function Presentative Belational I I SeK Objec tive Logical Conceptual Expressive Sympathetic | 3 Systematic Ethical iEsthetic (Religious) THE METHOD OF EVOKING INITIATIVE 131 The egoistic emotions include: hope, fear, eagerness, reluctance, joy, sorrow, courage, cowardice, cheerfulness, gloominess, desire, loathing, content, discontent, hu- mility, pride, ambition, indecision, triumph, defeat, con- fusion, adjustment, expansion, ease, superiority, inferi- ority, security, self-denial, self-confidence, strength, and weakness. The social include: love, hate, sympathy, dislike, generosity, envy, gratitude, ingratitude, good humor, anger, honor, shame, reverence, scorn, justice, injustice, admiration, contempt, self-surrender, abhorrence, and patriotism. The intellectual emotions include: curiosity, wonder, surprise, knowledge, interest, familiarity, unfamiliarity, feeling of reality or unreality, belief, contradiction, con- sistency, inconsistency, congruity, incongruity, adapta- tion, agency, suitableness, mystery, inscrutability, incom- pleteness, grandeur, pettiness, importance, insignificance, and inconclusiveness. The aesthetic emotions include: beauty, ugliness, sub- limity, ridiculousness, humor, pathos, comicalness, gro- tesqueness, and picturesqueness. The moral and ethical feelings include: conscience (oughtness and ought-not-ness), obligation, self-approval and disapproval or remorse, merit, demerit, responsi- bility, fitness, feelings of right and wrong, blame, and restitution. It must not for a moment be assumed that the school child has all these kinds of feeling developed. The de- velopment is never even, but always highly specialized This classification includes a large range of feeling which can be of little actual service as a source of initiative, and in so far tends to distract attention from those feelings which really con- tribute. 132 HABIT-FORMATION with marked development at one point, and with no manifest feeling at all in an apparently related particu- lar. Hence feeling must be studied and the classification must be used not as a basis of adjustment, but as a basis for study and experiment. When the study is completed, an actual basis of adjustment will exist. 14. Feeling and interest. — Whenever an experience has enough of emotional quality to make it attractive and yet not to arouse very strong feeling, it is said to be interesting. Strong feeling is usually expressed by the verb, "to feel," or a synonym, and some vigorous word. " I felt exasperated, " " I enjoyed it immensely, " " I suf- fered dreadfully, " are samples. For such occasions the verb "interest" is too weak. The strongest adverb it will support gracefully is "intensely." An experience may interest one "intensely," or (as interest gives the em- phasis of the subject of the active verb to that which arouses interest, while feeling emphasizes the person feeling), one may say, "this interested me," or "I found it very interesting." When Herbart considered the secondary aim of education the development of a many- sided interest, he did not expect that a person would have strong feeling in connection with a wide range of experience. As soon as an interest becomes strong, some other term is used: a man is "absorbed" in his business, "carried away" by the beauty of music, and so forth. On the other hand, when not much interest is expected, but a little is hoped for, we talk no longer of getting interest, but of some sort of appreciation. This is then a term popularly used for a phase of feeling lower in the scale than interest. It is, therefore, likely to be too weak to serve as a source of initiative. It seems almost a pity to pull down to the level of ordinary feeling such a word to conjure by as interest THE METHOD OF EVOKING INITIATIVE 133 , has been made; and in placing it scientifically the writer is not overlooking the decided suggestiveness and prac- ticality of looking at interest from the standpoint of what proves interesting. This detail has been neglected by the psychologist because he wanted to find out what feeling was like in its fundamental nature, and into what subdivisions he could divide it. Not succeeding very well in either particular, his contribution has been small. On the other hand, the pedagogue has gained a some- what new point of view, and has laid a tentative basis for valuable knowledge in the connection of interest with attention and with the guidance of the child. For, in the first place, interest has been studied from the stand- point of what proves interesting at one time or another; and, secondly, the various changes and modifications in interest have been noted both in their tendency to nar- row down and in their capacity for broadening out, and for giving to similar external experience a widely differ- ent significance. 15. The verbal distinction. — The fact that the term " interest " is used of the commoner phases of feeling has developed for it a double usage not found in the case of feeling, and impossible to express without resort to phrases. "Interest in Wagner was intense," may mean that interest other people had in his music was intense, or it may mean that Wagner's own interest in his art was intense. If the sentence read, "feeling in Wagner was intense," it could have only one meaning. So with the adjective and adverb. " He was interesting and worked interestingly" refers to the interest he excited, while " he was interested and worked interestedly " refers to the interest he himself has. The words " feeling " and " emotion " always refer to the activity of the subject who feels, and hence one may say he worked feelingly in the 134 HABIT-FORMATION sense that he had the feeling himself. There is no con- venient way of saying he worked in such a way as to arouse feeling in others. It is this double reference of interest and the emphasis on the thing felt which has led to so much misconception and aroused so much dis- cussion. It has made possible such expressions as -per- manent interest. The ridiculousness of such an expres- sion as permanent feeling is apparent. Permanent in- terest is a useful and pedagogically desirable expression meaning that a certain subject or activity is sure to arouse feeling in certain persons if their attention centers in that direction. It is strange that the numerous writers on interest ' have not elaborated these verbal distinctions. Once cleared up, interest would lose its mystery and gain in real and practical value. i6. The objective reference of interest. — Interest should be defined, therefore, as that phase of feeling in which consciousness is directed predominantly to the objective phases of the experience arousing the feeling rather than to the more subjective feeling itself.^ Con- ' Even Pillsbury in his elaborate treatise on Attention (Mao- millan, 1908) wonders at the "curious development of popular consciousness" by which interest "has become referred to the object instead of the mind itself." (See p. 56.) He fails to find the function of interest. ' Compare Ostermann, " Interest is the consciousness of value," " Interest." Kellogg, 1899. Also Baldwin, who defines interest as "the impulse to attend" in a good discussion. "Handbook of Psychology; Feeling and Will," pp. 138 to 148. New York, 1891. Also De Garmo, "Interest is a feeling of the worth, to the self, of an end to be attained." Page 28, "Interest and Educa- tion." Macmillan, 1902. Also Tanner in an excellent chapter on interests, "Interest is the impulse to self-preservation, directed towards a definite object or idea. It is the impulse of man to realize himself in some particular form. ... It is the focusing of the state of consciousness preliminary to action. It is atten- THE METHOD OF EVOKING INITIATIVE 135 sciougness of the attractiveness of the experience is not lost thereby. It plays its part in the mental process suggesting it, and with the resultant tendency both to prolong and repeat the experience. Pleasurable emotions may be regarded as racial in- terests common in potentia to all, while in themselves interests are more personal and result from previous special functioning of the emotions. In this sense we are using interest as a certain native or acquired capacity to get pleasure from a certain kind of situation, and to re- act accordingly. Any state of mind that is tinged with pleasurable emotions, unless they are too intense, is tinged with interest, and even those states of mind char- acterized by unpleasant feeling are interesting in so far as man tends to seek satisfaction in ridding himself of annoyance. The objective reference of interest is in no way better illustrated than when we speak of a man's business in- terests, club interests, his church interests, or his interest in politics. In this case reference is made to the particu- lar sort of idea to which he will resort with interest upon occasions. These are examples of the permanent in- terests defined above. In some of its phases, particularly where interest borders on curiosity, the tendency to react by focusing on the stimulus is accompanied by so little feeling as almost to dissociate interest from feeling altogether. In such phases interest approaches the level of instinct. From this it may grade up to a point where, if the reaction is \ impeded, the feeling element may be very strong and pleasant or unpleasant. Here there is no question of its \ruly emotional nature. ton, but attention with special reference to the feeling which pnmpts it and to the action which follows." Pages 231 and 232, in 1' The Child." Rand, McNally, 1903. 136 HABIT-FORMATION 17. The three levels of interest and their twofold refer- ence. — There are three levels of interest. The first one has its origin on the plane of the new, the unexpected, the changing. A second level marks an interest in things as definitely related by cause and effect, or by likeness and difference, genus and species, growth, function, quality, quantity, location, time, space, identity, equal- ity, ownership, and so forth. A third level of interest, apparently compounded from the other two, is an in- terest in matters of belief, relations which are hidden and not understood, definitely suggested by the imagination, suspected or felt, but apparently incapable of proof. When these are applied to the two fairly distinct fields, natural science and the humanities, the following result is secured, which will serve to indicate not only the pos- sible scope of the development of interest from the stand- point of the object of emotions, but also to guide or form a basis for determining and classifying the interests the child is found to have developed. 1. Interest on the level of instinct.* ■ Professor Thorndike classifies interests as instinctive and ac- quired, classing under the instinctive the interest in — (1) Moving objects rather than still objects. (2) Other human beings and living animals rather than plants or inanimate objects. (3) Clear rather than obscure or indefinite objects. (4) Intense rather than weak stimuli. (5) Novel rather than familiar objects (unless the latter have special advantages). (6) Pleasurable rather than painful stimuli. (7) Expected rather than unexpected stimuli. He calls attention to the diversity in acquired interests due tc differences in instinct, capacity, and in experience, referring to th " speciaUzation of interest in a special circle of friends, specii divisions of knowledge, special profession or trade, a specU locality, and so with the many objects of modern civilized lif'." "Elemenfa of Psychology." Seller, New York, 1905. THE METHOD OF EVOKING INITIATIVE 137 (a) In man. In human beings individually. The child's intent scrutiny and study of every newcomer — the butcher, the baker, the grocery boy, the new playmate, and the after- noon caller — contribute evidence enough of its existence. (&) In nature. In objects individually. Witness the child's delight in examining new plants, or animals or rocks big enough or startling enough to engage his attention. 2. Interest on the level of definite relations (science). (a) In man. Far less commonly developed than the above, and contrasted with it by the search for cause and effect, likeness or difference, or other basis of classification, is the interest in the definite relations existing between men either considered separately or in groups. Various plays, like house, store, soldier, fireman, school, pieman, though imitative and often verging on the burlesque, still indicate the interest of the child in relations between persons. The child's interest in parades, in watching men work, is also evidence of his first crude attempts to put these units of personality into relationship. His ques- tions as to why persons do this or that, and how, are in- dications of a similar working of his interest in the definite relations of human beings. (6) In natural sciences. Again, as in man the child seeks to find definite rela- tions of cause and effect, classification, growth, function, likeness, difference, quality, and so forth, so he delights to find them in objects and the phenomena of natural science, unless these relations are too evident. Childish discoveries, explanations of things, questions such as, "What is it for?" all testify to this form of interest. It is an interest greatly dependent for its breadth on the 138 HABIT-FORMATION sort of encouragement it has been vouchsafed in the child's previous development. It is at the basis of all science, and has been called the scientific, speculative or philosophical interest. 3. Interest on the level of hidden relations. (Art and belief.) (o) Among men. Interest in tactful adaptations, in ceremonies, in right and wrong action both sesthetically and morally, in super- stitions, and — by an extension — interest in the ulti- mates of philosophy, and in religion,' is a field the culti- • Of course the interest in human relations as far as man is concerned may be easily extended from relations between mind and mind to relations between mind and Mind. This sixfold division is an adaptation of the one presented by Herbart a hundred years ago. No other since has been so illu- minating as his, though the subject was so hastily treated and couched in such philosophical language as to fall short of the practical application which should result from such a classification. The few attempts to translate his views have failed to clear up, and have at points served to dim even further, the already hazy exposition of the original. The studies of Preyer, Baldwin, and others have led me to give the precedence in position to man rather than natural phenomena. The personifying tendency seems evidence of the more funda- mental character of interest in personality. See the Lange-De Garmo translation of Herbart's "Outlines of Educational Theory." New York, 1901. See also Felkin, "Her- bart's Science of Education." Boston, 1893. The importance of these forms of interest as indicating the scope of the child's possibilities may be illustrated by comparing them with the five great inheritances or ends of education as indicated by President Butler in his "Meaning of Education." "If education cannot be identified with mere instruction, what is it? What does the term mean? I answer it must mean a gradual adjustment to the spiritual possessions of the race. Those possessions may be variously classified, but they certainly are at least fivefold. The child is entitled to his scientific in- THE METHOD OF EVOKING INITIATIVE 139 vation of which, though never completed by child or adult, is early begun. The questions of the child as to who made God, and the reasons for various natural phenomena suggested by life, and death, the meaning of music, the nature of ghosts and other products of super- stition, are representative of this field of interest. (6) In nature. The child early manifests an interest in the funda- mental nature and function of things, the metaphysical ultimates. He recognizes certain harmonies and incon- gruities of color and form, of sound, of taste, of smell, and even of sensations of touch as pleasant or unpleasant. Salt goes well with oysters or beefsteak, but sugar makes an inharmonious combination. The relation, the under- Ijdng reason why, is hidden. Many relations are be- lieved vaguely to exist long before they reach the level of proven knowledge. All forms of reasoning by analogy, and all forms of belief as applied to objects in nature, are accompanied by this sort of interest. The attempt of the child and the philosopher to identify personality and reality, is a phase of this interest, the one finding the person in the real, and the other the real in the person. i8. The usefulness of the classification of interest. — heritance, to his literary inheritance, to his (Esthetic inheritance, to his institutional inheritance, and to his religious inheritance. Without them he cannot become a truly educated or cultivated man." Butler, "Meaning of Education," p. 17. New York, 1898. Whereas President Butler expressed in terms of environment what has in this book been put in terms of interest (subjective tendency), Professor Dewey emphasizes native capacities inherited as a result of generations of adjustments to such an environment, singling out the four fundamental instincts — the communicative (literary), the investigative (scientific), the constructive (institu- tional), and the expressive (aesthetic and religious). See his "School and Society," pp. 47-61. Chicago, 1899. 140 HABIT-FORMATION Just as a clear and comprehensive classification of the emotions will serve to hold together a list of more specific forms, so the classification above will serve to widen out the list of interests that may be made available. How- ever, it is useful only as it suggests some concrete in- terests. Nor should these kinds of interest be regarded as working separately. They generally work in com- bination, and their consideration separately is only justified by the concrete suggestions thus derived. A teacher is dependent on his recollection of his own child- ish interests, or those he gets second-hand from others, or on observations made in course of his experience, for the concrete list of interests or cases of interest he may associate with any of these six forms. These possibilities should be cultivated; for, the more concrete interests they disclose, the greater the teacher's chance of securing an active development of the child. 19. " Direct and indirect " interests. — As has been seen, any of the six forms of interest may be latent and un- developed. Some forms of it are vigorous, others are weak. Those that are vigorous are called direct inter- ests. A boy may have a direct interest in building a boat, but may dislike using a plane, and so have only a borrowed or indirect interest so far as the plane is concerned. This may later, when he has become an ex- pert with that tool, become itself a direct interest; but so long as he is interested in that tool simply because he must do with it a certain kind of work, he has merely an indirect or borrowed interest in it. The gradual widening out of interest is accomplished by the gradual transformation of indirect interests into direct. In habit-forming the knowledge of the child's particu- lar interests is of even more practical importance than in idea-getting, because it not only secures the desired THE METHOD OF EVOKING INITIATIVE 141 initiative, but it also promotes repetition, and may even protect against exceptions, since the child is not likely to react in a way that runs counter to his recognized in- terests. In appeals to the child's interest, above all use an effective interest. If that leaves a choice, use one on as high a plane as possible and one that is self-sustaining. 20. " Restating satisfaction" as a source of initiative. — Another phase of emotion which is of fully as much importance as interest, to which it is akin and funda- mental, is what Thorndike calls " the resulting satisfaction." One may not know of or think of any instinct, emo- tion, or interest which would serve as a source of initia- tive. In such a ease experimentation is in order with a view to discovering whether the action to be made habitual is itself pleasant, or is allied to any form of action which is performed with resulting satisfaction. Mark Twain's Tom Sawyer wished to do his work in clear- ing the lot of loose stones with as little effort as pos- sible on his part. His device of making it a play for the other boys was a successful experiment, carrying with it sufficient resulting satisfaction to accomplish the task. Not infrequently the teacher is called upon to do such "sugar-coating"; and, where long and tedious drill is required, it is highly legitimate. This experimentation is not only desirable where the teacher knows of no instinct, emotion, or interest or other motive which seems to bear on the habit, but it is of almost equal importance in determining the efficiency of any of those motives. That is, it should be used as a test of the actual applicability of the source of initiative to the case at hand. There may be unpleasant experi- ences, injuries, losses, or other painful memories so con- nected with the proposed line of action that what would 142 HABIT-FORMATION ordinarily supply incentive will fail in this application. It would be all the more necessary to urge the especial value of this experimentation for initiative, were it not that the natural tendency, after finding apparent sources of initiative, is to put them to the test. The aim of this test, however, as of the experimentation previously al- luded to, is to discover whether or no and to what degree satisfaction follows or attends the action. 21. The statement and illustration of the law of re- sulting satisfaction. — This law of habit formation is expressed by Thorndike as follows: "Any act which in a given situation produces satisfaction becomes associated with that situation, so that when the situation recurs, the act is more likely than before to recur. Conversely, any act which in a given situation produces discomfort be- comes dissociated from that situation, so that when the situation recurs, the act is less likely than before to re- cur." * Thus emphasis is given to the fact that when- ever the reaction to a given situation is accompanied by a resulting satisfaction, other things being equal, the same reaction is more or less likely to follow the given situation according as the resulting satisfaction gained by the response is greater or less. Nor must it be for- gotten that associated dissatisfaction is an equally power- ful deterrent, though negative means should be used only in subordination to initiative along positive lines. If a child finds that his finger nails, which have been neglected and then broken, may be trimmed up and made comfortable by biting them, he will tend, because of that satisfaction, to remember in future instances the relief gained before, and after two or three repetitions he is well on his way to the formation of a habit; whereas 'See Thorndike, "Elements of Psychology," p. 203. Seller, New York, 1905. THE METHOD OF EVOKING INITIATIVE 143 it would have been escaped if the occasion had been re- moved by proper care of the nails originally, and if in- stead of satisfaction there had been associated with its practice feelings of disgust at the dirtiness of the habit and a feeling of fear of its dangers. If one looks over the list of his friends and acquaint- ances for those who seem to be particularly popular and generally liked, in nine cases out of ten, it will be found that the person selected is a liberal distributer of praise. That is, he (or she) has a sort of habit of quietly or even openly approving the worthy words and deeds of those with whom he comes in contact. Consequently all those persons get resulting satisfaction while in his company, because their reactions have all their merits emphasized. As Tolstoi has aptly phrased it, " Flattery in all the best relations, however friendly and simple, flattery or praise is indispensable, just as grease is indispensable for mak- ing wheels move easily."* 22. The application of the principle of resultant satis- faction. — This same sort of approval is just as much of a power, and indeed far more so, in the life of the child than in that of the adult. The tasks that the children have spent hours upon with patient effort should not be passed over lightly in silence or taken for granted. On the contrary, such exercises should carry with them all the resulting satisfaction it is possible to associate with them. If the work is in itself meritorious as a result of the effort, the satisfaction should grow out of both the re- sults and the effort. If the latter alone is really com- mendable, care should be taken not to neglect the only possibility that is left of securing resulting satisfaction 'Tolstoi, "War and Peace," trans, by Dole, Vol. I., p. 32. Crowell, 1889. 144 HABIT-FORMATION for honest effort. If lack of endeavor has produced in- ferior fruit, resulting dissatisfaction should be connected with the neglect. In application to habit-getting, it is evident that satis- faction or dissatisfaction can only be used after the habit has been tried. To be sure, the teacher can have the child try to picture the pleasant results of facility, but the anticipation will be very weak compared with the pleasure of seeing progress and feeling not only the pleas- ure of achievement, but the pleasure derived from the desirable reaction itself, which is also combined in the resultant satisfaction. One practical way of using this resulting satisfaction is to make use of the child's instinctive pride in progress. "Too often there is no attempt to show him the improve- ment made. His writing is better. That can be shown. He can work faster and more accurately in arithmetic. Let him see his progress. His attention, his order, his ability to study, have all improved. He will get far more satisfaction and inspiration from a teacher's frank and ready acknowledgment of that fact than from many a warning and threat. Professor Swift ' showed that the influence of watching their own advance from day to day was very helpful to his subjects. Three uses of resultant satisfaction seem to be most practical : — 23. (a) Experimentation for initiative. — 1. Where other motives fail or are counteracted by unpleasant associations,, experiment until some basis carrying with it a definite satisfaction has been secured. The follow- ing will serve to illustrate: Suppose a boy is possessed of the absurd notion, which many boys have, that music 'Swift, "Psychology and Physiology of Learning," ATnerican Journal of Psychology, Vol. XIV., p. 223. THE METHOD OF EVOKING INITIATIVE 145 is a study for girls ; and suppose that he is behind his class in the work, but has mistakenly assigned the cause to the music instead of to himself. His teacher wishes him to get the habit of recognizing and singing certain intervals when they are presented to him in his book or on the blackboard. He does not want to practice, and his aesthetic emotion is too weak to counteract his other feelings. What is to be done? Obviously resultant satisfaction, supposing all other motives to be unavail- ing, is the only source. How is he to be aroused? The wise teacher sings, or perhaps causes to be sung, to him a wide range of songs, — patriotic songs, battle songs, comic or sad ones, songs with all sorts of rhythms, — and asks him which he likes best or which he would like to hear again. If this elicits any enthusiastic preference, as it will if a sufficient range and sufficient tact have been used, the teacher follows up the advantage, but not too fast, by getting him to learn the song preferred. Then, some time later, after the boy has been committed to the pleasure of that song, the teacher may show him the intervals desired, what they add to the song, and how he can find in other songs those same intervals which gave him pleasure. He may try them in other songs, and hence the initiative furnished by the resultant satis- faction derived from one song may prove the basis for getting the habit of recognizing and reproducing certain intervals. 