The Contemporary Science Series Hallucinations AND Illusions Cornell University Library arV13581 Hallucinations anS,,i|'".Si?J,?| , 3 1924 031 231 990 olin,anx CORNELL UNIVERSITY LIBRARY BOUGHT WITH THE INCOME OF THE SAGE ENDOWMENT FUND GIVEN IN 189I BY HENRY WILLIAMS SAGE Date Due _f||4|i 4 1 Aj/« •vN J 2 1 946 1 - , DtC2 1 1949 - '■'^^"1 "TIK^^ g^lil;^ H y^ •x^ ' " i ' The original of tliis book is in tine Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31 924031 231 990 THE CONTEMPORARY SCIENCE SERIES. Edited by HAVELOCK ELLIS. HALLUCINATIONS AND ILLUSIONS. HALLUCINATIONS AND ILLUSIONS A STUDY OF THE FALLACIES OF PERCEPTION BY EDMUND PARISH LONDON: WALTER SCOTT, LTD., PATERNOSTER SQUARE. CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS, JiS3-iS7 FIFTH AVENUE, NEW YORK. 1897. A, I 0']lHrH PREFACE. This book originated in an examination, upon which I was recently engaged, of the " International Census of Waking Hallucinations in the Sane." While comparing for this purpose all the works accessible to me on hallucination and fallacious per- ception in general, I was struck by the fact that the writers, and especially the more modern writers, treat for the most part only of single aspects of the subject, such as fallacies of perception occurring under morbid conditions, or in dreams, throwing at most but a casual glance at related phenomena. The waking hallucina- tions of healthy persons are more or less completely ignored by them ; and this neglect is natural enough, if we consider how meagre are all the accounts of such phenomena hitherto published. But now that the inquiry originated by the Inter- national Congress of Psychology at its meeting in Paris in 1889 has furnished ample and trustworthy data, it seems possible to bring these particular phenomena of fallacious perception into line with the rest More- over, as this subject has already been dealt with at the Congress held in. London in 1892, and will vi PREFACE. doubtless form part of the proceedings of sub- sequent congresses, it seems to me that it may not be superfluous as a preliminary inquiry to review the whole field of sensory delusion, to indicate its relations to normal or "objective" perception, and to elucidate the common organic principle which, under whatever diversity of conditions, underlies alike normal and fallaciotis perception. In the course of such an undertaking it is impossible to avoid supplementing by hypotheses our scanty knowledge of physiology and the localisation of cerebral functions. I have endeavoured, however, where practicable, to make good this deficiency, and have sought by an exhaustive study of the German, English, French, and American literature of the subject to establish my conclusions on a thoroughly broad basis. In doing this I have not depended on the more recent cases only, but have carried my researches as far back as the early part of the century, and thus rescued from oblivion many for- gotten observations. On the other hand, the collected results of the " International Census of Waking Hallucinations in the Sane" furnish fresh material not yet critically handled or presented in literary form; at all events, a short note on the subject in F. C. Miiller's Hand- buck der Neurasthenie is all I have been able to find. The statistics in question, with the exception of those of the Munich Collection, have, it is true, been sub- mitted to the London Congress, but they have not PREFACE. VU hitherto been published. I take this opportunity to thank the Society for Psychical Research and the Munich Psychologische Gesellschaft for the permis- sion which they have kindly granted me to publish them here. Indeed, the completion of my work, which grew out of a series of lectures delivered before the Munich section of the Gesellschaft fUr Psycho- logische Forschung, has been rendered possible only by the sympathy and interest which the members of that society accorded to me. I feel myself indebted to them all, but more especially to Baron von Schrenck- Notzing (Munich), Dr. F. C. Miiller (Alexandersbad), Dr. Max Dessoir (Berlin), and Dr. Burckhardt-Pre- fargier, for the constant stimulus of their sympathetic interest, and the help they have kindly given me in collecting material and in reading the proof-sheets. EDMUND PARISH. Munich, April 1894. PREFACE TO THE ENGLISH EDITION. The English edition is not a mere translation of the German original. In the first place, I have been at some pains to render it generally more complete and bring it up to date; and, moreover, as fuller particulars of the." International Census of Waking Hallucina- tions" have been published since the appearance of the original edition, it has been necessary to recast the chapters dealing with that subject, and in the process of recasting them I have not neglected to profit by the hints and objections of my critics. Finally, a new chapter has been added, in which an attempt is made to enlarge the scope of the work and to indicate the relation of the views set forth to psychology in general. I trust that the book in its new form may meet with as kindly a reception as on its first appearance. E. P. Munich, April 1897. CONTENTS. CHAPTER I. PAGE Introduction i Definition — Universal Fallacies of Perception^Due to Ambi- guity of the Stimuli — Arising out of Defects or Pathological States of the Organism^The "Feeling of Unity " conditioned by "Eccentric Projection" — Psychological Conception of False Perception — Criticism of the Definition Ihat: Hallircina- tion is Ideation equalling Sensation in Vividness — Hallucina- tion is Sensory Perception. CHAPTER II. Fallacious Perception in various Pathological AND Physiological States i8 Esquirol's distinction between Hallucination and Illusion- Fallacies of Perception in the Insane : In Amentia, Dementia, Melancholia, Mania, Folic Circulaire, Delusional Insanity and Paranoia, General Paralysis — The share of the several Senses in these Delusions, and their effect on the Patient — In Psychoneuroses : Epilepsy, Hysteria — In Ecstasy — In States of Intoxication : Alcohol, Chloroform, Ether, Haschisch, Santonin, Cinchona, Opium, Nitrous Oxide Gas — Specific Action of Narcotics and Personal Reaction — In acute Somatic Diseases — In Dreams — In Hypnosis — Crystal Visions — Dis- sociation of Consciousness the Common Characteristic of all these States. xii CONTENTS. CHAPTER III. PAGE Waking Hallucinations and the Result of the International Census 77 Early Accounts— The International Census— General Results —Sex, Age, Nationality, and Stale of Health of the Per- cipients—Their so-called "Waking" State really one of Dissociation — Indications of this in the Narratives— Why such Indications are sometimes wanting— Hallucinations classified according to the Sense affected — The less startling Hallucina- tions are soon forgotten. CHAPTER IV. The Physiological Process in Fallacious Per- ception ... ... ... ... ... no Early Attempts at Explanation — The Centrifugal Psychic Theories — Objections — The Centrifugal Sensorial Theories — The Conception underlying all Centrifugal Theories— Argu- ments against this Conception — Centripetal Theories — Identity of the Sensory and Ideational Centres — Theories of Pelman and Kandinsky — False Perception a Phenomenon conditioned by disturbed Association — Meynert — James — Explanation suggested by the Author — Its Advantages — Schematic Presen- tation of the Physiological Process in False Perception — Various Objections met. CHAPTER V. The Factors of Fallacious Perception ... 152 The dissociated State — Definition — Pathological and Physio- logical Causes — Varieties of Dissociation — Action of Dissocia- tion—The Stimuli — Post-mortem Reports— Excitation of the various Senses — Cramer's Theory. CONTENTS. XIU CHAPTER VI. PAGE The Content of Fallacious Perception ... 185 The Content dependent (i) on Memory and Experience — (2) On the Conditions which induce the Hallucinated State — {3) On the Temperament and Mental Environment of the Individual — {4) On the Brain-state which obtains at the Moment (Exhaustion, Concentration, Emotions, Subconscious Processes) — (5) On the Sensory Stimuli. — Explanation of some Facts generally misinterpreted — (i) Certain phenomena usually cited in support of retinal participation — (2) Negative Hallucinations — The Phenomena and Nature of Rapport — Negative Hallucinations not explained by diversion of atten- tion — Their true Nature. CHAPTER VII. The Initiation of Fallacious Perception ... 221 The Problem: How are Reflex Hallucinations to be accounted for? — (i) Synassthesia, (2) Hallucinations of Memory, as possible explanations — Author's attempt to explain them by distinguishing between the preparatory and the starting Factor — A New Conception of the Point de Repire. CHAPTER VIII. The Manifestations of Fallacious Perception 236 Various Degrees of Distinctness in Sensory Phantasms — Percipient's Attitude — Sensory Character of the Phenomena not disproved by a certain feeling of Subjectivity — Attempts to explain "Audible Thinking'' — Automatic Articulation — Spontaneous Cases — Experimental Evidence. Xiv CONTENTS. CHAPTER IX. PAOB Telepathic Hallucinations 272 Results of the International Census — Various sources of error: (i) Hallucinations of Memory, (2) Reading back of details after the event, (3) Exaggeration of the Coincidence — Comparison between Coincidental and Non-Coincidental "Waking" Hallucinations misleading — Indications of Dis- sociation in the Death-Coincidences of the Report — Associa- tion of Ideas not to be ignored — Other proofs of Telepathy Criticised — Alleged special characteristics of "Telepathic" Hallucinations. CHAPTER X. Summary and Conclusion ... ... 321 Recapitulation of Argument — All Hallucinations conditioned by Dissociation — Objection to Physiological Explanations from standpoint of Psychology— Criticism of Psychological Position —The Physiological Scheme provisional — Bearings of this Study on Theories of Perception generally. Appendix ,., HALLUCINATIONS AND ILLUSIONS. Hallucinations and Illusions. CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION. Definition — Universal Fallacies of Perception—Due to Ambi- guity of the Stimuli — Arising out of Defects or Patho- logical States of t^e Organism — The '■^ Feeling oj Unity" conditioned by '''■Eccentric Projection" — Psychological Conception of False Perception— Criticism of the Defini- tion that Hallucination is Ideation equalling Sensation in Vividness — Hallucination is Sensory Perception. Whilst in general our sensory perceptions may be shared by all persons with normal senses, there are some cases which form an exception to this rule.^ Perceptions of the first class are described as "ob- jective," those of the second class as "subjective," that is to say, as lacking an external objective basis. Subjective perceptions are variously known as hallu- cinations, illusions, dream ijiages, fallacious per- ceptions, and so on. • -^t is impc5rtant at the outset of such an inquiry to grasp the difference between sensory and mental delusions. In sensory deceptions the subject not only imagines something, but believes that he sees or ' Gurney, "Hallucinations," Proceedings of the Society for Psychical Reseat ch, 1885. I 2 HALLUCINATIONS hears that something— in fact, that he perceives it with his senses. Of course the observer is h"able to be misled by the expressions of the patient, whose loose use of words may lend his dilire, or mental delusion, the guise of a sensory impression. But a somewhat closer analysis will serve to make the distinction clear. When, for instance, a patient with peritonitis^ declares that a church congress is being held inside her, and says that she can "feel it" and so on, that is a mental delusion, originating in certain localised sensations in the abdomen, and not a fallacy of perception, for no one knows what a congress in such a locality would feel like. But should a further development take place, and the patient imagine that she hears the speeches and arguments of the contending parties in the con-1 gress, we then of course have an auditory hallucination. ' A similar case is that of the paralytic who imagined ' in persistent constipation that he carried the child of the Grand Duke of Baden within his body, and insisted that he would have to be delivered. Many such cases, as for instance those which result from tabes, as well as similar phenomena observed in hypochondriasis, are to be reckoned not as sensory hallucinations, but as false inferences (Hoppe^) or as mental delusions^ (Westphal*). ' Leuret, quoting Dagonet, Traite des maladies mentales. " Hoppe, Erkldrung der^ Sinnestauschungen tei Gesunden and Kranken. • * The term " Sinnestauschung " (sensory fallacy) has been regarded as misleading by L. Meyer, " Ueber den Charakter der Hallucinationen von Geisteskranken," in the Centralbl. f. d. vied. Wissensch. (1865), No. 43, and before him by Hecker, Ueber Visionen (1848), by the latter from an objection, based on a confusion of physiological and psycho- logical grounds, that the senses do not err, but that what is faithfully transmitted by them is falsely interpreted (compare Goethe, "Die Sinne trtigen nicht, aber das Urtheil trugt ; " Mich^a, Du delire des AND ILLUSIONS. 3 Universal Fallacies of Perception. — By the foregoing preliminary definition of fallacious perception we have excluded from the outset those sensory delusions which, by reason of their objective foundation and the nature of our sense organs, are experienced normally and necessarily by all persons.^ To this class belong phenomena like the fata morgana, the spectre of the Brocken, the illusion of "a straight stick bent in a pool," the doubling of an object seen through a prism, or by pressure on the eyeball causing divergence of the axes of vision. Anomalous functioning of the accommodation muscles of the eye can produce the same result as that artificially in- duced by the means just described, as we see in diplopia.^ Or again in diplopia monocularis, functional sensations (1846): "c'est I'esprit qui se trompe, non pas I'organe sensorial ; " and the same is to be found in Aristotle). Eut this is not so simple as it seems. A patient who imagines he is pursued, and who on hearing the sound of water dropping (compare Sander's article, " Sinnestauschungen," in the Real-Encyklopadie, XVIII.), says, " Hark ! they are outside, they are trying to bribe the keeper with gold," is suffering from a mental delusion; but in the case of a patient who declares he hears, not the sound of water dropping but the clinic of gold being counted out, a fallacy of sense-perception may be pre- sumed. On the whole, it seems to me that the term " false perception " (Trugwahrnehmung) is the best general term. ^ Westphal in Arch, f. Psych., i. p. 48. ' Blumroder in Schmidt's Jahrb., xlviii, p. 368. * For examples see Weitenweber's Beitr,, iv. l; Lochus, "Einige prakt. Bern." in Schweiz. Zeitschr., iii. 2; A. Huck, "Ueber die Tauschungen," etc., in Mullet's Arch. f. Analomie, 1840, No. i ; Meyer, "Ueber einige Tauschungen " in Arch. f. d.fhysiol. Heilk., 1842, Heft i; Gu^pin in Ann. d'Oc, xliii., Febr. -March, i860; M. Benedict in Arch. f. Ophthalm., x. i, pp. 97 et seq., 1864. In active squinting the second image is wanting, in passive (paralytic) squinting it is present. Its absence in the first case is explained by the fact that the active squinter has gradually learned to suppress the second image — or rather that use has altered the mutual relation between the two retinae. Compare A. Graefe in vol. vi. of his Collected Works, where he 4 HALLUCINATIONS nerve disturbances of a hysterical nature may result in failure of accommodation, causing the double image, which is normally formed by the lens, to be distinctly developed on the retina as two separate images, and so penetrate to the percipient's consciousness.^ For the rest it will suffice here to note briefly the most familiar of the normal sensory delusions, such as the apparent movement of the sun round the earth, the apparent sinking down of the earth observed by balloonists, the flying past of trees, telegraph-posts, etc., and the rhythmic rising and sinking of the telegraph wires during a railway journey, the alteration in the size of the moon according to its position in the sky, the apparent smallness of houses near the line, seen out of a shows how the seemingly lost second image may be raised again into con- sciousness. Compare also A. Dehennesin Gaz. des H6p., 1878, No. 57, and Carl Stellwag von Carion, Abkandlungen aus dem Gebiet der frakt. Augenheilkunde, 1882, with the illustrations, pp. 138 et seq. For double vision caused by paralysis of the muscles of the eye in diabetes mellitus, Leber in Arch.f, Ophth., xxi. 3, 1875 ; the same in sausage-poisoning, in Arch. f. Ophth., 1880, vol. 2 ; on discontinuance of the morphia habit, Levinstein in Berl. klin. Wbc Aenschr., xiii. 14, 1876; in tabes dorsalis, Bernhardt in l-'irc/i. Arch., Ixxxiv., 1881 ; Th. v. Schroeder, Arch. f. Augenheilk., xxxi., 1885, in lead-poisoning; and so on. Karl Hirsch- berger ("Binoculares Gesichtsfeld Schielender," Munch. Medic. Wochenschrift., 1890, No. 10), who has carefully investigated the subject, has given a short account of the condition in which the double images of squinting arise and drop out of the visual field. ' K. Lissauer, Ueber Diplopia monocularts hysterica, Diss. Berlin, 1893. Besides the references he gives, compare Cohen in Casp. Wochenschr., 1836, No. 10; Behr in Blasius klin. Zeitschr., 1837, Heft 4 J Pupke in Med. Zeitschr. v. Ver. f. H. in Pr., 1838, No. 4; N. Friedreich, Beitrdge zur Lehre von den GeschwUlsten inner- halb der SchadelhShle, ii. (Wiirzburg, 1853) ; Engel, Beitr. zur Fhysiologie des Auges, 1850; Galezowski in Ann. d^Octtl, liv. p. 199, 1865; Unterharnscheid in Klin. Monatsbl. f. Augheilk, xx., Febr. 1882; L. Bouveret and E. Chapotot in the Jlevtie d. m^Jecine, 1892, p. 728. AND ILLUSIONS. S passing train, tlie pigmy size of the people we look down on from the top of a high tower, and so on.^ Another class of visual errors is associated with the perception of certain mathematical figures and out- lines. The simplest illustration of these "optical paradoxes" is the following: take two straight lines of equal length ; from each end of one draw a short! line at an acute angle, and from each end of thei other a similar line at an obtuse angle; the second straight line will then appear longer than the first.^ Sensory Delusions resulting from Ambiguity of the Stimuli. — Other fallacies of perception are caused by- confused' or ambiguous stimuli. This ambiguity may be due to the nature of the external stimulus, as, for instance, when confused noises are heard, or objects seen at a ■ distance, or in darkness or fog, so that the distinctive features cannot be clearly recognised. The celebrated picture of Christ on St. Veronica's handkerchief shows from a distance an apparently dead face with closed eyes, but on a nearer view the eyes appear open and the expression life-like. In \ another well-known picture, two girls are seen playing jat a window, but, on being placed a little way off, the ! scene changes to a grinning death's-head. Secondly, the ambiguity of the stimulus may depend on the percipient himself, either because the image seen does not fall on the point of clearest vision, or because 1 For a large collection of such cases see Sully, Illusions (1881) ; also the various text-books of psychology. ^ See G. Heymans' " Quantitative Untersuchungen Uber das optische Paradoxpn," Zeitichr. f. Psychol, und Physiol, der Sinnesorgane, ix. pp. 221 et seq., where references to the literature of the subject will be found, and compare also Lipps' jEsthetische Betrachtung u. optische Tduschung ; Untersuchungen zur Psychologie u. ^sthetik' rSumliches Formen, which treats of these phenomena. 6 HALLUCINATIONS the sense affected has only a feeble power of discrimi- nation. Thus two similar perfumes may be confused when the percipient is not skilled in making subtle olfactory distinctions. If such a sense encounters a new or almost new stimulus, which, as we shall pre- sently see, must, just because of its novelty, be far more intensely felt, the chances of deception are pro- portionately increased. This explains why common organic sensation, which is generally only vaguely localised, so easily becomes the starting-point of delusions when subjected to unwonted conditions. Changes of sensation in the muscles and skin become subjectively changes of the substance and dimensions of the whole physical organism. Anaesthesia can induce in the patient the hallucination that he is made of wood or of glass ; and para'sthesia induce sensations of shrinking, or of swelling till the room is too small to hold him and he is being crushed between its walls. I have also encountered this last sensation as a recurring dream in the sane. Sensory Delusions caused by Defects and Pathological States of our Organism. — The imperfection of our organism opens another door to sensory delusions. We feel only one prick when both points of a pair of compasses are touching us at a certain distance apart. Again, if the fore and middle fingers of the same hand be crossed and a pea rolled between them, the effect produced is as if there were two peas. Yery feeble stimuli do not reach our consciousness at all, and our perceptions are thus falsified. This is specially noticeable in a state of fatigue, when the exhausted nerve elements require exceptionally ener- getic stimuli to rouse them into renewed activity. The working of the motor centres is also affected by AND ILLUSIONS. 7 this cause. For example, when the normal accom- modation fails to take place in the eye, the images not falling on the point of clearest vision become dim and confused ; or, again, though the normal adjust- ments, occur, it may happen that the corresponding muscular sensation- fails in intensity and we locate all objects in a false direction. The same result may be artificially induced by paralysing the accommoda- tion muscles of the eye by the aid of a small dose of atropine ; but indeed it may frequently be observed as a result of exhaustion or inebriation, as when a drunken man passes his hand to the right or left of his glass in misdirected efforts to seize it, or fumbles vainly for the key-hole with his latch-key. Again, slight movements of the eye may produce so little effect on the mental processes that we refer the shifting of the image on the retina, not to movement of the eye, but to an imaginary movement of our surroundings — hence giddiness after waltzing, in ex- treme fatigue, after smoking unusually strong tobacco, and so on.^ To this category belong also the sensory delusions resulting from the after-effects of a stimulus on the organism, from the reverberation of the impression, and from the difficulty of distinguishing between two successive stimuli. The impression of thq^oin firmly pressed into our hand by a skilful comurer and then abstracted by him, lasts long enough for us to shut our hands vsdth the conviction that we feel the piece of money still there. The colours on the colour-top become- blended ; and in the zoetrope we thirik we see an/ acrobat jumping over successive horizontal bars, whilst in reality a series of pictures ' J. Iloppa, Die Scheinbewegungett (1879). 8 HALLUCINATIONS of acrobats in different attitudes spins past our eyes. Complementary images, resulting from stimuli acting either simultaneously or successively, come under the same head, but an inquiry into these would lead us too far. Many of the examples already cited depend on a pathological disturbance of the organism, and are regularly associated with it. Another noteworthy phenomenon of this kind, according to Himly, is the setting back of the stimuli in the scale of the spectrum in hyperesthesia of the retina; thus, for instance, violet becomes red. The opposite occurs when the organ is in a condition of low excitability. In certain disturbances of the ear the pitch of a note is heard higher or lower than it is in reality.^ In santonin- poisoning xanthopsia (yellow vision) occurs,^ as also in icterus and in typhoid without jaundice. ' Oscar Wolf, " Unterbindung der Art. car. comniun. wegen Schussverlelzung " in the Arch. f. Aug.- u. Ohtenheilk., ii. 2, p. 52- Wolf, who had already pointed out that when the tension of the mem- brane is increased a tone becomes higher in penetrating it, communi- cates two cases in which rarefied air, the result of obstruction of the tube in the drum-cavity, caused extreme inwards tension of the tympanum and so raised the pitch of several tones to the diseased ear. Thus in one case the middle c and a were heard a fifth, and in another case the key of A was heard a third higher than they sounded to the normal ear. After equalising the difference of pressure by inflation the sound was again heard purely and correctly. Knapp, in the Arch. f. Aug. • u. Ohrenheilk. , i. p. 93, explains diplacusis binocularis otherwise. Com- pare Burnett's case in the same Arch. vi. p. 241 ; further, Blau in the Arch.f. Ohrheilk., xv. p. 233, who postulates a greater tension of the membrana basilaris for deeper hearingof a tone. See alsoWittich, Kbnigs- berg. vied. Jahrb., iii. 40; Mach, Silzuiigsber. d. Il'un. Aiad., 1864. '■^ Lewin, Lehrb. d. Toxicol. (1S83), p. 239. "After santonin- poisoning, besides scintillations, xanthopsia (yellow vision) was observed persisting for more than twelve hours. White or very light spots appear yellowish green, dark spots and especially the shadows of surrounding objects take a more or less deep shade of violet. In AND ILLUSIONS. 9 Further, the delusions, commonly described as hallu- cinations, which are produced by so-called "eccentric projection " of sensation, may be reckoned as belong- ing to this class. Thus we often locate a tactual sensation outside our body and even refer it to the extremity of the object which we touch. In writing, for instance, we feel the paper with the pen, in fencing we feel the opponent's foil with our own. For it is the peculiarity of the tactile sense that we usually locate the sensation in the peripheral expansion of the nerves. Accordingly, if the nerve is stimulated in another coloured stuffs red seems purplish, yellow very pale and greenish, violet darker, orange pale red, crimson dark, and green yellow-gray" (Mari). This xanthopsia, noted by Hufeland as occurring in icterus and also in typhoid without jaundice, is by some authors supposed to be dioptric in character. Since both in santonin-poisoning and in fatal cases of icterus (compare Moxon in the Lancet, i. 4, January 1873) the re- fracting media of the eye prove colourless, and further, since in old age, when the sight is good, yellow lenses are found (van Swieten), de Martini (Naples) in Comptes rend., Ixvii. p. 259, has assumed a molecular effect on the retina, and a change in its tension through which the vibratory reaction of the nerve particles is altered under light stimulus. E. Rose, in Virch. Arch. xvi. (1859) pp. 233 et seq., xviii. (i860), I, 2, and others suppose rather a narcosis or partial blindness associated with shortening of the colour spectrum. Compare further L. v. Mauthner, "Ueber Santonin" in Oeslr, Zeitschr. f. Kinderheilk., 1856, Febr. -March ; the experiments of Dr. Alois Martin in Biichn. n. Rep. , ii. S; Prof. Falk in Deutsch. Klin, (i860), 27, 28; Giov. Franceschi voijourn.d, Chim. mid. 5, Ser. IV. p. 373(1868); R. Farquharson in Bril. Med. Jown., 21st Oct. 1871; Th. Krauss, Ueber die Wirkung des Santonin und des Sant. -Natron, Diss. Tubingen (1869); J. Heim- beck m Norsk. Mag. f.- Lagevinds, 3 R. xiv. I (1884). Compare on other chromatopsies, for example on blue vision, Hilbert, "Zur Kennt- niss der Kyanopsie," Arch. f. Aiigenheilk,, xxiv. 3 (1890), p. 240. The case of xanthopsia after a gunshot wound in the nasal region, quoted by Hilbert, Arch.f. Augenkeilk., xv. p. 419 (1S85), also points to the central origin of such colour hallucinations. Compare on the subject of red vision, Ji'irV^ir ?««(/. Presse, xxiii. 42; Centralbl. f. pract. Augenkeilk., February 1884, November 1881, June 1883, February- March 1885. lO HALLUCINATIONS place, we refer the sensation to the accustomed spot in the periphery just the same. When the elbow is sharply struck, causing thereby stimulation of the ulnar nerve, the pain is felt in two places, in the elbow, because of the stimulation of the sensitive^ filaments spread out there, and also in the peripheral network of the ulnar nerve in the hand. So after amputation all stimuli applied to the nerve stumps are felt in the lost limb, which still seems to be there, so much so that the patient imagines he can move it about, even years after he has lost it. Professor William James sent a circular containing questions on this point to 800 persons who had suffered amputation, and received 185 answers. He reports' that three-fourths of these persons stated that they experienced sensations in the lost limbs, while in a still greater percentage of cases sensation had been experienced, but had gradually faded out after the operation — in a few hours, weeks, months, or years, as the case might be. Sensation in the lost limb, sometimes felt as burning or twitching, cramp in the heel or toes, or numbness— and sometimes consisting in a mere impression that the missing member is -there — is so vivid in the first few weeks after the operation that one patient, for instance, found himself getting out a pair of scissors to cut the toe-nails, so distinctly did he feel them ; and others tell how they have involuntarily reached down their hands to scratch the missing foot. Sometimes this illusion persists much longer without diminishing in distinct- ness, as in the case of the man who felt as if he had, with the artificial limb, three legs in all, and who found the missing member veiy much in the way in coming downstairs. Out of superstition, imagining that the pain he felt in the amputated ' For a detailed account see William James, " The Consciousness of Lost Limbs," in Proceedings of the Ameiican S.P.R., i. p. 249; compare FrincipUs of Psychology, by the same, ii. pp. 38 ct seq.; Weir Mitchell, Injuries to Nerves; Valentin, Lehrbttch d. Physiol; A. Cramer, Die Hallucinationen im Muskelsinne bet Geisteskranken, etc., pp. ^•^etseq.; Pare, Otuvres compl., ii. pp. 221, 231; Gueniot vajourn. d. rhysiol. (.\v.) iv. p. 416 ; Rizet in Gas. de Paris, 1 86 1, No. 44. AND ILLUSIONS. II parts depended on some maltreatment or uncomfortable resting- place of his buried leg, one of Professor James's correspondents wrote that he had already disinterred and changed its position eight times, and he asked the Professor to advise him whether to dig it up again, saying he " dreaded to." The case of longest duration reported is that of a man who had had a thigh amputa- tion performed at the age of thirteen years, and who, after he was seventy, still felt the lost foot distinctly. The imaginary position of the amputated part varies : either it maintains an independent position of its own, or it follows the movements of the sound limb, or it may even appear fixed in the attitude it occupied immediately before the operation. A shoulder -joint case said his arm seemed to lie on his breast with closed fingers, just as it did eight or ten hours before amputation. As an explanation of this phenomenon, described by Du Prel as a "feeling of spiritual unity" (Integritatsgefuhl), and by him adduced as a proof of the existence of an . astral body,' Professor James goes on to assume that just as cer- tain brain-centres respond to any and every stimulus by sensations of light and of sound, so do certain other centres respond by the sensation of a foot, with its toes, heel, etc. In the normal state the foot thus felt is located where the eye can see and the hand touch it. This immediate inner sensation still persists, even when the foot is cut oflf, and would naturally, one may suppose, be located about where it used to be, in the absence of any counter- motive. There would be such a counter-motive if nerves normally excited by foot -sensations v/ere to find themselves excited every time the stump was tpuched ; and foot-sensations and stump-sensations being thus associated, would end by merging in each other. This merging does take place in many cases of what Gueriot calls "subjective heterotopy," that is to say, that the extremity, immediately after , the operation, seems to be in its old place, but by degrees approaches the stump. This feeling of gradual shrinkage generally depends on the feeling of the contact of the extremity with the stump. The hand may seem to spring directly from the shoulder, or the foot from the knee. A sensation may also be experienced as though the extremity were diminishing in ' Du Prel, Die Monistische Seeienkhre, pp. 157-166; English trans- lation, The Philosophy of MystkisDi, 1S89. 12 HALLUCINATIONS size, the foot becoming like a child's foot, for instance. Thus in many cases the consciousness of amputated limbs is gradually lost through merging. Of course where degeneration and atrophy of the nerve-paths ascending to the cortical centres has been proved, we have an all-sufficient reason why the lost member can no longer be felt.' There are other cases, how- ever, where assimilation is hindered by the nerve-stumps being deeply buried in the tissues. When this is the case, foot-feelings and stump-feelings remain distinct, and the former will occur on every stimulus applied to the nerve-stumps. A patient of Weir Mitchell's had long lost the sensation of his amputated hand, but when faradisation was applied to the shoulder, this feeling was so suddenly and vividly restored that he cried out, " Oh, the hand !— the hand ! " and attempted to seize the missing member. It would seem that even in cases of congenital defect of the extremities, the same phenomena — i.e., the feeling as of move- ment in the missing finger, or as though the congenitally shrunken arm were of the usual length — have been observed. Tke Psychological Conception of Fallacious Perception. — On returning to the consideration of individual fallacies of perception we are met at once by the question whether these things are really seen, heard, in a word, perceived, or whether the hallucinated person only believes that he hears, sees, etc. The latter ex- planation is the most obvious, artd many writers have accordingly been led to consider sensory delusions as something quite different from sensory perceptions, and have described them as images or memories of exceptional vividness. Thus Crichton^ (1798) defines ' Fran5ois Franck, Lecons sur les 7naladies de Cei-aeau (1877), p. 291. Compare also the note by Gudden on atrophy of the optic nerve in enucleation of the eyeball extending into the occipital-lobes of the brain, and histologically distinguished from descending degeneration, " Ueber die ICreuzung, etc.," Ges. Ahhandl., p. 140; Monakow in Arch. f. Psych., xiv., xvi., and xx. ; Stauffer, Ueber einen Fall von Hemianopsie (Marb. Diss. 1890). ^ Crichton, An Inquiry into the Nature of Menial Derangement, ii. P- 342. AND ILLUSIONS. 1 3 'Ihallucinations and illusions as errors of the mind by which in the one case ideas are taken for matters of fact, and in the other case real objects are falsely represented, but without any general disturbance of the intellectual faculties. Hibbert^ (1825) holds that they are ideas and memories which surpass in vivid- ness the actual impressions of the moment. Calmeil calls them ideas transformed into material impres- sions and referred to the activity of the peripheral organs, although these latter remain passive. Au- baneP (1839) regards hallucinations as a form or variety of mental alienation, in which delirious ideas are transformed into sensations, or real sensations perverted by assimilation to those delirious ideas. Michda* (1846) considers hallucinations as the trans- formation — generally involuntary — of memory and imagination into the semblance of sense-perception, and Dendy* (1841) calls hallucination a past and illusion a present recollection. Moreau^ follows (1845) with the hypothesis that there are really no hallucinations but only a hallucinated state which, from a psychological standpoint, is identical with the dream state. In this state the mind is supposed to transfer the products or creations of its fantasy to real life, and to persuade itself that it has heard, seen, or felt as in. the normal condition, when it has really only imagined it heard, saw, or felt. Esquirol^ ' .S. Hibbert, Sketches of the Philosophy of Apparitions, p. i. * Aubanel, Essai sur les hallucinations. ' Michea, Du 'dili} e cies sensations, p. 82. ' Dendy, The Philosophy of Mystery. " Moreau (de Tours), Du hachisch et de raliination men/ale. ^ Compare various articles by Esquirol reprinted from the Diction' naire des sciences midicales. Further, Des maladies mentales (English translation, 1845), and in the Arch, ginlr. (1832), "Sur les illusions des sens chez les ali^nds." 14 HALLUCINATIONS speaks of hallucinations as cerebral or psychical phenomena which occur independently oif the senses, and consist of external impressions which the patient thinks he experiences, though no outward material cause acts upon his senses. Elsewhere he propounds the often controverted explanation that the illusory impressions of the hallucinated subject are mental images or ideas, reproduced by the memory, ela- borated by the imagination, and personified through habit. Szafkowskii (1849) agrees practically with Esquirol, and so does Falret^ (1850), with some slight modifications. With these authors may be reckoned Ldlut^ and Leuret,* since they hold sensory delusion to be a hybrid phenomenon intermediate between ideation and sensory perception ; and also A. Bottex,^ Brierre de Boismont,^ and others. In face of all these opinions we must not forget, however, that all sense-perception is ultimately a psy- chical phenomenon, and that, to use Gurney's words,'^ ^ ^^ Every psychological phenomenon that takes the char- acter of a sense-impression is a sense-impression. When the hallucinated person says, I hear so-and-so, or, I see so-and-so, the words are literally true ; for to him a hallucination is not merely like, or related to, a sense-impression, it is identical with it" Of course, a man who has been staring at the sun will as a rule > P. Rufin Szafkowski, Recherches sur les hallucinations au point de vue de la psychologic, de thistoire et de la mid. Kgale, p. 8. "- Falret, " Le9ons cliniques des maladies mentales," Gazette des hipitaux (1850). ^ L^lut, " De la folia sensoriale," in Gaz. tnid. (1833). ^ Leuret, Fragments psychol. sur la folic, p. 33. ^ A. Bottex, Essai sur Ics hallucinations (1836). " Brierre de Boismont, Des hallucinations (and ed., 1852; trans- lated by R. T. Hulme, 1859). ' Gurney, loc. cit., p. 155. AND ILLUSIONS. 15 think it less accurate to say that he sees a shining disc wherever he looks, than to say that h& fancies it. In the same way, we follow the beaten track of thought when we say of a dream or some such sensory delusion, " I thought I saw," " I imagined I heard," and so on.^ Others, again, repudiate these modes of expression, and maintain that the seer of visions or the dreamer of dreams not only believes he sees, but sees and hears in very fact.^ Thus both parties commit the same error, in that they take the belief in sense-perception for something different from sense-perception itself. As a matter of fact, to " believe one sees " and " to see " are two expres- sions meaning the same thing. The former merely reiterates the fact that seeing, etc., is a purely sub- jective act. A hallucination is then a sense-percep-^ tion like any other, "only there happens to be no object there, that is the whole difference."* Accordingly we find it taken for granted in nearly all modern psychological inquiries, that hallucination is a sense-perception, and that the only question of practical importance — viz., whether the object is or is not really there — is psychologically irrelevant, Griesinger's paraphrase* of hallucinations as " sub- jective sense-images which are projected outwards and take apparent objectivity and reality," and ' The usual expression employed by the Greeks was SoKmi, by the Romans iiiden, in speaking of dreams and visions. In middle-high- German dunhen is generally used. (P. Radestock, Scklafutid Traum, Note 222.) ^ For instance, Griesinger, Die Pathol, u. Tkerapie d. psych. Krankheiten (2 Ed. 1867), p. 86 ; English translation, Mental Fathology and Therapeutics (London, 1867) : " The patient sees, hears, smells really, he does not merely imagine that he sees and hears." 2 W. James, The Principles of Psychology, ii. p. 115- * Griesinger, loc. cit., p. 85. l6 HALLUCINATIONS Esquirol's contention that we must regard as hallu- cinated the person '' qui ait la conviction intime d'une sensation actuellement percue lorsque nul objet extd- rieur propre a exciter cette sensation n'est k portte des sens/'i are now combined in the short definition, " Hallucination is perception without an object."^ Indeed Taine availed himself of this conception to invert the proposition; for since, he says, what we objectify in normal perceptions is present sensation, while in hallucination what we objectify is remem- bered or represented sensation,* " au lieu de dire que I'hallucination est une perception extdrieure fausse, il faut dire que la perception extdrieure est une Aa/- lucination vraie."^ From the standpoint now arrived at it seems un- justifiable in a discussion on fallacies of perception to place the hallucinations and illusions of insanity in opposition to those of other states ; or, like Hagen, Schiile, and Kandinsky, to exclude dreams and reckon as hallucinations only those fallacies of per- ception which appear among true sensory impressions received from the external world and with a vividness equalling theirs.' Whether I "hallucinate" with eyes closed or open, whether I see distinct and vivid images, or dim floating shapes, is a matter of no ' Esquirol, Des maladies meniales (1838). ^ Ball, Lefon sur les maladies mmtales (l88l), p. 62. ' H. Taine, De I' intelligence, 4th edition, ii. p. 13. ^ The merit of having first assigned to hallucinations this sensory character, in opposition to the view of the authors just quoted above, who regard Ihem merely as vivid ideas with the appearance of sense-percep- tions, belongs in Germany to J. Muller and Burdach, and in France to Baillarger ("Des Hallucinations, etc.," in the Mim. de V Acad, roy d AUd., xii.). = Hagen, "Die Sinnestauschungen in Bez. auf Physiol., Heilk. u Rechtspflege" (1837). AND ILLUSIONS. 17 importance. The dimmest, most formless mist which I " see," or " think I see," is really seen, and even though this visual impression may have arisen sub- jectively, it should nevertheless be called a fallacious perception, hallucination, or illusion, quite irrespec- tively of how it originated, or what circumstances favoured the appearance of the phenomenon,^ and quite irrespectively also of its influence upon the percipient, or his attitude with regard to it. Thus all hallucinations and illusions may be reckoned -as fallacious perceptions, whether observed in the sane or the insane, whether occurring in sleep or in the waking state, whether arising spontaneously or ex- perimentally induced.^ Of course we must not on that account assume that the physiological process accompany- ing hallucinatory perception depends in all these cases on similar conditions of the brain, although it is highly probable that it rests on analogous functional principles. Before we pass on to this question we must first consider the various conditionstunder which fallacious perceptions occur, and thus familiarise ourselves with one group of the facts concerned. ' Mich^a, who seeks to separate the false hallucinations — those of dreams, for instance — from the true ones of the waking state {op. cil., p. 102), and says that the existence of hallucinations implies the waking state, as dreams imply that of sleep, has yet to add that the state between waking and sleeping is peculiarly favourable to hallu- cinations. 2 Among those who hold as analogous phenomena dreams, the delirious images of fever, hallucinations, etc., are : Maury, Morel op, cit., A. Krauss, "Der Sinnim Wahnsinn,'M/i^. Zeitschr.f. Psych, xv. 6, xvi. I, 2 ; A. Mayer (Mayence), Die Sinnestduschungen (Vienna, 1869) ; compare also Hoppe, Erkldrung der Sinnestduschungen, etc., and Kohl- schiltter in the Zeilschr. f. ration. Medic, R. iii., B. 34, p. 46. CHAPTER II. FALLACIOUS TERCEPTION IN VARIOUS TATHOLO- GICAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL STATES. Esquirol's distinction between Hallucination and Illusion — Fallacies of Perception in the Insane: In Amentia, Denuniia, Melancholia, Mania, " Folie Circulaire" De- lusional Insanity and Paranoia, General Paralysis — The share of the several Senses in these Delusions, and their effect oh the Patient — In Psychoneuroses : Epilepsy, Hysteria — In Ecstasy — In States of Intoxication: Alcohol, Chloroform, Ether, Haschisch, Santonin, Cinchona, Opium, Nitrous Oxide Gas — Specific Action of Narcotics and Personal Reaction — In acute Somatic Diseases — In Dreams — In Hypnosis — Crystal Visions — Dissociation of Consciousness the Common Characteristic of all these States. In accordance with Esquirol's definition,^ two sorts of sensory deception are generally distinguished: — (l) Illusions, or "the false interpretation of external objects ; " (2) Hallucinations, or " subjective sensory images" which arise without the aid of external stimuli, but are projected outwards and thus assume apparent objective reality.* ' Esquirol, " Bur les illusions des sens cliez les alienes ,'" Arcli. s/n.. 1832. * " Griesinger, loc. cit., § 52; still e.irlier Arnold, Observations on the Nature, Kinds, Causes, tind Prevention of Insanity (1782), speaks of (he mental state of the individual who thinks he sees and hears what others neither see nor hear, and who imagines he holds converse with beings or perceives objects which are not of the senses, or which do not so exist in the outward world as they appear to him. Writers before HALLUCINATIONS AND ILLUSIONS. I9 As briefly indicated above, mere misinterpretations of sense- perceptions should not be regarded as sensory fallacies. In the long run, therefore, no satisfactory theory can be based on Esquirol's dis- tinction, as is sufficiently indicated by the many unsuccessful attempts to reach one. But, generally speaking, nearly all observers are agreed to consider illusion as a mixture of subjective and objective elements of perception, or as an incomplete sensory delusion, and to restrict the word hallucination en- tirely to new sensory creations. If a man sees some- thing where there really is something to be seen, then he is said to be the subject of an illusion; if he perceives something where there is nothing, then he is said to be hallucinated. Apart from other objec- tions, such a definition is open to the reproach of employing a physical differentia in a matter purely psychical;^ but as usage has to a certain extent fixed Esquirol do not agree in their terminology. Sauvages and Felix Plater describe as hallucinations those errors which are caused by failure in the functions of the outer sense organs, and include with them singing in the ears, diplopia, vertigo, hypochondriasis, and somnambulism. Under the name of " deliria," the phenomena which have their rise in the brain are somewhat vaguely distinguished. Darwin agrees with these writers in his Zoonomy. Ferrier, An Essay towards a Theory of Apparitions, p. 95, comprehends under hallucination all deceptive impressions from ?/iusc L. Strtlmpell, Natur imd BMstehimg der Traume (1874); Volkelt, Die Traumphantasie (1875); Hilde- brandt, Der Traum und seine Verwerthuiigfiirs Leben {iSj $) ; Siebeck, Ueber Schlaf und Traum (1877); C. Binz, Ueber den Traum (^l%^%) ; Siebert, Ueber Schlaf und Traum (1878); Giessler, Atis den Tiefen des Traumlebens. But the most useful of all are : Spilta, Die Schlaf- und Traum-zusldnde der menschlichen Seek (2 Auflage 1892), and especially P. Radestock, ^f/z/a/ wW Traum (1879); Delboeuf, " Le sommeil et les reves," in 'Cat Rev. philosoph. (1879-80); Weygandt, Enlsfehung der Traume (1893); and Mourly-Vold, "Experiences sur ies Reves," Revue de l'ffypno:isme, Jan. 1896. = Op. cit., Cap. I. AND ILLUSIONS. 5 1 the consciousness during the waking state are blotted out, allowing the ideas kept under by them, and long struggling to arise, to emerge above the threshold of consciousness — a process which Aristotle compares to the emergence of a frog frozen in the ice, and Radestock to the appearance of the stars after sunset. Often, it is said, old memories (from youth's " golden age") or wishes, still active, or cherished long ago, are realised in these visions. One individual re-visited in a dream the playground of his youth and his youth's companions. Shortly after he returned in the flesh to his native place, from which he had been absent for many years, and reported that he found everything as it had appeared to him in the dream, except that his friends had grcvirn older. A man-servant, who had failed to attain his cherished ambition of becoming a soldier, was consoled by dreams of military glory, and while by day he blacked boots, by night he commanded a regiment.' To this class (Spitta's Associationstrdume) belong many of the dreams which reveal things of which we were not conscious whilst awake. Thus Maury dreamed of the, to him, unknown town, Mussi- dan, and that some one told him it was in the department of Dor- dogne. On waking he looked it up, and found that his dream- infonnant was correct. Abercrombie^ tells how a friend of his, who was employed as cashier in a Glasgow bank, was enabled through information received in a dream to correct an error of long standing, for which he had vainly sought to'account in mak- ing up his books at the close of the year. He also gives another case in which a father appeared to his son in a dream, and named a witness who could testify to a certain payment made by him before his death. For this sum the son was then being prosecuted, and though he was convinced that the claim was 1 Radestock, op. cit., p. 138. 3 Abercrombie, Inquiries concerning the Intellectual Powers, pp. 2S0-288. 52 HALLUCINATIONS unjust, he had hitherto failed to find any proof in his favour. But the apparition mentioned a trifling circumstance which had occurred in connection with the payment, and which later proved ta be of great importance, for tTie witness had forgotten all about the transaction till the mention of this little incident called up the whole scene to his mind. Professor Reubold (of Wurzburg) tells of a young betrothed couple who, after hastily clearing the table in order to write an important letter, found that a watch which had been lying on the table had disappeared. All search proved fruitless, but a week later the man dreamed that it was in the outer breast- pocket of the coat he had been wearing at the time, and there the watch was found."^ It is clear that in all these cases it is not a question of new knowledge, but of the emergence in the dream-state of an apparently forgotten im- pression. We shall encounter such phenomena fre- quently. Let us now pass to the other group, the illusions (Spitta's Nervenreiztrdume) brought about by ex- ternal stimuli which, as in the waking state, reach us through all the ordinary channels of sense. Perhaps, as the eyes are closed, they reach us on the whole less through the visual sense, yet lightning, moon- light, and sunlight not infrequently exercise an influence on the imagery of our dreams. Krauss' relates that he once caught himself, on waking, in an amorous attitude, with his arms stretched out towards the opposite window, in which the image of his absent mistress appeared. When fully awake, this image resolved itself into the full moon. Schemer dreamed once, when the morning sun streamed into his room, that a fiery dragon was rushing upon him. Suddenly the dragon retreated, and on waking he found 1 Taken from the Miinchner Nettest. Nachrichien (1896), No. 13S. ' Krauss, Der Sinn im IVahnsinn. AND ILLUSIONS. S3 that clouds had hidden the sun. Weygandt dreamed of "living pictures " suddenly seen in a blaze of magnesium light. In this case the morning sun had just broken through the clouds. Besides these external influences acting on the eye, changes taking place in the visual organ itself are to be noted. I pass them over here, however, as we shall encounter them later on, when we come to discuss the theory of hallucination. The sensory stimuli which reach us through the ear are of great importance in the formation of dream-images. The b^anging of a door or the noise of an overturned chair may involve us in a dream-duel, ending in the loud report of a pistol. When a child, Maury fell asleep one day of great heat, and dreamed that his head lay on an anvil and was being smitten with a blacksmith's hammer ; yet it was not crushed ; it melted -away to water. On awaking he found himself bathed in sweat, and heard from the neighbouring smithy the sound of the blacksmith's hammer. Weygandt dreamed on a railway journey, when the engine whistled, of a girl who was screaming and crying shrilly because she was being scolded. " Between sleeping and waking this morning I perceived a dog running about in a field (an ideal white and tan sporting dog, etc.), and the next moment I heard a dog barking outside the window. Keeping my closed eyes on the vision, I found that it came and went with the barking of the dog outside." ' The part played in building up dream-images by the two senses of smell and taste is not so easy to indicate. While visual stimuli in far the greater number of cases give rise to visual hallucinations, and noises, etc., generally induce hallucinations of hearing, it rarely happens that the dreams which spring from olfactory and gustatory stimuli bear any qualitative relation to their exciting causes. Thus ' Phantasms of the Living, i. p. 474. 54 HALLUCINATIONS Strong odours, flower-scents, heavily perfumed hand- kerchiefs or soap, have an unpleasant effect upon the dreamer, causing oppressed breathing, with its accom- panying dreams, but seldom give rise to percepts normally associated with such scents. These do, however, sometimes occur, as in the case of the individual who directed his servant to sprinkle his pillow sometimes after he was asleep (leaving the choice of the particular night to the servant) with a perfume which he had only used during a certain stay in the country, but to which he had then taken a great fancy. On those nights he visited again in his dreams the scenes associated in his mind with the perfume. The occurrence of imaginary tastes and smells in dreams is very rare, so much so that it has been altogether denied by many observers. Still a few cases have been reported. i Sensations of pressure, temperature, and of the cutaneous sensibility in general are among the chief causes of dreams. The bedcover pressing on the arm is embraced as a mistress, or felt as a heavy weight; a dream of being impaled, that is'to say, of standing on a stake, the point of which was thrust through the foot, has been known to arise from the pressure of a straw lodged between the toes ; a covering which has slipped to the ground is sometimes a source of great embarrassment, when it causes us to dream of appearing half clad in the street or at a social gathering ; or it may call up visions of skating, Alpine travels. Polar expeditions, and these again may suddenly end in the feeling of falling into a gulf, due to a slight alteration of the sleeper's position in bed.= Gregory, when he had a hot-water ' Sully, Illusions (1881), p. 144. In the case quoted by Weygandt, op. cit., pp. 47 ei seij., the olfactory stimulus was perceived objectively, and therefore can hardly be called an olfactory dream. ''■ Savage, op. cit., p. 129. AND ILLUSIONS. 5S bottle at his feet, dreamed that he was climbing Etna and walking on hot lava. Purkinje says : " If our hand has become numb by pressure, in the dream-state it may appear as some- thing strange and gruesome touching us, and if the whole side is affected, we imagine that a strange bedfellow, whom we cannot get rid of, is stretched beside us."' Besides arising out of these and similar external influences, our dreams often spring from feelings connected with the bodily organs themselves, for in the dream-state the '" organic sense '' of our waking life is split up into its constituent parts, and separate feelings due to slight irregularities or disturbances of the functions easily become elements in the dream- consciousness.^ Thus, for example, the dream of having a tooth extracted may originate in an in- cipient toothache, which perhaps twenty-four hours later may become sufficiently intense to affect the waking consciousness. Irregularity of the heart's action, difficulty in breathing, an uncomfortable ' According to J. Mourly-Vold, "Experiences sur les Rfives, etc.," Revue de V Hypnotisme, Jan. 1896, the influence of position during sleep is generally exhibited in one of the following ways : — ( I ) The position of a member may be perceived more or less correclly, but suggest an attitude; for instance, if the foot is stretched and bent back it suggests the dream of standing on tip-toe to reach something ; (2) the strained position may be taken to be part of a movement, and t4>e dreamer seem to be dancing on his toes ; (3) the movements may appear to be executed by some one else; (4) sometimes the movements seem to be impeded; (5) the affected member may be changed in the dream into some animal or inanimate object of analogous form ; (6) sometimes the dream-per- ceplion of the member gives rise to abstract ideas, which it symbolises; for instance, the perception of several fingers may give rise to dreams of numbers and calculations. ^ Of these constituent parts in relation to the character of dreams, Weygandt has experimentally investigated sensations of fatigue, in- digestion, fulness of the bladder, free and restricted breathing, the circulation, and the sense of equilibrium. The infiuence of sexual excitation could also be easily proved. S6 HALLUCINATIONS position, and errors of diet are the not infrequent causes of distressing dreams. Thus Herrmann, when suffering from an attack of colic, dreamed that his abdomen was opened, and an operation performed on the sympathetic nerve. Others dream of going up for examinations. The house-wife dreams she is giving a party, and that all her dainties are burnt up, an'd so on. To the causes just mentioned (Schech also men- tions nasal polypus) is to be referred nightmare^ (also called incubus, succubus, and night-hag), which has played no small part in the development of daemonology, the belief in vampires, witches, and so on. For naturally the character of the dream imagery does not depend only on the stimuli which started it, but also on the intellectual and emotional idiosyncrasies of the dreamer (Radestock). Accord- ingly, the dream-images accompanying the stimuli, or rather originated by them, differ widely in different persons, and this is alio true of the further secondary fallacies of perception which associate themselves with these primary illusions. Generally speaking, however, we may assume that in the majority of cases externally associated images are ' M. Strah], Der Alp, sein Weseii and seine Heilung (1833), with a bibliography of the oliler woilis; Albers, Beobachtungen auf dem Gebia der Palhologie,m. p. 59(1840); 'Boemzt, Vas Alpdrikken, seine Begriin- dungund Fer/ni/ung (iS^^) ; Binz, op. cil. In a vivdvoce communi- cation from Dr. C. F. Miiller I obtained the following :— A mediiKval superstition explained incubus, vampires, etc., as the fruit of unnatural ■intercourse between man and beast, and was formally expressed up to the beginning of our century by the fact that the legal punishment for this offence, death by fire, was inflicted only when such intercourse was proved to have be'en consummated. In such cases the animal was also burnt, or otherwise put out of the way, a proceeding partaking more of the nature of sel'-protection than of punishment. AND ILLUSIONS. 57 reproduced, even when such pronounced cases as the following have to be classed as exceptions. Maury once dreamed that he made a pilgrimage (JiMerinage) to Jerusalem, then found himself in the presence of the chemist Pelletier, who gave him a shovel {pelle). Another time he dreamed first oi kilometres, then oi kilograms, the island Gilolo, the flower lobelia. General Lopes, and a party of loto. An acquaintance once told him that he dreamed he was in t\i&Jarclin des Plantes, and there met the traveller Chardtn, who gave him a book hy Jules Janin. The dependence of drearris on particular stimuli is best shown by experiments ; new conditions may be artificially introduced, and the dream may then be compared with the means employed.^ When water was dropped into the open mouth of a sleeper, he dreamed that he was swimming, and made the corresponding motions. A light silk handkerchief laid over the mouth and nose produced the dream of being buried alive. A mustard- plaster laid on the head caused the subject to dream of being scalped by Indians ; and so on.^ Fallacious Perception in Hypnosis. — Dreams ex- ' Self-expetiment, and the repetition of the same experiment in order to induce a dream experienced before under like conditions, is a less trustworthy method. (Compare Spitta, of. cit., p. 227.) The train of thought which is started in the waking state, while we are preparing for the experiment, is likely to act as a pie-hypnotic suggestion. As examples of this kind of self-suggestion are com- paratively rare in the Uterature of the subject, I venture to cite one here. A shoemaker with whom I sometimes experimented begged me to give him a suggestion which would cure him of the bad habit of oversleeping himself. Although by an oversight the suggestion was not given while he was in the hypnotic trance, the pre-hypnotic auto- suggestion proved sufficient for the purpose ; at least a fortnight later he had not once failed to respond to the summons of the early morning bell, which he had not heard for years before. ^ Spitta, op. cil., p. 278 ; Boerner, op. cit.; Weygandt, op. cit.; and others. 58 HALLUCINATIONS perimentally induced durine sleep in the manner above described lead us naturally to those of the hypnotic state, and indeod they are in some cases not to be distinguished from them — in cases, that is to say, where in normal sleep the hallucinations cor- respond directly to distinct verbal suggestions. The classic instance is that furnished by Abercrombie of the officers who, by whispering in their sleeping comrade's ear, made him go through all the incidents of a duel, from the challenge to the final pistol-shot. Beattie gives similar cases. The numerous examples supplied by the literature of hypnotism render it superfluous to cite further experiments here, for instances like the above in nowise differ from the ordinary phenomena of hypnotic suggestion. The suggested hallucinations of hypnosis are to be dis- tinguished, however, from the fallacies of perception discussed in the preceding paragraph, where the stimulus which is elaborated into a dream-illusion is but dimly and vaguely felt by the sleeper, where the sound of words addressed to him, for instance, only reaches his dreaming ear as a murmur, so that he imagines himself walking by a murmuring stream, or among trees soughing in the wind. But in the cases with which we are now concerned, spoken words are clearly distinguished from other sounds, are intel- ligently perceived, and produce their appropriate dream-images. As, however, this direct, dramatic response to verbal suggestion had rarely been observed except in hypnosis, and in that state could be very easily produced, it came to be regarded as a typical hyp- notic phenomenon, and the distinction drawn by Spitta between sleep and hypnosis was generally AND ILLUSIONS. 59 accepted.! According to him, "normal" sleep is less pervious to external influences than the aleit "artificially induced" state of the hypnotised subject. In the former case, he says, the suggested dream depends on the operator only at its commencement, and is continued quite independently by the "auto- matic action " of the brain. This is no doubt true of the greater number of suggested dreams in sleep, for in the first place the experimenter wishes, as a rule, to study the results of a single isolated impression, and refrains from con- fusing it by adding other suggestions, and the further course of the dream is abandoned to the guidance of cerebral automatism, or becomes modified by incal- culable accidents; while, on the other hand, the dream of the hypnotic subject is generally guided by a series of suggestions. Secondly, the suggestions given to the normal sleeper have usually been vague and elementary in character (pressure, cold, touch, light, etc.). He interprets these mistakenly, and it is difficult for the experimenter to guide further a dream of which he does not know the content.^ In most hypnotic experiments definite suggestions are given, and though the subject does indeed develop them in his own way, still the experimenter remains in closer touch with him. Thus the difference is not a fundamental one, but is conditioned by the difference in the amount of experimental intefference; more- over, there are cases on record, like those cited by Abercrombie and Beattie, where the experimenter ' Spitta, op. cit., p. 130. 'How important it is for the operator to be in touch with the content of the subject's dream is shown! by Moll, Kaptort in der Hypnose, p. 30S (36), Case 21. 6o HALLUCINATIONS was able to guide as he liked the dream of a normal sleeper. On the other hand, there are cases where the hyp- notic dream depends but little on the direct influence of the operator, when only a vague suggestion is given. Suppose a march is played on the piano without any verbal suggestion being added, the subject may, as likely as not, look out of an imaginary window and watch a phantom band march past with fife and drum. Again, the suggested dream of hypnosis may be carried on by the subject independently. Let the experimenter but refrain frorn breaking in with new suggestions, let him leave the subject to his own devices, and the opportunity will be afforded him of watching the unfolding of a continued dream. This was very well shown in the case of a gardener-lad with whom 1 experimented. After a series of experiments, I left him to himself for some time smoking a "suggested" pipe, while I noted down my observations. Suddenly he snatched this imaginary pipe out of his mouth, made a horrid grimace, and proceeded to spit out imaginary tobacco juice, with signs of lively disgust. Nor is the well-known phenomenon called " d^roule- inent" anything more than a vivid continued dream. It consists in this, that often on a slight and accidental incitement, and sometimes very much against the intention of •the experimenter, a long or short series of scenes from a former state of hypnosis are automatically reproduced. A similar phenomenon is the objectivation des types, when the subject develops a mental delusion sug- gested by the operator in association with various hallucinations and illusions which are interwoven with it. AND ILLUSIONS. 6-1 Furthermore, it is a fact tliat in hypnosis, exactly "as in sleep, spontaneous hallucinations and illusions occur. Sometimes they are so lively, as in the case of "mediums" and "magnetic" somnambulists, that the experimenter ceases to exert any power over them at all ; in other cases he may be able to guide them to some extent, and at least he is generally able to break the chain of associated ideas at any moment by suggestion and cause them to disappear. Bernheim quotes two cases,i and though he mentions this type of somnambulism but seldom, it is nevertheless to be met with quite frequently in cases where the experi- menter contents himself with watching the course of a dream which is not " acted out," but which runs on like the dreams of ordinary sleep, and occurs oftenest when the subject is left to himself. On account of this tendency of the hypnotic dream to run on, Ringier has urged^ that, in the therapeutic practice of hypnotism, it is unadvisable to leave the patient long alone without from time to time repeating the curative suggestion. Generally speaking, the similarity which exists between the hallucinations of hypnosis and of sleep extends to those of the post-hypnotic state. But it should be noted that while in the majority of cases the appearance of the suggested hallu- ' Bernheim, De la Suggestion, pp. 64-67. (Stiggeslive Therapeutics. From the French. New York and London, 1889.) ^ Ringier, Erfolge des iherapeutischen Nypnotismus in der Land- praxis, pp. 95 et seq. ' Though the auto-suggestive continuation and spontaneous origin of sensory delusions can be so easily observed in hypnosis, it may not be superfluous to emphasize their occurrence here, since Ochorowicz still thought it necessary to question it in the programme of the Psycho- physiological Congress in Paris. 62 HALLUCINATIONS cination is sufficient to induce a more or less pronounced hypnoid condition, there are other sub- jects who, while responding to the suggestion, remain to all appearance in the normal state.' Such cases recall the hallucinations of paranoia, which are also characterised by the maintenance of conscious- ness, and here as there the percipient is in nowise confused, and while experiencing hallucinations may perhaps be engaged in a lively conversation with those around him. Frau U., an innkeeper's wife, 45 years of age, an extremely suggestible subject (so much so that while awake a mere assur- ance that she could not move her limbs deprived her of all power of movement), was hypnotised by me, and the post-hypnotic sug- gestion given that each time A., who was present, should cough, a fly would alight on her brow. The hallucination was realised ; at each cough of A.'s she raised her hand to her forehead and looked up into the air as though watching a fly. This did not prevent her, however, from continuing with animation her conversation with me cfn the preparations for her daughtei-'s approaching marriage. Her prompt reaction to suggestions given in ordinary life rendered her post-hypnotic suggestibility valueless as a test of her state of consciousness. Bernheim communicates the following case of a young girl, of unusual intelligence, and free from hysterical tendency": — "I arranged that on waking she should see an imaginary rose. She saw it, touched and smelt it, and described it to me; but knowing that I might have given her a suggestion, she asked me if the rose was a real or imaginary one, adding that it was quite impossible for her to tell the difference. I told her that it was imaginary. She believed me, and yet found that by no effort of the will could she make it disappear. ' I can still see and touch it,' she said, ' as though it were natural ; and if you were to show me a real rose beside it, or instead of it, I should not be able to tell the one from the other.' All this ' Ginney in the ProceeHns^s of the S.P. R., 1S87 ; see note, p. 307. ' Bernheim, o/<. cit., p. 38. AND ILLUSIONS. 