24. (6) Reenforcement of initiative. — 2. Heighten the useful incentive by such praise or other satisfactions as may be associated with it legitimately. The habit of correctly interpreting and reproducing light and shade in drawing may be forever barred to the child by thoughtless and sarcastic treatment. On the other hand, if the child has some, even a slight, interest 146 HABIT-FORMATION in certain objects which lend themselves to practice in this sort of skill, that interest may be led to the drawing of those objects with the appropriate lights and shades. If the successes in the shading are applauded, and the reasons for the successes pointed out, while help is given at the points where the drawings failed and the reasons are pointed out for the corrections (always supposing it is tactfully done), the combination of interest with the resultant satisfaction will be sufficient to secure in some measure at least the difficult habit. 25. (c) Testing and weighing initiative. — 3. Select from and test the instincts, emotions, or other motives suggesting themselves by studying the degree of satis- faction resulting from the reaction. One may rely upon the collecting and ownership instincts for a habit of finding out the names for various common sorts of plants and minerals. But, if the knowledge is not forthcoming, — if the child gets merely the names and nothing else, — it is altogether conceivable that these instincts may not be equal to shouldering the task placed upon them. If interesting facts be coupled with the instinctive activity, the resulting satisfaction will make them more effective. 26. Motives as sources of initiative. — We have found grounds for distinguishing between appeals to instinct and emotions with special reference to interest and the satisfaction resulting from certain actions, even though these sources of initiative could not in all cases be differ- entiated. On similar grounds the motives of the child are worthy of separate consideration. They offer a some- what different field of suggestion, furnish definite incen- tives, and are needed for the rounding out of the possible basis of initiative. Here again the psychologist contributes little to the pedagogue's practice. Not even such a fundamental THE METHOD OF EVOKING INITIATIVE 147 question as whether motives are cognitive or emotional is settled even by those who endeavor to make that dis- tinction, and almost no attempts have been made to compile a list of motives found to appeal to children at various ages. As used specifically here, the term " motive " refers to any definitely recognized ideational, emotional, or volitional tendency which upon occasion will initiate activity. 27. Motives as validated impulses. — In so far as motives may represent a large genus of impulses, it in- cludes as species those instincts,* emotions, and interests which are known really to have moving power. While instincts, emotions, interests, and, to some degree, ideas are like railroad ticket forms, all printed and ready for the agent to stamp, the motive is like the ticket which has been stamped, i.e. validated, and is good until used, unless recalled. That is, instinct, emotion, and even our interests, ideas, and ideals may impel us to do many foolish things, but until we have stamped them as being good enough for us they do not pass into action except by a sort of accident in times of great excitement or reck- lessness. A person may be hastening to catch a train and feel a certain impulse to run, but may not do so, as apparently he has plenty of time. He turns a corner and sees by the clock on the railroad station that his watch had stopped a few minutes before, and that it is nearly time for his train to start. He now has the im- pulse as before, and with it a real motive for running. ' Although instinctive action is itself the logical outcome of structure, it is ordinarily regarded as though it implied not only the possibility of interference, but a conscious consent, as indeed it usually does in all important action. It is only in this sense that it is included in our definition as a definitely recognized volitional tendency. In this sense, too, instinct becomes a motive according to legal as well as popular usage. 148 HABIT-FORMATION It has been validated by connection with the motive, which he might formulate by saying, " I would rather run a little than lose my train." That is, a standard and an action have been related. Many people lack that motive and would prefer to wait for the next train. Aside from the instinctive and emotional species of motive, and perhaps built up out of raw material of similar sort, there are motives of a distinctly cognitive or reflective origin. Below the plane of a child's or an adult's ideal at different stages are the planes of his principles, his definite purposes, his standards, his rules of conduct, what he really intends to live up to, the whole mass of intentions that have grown out of pre- vious experiences with life's many concrete situations. Let these precedents be once established and the action or inhibition, i.e. the checking of action, will follow without wide variation. This sort of reenforcing of selected tendencies is more than a play of interest. All of these impulses are active and tend to their realization, while the motive, given the initial stimulus and its re- action tendency,' simply indorses them as up to or above the standard. Then the reaction takes place. It is like a precedent in law, an application to a specific case of the truth or principle inherent in a law or statute. It tends to action both because it removes objections or obstructions, and because its own energy is fused with that of the impulse indorsed. An accountant may have no desire to work overtime; but, when some one comes to him with a special difficulty, stating that he will pay well any expert who will help ' Of course the motive includes more than the indorsement, even if we do not presuppose the impulse to be validated. In independent form it is still impulsive in character, but lacking in definite motor tendencies. THE METHOD OF EVOKING INITIATIVE 149 him out of the tangle, the accountant may consent. He thinks, — "It will pay me," i.e. "A motive has been given me; this corresponds to the kind of thing I allow myself to do." He may then do the work partly from instinctive motives like pride, curiosity, ambition, or kindliness, or because of emotional motives, such as the pleasure he anticipates in solving the diflBculty, helping a friend, or repaying a favor; or he may do it with direct interest in his work as a motive, eagerness to get as well acquainted as possible with all its phases; finally, he may do it be- cause he "needs the money," though in this last case the real motives are hidden, being really those which deter- mine what he does with his money. The money-getting has perhaps only a secondary or borrowed, an "indirect," interest. It is evidently impossible in given instances to sepa- rate these various instincts, emotions, interests, and mo- tives, since motives include all the other really active forms of tendency, linking with them a peculiar indors- ing tendency. 28. President Eliot's emphasis of the permanent mo- tive. — Permanent motives should be preferred to tem- porary motives, and those most to be desired to those less desirable. President Eliot, in his " Essay on the Unity of Educational Reform," uses the term in its widest sense, presenting at the same time a careful list of mo- tives important in discipline, urging the preference of the permanent and more fundamental motives over the temporary. He points out the fact that at eighteen there are no methods of discipline analogous to such temporary measures as "whipping, or the deprivation of butter, sweetmeats, supper, or recreation, and the im- position of Latin or English to copy." A little below he savs: — 150 HABIT-FORMATION "By preference, permanent motives should be relied on from beginning to end of education, and this for the reason that the formation of habits is a great part of education, and in this formation of habits is Inextricably involved the play of those recurrent emotions, sentiments, and passions which lead to habitual volitions. Among the permanent motives which act all through life are prudence, caution, emulation, love of approbation, and particularly the approbation of persons respected or be- loved, — shame, pride, self-respect, pleasure, discovery, activity, or achievements, delight in beauty, strength, grace and grandeur, and the love of power, and of pos- sessions giving power. Any of these motives may be overdeveloped, but in moderation they are all good, and they are available from infancy to old age. From the primary school through the university, the same motives should always be in play for the deter- mination of the will and the regulation of conduct. Naturally they will grow stronger and stronger as the whole nature of the child expands and his habits become more and more firmly fixed; and for this reason these same enduring motives should be continuously relied upon." ' 29. The development of motives. — Motives may already exist in instinctive tendency or, on the other hand, they may themselves be developed, existing only in a germinal capacity. A child may have little interest in architecture, but the manifestation of an architectural interest by those about him will sooner or later lead to the development of certain habits of criticism and taste which may develop sufficient power eventually to materially improve the ex- ternal appearance of the town in which he lives. • See Charles W. Eliot, "Educational Reform," p. 329. Century Co., New York, 1898. THE METHOD OF EVOKING INITIATIVE 151 In fact, precisely as interest may be derived or borrowed by association with ends or interests which are direct or immediate, so may motives be associated with much more vigorous forces and borrow more or less of impetus from them. It is often desirable when starting a new subject to aid the child iti building up motives and ideals by leading him to make decisions as to the character of his work. Not all children are interested in manual training, physical culture, drawing, sewing, and the like per se, just as many are not interested in history, geography, and arithmetic. If motives can be developed in a specialized form applying to the new subjects, another point of advantage has been gained by the teacher. 30. Appeals through reason. — HaAdng set forth this possibility of developing initiative from a whole scale of instincts, emotions (including the emphasis of the resulting satisfaction), interests, and other more specialized motives, the significance of "appeals to reason" referred to at the beginning of this chapter is apparent. The result of such appeals would be first of all reasoning, but not necessarily the habits desired. Reasoning is always a means to an end, a process of adjustment to a definite situation. An "appeal to reason" is merely an attempt to prove to the child by reasoning that the habit is one that is fundamental to some desirable possession or activity, or has some vital connection with his motives. Saving up pennies for a bicycle may lead to a habit of economy that thrift as a motive could never start, though saving for a bicycle may not be so desirable in itself as the more abstract thrift motive. Many a boy who is looking forward to being a business man, and a good one, utterly fails to make any connection between his arithmetic or his geography and this ambition, unless a wise teacher has made 152 HABIT-FORMATION a connection between the studies and business. Likewise he ' fails to see the connection between good planning or syste- matic order and the work of the business man. 31. The necessity of connecting initiative with the habit to be formed. — The point is then that the teacher may have decided upon the habit he wishes the child to form, and the child may have the motives, instincts, etc., as a basis for initiative, but there is great danger of failure, unless the connection between these fundamental tendencies is made, not by telling him that it is important, but by furnishing him data and reasoning it out with him until he is really convinced. If you wish to develop in a child a habit of aversion for alcohol, don't try to overrule or overawe him with meaning- less pictures of stomachs variously affected or of deranged livers, but present to him as vividly as possible pictures of the torments of the unhappy homes, — the suffering of the wife and children, the privations endured, the dangers of life and limb, the disgrace and loss of respect incurred, — true data, unfortunately too easy to accumulate, with which feeling may be aroused of an intensity that charts of diseased stomachs and livers could never produce. This development of connection between the motives and the desired habit is somewhat akin to the specialization of the motives before referred to; * but whereas there the end in view was to show the possibility of finding a useful nucleus of motives relating to a specific form of action, here it is to form the special connection between an individ- ual habit and motives already discovered. 32. Adolescent initiative. — The tremendous burst of adolescent enthusiasms which has been brought to general notice by President Hall's study ^ must not be overlooked 1 See p. 148. 'See Chapter XIII. on "Savage public initiations, classical ideals and customs, and church conformation" and Chapter XIV. THE METHOD OF EVOKING INITIATIVE 153 by any searcher for initiative. The various sources and channels of spontaneous activity and adolescent ambition indicated by him are suggestive of no end of motives avail- able at this period, and also of many a reservoir which could doubtless be drawn upon to some extent even before the real awakening. This new-found self, instead of taking the child out of school, might with wise guidance lead him to make heroic sacrifices in preparation for the widest possible range of serviceableness both to his family and the community. The boy should be helped to understand himself, his possibilities, and the bearing of his ideals upon them. Many a boy becomes imbued at the high school age with a new zeal for his school work. He grows more helpful, sympathetic, and manly in his attitude. He devotes him- self wholeheartedly to some special subject, art, trade, or arduous task. He dreams great dreams and hopes great hopes, which are sources of inspiration to him, whatever their possibilities of realization. Perhaps the most marked, and certainly one of the most universal, applications of this adolescent initiative has been made in the development of certain religious habits. Though this age was doubtless originally selected as a result of experience and not purposely, the curious thing is that religious teachers have been the only class to make use of this period of life. The teacher or parent should certainly with purpose and plan avail himself far more widely of these newly awakened emotions and motives. 33. Judicious plying of initiative. — In the adaptation to the sources of initiative, care must be taken on the one hand not to overwork the initiative once secured, and so on "The adolescent psychology of conversion" in Hall's "Ado- lescence." New York, 1904. Also his briefer edition of the same, entitled "Youth." New York, 1907. 154 HABIT-FORMATION interfere with the action. You may have trouble in getting up your initiative or, to use a current metaphor, " in crank- ing your engine," but once effectively started, you cannot dodge too quickly. All you have to do is to get out of the way, get others out of the way, and the energy there will do the rest. This is equally true of many forms of initiative. After presenting his children with new skates, a father does not need to spend a half hour telling them how pleased he would be if they would learn to skate. On the other hand, there are incentives worthy of the name, but they lack power. The habit in question may be a difficult and tedious one to form. You may need four cylinders when you have only two (to lapse again into automobile metaphor). That is, the power must be used much more economically and exhaustively than before. It must be applied for a longer time to get any apparent results. A boy may need several half hours of persuasion before he forms the habit of practicing intelligently for half an hour a day on a new violin furnished him. Of obvious importance is the principle, — Use any fount of initiative singly or any combinations of all the possible sources that will prove best and most effective. It so often happens that a child is hovering on the very brink of a most determined resolve when just one more well-directed appeal would secure the initiative desired, but the teacher has already made appeals and has trusted to luck for the result. Let him rather trust to the results for his luck, and make sure of the initiative. The good sermon, the good plea of any sort leading to the formation of habit, evidences the varied and multiple appeal to incentives. In all this chapter the teacher has been thought of as a prominent feature of the environment quick to seize upon and to make suggestions that would enlist initiative. The THE METHOD OF EVOKING INITIATIVE 155 withdrawal of the teacher's support, unless an adequate source of initiative has been found, is to weaken greatly almost any form of initiative. 34. Positive incentives should be preferred to negative. — Nor should it be forgotten, particularly in the case of the emotions, that use may be made of those motives which, like disgust, avoidance of pain, and dislike of the ugly, are negative and inhibitory in character. But these are last resorts, and should never take the place of a possible positive impulse. A child may conduct himself in an orderly fashion in the school halls, because there are teachers in each hall and discovery with its attendant trouble is certain. The motive is negative. On the other hand, he may conduct him- self with equal propriety because he has been put on his honor, has a desire to promote the general school spirit, or is anxious to prove his qualifications for an official position in a formal school organization, such as the school city or the school state. The positive impulse will develop his char- acter, while the negative stunts his moral growth. 35. Summary. — Initiative is the term applied to any combination of impulses resulting in energy and resource. Self-activity and self-expression are broad terms covering countless sources of initiative. The more concretely and variously these sources are borne in mind, the greater will be the resource of the teacher in enlisting the child's initiative. Instincts, emotions (including interests and satisfactions), and other motives serve as a basis for classifying the sources of initiative, which are best studied in the individual instances in which they manifest themselves. " Appeals to reason" are really appeals through reason. The child's numerous instincts should be regarded as a keyboard to be played upon for new adjustment and for initiative. Instincts provide a wide range of application, 156 HABIT-FORMATION even the same instinct furnishing more or less initiative according as the mode or the time of appeal to it is fortunate, or less so. That which is striking or spectacular, and so excites the attention, is especially effective. The emotions furnish a basis of initiative much like instinct, but devoid usually of any particular previously determined form of reaction. This makes the habit desired a possibility as an outlet for feeling. A classification which will aid in suggesting what various forms of feeling may be roused is desirable. Whether it be made along traditional lines, the egoistic, social, intellectual, aesthetic, and moral, or upon some other basis, depends on which proves the most practical and most fertile in suggestion. Interest is emotional in character and differs from feeling only in that it ordinarily is appUed to the less violent phases of feeling and with strong reference to the object of the feeling. The variety in the usage of the word " inter- est " and its derivatives plainly indicates its double ref- erence. Pedagogically, important gains have been made by the study not only of the feeling, but of that by which it is aroused. Permanent interests illustrate this objective reference. The interests of children vary so widely among different individuals that it is perhaps best to use as a basis of classifi- cation for those interests which the teacher discovers the following adaptation of one made by Herbart : — 1. Interest in individual persons. 2. Interest in individual objects. 3. Interest in the definite grouping, relations, and affilia- tions of men. 4. Interest in the definite relations of natural phenomena, likeness, difference, cause, effect, and the like. 5. Interest in relations of humanity, which are more or THE METHOD OF EVOKING INITIATIVE 157 less vaguely comprehended, matters of fact and belief, relations to right and wrong and to the Infinite. 6. Interest in the relations of objects, which are more or less vaguely comprehended, matters of taste and harmony, and function. The teacher's own experience and observation, written records and oral records of others' experiences, should be studied for a definite list of such interests. The interests of the child are in a constant state of change, largely one of growth by the addition of new direct interests developed out of indirect interests. The knowledge of the child's interests and the use of interests which are effec- tive, but on as high a plane as possible, are important items in skillful teaching. A very important source of initiative is found in any reaction which produces satisfaction or has satisfaction closely associated with it. This is dependent on the general principle that, other things being equal, resultant associated satisfaction is a vigorous incentive to the repeti- tion of an act, while resultant associated dissatisfaction is a strong deterrent. This principle may be advantageously appUed in three ways: (o) where other motives fail, ex- periment until an action has been discovered which is characterized by definite satisfaction and may serve as a basis for the habit. (6) Heighten the useful incentive by such praise or other satisfactions as may be associated with it legitimately, (c) Select from and test the instincts, emotions, interests, or other motives suggesting themselves by studying the degree of satisfaction resulting from the reaction. Motives are definitely recognized ideational, emotional, or volitional tendencies which upon occasion will initiate action. As a class, motives include not only "validated" instincts, emotions, and interests, but also such ideas, 158 HABIT-FORMATION ideals, principles, definite purposes, standards, and crystal- lized intentions as have impelling force. Use may also be made of any of these specialized ten- dencies, and they should be developed so as both to widen their applicability and to fit an originally simple tendency for its adjustment to more complex situations. Permanent and desirable motives are to be relied upon rather than the temporary and less desirable. Again, it is often necessary to connect a desired reaction with a motive by definite reasoning. The association will not be made automatically in many cases when it seems to be very evident to the adult mind. Appeals to reason often refer to the need of connecting with some motive the habit to be formed. The awakening of motives at adolescence must not be overlooked. Their power is evidenced by their general application in forming religious habits. Good judgment must be used in appealing to sources of initiative, and care must be taken neither to overdo the appeal and interrupt the reaction nor to enlist incentives inadequately. Combinations of incentives must be used, where they are not strong enough separately. Positive are always to be preferred to negative incentives. CHAPTER IX Methods op Securing Pkactice " Practice makes perfect." " Usus promptum fecit." " Little strokes fell great oaks." I. Repetition the desideratum of practice. — Having ini- tiative, the sooner practice is begun, the better. Repeti- tion, but not humdrum repetition, is the desideratum of practice. Still, whenever habits are to be formed, a cer- tain amount of repetition, monotony, and effort are un- avoidable, and we never need worry about making our drill work in school so interesting that there is no opportunity for accustoming the child to work when discomfort or even hardship is involved. Method teaching has heretofore dealt almost exclusively with ideas. We have come to think of repetition, like reviews, as something to be induced from different points of view. Thus considerable variety and much interest are possible for imparting ideas, but there is a distinct loss of efl&ciency in establishing habits. Dr. Eisenlohr,' for example, in speaking of the more general skill rather than the more specific habit, is enunciat- ing a very dangerous principle, if he means anything more than that habits should be variously applied, when he says: "The more manifold and varied these repetitions are, instead of continually going over the same beaten track, the more unrestricted and unconstrained will be the acquired skill; for which reason we cannot enough recommend repetition of what has gone before, from a different stand- ' Schmidt's Encyclopadie der Erziehung, under the head of Pertigkeiten. Quoted in Radeatook's, "Habit in Education," p. 7. Trans, by Caspar!. Boston, 1886. 