6^ time she n'as thoroughly awake, and talked quietly with me about the apparition." Crystal-visions. — The class of hallucinations which we shall now proceed to discuss, those known as "crystal-visions,"' also seem to occur in full normal consciousness. These visions may be experimentally induced as follows. The percipient strives to banish all conscious thought from his mind, and fixes his gaze continuously on a " Braid's crystal," a burning glass in a dark frame, a glass of water or some similar reflecting object.^ Many persons after gazing thus for some time begin to see pictures in the crystal, the spire of the parish church perhaps, or familiar faces. The art of crystal-gazing has been practised from very early times.' Divination by means of crystals and various reflecting objects (such as metal mirrors, beryl stones and other gems, vessels containing water, wells and springs, liquid poured into the palm of the hand, oiled finger-nails, etc.) was practised by the Assyrians, Persians, Egyptians, and in Greece, Rome, China, India, and Japan, not to speak of the cup-divination among the South Sea Islanders. This art, whose discovery jCschylus attributed to Prometheus, Cicero to the Assyrians, Zoroaster to Ahriman, and the Fathers of the Church to the Father of Lies, reached its highest development in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, and found its exponents among the learned physicians and mathematicians of the Courts of. Eliza- beth, the Italian Princes, Catherine de Medici, and the Emperors Maximilian and Rudolph. As all the various methods of mirror ^ Compare "Recent Experiments in Crystal-Vision,'' Proceed, of the Soc. /. Psych. Pes., vol. v. (1888-89), pp. 486 el seq.; Myers, "The Subliminal Consciousness," id., vol. viii. (1892), p. 472; Rells, Psychol. Skizzen (1893), p. i. ■ C. G. Carus reports a case where fixed gazing at the shining lock of a door gave rise to hallucinations. ' For the historical part, see "Recent Experiments, etc.;" Kiese- weller, Faust in der Geschichte tttid Tradition, etc. (1893); and Miinchen akad. MoncUshefte (1890), vol. 78-82. 64 HALLUCINATIONS or crystal divination resemble each other closely in many ways, —for instance, in laying stress on the condition that the seer should be a child " who had not known sin,"— suffice it in this short glance at the history of the subject to take the description written in Egypt by an eye-witness. Lane.' His curiosity was excited by Mr. Salt, the English Consul-General, who, on suspecting his servants of theft, sent for a magician. Mr. Salt himself selected a "boy as seer, while the magician occupied himself with writing charms on pieces of paper which, with incense and perfumes, were afterwards burned in a brazier of charcoal ; then, drawing a diagram in the boy's right palm, into the middle of which he poured some ink, he bade him look fixedly into it. Aifter various visions had come and gone, the form of the guilty person appeared to the boy, and was re- cognised by the description he gave. On being arrested the thief thus strangely convicted confessed his crime. This incident prompted Lane to further inquiries, and other results, of which he gives a very full account, were obtained. On -one occasion the magician wrote certain invocations on paper, summoning his two genii, then added a verse from the Koran, "to open the boy's eyes in a supernatural manner . . to make his' sight pierce into what is to us the invisible world." These were burnt in a chafing dish containing live charcoal, with frank- incense and various spices, etc. A boy of eight or nine years old had been chosen at random from a number who happened to be passing in the street, and the magician, taking hold of his right hand drew in the palm a magic square, that is to say one square inscribed within another, and in the space between certain Arabic numerals ; then, pouring ink into the centre, bade the boy look into it attentively. At first he could only see the face of the magician ; but proceeding with his inspection while the other continued to drop written invocations into the chafing-dish, he at length described a man sweeping with a broom, then a scene in which flags and soldiers appeared; and finally Lane asked that Nelson should be called for. The boy described a man in European clothes of dark blue, who had lost his left arm, but added, on looking more intently, " No, it ' Lane, Cusloms of the Modern Egyptimis (1833-35), I. cap. 12. Compare a similar description In Burke's Anecdotes of the Aristocracy and Episodes of Ancestral History, vol. i. p. 124. AND ILLUSIONS. 6$ is placed to his breast." Lord Nelson generally had an empty sleeve attached to the breast of his coat, but, as it was the rigAi arm he had lost. Lane adds : " Without saying that I suspected the boy had made a mistake, I asked the magician «'hether the objects appeared in the ink as if actually before the eyes, or as if in a glass, which makes the right appear left. He answered they appeared as in a minor. This rendered the boy's descrip- tion faultless." Among the Greeks, besides crystal-gazing strictly so-called, other methods of divination by reflection were used. There was kyiiromancy, which was practised chiefly at Patras, where the fountain before the temple of Demeter delivered oracles. The manner of consulting it was this : a mirror_was let down by a small cord into the fountain, so that it just touched the surface of the water, and from the various figures and images which appeared upon it, divination was made. Then there was lecanomancy, in which a bowl containing water, or a mixture of oil and wine, took the place of the crystal ; caioptromancy, ' in which metal mirrors were used ; gastromancy, in which with certain incantations a boy was appointed to observe the middle point (7<"'""ip) of a glass vessel full of water, surrounded by torches; lastly, onychomancy, performed by the oiled finger nails of an unpolluted boy. There can be little doubt that the cup of Joseph, "in which my lord drinketh, and whereby indeed he divineth," was used for such magical purposes.^ Numerous instances of divination by mirror or crystal-gazing occurred among the Romans. In the writings of St. Thomas Aquinas, and others of the Fathers, the art is condemned as devilish in its origin, but in spite of saintly malisons, in spite of a special condemnation from the Faculty of Theology in Paris ('398), the Specularii continued to flourish. Pico de Miran- dola (1463-94), himself a foe to astrologers, who had declared his death in his thirty-second year, was a firm believer in mirror- visions. ' Practised by Septimius Severus and Julian the Apostate, among others. Bodinus, Dtemonomania, and Fromman, De Fascinations (1676), p. 727, report the like of Catherine de Medici. " Genesis xliv, S- Compare also the names of two of the stones on the breastplate which the high priest wore when he went before the Lord— Johalam and Ahaloma (/(o/a« = vision). Exodus xxviii. 19, 20. 5 66 HALLUCINATIONS Johann Rist, the accomplished mathematician and scholar, tells of a wonderful crystal made by Wysbro in Augsburg ; and seventeenth century writers frequently refer to a famous crystal at Nuremberg, by which even a scientific problem is reported to have been solved ! In England, in the middle of the sixteenth century. Dr. Dee, famous for his crystal visions and prophecies, flourished at the court of Elizabeth. He has left behind him a chronicle of his experiences in a very readable book. The story is well known of the prophecy which revealed to the Duke of Orleans the fate of the princes through whose death he became Regent of France. In legends and fairy tales too the magic-mirror often figures (Snowwhite's "little mirror on the wall;" The Arabian Nights); and the theme has passed into modern literature, in the fairy tales of Musasus, Fouque's " Zauberring," etc. Some of the crystal-visions obtained in the manner above described are held by those who report them to be telepathic or "veridical." I shall not discuss these here, however, as we must first come to some conclusion on telepathy itself. By far the greatest number deal with memory-pictures, and not a few reproduce visual impressions which have not pene- trated to the " upper consciousness '' (Dessoir's Oberbewusstsein} Myers' supra-liminal consciousness), or externalise ideas which, to keep to the same terminology, were latent in the percipient's sub- liminal consciousness. The reproduction of a visual impression which had apparently "dropped out" is well illustrated by the following example : — '■' " I had carelessly destroyed a letter without preserving the address of my correspondent. I knew the county, and search- ing in a map recognised the name of the town, one unfamiliar to me, but which I was sure I should know when I saw it. ' !\L Dessoir, Das Doppel-kh. ''■ " Recent Experiments in Crystal-Vision," from which account the following examples are taken. AND ILLUSIONS. 67 But I had no clue to the name of house or street, till at last it struck me to test the value of the crystal as a means of recalling forgotten knowledge. A very short inspection sup- plied me with ' H House' (the entire word in grey letters on a white ground), and having nothing better to suggest from any other source, I risked posting my letter to the address so strangely supplied. A day or two brought me an answer, headed ' H House,' in grey letters on a white ground."^ A similar case is that of the appearance in the crystal of a newspaper paragraph announcing the decease of an acquaintance, whose illness and death were unknown to the percipient. It happened, how- ever, that she had been interrupted the day before while reading the first sheet of the Times, and the paragraph, almost word for word as it had appeared in the crystal, was discovered just where she had broken off. The visual impression of the words had been received, but had never reached the percipient's consciousness, and now emerged as a hallucination.^ ' In another case the information obtained through the crystal was false. ' That in such cases there is no need to speak of a subconscious "intelligence" is shown by those examples in which the impression subconsciously received is wholly destitute of ideational quality, and is therefore reproduced hallucinatorily as a pure sense impression. Thus a lady saw in the crystal the following letters appear one after another, detnawaenoemosotniojaetavirpelcric, and so on, which apparently meaningless message was at length discovered to be the reproduction of a newspaper paragraph : " Wanted a some one to join a private circle," etc., each word being spelt backward separately. Such a senseless reproduction of visual impressions, associated only by mere external sequence, is often met with in automatic writing. This occurs most frequently as "mirror-script"; or, as I have myself observed, planchette sometimes writes bomtrophedon, that is to say from left to right in the ordinary way, and back again from right to left in " miiror-script." Another illustration is to be found in the anagrams produced by automatic writing. (See the case of "Clelia" in the Proc. of the S.P.R., 1883-84, p. 226.) So there is absolutely no need to postulate, like Du Prel, special mysteries and laws of the "spirit-world." 68 HALLUCINATIONS The part played by association in this reproduction is shown in the following case : — " One of my earliest experiences was a picture, perplexing and wholly unexpected— a quaint oak chair, an old hand, a worn black coat-sleeve resting on the arm of the chair,— slowly recognised as the recollection of a room in a country vicarage, which I had not entered and but seldom recalled since I was a child of ten. But whence came this vision, what association had conjured up, this picture? , . , At length the clue was found. I had that day been reading in Dante, first enjoyed with the help of our dear old vicar many a year ago." If we now pass to the visions of the second class, the externalisation of latent ideas, we find that, as in hypnotism, the image may be awakened by the sound of an associated word, and rise to the level of a hallucinatory perception. Exactly in the same way in crystal-vision it may be excited by a related visual impression, a printed word for instance, con- sciously or unconsciously received, and may under favourable conditions be projected in the form of a hallucination, like the frozen music in Baron Munch- hausen's posthorn, which could be thawed out m a warm room and set merrily sounding. Thus Miss X., the writer on crystal-vision in the Proceedings, tells how she cut the pages of a book without reading it, and soon after, on looking into the crystal, saw first a rock}' coast, which was afterwards nearly eclipsed by the image of a large mouse. Two days later, on taking up the same volume to read it, a couple of lines which caught her eye seemed somehow familiar — " Only the sea intoning. Only the vvainscoat mouse,'' and she concluded that these words, unconsciously read before, had suggested the visions. On another AND ILLUSIONS. 69 occasion it was shown that a puzzling vision of the corner of a room decorated in green, white, and red stripes, was to be explained by a letter recently received from a friend who was having her house re- decorated, and wrote that the staircase had just been painted, and "looked at present like a Neapolitan ice." From my own experiments I select the following : — A hyp- notised subject. A., received the post-hypnotic suggestion that he could not open the door of the room or go out through the open door. When awakened he was absolutely amnestic. An experi- ment in crystal-vision, made after twenty-five minutes' talk, yielded the pentagram ; on a second experiment being made, the word " Drudenfuss " (Anglic^, pentagrain) appeared in Roman characters. The first two letters were so indistinctly written that A. could only read ^' udenfuss'" at first, and arrived at the word through trying various combinations. Even then he con- tinued to complain that the "Z?r" was hardly legible. The last example which I shall give is again taken from Miss X.'s account, and seems to me of special interest, as illustrating how purely abstract concep- tions may give rise to concrete images. " On March 20th I happened to want the date of Ptolemy Philadelphus, which I could not recall, though feeling sure that I knew it, and that I associated it with some event of importance. When looking in the crystal some hours later I found a picture of an old man, with long white hair and beard, dressed like a Lyceum Shylock, and busy writing in a large book with tar- nished massive clasps. I wondered much who he was and what he could possibly be doing, and thought it a good opportunity of canning out a suggestion which had been made to me, of examining objects in the crystal with a magnifying glass. The glass revealed to me that my old gentleman was writing in Greek, though the lines faded away as I looked, all but the characters he had last traced, the Latin numerals LXX. Then it flashed into my mind that he was one of the Jewish elders at work on the Septuagint, and that its date, 277 B.C., would •JO HALLUCINATIONS serve equally well for Ptolemy Philadelphus ! It may be worth while to add, though the fact was not in my conscious memory at the moment, that I had once learned a chronology on a mnemonic system which substituted letters for figures, and that the memoria technica for this date was ' Now Jewish Elders indite a Greek copy.' " Just as visual images may be called up by gazing on a shining object, so by placing a sea-shell to the ear it is possible to induce auditory hallucinations. I therefore class such hallucinations with crystal- visions, vifhich they resemble in their content. This analogy is borne out by cases like that of the lady who, if she listened to the shell after a dinner- party generally heard repeated, not the conversation of her "lawful interlocutor," to which her attention had been directed, but the talk of her neighbours on the other side, which she had not consciously noted at the time.i The history of divination by voice-oracles and sounds takes us, like crystal -vision, to remote countries and legendary times. Dodona had its murmuring grove, and, coming to a later date, we read of shell-divination as practised by the Thibetan Buddhists, by the Chinese, and by other Eastern folks, while even to this day the Hungarian gipsies listen for the voice of the Nivasha, or Spirit of the Air, in the sea-shell. That this art was familiar to the necromancers of the Middle Ages is indicated by a passage in Paracelsus.^ Some experiments are reported by Spitta,* who fastened up a bell of about twenty inches in diameter in a large and lofty room, ' Myers, "The Subliminal Consciousness," Proc. of the Soc. f. Psych. Res,, vol. viii. p. 493. ^ Paracelsus, Archidoxorum, L. 6. ' Spitta, op. cit., p. 293. AND ILLUSIONS. 7 1 from which he excluded the light. He then struck the bell several times gently on the rim with a sort of drum-stick covered with a cloth. While straining his ear to catch the last faint reverberations he found that he was able to call up auditory delusions. The only one which he has recorded, however, is founded upon an illusory interpretation of the sound of the bell. Dissociation of Consciousness the common Character- istic of all these States. — If we now cast a glance back at the matter which we have been considering in this chapter, and seek for some quality common to all the various states in which hallucinations occur, we shall find that their most striking characteristic is the dissociation of consciousness. Obstructed as- sociation is indicated in almost every case. In melancholia it is "not the energy of the psychical processes which is abnormally feeble, but the resist- ance which is abnormally. great"! In mania, indeed, there would seem to be a swifter on-rush of ideas. In alcohol-delirium however, which, besides its many other resemblances to mania,^ exhibits a quickened flow of verbal images, it is seen that this is accom- panied bya slowing downoftheactualworkof thinking.^ "It would seem, therefore, that there is free play of mental images when the intellectual factor gives place to those motor elements which arise out of mere verbal naming. This would at least explain the want of unity in the train of thought frequently ' Kraepelin, Psychiairie, p. 292. '' Compare Ihe parallel drawn by Griesinger between alcohol-de- lirium and mania, op. ci/., § 144. ^ See Kraepelin, Ueber die Bcehifitissting eivfach. psych. Vorgcingi dttrch einige Arzueimiilel (l?,g2). •JZ HALLUCIXATIOXS to be observed under such circumstances, and the prominence of purely external auditory associations. The patient babbles senselessly, because the flow of verbal images is accelerated, while the association of ideas is impeded." ^ Since the hereditarily degenerate are so liable to hallucinations, that some patients seem to see and hear everything they think, and cannot shake off the deceptions of which they are conscious,^ we must suppose that the higher neural elements are in their case easily exhausted, so that their state resembles that which^ollows on prolonged fasting,^ or where, from whatever cause, inanition, with its attendant hallucinations, is present* It is unnecessary to emphasise the point further with regard to the hallucinations accompanying . hysteria, epilepsy, states of intoxication, fever-de- lirium and sleep,^ or indeed with regard to those occurring in hypnosis, notwithstanding the rare cases of post-hypnotic hallucinations in which a disturbance of consciousness has not been observed or proved. In crystal-vision, freedom from conscious thought or mental pre-occupation is an essential condition.® Whilst laying stress upon this common element ive ' Kraepelin, Psychialrie, pp. 280, 281. ' Lange, On Arveligheiidens Indflydelse i Sinsygdotnene (1883). ' For instance, as a preparation for ecstasy. ^ Becquet, Arch. gin. 6, Ser. VII., pp. 169, 303 (1866), says that the delirium of inanition is mild, and the accompanying hallucinations not of a terrifying nature. ^ For the grounds for assuming a partial dissociation in the halluci- nations of paranoia, especially of the auditory type, see later. " "MissX" states that during her experiments in crystal-vision her consciousness was in every way quite normal, but the expressions used by the writer of the letter, published in another article by " Miss X" (Proc. S.P.R., vol. i., March 1895, p. 132), about the latter's " un- canny "and "fixed" look, and her "dreamy, far-away tone," make these statements appear somewhat paradoxical. AND ILLUSIONS. 73 do not seek in any way to underrate the differences between the various states in ivhich sense-deceptions may occur. Indeed, these differences are shown clearly enough in the character of the hallucinations, not so much as regards their content, as in the manner of their occurrence. Thus the strongly- marked, vividly-externalised hallucination of mono- mania is self-contained, and changing but slowly, differs widely from the unstable hallucination of the hysterical subject, which springs like his mental delusions from obscure sensations, and owing to the transitory nature of the exciting cause generally possesses little permanence. In general paralysis the loss of the critical faculties and power of judgment, caused by the lapse of the higher mental functions, which expresses itself in absurd and aimless babble, is reflected also in the character of the hallucinations ; whilst in mania nothing is more striking than the superficiality of the sensory delusions, and their liability to change their character, as indicated by the way in which the patient will laughingly contra- dict his own statements of the moment before. It is clear that the state of dissociation is not always the same. Rather we find an endless series of gradations from the deepest stages of beclouded consciousness to one which is hardly to be dis- tinguished from the normal ; or, to express it differ- ently, from the slightest indications of obstructed association to its almost complete inhibition ; or from the profound cleavage of consciousness to the mere splitting off of single elements, or small groups of elements. The more complete the obstruction of the association paths, and the deeper the disturbance of consciousness, the more numerous are the sensory 74 HALLUCINATIONS delusions (as in collapse and fever-delirium, for instance), and the less likely are they to be re- membered. Thus, states of profound disturbance of consciousness, like epilepsy and deep sleep, are sub- jectively described as dreamless ; whilst states of only slightly disturbed consciousness, for instance, the periods of transition between sleeping and waking, are regarded as favourable to the occurrence of sensory delusions (hypnagogic and hypnopompic hallucinations). It is natural, therefore, that the occurrence of hallucinations should be reported, not only in such transition states between sleeping and waking when in bed at night, or during the afternoon siesta, but also in analogous states otherwise pro- duced. The performance of automatic movements, for instance, such as the monotonous tramping on a long walk or march, often induces such a condition. In the winter of 1814 Herr Prus had left the regiment to which he was attached to visit his family, who lived about two leagues off. He relates his experiences as follows : — " I had hardly walked one league in the extreme cold when I noticed that my condition was no longer normal. I walked mechanically, and my body seemed to me strangely light. I knew well the cause and the danger of this state, and tried to hasten my steps, but in vain. Worse still, my eyes kept closing in spite of all my efforts. Then delightful visions visited me. I seemed to be in a beautiful garden, and saw trees, lawns, and streams," etc. ' But the on-coming of this hypnoid state is seldom so amenable to observation as in the case just quoted. It generally eludes self-observation. In some cases, like the following, a disturbance of the waking con- ' Brierre de Boismont, Des Hallucinations, p. 349. He mentions also the visions, sometimes gay, sometimes melancholy, which haunted the soldiers of the Grande Artiiee on the retreat from Moscow. AND ILLUSIONS. 75 sciousness is indicated, though it is not subjectively perceived. R states': — "I started from Lucerne on the 2nd Nov., 1861, intending to cross over to Glarus by the pass called the Mutterthal. Lightly clad, with broken boots, bleeding feet wrapped in clouts, and only a few sous in my pocket, but trusting in God, I set forth and had climbed for about an hour when a snowstorm came on, and it became impossible either to proceed or to turn back. It seemed to me that I should certainly die there, and my whole life passed before me in a few minutes. I saw all my friends and folk at home. Then the strap of my knapsack broke, I saw it roll down into the abyss, and I gave myself up for lost. How well it was with me then I cannot describe. I saw heaven opened. In the evening I found myself with some kind folk in a hut, but how I got there I know not, nor whether I ran or flew, and, strange to say, my knapsack had been restored to me." Such accounts show, what also appears from obser- vations on the hypnotic state, that the dissociation may be very profound though it cannot be proved so clearly as in the above example. For instance, a medical man told me that during his tours among the Bavarian and Tyrolese Alps he enjoyed a special pleasure in the auditory hallucinations which accom- panied him on his solitary excursions whenever he climbed above a certain height. Yet he seems to have had no inkling of what these phenomena signified. The point illustrated by these cases should, at all events, never be lost sight of in the discussion of hallucinations reported as occurring in the waking state ; for if a man imagines that he is awake, he will naturally feel that his actions and conduct are rational, and will in all good faith so * Slat. Fragehogen d. Munch. Sammlung, Bog. 38. See Terty, op. Hi., i. p. 88, for the account of a similar experience which happened to a certain Peter Stucki. P^sa Journal S. P. R., Jan. 1889, p. 12. 76 HALLUCINATIONS AND ILLUSIONS. describe them, but an attentive study of such cases reveals more or less certain indications of dissociation of consciousness. What these indications are we shall see later, when, for instance, we come to con- sider the twenty-six cases of " waking-hallucinations" cited in proof of telepathy in the " Report on the Census." {Proceedings of the S.P.R., vol. x., August 1894, PP- 211-241.) Such sensory delusions as those experienced in the case of the physician quoted above may neverthe- less be regarded, especially if they occur singly and sporadically, as transitional forms to the class of hallucinations which have lately formed the sub- ject of an extended international inquiry, the results of which, consisting as they do of entirely new material, appear to call for special consideration. CHAPTER III. WAKING HALLUCINATIONS AND THE RESULT OF THE INTERNATIONAL CENSUS. Early Accounts — The International Census — General Results — Sex, Ag^e, Nationality, and State of Health of the Percipients— Their so-called ^^ Waking" State really one of Dissociation — Indications of this in the Narratives — Why such Indications are sometimes wanting — Hallu~ ci nations classified according to the Sense affected — The less startling Hallucinations are soon forgotten. Early Accounts of Waking Hallucinations. — Numer- ous accounts have come down to us even from classical times of " waking hallucinations " experienced by sane persons. It is sufficient to mention here a few of the most celebrated.^ Socrates,^ as we learn both from Plato and Xeno- phon, was often restrained and admonished by an inner voice when he, or one of his friends, was about to do something undesirable or displeasing to the god. The case of Timarchus (Plato, Theages) is the most dramatic of these warnings. Timarchus was sitting at supper with Socrates, and rose to go out to a ' Most of the cases given here are taken from Brierre de Boismont, Des hallucinations ; C. Lombroso, L' Uomo di Genio (English ed., The Man of Genius, 1891) ; and Perty, op. cit. 2 'Li\a.'i,'Da Demon de Socrate (new edition, 1856); Myers, "The Dcemon of Socrates," Froc. S.P.R. (June 1889,) p. 538. Bodinus menlions in his Dmmonomania a similar case of an acquaintance of his who felt a touch on his right ear when setting about some good or auspicious act, and on his left if the undertaking were evil or unlucky. 78 HALLUCINATIONS plot of assassination, to which plot only one other man was privy. "'What say you, Socrates?' said Timarchus, ' do you continue drinking ; I must go out some whither, but will return in a little, if so I may.' And the voice came to me ; and I said to him, ' By no means rise from the table ; for the accustomed divine sign has come to me.' And he stayed. And after a time again he got up to go, and said, 'I must be gone, Socrates!' And the sign came to me again, and again I made him stay. And the third time, determining that I should not see, he rose and said nought to me, and my mind was turned else- where ; and thus he went forth and was gone, and did that which was to be his doom." Athenodorus, the philosopher, saw a spectre in a house in Athens. Oh the following day he informed the magistrates, who caused the place to be searched, and a skeleton was found buried in the spot where the spectre had disappeared. During one part of his career Descartes was constantly followed by an in- visible being who urged him not to abandon his, search after truth. On the completion of his book De Veritate, Lord Herbert of Cherbury received a sign of approval from heaven. Cardan had a guardian spirit which interposed to prevent him lapsing into error; and Pascal,after a fall, saw a black gulf always at his feet. The materialist Hobbes was continually haunted in the dark by the faces of the dead. The philosopher Krause frequently from his fifth to his sixth year, and occasionally also in later life, heard a voice utter the words, " Remember death." Out of religious history I select the four following examples : — Savonarola saw visions even in his early youth ; and later on he saw heaven opened and the AND ILLUSIONS. 79 applarance of a sword, upon which was written, " Gladius Domini super terrain." Luther was subject to numerous auditory and visual delusions. In the church at Wittenberg and on the Sacred Stairs at Rome he seemed to hear the words, " The just shall live by faith;" and often enough midnight found him disputing with the devil on knotty -points of doctrine. But Audin^ is of opinion, arguing from the feebleness of Luther's replies, that the whole dispute must have taken place in a dream. Not less subject to hallucinations was Luther's great opponent Loyola, for to him the Virgin appeared, and celestial voices encouraged his projects and fired his zeal. It was in obedience to a "divine voice" which told him to " forsake all and be a stranger to all," that George Fox, the founder of the Quaker sect, left his family and friends. When distressed at finding no support on any side, he was consoled by a voice which said, "Jesus Christ understands thee." Tacitus^ relates how Curtius Rufus, when only a gladiator's son, was visited by the apparition of a glorious female form, who informed him that he should become Proconsul of Africa. Oliver Cromwell also had his future greatness foretold to him by an ap- parition. Drusus, on one of his campaigns, was turned back from crossing the Rhine by a gigantic form which appeared to him ; Julian the Apostate beheld on the eve of his death the genius of the empire flying from him in consternation ; and it was not so much veneration for Leo that checked Attila's march upon Rome, as the vision of an old man in ' Audin, Geschichte d. Lebens, d. Lehren u. Schriflen Dr. M. Luthers. - Tacitus, Attn. xi. 21. So HALLUCINATIONS priest's raiment who threatened his death with a drawn sword. Plutarch^ tells the story of Bessus the parricide who,, like Shakespeare's Macbeth, was haunted by the personified voice of conscience. One day, when sitting at a banquet with his friends and parasites he suddenly became inattentive to their flatteries, sprang up, and seizing his sword, struck at a nest full of young swallows and killed the poor birds, becausfe, said he, they dared to reproach him with the murder of his father. Theodoric the Great, over- whelmed with remorse because he had consented to the death of Symmachus, one day uttered a cry of horror when a new kind of fish was served at his table, for he imagined he saw, not the head of the fish, but that of the unfortunate senator.^ Manoury, who was chosen to examine Grandier on the charge of witchcraft (see p. 37, Note 2), tortured his victim with ruthless barbarity. Soon after he saw the spirit of the dead Grandier before him, and thereupon fell into a frenzy and died raving mad. After the massacre of St. Bartholomew, Charles IX. took his favourite physician aside and begged him to find some means to deliver him from the phantoms of the victims which constantly haunted him. A vision of the Madonna was granted to the painter Raphael, when he had been vainly striving to picture her features with his mind's eye and fix them on the canvas. After Spinello had painted " The Fall of Lucifer " he was visited by the devil in person, who reproached him bitterly with making him look so frightful. The painter Montana saw the pictures ' Plutarch, De sera miminis vindicla. 2 Procopius, De bello Ilalico. AND ILLUSIONS. 8 1 he was about to paint so vividly before him, that if any one got between him and the phantasmal scene or figure he would ask them to stand aside. It is told of another popular portrait-painter that he only re- quired one sitting from his model, and afterwards completed the portrait from the hallucinatory image which he was able to call up at his will. Benvenuto Cellini relates how a voice spoke to him in prison and withheld him from suicide. This auditory hallucina- tion was in his case the starting-point of other sensory fallacies. Tasso was vexed by many strange de» lusions, and Byron was often haunted by spectres. After receiving the news of Byron's death, Walter Scott suddenly saw his friend's image before him. Astonished at the natural appearance of the clothes, he approached the phantom and discovered that it was an illusion, and that the clothes of the figure consisted of the folds of a curtain. Schumann suffered from auditory hallucinations and imagined that Beethoven dictated to him the melodies which he composed. Talma confided to a friend that often when acting with most force and brilliancy he saw the theatre filled with an audience of skeletons in place of living playgoers. This mass of old material consists for the most part of picturesque cases like those quoted above, more satisfactory to the raconteur than to the student The sensory delusions of Luther, Tasso, and Schu- mann may certainly be referred to neurotic or psycho- pathic states of which the presence is also indicated by other symptoms, but the narratives are in general so confused and contradictory, and so seldom come to us at first hand, that it is difficult to arrive at any satis- factory conclusions about them. Until lately it was 6 82 HALLUCINATIONS not even possible to say with certainty whether hallucinations were exceptional or quite frequent phenomena of the waking state. The International Census of Waking Hallucinations. — Of a very different evidential value is the material which we have now to consider. A statistical inquiry on the subject was first undertaken by Edmund Gurney.i Later on the inquiry was approved by the Paris Congress for Psycho-Physiology ; and for the valuable results of the present census we have chiefly to thank the English Society for Psychical Re- search. ^ The source from which I shall mainly quote these results will be the Report on the Census of Hallucinations^ — a model of clearness, accuracy, and indefatigable industry, — which analyses and elucidates in various ways the answers received to the thousands of circulars which were sent out on the " Nature and Frequency of the Occurrence of Hallucinations in the Sane." Besides the tables published in the Report, I have availed myself of those communicated to the London International Congress for Experimental Psychology.* Further, in addition to the ad interim reports published from time to time during the pro- ' See Phanlasms of the Living. ' To which I shall henceforward refer as Ihe "S.P.R." " Published by Professor Henry Sidgwick's Committee in the Pro- ceedings of tlie S.P.R., vol. X., Aug. 1894, and to which I shall hence- forth refer as "the Report." " These tables do not agree figure for figure with those of the Re- port, owing to the fact that in preparing the " Report" it was found necessary to make some changes in the methods of calculation. The earlier tables, however, have here often been used, as the changes are not of very great importance, and as the French and American results are still before us only in their provisional form. The reports of the Munich section are here published for the first time. (Compare Appendix I.) AND ILLUSIONS. 83 gress of the inquiry, I have sought to incorporate, as far as possible, the results of the census carried on at the same time and for the same purpose in America (by William James), in France (by L. Marillier), and in Germany (under the guidance of Von Schrenck- Notzing, by the Munich section^ of the Geaellschaft fiir psychologische Forschung).^ The question put to all persons included in the inquiry was: " Have you ever, ivhen believing yourself to be completely awake, had a vivid itnpression of seeing or being toucJied by a living being or inanimate object, or of hearing a voice; which impression, so far as you could discover, was not due to any external physical cause ? " In answer to the question, 27,329 answers in all were received (see Table I.), of which 24,058 were negative and 3271, or 11.96 per cent, affirmative; that is to say, 3271 persons stated that they had experienced hallucinations. Though a certain pro- portion of these cases might be explained away, as due to mistaken identity, for instance, or in the case of auditory phenomena, to the real banging of a door or creaking of furniture, and such like, still, when we consider the high percentage of results, and the careful investigation of individual cases (on which we may depend in the case of the English collectors especially), it is impossible to doubt that the frequent occurrence of so-called "waking hallucinations" is proved. Sex of the Infortnants. — Little information is given ' The resulls of the Berlin section were forwarded to the English Comniiltee, and doubtless have been incorporated with their Report. " Compare throughout this chapter the tables in Appendix II. 84 HALLUCINATIONS as to the persons who were the subjects of the experiences. The first fact that strikes us is the difference between the two 5exes in the percentage of persons who had experienced hallucinations (in men 9.75, in women 14.56). It is unfortunate that this division of the two sexes was not carried further, as it might have led to interesting results in the tables which deal with the age of the percipients. Be that as it may, the general conclusion of the Report, that this apparent difference should to a great extent be attributed to the fact that men, among the pressing interests and occupations of their lives, forget these experiences sooner, may on the whole be regarded as satisfactory. Age. — With regard to age, hallucinations are reported as occurring most frequently (I quote here specially from the English table, which is the most complete) between 1 5 and 30 years of age, more than half (52 per cent.) being experienced during this period. The lustrum from 20 to 25 yields the highest percentage of all — over 21 per cent.; while after that their frequency diminishes in a regular curve.^ These figures must not of course be taken as expressing a proportion which holds true absolutely ; they refer only to the number of hallucinations communicated as occurring during these periods, and we should not be justified, without closer inquiry, in arguing from them a greater disposition to hallucinations at one age than at another. For it stands to reason that fewer answers were received from persons between 60 and 80, since only the minority reach that age ; and careful observation would no doubt reveal a ' A similar curve is shown by the Munich collection. See Table lU. b. AND ILLUSIONS. 85 much higher percentage among children.^ In any case it seems very desirable, in view of the import- ance of the question, that some statistics bearing upon it should be collected and published. Nationality. — One table of the English collection is devoted to the nationality of the informants. It yields the following results (see Appendix II., Table IV.) :— Affirmative Answers. Answers from English-speaking countries 15,940... 1,499= 9.4 per cent. Answers from Russians ... 680... 108=15.9 » „ „ Brazilians ... 264 ... 63 = 23.9 „ „ „ other nations ... 116... 14=12.1 „ These figures show that the percentage of affirma- tive answers decreases in proportion as the total number of answers increases, and indicates that the percentage already quoted, 11.96, must be regarded ' Children seem to be specially liable to hallucinations. As to what is the earliest age at which hallucinations may occur, an instance is given by Thore, Ann. Mid. Psych., i860, p. 168, of a hallucination seen by a child of 5 years old during convalescence from an attack of pneumonia. Berkhan, Irresein bei Kindern (Neuwied, 1863), reports one in the case of a little boy of 3^. Kelp, on the other hand, con- siders (Irrenfrennd, 1879) that the alleged occurrence in such a case is due to a mere confusion of expression ; that the occurrence of halluci- nations is only possible in older children, as, for instance, in those cases of epileptic children observed by ICbhler (Irrtnfrettiui, 1878). In the Annales des Sciences Psychiques, Jan. -Feb. 1894, p. 7> ^" instance is recorded of hallucination in a child not quite two years old. But no one who has watched the lively dreaming of a two or three-year-old child will find anything remarkable in the occurrence of hallucinations at that age; compare Sidney Ringer, Med. Times and Gazelle, May 1867 ; Ann. Mid. Psych., 1848, " Un mot sur les halluci- nations de la premiere enfance ;" see also above, p. 30, Note 3. Amongst the hallucinations experienced by children grotesque or monstrous forms seem to predominate. f 86 HALLUCINATIONS as Still too high, and as certain on a further "intensive" (not extensive) inquiry to be further lowered. It cannot indeed well be otherwise. The collectors of the answers were themselves interested in the subject, and were very probably therefore acquainted with cases of hallucinations; and although they had been instructed carefully to avoid selecting the persons to be asked according to what they were likely to say, still it is not to be expected that they would as a rule exclude cases already known to them (which would also have been a kind ot " selecting "). It would be but natural indeed that they should obtain accounts of such cases first. Thus it happens that the fewer the answers received, the higher is the percentage of 'yeses'; and the more thoroughly the field is gleaned, so to speak (the more "intensive" the inquiry), the smaller is the proportion of affirma- tive answers received. A similar result is given by a comparison of the English ad interim reports^ with each other : — I. Report up to 24/10/1889.. .Answers, 2928... Affirmative, 12.4 H. „ 11I7I1S90 64S1... „ II. I in. „ 1/7/1891... „ 9276... „ 11.46 Congress Report, 1/7/1892... „ 17,000... „ 9.9 That is to say, that after the first 3000 answers had t brought 12.4 affirmative answers, the following 3500 brought only about 10 per cent. Then the percentage rose — perhaps as the result of new sources being drawn upon — to fall still lower in the last period. Up to the middle of 1890 (II. Report), out of 6481 answers, II. I were affirmative; between the third ad interim ' Quoted from the Proceedings of the S.P.K. for the corresponding years. AND ILLUSIONS. 87 Report and the Congress Reporf, that is to say, be- tween July 1891 and July 1892, the answers received numbered 7724, of which only 8.8 were affirmative. But if the figures in the third intermediate Report related only to England, and the reports from Brazil, etc., were not received or incorporated till the fourth period (which seems probable from the heading of the ad interim report), then the' difference is still more striking; for it would appear that the 6481 answers in the second Report, of which 11. i were affirmative, must be contrasted with the total of 6664 answers in the fourth period, of which only 6.6 were affirmative. If we leave out of account the figures of the Munich collection, which are too small to generalise from, we find that Table I. gives the same result : — Collected by Marillier ..Answers, 3493. ..Affirmative, igpercent. „ W.James.. „ 6311... „ 13.5 „ „ theS,P.R.. „ 17,000... „ 9.9 „ For these reasons it seems to me that even the percentage of the English-speaking section, in which every eleventh individual can remember having had a hallucination, is considerably too high ; nor is this inaccurate result rendered more accurate by the addition of reports from other countries (see Table I. b^} On the contrary, an inquiry on such a superficial and extensive plan yields results which are more and more misleading, since only the cream is skimmed off. Nothing but a rigidly intensive inquiry spread over a comparatively small area can, in my opinion, lead to approximately correct results ^ For this reason I rely in the following account only on the figures of the English collection. The results of the Munich collection are given in the Tables at the end. g8 HALLUCINATIONS — results which may be checked and amended later by the figures yielded by similar inquiries in other districts. Whether equally thorough researches in various countries and among different nationalities would show any marked difference in the frequency of hallucinations is another question. The surprising results of the French collection seem to indicate such a difference, but the material before us would not justify us in answering the question one way or the other.i Health and Heredity. — According to the Report, 23 cases which took place during scarlet fever, or typhoid, or other similar states, were counted in the tables as though the persons who had experienced them had answered " No," as it was the purpose of the inquiry to enumerate the hallucinations only of ' The fact that in the cases in which all the members of certain well- defined groups were questioned (for instance, the guests at one table, the dwellers in one house, the members of a committee) a higher per- centage than the average resulted, in nowise weakens my contention, for the number of persons in these groups was by far too small. Thus answers were obtained from 625 persons in all in such groups, of which 82, or 13.1 per cent., were affirmative — 41 visual, 37 auditory, and 10 tactile hallucinations being reported, while in three cases the details were not given (collection of the S.P.R. ). It is shown, on the other hand, by the English committee, that 6500 — that is to say, over one- third of the total number of answers — were collected by 37 persons. These collectors, at least, must have gone pretty thoroughly through their circle of acquaintances ; moreover, some of the rest of the col- lection was made by their friends, whose circle of acquaintance would overlap theirs, so that certain sets of people have been exhaustively canvassed. The Brazilian collection was the work of one collector, yet these figures do not seem to me to be inconsistent with the assumption of selection. That selection has taken place is acknowledged in the Report, and in the interesting cases — the " telepathic " ones — its in- fluence is specially noticeable. In drawing up the Report it was a matter of some difficulty to trace even these obviously selected cases and to eliminate them from the calculations. AND ILLUSIONS. " 89 persons in a normal condition. Nevertheless, 123 other cases were retained, in which a certain degree of ill-health was reported. In 21 of them the per- cipient was in a state of convalescence after some ill- ness, apparently acute, and in 55 a state of depressed health or minor illness was indicated by such ex- pressions as "in a nervous, dyspeptic condition," or "bronchitis with weakness of the heart." In 48 per cent, of the cases no statement at all was made as to health ; in about 44 per cent, a positive statement was made that the percipient was in good health at the time. The proof that this was really the case rests for the most part solely on subjective impressions.^ In a few cases in the Munich collection, where the reports were collected by medical men, such remarks are to be found as " nervous temperament," '" marked chlorotic condition," along with notes to the effect that the percipient was perfectly sound in mind, and so on. . No questions referring to the heredity of the per- cipient were printed in the schedules, and thus the Report has no statistics on the subject. But the question whether certain families show a predisposi- tion to hallucinations has been treated as far as the fragmentary material would allow, with the following results: — Taking three generations of lineal de- scendants into consideration, it was found that in 34 families hallucinations had occurred in at least two generations ; in 41 families they had been experienced by a brother and sister, or two sisters, or two brothers ; and in 10 cases by at least two persons "■ There are a few cases which should be more strictly judged, and perhaps ruled out — such cases, for instance, as 327. 25, where, according to the account given, a high degree of hysteria was present. 90 HALLUCINATIONS related to one another as uncles or aunts to nephews or nieces, or as cousins, or by "other members of the family," whose exact relationship to the percipient is not stated. Nor does the material collected on the subject of the kinship of persons who experience collective hallucinations (those simul- taneously shared by two or more persons) furnish us with any trustworthy data concerning family pre- disposition to hallucination; it proves nothing more than that such experiences are most likely to be shared by those who spend a great part of their time in each others' society.^ V State of Consciousness. — In one important par- ticular the sensory fallacies with which we are now dealing seem to be distinguished from all others. While in most other cases a more or less general state of dissociation of consciousness is met with, the sensory delusions are here supposed to take place in a state of complete wakefulness. According to the schedule, it'is only under such circumstances that the question is to be answered in the affirmative ; . and the answers are mostly to the effect that the apparitions, voices, etc., occurred in the waking state. . Nevertheless, the Committee of the S.P.R. have seen fit to divide these reports into two groups, and to distinguish the cases in which the percipient was out of bed, or even out of doors, and in which, there- fore, he might be presumed to be fully awake, from those cases where .the hallucinations occurred in the brief interlude between two periods of sleep, or generally when the percipient was in bed. The latter class are reckoned as " borderland hallucina- ' With regard to the colleciive hallucinations, it would have been interesting to know the ages of the percipients. AND ILLUSIONS. 91 tions." On a first comparison of the figures in these two groups we seem to find confirmation of the percipient's own statement, that the hallucinations occurred during the waking state, and furthermore it seems possible to establish a rule as to the con- ditions under which they occur. Thus, if we take the relative figures out of the various tables and examine into the frequency of hallucinations in the following circumstances,^ we discover a marked preponderance in the waking state as opposed to the " borderland " state. The figures are as follows : — • Visual hallucinations when fully awake 6ii ... Borderland 394 Auditory ., „ „ 225 ... „ 192 Tactile „ „ „ 79 ... „ 80 Totals . . 915 ... 666 It would seem, then, as if the rule were that the conditions favourable to the occurrence of the dream- state are unfavourable to the occurrence of hallucina; tions. Indeed, this rule finds further confirmation when we compare the sensory delusions occurring during a short break between two states of sleep with those which occur at other times when the percipient is in bed ; for here also, in this conspicuously favour- able moment for the occurrence of dream-conscious- ness — the short interlude between two states of sleep, — only 127 hallucinations have been observed, while more than double that number have been reported as taking place in bed, but not in this borderland state. ■ Such a result, however, seems to me self-contra- dictory. It is impossible to reconcile it with the ' Compare Tables V., V. b., VI. b., VII. 93 HALLUCINATIONS known fact, that in the experimental induction of hallucinations it is just this dream-state we seek ±o bring about by every means in our power, narcotic, psychic, or hypnogenic. We are therefore bound here also to assume dissociation of consciousness as the favourable ground in which alone sensory delusions flourish, and when it is borne in mind that we are now dealing not with the hallucinations which actually occur, but only with those which are remembered, the figures, which seem to clash with our view, serve further to confirm it, and the dissociation which we have assumed a priori is found to be not inconsistent with the facts. If we look at the figures in this light, it is easy to see why the conditions favour; able to the occurrence of dream-consciousness impede the remembrance of the sense-deceptions experienced in that state. In the first place, these conditions prorriote deep sleep and the amnesia associated with it, and, secondly, even in a less profoundly hallucinated state the conditions are favourable to the transition into true sleep, in which new dreams occur, which serve to blot out the impression of those experienced in the previous statc^ On the other hand, everything which impedes the occur- rence of dream-consciplisness tends to preserve the memory of the sensory delusions experienced in the light stage, and^W prevent the percipient from passing into a deeper state, and thus ultimately makes for a sudden arousing of the dreamer into the state of waking consciousness, the only state in which miemory of a hallucinatory experience is possible, or at least probable. 1 Compare Moll, Der Rapport in der Hypnase, p. 318 (38), cases 23 and 24. AND ILLUSIONS. 93 Evidence of Dissociation furnished by these Nar- ratives. — A large number of the narratives dealt with in the Report indicate that the informants were firmly convinced that their hallucinations occurred in the waking state. In a few cases only do the percipients themselves admit, or suggest, that they may not have been fully awake, and express their doubts by saying, " I was drowsy," etc. In such cases we may safely assume the presence of a dream- state. In other accounts the narrator is not sure whether he was awake or asleep, or perhaps he points to some circumstance to prove that he was awake at the time. In considering these cases, we must not forget the lessons of the preceding chapter. In every case we should be on the look-out for hints and suggestions indicating that the narrators are mistaken as to their state of consciousness ; and, as a matter of fact,,there is no lack of such indications. It is evident, for instance, that in many cases the hallucination was experienced at the moment of waking. Thus, to quote a less recent case in illustration, a clergyman reports that while he was lying in bed he heard a loud knocking, and called out "Come in," where- upon there entered a gigantic shape — the figure of his host, as we may suppose, fantastically altered and grown to huge proportions. The appa- rition vanished with a loud crash, and directly afterwards the owner of the house himself came into the room and asked what was the matter, he had heard such a noise. In this case the dream was evidently evoked at the moment the host knocked and entered; and some loud noise which had been heard all over the house, and had tardily 94 HALLUCINATIONS penetrated to the dreamer's consciousness, also played a part in the drama.^ In the same way the dreamer sometimes lives through a long and exciting romance, ending in a duel perhaps, and the noise of the pistol shot wakens him at the exact moment when the wind bangs a door. In both cases the fantastically interpreted sound is the starting-point of the dream, and in the waking recollection the complex sensory impression is split up and represented as a chain of events. Propter hoc, ergo post hoc. Again, it seems to me that the frequently recurring phrase, " I had just awakened and given my baby the breast," does not necessarily imply a state of waking consciousness. I think that in such moments a more or less drowsy state may often be presumed, to which the exhaustion of a recent confinement, and perhaps also the monotonous sucking of the child and similar circumstances may contribute. Of course cases where the percipient, though not in bed, was resting after dinner on a couch or in an arm-chair belong to the same category. Further, in some cases we find evidence of sugges- tion acting in a state of expectancy, especially in collective hallucinations. For instance, a wife saw an apparition; the husband declared he could see nothing, but when the wife laid her hand on his shoulder, saying, "George, do you really not see 1 Retarded perception is illustrated by the case of a lady hypnotised by me, who at the time heard nothing of the noise made by X., one of those present. Even when I aslced her, "Do you hear what X. is doing ? " she said she heard nothing. After X. was quiet again and some other matter had been talked of by the subject and myself, she suddenly asked me, "Why is X. knocking over the chairs and laugh- ing?" AND ILLUSIONS. 95 him?" the apparition speedily became visible to him too. Or, again, a son waked his mother in the night by calling out, "Look, mother, there is Mr. ," whereupon the mother also saw the figure. In another case a child saw the form of his mdther, who had died recently, and screamed aloud so that his father and nurse hurried to him, and then shared in the vision. A lady saw one night the form of her sister standing by her bed : "If it is real, and not a delusion, I shall see her reflection in the mirror," she said to herself. The fact that the hal- lucination was reflected in the mirror, while the percipient was only half awake and in a state of excited expectancy, completely convinced her that it was a real objective figure which she saw.^ In other cases we have evidence that fixation of the eyes, or prolonged, abstracted gazing on a shining surface, has had some share in bringing about the phenomenon. Some narrators, indeed, state that the hallucinations occurred when the eyes were directed fixedly to one point; for instance, "as we were gazing intently at part of the dress," and so on. To this category are to be referred the apparitions seen while the percipient stands before the mirror (perhaps dreamily brushing her hair), or those phan- tasms which haunt a writer or reader who has had the white paper for a long time under his eyes, especially in bright lamplight. It is also to be noted that in percipients who are often subject to hallucinations, over-work or over-strain and similar causes induce numerous waking hallucinations, and that in 13.56 per cent, of the cases nervous disturb- ' Compare the interesting chapter on Expectancy and Suggestion in the Report, pp. 174 et seq. 96 HALLUCINATIONS ances, such as grief or anxiety, are reported. It should be added that in 62 per cent, of the cases of visual hallucination it is stated that the percipient was alone ; that is to say that the presence of others, a circumstance which conduces to the waking state, is unfavourable to the occurrence of hallucinatrons. A few more examples may serve to illustrate this point. The first case is hardly to be distinguished from a dream, called up by the perception of the morning light at the moment of waking. It is possible that the " loud scream " mentioned by the narrator was also dreamt. (Munich Collection, x. 13.) Three years ago in the spring of 1886 (the month was April), between four and five o'clock in the morning, after I had waked, I saw my sister, who had died in her ninth year, standing by my bed. She was dressed in her grave clothes. She approached my bed. At first I could only see something dim and mist-like, out of which the figure grew as it came near. I screamed aloud, and the form, which was not yet fully developed, melted away before my eyes. A sister who slept in the same room was not wakened by my cry, and did not share my experience. In the next account the effect of long abstracted gazing, perhaps in a state of fatigue, at a sheet of paper, seems to be clearly indicated. The vision appears to have been an illusory perception of the after-image of the brightly lighted paper. (Munich Collection, xv. 10.) At the time referred to (accord- ing to my recollection between I and 2 A.M., towards the end of November 1879) I felt as though a hand touched me on the right shoulder, and turning round I seemed to see the form of my friend, Lieutenant Chr . As the door was locked I exclaimed, fully persuaded of the reality of the figure, " How came you here, in God's name ?" The apparition gazed fixedly AND ILLUSIONS. 97 at me, as I at it, and vanished in a few seconds. I sprang up and examined the door, which I found Jocked on the inside, and I could in nowise explain the occurrence, as I believed myself to be fully awake. According to my usual habit I was studying, and absorbed in the book I was reading, but was nevertheless, as I certainly believe, fully awake. The impression came from my friend Chr , in whose company I had been five or six days previously. I knew there was a duel before him, but nothing more. At the moment when 1 had the hallucination my friend was no longer living, although I was ignorant of the fact. On the morning of the previous day he had been wounded in a duel, and died a few hours later, before noon. I first heard of his death on the morning after I had seen the apparition, at half-past seven o'clock. In a talk we had had together — Chr , another friend, F., and myself — about three or four weeks before, we promised each other (on our oath) that if there was a life after death the first to die would give the others a sign, to assure them of the fact of an existence beyond the grave. The third, F., has died since, but without giving me any sign, and he on his part had received no sign from Chr . As regards the details of the apparition, my friend appeared to me in full uniform, and just as I knew him in life, even to his pleasant expression, though the gaze was fixed. He stood perfectly still for a moment before me, and then vanished. Although the lamp was covered with a dark green metal shade, and the upper part of the room was therefore but dimly lighted,^ the figure seeriied to me unnaturally distinct, as though it were lighted up from some other source.^ (S.P.R. Collection, 579. 24.) " C'dtait k Milan, le 10 (22) Octobre, 1888. Je demeurais k I'hotel Ancora. Aprfes le diner, vers 7 heures, j'etais assis sur le sofa et je lisais une gazette. Ma femme se reposait dans la mime chambre sur une couchette, derrifere un rideau. La chambre dtait 6c\a\r6e par une lampe placde sur la table, auprfes de laquelle j'Aais assis et lisais. Tout-k-coup je vis sur le fond de la porte, qui se trouvait en face ' While the book on which the percipient, Dr. H. Gr , was gazing was, of course, intensely lighted up. ^ Compare the account in Brierre de Boismont {Des halhuinalions, pp. 391 et seq.) al the apparition of Ficinus, to which the above case bears a very close resemblance. 7 98 HALLUCINATIONS de moi, la fiyuie de mon pfere ; il etait, comme toujours, en SLirtout noir, tr^s pale, comme mourant." (S.P.R. Collection, 83. 21.) "I sat one evening reading, when, on looking up from my book, I distinctly saw a school friend of mine, to whom I was very much attached, standing near the door. I was about to exclaim at the strangeness of her visit, when, to my horror, there were no signs of any one in the room but my mother. I related what I had seen to her, know- ing she could not have seen, as she was sitting with her back towards the door, nor did she hear anything unusual, and was greatly amused at my scare, suggesting I had read too much or. been dreaming." The following case may perhaps also be explained in the same way: — (Munich Collection, xv. 2.) "I remember distinctly — I must have been thirty-seven years old at the time, and was still in the Service— that I was sitting at my writing-table when I seemed to hear a voice calling out some words to me. On getting up and looking about for the servant I found the whole house empty, nor was there any one on the street (five in the after- noon). When I tried to think whose the voice resembled, I found that it had sounded distinctly like that of my deceased grandmother (on the mother^s side). The words that she had uttered chimed in with my thoughts, and that was what had so surprised me when I heard them." If it be objected that we are assuming too much, and exaggerating the hypnogenic tendency of pro- longed reading, I may point to the fact that it is at least a matter of common knowledge, and that reading is a means popularly employed to induce sleep, whether as a prelude to the afternoon nap or by candle- light in bed. Thus the mother of the percipient, in the case mentioned above (S.P.R. Collection, 83- 21), attributed her daughter's strange experience to the fact that she "had read too much, or been dreaming." An explanation of the way in which AND ILLUSIONS. 99 fixed attention brings about dissociation, or, in terms of physiology, the splitting off of the neural elements, will be found in Chapter V. It has been already observed that fixation of the eyes associated with automatic movements is liable to produce dissociation. In the following cases the strain of working at sewing seems to have acted in the same way as gazing on a mirror, and to have pro- duced a short twilight of consciousness. (Munich Collection, xxiii.) On the 15th of March, 1878, at ten o'clock at night, I saw an apparition of myself. One of the children was sleeping restlessly, I took the lamp to see if any- thing was wrong. As I drew back the curtain which shut off the bedroom, I saw two paces_ from me the image of myself stooping over the end of the bed, in a dress which I had not been wearing for some time : the figure was turned three- quarters away from me, the attitude expressed deep grief . . . I was neither specially sad nor specially excited that evening, and had been thinking about quite ordinary things. I was alone : a friend who had been with me had left about half-an- hour before, and I had been working at the sewing-machine. I was quite calm, in good health,' and thirty-nine years old. Three months before I had lost one of my children. It has just occurred to me while writing this, that after death my child was laid across the foot of my bed, and I may have stood in that attitude then. The dress, too, was the one I was wearing at the time.^ In a few cases the informants state that they fainted from terror or shock at the apparition. Such ' Nevertheless the same informant adds : — " I belong to a very healthy family, and was never ill up to my twenty-second year. Now I suffer from extreme nervousness, which may indeed have been present even in 1878, though it had not yet appeared as a definite ailment." 2. Compare, among other cases in the S. P.R. Collection, No. 730. 24, and perhaps 442. 17. See Report, Proceedings S.P.R., August, 1894, pp. 233 and 213. 100 HALLUCINATIONS communications remind us so forcibly of the hallu- cinations of the epileptic and hystero-epileptic aura, that we can hardly resist the conclusion that they occurred in a semi-conscious state, possibly of very short duration, preceding a state of complete unconsciousness.