169 160 HABIT-FORMATION point of view, and under other conditions, especially in all mental studies." In habit-getting no such repetition is adequate. The same habit path must be traveled in " the same old way" without modification, until the plastic nerve tissue sets. We may lead up to it and away from it in interesting ways, but then the time of practice is shortened. If, however, the practice is made more effective as a result of the interest and the attention which goes with it, as often happens, then surely something should be done toward making the beginning of our practice more interesting and its results more vital to the child. It may be a question whether Andrews ' is right in say- ing: "A mental experience of great intensity or interest results without repetition in a strong habitual tendency." ... "A great flood in a single day tears out a path which a smaller stream would require years to form." But the analogy breaks down, because, although the result may appear the same, there is, until an experience has been established through repetition, a lack of the facility in- volved in habit. Consequently it seems much more likely that the larger number of associations, resulting from the intensity of the experience, leads to frequent repetition, and thus sooner or later to habit. Moreover, the act of atten- tion is always enlivened by this intensity, and thus the repetition with attention which is the only really valuable sort, as will be seen later, is more likely to follow. 2. The amount of repetition. — It is hard to say just when reaction becomes second nature to us, i.e. automatic or habitual. Bagley suggests that habit-forming is like crystallization. A little more and a little more is added to a solution; but, if one stops short of enough to produce ' Andrews, B. R. On Habit, American Journal of Psychology, Vol. XIV., p. 146. METHODS OF SECURING PRACTICE 161 crystallization, all of the previous work has apparently gone for naught. Experience alone will tell how much practice is needed, and then only for average students in average situations. All experiments and practical experience as well go to show that time is necessary for reaching the limit of facility and power possible of attainment. We must not expect it too soon of the child, even in simple reaction. 3. Thoughtful and earnest practice essential. — Moreover, the practice must be thoughtfully and earnestly under- taken. Bagley has this same point in mind when he speaks of " attentive repetition." ' The great bane of practice has been, that it was and is so easy for the child to go through the form without the substance. The classic instance of the boy who had to write "have gone" two hundred times after school hours and, having finished, left a note for his teacher saying, " I have went home," is a case in point. It is not claimed that there is no value in partially in- attentive repetition. It is possible to commit words to memory by sajdng them over and over carelessly, but only at the expense of much unnecessary time; consequently, after various ways of securing adequate amount of practice have been considered, some devices for making practice not merely formal, but actual, will be taken up. 4. The relation between repetition and initiative. — James, in stating his third rule for the formation of habit, says, " Seize the first possible opportunity to act on every resolution you make, and on every emotional prompting you may experience in the direction of the habits you aspire to gain." ^ The writer has usually rephrased it for his pupils, — " Practice and create special opportunities for 'Bagley, "Class-room Management," p. 16. Macmillan, 1907. See also his "Educative Process." Macmillan, 1905. 2 "Principles of Psychology," p. 124. Holt, 1890. 162 HABIT-FORMATION practice." If, then, the teacher wishes the child to have this zealous attitude toward practice, almost his only recourse is to the reenkindling of the initiative found to be effective according to the scheme of the last chapter. If the child has sufficient interest and initiative, he will continue his practice independently of further spur or sug- gestion, until he has mastered the desired abiUty, whether it be to throw a ball accurately, to draw well, to dance, to sing well, or to gain other habits. If the initiative is not sufficiently strong, it may be renewed or it may be reenforced either by other sources of initiative or by special suggestion as to times, places, or occasions for practice. If the teacher is to furnish the occasions when the practice is to take place, the child not having sufficient initiative to carry him through, it may be done in several ways, as follows : — 5. The appointment of specified periods for practice. — 1. Appoint a specified time for practice, and insist upon practice during this period. This is the time-honored way of securing at least a time-serving practice on some musical instrument. The nature of the work done is not now to be considered. Time spent in the preparation of a lesson may be variously employed. Sometimes it includes time that a book or pen is held in the hand regardless of the attention. Even the pupil knows the tremendous difference between study of that kind and study in which a definite operation is performed and a definite result reached. Still it is good as far as it goes. There is no chance, when a specified period for practice is appointed, for time to slip by in the multitude of things to be done and for the practice outlined to be neg- lected. Nor should any time be selected regardless of its inconvenience for the child. The law of resulting dissatis- faction would defeat the end. On the contrary, try to choose a time that would be most agreeable. METHODS OF SECURING PRACTICE 163 6. Specifying the number of repetitions. — 2. Specify the number of repetitions. A principal once gave a certain class three hundred ex- amples as a drill in a certain process in fractions. He judged that they needed practice, and that with these done they would have practice enough. He did it because the class worked very slowly. The result was that, while working on the three hundred, almost every member of the class did two or three times as many examples as he had done before in the same period of time. Similarly, in the writing lesson it is better to tell a child to repeat his copy a certain number of times than to give him the copy and tell him to practice. 7. Furnishing abundant and agreeable stimuli. — 3. Mul- tiply the stimuli provocative of the reaction. If one is anxious that a little boy say "thank you" in a pleasing way, a game may be arranged in which he is offered various objects and makes the appropriate response. Each sepa- rate object will serve as a stimulus. If you wish him in deference to a lady or an elder to take his hat off as he bows, you may suggest all the possible occasions when such a bow would be appropriate ; or, if he uses a wrong grammatical phrase and you wish to get him accustomed to the right one, you can write the correct form in large letters on a piece of paper and hang it in his room or where he is likely to see it, telling him every time he sees it to think of and speak a sentence in which it would belong. This furnishing of stimuli should not be interpreted as meaning that the child should be constantly reminded. That is too much like nagging on the one hand and shifting of responsibility on the other. Whatever stimuli are given, the pupil should take upon himself the responsibility for making an efficient reaction. 8. Associating stimuli with the child's customary acts. — 164 HABIT-FORMATION 4. Make such associations for the stimuli as to keep them before the child. No mother can be considered wise who keeps her small boy's toothbrush where he could not see it. Rather have it kept as near as possible to the place where he is obliged to look every morning when he washes his hands and face. Tell him whenever he thinks of or sees the place where he brushes his teeth to think of his tooth- brush. Interesting rhymes if wisely displayed may also serve to connect this habit with the daily routine. Ac- cording to the same principle, if every time a boy took a pencil or penholder in his hand, he thought that he must keep his back as straight as the pencil; and if, as he chanced to look up while he was working, his eyes rested on a "roll of honor" including the names of those whose backs always kept straight, or pictures of Mr. Straight and Mr. Crooked,' or even other children sitting noticeably straight, he would improve by the association of those stimuli with the stimuli he has already had for writing in a good position. 9. Practice as an outcome of environment. — 5. So arrange the conditions that the desired reaction and its repetition will follow so naturally as to be almost unavoidable. The favoring and suggesting environment may be made to predispose the child; on the other hand, the environ- ment may be made almost prohibitive of the habit. It seems sometimes, for example, as if parents and teachers deliberately set about making the habit of study, i.e. of concentrating the attention in a certain field for a considerable time, almost impossible. At home the child has to work in the same room with a number of others. If callers come in, they are separated only by portieres or an open doorway, from the room where the boy is studjring. 'See Rowe, "Lighting of Schoolrooms," p. 69. Longmans, 1904. METHODS OF SECURING PRACTICE 165 If the baby cries, it is trotted out to where he is, and very likely he is asked to take care of it while his parents are engaged in other tasks. He is called upon to run and get or deUver this, that, and the other thing with only just time enough in between to begin to get his mind down to busi- ness. In school, matters are very little better. He is ex- pected to study while another class recites in the same room, so that unless the teacher be lynx-eyed he is subjected to annoying and interrupting calls from neighboring boys for mental or material aid. This is just the reverse of the requirements for a good habit of study, though the exceptional child with a vigorous initiative may be able to cope even with such conditions. Surely the principle — Make all the conditions such that the reaction will take place as naturally as possible — makes it necessary to favor the child, giving him every opportunity for concentrating his attention and only gradually intro- ducing him to the more diverting and distracting conditions. If neatness in papers is desired, pave the way by having the children hold up the hands to show that they are clean, by advocating the liberal and systematic use of the blotter, by warnings against spooning up the ink with the pen, and by other precautions making it easier than not for the child to write and keep his paper clean. After a while a soiled copy will be an eyesore to him, and he will himself find measures to guard against such possibilities.' lo. Keeping in practice. — 6. Let any interval in which practice has been omitted serve as especial occasion for its • See Chapter XII. Bagley reports that he did not find keeping the paper clean in writing period availed in other periods. If not, the method must have been bad in the stimulus used or the motive appealed to, since the whole tendency of such habits is by suggestion to extend themselves to similar situations. See p.- 208 of his "Educative Process." New York, 1905. 166 HABIT-FORMATION renewal. That is, freshen up on the habit. One must "keep his hand in" is perhaps the ordinary form in which the principle finds expression. An objector might cite Professor James' s paradox of our learning to skate in summer and learning to swim in winter as an argument for dropping practice for a time. This, however, is a special case, and is to be explained as the result of over-stimulation in the season for those sports producing a general waste of energy and lack of ability to attend to fine points, which time only can repair. The obvious verdict of experience is that it is necessary to keep in practice, to react occasionally along the line of any special habit of action or memory just for the sake of facilitating our responses. Consequently the expert musician, vocalist or instrumentalist, allows no considerable time to intervene without practice. Writing is continued long after the child secures a fair degree of proficiency, though often too much of the slow, labored, impractical sort of writing is drilled upon when an easy, legible, and char- acteristic handwriting is the real requirement. II. Decadence of neglected habits. — Even such funda- mental habits as walking, running, and even jumping, as promoted by active games, are often lost, as far as any real efiiciency or buoyancy is concerned, by men and women only approaching middle age, simply because they do not keep themselves " in condition." Women (and teachers as well) frequently reach the decrepitude of advanced years * long before there is any excuse for it, except that they have violated the principle and practice of keeping active. It is ' Crampton, in the Pedagogical Seminary (Vol. XV., p. 230), suggests an interesting distinction between a child's physiological age and his chronological age. Is not the old adage more nearly expressive of adult age which says that "a woman is as young as she looks, a man as young as he feels," i.e. acts 7 The difference in one's actions or habits is after all the mark of age rather than lapse of years. METHODS OF SECURING PRACTICE 167 not often that a woman (or man) over sixty runs upstairs. For some reason, perhaps a good one at the time, practice was interrupted and later was never renewed, though the original reason for the interruption had long since been removed. 12. Practice must be actual, not perfunctory. — It is evident that the purpose in all of the above devices is simply to get the child practicing, and the quality of the practice is not particularly regarded. The next consideration must therefore be the principle that practice must be real practice and not the form without the substance. It is evident to any one acquainted with children that in spite of good intentions their shortsightedness is nowhere better illus- trated than in their failure to keep themselves up to earnest, well-directed practice, even where they have made a good beginning. Ebbinghaus,* Jost,' and others have noticed that the distribution of practice over intervals of time was advan- tageous. This is to be accounted for rather by the dis- advantages of crowding practice on the other plan, so that it became not actual, but perfunctory. The devices which go to making practice not merely formal, but actval, are suggested by the following maxims : — 13. The renewing of initiative. — 1. Use devices designed to recall to vividness the relation of the desired habit to the child's initiative. It is not enough to gain an initiative at the start; but, if practice is to be secured and especially if it is to be secured effectively, constant reminders of the good intentions are desirable. For example, a person who wishes to make sure of a •See his "Ueber das Gedaohtniss." Leipsic, 1885. ' See " Die Assoziationsfestigkeit in ihrer Abhangigkeit von der Verteilung der Wiederholungen," Zeitschrift fur Psychologie, Vol. XIV., p. 436. 168 HABIT-FORMATION certain formula might, in order to promote practice of the right sort, put a memorandum on his desk, at the sight of which he would repeat the formula. A clergyman who wished to speak more distinctly would write a big "S. D." in thin pencil across his manuscript to remind him to continue in his effort to improve. 14. A definite degree of skill or facility as the pupil's aim. — 2. Have the child understand that a certain degree of skill or facility must be attained, or that certain tests must indisputably confirm his success. Children often show some ability in other ways, but fall behind their classes in some of the automatic processes of arithmetic. In many instances investigated by the author, the children seemed not to grasp the necessity of getting these autom- atisms quickly. When asked, for example, how many are 7X8, there was usually considerable hesitation or per- haps no response. Their attention was called to the fact, and they were given 4X6. Results were perhaps some- what better. After a few other combinations had been given, they were asked to give 2X2, and the reply came instantly with every indication of automatism. Then they were told to get all the multiplication facts by a certain date as well as they had 2X2, and they knew then definitely just what degree of facility was expected of them, and would often return by the date with the facts learned. Similarly, if children in lower grades knew that all we wanted was a well-established ability to write neatly, legibly, and at a fair rate of speed, it would not take eight years of practice to develop a handwriting finally of no use except for show occasions. The ordinary habit of the child is to write hastily and carelessly, while the habit of writing very, very slowly and carefully, producing well-formed letters, is practiced only on such occasions as the hurried habit of writing is debarred. These are two very different METHODS OF SECURING PRACTICE 169 habits. Much of school drill in writing misses the mark because the show- writing habit is the only one taught, while the ordinary handwriting is developed or left undeveloped by the pupil as he sees fit. In other words, in teaching writing we too often attempt to secure habits we don't want and very seldom aim definitely at the habit we do want. In the same way, preliminary work in Latin, Greek, or other languages should furnish the child not only with the understanding of the structure of the language, but also with the habit of systematically placing and interpreting the forms encountered. Correct habits of translation are seriously endangered under ordinary school conditions, if involved translation is begun before there is any auto- matic thinking of the uses of forms or any habit of think- ing down through a list of possibilities for the usage found in this particular sentence. Habits of translation should be established of two sorts. Given a word in a certain case, not only should the various uses appear automatically, but, what is even more important, the ways of translating so as to bring out most effectively those uses should become available as a matter of habit. Otherwise the child takes the words in their order and puzzles out the best sense he can make, regardless of cases, and often with most astonishing results, as instanced by a boy who translated a passage from Xenophon: "And they all were looking sorrowfully on the ground with their heads cut off." 15. Earnestness and efifort a necessity of practice. — 3. Encourage the child to earnestness and effort in his practice. He should be alert both for points at which he can improve and for ways of improving at those points. It is very easy for the child in the multitude of directions given him to fall into a certain laxity and a laissez-faire attitude in sheer self-defense. He will often need a little jostling mentally to get him out of his sleepy condition. 170 HABIT-FORMATION Show him how many special difficulties are lurking in this habit waiting to catch him, and get him on the lookout for them. In mathematics, if we do not keep our wits about us, we are easily led astray by some misapplied automatism. The writer once heard a company of children singing a multiplication table to the tune of Yankee Doodle. Com- binations ridiculously incorrect were sung. As practice (which it was supposed to be) it was the worst of failures. If the child tries, and tries hard, to get a habit quickly, more accurately, or easily, the practice will mean something. This is evidently very difficult unless one has already se- cured a strong and decided initiative. Moreover, en- courage him to study and concentrate on the hard points, the places where energy and effort are needed. The piano practice of most small children yields pitiably small results, because they play over the parts of pieces, which they know, and fail to put in the time at the points where they have difficulty. Experiment is what we really mean when we say " try." When we say " try hard," we mean experiment in every way possible for the pupil to devise. In the child's effort much of the experimentation may be below the level of his con- scious action. He just tries. This earnestness and effort are only possible when the physical condition of the child is healthy and unfatigued. The investigations of Woodworth '■ and Swift,^ together with the general experience of athletes, all combine to show that practice carried beyond the fatigue point is disastrous. Attention flags and undesirable variations creep in and become more or less permanent according • Woodworth, "The Accuracy of Voluntary Movement," Psy- chological Review Monogra-ph Supplement, No. 13, 1899, pp. 1-114. " Swift, "Psychology and Physiology of Learning," American Journal of Psychology, Vol. XIV., pp. 216-223. METHODS OF SECURING PRACTICE 171 as they are discovered and counteracted or in their turn yield to further variations. The college ball nine starts out promisingly, but " goes stale." The tennis expert practices so much that he "gets way off his game." * Over-practice not only causes inattention, but makes some form of misdirection of attention-processes ha- bitual, and with that fixes as habits all subconsciously made variations in the reaction itself. Woodworth ^ is right in his insistence that practice must be successful for the best results. Johnson' says that his results show that "a short exercise often repeated is the best method of practice for rapid development of accurate adjustment of muscles. Long practice in writing, drawing, etc., seems to be time and energy wasted. Not only are in- attentive habits * cultivated, but every wrong adjustment gains a place in the chain of subconscious memories, and therefore delays the development of the control over the muscles for accurate adjustments." i6. The direction of attention to special points. — 4. Show the child, if there is danger of his being unable to find them himself, the definite points to which he must attend or to which special attention must be given.^ ' Compare Chapter X., Section 6. "Woodworth, "The Accuracy of Voluntary Movement," Psy- chological Review Monograph Supplement, No. 13, 1899, pp. 1-114. 'Johnson, "Researches in Practice and Habit," Studies from the Yale Psychological Laboratory, Vol. VI., pp. 51-103. 'Johnson's term "inattentive habits" is subject to criticism. One cannot have an inattentive habit any more than he can "pay inattention." Bad habits of attention are really meant. ' The necessity of attention for selecting the better reactions (i.e. more satisfactory) is illustrated by Professor Thorndike in an experiment which he describes as follows: "Close your eyes and write as well as you can with your left hand (right hand if you use the left ordinarily) some sentence of about eight or ten words. Keep the eyes closed and repeat the writing twenty times without 172 HABIT-FORMATION When a class of pupils is given a new letter or word to write, it is not enough merely to have the children earnest and eager in their attempts, but much can be done in the presentation of the habit to point out the precise points to be watched. The teacher's own trials or his experience shows him, for example, that the chil- dren will fail to close the small "a" at the top, or will overdo it. The children should profit by being warned to close the space exactly. Much of the point of studying the nature of the re- action advocated in Chapter VII has, aside from its general value, its application in enabling the teacher to point out all through practice just the difficulties need- ing attention, and in helping the child to keep them promi- nent in his own mind. There are few habits — memory, muscular, or both — in which we cannot pick out, if we are able to analyze them at all, the special word, the twist of the thumb, the swing of the arm, or the move- ment of the eye which is one of the stumbling-blocks to reaching perfection in that reaction. In playing the "C" major scale on the piano, for example, it is easy enough to play the first three notes with the thumb and two fingers, but then the learner must slip his thumb under the fingers and play four more, then slip the thumb under again, and so every three, and then four, notes. This strange little habit of slipping the thumb under must seeing the results. In each case write as well as you can. Num- ber the sheets in order 1 to 21. Then write twenty copies (still with the left hand) with eyes open, in each case writing as well as you can. Number them 22 to 41. In which case did you im- prove in the practice, from 1 to 21 or in the practice from 22 to 41 7 Why?" Thorndike, "Principles of Teaching," p. 231. Seller, New York, 1906. Compare also Judd, in Yale Psychological Studies, New Series, Vol. I., p. 185, on Practice without Knowl- edge of Results. METHODS OF SECURING PRACTICE 173 function at just the right time to the hundredth of a second. In playing scales, these then are the points of attention. Any sort of way of getting these crucial elements writ large with the object of securing the sharpest possible focus, will be successful. Clearness is gained by the analy- sis of the intricacies of the habit. Not only is attention directed to the point of difficulty, and so made more effective, but repetition is made possible in minor details which would otherwise be inevitably slighted. 