^ The private opinion of the percipient of the lapse of time between the appearance of the hallucination and the loss of consciousness is absolutely irrelevant, since in such severe disturbances of consciousness gross errors in reckoning time are constantly made. The following accounts may be taken as typical. (Munich Collection, iv.) When my father died I was in Posen (Czernik bei Posen), and Was three years old. I did not know him, and did not see him lying dead in his coffin. Thirteen years later, when I was sixteen, I went out of my paternal house in the snow. I cannot exactly fix the date — perhaps it was Christ- mas Eve — at eleven o'clock. Suddenly my father 'stood before me, in a black coat with shining buttons. The coat was a long one, reaching to the feet. He seemed taller than life, and wore a black cap. I tried to seize hold of him, and received a kind of electric shock. The dogs would not bark, and crept about my feet, whining with their tails between their legs. I fell down in a faint. Several minutes had passed between the dogs showing signs of excitement and my fainting. . . . There had previously ■ Of the six cases of this kind given in the Report, there are three in which it is pretty clear that the loss of consciousness was not the " organic effect " but the cause of the hallucination. Thus one per- cipient in Australia, almost suffocated by the fumes of charcoal in his tent, on going outside to escape them saw a vision of his mother and then lost consciousness ; a second saw an apparition of his father, fainted, and reports that " ^ severe nervous illness dated from that evening " ; and in a third case a state of nervous agitation is clearly indicated. Case 728. i5 (p. 309), points to a similar explana- tion, if we consider the striking amnesia of the lady, clearly the principal percipient. Her fianci's hallucination would appear to be the secondary one, caused by the words which she screamed and the shock of seeing her faint away. AND ILLUSIONS. lOI been three taps on the window when we were speaking of my father. I alone heard the knocks and went out because of them. I opened the door, the whining dogs pressed close about me ; I started and fell down. I did not recognise my father, but I described him, and my conjecture was confirmed. The dogs refused to be driven out again. (Munich Collection, xxxix. b.) On New Year's Eve, 1885- 86, in consequence of something I had read, at exactly twelve o'clock I took two lighted candles, one in each hand, and alone, fully awake, feeling rather sceptical and not, at all excited,' ' That the percipient was "not at all excited " is extremely unlikely,' if only for the reason that not six months before, on the occasion of her father's death, she had experienced a "veridical" hallucination, of which, at least, she seems to have spoken pretty often with her family, for she adds in her narrative, "My relatives never experienced anything of the kind. . . . My mother assures me that a clock stopped exactly at the moment when death occurred." Besides, in the communication relating to this hallucination the false reckoning of time at least indicates a, state of dream-consciousness. She writes (Munich Collection, xxxix. a) : — " At the lime when my father was very seriously ill, and was lying in a room on the ground-floor, I went upstairs to my room on the second floor to bed one evening (8th July, 1885), at about nine o'clock, accompanied by the nurse. The latter left the room with the request that I would lie still. She had hardly left the room when 1 had a feeling as though the bed-clolhes were being pulled off. This happened twice. I was wide awake, and suddenly saw my father sitting in his wheeled chair, as he generally did, in a room, but apparently some distance off. I closed my eyes from fright, and the picture vanished. I lay awake much disturbed, and connected this experience with my father's illness. After a short time, about a quarter of an hour, I opened my eyes. Suddenly I saw a white mist like a shadow pass before them. I screamed aloud, sprang out of bed, and, scantily clad as I was, hurried anxiously downstairs, to see how my father was. At the foot of the stairs the Sister of Mercy met me, and told me he had just- passed away. My father was eighty-one, and much enfeebled by age ; he had been lying seriously ill for some time, and had been wandering in his mind for eight days. Suddenly, to the Sister's astonishment, he called out my name in a clear strong voice. This was ten minutes before his death, just at the time I had the ^ision." Let the reader try to imagine the slate of mind of any one keeping the eyes shut for ten to fifteen minutes in a state of anxiety and terror, and he will know what to think of the " short time." 102 HALLUCINATIONS having first locked the doors of my room, I went and stood in front of the looking-glass. Suddenly I saw in the mirror the form of a tall, haggard-looking man, who approached me with audible footsteps. I fell down in a faint, and was ill for several days. When I came out of the faint the lights had gone out. Further, through their common dependence on external stimuli, the content of waking hallucinations often bears a resemblance to that of dreams. Thus the following account, 417. 17 (Report, pp. 202 et seq.), recalls the dream of a dental operation quoted above : — Vers 5 heures du matin j'ai vu I'apparition suivante : — Eveille apres un sommeil sans reves, j'dprouvais une terreur panique et une stupeur complete sans pouvoir bouger, ni proferer une parole. ... II prit de sa main droite ma main gauche, et y en- fongant ses ongles, ce qui me causa une douleur aigue, dit k voix basse. . . , Je ne me suis plus endormi et pendant plusieurs jours aprfes cette apparition j'dprouvais [this is the main point] des douleurs neuralgiques et des contractions dans ma main gauche. . . . Des apparitions semblables, mais moins distinctes mesontdejk arrivdes plusieurs fois . . . 1880, 1884, 1886, et 18S9. Dans tons ces cas les apparitions n'etaient prdced^es d'aucune maladie, mais elles amenaient k leur suite des indispositions physiques plus ou moins marquees. Je ne puis pas dire que I'dtat de conscience dans lequel je les ai dprouvdes fut tout-k- fait normal. / And the other cases given in the Report, pp. 203- 20s, also show this resemblance, while those accounts in which the illusory interpretations of noises, tactile impressions, etc., seem to make up the content of the hallucinations, remind us forcibly of ''nerve-stimulus dreams." Such an analogy is of course no proof, but taken in connection with all the other traces and indications, it serves to help us to a comprehension of the hallucinatory state of consciousness. f F/y it is not ahvays possible to prove Dissociation. AND ILLUSIONS. IO3 — Although in these and similar ways a disturbance of consciousness more or less profound is indicated by the accompanying circumstances in a great number of these cases, there remain many narratives in which there are no direct indications of the kind, and such disturbance can only be assumed by a certain straining of the facts. Must we then suppose, all considerations to the contrary notwithstanding, that in these cases the assurance of the percipient that he was fully awake at the time is not based on self- deception ? Are we, that is, to judge these narratives by a different standard from those others in which, as we have already seen, similar assurances, given with the same firm conviction on the part of the narrator, proved to be mistaken ? In this connection it is important to remember that the narratives are in many cases very meagre, and are occupied mainly with the content of the hallucinations rather than with the state' of consciousness which accompanied them. Less attention was paid to this latter circumstance, both in the questions put and in subsequent tabulation of the answers. Experiences known to be dreams were excluded from the first by the form of the main question; and if the experience could really be counted as a " waking hallucination " the attention was naturally directed mainly to its form and content, and to such points as the exclusion of errors {e.g., the mistaking of real objects and per- sons, illusions), the corroboration of other witnesses, the coincidence of the experiences with other events (death or illness), and such-like. These considerations sufficiently explain the want of evidence for a state of dissociation. When we come to consider the series of twenty-seven coincidental cases, which are nearly I04 HALLUCINATIONS all fully described and carefully examined, we shall find that all but seven narratives contain unn^istak- able indications of the presence of a state of dream- consciousness. The difficulty of distinguishing the hallucinatory experience from the facts of real life must also be taken into account. Hallucinations tend to take their place in the memory alongside of real events, and to become indistinguishably merged with them. This is illustrated by Bernheim's^ well-known experiment; a subject was given a waking suggestion that a cer- tain fictitious narrative had been told him by a fellow patient; whereupon this delusion became associated with a genuine experience, and the subject maintained in proof of what he said that he had heard the story when his room-mate came back from the town the evening before bringing him an Easter-egg. Thirdly, the accompanying circumstances tend to fade, and the memory remains preoccupied with the more absorbing interest of the astonishing pheno- menon itself. If it is often difficult after a short lapse of time to remember the accompanying circumstances, even in matters of ordinary perception, and where the attention was fully alert,^ how much more after .several years have passed ? No w, of the seven accounts already referred to, which make no mention of circumstances indicating a state of dream-consciousness, six refer to occurrences which had happened more than nine years previously, and the experience is of such a kind that the picture preserved in the meniory has been con- stantly modified and touched up, so as to differ widely 1 Bernheim, De la Suggestion (2nd edit..), chap. ix. ' Compare Hodgson, "The Possibilities of Mal-observalion and Lapse of Memory," Proceed. S.P.R., 1886-87, PP- 381 et seq. AND ILLUSIONS. lOS from the actual facts, if indeed it were ever a faithful representation of facts. Thus frequently, as in the case of the clergyman (p. 93), the account of the hallucination is misleading, because the time-relations are incorrectly remembered, and events which were really simultaneous become successive in the memory. To illustrate this by an example : Silppose the hallucination to have been only a visual one, for instance, the figure of a woman clad in white stand- ing in front of me to the right. Her position suggests that I have seen her glide past me from left to right, and then the impression that I must have seen her first on the left will appear to have been preceded by the sound of a woman's voice, causing me to ^turn my head in that direction. The hallucination is in reality a visual perception — a-white-figure-coming-from-the left-first- seen - there - by - me - on - hearing-a-sound. I n the memory, however, this " complex " is split up into elements which are localised separately in time, and becomes changed into something like the following : — " I was standing alone in the room when I heard my name called from the left. It was a woman's voice, and I turned round in surprise. What was my astonishment when I saw " — and so on. The account of the apparition of Lieutenant Chr , after he had been killed in a duel, was probably a case of this kind, where the preliminary tactile hallucination at least seems likely to have been an illusion of memory. How widely this kind of memory illusion operates' it is of course difficult to say ; in my opinion far too little allowance is made for it. This is borne out by observations made by careful witnesses. A dream is I05 HALLUCINATIONS soon forgotten unless it be mentally recapitulated and noted, or told to some one. If this is done the dream may indeed be remembered and told for years, but still careful self-observation reveals that it is not so ""much the dream images as the memory images fixed immediately after waking which are recalled. In studying these narratives we must bear all this in mind, and we must remember further that the narrators are not always of a critical turn of mind. The frequent recital of an interesting occurrence tends to imprint a distinct picture of it on the mind, and the vividness of the mental image serves further to confirm the percipient's conviction of having been fully awake at the time — a delusion common with persons in a drowsy, half-asleep condition. It is not, ih^n, muchi'to be wondered at if gradually all sub- sidiary detail fades away, until finally there remain in the memory only two points of cardinal importance — the hallucination itself, and the conviction of having been fully awake. For my part, I am inclined to wonder less at the rarity of suspicious circumstances in a series of such accounts, than that, all adverse influences notwithstanding, so many and such clear indications of dissociation/ of consciousness still re- main. Even the cases which do not directly support my view may, by the following analysis, as I still hope to show, be brought into harmony with it.^ For in general, the more recent the case, the less improbable does it appear from the narrative itself that the phe- nomena recorded were not hallucinations, but either illusions or objective sensory perceptions mistakenly supposed to be subjective. ' Compare Report, p. 66. AND ILLUSIONS. loy Realistic Apparitions of Living Persons. Witliiii the last three months . .\ Doubtful cases, 8 "I „ previous nine months . j „ n 6j "^ Over one year, but not over-five years 62 „ „ 13 ,, five years „ „ ten „ 60 „ „ 8 The Report explains this falling-off by assuming that the " doubtful " cases make less impression and are soon forgotten ; but I see no grounds for such an assumption, since the percipients in these cases, no less than in the others, were convinced of the genuine- ness of their experiences. To me it seems the truer ex- planation that in the more recent cases the accounts are more detailed ; in the older ones all accompany- ing circumstances which might throw doubt on the genuineness of the hallucination have disappeared,^ such SlS, e.g., the state of the light and tl\e, physical surroundings, or any indications of a stat^ of dream- consciousness on the part of the percipient. Hallucinations classified according lo the sense affected. — In passing on to another point, we must consider the share of various senses in the hallucinations. Accord- ing to Table II. d. ihey are reckoned as follows : — Hallucinations of a single sense . . . , 1890 Visual Auditory . Tactile . 1114 629 147 Hallucinations simultaneously affecting several senses 271 Visual and auditory . . 181 Visual and tactile ... 38 Visual and olfactory . . i Auditory and tactile . 2t Visual, auditory, and tactile . 29 All four senses ... i ' Note in this connection that of the 12 cases of visual hallucinations, none more than a fortnight old, given on p. 7 of the Report, 7 are regarded as doubtful. I08 HALLUCINATIONS The Less Startling Hallucinations are soon forgotten. — These figures seem to me, however, to show not so much that our hallucinations visit us most in visual pictorial form, but rather that the less striking sensory perceptions are easily overlooked, or if recognised as idelusions, are soon forgotten ; while the remarkable \ Wnd striking ones, and especially the visual phantasms, I "remain longer in the memory. This view is supported also by the fact that among rudimentary halluci- nations (not fully developed, lights, vague objects, and sounds) the visual preponderate, simply because the great mass of obscure and partially projected halluci- nations of the other senses fade from the memory sooner and more completely. This is shown still more clearly by a comparison of the hallucinations reported as occurring within the last ten years with those remembered from the time previous to that period. (Tables V. a, VI. a, VII.) Visual hallucinations within the last ten years . 458 ,, „ of more than ten years ago. 486 Auditory hallucinations within the last ten years . 247 ,, „ more than ten years ago (rather more than half) . . . . i37 Tactile hallucinations within the last ten years . 97 „ „ more than ten years ago (less than half) .... .41 We find further confirmation of this view in the fact, arrived at from the figures given in the Report, that the hallucinations recorded for the last year amounted, in the case of the visual experiences, to 18.9 per cent, of the whole number recorded for the last ten years, and in the case of tactile and auditory hallucinations respectively to 21.9 and 29. 1 per cent. We find the same characteristic in the auditory hallucinations recorded in Table VI. a. AND ILLUSIONS. lOp Of the less striking cases, in which the narrator heard only his name called, or only indistinct voices, 148 are reported as occurring within the last ten years, and only 53 within the previous period. On the other hand, almost as many of the moj-e striking auditory hallucinations, in which other words or sentences were heard, are recorded as occurring in the earlier period, as the 69 in the last ten years. Again, when the voice was recognised as that of a living or of a dead person, the relative numbers (164 new cases to 97 old) indicate that the experience is more readily remembered than when the voice was not recognised (83:40). Since, as we shall see later, there are good grounds for supposing that simple, non-complicated hallucina- tions are more frequent than those which are fully developed and distinctly projected, but that, as is natural, and as the tables show, they are scarcely noted and soon slip from the memory, we may con- clude that "waking hallucinations" in sane persons are much more frequent phenomena than appears from tRe tables. Even should the percentage of affirmative answers on a more searching analysis be further lowered, still it is to be noted that the result refers only to the remembered experiences. It would be ridiculous to reckon the number of dreams by the number remembered,^ but it would be scarcely less misleading to apply the same method of calcula- _tion to waking hallucinations. 1 Let the reader try to rememher his dreams of more than a year ago. Unless exceptionally well practised in calling to mind such experiences he will hardly be in a position to remember any great number of them clearly. CHAPTER IV. THE PHYSIOLOGICAL PROCESS IN FALLACIOUS PERCEPTION. Early Attempts at Explanation — The Centrifugal Psychic Theories — Objections — The Centrifugal Sensorial Theories — The Conception underlyiiig all Centrifugal Theories — Arguments against this Conception — Centri- petal Theories — Identity of the Sensory and Ideational Ce7itres — Theories of Pelman and Kandinsky — False Perception a Phenomenon conditioned by disturbed Association — Meynert — James — Explanation suggested by the Author — Its Advantages — Schematic Presenta- tion of the Physiological Process in False Perception — Various Objections met. The first attempts to explain the physiological process in false perception were very vague and general. It was clear that to account for the more complex hallucinations — i.e., those affecting several senses — the morbid condition was to be sought outside the sense organs. No doubt Joh. Miiller's^ doctrine of the specific energies of the nerves made it possible to explain how subjective sensory percep- tions might appear as objective, and when it was once assumed that subjective sensations were the result of inadequate stimuli, the same explanation readily suggested itself in the case of hallucination; but it was urged against this view that while rudi- ' Joh. MLiller, Ueher phanlast. Gesichtserscheinungen, 1826; Zur vergleich. Physiol, des Gesichlssinns, 1836. For a short abstract. see £chule, Handhuch d. Geisteskrankheiten, 1878, pp. iTfs et seq. HALLUCINATIONS AND ILLUSIONS. Ill mentary phenomena, such as sparks, flashes, colours, singing in the ears, etc., may originate in this way, inadequate stimuli can never result in "complex images, arranged in orderly perspective," or words, though these play so great a part in hallucinations. If, for instance, in the subjective dream-image of a tree only a corresponding subjective excitation of the sensory nerve were necessary, then, as Neumann^ has pointed out, a portion of the optic fibres would have to be stimulated in such a way that their arrangement should exactly correspond to the image of a tree, or to the image of the space not occupied by the tree (a light tree on a dark, a dark tree on a light ground). If we consider the great number of possible combina- tions, among the myriad fibres spread over the retinal surface (lOO primitive fibres to the square line), such a result seems highly problematical. In the same way the formation of an articulate word would be barely probable, that of a sentence practi- cally impossible.^ Hence the search in this direction was soon abandoned. The older writers indeed confine them- selves for the most part to vague generalities,^ with ' Neumann, Lehrbuch der Psychiatrie, § 142, 143. ^ Leubuscher, Ueber die Entstehung der Sinnestiiusclmngeit, 1852, p. 29. Compare Griesinger, op. cit., pp. 87 et seq. ^ Thus Eottex, op. cit., p. 12, believes that hallucinations, like dreams, are the result of an irritation of several parts of the brain, now of one and now of another, which are momentarily not under the con- trol of the will. J. B. Friedrich, " Einige Worte Uber den psycholog. Werth der Sinnestauschungen," Fr. Arch. f. Physiol., 1834, vol. ii., maintains that hallucinations depend on an abnormal state of the sensorium which arrests the freedom of the will and the power of judgment. Brierre de Boismont, op. cit., chap. 17, points out reasons which tell a priori against the dependence of fallacious perception on specific anatomical disturbances, and q^uotes L^lut, Calmeil, and Leiiret in support of his view. 112 HALLUCINATIONS two distinguished exceptions, Erasmus Darwin and Foville, who attribute a semi-sensorial character to the morbid affection, which they locate partly within and partly outside the sense organs, and express the view that not only the nerve tract between the organ and the brain is affected, but that the more com- plicated hallucinations of several senses can be explained only by assuming the implication of those brain-centres at least in which the sensory nerves originate. Macario distinguishes various kinds of hallucinations and assigns them various sites.^ Although, as time went on, attention was directed more and more to this problem, no explanation has yet been offered which has met with general accept- ance, as the numerous attempts at a theory of hallucination sufficiently testify. In. considering the most important of these attempts, in discussing the various views advanced and the arguments used to support them, we shall make ourselves acquainted with the leading facts, and thus be in a position to form an independent judgment. Two main points had to be considered in the elucidation of the problem: on the one hand the sensory character of the phenomenon, on the other the great part played by temperament, mental and ' Macario, in the Ann. Med. psych., Nov. 1845, Jan. 1846, distin- guishes hallucinations as follows : firstly, external or sensorial hallucina- tions, which originate in the sensory nerve ; secondly, those which are ganglionic, resulting from lesions of the great sympathetic nerve (e.g., frequently in hypochondriacs) ; thirdly, those whioteicre intuitive, or caused by "inner" vision (for instance, in ecstas^^nd hysteria); and lastly, sthenic hallucinations which arise from' heightened sensibility, and should be regarded as a neurosis of the sensory nerves (e.g. , the visual hallucinations of watchmakers, auditory hallucinations in the case of cooks who spend a great part of their lives in hot kitchens). AND ILLUSIONS. II 3 emotional bias, education, superstition, the spirit of the times, etc., in determining what the hallucinatory object .should be, and investing it with form and colour. Supposing the ideational centres to be locally- separated from the sensory centres, it was natural to ascribe the imaginative factor in fallacious perception to the higher elements of the cerebral cortex, and to relegate the sensory part to those cells where, in popular parlance, incoming "impressions are trans- formed into sensations.'' As to the locality and extent of these centres, and indeed of most others, there is a conflict of views.^ However, the first question to answer was not where are these centres situated, but what is it which, in hallucination, where no normal stimulus is present, starts in these centres the process of which we become conscious as a sense-perception. Centrifugal Psychic Theories. — Many writers as- cribed, and many still ascribe, the initial impulse to the ideational centres. On this view, either the activity of these centres must be increase d beyond the normal to admit of their giving rise to an effective stimulus, or we must postulate a higher degree of irritability for the "inner sensory areas," which would lend exceptional effectiveness to ^ideational stimuli in ordinary circumstances inadequate. The chief justification for this view is the fact that sensory hallucinations occur even when the sen- sorium (assumed to be sub-cortical) is wholly de- stroyed. Again, the accounts of voluntarily-induced 1 Liiys, Fournier, and Ritli believe the process to occur chiefly in the optic thalami ; Schroder van der Kolk, Meynert, and Kandinsky would place the centres lower down — that of vision, for instance, in the corpora quadrigemina ; Hitzig, Ferrier, Munk, and others locate them in the cortex itself. 1 14 HALLUCINATIONS hallucinations,! the fact that many patients are conscious of their imagination being the source of their sensory delusions, the decrease of hallucina- tions during increasing mental weakness, and their almost entire absence in cases of idiocy, seem to point in the same direction. Further, the influenceof memory and experience in determining the character of the sensory delusions is cited in support of this- view; and also the fact that the sense of hearing is specially liable to hallucinations — the sense, that is, which plays a more important part than any other' in our psychical life, since we think in words and express our thoughts in words.^ In a certain sense we may even reckon Joh. Muller^ among the exponents of this theory, since he assumed the existence in the brain of an organ for the pro- duction of imaginary images (the " Phantasticon"), and believed, it to control the innermost springs of vision. So also Moller,^ who considers hallucinations to result from the elaboration in the mind of a single more or less persistent recollection, which afterwards ' Compare Goethe's power to call up the hallucination of an un- folding flower. Brierre de Boismont, op. cit., mentions the case of an artist who after one silting was able to go on painting the portrait of his sitter by the aid of the hallucinatory image which he could call up at will. Griesinger cites the case of an insane person who heard voices, and who found that he could put any words he liked into the mouth of the imaginary beings who conversed with him (Holland, Chapter on Mental Physiol, p. 52); and Sandras, Ann. MM. psych. (1855), p. 542, records his own hallucinations, which rendered his thoughts audible to him and answered his questions, but always according to his wishes. For further examples see below. ^ Von Krafft-Ebing, Die Sinnesdelirien (Erlangen, 1864). ^ Joh. Muller, Phanlast. Gesichtserscheinungen, § 138. ^ M'aWex, Anthropol Beitragezur Erfahrungder psych. Kranhheiten (1837), pp. ^oT et se.j. AND ILLUSION'S. II5 penetrates into the organs of sight and hearing; and Falret, who speaks of a "lesion de rimagination."^ Griesinger is led to the conclusion that it is ideas which initiate and guide the sensory activities, mainly because certain individuals can voluntarily call up hallucinations, because, that is to say, vivid mental images deliberately conjured up and dwelt upon are often recognised as the exciting cause of sensory delusions. Griesinger's deduction is shortly as follows-': — ', As in normal sensory activity the effect produced by real external stimuli on the nervous system is, in so-called "eccen- tric phenomena," referred back to the part of the periphery usually excited, so a similar projection is manifested by ideas which owe their origin only to sensations. In this latter case, however, the process does not extend to the nervous surface and thence outwards, but only to the region of the exciting cause— z'.f., the sensorium.' It is apparently on this eccentric projection of ideas that their constant reinforcement by sensory images depends, and to the same cause is doubtless also, due tl>at faint subsidiary hallucination in the central sense organ which accompanies all thought, to which indeed thought owes its clearness and colour, those stores of sensory imagery in which we all to some extent share. It supplies the foundation for all those psychical phenomena which are assigned to the imagination, so that all imaginative processes may be s^id to ' Falret, op. eil., " En parlant des lesions de I'imagination nous ne voulons dire qu'une chose, ^savoir: que rhallucination se rattache k une modification cerebrale analogue a celle qui dans I'etat normal accom- pagne I'aclion de I'imagination." Hallucination, he adds, is dis- tinguished from other morbid activities of the brain, which also have their analogies in normal experience, by the want of control which invariably appears when the imagination is abnormally active, and further by the involuntary nature of the phenomena and the sudden, disconnected manner of their appearing. ^ Griesinger, op. cit., pp. 29 and 91. ' Kahlbaum, "Die Sinnesdelirien," Allg. Zeitschr.f. Psych., xxiii., describes this process as " Reperception." 1 16 IIALLUCINATIONS consist merely in more or less lively reverberations in the sensorium. Hallucination differs only m degree from this normal activity of the imagination. In the former process, the intensity with which the projected ideas act on the sensory centre causes something to take place there which normally occurs only as a result of external excitation — viz., an act of sensation.' Following Griesinger's theory. Von Krafift-Ebing 2 writes: "Hallucination i.s the result of an excitation of the central apparatus of a sensory nerve by an adequate ideational stimulus sufficient to give the force of a sense-impression to the answering excita- tion which is projected outwards." Hoffinann^ says: — "Representative images occasionally manifest them- selves so energetically that they may even penetrate into the perceptive sphere and arouse it to activity. When a representative image in the brain acts upon the central filaments of the sensory nerves it is eccentrically projected, and results in a hallucination." Kahlbaum* belongs also to this school, for besides extra-cerebral phenomena depending on processes in the periphery and the sense-nerves {PhcBnacismeri), and perception-hallucinations which occur either as stable, as erethic, or as functional phenomena, and are produced, according to him, in the affected ganglia either through extensive changes (disturbances of circulation, for instance) involving chronic stimulation. ' Compare the statement of this view by Gurney and Myers, "A Theory of Apparitions," Proceedings of the S.P.R., vol. ii., 1883-84, P15. 168, 169. 2 Krafft-Ebing, op. at., p. II; compare p. 8; also Lehrhuh (1879), i. p. 92. " Hoffmsinn, Die Physiol, der Sinneshalhicination, pp. 19 and 23. ^ Kahlbaum, of. cit. AND ILLUSIONS. 11/ or through minor changes which become effective only because of the functional activity of the images {Phantomien) — in addition to all these kinds of hallucinations he considers that there are others due to a rise of centrifugal sensory activity {Phantas- inien). With those he would class fallacies of one sense originated by a normal effect produced in another sense, as, for instance, when an insane person thinks he is being "stitched in" or "embroidered in" when he sees people sewing, or on catching sight of a long pole feels himself being drawn out lengthwise.^ In explanation, Kahlbaum assumes an increase of centrifugal irritability in a particular sense which is aroused into activity through the general excitation of the consciousness resulting from the first centri- petal perceptional process (on the analogy of reflex movements he calls these reflex hallucinations). Lastly, he adds another class, viz., hallucinations of memory (Phaniorkemien). Next, Kraepelin^ distinguishes (a) elementary sense deceptions peripherally conditioned, {b) perception phantasms which originate through inadequate stimuli (changes in the circulation, poisons, etc.) in the centres of perception (hypnagogic hallucinations in • Most cases of this kind are indeed rather to be regarded as reflex insane ideas. The following case of Janet's ( " L'anesth^sie Hysl^rique" in the Arch, de Neurologic, 1892, No. 69) is, however, a genuine reflex or " apperception " hallucination. "When I show you the colour blue you will hear bells ringing," Professor Janet said to Isabella, a hysterical subject blind on the left side. Then when her right eye (the normal one) had been blindfolded, various coloured wools were held before her left eye. At first she said everything was dark ; but as soon as a piece of blue wool was held up she cried, " Oh, I hear bells." Many hypnotic and post-hypnotic hallucinations ^ hheance might be referred to this class. ^ ICraepelin, Fsychiatrie, pp. 70-85. il8 HALLUCINATIONS the sane, and in the insane fixed monotonous hallucina- tions, generally independent of the train of thought; Kahlbaum's '^stable" hallucinations); lastly (c), memory images of special vividness. He explains these "apperception" hallucinations much as Griesinger explains them, and groups with them Baillarger's "psychical" hallucinations, the "pseudo-hallucina- tions " of Hagen, and also the hallucinatory reverbera- tion called "double thinking." For it is easy to explain such a continuous procession of sensory fallacies following the train of thought step by step, on the assumption of reperception, and of a heightened irritability of the inner sensory tracts. Alongside "apperception hallucinations" he places "apperception illusions " (in the sane the illusions caused by strong emotion, expectation, etc. ; and in the insane, besides these, reflex hallucinations). One of the principal exponents of this view is H. Taine,! who explains hallucinations as arising when the inner images are deprived of their usual " re- ductives" (signes rMucteurs), and thus appear as sensible realities. I quote the following from his brilliant exposition of the theory: — " In ordinary cases a disturbance of the nerves produces this action, but if it is otherwise produced it will arise without the intervention of the nerves, and we shall have a true sensation, that of a green table, or of the sound of a viohn, without any table or violin having acted on our eyes or ears. Thus setting aside the medium of the nerves, we find two cases in which the centres of sensation act. First, having been set in action by the nerve, they may persist in this action spontaneously, and repeat it of themselves after the nerve has ceased to act. This is notably the case with illusions following on the prolonged use of the microscope, when the micrographist resting his eyes ' Taine, De V Inlelli^eme, vol. i., bcok ii., chap. i. AND ILLUSIONS. I IQ on his- table or paper sees about a foot off small grey figures which persist, vanish, and reappear, continually growing paler and- feebler. Secondly, the centres of sensation may act through a reflected shock, when pure mental images arouse their activity. Usually it is the sensation which provokes the image, and the transmitted action of the sensorium which is repeated in the cerebral lobes or hemispheres : here, on the contrary, the image excites the sensation repeated in the centres-of sensation. This is probably the case in hypnagogic and psycho-sensorial hallucinations.' " If I may be permitted a homely metaphor, let us call the conducting nerve a bell-rope, attached to a large bell, the centre of sensation ; when the rope is pulled the bell rings ; here we have a sensation. This bell, thanks to an imperfectly understood mechanism, communicates by various threads, the fibres of tlie optic thalami and the corpora striata, with a system of little bells, which make up the hemispheres, and whose mutually excitable tinklings exactly repeat its sounds with their pitch and tone. These tinklings are images. When the bell rings it sets the tinklings a-going, and when its ringing is over the tinklings continue, growing weaker and dying away, but may increase in volume and regain all their first energy when a favourable circumstance permits the persisting sound of one or two of the little bells to cause all the others to vibrate in unison. . . " In hallucinations of the microscope the large bell has been so powerfully and constantly set vibrating in one direction that its mechanism continues to act even when the cord is hanging motionless. In dreams and hypnagogic hallucinations the cord is relaxed ; it no longer acts, the constant demands of the waking hours has used up its power of responding ; external objects pull in vain, they no longer cause the bells to ring. But, on the other hand, the little bells, whose appeals have been repressed while we were awake, and whose puUings have been annulled by the more energetic pulling of the bell-rope, regain all their power, ring louder and pull more effectually. Their ' By "psycho-sensorial" hallucinations Baillarger means false per- ceptions with a pronounced sensory character, while he designates as "psychical" the so-called soundless voices, for instance. Binet has suggested for the first group the apter term, cerehro-sensorial. 120 ttALLUCtNATIONS movements excite corresponding vibrations in the large bell. Thus the life of man is divided into two portions — the waking state, in which the large bell responds to the cord, and sleep, wherein it responds to the little bells. In morbid hallucina- tions the bell-rope still acts, but its effort is overcome by the greater power of the little bells ; and various causes, a flow of blood, inflammation of the brain, haschisch — all circumstances indeed which render the hemispheres more active — tend to produce these phenomena. The appeals of the little bells, which in the normal state are more feeble than those of the cord, have become stronger, and the ordinary equilibrium is upset, because one of the functions has assumed an ascendency to which it is not entitled." Among other authors who express themselves to the same effect are Esquirol,^ Brierre de Boismont,^ Neumann,'* Reil,* E. Pohl,'* R. Leubuscher," Schroeder van der Kolk,^ Schaller,^ Emminghaus,'' L. Meyer,^" Wijsman," Friedmann,^^ and many others. As their presentations of the theory agree for the most part with those already quoted, and differ mainly in the arrangement of the evidence, and in the different localities which they assign to the ideational centres, ' Esquirol, op. cit. ' Brierre de Boismont, Des hallucinatioHs. * Neumann, Lehrbttch der Psychiatric, § 201 cl scq. * Reil, Rhapsodien. ^ Pohl, Die Melancholic nach dent neucsten Standpunkt der Physi- ologic. " Leubuscher, Ueber die Entsiehung der Sinnestauschungcn. ' Schroeder van der Kolk, Pathologic uud Therapie der Geisteskrank- heitcn (1863). ' Schaller, Die Hallucination (1S67; Diss.). " Emminghaus, AUg. Psychopathologic. " L. Meyer (Hamburg), Ucbcr deu CharalUer der Hallucination bci Ccisteskranken . " Wijsman, Gencesk Tijdschr. voor Ncdcrl. Ind., x.\iv. 87. 244 (1884). '^ Friedmann, Ueber den Wahn (1894), ii. p. 35, Note. AND ILLUSIONS. 121 it is not necessary to consider them in detail, and I shall now t.urn at once to the criticisms of the theory and to the views to which these objections lead us. Arguments against the Psychic Theories. — The following is a brief summary of the chief objec- tions urged against the theory we have just been considering, which regards hallucinations as evoked in consequence of exceptionally vivid ideational images penetrating into the region of sense, or, in terms of physiology, as the result of a current of centrifugal energy from the cells of the cortex exciting the basal ganglia into activity. I. However vivid and energetic an ideational image may be, it can never receive the stamp of sensory reality. SchUlei cites Fechner's^ experiments, and concludes that ideas of sensation can never rise to the level of sensation itself, that the want of the feeling of sensory affection leaves a gap which no psychic in- tention can bridge over. Kandinsky^ insists that " a whole gulf" separates hallucinations, as well as normal sensory perceptions, from even the liveliest ideas. Among others,* Meynert has perhaps expressed himself most emphatically on this point.* ' Schiile, o/. «'/., p. 140. " Fechner, Elemente tier Psychophysik, ii. pp. 469 et seq. ' Vict. Kandinsky, Kritische ttnd klinische Betrachtung im Gebiet der Sinneslduschungen (1885), pp. 135 et seq. * Strieker, " Ueber Sinnestauschungen," Wien. Med. Blatter, 1878, p. 133, quotes the utterance of Hume that "the poet, even with the most glowing colours of his craft, cannot so depict a scene that his description should be taken for a real landscape. The liveliest thoughts do not reach to the dimmest impressions." ^ Th. Meynert, " Ueber die Gefuhle " in the Samtiilung von popular- ivissenschafilichen-Voriragen iiber den Ban und die Leistimg des Gehirns, pp. 44 et seq. 122 HALLUCINATIONS " The mnemonic image of the most terrible burn is. not to be compared in intensity, as regards its effect on the skin, with the faintest touch of a feather. The mental picture of the sun's bright disc has less to do with an impression of light than the least conceivable fraction of the glow-worm's faint radiance. The ear-splitting roar of a cannon as a mere image in the memory has less power to affect the sense than the immeasurably m.inute sound of a hair falling upon water. And though these images in the memoiy are caused in the first instance by sensory impressions, they have nevertheless as little in common with such impressions as an algebraic sign with the object for which it stands." 2. It is difficult to refer to ideational excitation visions which mock at all experience, the vision, for instance, of a blue dog, but it is easy to connect such an appearance with an illusory perception of a subjective impression of blue light. This view findsfurther support in the partiality which hallucinations seem to display for the primary colours, blue, red, and yellow (Hagen). 3. If an energetic ideational stimulus could arouse a corresponding activity in the sensory centres, hallu- cinations, and especially voluntary hallucinations, would be much more frequent phenomena of sane life than they are (Hagen). Centrifugal Sensorial Theories. — In order to escape these difficulties, Hagen^ refers the seat of hallucina- tion to the subcortical sensory centres. It is true that the seat of the excitation may be in the e.xtemal sense organs or in the nerve path from the organ to the brain (e.g., when flashes of light are seen in diseases of the retina, or auditory hallucinations experienced in diseases of the ear';, ' Hagen, IHe Sinnestduschttngen in Bczug auf Psychologies Heil- kmide tind Rechtspjlege(\%y])\ also the Eirticle " Zur Theorie det Hallu- cinationen," Allg. Zeitschr.f. Psych., xxv. (1868), in which he develops and to some extent modifies his views. - Koppe, " Gehorslorungen u. Psycbosen," Allg. Zeilschr. f. Psych., AND ILLUSIONS. 1 23 but It would be going too far to explain all hallucinations through physical affections of the sensory outposts. For, in the first place, no abnormality can be discovered in the majority of such cases ; and next, even where such abnormality, and a con- sequent weakening of sensibility, is present, hallucinations are rarely found ; thirdly, fallacies of perception may occur when the sensory nerves have been destroyed; and foxirthly, a strong argument against this view is the intimate connection of hallu- cinations with psychoses and neuroses. In most cases, there- fore, the seat of the hallucinatory process is to be sought in the sensorium, which is in a highly excited state, " so that stimuli playing upon it give rise to an exceptionally energetic functional manifestation in the efferent nerves proceeding from it, a manifestation which, as a rule, is wholly divorced from the control of the will." In a nerve leading to a muscle this is called cramp. "Hallucination is cramp of the sensory nerves'' The same effect, it is true, may also be produced by any stimulating substance in the sensorium, but such a cause is not easy to prove, and it is safer to assume a state of increased excitability, not in the sense of hyperEcsthesia, but of a nervous congestion {Turgor), a tension of the nerve organ tending to relieve itself by centrifugal discharge. In support of this view Hagen cites the tendency of hallucinations to vanish on closing the eyes or darkening the room, the occurrence of elementary as also of unilateral hallucinations, and specially the frequency of visions, voices, etc., in epilepsy, and all states characterised by great convulsibility — that is to say, by a tend- ency of the nerve centres to centrifugal discharge, — and generally in diseases of which ''cramp" is a possible symptom. The changes thus taking place in the peripheral organ or the sensorium may either be interpreted correctly or misinterpreted, and thus transformed into illusions. It is often reported, for f instance, that rudimentary sensations of light or sound appear first, and that the hallucinatory forms and words are only de- veloped from them later. On the other hand, it sometimes happens that the imagination plays a part in the process from the beginning, some dominant image in the mind entering into and transforming the hallucinatory product. Such a process may be conceived as analogous to Romberg's " co-ordinated cramp." The impulse, motor in the latter case, is here idea- tional, and just as the psychic intention can in the one case give 124 HALLUCINATIONS rise to a muscular spasm, so in the other the ideational activity may cause a cramp of the sensory nerves. But it is not so much the idea in the mind as the heightened convulsibility of the sub- cortical centres vi^hich is the real cause of the hallucination.' Hagen's view is adopted, amongst others, by Schiile,^ who has further elaborated it. If, he argues, in cases in which hallucinations occur after blind- ness and atrophy of the optic nerve of many years standing (Rudolphi), or with softening of the thalami (Esquirol), we assume that the co-operation,anatomical and physiological, of the "sense"' is essential, we must suppose that the sensory tract in all its rami- fications is involved with the cortical sphere in a pathological reaction. It is improbable, however, that the whole of the nerve path is implicated, and if we assume an intellectualising of the perceptions as they ascend the degree of sensory quality in a hallucination may be taken as a functional e.xpression of the distance from the periphery of the nerve concerned. " The timbre of the hallucination is the auscultation product of its more central or more peripheral nature'' An irradiation which ex- tends as far as the peripheral organ attains to full sensory expression. " The more central the stimulus the more inward and intellectual the tone.'' The pathological process may be conceived as a condition of heightened irritability with a specific morbid function : two causes may be assigned for this heightened irritability— ( Politzer, " Uber subjective Gehors-Einpfindung," Wiener med. Wochenschrift (1865), No. 94. "Thus many patients who are haunted by a subjective sound similar to the ticking of a watch report that they cannot tell by listening whether they really hear the ticking of a watch held to their ear." Hoppe, however, refers this to the difficulty commonly experienced in distinguishing between two allied sounds. AND ILLUSIONS. l6S show very diverse results. Cases are known in which hallucinations occurred notwithstanding complete loss of the organ and atrophy of the optic nerves.^ Thus Clouston found in visual hallucinations degeneration of the optic nerve extending to the corpora quadrigemina, and Schule cites a case inyt^hich there was softening of the entire thalaiBajs-arlar as the root of the corona radiata. Changes in the basal ganglia are very frequently found.^ Nevertheless even Luys,* who would locate the process of hallucination in the optic thalami, admits that the disturbance frequently extends to the cortex. W. J. Mickle * reports as the result of a great number of necropsies that in cases of hallucination " thalamic disease plays a less impor- tant part than cortical." Still he found no connection between the morbid parts and Ferrier's centres. On the other hand, he found the latter affected without 1 J. Miiller, Phant. Erscheinungen, 31-34; Michea reports cases of Marc. Donatus; Calmeil describes a case of his own; Foville; Johnson, Med. chir., 220 (1836); Romberg, Nemenkrankheiten, 3rd ed., p. 133;. Bergmann, Gottinger Naiurforscher-Vers. (1854), Psych, Corresp., El. i. No. 8, Beil.; Bericht aus der Wiener Irren- Anst. (1858); Forel, Der Hypnotismus (2nd ed.), p. 55; Stenger, "Die cerebralen Sehstorungen der Paralyliker," Arch. f. Psych., xiv. (in total amaurosis and after paralytic attacks); Meschede, Allg. Ztschrft, f. Psych., xxxiv. (auditory hallucinations with localised degeneration of the acustici). ^ For instance, Flechsig (Neurol. Ceiitrlbl., ix. 4) found in a case of marked auditory hallucinations the externally normal inferior corp. quad, impregnated in its outermost stratum, and partially in its inner one, with calcareous concretions. 3 Gaz. d. H6p. (1880, Dec), p. 46. * Journ. of Ment. Science (1881, Oct.), p. 382; Reinhard, " Hirn- localisation," Arch. f. Psych., xvii. and xviii., found hallucinations three times in sixteen cases of lesions of the occipital lobes, and certainly in one case photopsia. 1 66 HALLUCINATIONS any indication of hallucination/ just as hallucinations have been, observed where no corresponding changes in these parts could be discovered.^ Sander has noted that while in ordinary paralytic cases the changes are generally spread for the most part over the frontal lobes, when the paralysis is accompanied by hallucinations numerous and marked alterations are found in the otherwise little affected parts behind the posterior central convolution.* He also observed disappearance of the white matter of the occipital lobes and dilatation, principally of the posterior horn of the lateral ventricle. He justly remarks, however, that the changes found in the necropsy ought not to be used directly to explain hallucinations appearing often long before death. The hallucinations belong not to the time of the destruction of the neural elements, but to the period of irritation, whether this arises from neighbouring morbid cells or from the processes preceding destruction of the cortical cells themselves — that is to say, they belong to the earlier period of delicate molecular changes, rather than to the later stage of grosser and more obvious disturbance. There is no lack of cases to show this. Accord- ing to Fr. Paterson,* hemioptic hallucinations were observed by Sdguin immediately before the appear- ance of hemiopia. Vetter reports a similar case.' ^ Joam. of Ment. Science, p. 381 ; ibid. (1882, Jan.), p. 29. 2 Sander, loc. cit., pp. 334, 335. 3 Mendel, " Ueber den jitzigen Stand," etc., Berl. lain. Wchschr. (1890), confirms these results from his own experience. * Paterson, "The Homonymous Hemiopic Hallucination," reprinted from the Netv York Med. Journal. ^ Compare Tigges,""Zur Theorie der Hallucin. , " ^/^. Zeilschr.f. Psych., xlviii., vol. iv. "Vetter communicates a case of hemianopsia sinistra bil. (in normal eye-practice) associated with visual hallucin- AND ILLUSIONS. 167 H. Lehert^ states that hyperaesthesia of the sensory- nerves occurs shortly before the power of feeling is lost altogether, as a result of tumours within the skull, and P. Briquet refers to the same fact in his work (1853) on Peruvian bark and its preparations. Edinger had a patient, suffering from softening of both the posterior lobes, who saw a hallucinatory light-phenomenon just before he became blind.^ Winslow^ noted that just as the approach of mental disturbance is often indicated by morbid increase of physical as well as psychical sensibility, so apoplexies are preceded by hyperaesthesia, especially of the optic nerve, and by visual hallucinations (deuteroscopia). He also observed that oppressive and frightful dreams pre- ceded, with marked regularity, tuberculous meningitis, and also first attacks of epilepsy; he noted, moreover, the occurrence of hallucinations in the state between sleep and waking long before the development of general paresis accompanied by insanity. From these facts he concluded that there are morbid processes at work in the brain long before the actual event. A. Tamburini, who sees in hallucination the product of a state of irritability of the affected ations which continued to appear obstinately on the left, on the blind part of the visual field ... he explains the hemianopsia by a tumour in the while substance of the left posterior lobe, and the hallucinations which occurred, although the cortex was cut off from the basal ganglia, by a state of irritability in the cortex of this lobe." P'urther cases reported by Henschen, Pick, Hammond, Sepilli, and others are quoted I'y Tigges. See also Paterson, op. cit., and the Neurolog. CerUralbl. (1892), No. II. ' Lehert, " Ueber Krebs und die mit Krebs verwechselten Ge- schwUlste im Gehirn u. seinen Hohlen," V. &= R's Arch., iii. 3 (1851). ^ Winslow, On Obscure Diseases of the Brain, etc. (i860). ' Compare Schirmer, Subj. Lecht. Einphiiid. bei total, Verl. d, Schvermog (Diss. Marburg, 1895). l68 HALLUCINATIONS cortical centre,^ also considers that the affection may- be irritative, and quotes cases from Ferrier, Pooley, Atkins, and Gowers, in which the changes of the corresponding cortical centres caused more or less complete loss of visual power. During the period of irritation, however, pronounced visual hallucinations were observed in these patients.^ Excitations of the Visual Sense. — Let us begin our study of the so-called subjective sensations with those affecting the sense of sight. Attention was early drawn to the physiological phenomena of this class. Every one can observe in his own experience the " light chaos " or " light dust," as the singular dis- ' Tamburini, Riv. sperim. di freniatria t di med. leg., vi. I e 2 freniatria, p. 126 (1880). ^ Compare Tamburini in Rev. scientifique, xxviii. p. 141 ; and also the interesting case in the Neurol. Centralbl. (1889). A woman with acute farmwia hallucinaloria, besides suffering from bilateral auditory hallucinations, was also subject to distinct left-sided ones; these dis- appeared, and a stable visual hallucination (on the left side) of a " white dog leaping up " appeared, but was recognised by the patient as morbid and subjective. The visual power was not diminished. Renewal of epileptic attacks, from which the patient had suffered before the visual hallucinations disappeared ; fatal termination. Autopsy showed that in those parts where the membranes had become adherent to the cortex, connective tissue had developed at the expense of the nerve cells. In some preparations the cells were shown to have entirely disappeared (between the first temporosphenoidal and third fourth of the upper central convolution, all on the right side). The case is explained by assuming that irritative processes were set up in the affected parts of the cortex, which caused both the epileptic attacks and the unilateral hallu- cinations. With the destruction in the neural elements of the right hemisphere, through the development of connective tissue, the sensory phenomena of irritation disappeared. Similar descriptions are given by Gurney, "Hallucinations," Proceedings of the S.P.R. (1885); Tigges, "Zur Theorie der Hall.," Allg. Zeilschr. f. Psych., xlviii. p. 311; Luys, Gaz. des HSp. (1881), p. 276; Despine, Ann. mid. psych., 6 ser., vi. p. 375; Devay, Gaz. d. Paris (1851); Curtis, Lancet, ii. No. 24 (1841). AND ILLUSIONS. 1 69 turbance is called which occurs in the visual field in an absolutely dark room. Filehne.i relying on self- observations in chronic nicotin poisoning, has tried to prove that these appearances must be regarded as central in their origin, that is, as arising in the visual centres even behind the region affected by the nicotin. Generalising from these observations, he extends his hypothesis to after-images and to the sudden darken- ing of the visual field produced by prolonged gazing at a given point {Starrblindheii). It is to be re- marked that the feebler the light the sooner the effect is produced (although it occurs more rapidly in sunlight than in diffused daylight). During this after-blindness the "light chaos" is to be observed just as in an absolutely dark room, and while it still persists, if an object, the hand for instance, is brought into the line of vision, and is then at once withdrawn, a dark after-image, surrounded "by a bright corona,, will appear in the place which it momentarily occu- pied. The dark after-image disappears by degrees with the gradual fading of the " light dust." Purkinje has described black tree-like forms, which appeared when he had gazed at a light at a distance of six inches from the eye, and Sauvage saw the same when gazing at a brightly lighted wall. Muller explains the distinctness of these branching forms by supposing that the retina perceives itself. Newton, Eichel, and Elliot observed fiery rings, and Krieger^ seeks to refer these, as well as the pressure-phenomena, and indeed all phenomena lying outside the axis of ' Filehne, " Uber die Entstehung des Lichtstaubs, der Starrblindheii und der Nachbilder," Arch.J. Ophthalm., xxxi. 2, pp. 1-30. ^ Krieger, "Ueber Licht und Farben-Sehen," Deutsch. Klin. (1850), pp. 50-52. I/O HALLUCINATIONS vision, to processes taking place within the compass of the optic nerve. Others, again, hold that all colour images have their origin in the retina ; Graefe^ saw such disappear after enucleation of the eyeball, and after division of the optic nerve. The pressure images, most simply induced by turning and gently pressing the eyeball towards the nose, are familiar phenomena. There are also the flying sparks which are seen during electric stimulation of the eye,^ as shown by Volta, and the sparks which follow from a violent blow on the forehead, etc. These last played a part in a criminal trial in the early part of this century. The plaintiff, who had been the victim of an assault in the dark, maintained that he recognised his assailant by the light of the sparks which flashed out of his own eyes when he received the blow 1 An " expert " who was consulted upon- the point admitted the possi- bility of the plaintiff''s assertion. Hoppe, in particular, has devoted himself to the study of these entoptic phenomena, and has given a detailed account of them. He endeavours to class all visual hallucinations under this category.^ " Hallucinations, unreal perceptions due to a misinterpretation of sensations received from the mere excitation of the nerves conveying- sensory impressions, require some material basis ; this is furnished by the very excitation of the sensory nerve, and the nature, condition, and product of this excitation. For ' Graefe, Berl. Klin. Wochenschr., iv. 31 (1867). ^ We may note here that Ferrier seeks to refer the eyemovements of animals, observed in electrical stimulation of the respective cortical regions, to such subjective light-sensations. ^ J. Hoppe, "Der entoptische Inhalt des Auges und das entoptische Sehen," etc., Allg. Zeitschr. f. Psych. (1887); Erktdruiig der Sinnes- fauschungen, etc. (4ih edit., 1888). AND ILLUSIONS. 17' instance, a feeling of weight and pressure experienced in falling asleep may become the tactile hallucination of a cigar held between the fingers ; this feeling between the fingers is not a mere feeling of pressure, however, but the 'persisting after- image' of a cigar held between the fingers. These after-images, which differ from the phenomena usually so called only in that their origin is not remembered,' are most easily explained, if we discaird the unphysiological assumption of the brain interfering centrifugally with the sensory paths by postulating a peripheral sense-memory. They are to be regarded, especially when dealing with the visual sense, as 'explosion products' or meta- bolic products of the retina connected with its functional activity, if not as secretions, then as excretions. They are, so to speak, material images which arise, now suddenly, now gradually, move onwards and disappear, and which also may be influenced by movements of the eye." ^ They possess the power of " covering " other objects; but often, when they are thin flakes, they are transparent. They appear in four forms, as brightness, dark- ness, colour, and light. The most powerful cause of entoptic phenomena is the yellow spot, the macula lutea itself; besides which the pupil and the blood-vessels play a part, chiefly as bearers of the colour-cloud surrounding them; moreover, the pulse of the central artery of the retina influences the movement as well as the sensory nerves of the muscles (muscular sense, etc.), the motor nerves, and the muscles themselves, "for the act of vision is nothing else but a grasping with the muscles of the eye." ' See the report of C. M. Bakewell, Proceed, of the S.P.R., vol. viii. pp. 450 et seq. His experiment consists in gazing fixedly at an object, and then putting out the light and shutting his eyes at the same moment. If the eyes are kept dosed till sleep supervenes, and immediately on waking are directed to the white ceiling illuminated by the morning light, and at once closed again, a belated after-image is .often called up of the object upon which the eyes were fixed before falling asleep. The fact that it is not always the after-image of the particular object selected for the experiment which appears, but some- times th^t of some brightly lighted object seen shortly before, seems to preclude the possibility of explaining the phenomena as due to a state of expectancy. The experiment has been confirmed by several other observers. Compare below, p. 173, Note I. ' Compare the account, Munch. Saminl., xvi. 2, 6 (Appendix I.), 172 HALLUCINATIONS This hallucination-matter, which is either hallucination itself or the raw material of hallucination, must, as it is something physical, occupy some place, and this place is assigned to it in the retina itself. Whether regarded as the material basis of hallucination or as hallucination itself, it is, whether the eyes are open or closed, located in the external world, and the hallucina- tory object is referred to a greater or less distance according to the accommodation of the eye, and will appear larger if the imaginary distance is greater. A few examples will perhaps best illustrate the part played by the various factors in hallucination. Examples: "Suddenly in the region of the pupil a well- formed but very dull yellow face appeared ; it was a luminous disc out of the macula lutea, with a few dark streaks from which I formed the face. This dull yellow face, seen just at the beginning of [entoptic] vision (before falling asleep at half- past ten o'clock), indicates an over-excited state of the retina — perhaps the result of using a petroleum reading-lamp with a large burner." . . . "Thereupon I saw two persons clad in black in a very dark visual field. The one looked about him inquisitively, the other nodded (flashes of light)." ..." Then wherever I looked I saw a window (glass-like shimmer from the mac. luiea)." ... "I could see the saw quite plainly. It worked opposite me, moving regularly backwards and forwards. I could see no one sawing, but at the further side a confused, dark mass and a shadowy hand. The saw worked across a black plank which lay upon a sawing-jack, and appeared before me as though 'sprung out of nothing'; nevertheless, it was only a sketch improvised from material provided at the moment. The visual field was fairly light, many long light rays streamed from my eyes and fell somewhat obliquely on the opaque black masses, and the saw itself was a shining compact sheaf of highly luminous rays, moved by the pulse beat, with a corre- sponding movement on the part of the muscles of the eye, by which the impression of moving figures is ordinarily conveyed. Then the saw and the rest of the light rays disappeared, but the sawing still continued; for though the pulse movement was lost, the eye muscles still kept up the sawing motion, and I convinced myself of it and stopped their movement. Nothing then remained of the vision but a dark patch upon which changing lines of light appeared." AND ILLUSIONS. 173 Although the attempt to refer all visual delusions to such persistent after-images may be carried too far, their importance, for instance, in the dream-state, and in the hallucinations of hypnosis and similar states, is not insignificant They are generally over- looked in the waking state, because the attention of the sensory faculties is preoccupied with the external environment; and yet William James is of opinion that we shall probably never be in a position fully to appreciate the importance of the part played by these after-images in the drama of our waking thought.^ How much more then may their importance increase when the interest In objective sensory impressions flags, or when their path to the sensorium is blocked ? Morbid processes, equally with the physiological subjective impressions which we have hitherto been considering, may be the exciting cause of hallucina- tion. The zigzag figure of migraine is a familiar instance. Scholz^ refers the visual hallucinations in ^ W. James, op. cit., ii. pp. 83 ei seq. " Many years ago, after re,-iding Maury's book, Le Sommeil et les RHes, I began for the first time to observe those ideas whith faintly flit through the mind at all times, words, visions, etc., disconnected with the main stream of thought, but discernible to an attention on the watch for them. A horse's head, a coil of rope, an anchor, are, for example, ideas which have come to me unsolicited whilst I have been writing these latter lines. They can often be explained by subtle links of association, often not at all. But I have not a few times been surprised, after noting some such idea, to find on shutting my eyes an after-image left on the retina by some bright or dark object recently looked at, and which had evidently suggested the idea. ' Evidently,' I say, because the general shape, size, and position of the object thought of and of after-image were the same, although the idea had details which the retinal image lacked." To entoptic processes are also to be referred those dream-images which persist for a time in the waking state until external stimuli enforce their prior claim to attention. = Scholz, Berl. Klin. Wchschr., xiii. (1876). 174 HALLUCINATIONS a case of mania associated with Bright's disease to changes in tlie retina produced by the kidney affection, and to the resulting entoptic phenomena. Savage^ reports two cases of visual delusions in optic neuritis, which resulted in the one case (contracted kidney) in weakening of the visual power, and in the other (due to syphilis) in entire loss of vision. Uhthoff's^ researches tend in the same direction, and point to optic neuritis as a condition favourable to fallacious perception in delirium tremens.^ Graefe observed sub- jective light sensations in phthisis bulbi.* Sinogowitz' cites a case of Bright's^ where the patient suffered from visual hallucinations after apoplectic attacks, and where, in the post-mortem examination, a tumour half an inch in diameter and reaching to the surface, was discovered in the inferior corpus geniculatum. A pathological state of the sensory nerve tracts has often been found associated with hallucinations, and especially with unilateral hallucinations, and in many cases these have ceased when the local lesion'' has ' G. H. Savage, yo«r«. of Ment. Science, xxvi. p. 245 (July 1880). ^ Uhthoff, " Untersuchungen iiber den Einfluss des chron. Alko- holismus auf das menschl. Seh-Organ," Arch.f. Ophthalm., xxii., xxiii. ^ Compare above, p. 42, Note 3. * Graefe, Berl. Klin. Wochenschr., iv. 31 (1867). ^ Sinogowitz, op. cit., p. 257. 8 Guy's ffosp. Rep. (1837). '■ H. Higier cites, among others, a case of Buch's (Arch.f. Psych., 1881) with auditory hallucinations of the left ear, which disappeared after the cure of otitis media of the same side ; a case of Ball's with inflammation of the middle ear and purulent discharge, where local treatment not only cured the physical ailment but also banished the unilateral hallucinations which had gradually become established; a case of Mabille's [Ann. mid. psych., 1883), where unilateral auditory hallucinations (on the right) ceased on the removal of a sprouting grain of corn imbedded in the wax of the ear. Local excitation is also indicated in a case of Raggi's, quoted in ^z Neurol. Centralbl, 1884, AND ILLUSIQNS. 1 75 been cured. Such unilateral excitations, however, are not necessarily expressed by a unilateral hallucina- tion. Both eyes may share in the vision, just as the green after-image which follows from prolonged gazing with one eye at a red cross is not necessarily seen only by the one eye in subsequent binocular vision, and may even, when the eye used in looking at the cross is closed, appear in the visual field of the other eye.^ p. 41. See also Furer, 'tUeber d. Zustandeketnmen von Gehorstau- schungen," Centralhlf. Nervenhilende, N.F., v. (Febr.); Krafft-Ebing, " Sinnesdelirien," p. 25 ; Souchon, " Ueber einseitige Hallucinationen " (Dissert. Berlin, 1890); R^gis, VEnclphale (1881), p. 46; M. Voisin, Bullet, d. Thh-ap., xxxix.; Despine, Psychologic Nalurelle, ii. p. 29. Magnan (ArcTi. de Neurologie, 1883, p. 18) communicates three cases of double unilateral hallucinations, all occurring in paranoia patients. 1 B&lard, Traiti llimentaire de Physiologie; Binet, Psychologie du Raisonnement, p. 45; Delabarre, Amer. Jotirn. of Psychol. , ii. p. 326; Baillarger, Mlmoire, etc., p. 460; compare Herth, ^a»r//Aj'j/(J/., ii. pp. 464 et seq. In the " Report" the fact which we have touched on above in the text is mentioned in connection with the experiments published by Mr. John Gorham in Brain (1881-82, vol. iv.), which have nothing to do with what we are considering here; for we are concerned with an aifter-image which, arising in one eye through monocular stimulation, seems to belong to the unexhausted eye (through which all other visual impressions are then received), because of the latter's activity, and because the attention is directed to it; while Gorham is occupied in showing that in monocular excitation simultaneous contrast colours are produced ia the other eye. There are, however, two cases of unilateral hallucinations reported by F^r^ which may perhaps be brought into line with the foregoing fact, if it is assumed that the concentration of attention on one-half of the body may cause a hallucination to be unilateral. In one of these cases unilateral visual hallucinations appeared in connection with violent facial neuralgia accompanied by herpes zoster, and in the other unilateral auditory hal- lucinations were associated with severe neuralgia of the trigeminus. Thus it might be supposed that the neuralgia first prepared the way for the hallucinatory state, and then influenced the localisation of the sensory delusions. 176 HALLUCINATIONS Excitations of the Auditory Sense. — In the auditory sense after-images, or rather after-impressions, are not often observed. Perhaps the prolonged buzzing which follows a loud report may be reckoned as such, and also the persistence with which the airs of certain songs and waltzes, etc., haunt the ear, but these phenomena are not really analogous to retinal after- images. For example, when we are haunted by a certain tune, especially if it has been started in the first instance by a real auditory sensation, it is perhaps a mere perception of objective sounds influenced by the persistent feeling of rhythm. On the other hand, the following experience of Preyer's^ is to be reckoned as a real after-impression. After he had been listening to one musical note for a con- siderable time a loud plashing sound supervened and continued for some minutes."