17. Desirability of the method admitting of the most actual practice. — 5. For habit-getting use the method admitting of the greatest possibility of actual practice. By possibility is here meant possibility considering the whole situation. If anybody advertises to teach a person to speak German by his wonderful method in six lessons, put him down as a fakir. He can teach just about as much in that time as a parrot could absorb. To speak German or any other language, a large amount of practice is neces- sary. It is quite obvious that the way of getting the greatest amount of practice in speaking German is to go where the only language heard and the only language by which one may be understood is German. The practice must be obtained, and no matter how stupid one is, he learns to speak the language without regard to the suffer- ing of the natives. For similar reasons, learning to swim by correspondence is not profitable, unless the whole burden of the corre- spondence is " Get into the water and strike out, not car- ing whether you are on top of the water or at the bottom." In all habit-getting any method that really secures actual intelligent practice is a good one. It is hoped the difficulty of providing such a form of practice will be 174 HABIT-FORMATION overcome more generally with the aid of the principles here set forth. i8. Psychological experiment and practice. — The writer has endeavored in this chapter to include and to sum up in the principles stated the contribution of the ex- perimentalists. It is especially here in the relation to practice that the experimental psychologists have con- tributed most to the methodology of habit. The use made of the experiments seems meager compared with the labor involved in a single investigation, but it must be borne in mind that each experiment, no matter how suggestive it may be, is too specific in itself to admit of generalization, until it has been brought into relation with others, and in much more complex conditions than those serving the experimenters' purposes as yet. The mere complexity of conditions involved in the school and home life of the child implies in itself so many more factors than are to be found in the experimental records as to make it quite possible that a general principle valid under laboratory conditions would be offset by counter principles growing out of other factors in the school- room. In time, doubtless to complete the methodology of practice, an experimental will be combined with an empirical basis. Neither the pedagogue in his observa- tions nor the psychologist in his experiment can afford to ignore these foundations of habit-forming. Where the psychologist leaves off, the advocate of experimental pedagogy must begin. To him the field of habit is offered as worthy of his best efforts.* ' For list of researches in the various phases of habit, see the Bibliography. For those dealing with the getting the idea of the habit, see under the names of the following authors : Dearborn, Earhart, Huey, Judd, and Stone. For those taking at least some account of initiative, see under the names of the following : Judd, METHODS OF SECURING PRACTICE 175 19. Summary, — Repetition is the desideratum of practice. It must be neither inattentive nor too varied in character, but instead the same neural path must be traversed with attention and effort, until automatic action is established. Intensity or interest increases the number of associations, and thus promotes the frequency of repetition. The amount of repetition depends on the nature of the habit, and must be determined by experience. Prac- tice which falls short of producing the habit is largely wasted. The practice must be thoughtful, earnest, and atten- tive. The attitude toward the practice should be one of zeal and eagerness not only to seize upon opportunities presenting themselves, but also to create opportunities for practice. A strong initiative is the only hope that we have that the child will bring about for himself occa- sions for practice. If the initiative first aroused is not sufficient of itself, it must be called into play as often as effective use- may be made of it. Where the initiative is not adequate to securing the desired practice, the teacher may furnish stimuli or occasions for practicing the form of the re- action. This may be done in any or all of six ways: — 1. Appoint a specified period for practice, and insist upon practice during that period. Swift, and Woodworth. For those dealing with practice either in its relation to habit directly, or much more often in its relation to memory, see under: Angell, Bair, Berger, Bolton, Bourdon, Bryan, Davis, Downey, Ebbinghaus, Ebert and Meumann, Exner, Gilbert and Fracker, Johnson, Jost, Judd, Kennedy, Muller, NetschajeflF, Reuther, Smith, Stein, Thorndike, Volkman, Winch, and Woodworth. For those investigations dealing more particu- larly with preventing exceptions or the conditions under which exceptions arise, see Bawden, Stein, and Vogt. 176 HABIT-FORMATION 2. Specify the number of repetitions. 3. Multiply the stimuli provocative of the reaction. 4. Make such associations as will keep suggesting the habit to the child. 5. So arrange the conditions that the desired reaction and its repetition must naturally follow. 6. Secure facility of reaction by making the practice recent. In guarding against the grave danger of the child's practice being formal rather than actual, the devices sug- gested are: — 1. Use devices designed to make vivid the relation of the desired habit to the child's initiative. 2. Have the pupil understand that a certain definite degree of skill or facility must be attained, or that certain tests must confirm his success indisputably. 3. Encourage the child to earnestness and effort in his practice. 4. Show the child the definite points to which he must attend. 5. Use the method of securing habits admitting of the greatest possibilities of practice. CHAPTER X Methods of Preventing Exceptions " Even the worthy Homer sometimes nods." — Horace. " So take and use thy work : Amend what flaws may lurk. What strain o' the stuff, what warpings past the aim I " — Browning. I. The danger of exceptions. — Professor Bain, in his " Psychology of the Emotions," in speaking of the forma- tion of the habit of getting up at a certain time every morn- ing, writes : " I cannot doubt that there is such a thing as literally starving a very acute pleasurable or painful sen- sibility, by crossing it, or systematically discouraging it. So that on both sides the force of iteration is softening down the harsh experience of the early riser, and bringing about, as time advances, an approach to the final con- dition of mechanical punctuality and entire indifference. Years may be wanted to arrive at this point, but sooner or later the plastic element of our constitution will suc- ceed. Not, however, I think, without the two main conditions of an adequate initiative and an unbroken persistence." In these sentences Bain has summed up the require- ments of a methodology of habit in apparently two points. But an analysis of the last shows immediately that it not only implies the practice insisted upon in the last chapter, but that persistence in practice should be un- broken, i.e. free from exceptions, lapses, and the like. 177 178 HABIT-FORMATION His very next sentence atones for the apparent neglect of the disintegrating power of exceptions by adding: "If the power applied in the first instance is inconstant or merely occasional, and if periods of indulgence are admitted to break the career of the learner, there is very little hope of ever attaining the consummation desired." Professor James has illustrated this very aptly by comparing the exception to the dropping of a ball of twine which is being wound. The mischievous tendency of the ball to unwind much that already had been wound, is illustrative of the mischief accomplished by every lapse from the pathway of the habit.^ 2. The two sources of exceptions. — The sources of ex- ception to any definite habit in course of formation must be found in some change in the circumstances.' Either the initiative which made possible the first efforts has materially weakened, or a new stimulation opposed to the habit has come prominently into the situation engross- ing the attention and displacing the stimulation favor- able to the desired habit. Recognizing the likelihood of either of these possible changes becoming actual, a scheme for eliminating exceptions must make general provision for these two kinds of contingency in whatever form they may arise. A child may be on the point of developing a very good slant in his handwriting when an example of an -extreme ' Bain, "Feeling and the Will," p. 458. London, 1865. ' "Each lapse is like the letting fall of a ball of string which one is carefully winding up; a single slip undoes more than a great many turns will wind up again. Continuity in training is the great means of making the various systems act infallibly right." James, "Principles of Psychology," p. 123. New York, 1890. ' For a study of exceptions and variations from habits already formed, see Bawden, "Study of Lapses" in the Psychological Review Monograph Supplement, Vol. III., No. 4, pp. 1-122. METHODS OF PREVENTING EXCEPTIONS 179 backhand slant happens to be brought to his notice. It is new and striking, appeals to him by its individuality, and before the teacher knows it he has begun seriously to lapse from a habit almost established. So, too, a new and striking handwriting, though suggested by the imagination or experiment, may easily prove a sufficient stimulation to start a new habit path. This illustrates the change wrought by an opposing stimulus. In case of a determination to get up at a certain time each morning, the attempt goes well until a morning comes following a night of comparative sleeplessness. Then attention is given the tendency to finish the sleep and not to the initiative, which hardly reaches conscious- ness at all. These two sources of exception to, or modification of, the habit in the process of formation, the weakened initiative and the opposing stimuli, make the prevention of exceptions no less difficult than securing abundant practice. They necessitate a knowledge of the springs of initiative in the child, and a knowledge both of the stimuli favorable to the habit and of those opposed to its development but likely to be associated with the favoring stimuli. In this phase of securing habit, therefore, great skill is required, and the more definitely the habit is studied and understood by the teacher, the better equipped he will be to do his duty at this point. Of the methods of pre- venting exceptions, first those looking to the removal of the sources of exception will be suggested, and then they will be followed by those principles safeguarding the child against such as cannot be removed. 3. Need of studying tendencies to modification. — 1. Study the habit with all its likely tendencies to modification. Of all the devices to be borne in mind 180 HABIT-FORMATION to anticipate or counteract the possibility of modifying a habit, emphasis should be laid on this first analy- sis and study of the habit, even though it has been in- sisted upon in Chapter VIII and again in Chapter IX. The variations from slant form of letters and the cor- responding mode of joining them make penmanship one of the most evident illustrations of the need of knowing these tendencies. The child's constant tendency to adapt his degree of obedience to the necessities of the situation from the point of view of the minimum, is an- other evident case. The parent or teacher who knows the kind of obedience he intends to have, and does not tolerate first steps in the direction of exceptions, will have little trouble. 4. Reenforcement of uncertain initiative. — 2. Reen- force, by especial support at the point or time of weak- ness, an initiative which is likely to fade. If one who wishes to form a habit of getting up early each morning, reenforces his intentions with an alarm clock and the services of an athletic friend, his chances of getting up at the time set are good. If a child that is habitually truthful is put in a position of special stress by his teacher, a lapse from the habit may occur; but, if the teacher recognizes this fact and the child is made to feel the dependence placed upon him, the pleasure his honesty gave his teacher and his parents, and the foolishness of throwing away this good opinion, the child's initiative will probably have all the backing necessary to carry him safely over the treacherous ground. A music teacher teaching a child unable to sing the scale, the point being reached where the pupil is inclined to balk, may point up vigorously with his finger and say kindly but firmly, " Up on your toes." This is both re- minding the child and reenforcing his initiative. Such METHODS OF PREVENTING EXCEPTIONS 181 combinations of appeal may often be effected very ad- vantageously. Some of the most skillful work the author has seen in the schoolroom has been due largely to the ability of the teacher to keep constantly before the child his intention to do his best; that is, to throw conscious effort into his work. It was not done by calling work to a halt from time to time, and saying, "Remember, children, each one is to do his best"; but by a constant running fire of suggestion or favorable comment here, a mild and judicious criticism there, a significant look, or a tap of the pencil, — all effective, though so thoroughly interspersed in the teaching process as to be no intrusion of the discipline into the instruction. 5. Removal of stimuli. — 3. Remove, if possible, stimuli that menace the habit. Although this is in fact quite impossible, at times, often it is very feasible. Association only with people who use good English may not be pos- sible for many, but it will certainly be a great help to the child in acquiring correct habits of speech. Good examples of language, literature, art, and music should be at least the aim of the schoolroom, so that no unworthy stimuli may contribute there to unfortunate habits of expression. In discipline, one ingenious and mischievous boy may, if allowed to go unnoticed by the teacher, fur- nish stimuli for more sorts of tricks and exceptions to habits of study and attention than a teacher could rid himself of in a term, — all unnecessary, if the originator can only have his originality turned into more desirable channels, and at the same time be given in another way a resulting satisfaction equivalent to that found in the admiration of his daring and ingenuity by the less dis- orderly youngsters. 6. Fatigue as a stimulus to modification. — It is doubt- less true in games as well as work involving the highest 182 HABIT-FORMATION skill that to play or work when fatigued is to run the chance of some little omission here, a cue missed or mis- taken there, just enough to make uncertain the habit path. Keeping within the limits of what can safely be done, avoids this danger.* The athlete who gets "stale" is making exceptions just as truly as he who breaks training. So, long tasks imposed, notes to be taken, and the like may become stimuli to exceptions. Work of this sort, therefore, should be brought down to the limits of what can be done reasonably in a given time. Is it not possible that the lack of habits of thoughtful study so common in our higher institutions is a direct result of the crowding of the studies in the grammar grade and high school periods? 7. The weakening of stimuli. — 4. Reduce to the minimum stimuli opposed to the habit. Even if they cannot be removed, they may be made less cogent or compelling. Consequently, this is a more practicable maxim than the one preceding it, and the illustrations in modified form may already suggest themselves as fully appropriate here. Children must inevitably know of cases of disobedience in their schoolmates. But, if they do not see disobedience going unpunished, they wUl not get data (in the way of apparent satisfaction without deterrents) to act as stimuli to much experimentation in a similar direction for themselves. If they do not read books about pirates and Indian fighting, they will be less likely to wish to break away from the peaceful habits of the ordinary citizen. In arithmetic the too frequent hurry to complicated processes before the pupil has mastered the separate subordinate facts, leads him to ' Compare Swift's experiments for effects of fatigue and for tendencies to vary the reaction in his "Mind in the Making," pp. 173-185. Scribner's, 1908. METHODS OF PREVENTING EXCEPTIONS 183 guesses resulting in a wrong tendency which suggests a similar reaction on the next occasion. Any expedients by which bad examples may be re- moved, undesirable excitants to the imagination lessened, hurry and worry minimized, that fatigue may be avoided, and a thousand other possibilities of similar tendency, — all these must contribute to the prevention of exceptions to desirable habits. 8. The checking of variation. — 5. When the habit has reached its maximum efficiency, guard against further variation by special commendation of the reaction. The tendency of the child to vary his action even ex- perimentally and often without consciousness of it, Pro- fessor Baldwin's principle of " accommodation," * often results in the discovery of new stimuli and new paths of reaction, which not only constitute the basis of the golfer's improvement, but also when he has reached good form and is trying for still better things, explains his losing ground again. Children are constantly imitating, con- stantly inventing and making a new accommodation or adaptation to the given situation. These little varia- tions are a tremendous help to the child in achieving a habit; but if the habit has once taken form and been perfected, they become very mischievous. On this ac- count a high degree of accuracy and facility having been reached, it would be wise to call the child's attention to that form of reaction and tell him to make all the others like that. It will not do to call too much attention at that time to the stages of, or factors in, the reaction itself, as that only tends to make variations, which are evi- dently undesirable when the reaction has already been safely reached or almost reached as an automatism. ' "Mental Development of the Child and the Race," p. 217. New York, 1895. 184 HABIT-FORMATION Practice is, of course, not to be relinquished; but, whereas its aim is a greater degree of proficiency before the reaction is perfected, now it is rather to keep up the proficiency already attained. This, of course, applies more especially to the more subtle points in teaching. A musical tone or a French "u" may be difiicult for the child. He tries and, after practice, gets nearer and nearer to it. His teacher finally hears exactly the right sound, and says, "That's it." — "Keep that up." — "Do that again," and so on. The child's attention is called to the result and the general feeling of the process. If he can retain it, he has mastered the reaction, and only needs more practice to make it automatic. 9. The elimination of difiicult points. — 6. Simplify re- actions and rid them of special points of difficulty by secur- ing smaller contributing habits before the more complex are attempted. In the chapter on methods of practice, one of the maxims to be observed was " Show the child the definite points to attend or to which special atten- tion must be given." Here it is not to direct the atten- tion but rather to take a habit, analyze it into its parts, and then direct practice to those parts themselves until sufficient skill has been achieved to warrant the addition of the rest of the reaction desired. In attempting to get the habit of neatness in writing with ink, the first essential is that the child see to it that his hands are clean. But there are other essentials. If he has the habit of spooning up the ink, a drop is almost certain to fall from the pen when it is held vertically. If he holds his pen so that only one point touches the paper, he is almost certain to scratch and throw little specks of ink all over his paper, which are likely to be rubbed soon into bad blots. For neat penmanship, the habit of dipping the pen properly and that of holding it METHODS OF PREVENTING EXCEPTIONS 185 correctly are second only to cleanliness of hands and effective use of the blotter. Four subordinate contribut- ing habits are to be secured, therefore, before the one habit of neatness in written work can be expected. Again, in keeping an absolutely fixed time on the piano it is often desirable to use a metronome. It enables the pianist to keep the time when otherwise there might be many unnoticed points of hesitation. Another application of this sixth maxim is found in the teaching of English. It is a great help to the child to divide up his composition work into three sorts, — de- scription, exposition, and narration, — getting started on the important habits fundamental to each separately, and then finally thinking habitually and even subconsciously in all literary work of these three possibilities and decid- ing which is involved or to what degree elements of one are combined in a part or the whole of another, as the various phases of the writing change. 10. The use of inhibition. — In the remaining half of this chapter we are to deal with the answer to the ques- tion, " But what can be done when the weakened initia- tive, the opposing stimuli, and the tendencies to vary can be counteracted only in part or not at all?" The only answer to this question is, "Awaken the child's inhibitive tendencies." We are often conscious of holding ourselves in check or of restraining ourselves, of refraining from an action sometimes for good reasons, often because some vague element in the situation suggests just enough of strange- ness or uncertainty or of caution to lead to a checking of the tendency for a moment's further investigation.* ' An excellent example of this is shown in Jacob Riis's "Auto- biography of an American." New York, 1900. He was on the point of shooting an obnoxious white dog which had apparently 186 HABIT-FORMATION A boy with hand uplifted about to throw a wad of paper across the room sees the eyes of his teacher turned his way. The movement is immediately checked, and to disguise the meaning of the uplifted hand he begins to smooth his hair. This halting of the movement is an act of inhibition. The stimulus to this act of inhibition was the teacher's glance. The reaction was the move- ment of muscles checking the originally intended reaction. The motive, or reason, or initiative for the inhibitory act was the consciousness of the disapproval, humiliation, or other punishment that would result from throwing the paper, the source of this incentive being in the instincts and emotions. By inhibition is meant, then, the process of checking any imminent tendency to act. It may result in a tem- porary negation of action, or more usually combined with that, as in the above illustration, is the substitution of another form of reaction (there the smoothing of the hair) for the one intended. In preventing exceptions to the habit pathway, evidently the reaction to be substi- tuted is that of the habit itself. Consequently, the use of inhibition will be limited to the possibilities it affords of resisting undesirable tendencies to make exceptions, whether they arise from opposing stimuli or tendencies to variation. II. The stimuli and motive of inhibition. — This check- ing tendency, this inhibition, must have a motive and a stimulus of its own, even as the habit itself. It implies a taken refuge in a lumber pile in the dusk of the evening, when his finger was stayed on the trigger, and the white object proved to be the shirt sleeve of a man with whom he had had trouble that very morning.- Had he shot the man, he would almost cer- tainly have been convicted on circumstantial evidence of intent to kill. METHODS OF PREVENTING EXCEPTIONS 187 positive reaction, if it is to counteract or check positive tendencies, and must be dependent, therefore, both on its own stimuli and its own initiative as involved in the mind-set with all its factors of intensity, of recency, of resulting satisfaction, of previous mental attitudes, and, to a certain extent, therefore, on the number of times the tendency has been put in practice. What is to call forth this inhibition? Plainly the ex- citation must be the consciousness either of a new stimu- lus, which has crept into the general situation, or of a new or unintended tendency in the course of the re- action. The remedy must consist in developing in the student alertness to discover the new element in the situation or the variation in the reaction, and then to fortify himself against hostile tendencies. Accordingly, to save the child from lapses there are two modes of procedure. 12. Guarding against probable temptations. — 1. Make plain the fact that certain variations either in the situa- tion or the reaction are likely to occur, that they are temptations, and must be overcome. In sewing, as soon as an unevenness in the stitches ap- pears, or when an increasing irregularity is discovered, these departures from the standard must be heralded by the pupil as temptations threatening the habit on which the quality of the work depends. Evidently they repre- sent variations in the reaction. Children may be well on the way toward a habit of taking a last glance at the word just written to make certain that it corresponds to their intention. Written work is prescribed that must be done in a hurry. The new element in this situation, hurry, if not diagnosed as a temptation, may lead the child to save time at the expense of taking the glance. In that case exception 188 HABIT-FORMATION has occurred. He must recognize as a distinct tempta- tion to lapse, either the hurry or the tendency to omit the glance, and so vary the reaction. This recognition of the danger should be followed by a definite resolution not to yield. In getting the habit of hesitating to write a word until he is certain of the spelling, a pupil may recognize the tendency to guess rather than consult an authority as a definite trial of his strength likely, if not resisted, to lead him to a habit of guessing without his noticing the fact at all. In almost any branch of study, — arithmetic, history, geography, grammar, and the like, — instances occur where the tendency to guess should be recognized or discovered, — instances where smooth automatic action should take place, but does not. Many a teacher of history, for ex- ample, has to look up on each occasion the names of the official positions in the President's Cabinet. This list should be made automatic, even if the changing per- sonalities are not. The failure to make sure of these as soon as any of them have been forgotten, should be re- garded as a temptation to lapse from a habit of thorough- ness very desirable in a teacher. A man who can become a really great financial leader must be conscious of his own integrity in relation to affairs involving money. But this consciousness of his own integrity may lead him to a similar confidence in his judgment as to the moral quality of practices such as getting around unjust laws or taking chances on their enforcement. Success and power do not ordinarily sensi- tize men either to their weaknesses or their limitations. An indication of such weakness is that warping of con- science which makes it possible for a legislator to accept money directly or indirectly for voting privileges to a METHODS OF PREVENTING EXCEPTIONS 189 corporation, though he reason that the community is to be benefited and that he should vote for the measure in any case. The offer of the official of the corporation is no less indicative of moral limitation. The first tendencies to lapse from a habit often come in disguise, but usually the disguise is very thin. In this connection a very clear warning must be given against suggesting to the child variations and temptations which he would never have thought of, if not suggested. The mistake of the teacher who told her class of ten-year- old boys not to stumble on the stairs, is evident. 13. Warning against first tendencies to lapse. — 2. Put the pupil on his guard against the first tendency to lapse. This rule is a corollary of the one preceding. If varia- tion tendencies in the habit are to be guarded against, certainly the first tendency in that direction should be noted and inhibited before it has a chance for repetition. But it is not the mere avoidance of repetition and jeop- ardy of the habit that is the danger; with that is combined a clogging of the habit machinery out of all proportion to what would otherwise be the importance of the exception. Children who have been made sensitive to these first tendencies will not write a dozen copies each a little worse than the preceding. Blots and soiled spots on papers will be recognized as dangerous; first stretches of the truth, temptations to leave things in disorder, to disturb others, and the like will all be recognized as evils, but also as stimuli to in- hibition. One of the most important and difficult func- tions of the teacher is to assist the child at the critical moment when the tendency is just on the point of worst- ing him; and fundamental to this effort is the habit of noticing the first indications of a failure to attend, of 190 HABIT-FORMATION subtle friction tendencies, or of incipient counter attrac- tions. Many teachers fail through an inability to see their classes, not because of defects of sight, but through lack of sufficient alertness to keep track of the children who are not included in the group with which they are concerned at the moment. If disorder is seen, the teacher's best judgment can indicate what is to be done about it; but what is to happen when it is not seen? 14. Positive and negative initiative. — From the stand- point of enlisting initiative toward inhibitory tendencies, it must be borne in mind that the positive initiative lead- ing to the habit will itself serve as initiative (of a nega- tive sort) for the inhibition of contrary acts. But aside from that negative sort of initiative, it often happens that some instinct plainly involves the inhibition as truly as jealousy inhibits sympathy, or that emotions, interests, and disagreeableness of the failure to inhibit may check action. In fact, any motive may contribute directly to the act of inhibition. With these two considerations in mind, the five points following will explain themselves : — 15. Resolving against lapses. — 1. Prepare for recog- nition of the danger by leading the child to make a definite resolve against lapses in general, and particularly of the sort feared. Enlist his persistence, effort, and determination not to be beaten; and, when he begins to get discouraged at the difficulty of this bit of fingering on the violin or piano, or even at succeeding in making his various lines meet at the same point in mechanical drawing, he will recognize that this is the time of trial, when he is to show the kind of stuff he is made of. In writing he may be forming the habit of using variety of expression. The situation calls for a word used before. In spite of the tendency to continue with the same word, as a result of his previous resolution, he tries, rather METHODS OF PREVENTING EXCEPTIONS 191 than give in, all the resources at his command, until he finds a new expression or is convinced that there is no way of substituting for the word in either sentence. A college boy has been warned against the use of translations, and has resolved that he will persist in making his own translations. An inexperienced in- structor gives out an impossible lesson and the students generally go and secure translations. If anything is to save him from lapsing from his habit, it will not be an unreenforced initiative, but the resolution made to pro- vide against just such a contingency. i6. Preventing exceptions by combining positive and negative initiative. — 2. Connect by a special provision the inhibiting tendency and its motives with the initia- tive for the habit. If a parent wanted his son or daughter to stand with back straight and chest thrown forward, the pride of the child and approval of his parents would be the positive initiative. Tendencies to stoop would be disapproved equally positively, and fear of becoming like some sad example of his acquaintance would serve as initiative to the inhibition of the stooping tendency. But both of these would act in a way for the inhibitory act, just as both would work together in the positive function of one and the negative of the other for the habit itself. In practical life this is often accomplished by warn- ings, " If you allow that for a moment, it will be the end of you," etc., etc., through a long list. This is helpful and even pedagogical, in so far as the caution succeeds in associating closely with the tendency to lapse a warn- ing vividly calling up the connection of the desired in- hibition with the initiative of the desired habit. The teacher of manual training will warn a boy who is fitting some pieces for a picture frame, " Be careful about those 192 HABIT-FORMATION corners; you might just as well throw the whole business on the scrap heap in the first place as to make a mistake there." By various strong expressions (and even stress of voice seems to count) associations are formed. At times quite artificial associations may be made, as when one prone to anger checks himself until he has had time to count thirty. Before he has finished, associations connected with his initiative for controlling himself are stirred, and probably the temptation resisted. How beneficial prayer and meditation may be in just this particular, is evident. If there were no spiritual advantages in prayer and meditation beyond the possibilities they offer of keeping present and practical man's ideals and lofty motives, on those grounds alone they would still be worthy of rank among life's most uplifting influences. These illustrate very forcibly the possibility of connecting motives of inhibition with those for positive action, since the roots of positive action in upUfting mankind are no less buried in high motives than are those of the more often emphasized inhibitions and prohibitions. 17. Use of concrete reminders. — 3. Supply the child with concrete reminders of the original intent. Various in- signia, either of honor or of office, — buttons, ribbons, pins, etc., — may serve to counteract by their presence tendencies otherwise alluring. Similarly proverbs written on the blackboard, class mottoes, displays of superior work, rolls of honor and other lists, or rewards of the faithful, by their presence to the eye, are very likely to be suggestive of good impulses at the time of the temptations to lapse, nor should the fact that boys wearing Audubon buttons have been known to steal birds' eggs be allowed to act as a very discouraging factor in the use of such reminders. 18. Picturing painful consequences of lapses. — 4. Pic- METHODS OF PREVENTING EXCEPTIONS 193 ture for the child the painful consequences of failure to acquire the habit desired. The child is ordinarily unable in a cold-blooded fashion to look ahead and see the outcome of his action, good or bad. Many a little girl has been genuinely surprised at breaking her doll when she had per- sisted once too often in throwing it to the ground. The person of experience sees how his own character, with its merits and demerits, is the outcome of his own choice under the conditions in which those choices have been made. He can therefore conjecture roughly at least the possible outcome of a course of action. The imagination of the child is much better fitted for an aimless play of fancy than for such definite forecasts, unless aided in them by a vivid portrayal on the part of the teacher or parent. A little girl of twelve years may not have imagination enough to see the pleasure that she will have and give, if she persists in daily practice on the piano; but her mother may be able to show it to her by calling up an array of imaginary occasions when talent would result in great satisfaction and many advantages to her. If to this picture is appended a doleful one representing her as lamenting in the future her inability to play, and sorrowing at the good times missed on that account, the initiative on the side of inhibition as well as on that of practice will be greatly strengthened by the contrast. The advantages of order, diligence in certain lines, punctuality, generosity, politeness, and the like are not always apparent to the child, and considerable suggestion may have to be offered before hjs imagination could be said to develop an initiative of any value. The child has become accustomed to an irregular, selfish, and rude manner of life, and does not appreciate its disadvantages. In such instances his imagination must be quickened, and perhaps by sad experience itself. For in extreme and in 194 HABIT-FORMATION exceptional cases it is often in connection with the lapse itself that a realization is gained of the advantages of this or that habit. For example, a dog of the author's acquaintance fell through the ice of a lake almost at the instant of disobedience to a call intended to guard him from the danger. He narrowly escaped drowning, and apparently out of gratitude for his rescue was converted from a most desultory to a most punctilious obedience. 19. Making painful experiences effective. — 5. Make real in case of actual lapses the painful experience, and prolong it. If the anticipation of unpleasantness is a deter- rent, its realization should prove more deterring. The picture of the mother dragging her howling infant all bedraggled with mud, by the arm, and saying savagely, "Didn't I tell you not to go near that place?" is certainly a familiar one. A highly suitable occasion is pictured for developing not only the original initiative to obedience, but its subordinate checking or inhibitive tendency. When- ever that particular situation comes to view again, the emphasis on its unpleasant associations is likely to prove effective. The device employed by a principal to prolong the pain- ful consequence of stealing is an excellent illustration of the application of this rule to a hardened case. The child was required to report to the principal every day for the rest of the year whether she had taken anything that day. Tactful treatment and commendation where it was deserved un- doubtedly made this severe measure beneficial. There are many ways of reminding and intensif3dng the consequences of exceptions made to the habit-forming process. The child should feel that it is an evidence of weakness on his part, but must not be so humiliated as to become discouraged. For the deadening effect of his discouragement would go far toward counteracting any METHODS OF PREVENTING EXCEPTIONS 195 initiative he might otherwise have. A child who has handed in a paper which is far from neat, may perhaps suffer both by having to copy it in good shape and perhaps by being obliged to add any excuses he may have for his previous neglect. But to abuse him and exaggerate the offense by calling him generally worthless and shiftless, even though other grounds existed, might be to take the heart out of him altogether. 20. Natural and artificial punishment. — All these vari- ous ways of making real the painful consequences of ex- ceptions reduce themselves to two distinct kinds, natural punishments and artificial punishments. The former refer to those which follow naturally as consequences of the failure, the doctrine of consequences; while the latter, the doctrine of punishment, is applied especially to those imposed by some meddler in the environment. We can- not overlook the wisdom of nature in the larger aspects of her activity, but when it comes to life's detailed adjust- ments, nature is a bungler. She often rewards us for our misdeeds, as in the mellowing pleasure which lasts through life of some youthful prank. She often punishes us for most praiseworthy toil by an ill-timed storm, and for com- mendable service by ingratitude or worse. In short, the brutality of nature must now be forestalled and now miti- gated by more humane measures which may prove equally effective for good and less productive of harm; but the ineffective measures of nature must be reenforced by the artificial. It is agreed that the artificial must never be used except in so far as the natural need modification. Nature's way is automatic and reaches deep. Artificial modes are often labored and superficial. Both natural and artificial punishment may be brutal. The teacher, then, must study the consequences of exceptions. If ill-adjusted, his re- 196 HABIT-FORMATION course must be to his own action. That may mean chastise- ment, forfeiture of privilege, or verbal rebuke, ranging from the level of scathing condemnation to that of mild scold- ing. No general prescription can be laid down for appli- cation in preventing exception beyond this, that great care should be taken not to get associated with the habit any unnecessarily unpleasant feelings, even though they are intended to operate inhibitively. If the sphere of appli- cation is so widened as to attach them to the desired reaction, the resulting dissatisfaction will prevent the repeti- tion essential for the formation of the habit. A child whose drawings are uniformly condemned in the hope of goading him to more careful work will never make an artist. 21. Promoting self-criticism and self-testing. — In the last point to be mentioned for safeguarding against ex- ceptions, both the initiative of the inhibition and the variation in the situation and the reaction are combined. 6. Promote self-criticism and self-testing in all habit- getting. As an aid in getting visible and concrete facihty in motor and in many memoriter habits, active self-criticism and self-testing are invaluable in forestalling exceptions. The " New England conscience " as applied to habit-forming may lead to a poor choice of habits, but it is certain to pro- duce results. This type of mind is well represented by the woman who in the excitement of the occasion pronounced her friend's new baby beautiful. After reflecting at home about it, she decided that she had told a lie and accordingly wrote a note apologizing for her untruthfulness. Such habits of self-searching certainly tend to produce a habit of truth-telling, whatever may be the endowment of com- mon sense needed to accompany such extraordinary de- velopment of conscience. The child who is easily satisfied with the results of his labors as well as his way of getting them is in danger of METHODS OF PREVENTING EXCEPTIONS 197 doing slovenly work. His lessons and his exercises will be quite differently done if he tests himself with such ques- tions as, "Am I getting the slant right?" — "Can I give the names of the first seven Presidents of the United States, or mention all the modes of seed distribution, or the chief industries of St. Paul and Minneapolis?" The child who tests himself on arithmetic combinations, tables, and so forth, as he happens to think of them, is not only fixing habits valuable in themselves, but is besides forming a habit of fixing his habits which is most useful in preventing exceptions. 22. Two cautions, (a) Don't nag. — Two cautions may play a useful part here. 1. Do not nag. It is a great waste of initiative.* It cancels incentive fast, and creates a "don't care" spirit. It ignores resulting satisfaction, and emphasizes the monotony of repetition. As a source of initiative and a stimulant to action of the whole-hearted sort, its influence rapidly approaches the zero point. It is as though instinctive protection had been vouchsafed the child against the ignorance of those who do permit them- selves to make a habit of this nagging proclivity. 23. (b) Don't expect the child to distinguish automatisms. — 2. Do not expect the child to understand without being told that an act is to become habitual, but let him know it very definitely. At the same time acquaint him with the automatic nature of a habit. The young boy does not overlook this point when it is applied to outdoor sports. When he tells his associate in baseball to "follow the ball to your hands," he lets him know that that is something he must do every time, until it comes so naturally that he cannot help it, and that he must watch himself and see if he is following the direction. The word " habit " may not be ' Compare Bagley, "Class-room Management," p. 166. New Yorki 1907. 198 HABIT-FORMATION used, but the boy knows what is meant. The same prin- ciple applies in the schoolroom, whether or not the word "habit" is used. Some principals and teachers make a point of showing their classes the value of the right sort of habits and how to form them. In the upper grades, some instruction regarding habit is highly desirable. 24. Sxunmary. — Exceptions are not merely negative; they are destructive. Their two sources are either weak- ened initiative or variations in the situation leading to the reaction, or in the reaction itself. These disturbing factors should be removed or reduced to the minimum. In view of these sources, six general rules have been stated : — 1. Study the habit with a view to aU its likely tendencies to modifications. 2. Reenforce by support at the point or time of weakness an initiative which is likely to fade. 3. Remove, if possible, stimuli that menace the habit. (Fatigue is a common menace.) 4. Reduce to the minimum stimuli opposed to the habit. 5. When the habit has reached its maximum eflBciency, guard against further variation by special commendation of the reaction. 6. Simplify habits and rid them of special points of difficulty by securing smaller contributing habits before the more complex are attempted. Aside from these maxims growing out of the nature of initiative and of variations in the situation or reaction, there are certain others which are involved in the child's power directly to inhibit exceptions. This checking tendency or inhibition has its own stimuli, and is the ex- pression of motives which are fundamental to itself. Accordingly, on the side of developing a vigorous inhibitive tendency to safeguard against temptations to lapse, the METHODS OF PREVENTING EXCEPTIONS 199 following eight points suggest means of preventing excep- tions, the first two being suggested by the nature of the stimulus, the next five by the initiative leading to inhibition of exceptions, and the last by a combination of both points of view : — 1. Make plain the fact that certain variations, either in the situation or the reaction, are likely to occur, that they are temptations, and must be overcome. 2. Put the pupil on his guard against the^rsf tendency to lapse. 3. Prepare for recognition of the danger by leading the child to resolve definitely against lapses in general, and particularly of the sort anticipated. 4. Connect by special provision the inhibiting tendency and its motives with the motives at the basis of the initia- tive for the habit. 5. Supply the child with concrete reminders of the origi- nal intent. 6. Picture for the child the painful consequences of fail- ure to acquire the habit. 7. Make real in case of actual lapse the painful experience, and prolong it. The means is by the natural consequences, regulated and adapted, where ill-adjusted, by artificial measures. 8. Promote self-criticism and self-testing in habit- getting. Two cautions conclude this section : 1. Do not nag. 2. Do not expect the child, without being told, to understand that an act is to become habitual, but let him know it very definitely. At the same time acquaint him with the value and the automatic nature of habit, perhaps by spe- cific instruction on the subject. CHAPTER XI How Habits ake Broken " Habits are soon assumed, but when we strive To strip them off, 'tis being flayed alive." — Shakespeare. 1. Misconception of the function of habit. — The popu- lar notion of a habit used to be that it was something bad that a person either himself got as a result of his evil nature, or had given him, perhaps as a child of wrath, by the devil. The idea of good habits predominating in life as assumed in this book would have seemed strange to a person with such a point of view. On that basis this book is surely all out of proportion; it should have been devoted to an ex- position of how to break habits, and perhaps only by this time have made ready for the little that need be said on forming them. Such a person can hardly have the faintest glimmer of the real function and usefulness of our habits, although he represents in some degree most persons who have had no occasion to think the subject over carefully. 2. The origin of bad habits. — On the other hand, the unlettered person is not so far wrong as to where bad habits come from. Many of them are presented to us among our instinctive tendencies. All such tendencies are good when appropriate, and bad when out of place. Other bad habits are acquired as a result of chance, because of some accidental association with pleasure, which was made perhaps early in life, though the act itself may not have been the real, but rather the imagined, cause of satisfaction. 200 HOW HABITS ARE BROKEN 201 It is said of a certain cat that it had a bad habit of stealing young chickens. The cat had an instinctive ten- dency to catch and eat small birds. It is a very useful instinct (i.e. to the cat) in a primitive state of cat life. In our complex state of civilization, either the cat has to learn to leave chickens alone, or barriers must be interposed between the cat and the chickens. An instinct applied in a direction not agreeable to us, we call a bad habit. On the other hand, a baby may form the habit of sucking its thumb or curling its hair; a child may form the habit of biting its nails or chewing gum; a man may automatically pull his whiskers, or a woman habitually put a finger up to her cheek. In times of reflection most of us have some little automatism of this sort, usually more or less undesir- able, which, according to James, furnishes a sort of outlet for surplus energy. Or in many instances, according to Lauder-Brunton,' they actually perform the function of increasing the flow of blood through the carotid artery to the brain, and thus aid in the reflective process, so that greater satisfaction results from the brain processes because of their greater eflBciency. Be that as it may, there are thousands of valuable habits which the child gains through instinctive activity, but especially noteworthy forces are imitation, play, inves- tigation, and self-expression, whatever its forms. Not only do children learn by imitation to copy a large number of actions which they have seen, — most of them useful, others harmless, and others undesirable, — but they also imitate especially sounds, words, and word combinations which they have heard. Some of those words spoken with most emphasis are likely to be np more desirable than the worst of the actions imitated, and for similar reasons, i.e. they 'See Rowe, "Physical Nature of the Child," p. 106. Also Popular Science Monthly, Vol. XL VI., p. 26. 202 HABIT-FORMATION offend our taste, our moral sensibility, or our feeling of what is courteous. They are unfortunate misapplications of a tremendous engine for good in human culture. 3. Problem of both the home and the school. — These language habits may be picked up either at home, at school, or on the street. It becomes, therefore, incum- bent on both parents and teachers to be on their guard against undesirable ones, as the ease with which they may be removed is proportional to their newness. It is equally necessary that the teacher and parent cooperate in the formation of habits. Otherwise there may be a lack of common purpose sometimes actually forcing the child to make exceptions. Still more important is it in breaking a habit that they work together. Any excep- tion made reopens the old pathway and delays the con- summation desired far more than it would if a habit were being formed. The breaking of crude and un- grammatical habits of expression is almost impossible without the backing of the home, and is often unsuccessful for the reason that the home is not of a sort to furnish such aid. There are exceptions, but they are relatively few, where the initiative of a genius has risen above un- favorable surroundings. 