^ Inadequate stimuli are a frequent cause of auditory sensations. The sound experienced if a finger is put into the ear,^ or if one rests the ear on the hand or lies upon it, are familiar instances; and A. Fick has drawn attention to the noise which is caused by an involuntary movement of the tensor tympani follow- ing on the contraction of the masticatory muscles when the lower is pressed against the upper jaw.* The experimentally induced excitation of the audi- tory sense through galvanism may perhaps also be 1 Preyer, " fjber die Grenzen der Tonwahrnehmung," Physiol. Abhndl. (Jena, 1876). 2 Compare P. Jacobs, De auditu fallaci (TAss. Bonn, 1832). ' Compare Helmholtz, Verhndlg. d. Nalur-histor. Ver. z. Heidelb., V. pp. 153, 161. * F. Fuchsalso recalls this in his article in the Neuro. Cfiitralbl., xii. 22, " Uber einen Fall, von subjectiven Gehors a. Gesichtsempfindun- gen; Selbstbeobachtung." AND ILLUSIONS. 177 mentioned.^ The structure of the organ is, however, so complicated, and so little is known of what part the stimulation actually affects, that it is hard to say whether we are really here concerned with subjective sounds corresponding to the sounds directly pro- duced when the auditory nerve is called into play. Hoppe draws attention to the " clang "-producing action of the outer ear, and it is possible that this muscle may have played a part in such experiments through feeble vibrations hardly possible to exclude. Syzianko ^ seeks to refer the sounds to the muscular contractions occurring under galvanism, and to the bubbles which are formed during galvanic action by the decomposition of water. Perhaps, also, sounds which are not normally noted are of importance, such as the resonance tone of the middle ear, which, according to Kieselbach,* is always present, but just because of its continued resounding is not consciously perceived except when the nerve is specially excited, for instance, through electric stimulation, or when from internal causes it is placed in a state of hyperaesthesia. Internal causes of this kind appear to be indicated in the cases of mental disease with auditory hallucinations investigated by Jolly.* It should be added, however, that Meynert^ is ' Brenner, Arch. f. falhol. Anat., xxviii. I, 2 ; Schwartze, Troeltsch Arch., i. 144; Jolly, Arch. f. Psych., iv.; Buccola, Rivist. difreniatria sperimentak, xL (1885). ' Syzianko at the seventh Congr. d. russ. Naturforsch u. Atzti., Odessa (1883). ' Kieselbach, " Ueber d. Galvanische Reizung d. Acusticus,'' Arch, f. Physiol. (1883); Dessoir, Arch. f. Anat. u. Phys. {Phys. Abth.), 1892, pp. 204-210. * Jolly, Arch.f. Psych., iv. * Meynert, Wiett. med. Blatter (1878), No. 9. 178 HALLUCINATIONS convinced that these hallucinations have a different origin. According to Ehrhard.^ subjective auditory sensa- tions occur (i) as pulsations; these, however, are not, strictly speaking, "auditory," but organic sen- sations, for they depend on a heightened percep- tion of the pulse-beat of the internal carotid artery, and may be modified by pressure on the carotid or by the action of digitalis ; moreover, they are to be observed in deaf mutes, where stimulation of the acoustic nerve is excluded ; (2) from stimula- tion of the ramus vestibuli in catarrhs, abscesses, etc.,^ as sensations of noises (hummings, rushings, and buzzings); (3) from stimulation of the ramus cochleae,^ as sensations of "clangs" (musical tones, singing, etc.) ; and (4) as a combination of (2) and (3) from stimulation of both branches of the acoustic nerve.* Lucae^ does not think that definite auditory hallucinations should be referred to definite affections, and classifies them according as they are heightened or diminished by external sounds.* 1 Ehrhard, Berl. Klin. Wochenschr. (1867), No. 12. ^ Plater and Mercurialis report cases in which these pulsations could be perceived as objective sounds by persons near the patient. ^ Compare Moos, " Ueber das subjective Hiiren wirklicher musika- lische Tone," Virch. Arch., ix., Band 3, Folg, ; Czerny, ibid., Bd. xi. ; Schwartze, " Ueber subject. Gehorsempfindung," Berl. Klin. Wochen- schr. {1886). * For a different classification see Itard, Traiti des maladies de Toreille et de I'audiiion. " Lucae, Zur Entslehung und Behandhing d. subject. Gehorsimp- Jindungen, " A patient of Urbantschitsch's, to quote an example, experienced an increase of the subjective sounds vihen he heard street noises, carts passing, and so on. Again, it has sometimes been noted that the auditory hallucinations only occur when faint objective sounds are AND ILLUSIONS. 179 In any case, even leaving out of account the cases where the sounds are supplied by the physical or- ganism itself.i a morbid affection of the peripheral organ is not always necessary for the production of hallucinatory sounds. Their occurrence in many rail- way servants, for instance, is to be referred to subtler central disturbance.^ Of course what has been said above, in treating of subjective visual sensations, as to the irradiation of pathological stimuli, holds good for the auditory as well as for other senses. Excitations of the Olfactory Sense. — That olfactory sensations may be induced by inadequate stimuli has not been absolutely demonstrated,^ but there is no reason to doubt such a possibility. Cases of sub- heard. Compare Ziehen, Psychiatric, pp. 25 et seq. Lucae reports, on the other hand, that treatment by means of sounds (produced by tuning forks or other means) frequently results in a weakening or extinction of the subjective sounds. 1 The pulsations merttioned above, the cracking sounds in yawning, in opening the Eustachian tube (Schmidekam, "Studien," Ark d. Kiekr physiol. Instit.), sounds resulting from phlegm stopping the air passages (Hoppe, Erkldrung der Sinnestdusch.), and so on. Quadri (r Osservalore vied, di Napoli, ^ Settembre 1883) communicates a case where chronic noise in the left ear was traced to an upper tooth, which was extracted, although it appeared perfectly sound, whereupon the noises ceased. When the tooth was cut open, a small bony knob was found dangling from it which struck upon the inner wall of the tooth like the clapper of a bell, and so produced the sound. " Baginsky, Ueber Ohrenerkrankung bet Railway spine; PoUnow and Schwabach, Die GehSrslorungen des Lokomotivpersonals, and others. ' The hypothesis maintained by Valentin, op. cit., that subjective sensations of smell may be induced by pressing and suddenly letting go of the nostrils is denied by Frbhlich, ' ' Ueber einige Modificalionen des Geruchsinnes," Sitzng.-Ber, d. Wien. Acad. Malh. vahtrwiss. Klasse, iv. p. 322. Galvanism applied to the nose is also said to produce sensations of smell, but possibly such sensations are more of the nature of pricklings and tinglings. l80 HALLUCINATIONS jective olfactory sensations and hallucinations in disturbances of the nerve tracts are not infrequently reported. Morel i mentions olfactory hallucinations in a case where an abscess was found in the corpus callosum. In a case of severe olfactory delusion,^ a fungoid growth of the dura mater, the size of a hazel nut, was found attached to the cribriform process and surrounded by the olfactory nerves. Lockemann* mentions a case of vague but not disagreeable olfactory delusions. The autopsy revealed a can- cerous growth only separated from the brain by masses of cellular tissue. It stretched as far as the trigonum olfactorium, and had quite destroyed the left olfactory tract ; the right was untouched. Sander * speaks of epileptic attacks with subjective olfactory sensations, in destruction of the left olfactory tract by a tumour. Meschede^ mentions fully-developed olfactory hallucinations in pronounced degeneration of the olfactory bulb. Emilio Carbonieri* found, in a case of sensory delusions of the nasal organ, a tubercular body in the brain as big as a walnut. Excitations of the Muscular Sense. — Great import- ance is attributed by some authors to subjective sensations of the muscular sense. Cramer,^ for instance, seeks to refer a multitude of phenomena to this cause. ' Morel, Traiti des Maladies Menlales. ^ Bericht aus d. Wiener Irrenaztst, 1858, p. 266. * Lockemann, H'u. P/'s. Ztschrft. Hi. Reihe, xii. p. 340 (1861). * Sander, Arch.f. Fsych., iv. pp. 234 et seq. " Meschede, Allg. Zeitschr.f. Psych., xxxiv. p. 261. " E. Carbonieri, Riv. din., xxiv. p. 657 {1885). ' A. Cramer, Die Hallucinationen im Muskelsinn hei Geisieshanken u ihre klin. Bedeutung (iHg). AND ILLUSIONS. l8l The course of Cramer's argument is as follows : — According to Meynert,' a large part, principally indeed the anterior part, of the cortex is the seat of motor ideas derived from a centripetal sensory tract (the path of the muscle sense), which receives its impressions in the muscles, and conducts by its specific energy the sensations of movement to the cerebral cortex, where they are translated into ideas of movement and stored up as such. It is thus possible to send forth motor impulses so accurately measured (antagonistic innervation: Rieger) that the required movement is effected at once with- out any further correction. In this way, that is in reliance on our muscle sense, we learn our native language by acquiring conceptions of the movements accompanying all changes in the equilibrium of the parts concerned in speech; the same principle holds good for the other complicated movements of our body. How momentous then must be the hallucinatory stimulations of the muscular sense -tract through which our consciousness receives information of a movement which never took place ! Such a process is fraught with most importance when it occurs in connection with (i) the group of muscles concerned in locomotion (muscles of the trunk and the ex- tremities) ; (2) the muscles used in speech ; (3) the group of eye muscles. I. When a morbid process leads to stimulation of any part of the muscular sense-tract, and thus to the corresponding muscle sense -hallucination, the stimulus will, if it be strong, pass over directly to the motor tract, and evoke the realisa- tion of the false motor idea which had intruded mto the consciousness, leading in some cases to involuntary acts, and m many to involuntary movements. If, on the other hand, the stimulus be weak, it will call forth motor impulses to neutralise the imaginary wrong position or the movement which had never actually been performed, thus leading to another class of involuntary actions and some involuntary ideas. 1 Meynert, " Beitrage z. Theorie d. maniakal. Bewegungserschein- angt'a,"Arch.f. Psych., ii. p. 639; Psyc/iiatrie[i%ii,), p. 132; compare Goltz, "Verrichtungen des Gehirns," Arch. f. Anat. a. Physiol, von Reichertu. Dubois- Seymond {i%-jo)\ Hitzig, Untersuchungen uher das Gehim. Meynert is also opposed here by Munk, who connects the feelinCT of innPrVntinn Ml\i\t fVn enl^r«nr(;/.il nnnrvl.'.. 1 82 HALLUCINATIONS 2. We learn our native tongue as children, not only under the guidance of the ear, but also with the aid of the muscular sense; and. in the same way later, when acquiring foreign languages, and especially in learning by rote, we avail our- selves more or less of the same method, articulating the words as we learn them, and thus acquiring as precise motor ideas as possible. Such motor ideas are all the more important, because thought itself may in general be considered as a kind of internal speech, although the possibility of thought without words must be admitted.* When thinking articulately, how- ever, we send slight corresponding motor impulses to the parts concerned in speech, though we are usually unconscious of so doing.^ Now supposing the whole muscular sense-tract to be in a state of unstable equilibrium, the motor impulses which issue during such thinking in words, and of which we normally remain unconscious, will be intensified as motor sensations, just as if what was only thought had been actually articulated. The patient supposes all he thinks to be accom- panied by an inner voice, and often locates this voice in some part of the body where a morbid condition {e.g., pressure in the pericardiac region) happens to be present, or else he connects it with objective or subjective noises {e.g., with the special ear- sounds), and believes that it comes from without. When he reads he will hear the words repeated aloud after him (since the occurrence of motor ideas is always the secondary process in reading) ; but if he writes (in which case the ideas of speech- movements precede the ideas of writing movements, motor ideation being in this case the primary process), he seems to hear the words dictated to him (audible thinking). Secondly, if a part only of the whole centripetal tract which connects the organs of speech with the cortex is excited to hallucina- tion, then only a particular motor idea will result, which will be connected with the corresponding auditory idea, and thus obtrude itself on the consciousness as the ideaof a word (involun- tary ideation). Lastly, should the stimulus be strong enough to extend into the motor region, a third phenomenon — involun- 1 Preyer, Die Seels des Kindes, p. 259; Kussmaul, Die Stoning der Sprache, p. 16; Stricher, "Die Gedankenbildung der Aphasischen," Wien. med. Blatter, 1878, No. 1. * Strieker, Studien iiber die Sprachvorstelhtng (1880), pp. 29 et seq. AND ILLUSIONS. 1 83 tary speaking — will be developed. With reference to Kahl- baum's explanation of involuntary speaking and the involuntary movements referred to above as " cramp," if is to be noted that co-ordinated movements can only take place under the guidance of motor ideas, whereas cramp is simply a motor phenomenon not governed by any idea ; it consists merely of unco-ordinated movements, often of isolated twitchings. 3 If the motor sense is really an important factor in the formation of exact ideas of space, a hypothesis denied by Hering,* but maintained by other observers,^ it is easy to see that the sensation of a movement which is not caused and accompanied by a real movement of the eye muscles in con- nection with the sensory images of the optic nerve, which are always present, necessarily leads to an erroneous perception of space, causing external objects which are at rest to seem in motion, and falsely representing the position and proportion of things. There is nothing to be urged against this last point of Cramer's, but it is not easy to accept his far-fetched explanation of the origin of involuntary ideas, and his explanation of auditory hallucinations is absolutely untenable; for the motor hallucinations which he quotes could have but one of two effects on the speech apparatus: either they must be strong enough to extend into the motor region, in which case involuntary speech, or logorrhoe, ensues ; or if they are feeble, the patient imagines that he articulates when he is not so doing. An auditory hallucination can never arise in this way. When the hallucinatory articulation is not associated or blended with sounds, that is to say, when the motor excitation is not ac- companied by excitation of the auditory sense, so far ' Hering, "Der Raumsinn u. die Bewegungen des Auges," in Herr- mann's Handbttch. der Physiol., vol. iii., part i., p. 547. ^ Wundt, Grundziige der phys. Psychol., ii. pp. 189 et seq.; Funke, Lehrb. der Physiol., pp. 394 et seq.\(>'Ca edition, published by Gtiin- hagen)i Helmholz, Handbttch. d. physiol. Optik., p. 801. 1 84 HALLUCINATIONS AND ILLUSIONS. from experiencing an auditory delusion, the patient, who believes he is speaking, must imagine that he is either deaf or dumb, since he perceives his (subjective) movements of articulation, but does not hear his own voice. If excitation of the muscular sense be ac- companied by subjective or objective excitation of the auditory sense, the perception can only be altered in so far that the patient then seems to hear himself speaking with his normal voice, or in strange and unfamiliar tones, when in reality he is silent Thus the case presented to the observer would be that of a patient who did not answer questions because he imagined he had already done so. As a matter of fact, mutism is frequently observed in association with "audible thinking"; but this conjunction, how- ever brought about, certainly does not make for Cramer's hypothesis, which fails to explain even the auditory hallucinations. In visual hallucinations the patient has the sensation that he sees, in auditory hallucinations that he hears ; in hallucinations of the muscular sense he must, as Ziehen ^ has expressed it, " have the sensation that he is uttering a certain word." ' Ziehen, Psychiatrie (1894), p. 23. CHAPTER VI. THE CONTENT OF FALLACIOUS PERCEPTION. The Content dependent (l) on Memory and Experience-^{2) On the Conditions which induce the Hallucinated State— {i) On the Temptrament and Mental Environ- ment of the Individual~{ii) On the Brain-state which obtains at the Moment {Exhaustion, Concentration, Emotions, Subconscious Processes') — (5) On the Sensory Stimuli. — Explanation of some Facts generally mis- interpreted — (i) Certain phenomena usually cited in support of retinal participation. — (2) Negative Hallu- cinations — The Phenomena and Nature of Rapport — Negative Hallucinations not explained by diversion of attention — Their true Nature. The content of a fallacious perception depends primarily on the past experience of the individual. Only what has passed in at the portals of sense can be reproduced. The neural elements which attain to activity may indeed be associated in the most unfamiliar and bizarre combinations, but they can be called into play only in the way to which they have been predisposed by former sensory stimuli. The so-called auditory hallucinations of deaf mutes, often adduced as an argument against this view, may in all cases probably be explained as heightened per- ception of the arterial pulsation — that is to say, as unwonted, but still objective, organic sensations. It is indeed conceivable that an auditory stimulus 1 86 HALLUCINATIONS may be perceived, but not as an auditory perception, reaching the cortical cells by the aid of certain nerve- fibres which normally convey sensations of pain. At least Politzer- has furnished some evidence for such a view by demonstrating that in the acoustic nerve, side by side with the fibres which transmit impressions of sound, there are others which convey a specific sensibility of their own. We hear, too, of visual hallucinations in persons blind from childhood. But these accounts relate either to cases in which, though the blindness occurred at a very early age, visual impressions had been received previous to its occurrence, or else to those in which at least some sensibility to light and darkness remained. The case of the blind man mentioned on page 137, Note i, is typical of the state of those blind from birth. They have not even the ghost of an idea of light and darkness, and consequently have no visual hallucina- tions. What part of experience shall be reproduced in the hallucination is, however, determined by a combination of various circumstances. An important influence on the specific character of the false perception is generally attributed to the cause which brings about the underlying state. Thus hallucinations accompanying disease almost invari- ably assume distressing forms. They may, it is true, begin indifferently, or even be of an agreeable nature at the outset, but as the disease progresses and their content becomes profoundly modified by morbid ^ A. PoHlzer, "Zur Theorie der HyperiEsthesia Acustica," .^>-c/5. y; Ohi enheilk, v., sec. 206 (1869). AND ILLUSIONS. 187 organic sensations, they tend to become more and more vexatious and intolerable to the victim. The same general tendency, pointing to the same explana- tion, is to be observed in the visions of ether-inhaling, opium-eating, etc., as the habit leads on to ever larger doses of the drug. Much has been written about the specific influence of certain poisons, such as haschisch or opium, on the content and emotional character of the visions associated with them, and no doubt they do, within certain limits, exercise such an influence, though to a less extent than was formerly supposed. Other causes may modify and counteract it, and this explains why the specific action of the narcotic does' not in all cases account for the phenomena observed. To quote one example among many, Schrenck-Notzing,^ in his experiments with haschisch, obtained very dissimilar results. . They do not indeed generally contradict the tendency of this narcotic to excite pleasant images, but never- theless in one of his six cases the very opposite of the usual effect was produced; the customary feeling of well-being was absent, and in its place came horrible sensations, nameless terrors, and the fear of mad- ness. Even music, which affected others pleasantly, aroused in this subject distressing memories. Of course the somatic effects of poisoning, the tendency to vomit, and so on, may have contributed to the result (compare Note 8, p. 44, on the subject of chloro- form delirium). This is indeed indicated by the feeling of ease which followed the act of vomiting. Nevertheless, the influence of organic sensations on the dream content was probably of secondary im- ^ Schrenck-Notring, "Die Bedeutung narcot. Mittel fur den Hypno- tismus," Schriflend. Ges.f. psych. Forsch., i. vol. i. 1 88 HALLUCINATIONS portance, for we find this note appended to the description of the case : — " Tendency to neurasthenia with general hypochondriacal diathesis . . strongly marked pessimistic temperament of the narcotised subject in normal life." Thus we encounter another important factor neutralising the specific action of the drug. This is the influence of individual temperament. For just as the temperaments of the drunken are exhibited in their actions, this one becoming talkative and boastful, and that one melancholy and silent, a third maudlin, a fourth tetchy and violent, so also are they reflected in the hallucinations which accompany this state.i The ancient Arabs held that a man's char- acter could be learned from his dreams. They assigned visions of fire and light to the choleric temperament, serpents, scorpions, and darkness to the melancholy, rivers, seas, ice, and snow to the phlegmatic, gardens and meadows to the sanguine.^ Others have held that the phlegmatic temperament is little liable to sense deceptions, whilst the sanguine is specially prone to them. The lunatic of sanguine temperament, says Radestock, is puffed up and vain, his dreams are all of marble halls and flattering voices ; the choleric patient suspects everywhere the plots of his enemies, and hears voices insulting him or urging him to deeds of violence, and whilst his hallucinations are more often auditory than visual, the contrary is the case with the melan- ' Radestock, oj>. cU,, p. 209. " Not that temperament is transferred bodily into the dream-state, causing dreamers to be distinguished as choleric, melancholic, sanguine, and phlegmatic. In dreams we all belong more or less, as far as the emotions are concerned, to the san- guine class, but our ii. dividual temperament nevertheless decides the content of our visions." " PfafF, Das Traumleben u. seine Deutung [\%(>%), pp. 107 et seq. AND ILLUSIONS, 1 89 choHc, and especially, as the name implies, with religious "visionaries."^ Again, it has often been remarked that the sensory deceptions vary in character with the imaginative power of the individual — for instance, that the hallu- cinations of unimaginative minds tend to be meagre and colourless. Differences of age and sex also exert an influence.^ "The boy dreams otherwise than the youth. The dreams of the prime of life are very different from those of age, when life itself seems sometimes half a dream ; the young girl's dreams are unlike those of womanhood and wifehood. The bright hopes and ideal enthusiasms which belong to youth cast their glamour over its dreams too ; while the serious labours of the man, his disciplined energy, are reflected in the dreams of maturity. Maidenly timidity and reserve, the devotion of the wife, the self-sacrificing love of the mother, often find their echo in dreams. All this becomes clear when we realise how great is the influence of sex and age on the intellectual and emotional life of the individual." ^ Then, again, the mental environment in which the individual lives and moves, his calling and associates, the belief and superstitions incident to his time and country, not only serve to determine the ease with ^ Radestock, op. cit., p. 209; Hagen, Die Sinnestausch., pp. 139 et seq. Griesinger, op. cit., p. 165, on the contrary, denies that the four cate- gories have been empirically proved, or that any weight should be attached to them in relation to insanity. ^ Radestock, op. cit., p. 210. Speaking of the difference of the sex characteristics, ibid., pp. 203 et seq., he says, " Burdach contrasts them as individuality and universality, Ulrici as activity and passivity, Beneke as power and sensibility, Hartmann as conscious and un. conscious power." W. von Humboldt holds that the masculine genius is characterised by analysis and creative activity, and the feminine by synthesis and conservatism. Compare Lotze, Mikrokosm. (2nd edit.), pp. 380-388; Medici Psychol, pp. S56"S6o; J. Bahnsen, Beitras %ur Charakterologie, vol. ii. pp. 297 et seq. ' Spitta, op. cit., p. 302. igo HALLUCINATIONS which certain ideas are reproduced, but also influence the hallucinatory responsiveness of certain selected elements. Thus the sufferers in olden times were tor- mented by witches and tempted of the devil. Then electricity and magnetism, telephones, and other mechanical contrivances played a part, while nowa- days complaints even reach us of "telepathic in- fluence." In Plato's time the victim was haunted by interminable flute-playing;^ now he is afflicted by the constant ringing of bells. We might also instance "second sight," the similarity of tha visions in one race or one family, the general resemblance of the ghosts which haunt old castles, of churchyard spectres, and of other local apparitions, besides epidemic visions. It sometimes happens, to quote another class of sensory deceptions which has been repeatedly brought to my notice, that when a mental process which usually occurs with great regularity is accidentally omitted, its place is supplied by a hallucination. Thus Herr von M told me that when taking his usual afternoon walk he used to see regularly on reaching a certain spot the head of the squadron returning from their daily exercise, and crossing the street at some little distance in front of him.^ One day when he had seen this as usual it occurred to him to wonder why the rest of the troops did not follow, and he soon discovered that the cavalry he had seen on this occasion were phantoms.^ ' Plato, Cri/o. ' This part of the communication was not meant as an explanation of the hallucination, but was merely given to fix the exact time of its occurrence. ^ See Report, cases 19. 23 and 284. 23; and also the case quoted below in Chapter IX., where two sisters, in a state of expectancy, see AND ILLUSIONS. I9X Again, it sometimes happens that a sensory im- pression is followed by a false perception whose content is not suggested by habit, but by some other circumstances, a state of anxiety or appre- hension for instance. The following case offers a good illustration : — 1 " Some years ago, a friend and I rode-r-he on a bicycle, I on a tricycle — on an unusually dark night in summer from Glendalough to Rathdrum. It was drizzling rain, we had no lamps, and the road was overshadowed by trees on both sides, between which we could just see the sky-line. I was riding slowly and carefully some ten or twenty yards in advance, guiding myself by the sky-line, when my machine chanced to pass over a piece of tin or something else in the road that made hallucinatory figures. C. E. Seashore, " Measurements of Illusions and Hallucinations in Normal Life," Studies from the Yale Psychol. Labor- atory, iii. (1895), pp. 46 et seg., records the following experiment : — " A blue bead, spheroidal, the shortest diameter being 1.8 mm. and the longest 3. 5 mm. , was suspended by a fine black silk thread in front of the centre of a black surface surrounded by a white circular border, whose inside diameter measured 50 mm. By a concealed device the bead could be drawn away and replaced without the observer's notice. A tape line was stretched from the apparatus to a point 6.5 metres directly in front of it. The method employed was first to show the observer the bead in its position, then require him to go to the further end of the tape line and walk slowly up towards the apparatus until he could first see the bead distinctly. When he saw the bead he read off the distance from the apparatus on the tape line. I recorded the distance while he went back to repeat the trial nineteen times in the same way. In the first ten trials the physical conditions were similar, but while he went back to start for the eleventh time I pulled a cord which slid the bead behind the frame. The observer, not knowing this, walked up as usual, and when he came to, or a little beyond, the point where he expected to see it, he generally did see it and read off the distances as before. ... As a rule, the nth, i6th, iSlh, and 20th trials were made with the bead withdrawn. . . . About two-thirds of the persons I tried were hallucinaled." • G. J. Strong, " On the Limits of Vision," The Philosophical Magazine, March 1894, quoted from the Report, p. 178. 192 HALLUCINATIONS a great crash. Presently my companion came up, calling to me in great concern. He had seen through the gloom my machine upset and me flung from it." The Momentary Cerebral Relations. — With this example we pass from individual differences of temperament and circumstance to another element in the content of a hallucination, viz. : — to the brain-state which obtains at the time of its occur- rence. Here, generally speaking, two forces are to be reckoned with — first, a negative factor, the state of exhaustion of the over-strained elements ; second, a positive factor, the increase of tension, brought about by secondary, and for the most part un- conscious, processes of the sensory stimuli in these elements which, being relatively in a state of rest, are able to recuperate themselves. The exhaustion of the elements recently stimulated explains the familiar fact that the ideas with which our waking thought has just been occupied do not usually furnish forth our dreams. Either these ideas are submerged for the time or they serve only to suggest other associated ideas which appear as dream-images. On the other hand, attention, by increasing the tension of certain selected elements, has a most potent influence on the content of sensory deception. It enables us consciously and deliberately to con- struct new objects from the forms and colours actually present to our eyes. Thus we " find the cat" in a "puzzle picture," for instance. Johannes Miiller relates that when a child he used to busy himself by the hour making pictures from the cracks and stains in the wall of the opposite house. Other children love to fashion out of the clouds dragons, fish, ships, and such fantastic forms. In the. same way. AND ILLUSIONS. 193 country folk will point out to the passing traveller the likeness of some distinguished person in a jutting headland or rocky cliff The selection of the elements to be aroused by the sensory stimuli may be brought about not only by the voluntary exercise of the imagination and the capricious interpretation of forms, etc., but involun- tarily by the emotions or mental condition of the moment. When darkness has attuned the mind to fears the benighted traveller suspects a robber in every tree stump. The lover at the trysting-place thinks every moment that he sees his mistress approaching or hears her step (Schiller's Erwar- tung). Passion is proverbially blind to all defects, and endows its object with ideal beauty. A child may seem " a little angel " in the parental eyes, though his plainness is a by-word among the neigh- bours. The inexperienced sportsman, in his over- zeal, hears in every rustling sound the stag's approach. The sad, the anxious, the suspicious, the wrathful, read scorn, threats, affronts, etc., in every action or gesture of those about them.^ These symptoms are of course most strongly marked in insanity, and are amongst its commonest phenomena. In mania, in many cases of excited dementia, and also in melan- cholia, mistakes of identity may often be observed, and the misinterpretation of some sound, word, or movement in accordance with the dominant insane idea of the moment. The cases of crystal-vision quoted above make it sufificiently clear that the content of hallucination is often influenced by the activity of processes beneath ' See Appendix I., case ix. 18, from the Report of the Munich Collection. 13 194 HALLUCINATIONS the threshold of consciousness, that is to say, by sub- conscious ideas. A further example is furnished by the following case, in which an object was voluntarily called up, and appeared with a distinctness and detail which the conscious mental image could not possibly possess. " X., a medical man, noticed that when he rubbed his eyes on waking colour phenomena, chiefly red and golden yellow, ap- peared. As he idly watched them he began to try whether he could call up particular colours by thinking about them. He succeeded in doing so, but only after the appearance of other colours. He seemed to note, however, a certain regularity in the order in which the colours appeared. Then it occurred to him to try whether he could make himself see an object as well. He chose for his experiment a microscopic preparation of the liver. He is quite convinced that his memory-image of this object was confused and vague; nevertheless, the preparation suddenly appeared before his eyes, as though seen through the microscope, all the markings distinctly visible, and the arteries, veins, and bile ducts beautifully coloured in red, blue, and greenish violet."' To this class also belongs the kind of hallucination described by Griesinger, in which the patient hears agreeable words with one ear and disagreeable words with the other. • ' See Report, 49. 5 and 402. 