4. Relation between habit-forming and habit-breaMng. — The question may be raised. If the child's actions are at any given moment the product either of his instinc- tive or habitual tendencies, is not every change made, as in forming a new habit, a breaking up or splitting up of some old one ? Surely in one sense it is true that the old outfit of customary ways of performing certain acts is broken in upon, but the new adjustment required may be in response to a new sort of situation, and con- sequently there is not and has not been any habit of deal- ing with this situation. An adjustment of some sort is HOW HABITS ARE BROKEN 203 made, and will, if repeated often enough, become habitual. If the same situation — for example, one involving re- proof — has been reacted to for a period perhaps by sulk- ing, and later habitually by a cheerful and well-intentioned promise to do better next time, evidently an old habit has been replaced by a new one. On the other hand, is not all habit-breaking habit- forming? ' There are numerous paths or ways of doing things. One may be substituted at one time and an- other at another. So that whereas one had only one habit for a given situation, he now has a large number, just as a person in a situation where an affirmation is desired, instead of saying "yes," may reply "certainly," 'Professor Home, in his "Psychological Principles of Educa- tion" (Macmillan, 1907), tries to make the same rules serve for both habit-breaking and habit-forming, but is forced to differen- tiate. Curtmann refers to habit-breaking (Abgewohnung) as re- versed habit-forming, but makes a general distinction in a passage which may be translated as follows: — " The procedure in this afflicted condition of the pupil is dis- tinguished from the unfolding of unsullied powers by the fact that the chUd has become older when the treatment is begun, that milder measures are no longer effective to the same degree, and further that the confidence and the love, which in general may be taken for granted in the merely unfolding processes of education, can in this sort of process be gained at first in many cases only by the exercise of considerable skill in order to avoid any estrangement of the pupil from his teacher. Habits become endeared to us, and therefore all habit-breaking is hard. Habit- breaking is not a step forward in a chosen direction, but rather a backward step, and consequently lacking in the joy of success. It presupposes regret. Unless the child acknowledges his mis- take, habit-breaking is doubly difficult." See Curtmann's "Lehr- buch der Erziehung," p. 140. Heidelberg, 1846. In spite of the relatively much greater complexity of the task of breaking a habit, good practice will be afforded the careful reader in applying the principles set forth in the previous chapters to this one. 204 HABIT-FORMATION "please," "thank you, yes," "if you please," "pray do," "you bet," "I should like to very much," "just as you say," or use any other expression that may suggest itself as appropriate, each as is evident with a certain fitness based on habit for certain occasions and unfitness for others, but still taking the place of a simple "yes." Even with this wide choice, however, it might be as true to the facts to say that the child really has now twenty habits where he formerly had only one. If he makes a judicious selection, he has surely broken the habit of answering merely with an unresponsive "yes." In other cases the removal of the stimuli or the crowd- ing of other impressions so as to absorb all attention, causes the habit to disappear or to be "outgrown" with- out any definite substitution of another. It is evident that some, but not all, habit-forming is habit-breaking, and that some, but not all, habit-breaking is habit-forming. But the tendency is to supplant a habit too simple for the complexities of life with one or more better adapted to the manifoldness of experience. The natural way to break a habit is therefore to form a counter habit. 5. Nature's way of breaking habits. — The havoc that would be wrought in all progress, were the forces of habitu- ation supreme, has been well illustrated by the conserva- tism of the Chinese. Nature has equipped man with a con- trary impulse to change, to originate, to imagine construc- tively, — the forces of "accommodation" as opposed to those of " habituation." ' There is a constant tendency on the part of the child to vary his reaction, to experiment, to accommodate ^ or adjust his reaction more delicately if he • See Baldwin, " Mental Development in the Child and the Race," pp. 214-219 and 476-480. Macmillan, 1903. 2 See p. 53. Also p. 183. HOW HABITS ARE BROKEN 205 can. It often happens that he does vary the action without knowing it, and that the variation is a perversion of the original purpose and intent. The function of this funda- mental tendency is undoubtedly to secure an economy of the energy and effort used; and, in case equally good results occur, a sort of short circuiting of a part of the path takes place with resultant reduction in resistance. The reduction in resistance may, however, be at the ex- pense of the delicacy of the original adjustment. 6. Habits formed unconsciously. — All habits that have been formed without any consciousness or intent, by un- noticed variations are to be distinguished from those which are consciously formed, these last being either so intricate, so remote from the more usual ways of reacting, or so dependent on effort as to make it quite easy to make an exception in their case, whereas those that have crept into our lives without our knowing it are hard to change, because the attention must in some way be brought to them in the process. Added associations, however, make possible a variation both in attention and in the reaction. 7. The necessity for confidence of success. — Habits vary greatly in the difficulty both of making and break- ing them. Those that have woven themselves into the warp and woof of our lives without consciousness or effort on our part tend to persist. Habits which produce a morbid craving of the nervous system are hard to break. But with the true perversity of nature, those that cost us trouble and effort to form are easily broken. The child must not be discouraged by failure. When an attempt is made to break a habit, err on the side of overdoing rather than that of underdoing the effort. As Curtmann * has indicated, many habits necessitate an ' See footnote, p. 203. 206 HABIT-FORMATION intimate trust and confidence of the child in his teacher, if the teacher is to know all that is necessary to enable the child to rally all his forces to the destruction of his enemy. 8. The situation to be met in habit-breaking. — Given a habit that is hard to change, what is the situation in its various elements? There is, as always, a stimulation and a reaction. These two factors may be evident and easily recognized, or they may be, as in all such habits as are not characterized by visible muscular reaction, en- tirely mental, and to be judged rather by interpreting their results and the person's own introspection than by any definitely visible sign. Curtmann ' gives as his chief rule for breaking a habit: Withhold all nourishment from the undesirable tendency ("man entziehe der fehlerhaften Kraft alle Nahrung"), adding that it is even wrong to recall it; rather should the thoughts be recalled from it, the associations leading to it should be interrupted and broken, even at the ex- pense of progress in other directions. It must be agreed with him that in breaking a habit with known stimulus and known reaction, the best way, if possible, is to inter- cept the stimulus. 9. The removal of stimuli. — If all stimuli of a certain sort are cut off, it is evident that the corresponding re- actions will likewise fail to function. As long as a baby persists in throwing out of his carriage to the floor what- ever is given him to look at, we do not insist on his han- dling our valuable bric-a-brac. We remove that sort of stimulus. In popular language, he will outgrow the trait. Niemeyer^ said: "Evil habits are forgotten by disuse. 'Curtmann, "Lehrbuch der Erziehung," p. 141. Heidelberg, 1846. ' Quoted in Radestock's " Habits in Education," p. 5. Trans, by Caspari. Boston, 1886. HOW HABITS ARE BROKEN 207 The more rarely evil traits have an opportunity of ap- pearing, the more the causes are removed by which they are excited, the more they will lose in strength, as physi- cal powers relax when exercised." But a child cannot be expected to live all its life with- out handling delicate and easily broken objects; sooner or later it must learn habits of careful manipulation of breakable objects. That is, it is sometimes impossible, and often inadvisable, to remove stimuli; the unsatis- factory habits must be modified or adjusted to more complex demands. In almost all habits, if the stimulus cannot be removed, it will be found that the reaction in itself is not so bad, but, on the other hand, some phases of the act are ill- adjusted to the complexities of life. The child has adapted himself to some situation directly, while man- kind has found that different reactions are advisable according as various elements in similar situations are emphasized. lo. The interruption of the reaction. — The most radi- cal form of modification of a previous habit is its abso- lute obliteration. This is effected aside from the removal of stimuli only through a long course of neglect, and this neglect will only be realized by continued and vigorous acts of inhibition for which, as they are to become habitual, the devices of method set forth in the previous chap- ters are applicable. Where the breaking of the habit is not nullification (it is impossible to get up much en- thusiasm over mere paralysis), whatever modification is made must be of the sort originally described in connec- tion with instinct,* either a selection or a combination. The movement of the lips while reading is eventually stopped, the other habits involved in reading being • See p. 81. 208 HABIT-FORMATION selected, while in playing on the piano the habit of using both hands more or less independently is broken by a rhythmic combination of the habits involved in move- ment of each hand separately. With these also must be combined the habits of interpreting the printed symbols. II. Selection and combination. — This selection in- volves decided inhibition, as in the former case, where an unimportant phase of the total habit is dropped. The action may therefore be described from either of its two points of view. It is either breaking a habit of moving the lips while reading, or forming the habit of reading without moving the lips. Whichever name it is given, there is distinct inhibition involved in the control of the lips, as many can remember in their own experience and as the ways of breaking this habit indicate. But in other cases, as in breaking a habitual laziness, a number of habits are broken and the selection is the essential habit of studying one's physical need of rest or recreation and that of keeping at hand enough sorts of useful activity to reward effort. The selection in this case is hardly of habits to be broken, i.e. the selection involved in inhibi- tive processes consists really of actions to be made ha- bitual. It is breaking one habit by forming another.' The breaking of habit by combinations, as in the case of the baby's giving up the habit of indiscriminately throw- ing objects to the ground, is almost never pure inhibition. If it were, it would mean a waste of opportunity. The baby ultimately learns that very few things should be so treated; these are to be put in one place, others in another; these are to be used in such and such ways, and others serve other purposes. In short, a temporary habit of pausing is followed by another of specific action. • See Sherrington, "Integrative Action of the Nervous System" (Scribner, 1906), for examples of the positive nature of inhibition. HOW HABITS ARE BROKEN 209 Whether or no this pause represents predominantly in- hibition, as it may, there can be no doubt that it leads to deliberative analysis of the situation with the antici- pated consequences of certain possible lines of action and habitual reactions, according to the results of the analysis. The habit of throwing things to the ground indiscriminately is broken, and habits of discrimination take its place. Again, a more involved habit, or company of habits, has taken the place of a former mode of action. In more complicated instances the selection and com- bination may operate together in breaking a habit. In learning to read correctly words involving the French "u," the child must add that sound to others suggested by the letter " u." Though he may pronounce the vowel correctly by itself, he must be able to use the sound not merely in combination with others; but in any combination his reading or speech may suggest, this sound is to be called up habitually wherever the word is French, and not where it is English. He must break up, in other words, his habit of pronouncing " u " always as in English, and add another possibility to be associated with French words whether they are interspersed in the English or are found in French context. 12. Bad habits as lines of least resistance. — The habitual reaction in question may serve some useful pur- pose. It may save time, energy, simplify movements, make them more accurate, give them stability, reduce fatigue and conscious attention, or minimize feeling, and in general it leaves the mind free for more complicated functioning. A habit serves as a line of least resistance, and hence, as Professor Home has already pointed out, it is much harder to break an old habit than to form a new one, since the old association path is there with its tendency 210 HABIT-FORMATION ready to be set in operation as soon as it is once traversed again, or wherever there is hesitation or obstruction of the newer habit path. 13. Substitute habits must have offsetting advantages. — If the old habit saves time, and yet is to be broken, this saving must be offset by crudities in other respects; or it is possible that the gain is more apparent than real. Consequently another habit may be equally effective as a time-saver, and more desirable otherwise. In a similar way, the energy saved, the fatigue reduced, the simplification, or the increase in accuracy of movement, though useful in themselves, may be at the expense of real eflBciency, everything considered. The advantages may be only apparent, or this habit may take the place of some other which could accomplish all the purposes of this one, and more. If these habits are to be broken, the new and substituted habit must have either the real advantage of the old or some advantage of greater im- portance which the old one did not have. This principle is certainly one of the most important for consideration in the substitution of habits. Equally important is it that the child know and realize as fully as possible the advantage of the habit to be substituted. 14. Inherent difficulties must be overcome. — On the other hand, the loss of feeling, the lack of consciousness of the reaction, the stability or fixed character, and the automatic operation of the habit are distinct obstructions to both inhibitions and modifications of the habit. Many a man gets a well-nigh incurable stoop in his shoulders almost before he is aware of it. He does not feel the change, he pays no attention to the reaction, and tends rather to add to than to lessen the fault. Given a cer- tain train of thought, and the stoop comes of itself. How is such a tendency to be resisted? Feeling must be HOW HABITS ARE BROKEN 211 gained. He must straighten himself up and throw out his chest and notice how different he feels. He gets his friends to remind him, whenever they see him drooping. The attention must be again focused on the carriage of the shoulders. Many lines of association must be con- nected with the reaction, especially at such times as he feels himself likely to yield to the temptation, as perhaps on his way home from work. He may think of various stores or street corners he is to pass on his way home and give them associations with throwing his chest for- ward. Whenever he meets a person he knows, or a man wearing the sort of hat he does, he is to do the same thing. These are all devices for making associations which may serve to remind him. Others may be used for making him generally conscious of himself. Unless he can in some way get the feeling of the reaction or the definite consciousness of the reaction, there is almost no hope of improvement, since the difficulties raised by the stability and automatic character of habit are otherwise unassailable. Looked at from the broadest point of view, two general conclusions, drawn from the discussion so far, are consid- erations of the utmost service in habit-breaking. 15. Attack one bad habit at a time. — If, as has been shown, it is hard to focus consciousness on the habit, and if the feeling element is practically lost, it is evident that consciousness must be taken up as fully as practi- cable with the schemes for working against this one habit to be broken. Consequently, in breaking a habit not too much should be attempted at once. " One at a time" is as much as can be accomplished, unless they are all closely associated or of the easier type. In a habit like that of using intoxicants, the attack may be made on the whole list of stimulating beverages, and should extend to 212 HABIT-FORMATION the habit of visiting all places where the temptation to drink is likely to arise. i6. Substitute another habit. — As has already been pointed out, where it is possible and the stimuli cannot be removed, substitute another habit. Unless some other channel of activity is found for the energy which is called for by the given situation, the stress on the old channel to release the tension is very strong. Besides, it is im- possible to get very enthusiastic over the stoppage of action. No initiative can be called upon to advantage, and there is no focus for attention except the old line of activity, which gives that an added point of advantage. Consequently an undesirable habit should be supplanted by a desirable one. Thus even stutterers who have for a long time per- sisted in the habit are often cured by substituting another habit, such as snapping the fingers for the habit of repeating the sounds. So much energy is consumed in performing this new act immediately upon any hesitancy in speech, that there is none left for the stuttering. 17. Undesirable habits should not be formed. — It must not be argued from this case that the child should develop at the cost of considerable effort undesirable habits as makeshifts, which are in their turn to be broken later. Its justification in the case of the stuttering is the physiological surcharge of nervous energy which must be, so to speak, drained through another channel. The formation of one habit only to be replaced by an- other, i.e. broken, results almost always in tremendous waste.' 'Compare President Eliot's statement that "a method of dis- cipline which must be inevitably abandoned as a child grows up, was not the most expedient at the early age, for the reason that HOW HABITS ARE BROKEN 213 One of the deep-seated habits or attitudes of mind the teacher wishes his pupils to have is absolute confidence in his leadership, — a confidence which should be based on sympathy and success. Children are usually more or less predisposed in this direction. If this advantage is lost, as it is likely to be where mistakes are made or wastes of time or labor are discovered, the teacher has forfeited one great source of initiative with his pupils, and one which should be habitually given — unknowingly and all the better for that. In religious education parents often err grievously by pretending to believe what they do not, or at least have serious doubts about, if they are honest with themselves. Later the child discovers the emptiness of the pretense, and thereafter even the genu- ine convictions of the parents may, much to their aston- ishment and disappointment, receive scant recognition. i8. The possibilities. — In habit-breaking we have then the difficulty not only of the original situation with its undesirable stimuli, but of an established pathway of discharge with its many associations ready to function, if there is the least hesitancy or blockade either in the inhibitory process or in the path intended as a substitute. Hence reliance must be placed on developing a counter initiative, on practice, and especially on the means of preventing exceptions. Accordingly, not only is a preliminary study of the situation as outlined in Chapter VII necessary (though here the study should include also a search for the most available line of habit to substitute), but it is necessary as well to study in all its bearing from stimuli to reaction the new habit selected. in education the development and training of motives should be consecutive and progressive, not broken and disjointed." Eliot, "Educational Reform," p. 328. New York, 1898. 214 HABIT-FORMATION 19. Emphasis on preventing exceptions. — The chap- ters on getting initiative and practice are equally perti- nent here in every phase, including especially the earnest conviction of the child that it will be well worth while, but the chapter on methods of preventing exceptions is much more vital when a habit is to be broken, since it will take no more than one or two lapses to reestablish even in more than its original strength the undesirable habit. The discouragement of failure alone is deadly to the initiative. Besides, resources have been drawn upon and used up so that new motives must be sought and added to the old, if they can be patched up into service- able condition at all. In so far as new habits are substituted for old ones, the breaking of habit is only a phase of creating a new one, — a phase in which the opposing stimuli and the reaction are known to exist, consequently emphasizing the importance of preventing exceptions. 20. Relation of breaking habits to the methodology of forming them. — It is almost impossible in the great mul- tiplicity of habits to be broken to fix any of the points of emphasis except in the most general way. It is evi- dent, however, that aside from the guarding against ex- ceptions, the development either of habits of inhibition or positive opposing habits must be built on a counter initiative. Certain phases of that will need especial at- tention. A phase, too, of the reaction, the slight variation which in forming a habit is important only as a tendency to be guarded against, is here emphasized, because it lends material aid in shifting or substituting reactions. This will be touched upon briefly in connection with practice which, in the case of breaking habits, is given a quite different weight. For, although practice ordi- narily implies stimuli promoting repetition, it is hardly HOW HABITS ARE BROKEN 215 sensible to multiply undesirable stimuli just for the sake of securing practice in inhibiting. Even a habit should not be practiced without great care as to the conditions, if its desirability is chiefly as a substitute. Aside from this difference in the practice, then, first the use of the counter initiative, and second the use of variations, chiefly distin- guish habit-breaking from habit-forming. 21. Initiative for breaking habits. Positive initiative. — Only one new suggestion need be made here for get- ting substitute habits. As before, develop positive initia- tive, but do not forget to add as well the initiative which is fundamental to the inhibition of the habit. The posi- tive sources of initiative will be, as in all cases, the emo- tions, the interests, the instincts, resulting or anticipated satisfactions, and the more involved specific motives. They can be counted upon to function, and must be called upon vigorously. 22. Special incentives to inhibition. Negative initia- tive. — In getting inhibition, the source of initiative may be any of the preceding, but those which nature seems to have intrusted with the strongest immediate checking tendency, even to the point of deadening action, are the avoidance of pain, avoidance of danger, fear, and result- ing or anticipated dissatisfaction. Some, if not most of these, may be made use of or amalgamated with more positive initiative, not only in their special function, developing inhibition itself, but also in developing a new habit. The hesitation gives opportunity for deliberation, and the analysis of the situation is sure to suggest the habit desired and the initiative with which it is linked. Thus, if a child was accustomed to picking his teeth with a pin, to break the habit, one might inhibit the action by showing him the danger of injuring his teeth, the pain and trouble that he would bring upon himself. His action 216 HABIT-FORMATION might be checked, but the unpleasant stimuli wedged between his teeth are calling for action. If another habit, i.e. a modification of this one, such as substituting a wooden toothpick for the pin, is not suggested, there will almost certainly be exceptions made on account of the continuous stimulation. This new plan may be imitated, commended, or otherwise given an associated satisfac- tion which will more strongly energize it than could the more remote impulse to inhibit without such reenforce- ment.* There are situations where no habitual act may take the place of the habit broken. In such there is less chance to break the habit. But scarcely any situation is of a sort to exclude habits of centering attention on other stimuli than those provocative of the undesired reaction, and the purposed shift of attention becomes in itself a substituted habit. 23. The double use of initiative. — Although the same sources of initiative as in habit-forming may serve in inhibition, there is evidently a shifting of emphasis. The instincts of imitation, play, construction, ownership, and love of the beautiful, for example, could never mean much in the purely inhibitive aspect of breaking a habit, however useful they may be in forming one.^ When a child stops saying "ain't it," he has nothing to imitate as a substitute, unless we suggest the habit of saying "isn't it." Play and construction are not very useful when really something is not to be done. On the other hand, pride and love of approval may be useful; so sympathy, love of the right, may combine powerfully with the main- stays of inhibition, avoidance of pain and danger, fear, shyness, and resulting or anticipated dissatisfaction. Even emulation or pugnacity may be turned to account by a ' See pages 14S and 146. ' See Section 11 of this chapter. HOW HABITS ARE BROKEN 217 personification of the habit, in which the child is en- couraged not to let it get the best of him. Similarly, among the emotions the positive should be reenforced by those opposite emotions which will be called into action with any exception to the habit. To the feeling of self-approval at success in the direction of the new habit should be added the anticipated disappoint- ment at failure in breaking the old. Indeed, this feeling should theoretically be so strong as to make it impossible really to conceive the failure as a possibility. In the case of interest, it is hardly to be expected that a child will have a strong interest in the discontinuance of an act. It will at best be a borrowed interest. Some line of action in which he is interested will be furthered by abstaining from this one. If a substituted habit may be connected with direct interest, then the borrowed interest will easily serve in inhibiting the habit to be broken. A child may have the habit of asking uncere- moniously for favors. If they are not granted on such occasions, the interest (i.e. the pleasurable activity, de- sign, or plan), which they would have served, suffers. On the other hand, if in addition when he says " please," his plans are furthered, the interest in the habit of saying "please" is more nearly direct and combines with the indirect or borrowed interest for abandoning the impolite form of demand. The same illustration shows the difference in the ap- plication of the resulting or anticipated satisfaction or dissatisfaction. Dissatisfaction in connection with any action must be the real initiative for inhibition. When we try an experiment and get unsatisfactory results, we do not often try that same reaction again. Dissatisfac- tion is not a very inspiring sort of incentive. If, how- ever, in addition to the unpleasantness which has been associated with the habit to be broken, distinct satis- 218 HABIT-FORMATION faction has been associated with a counter substituted habit, the breaking of the old habit is assured. The depressing effect of motives tinged with self-indul- gence, love of ease, low standards, or pessimism, although they are available to a limited degree in forming habits, renders them practically useless as a basis for the effort necessary for the breaking of habit. On the other hand the inspiration of noble example, of lofty ideals, worthy principles, and high standards not only lends powerful support to inhibiting undesirable impulses, but directly serves and promotes the readiness to put forth effort which is indispensable both to breaking the old and forming a new habit. 24. Will power as initiative. — Many a strong-willed person has wondered why the author has not long ere this used the following receipt for breaking a habit, — "Just make up your mind that you will do whatever you start out to do." The answer is simply that it is included naturally among the motives, and is therefore brought in under them here. Moreover, it is one of the most powerful motives to him for whom it is a motive at all; but, on the other hand, those who have the most habits to break are often just those to whom such mo- tives are strangers. In children there is often an almost instinctive persistence which some parents and teachers seek foolishly to overcome, describing their action as "breaking the child's will," — words which fly danger- signals even in themselves. To break a child's will in the sense of crossing him unreasonably and needlessly is to rob him of one of the most powerful factors not only in habit-forming and habit-breaking, but also for success in life. If a child's purpose is wrong and must be thwarted, if he either cannot comprehend the reasoning against it, or there is no time for explanations in the crisis of the HOW HABITS ARE BROKEN 219 moment, the child may be overruled for his own good or even the good of others; but his will, his optimistic persistence in expenditure of effort and in overcoming of obstacles, should never be held up as a direct object of attack, as though it were tainted in itself and needed surgical treatment. 25. The association of initiative with the stimuli. — Does the fact that in habit-breaking the stimuli and the reaction are both given in poteniia make any difference in the application of the initiative? Unquestionably it does. The initiative in habit-forming must often even furnish the stimuli as well as the reaction itself. Here, then, is one point of advantage in habit-breaking. To the given stimulus by direct and indirect paths of asso- ciation may be attached initiative of many sorts. If upon this stimulus are centered dozens of suggestions for inhibition, and one well-developed channel for release of the neural activity, the habit can scarcely persist. A child who wiped her hands on her dress should be made to think of the way it looked when it was spoiled, of the grieved looks and reproving words she received, of the party or picnic she couldn't go to because her dress was spoiled, and so forth. But all these must be called up not so much by the dress as by the wet and sticky hands, so that all these memories with their sorrows may be suggested by those hands acting, when wet or sticky, as stimuli. If, then, it is made easy for her to go and get them washed and this act is provided with its satisfac- tions, the habit has better chance of persisting. 26. The association of Initiative with the reaction. — On the side of the reaction, however, there is a corre- sponding disadvantage. A certain satisfaction must be attached to the reaction, even though a bad one, or it would never have become habitual. New associations 220 HABIT-FORMATION must be attached to the reaction, then, of such a sort as to counteract that satisfaction and turn it, if possible, into a dissatisfaction. Bad habits of posture are, when formed, at least seemingly more comfortable than the more desirable ones. The various disadvantages and discomforts of the bad postures must, therefore, be brought to the child's consciousness; the discomforts of a good position (if the child is annoyed by them and only on this condition), though minimized as only temporary, must be relieved in whatever ways may be discovered; and the founts of initiative, of imitation, pride, love of approbation, ownership, et cetera, should be turned to fullest account for the new habit. 27. Initiative and inhibition as related to the reaction. — It is in connection with the reaction, especially, that the double use of initiative applies. Aside from this counter- acting of initiative already associated with the reaction to be overcome, which has just been pointed out, the various sources of initiative may be called upon both for inhibition of the opposed reaction, or in furtherance of the opposing habit much as in any situation involving habit-forming merely.' Dissatisfaction may counteract incentive to the habitual act, while associated satisfaction of one sort or another may further that which is to take the place of the habit to be broken. 28. Practice and habit-breaking. — It may not be evi- dent how practice may be applied to the new cessation of an habitual action. Supposing that the stimuli, both physical and mental, are cut off, it is evident that there will be no practice or need of it. Unfortunately, how- ever, it is often, as has been already shown, either impos- sible or undesirable to remove the stimuli; consequently, there will be opportunity for practice either in inhibiting ' See Chap. VIII. HOW HABITS ARE BROKEN 221 the old or in the development of a new habit. But, whereas in habit-forming opportunities should be sought for practicing, on the contrary in breaking a habit not only should the stimuli be obstructed, but, as far as pos- sible, every suggestion of the habit should be removed. This is a fundamental difference which admits of no exceptions, unless the substitute habit is worthy of forma- tion for itself alone, and is reasonably certain of successful consummation. 29. The obstruction and counteracting of stimuli. — To accomplish the obstruction of the stimuli and all sources of suggestion, it is evident that the child's mind must be thoroughly occupied with other interests. This is particu- larly true of such times and places as might in themselves suggest the habits, were the mind free to concern itself with those suggestions. Indeed, it is often desirable to change completely the environment. This is the only sen- sible reason for placing a too communicative or playful boy in the midst of girls whose attention will not be distracted by him, though usually this change of seat is made only as a punishment and the boy does not stay there long enough to assist him in really getting his mind down to his work habitually. The emphasis must be here, as in almost all cases of habit-breaking, on the attempt to counteract the stimuli provoking the habit to be broken, and on making the practice in resisting the allurements of these stimuli actual in every case where the stimuli succeed in attracting attention. No opportunities for practice of the inhibiting habit should be sought. It is unwise for children to play with fire for the sake of practice in keeping out of harm's way. 30. Importance of variations. — The second funda- mental difference between breaking and developing habits is, as we have seen in the use of the variations, accommoda- 222 HABIT-FORMATION tions, slight adjustments, and so forth, which represent the force opposed to habituation as a development factor. In habit-forming they were important up to the point where the habit was perfected. From that point they became a menace to the adjustment, and one of the principles advocated was calling especial attention to perfected re- actions so that they might be repeated exactly at their best. In connection with breaking habits, these variations are to be seized upon. They are not only to be encouraged, but actively suggested in every feasible way. 31. Variations related to the stimulation. — Variations may concern the stimulation or the reaction itself. Those that concern the stimulation are relative either to the initia- tive or to the source of the stimulation. They may be greatly altered as far as the initiative is concerned by linking with it inhibitory incentives and by presenting broader, but reasonable and clear, points of view. More important, how- ever, is the suggestion offered that the teacher must study the habit, acquaint himself with the stimuli not only at this moment, but all the possible stimuli including those which originally caused the habit and those that are now sufficient to induce the reaction. These stimuli discovered, they may be so linked with asso- ciations and suggestions as to cause a new habit that will replace the old, just as a child may have such associations centered about the sex function that instead of a habit of thinking crudely and irreverently in that connection, he may think both reverently and even scientifically, as soon as his knowledge of biology is sufficiently extended. It is easy for a boy or girl to fall into habits of being lazy, shiftless, unsystematic, or silly. Many a child has kept a careless habit of this sort long enough to rob him of all possibility of attaining what would have been easily within his grasp, if only in the situations characterized by HOW HABITS ARE BROKEN 223 such reactions the abundant and compelling associations which are within easy reach had been brought to focus. 32. Variations in the reaction. — Although the provoca- tives themselves of the habit must be surrounded with initiative, and this in itself constitutes a variation, it is particularly of the variations in the reaction itself and the associations which go with it that help is gained. The difficulty presented by the lack of feeling and of con- scious attention has already been described. Here is the only opportunity for overcoming that difficulty. Varia- tions must be made in the reaction. This evidently ap- pUes to habits so established, that they will persist in spite of a strong opposing initiative simply because there is no consciousness of the act as taking place. Such a habit is illustrated by the case of a boy who injured his hip so badly that for a long time it hurt him to walk and caused him to develop a habit of limping, which persisted long after all soreness had disappeared. But how could he be taught to walk without limping when he knew neither that he was Umping nor what he did with one leg that was different from what he did with the other? He must be made conscious of the difference by walking before a mirror or by being imitated. He must practice the part of the swing or recovery from the swing with that leg until he gets a more direct movement. He must get the feeling of the correct gait as compared with the feeling of his faulty one. The muscles which play a part in the false movement maybe indicated, or the time of its beginning may be told or shown him. In other words, every encourage- ment is given him to vary the reaction by rousing the feeUng, directing his attention again to the detail of his movement, and suggesting variations, the whole reaction being surrounded with associations tending to produce one or all of these three results. 224 HABIT-FORMATION 33. Natural versus artificial variations. — The sources of variation maybe natural, and such are to be promoted; but it may be impossible to discover them or dangerous to wait. In such cases recourse must be had, as in general, to the artificial variations it is possible to induce. These are of three kinds — addition to the reaction, omission of elements, or complication. Language habits will illustrate most briefly each of these. The omission of " e " in pro- nouncing eleven "leven" must be righted by addition of the first syllable to the habit; the pronunciation of the word, "often" with the "t" sounded, must be amended by omis- sion of the " t "; and many who pronounce the last syllable of literature "toor," should substitute for this a pronuncia- tion by analogy with picture and fixture, thus both subtract- ing and adding to the previous reaction for that word. All of these are the simplest cases of what may be ex- tremely intricate processes. Nor do I believe that the more intricate appUcations are any less practicable than the simpler ones. All depends on the clearness with which the teacher or parent sees the need. 34. Dangers of injurious variations. — Whatever modifi- cation or variation is made in the reaction should not be selected at random. It is possible that the variation made may be worse than the habit. A child may have formed an undesirable but relatively harmless habit. If he is taken to task too severely, he may be driven to a habit of secretiveness or concealment much less desirable than the original habit. 35. Preventing lapses into the old habit. — It is well- nigh impossible to select points for emphasis from the chapter on preventing exceptions as applied to breaking habits, except as has already been done in connection with the removal and reduction of stimuli and the use of varia- tions. Otherwise, the whole chapter applies. It need HOW HABITS ARE BROKEN 225 only be borne in mind that the stimuli to be removed or reduced are those of the undesirable habit itself, while un- desirable habits are both to be varied and complicated. Whereas the inhibitive tendency in preventing exceptions in forming habits is to avoid lapses /rom the habit, in think- ing of it from the standpoint of this chapter it is to avoid lapses into the habit. With these precautions in mind, its application is reasonably plain. In one respect there is less danger here in the use of punishment. If the old habit is made responsible for trouble, it will be all the more in disfavor, and conse- quently more likely to be overcome. There is with fit precaution no such danger that unpleasant associations may attach to the new substitute habit, as there is when habits are to be formed rather than broken. The only dangers are here, as in all punishments, those of discourage- ment and of loss in frank and open good feeling. 36. Need of nice judgment and study of individual cases. — In spite of the length to which this discussion of the points of emphasis in the preceding chapters as applied to the overcoming of habits has of necessity been continued, the writer feels that the complication of the problem must baffle any attempt to meet it in advance. Consequently, much nice judgment on the part of the teacher or parent is necessary in any individual case. All the intricate pos- sibilities have not been, and could not be, considered, and only main lines of consideration have been attempted. 37. Application to a concrete case. — For the rest no better expedient can well be adopted than to take the various points in the chapter and apply them to a concrete case in a way that may seem formal to some, but has been chosen chiefly for the reason that it enables the reader to discover without effort the applicability of the series of points or principles established. 226 HABIT-FORMATION 38. (a) The study and demonstration of a concrete habit. — To take, for example, a boy's habit of shuffling his feet as he walks, it may seem easily remedied to one who has not dealt with groups of children. It is, however, one of those habits gained unconsciously, and is often exceedingly difficult to break. In the teacher's preliminary consideration (follow- ing rather closely the suggestions of Chapter VII), it is easy to see that a new habit is to be taught, since any modifica- tion of a customary mode of walking must be automatic, be serial, and bear in its complete form all the marks needed for identification. A counter habit is to be substituted and all effort concentrated in that direction. The shuffling gait is to be replaced by one which is straightforward, brisk, and businesslike. This cannot be taught in one lesson. It implies a series of lessons in forming a habit. Ideas are involved only as they contribute to the formation of this substitute habit. In this instance application of the principle that the teacher must study the habit in detail, and try it himself, leads to that which is too self-evident to serve as illustra- tion. The teacher knows what good carriage involves, and can readily discover the boy's main faults. Attention may then be directed to them whether they concern the head, shoulders, body, and legs and feet. 1. In giving the child an idea of the way in which he is to walk, the first essential is an actual concrete demonstra- tion by the teacher of the special points to which attention should be called. Besides this, the boy may be on the lookout for examples of manly bearing, which please him, and for illustrations of what he has been shown by the teacher. If necessary, some of the other children may help by marching and so furnish a basis for pointing out essen- tials, though care must be taken that such help is given tactfully and sympathetically. HOW HABITS ARE BROKEN 227 2. Ask him to describe the marching of soldiers, or the bearing of persons of good carriage. 3. Let him practice the stepping forward, making sure that he keeps his leg straight at the knee until it is time to bend it at the beginning of the next step. 4. Have him demonstrate his understanding of what is meant. He may hold his stomach too far forward or incline from side to side with a slight rolUng motion. The task must consist of demonstration on the teacher's part and experimentation on the part of the child under the kindly criticism of the teacher, with liberal praise for success, even before much success is won. The sort of variation included here must consist of both additions and subtractions. The bend of the knee must be delayed; the back must be straightened; the throwing for- ward of the stomach must be omitted. The needed varia- tions 'would be a long time developing naturally, or auto- matically, and consequently must be made as a result of the teacher's or parent's foresight and panning. 39. (6) The calling up of the initiative. — Before this undoubtedly the initiative (as suggested by Chapter VIII) should have been called into action. Initiative is con- sidered separately here, so that each chapter may have its own distinct contribution to this specific problem. Of the list mentioned, though almost any of them could in some phase be made to serve, the following suggest them- selves to the writer as most applicable: imitation, play, love, sympathy, sociability, the expressive instinct, ambi- tion, emulation, rivalry, pride, independence, courage, and pugnacity. All of these in different ways challenge his stamina, his ability to conquer. They are all positive, favoring the new habit. To them should be added the inhibiting initiatives, such as his disgust at himself for falling into such a habit, dislike for the slouchy acts of slouchy 228 HABIT-FORMATION people, the pitying remarks of the sympathetic, the ridicule of the unsympathetic, the losses that may come to him, and so forth. Most of the above are so nearly akin to egoistic and social emotion that little additional help may be gained from those forms of feeling, but intellectual emotion may be ap- pealed to if the chUd can discover for himself any helps in correcting his fault or further instances of good carriage. The idea of grace and harmonious adaptation of effort to accomplishment may be suggested by the aesthetic emotion, while even the moral emotion raises the question whether it is right for him to announce himself by his way of walk- ing as a careless, slovenly boy. And, on the reverse side, his disUke of appearing awkward and clumsy or of being disapproved, may help. His interest in individuals will lead him to many com- parisons, and if he can see well-drilled soldiers, his interest may be extended to groups and lead at his teacher's quiet suggestion to his joining a "boys' brigade" or organizing a small company among the boys of the neighborhood. Nowhere to a greater degree than in a habit of this sort will the success gained be dependent on the resulting satisfaction which comes through the teacher's recognition and commendation of his effort and of his successes. Vari- ous means of heightening this satisfaction may be tried, and should lead all the way from a quiet glance of approval to a public recognition of merit; but ammunition of this sort, as of any other, must not be used up at the beginning of the contest. It is valuable for the very reason that it keeps carr3dng forward initiative. On the other hand, the teacher's disapproval, withdrawal of privilege, and his un- feigned sorrow at the boy's failure are also valuable as incentives to inhibition. Other motives which may serve are: manliness; his HOW HABITS ARE BROKEN 229 thought of how some favorite friend, how some honored character he has read about, would carry himself; or per- haps a general feeling that it pays to do what his teacher and parents favor, whether he sees any real sense in it him- self or not. If rewards of some special sort such as the monitorship " of the goldfish bowl," special privileges, and the hke, act as powerful motives, they may also be useful as exceptional or extraordinary modes of appeal. The danger is that the child comes to feel in such cases that he is doing a favor to his teacher in getting this habit. What- ever motive is used, it must enlist his effort and persistence. Here is where he is to show his will power. Let him see that all depends on him. Lastly, to illustrate the necessity of connecting motives and habits, it may be that he is very anxious to gain the favor of some special group of boys or girls, or that he is soon to go to work and wants to make a good impression on his employer. He may never have discovered or thought that his shuffling, slovenly gait would rule him out of favor in either of these directions. 40. (c) The practice of the good carriage. — Evidently, practice of the good carriage is desirable, and the following points apply: — 1. A specified time for special practice under the eyes of the teacher might be afforded by a marching drill. 2. For practice, a certain distance so often a day may be designated. Perhaps going and coming from school would be a favorable time. The stimuli which come to him from all sides as he walks may be variously associ- ated with the new habit by frequent and diverse means of suggestion. 3. Whenever he sees a person standing or walking par- ticularly erect, he must think that now is the time for him to make a special effort, and any person having a 230 HABIT-FORMATION slovenly gait may also serve by contrast to call to mind his need of practice. 4. Certain corners or certain scenes which he must pass on his way to school may be made to act as reminders. Or let him think of boys he is very likely to meet, and decide to straighten up and do his best when he sees them. These associations will help to promote practice. 5. Put him in positions of responsibility in the school line and elsewhere, so that variations in favor of more briskness of gait and erectness of posture may be suggested. 6. Don't put all of the effort at first on breaking the habit and then forget all about it. In the memorandum of things attempted, make a note of the child's intention and with or without reference to it keep the child practicing from time to time, even after he has made a good begiiming. To make the practice effective, not formal, — 1. Remind him in various ways of the initiative that seemed to appeal to him most. 2. Let him know that he has not succeeded, until he usually walks as he can when trjdng his best. 3. Let him see that mere desire to get the good habit will not suffice. Only through effort will he gain success. 4. The variations of the reaction suggested by study of the habit must direct attention to many special points in the reaction and very likely to traces of satisfaction which may have associated themselves with his various efforts to improve. Almost any method must provide for practice, but for the greatest possibility of practice the cooperation of the parents is desirable. 41. (d) Preventing lapses into the shuffling gait. — From the standpoint of the initiative needed, the lurking pitfalls, and the opposing stimuli, the following points are the applications suggested : — HOW HABITS ARE BROKEN 231 1. The tendency to revert to the old habit is constant. It may show itself at any of the points at which the prelimi- nary study of the habit revealed weakness. 2. When the child is tired or piqued or disturbed, the teacher may need quietly to reenforce his waning initiative. 3 and 4. The rules for removal and reduction of stimuli opposed to the counter habit hardly apply, because those provocative of the habit to be broken cannot be removed, and can in only some slight degree be reduced. However, the various associations centering on these may be made to aid the new habit greatly, if they suggest suflScient sorts of variation to insure the desired reaction. 5. After sufficient variation has been produced to start the new habit, all tendencies toward the old habit must be guarded against by special warnings. In this case it is difficult to rid the new habit of special points of difficulty in advance. The whole habit of walking forms a unit, and only in exceptional cases could there be some preliminary practice which would be helpful. More can be accomplished on the side of developing in- hibitive tendency. 1. Let the boy understand that any inclination arising later to slip into the old way of walking is a temptation, and must be met with determination and persistence on his part. 2. If, when tired, he begins to show the tendency to lapse, warn him. So on any occasion when conditions vary, put him on his guard without waiting until he has already dropped back into his former gait. 3. Lead him to resolve with conviction not to yield to fatigue, or any other tempting influence to fall back even for the moment into his old habit. 4. If, for example, his ambition is the strongest motive for the new habit, show him how unfitting it would be for a 232 HABIT-FORMATION boy of his spirit and ambition to slump into the old way of walking. 5. A button with the picture of a soldier on it, a keep- sake, or a badge may serve as a concrete reminder. 6. Show him how he would suffer if he were condemned always to walk that way; what he would miss in the way of approval, dignity, and respect. Let him compare him- self in that event with some undesirable character selected from life or literature. 7. In case of his really falling back, make an ado over it in a sensible, but still for him very embarrassing, way. From time to time a reminder not too unsympathetically given may be useful. 8. Get him to watch himself, to ask himself definite questions which will give him a basis for self-criticism. These points will suffice to show that the rules for forming a habit are applicable in much of their original form to the problem of breaking one. Of the rules which cover scien- tifically the problem of breaking a habit, almost all have been found to be available and suggestive in this illustrative case. Further illustrations of the application of these rules of habit-forming will be found in the next chapter. 42. Summary. — The important thing in teaching is to form good habits. Incidentally, those bad habits which have crept into the child's life unbidden are to be removed. They represent bad adjustments. Teachers and parents should cooperate in their removal. Habit-breaking implies in most cases the formation of counter habits. Nature breaks habits by variation. The hardest habits to break are those of which there is no consciousness. These are brought to consciousness by added associations. The child needs to trust his teacher, and must be protected by him from failure, as that is doubly disastrous, since it reopens the old habit path. HOW HABITS ARE BROKEN 233 Both the stimuli and the reaction of the habit should be intercepted. Whenever it is at all possible, the stimuli should be removed. Reactions may be inhibited, or they may be modified either by selection or combination, or both. Counter substituted habits should have offsetting ad- vantages to take the place of the old, while the disadvantage of lack of feeling and conscious attention must be over- come by making new associations with the action. Attempt should not be made to break too many habits at once in a wave of reform. They will not get the atten- tion needed. To attack one at a time will be much more practicable. The substitution of a counter habit is made necessary because of the need of some outlet for the neural activity. But no habit should be substituted which is not in itself of worth. Initiative, practice, and preventing lapses are all necessary for breaking as well as forming habits, but with a difference in emphasis at various points, and especially at the point of preventing exceptions. Positive initiative must be united with the incentives to inhibition. Both sides must be enlisted whether the source of the initiative is instinct, emotion, interest, or the resulting or anticipated satisfactions or dissatisfactions. Persistence will often operate as a powerful initiative, and should not be unreasonably thwarted for the sake of " breaking the will." The stimuli to the habit must be obsessed- by numerous associations leading in other directions, whUe the reaction must be no less beset, and to that especially the double use of the initiative applies. A fundamental difference regarding practice in breaking habits is that no opportunities are to be sought or created for practice. On the other hand, stimuli must be obstructed or counteracted. The variations, instead of being guarded against as promoting exceptions, are here of assistance in 234 HABIT-FORMATION making associations which will interrupt or supplant the reaction. Even a stimulation may thus draw upon new initiative and suggest other forms of action. But particu- larly in the reaction, variation admits of associating the feeling quality and the conscious attention needed, while offering abundant suggestions of new lines of action. Variations may be either natural or artificial, and may add, subtract, or combine these processes in their action. These changes are not to be made at random. The exceptions to be prevented are lapses into the old habit. The removal and reduction or obstruction of stimuli, together with the use of variations, apply in pre- venting lapses, as in practice. Otherwise the directions for preventing lapses in forming habits are equally appli- cable in breaking them. Nice judgment is necessary as well as a study of each individual case. The concrete illustration, breaking the habit of walking with a shuflBing gait, serves to indicate the applicability of the directions for studying the habit, getting initiative, practicing the inhibition or substituted habit, and for preventing lapses. CHAPTER XII Habit-Fohming as Involved m School Discipline and Moral Training " Habit is a cable. Every day we weave a thread until it is so strong we cannot break it." — Horace Mann. 1. The meaning of discipline. — To discipline a person wisely is so to manipulate his environment as to develop in him, without waste of time or effort, valuable habits. No necessary connection either with fear or punishment is implied; for these, as we have seen, are the least effective motives for forming vigorous habits. Popularly, the word "discipline " is used loosely to indicate punishment for in- fractions of rules, training in habits desirable for the eco- nomical management of a school, and for the formation of character, or the sharpening of the wits for intellectual operations. This ambiguity necessitates the limitation of the term by such words as " school," or " moral training," if one is to exclude the habits involved in the acquisition of specific sorts of knowledge rather than those of conduct. Training is a word also used loosely and signifying the sumrtotal of preparation for action of a certain sort. As such it includes the development of both ideas and habits, while discipUne evidently applies only to an ability to conduct one's self thus and so, without regard to whether the understanding is active or not. " Theirs not to reason why. Theirs but to do and die" is the attitude of discipline. 2. Enumeration of important school habits. — Of the habits of first importance because of their assistance in conducting a school economically, and included in those 235 236 HABIT-FORMATION which it is necessary for a teacher to secure in his pupils, if he is to be called a disciplinarian, are the following: order, obedience, respect, reliability, independence, diligence, accuracy, quickness, carefulness, punctuality, kindness, courtesy, neatness, and erect posture. Besides these, adding for the sake of completeness those most worthy of emphasis, but contributing' rather to scholarship, are: habits of attention, sense discrimination, observation, interpretation, invention, logical memory, comparison, classification, inference, and accurate formula- tion. The habit of ^tudy (or better the habits of study) might be added to these, but it is really made up of many different tjrpes of habit — now observation plus inference and accurate formulation (as in nature study or biology), now interpretation plus memory (as in history), inference and formulation (as in mathematics), now observation plus invention (as in physics and mechanics), and the like. Habits of organization would differ similarly in the combina- tions of habits peculiar to one field of thought as compared with another. On the side of moral training, the great and important habits by general consent are: positively service, negatively self-control. But each of these implies habits of attention, plus habits of inhibition, plus habits of decision by reference to ideals, i.e. on the basis of the best knowledge available, plus finally the habit of putting the decision into im- mediate execution. These are all volitional, and with them should be classed habits of putting forth physical and mental effort, habits of making an accurate language record of his thought, and habits of expression, this including habits of expres- sion by word, written or spoken, by gesture, pantomime, dramatic representation, drawing, painting, sculpture, and other forms of manual representation. DISCIPLINE AND MORAL TRAINING 237 3. The complexity of school habits. — It is evident that each of these habits is in itself a grouping or class including large numbers of specific habits. For example, the habit of obedience may be called into play by two teachers and not by the third or by the home. Accuracy in arithmetic, spelling, history, may exist in one subject and not in others, or sometimes even in a section of a subject and not in other parts. Punctuality may be found in connection with busi- ness and not in social engagements, or vice versa. Most of these habits disclose as well the involved nature exhibited by the habit of self-control. Order, for example, is dependent first of all on having one definite place for each separate object to be kept in order. The habit of thinking of their place whenever things are found out of it and not in use, is a second essential as a foundation for order. People seem to recognize the out- of-placeness of objects, and this fact underUes the humor of many a joke. So Mr. Dooley's allusion to the buttons in the soup or rope in the potted ham was sure of a hearing, though the workshop of many a cultivated man and the workbasket of many an educated woman are scenes of dis- order such as would never be tolerated in a packing house. To this habit of establishing a place for everything of use, and that of recognizing the out-of-placeness of things, should be added the habit of returning to its definite place whatever is not in use.' In the case of the first habit, any unfamiliar or new possession or situation must furnish the stimulus for the equivalent of a series of reactions like the following: "new thing," "where shall I keep it?", "I'll put it here." ' Of course this applies more particularly to those objects for which we are responsible. It is not Intended to apply to a general searching for such opportunities where others should take the responsibility. 238 HABIT-FORMATION The second habit, that of recognizing the out-of-placeness of things, is valuable, since through it there is not only a stimulation to a certain act, but the emotional unrest acts as an incentive for the third habit, that of returning things to their place. Both of these habits (the second and third) may therefore be considered together. They may be prompted by all sorts of situations. It does not follow that because one stimulus is reacted to promptly that another will be equally moving. Sometimes possessions at school will be neglected and those at home not. Some- times things of value will be cared for when things much more conspicuous, but of little value, are not. A person may have a place for his pen and pencil, but leave news- papers " all over the place." He may be able to find his hat and umbrella, but not his glasses and his gloves. It follows, then, that there are many habits of keeping things in order and that wide application of the ideas and tendencies at their basis must be made, if one is to develop habits of order. In general, a study of habits of accuracy, attention, or others of the school discipline class will reveal a similar complexity and dependence on separate specific habits, on certain emotional habits, and more or less consciously accepted ideals of action, these themselves rapidly becoming automatic. 4. Additional habits involved in moral training. — It is evident that the detailed application of the fifty or more principles laid down in the preceding chapters must be left to the teacher with the special case and need. Space would not permit any consideration, point by point, of the separate habits involved either in school discipline or in moral training. In general, all of these habits involved in the economical management of a school are moral in their tendencies. They are serviceable in society, as in school. The close DISCIPLINE AND MORAL TRAINING 239 connection was noticed by Aristotle,* who included all virtues under the genus, habit. President Hyde,^ in his admirable Uttle book on " Practi- cal Ethics, " takes a list of more than twenty objective rela- tions maintained by man, and gives the corresponding duty, virtue, reward, temptation, vices of defect and excess, and penalty. The close relation between habit and duty and between habit and virtue is quite strikingly illustrated by the fact that the following habits necessary in addition to those fundamental to the economical conduct of a school for moral training are found in President Hyde's scheme either as duties or virtues. Duty implies habitual performance on the part of her devotees. Virtue is not ap- phed to sporadic or spasmodic plays of good will. It must have the stability characteristic of habit. To complete, then, our list of important moral habits, we add: temperance in eating and drinking, cheerfulness, economy, prudence, clean-mindedness, kindness to animals, justice, devotion, loyalty, patriotism, cooperation, conscientiousness, ap- preciation of the beauty and marvel of nature, and an opti- mistic confidence in the Supreme One which will carry with it an habitual tone of responsive, willing service. The root concept at the basis of all these, as of school discipline, is service. In general we may trace the mode of procedure in all by a consideration of the essentials in the development of habits of service. 5. (a) The development of habits of service. — In select- ing and demonstrating the habit to be formed, any habit included in the realization of service appropriate to the child's age would be worthy of a place. Nor does this exclude the most necessary development of his own 'See "Nicomachean Ethics," pp. 41-42. Trans, by Browne. Bohn, 1853. » Hyde, "Practical Ethics." Holt, 1892. 240 HABIT-FORMATION powers, if capacity to serve is to be gained. The recog- nized need on the part of himself or another for any help or assistance is evidently the stimulation starting the re- action which renders the helpful service or does the necessary deed. The nature of the habit may be made concrete by citing historical or literary instances. Lin- coln's trudging miles into the country at the end of his day's work to return to the old lady the few pennies accidentally overcharged, makes concrete the meaning of honesty not merely as an ideal, but as a habit. In- stances in the child's own life of joy in the victory of benevolent impulses, and his chagrin and self-condemna- tion at his weakness in the face of opportunity or temp- tation, will furnish sufficient illustration of the use of his own experience. He may talk over with his teacher imagined situations, so that the embarrassment and awkwardness of a new plan may be more or less worn off. Then all that is needed is to really put Ws idea into practice, if possible, still under supervision. 6. (b) The initiative of service. — In arousing initia- tive, almpst any of our selected list of instincts might do. The most useful would probably be imitation, play, curiosity, sympathy, sociability, expression, ambition, pride, independence, courage, approval, and disapproval. In various combinations they should prove effective in stirring the child to appropriate action. From the emotional standpoint, the altruistic and sesthetic are in many cases closely associated with the moral. The child's interest in and admiration for vari- ous relatives and friends, as well as his regard for char- acters in stories and history, may be turned to account. However, the most fundamental and important emo- tional factor in stirring up initiative for moral action is to make pleasant associations with desirable, and un- DISCIPLINE AND MORAL TRAINING 241 pleasant associations with undesirable, forms of reaction. These pleasant or unpleasant associations may be derived from any legitimate source. The importance of developing motives of the higher order is easily illustrated, if a person of limited educa- tion is asked how he would teach a child that it is wrong to lie or steal. Two answers are likely to be given on the average, — "I would teach him first that honesty is the best policy," and secondly, "that he will be sure to be found out." When the average young American learns to organize his experience into ideals and motives, then will the patriotic citizen view with complacency the lack of specific and purposive training in morals and religion. So far we have been indebted to the automatic processes only.* Even in the world of business, in spite of .the tendency toward honesty and uprightness inherent in general in business relations, competition has often brought in questionable practices and lowered both ideals and standards, as well as motives. It is no less true in the school life of the child. The hurry and scurry to cram his mind with as many scraps of fact and fable as possi- ble in the minimum amount of time, has led to an almost complete neglect of the development of a wide range of worthy motives. It has been left to chance and the child's automatic processes, with the result that the child's reactions have been just good enough ordinarily to deceive those with his education in charge into thinking that all had been done that was necessary. The importance of adolescent motives as instanced by an increasing appreciation of responsibility to others can- » The advantage for the child of embodying in some personage, real or imagined, his ideals has previously been noticed. No great religion has been lacking such personages. It is the fundamental error in barring Bible history from the schools. 242 HABIT-FORMATION not be overlooked in this connection. Their value in leading to conversion has been noticed earlier. 7. (c) Practice and habits of service. — There is no need of making occasions through which habits of service may be developed. The situation or occasion is always there with its direct or indirect opportunity for service. The Only need is that the situation be clarified, that the specific habit of service to be applied may be made plain. Some people faU to realize that the highest service they can perform at times is to take some recreative exercise or a nap, and are ashamed of themselves every time they stop working. If attention is focused on a certain specific habit of service, the application of such habits wUl be simpUfied. Later other forms of service may become the object of endeavor. With varying degrees of efficiency in each instance, periods may be set for practicing this or that sort of service, the number of repetitions may be specified, favoring conditions and suggesting influences may be brought into play, and occasional exercise will keep up the utility to the maximum. There is hardly any other means of making practice actual rather than formal, except by arousing a serious intent to serve and by pointing out where the most attention is needed, as, for example, when self-interest and service conflict, or seem to conflict. 8. (d) The prevention of exceptions. — To guard against exceptions, a child should be led to see that services are not merely to be performed, but are to be performed skillfully. Otherwise there will be serious rebuffs, rebukes, or possibly even violence, as well as almost equally dis- appointing ingratitude. Let him see how he may be prej- udiced in favor of himself in various instances. As far as possible these menaces are to be removed; but where they are bound to appear, a ridiculous overdrawing of DISCIPLINE AND MORAL TRAINING 243 cases may serve to add noteworthy associations which will reenforce waning initiative. So, too, the child may be warned against first tendencies or resolve definitely against lapses. The loss of self-respect, as well as the ridiculous- ness of failure, may supplement the initiatives already mentioned. Concrete reminders of his intention, the pain- ful consequences of lapse whether pictured or realized, and self-criticism should operate in some form with rela- tion to each habit to be included among those classed as habits of service. 9. Are there general habits ? — Such classes of habits as are included in the list of school habits, and those added as essential in moral training, have been termed "general habits." Perhaps because of their association with the old discredited notion of formal discipline, they have been neglected. It behooves us to consider what chance there is, therefore, that one habit may affect an- other. The distinction has already been made in Chap- ter IV that habits correspond to specific neural pathways. In what sense may they be generalized? Bagley has proved the term "formal discipline" to be self-contradic- tory, and Thorndike, while vigorously assailing a con- ception of formal discipline which is largely a man of straw, shows better than any one else has done how to get the maximum results in general training out of specific training. Three points will show the possibilities of benefit from special training beyond the specific line of reaction sub- jected to practice. 10. The possibility of common elements. — 1. The habit pathways may altogether or in part be common to two or to many operations perhaps externally very different, just as a habit of writing vertically the letters h, f, h, k, would be certain to carry with it the vertical position 244 HABIT-FORMATION for the I, as the same initial swing which was found in all the other letters is also found here. So most of the habits of speech and composition taught are available on occasion for application wherever they are common or similar to larger habits or to a larger field of activity. Professor Thorndike confuses himself by insisting on an identity here. He says the advocate of the disci- plinary value of composition and language overestimates here ; that the ability to speak in language classes is not "identical with the ability to speak to jurymen in a law court, or to persuade voters." He might have added with almost equal appropriateness that such is not identi- cal with the ability to umpire at a baseball game, or to announce trains at a railroad station. It is evident that, in so far as ability to express one's self clearly is gained whether in or out of classes, it will be serviceable as far as that ability goes in aiding the lawyer, the poli- tician, the umpire, or the train-caller. We have no war- rant for expecting it to go further. Whether the real point is convincingness or argument, or the making of friends or constituents, the judgment of balls and strikes, or power of lung, surely training in English composition is not the only desideratum. It must, however, play its fundamental part wherever there is a place for spoken or written language. Professor Angell ' finds this "central factor common" to two mental processes in a "general attitude" involved in attention, later calling attention also to the " very real intellectual advantage" gained as a result of the "leverage given by system and organization." The factors common to general improvement in logical memory are, according to Professor Pillsbury,^ summed • See Educational Review, Vol. XXXVI., pp. 1-14. ' See " Effects of Training on Memory," Educational Review, Vol. XXXVI., p. 26. DIBCIPLINE AND MORAL TRAINING 245 up in the following: "Habits of attention in general, and to one kind of material, not to another, are undoubtedly acquired through study of any kind. Even the habit of using books intelligently needs to be acquired in the early stages, and, once acquired, can be transferred to other fields. lOven more important in the capacity for selecting the important points and in properly knitting them to the related facts, to the facts and occasions that rond(!r their recall desirable. For most adult learning it is essential to remember the fact apart from the language in which it is expresHcd and apart from the particular connections in which it is first learned." ' II. The possibility of a common method of procedure. — 2. The metlujd of procedure in the special habit may evidently be applicable to a much larger field.' A card catalogue scheme Ih a method of keeping information which applies not only to libraries, but to lists of names in schools and other iriHtitutions, items of sale or expendi- ture, and otherwise aotiording to the business or inntitu- tion where it Ih foumi available. It is general in its application. So again a method of investigating and sifting hiHtorical rccordn may include getting habits of diHtltiguishing between real and false data, habits of searching for motives, of inference back and forward from data, and halnts of organizing material into a con- sistent system as far as any event ih concerned, which cannot but have a very definite application as a method to the work of the lawyer In his examination of records ' Profeissor Mofklejohn finds In tho logical catogorteci the bosk for the faotorH oornimm l,o both spBoi(imatter, 38-39, 41, 95-98, 257-276. Substitute habits, 210, 212, 217, 221. Substitution, 82, 212. Suggestion, 57-58, 146, 189, 246- 248, 250, 253. Swift, E., 144, 170, 174, 182. Swimming, 104, 173. Sympathy, 76. Synthesis, 53. Talking, 64. Tanner, A., 134. Tarde, G., 75. Teacher, 153, 180, 190, 202, 203; and environment, 4; and gen- eral training, 249-250; and or- ganization, 1-9; fimction of, 22; problem of, 1-9; to study habit, 103-114; relegationof work to, 3. Teaching, 4, 24, 25, 37-38; and automatisms, 37 ; and educating, 4; definition of, 4; formal, 25; fundamental, 37; negative, 23; scientific, 38. Temptation, 23, 187, 211. Tennis, 36, 105, 171, 246, 249. Testing and weighing initiative, 146. Thorndike, E., 71, 88, 120, 136, 142, 171, 175, 243, 244. Thoughts, 12, 121. Thrift, 76. 308 INDEX Tompkins, A., 2. Tbacy, F., 83. Training, 41, 47. See Manual, Moral, Religious. Transition of ideas into habits, 40. Translation, 169, 191. Trying suggested combinations, 108-109. Types, of automatic learning, 15- 17; of organized experience, 27- 43. Unconscious repetition, 272-273. Unconsciously formed habits, 205. Undesirable habits, 212-213. Unfamiliarity, 113. Unlearned capabilities, 13-17. Usefulness of classification of in- terest, 139-140. Validated impulses, 147. Variation, 53, 71, 86, 170, 183, 187, 189, 196, 204-205, 214, 221-225, 246-248; checking of, 183-184. Variety of child's experience, 27- 32. Verbal distinction, interest, 133- 134. Verification, 108, 111, 257. VOGT, R., 175. VOLKMAN, 175. Walking, 64. Warning against tendencies, 189. Washbtjbn, a., 72. Weakening of stimuli, 182. Whistling, 115. White, E., 121. Will, 46, 218. Willing, 30, 223. Winch, W., 175. WooDWOKTH, R., 170, 171, 175. Writing, 22, 71, 100, 126, 163, 164, 165, 166, 168-169, 171-172, 178, 184, 264-265. Yebkes, R., 13, 72. The Lighting of Schoolrooms A Manual for School Boards, Architects, Superintendents, and Teachers BY STUART H. 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