8 (pp. 142-144). In the first case the shock of the fall on the head, and no doubt also the feeling of terror accompanying the accident (the percipient was thrown from a dog-cart), called up the hallucination of an experience which had happened to the percipient as an infant, but from the knowledge of which she had always been carefully guarded. In the second case the apparition of a young farmer's wife, who had been killed many years before by the falling of a tree, was called up by hearing a great gale of wind, and by the presence in the house of a nurse having the same name as the victim of the accident. The percipient did not at first recognise the figure, not indeed until a week after. AND ILLUSIONS. I9S " Magnan ' cites several such cases. A patient with pro- nounced epilepsy and paranoia heard insulting voices on the right side. To this stage succeeded one of exaltation and self- esteem, and now encouraging and eulogistic voices presented themselves on the left. A devil took possession of his right ear, a good genius of his left, forming together a sort of Manicheeism which governed him. As the ideas of greatness increased the insulting voices on the right side desisted. An inebriate heard mockeries on the right, and consoling, reassuring words on the left. Two other cases also refer to dipsomaniacs with double auditory delusions, unpleasant on the left and pleasant on the right. In all four cases the ears were normal, and the acuteness of hearing the same on both sides. " Dumontpallier induced similar ' double unilateral ' hallucin- ations in hypnotised hysterical subjects. For instance, he described an amusing scene, a village fair, to the patient's right ear, while some one barked like a dog at his left, where- upon the right side of the face smiled, while the left wore a startled expression." I do not think that these cases can be taken as evidence for the functional independence of each half of the brain, nor that we should be justified in con- cluding from them that one hemisphere was affected before the other. The natural opposition of right and left seems to me sufificient to explain the spontaneous cases. The right ear being already beset by mocking voices, the auditory hallucinations which accompanied the ideas of pride attached themselves perforce to the left ear, and mockeries on the right, flatteries on the left, expressed the inner antithesis. Of course sug- gestion sufficiently accounts for the hypnotic cases. The Sensory Stimuli. — Lastly, the sensory stimuli to which the hypnotised or narcotised subject is exposed, whether originating in the external world or in the organism itself, exert an important influ- ' Magnan, Archives de Neurologie, vol. vi. p. 336. 196 HALLUCINATIONS ence on the content of the hallucinations. They operate by suggestion, by calling their related element-groups into action. We have already, while considering the dream-state, met with a number of instances showing how the dream-content depends on the sensory stimuli, and similarly the action of these is to be observed in hypnotic and narcotised subjects, in cases of intoxication^ and spontaneous somnambulism, in many hysterical states,^ etc. The Report contains a chapter dealing with their influence on waking hallucinations, but it seems to me that in considering individual cases the committee may have overlooked, or at least underrated, this formative power of circumstances and surroundings. A careful distinction is drawn by the Nancy School between the effects of stimuli — between processes due to suggestion and self-suggestion — and the pre- requisite pathological or physiological condition of heightened suggestibility, which its researches have thus tended to elucidate. This it is which gives to the views of this school their great advantage over those of the Salp^triere, and gives them, moreover, a scientific value wider than the limits of hypnotism. For by emphasising this fundamental law, by showing the many sources of error in the introspective method, and assigning to self-observation a less important place, hypnotism has conferred a great benefit on psychological science in general. In illustration of the way in which sensory stimuli ' Von Schrenk-Notzing, Die Bedeul. Narc. Mittel, etc. ''■ Compare Friedmann, Ueber den Wahn, pp. 38, 39. This case— to which Friedmann gives an obviously false explanation, viz., that it is the independent product of imaginative activity— is really the hallucin- atory expression of the "globus hystericus." AND ILLUSIONS. 197 act suggestively on the content of false perception, it may not be amiss to quote here the well-known experience of Lazarus, which serves also to indicate the part played by after-images. " One very clear afternoon I was on the Kaltbad terrace at Rigi looking at the Waldbruder, a rock which stands out from the great wall of mountains crowned by the glaciers of the Titlis, Uri-Rothstock, etc. I was looking alternately with and without the telescope, trying, but in vain, to make out the Waldbruder with the naked eye, though I could see it quit-e plainly by the aid of the glass. After straining my eyes to no purpose, for a period of six to ten minutes, by gazing fixedly at the mountains, whose colouring changed with the various altitudes and declivities from violet and brown to blackish green, I gave up the attempt and turned away. At that moment I saw before me (I cannot recollect whether with eyes open or shut) the figure of an absent friend, like a corpse. " I asked myself how I had come to think of this particular friend. In a few seconds I regained the thread of thought which had been interrupted by my looking at the Waldbruder, and I soon found that a very natural association of ideas had called up my friend's image to my mind. His appearance was thus ex- plained, but why had he appeared as a corpse ? At this point I closed my eyes, either because they were tired, or in order to think the better, and at once the whole field of sight, over a considerable extent, became covered with the same corpse-like hue, a greenish yellow-grey. I saw at once that here was the key to the desired explanation, and tried to call to mind the forms of other persons. And as a matter of fact these also appeared like corpses, standing or sitting as I wished, all had a corpse-like tint. They did not all appear as sensible phantasms, however, and moreover, when I opened my eyes the hallucinatoiy figures either disappeared altogether or became very vague and dim. ... It is plain that here an inward reminiscence, arising in accordance with the laws of association, had combined with an optical after-image. . That is to say, that an excessive stimu- lation of the periphery of the optic nerve had indirectly igS HALLUCINATIONS provoked a persistent subjective sensation of the complementary colour, which became incorporated with a memory-image." It is not necessary to describe here the preparatory suggestions — stimuli applied to the sense of hearing, the muscle-sense, etc. — used in hypnotism to induce the cerebrostatic condition favourable to hallucination. Miinsterberg's^ experiments offer a good parallel. He called out a word to the subject, and then let him have a short glimpse of another word, illuminated only for .02 seconds, which had some inner connec- tion with the word called out. In the course of the experiment some words were selected for illumina- tion which had no real connection with the meaning of the spoken word, but could by an easy misreading be changed into a word having such a connection. In 8 to 10 per cent, of the experiments a misreading, that is, a hallucination, was induced. For instance — word called, Verz wei^un^- (^despair) ; word read, Tros( (consolation) instead of Triest- (Trieste). Word called, Nerventhdtigkeit ; read Muskelfunctionen in- stead of Modulfunctionen. Binet communicates a curious case. A friend of his. Dr. A., was walking along a Paris street, his mind full of an impending examination in botany, when he suddenly saw the words " Verbascum thapsus " inscribed on the glass door of a restaurant. After proceeding a few paces he turned back in astonishment and read the real inscription on the door, which was simply "bouillon." Now, the popular French name for the plant Verbascum thapsus is " bouillon blanc." From my own experience I can also furnish an example of the formative influence of external ' Munsterberg, Beilr'dge zur ExferimeiifeUen Psychologic, vol. iv, (1892). AND ILLUSIONS. 199 Stimuli on the content of false perception. I was hurrying home one cold winter day, hungry and somewhat tired after my work. The snow was lying on the street. As I went along the right-hand pave- ment, a brown horse, led by an officer's groom, came towards me and passed me on the left without my particularly noting it. On turning the corner I started slightly, for at that moment a grey horse slipped with a clattering noise and swerved to the right close in front of me as if to recover itself. This was, however, a sensory delusion. ■ In reality, a street boy had fallen with a loud clatter just in front of me on the frozen gutter. This noise, and the visual impressions of the horse I had just passed and of the snow-covered ground, had become, at the moment of my startled awaking out of a day- dream, blended together into the false perception described. Apparent Retinal Action accounted for by Sugges- tion. — Having now taken our bearings, let us turn our attention in the next place to a group of phenomena often quoted to support the view that the retina shares in the hallucinatory activity, as the result of a centri- fugal wave. Some of these cases yield interesting illustrations of the manner in which the content of false perceptions is formed. Such are the experi- ments of Parinaud, whose hypnotised subjects saw the colour suggested to them on one-half of a sheet of white paper divided by a line down the middle, but saw spontaneously the complementary colour on the other half of the sheet Again, Lombroso'- reports that with a suggested spectrum seen 1 Lombroso stated in his paper read to the Psychological Congress in Paris that he obtained this result in 96 per cent, of his cases. 200 HALLUCINATIONS through suggested coloured glass he obtained the same results as if the spectrum and coloured glass had been actually present; and F^r6 and Binet found that where two hallucinatory colours were superimposed upon one another, they became blended like the corresponding rays of the spectrum. But even supposing all these experiments to rest on correct observation, they are yet very far from proving that the retina is involved. There is indeed no reason for supposing that the action is not purely cerebral. In any case it is evident that we are here dealing with the phenomena of suggestion and self- suggestion. This applies, of course, to all cases where the phantasm is doubled by pressure on the eyeball,^ or by introducing the prism, or is mirrored in a reflecting surface — to all cases, in fact, where the hallucinatory phenomena behave as though amenable to optical laws.^ They all depend on artificially induced changes in the sum of the instreaming stimuli, through which changes in the relative tension in the centres, and thus corrc- ' Brewster is frequently referred to as the discoverer of this fact, whereas he attempted to distinguish between a visual phantasm and an objective perception by maintaining that the former could not be doubled by pressure on the eyeball. 2' Pick, Neurol. Centralbl. (1892), No. 11. Dancing figures seen through a lens were diminished in size, and assumed the colour of the medium through which they were seen. The cases noted in crystal- vision, where one crystal-picture shows a colour complementary to that of the preceding one, where, for instance, a lady in a blue gown is followed by a boy clad in orange colour, require a different explanation. In any case they depend on entoptic phenomena which furnish the starting-point of the visual deceptions, and act also as a factor in their content. A blue entoptic phenomenon becomes a lady in blue, a subsequent orange-coloured impression is seen as a boy, etc. But this second entoptic phenomenon which started the second hallucination is not the after-image of the first hallucination, but of \.\.% point de repere. AND ILLUSIONS. 201 spending changes in perception, are brought about.^ Bernheim has succeeded in demonstrating in a series of experiments that all such phenomena are to be referred to central processes,^ and we can only marvel that their true explanation is still so commonly over- looked, and that they are still pressed into the service now of this theory and now of that. Sometimes even their occurrence is regarded as affording a crucial test in diagnosis. Thus Tigges, whose interesting article I have already quoted more than once, regards it as a proof that the retina is involved if double images are produced in insane cases by pressure on the eye and consequent divergence of the axes. In a note^ he himself adds, however, a case of A. Hoche's (bilateral 1 This is very clearly shown in Brach's " Geschichte eines Phantasma Visionis," Med. Zeit., v. ver. f.-H. in Pr. ^ Bernheim, De la Suggestion, etc., pp. 102 et seq. These ex- periments are also of interest as illustrating the way in which the imagination seeks to adapt itself to changes of circumstance, whilst ignorant of the natural results of such changes, and how the first self- suggestion when firmly established becomes a dominant idea. In the case of Bernheim's first subject, L. C, the form of the question or some such circumstance seems to have suggested that the spinning of the colour-disc would produce a change in the hallucination, which she interpreted as its disappearance. So in experiments I, 2, the hal- lucination came to an end on each occasion she saw the white disc white. But these two experiments and one in the waking state sufficed to make her see the revolving disc white even when it was in reality blue. (Experiments 4-5.) The second subject evidently did not expect that the spinning of the disc would cause any change, for its effect on her was nil. In all the experiments recorded (1-3) she saw both colours unmixed. So, in the first instance, did the third subject, but she saw them blended when she had been commanded to do so. It is evident, however, from experiment 5 that this blending of the colours did not follow optical laws, but was the effect of association, since blue and orange appeared to the subject mingled "as in a sunset, — flame- colour." ' Ijic. cit., p. 317, note. 202 HALLUCINATIONS hemianopsia inferior) in which the hallucination, although evidently conditioned centrally, was yet doubled, the images partly overlapping on side- ways pressure of the eyeball. Nor should much weight be attached to the state- ment frequently made, that the hallucinatory image is doubled by pressure, or by the prism, even when the subject has no idea of the expected result. For, as I have already pointed out, the cause of the altered perception in these cases is not a cerebrostatic change conditioned by expectation, but a change in the sum of the stimuli acting at the moment. This explains the observation of Philippo Lussana,'- that hallucinations are distorted which occur during the progressive darkening of the visual field in atropin poisoning — a good example of the way in which the distorted perception of objective im- pressions (resulting from the failure of co-ordination in the eye-muscles) is transferred to the hallucination. The wavering to and fro of the appearances in nys- tagmus may also be instanced, the distorted figures of fever delirium, the "gigantic" hallucinations of epileptics with macroptic vision, etc. Again, the implication of the external sense organ has been inferred from the fact that many hallucina- tions vanish when the eyes are closed;^ and when the ears are stopped the haunting voices frequently cease.^ But since these results may also be observed when peripheral excitation is excluded and central ex- ' Annal Univers (Giugno, 1852). ^ Reil, Rhapsodien, p. 171; Griesinger, op. cit., p. 90; Mich^a, op. cil., chap, ii.; Leubuscher, op. cit., p. 47 ; Brierre de Boismont, op. cit., p. 577; Allg. Zeitschr. far Psych., xlvii. p. 52. = Compare Pick, Neurol. Centralbl. (1892), No. 11. AND ILLUSIONS. . 203 citation clearly indicated, they can hardly be taken to prove the former.^ In seeking to explain the disappearance of the phenomena on closing the eyes, we must remember that no change has taken place either in the general state favourable to hallucination or in the pathological stimulus. A continuation of the hallucination is therefore to be expected, and, as we shall see, does actually occur. But with the closing of the eyes a new cerebrostatic condition steps in, for with this act the perception of darkness is inevitably associated through long experience (in the same way as an enfeebled perception of sounds is associated with stopping of the ears). Excitation is therefore set up in the element-complex which usually acts in association with this perception, and from the peri- phery at least no contrary stimulus streams in. The tension .in this complex may, therefore, under favourable circumstances, rise to such a height that the central excitation streams towards it, instead of to the groups usually affected, causes its discharge, and so sets up a new, a "negative" hallucination.^ 1 Tigges, loc. cit., quotes a case of Schtile's, where in severe con- gestion of the left hemisphere right-sided hallucinations disappeared on closing the eyes; further cases of Sepilli, Tomaschewsky, Simono- witsch, and others. Compare Hammond, " Unilateral Hallucina- tions," Med. News (Phila., 1885), pp. 687 et seq. = This view is further confirmed by the observations of Urban- tschitsch, andalsoofWyss, of the Geneva Otological and Laryngological Institute, who succeeded, by means of hypnotism, in lessening, if not altogether abolishing, subjective noises associated with bilateral catarrh of the middle ear. Arn. Pieraccini, " Un fenomeno non ancora descritto," etc. (Riv. sperim. di fienialria e di med. leg., xviii. 2), concludes that the disappearance of the hallucination was due to suggestion in the case he describes. This patient, an imbecile with sexual perversions (onanistic), suffered from visual hallucinations, which 204 HALLUCINATIONS As, however, I am convinced that the nature of these " negative hallucinations " has been generally misunderstood, I propose to devote some space to their consideration ; and since it is certain peculiarities in the way their content is built up which have led to these misconcep- tions, this seems the proper place to deal with them. The Negative Phenomena of Rapport. — One of the most striking phenomena of the hypnotic state, and one which early attracted the attention of observers, is what is called rapport. This consists, as is well known, in the establishment of a specific relation between the hypnotic subject and the hypnotist, or agent. In its most strongly marked form the subject feels only the hypnotist's touch; only the hypnotist can move his cataleptic limbs, which remain otherwise stiff and inert ; he hears only the hypnotist's voice, and obeys only his commands. Do what they will the others present cannot get into relation with the hypnotised subject. He does not hear them, he does not even feel a needle thrust into his arm by one of them, nor the electric current if they apply it. In the hand of the agent the magnet can make the patient pass from one state into another ; in the hand of the bystanders it produces no effect whatever.^ The person in rapport with the subject will be heard by him even when he speaks so low' that the bystanders disappeared if one of his eyes were closed, no matter which. He was also amenable to suggestions given in the waking state. H. Higier, of. cit., aptly emphasises the influence of the psychical factor in modifying and suppressing the hallucinations. ' Kraff't-Ebing, Eine Experitnentelle Studie auf dem Gebiet d. Hypnotismus, pp. 29, 35, 37. AND ILLUSIONS. 20$ cannot catch his words.^ On the other hand, the subject does not hear the hypnotist unless directly addressed by him, but as soon as the latter turns to him again the words penetrate to his consciousness, are understood and obeyed. This is the most pro- nounced form oi rapport ("isolated" rapport, as it has been frequently described by the mesmerists). More careful observation, however, has shown that this .form is the exception rather than the rule, at least in cases where leading suggestions are scrupulously avoided. Rapport occurs in different persons in various degrees, shading off from the " isolated " rapport just described on the one hand, through countless gradations of " special rapport " to a '• general rapport" in which the commands of all and sundry are understood and obeyed ; and on the other hand, from "isolated" or exclusive rapport through " passive " hypnosis to sleep without rapport, in which not even the commands or touches of the hypnotist penetrate to the subject's consciousness. No definite connection has been proved between the degree of rapport and that of suggestibility. Now rapport has been frequently connected with certain phenomena known as "negative hallucinations," which consist in the non-perception of certain objec- tive sense-impressions. According to Moll,^ rapport may be regarded as a condition " in which the action of spontaneous attention is almost wholly in abeyance, while, on the other hand, reflex attention is abnor- ' F. W. Batrelt, Proc. of the S.P.R., vol. i, p. 241. Frankly, the case he mentions is not free from objections; even the most elementary precautions seem to have been neglected. 2 Moll, "Der Rapport in der Hypnose," Schriften d. Ges.f. psych. Forsch. , parts iii. and iv. , p. 227. 206 HALLUCINATIONS mally active. The subject who presents the phe- nomenon of true, exclusive rapport is not in a condition in which he can turn his attention freely to this or that person. It is wholly directed to the person who is able by means of some sensory impres- sion or other to insinuate himself into the subject's consciousness ; " hence the negative phenomena of rapport, considered by Moll and others as negative hallucinations.! There are, as Moll proceeds to point out, certain analogous phenomena in the normal state which are conditioned solely by the fact that the attention is concentrated on a certain point, generally deter- mined by individual interest. For instance, in any gathering of children where their mothers are also present it may be seen that each mother watches her own child and hardly remarks the other children at all. She hears every word her own child utters, but the prattle of the others does not reach her. Or, again, in states of excitement and emotional exaltation, consciousness becomes even more com- pletely possessed by one impression. The angry man, absorbed in his wrath, ignores what is going on around him, and turns a deaf ear to good advice. These, Moll considers, may also be regarded as negative hallucinations, and in elucidation of the negative hallucinations of hypnosis, he points in another place ^ to the success with which jugglers execute their card tricks, etc., by diverting the attention of the on-lookers. Wundt' also inclines to this view; but whilst admit- ting the part played by diversion of attention, he ' Ibid., p. 225. ' Moll, Hypnotism, p. 96. " Wundt, Hypnolismus und Suggestion, pp. 64-66. AND ILLUSIONS. 207 ascribes a large share in the production of negative hallucinations to a second factor, " the peculiar nature of the visual and auditory impressions in drowsy and somnambulic states;" for unless brought into promin- ence by special circumstances, such impressions tend to be perceived dimly and indistinctly, as though from a long way off. " Negative hallucinations," he continues, " occur generally as a result of the lowered sensibility of the sensorium aided by various positive factors, consisting partly in * supplanting ' hallucina- tions, partly in the diversion of attention into another channel, and partly in the simple automatic response to suggestions.'' This explanation appears to me fallacious, at least as far as concerns hypnosis, since it postulates an independent diminution of excitability in the sen- sorium. We are justified in assuming such a general diminution of sensibility in the organ as a result of intoxication, anaemia, or fatigue ; but in hypnosis, which, as Wundt expressly states, " does not originate in an exhausted state of the nervous system," there is no ground for a like assumption. Besides, Wundt himself elsewhere explains as a result of diversion of attention this diminished responsiveness to stimuli, which he here regards as the chief factor in the production of negative hallucinations, and beside which he here ascribes to diverted attention only a secondary part.^ ■ Wundt, op. cit., p. 62. " This diverted attention occurs most often when, as is generally the case, the suggestion is given by a particular person — i.e., by the hypnotist, who thus from the outset directs the sensibility of the subject to himself, to impressions emanating from him, and, in accordance with the principle of compensation, lowers in a corresponding degree his power of reacting to other stimuli. Thusjhe phenomena of rapport are explained, being, in fact, nothing more or 208 HALLUCINATIONS Thus, in order to explain rapport and its negative phenomena, firm fixing of attention must be postu- lated — "tonic cramp of attention," as Stanley Hall calls it. In other words, rapport and all its symptoms , may be referred to the different degrees of distinct- ness in the perception according as the elements which the stimuli encounter are in a state of heightened or lowered tension. If the stimuli encounter elements in a state of high tension the impressions are per- ceived hypersesthetically ; if, on the other hand, the elements affected are in a state of lowered excita- bility, owing to the diversion of attention and its " cramped " fixation on another point, they are unable to overstep the threshold of consciousness. The varieties of manifestation in rapport which Moll has pointed out in his monograph on the subject'^ are most simply explained as dependent on self-suggestion. When a certain action is suggested to a group of hypnotised subjects in a manner which leaves some scope for individual modifications in carrying out the command, all manner of individual differences will be displayed. Suppose, for example, the hypnotist says, " You are limping with the -left leg, my poor fellow ; just walk up and down the room for a minute and let me see what is wrong." The first subject will bend his leg inwards, a second will carry out the command with his foot at an less than the sum of the symptoms resulting from this attention directed to the hypnotist." If in certain hypnotic cases sensation is really feebler and less distinct, this is not to be regarded as a circumstance conditioning negative rapport phenomena, but as a weaker form of the rapport itself, in which the fixation of attention does not indeed cause the excitability of the other elements to sink to zero, but lowers it in a certain degree. ■ Moll, Der Rapport, etc., pp. 51-66. AND ILLUSIONS. 209 abnormal angle, a third will develop a stiff knee, a fourth will drag a broken leg. Each works out the idea independently. In a series of experiments instituted for another purpose I regularly introduced this experiment, and usually obtained varied repre- sentations like those just described. I was the more astonished when, on one occasion, among a group of village lads, the same type recurred over and over again. Only one subject showed a distinct diver- gence from the common type. Further inquiry revealed the fact that in the village to which all these lads belonged there lived a man with a mis- shapen foot who limped in the way which all the subjects had imitated ; all, that is, with the exception of a lad who had broken his leg in childhood, and was no doubt reproducing an experience of his own. And just as we find individual differences shown in these experiences, so we may assume that the degree in which the attention is fixed on the hypnotist varies with different subjects, and that a similar diversity obtains in the manner in which the subject - carries out his conception of the rapport. So far, at least, rapport does not depend on the degree of suggestibility, for in certain cases very deep hypnosis, with responsiveness to all kinds of suggestions, that is to say with " general rapport" occurs without any appearance of rapport pheno- mena.i On the other hand, it must be admitted that, cceieris paribus, in cases of complete exclusive rapport the suggestibility must also be greater. The negative symptoms associated with rapport are also found outside hypnosis in many other states. ' Moll, Der Rapport, etc., p. j8. 14 2IO HALLUCINATIONS They are manifested, for instance, in the waking state, as a result of active or passive inattention. The scholar whose mind is preoccupied by some abstruse train of thought does not notice the heavy rain, and comes home, drenched to the skin, with his umbrella tucked under his arm. The pickpocket avails him- self of a similar state of absorption to • steal the purse of the shop -gazing lady, no matter how well guarded her pocket. The chess-player, pondering his next move, does not hear when he is called, and the child playing in the street is deaf to the driver's warning shout and to the sound of the wheels that in a moment will pass over him. By means of a timely joke or calculated gesture the conjurer succeeds in diverting our attention from his sleight of hand. The pickpocket's accomplice hustles us with the same object. A friend once drew me into a dis« cussion in the railway station which proved so absorbing that I failed to hear the shouting and bell- ringing which announced the departure of my train.^ The obliviousness which causes a man to hunt all over the room for a book which he is holding under his arm forms a sort of connecting link with another class of negative phenomena parallel with the negative phenomena of rapport, to wit, those states of emotion and excitement in which sensory stimuli often fail to reach the conscious- ness. I have already quoted one case of the kind from Moll ; and such expressions as " blind passion," "blind zeal," are proverbial. Animal life also furnishes us with illustrations. Dogs in the fury of fight do not hear their master's call, and ai'e ' Compare Rells, Psychol. Skhzen. , p. 97. AND ILLUSIONS. 211 indifferent to the blows witli which the bystanders seek to separate them. It is useless to whistle to the greyhound when he has scented a hare. He is not so much disobedient as deaf. The black cock in the breeding season falls an easy prey to the sportsman, and many a poor hare, blind and deaf with terror in the battue, runs right up to the guns. Ecstasy, where analgesia and anaesthesia are generally associated with pleasant hallucinations, offers further examples, and also melancholia attonita, which may be regarded as its emotional antithesis, seeing that it exhibits the same symptoms in con- nection with profound mental depression. Both in ecstasy and melancholia the analgesia may be so great that severe burns and other injuries do not reach the consciousness.^ A melancholic, for in- stance, will dig his nails into his forehead or tear his fingers till they bleed, without feeling pain. But I need not further multiply instances. They all possess the same character — that is to say, they are spontaneously occurring non-perceptions of sensory impressions. We may explain them as a result of heightened tension of the brain elements in one place, and the consequent lowering of excitability in other regions. Consciousness is restricted, and sensory impressions which are not related -to the special point upon which attention is riveted remain dis- sociated. Such is the line of argument adopted by those who relate negative hallucinations with rapport, and regard the latter as the sum of the former, and the former as a symptom of the latter. So far as concerns the " See Radeslock, op. cit., p. 231 ; Savage, op. cit., p. 187. 212 HALLUCINATIONS negative phenomena we have just been considering, and some others which we shall presently cite, there is nothing of weight to be urged against this view. It seems to me, however, that it is incorrect to regard them as negative hallucinations. When we examine the examples brought forward and seek for their true explanation, we are inevitably forced to con- clude that the processes concerned in them have absolutely no connection" with hallucination. Even Wundt^ says: "Assuredly we are not justified in regarding these phenomena, as they are so often regarded, and as the name implies, as processes which are related to hallucinations." Very true, for we should then have to regard the raising of the liminal level of consciousness, however brought about, even if due to the lowered susceptibility of the sensorium in sleep, as a negative hallucination process. Nay, if we pushed this view to its logical conclusion, we should have to consider as a negative hallucination the non-perception of sensory impres- sions resulting from a blow on the head with a bludgeon. The mistake lies in supposing that the negative phenomena of rapport, which we have just been considering, and true negative hallucinations, which, as we shall proceed to show, are something quite different, involve the same processes, merely because they produce practically the same subjective results —viz., the non-perception of sensory impressions. I have spoken hitherto only of the negative phe- nomena which occur spontaneously in hypnosis as a feature of rapport. There are others, however, due to ^ Wundt, op. cit., pp. 64-66. AND ILLUSIONS. 213 direct suggestion, and, again, others which accompany positive hallucinations. These last may perhaps be explained in the manner already described. It is at least a tenable assumption when a positive hal- lucination is associated with a negative one, when the object " covered " by the hallucinatory image is not seen, that owing to the fixation of attention on the positive sensory deception, all objective sensory excitations necessarily remain below the threshold of consciousness. To quote a case: suppose the sugges- tion is given that there is a green folding screen in the middle of the room, where in reality there is nothing, and that it is then found that the part of the wall hidden by the imaginary screen, the engravings hanging on it, the persons passing between it and the screen, and so forth, are no longer seen, whilst all other persons and objects in the room are perceived as long as they do not trench on the section of the visual field covered by the screen. In this case the non- perception may be explained quite simply as a diversion of attention, which is to say that in obedience, possibly even unconscious obedience, to a certain sign, which may be a visual impression or the muscular sensation accompanying a particular move- ment of the head and eyes, the subject's gaze is concen- trated on the place occupied by the imaginary screen, this being recognised by certain poinds de repere. True Negative Hallucinations. — But this theory falls to the ground when we seek to explain by it the process which takes place when an object simply disappears. Suppose I show A., who is hypnotised, a wine-glass which is standing on the table before him, and tell him that it will vanish on a certain signal being given. / do not divert his 214 HALLUCINATIONS attention from the glass; on the contraryj I direct his attention to it, and in still higher degree, since he is hypnotised, than if I gave him the assurance in the waking state. In any case it would be very far fetched to suppose that A., on being told that the glass would disappear when I made a clicking sound with my nails, should understand and develop the suggestion in the sense that on the signal being given he was to notice everything else in the room, but not to notice the glass. The idea actually called forth by my words would be " the disappearance of this glass." The brain process which accompanies the idea of the invisibility of the glass depends in each individual, and in each separate experiment, on the activity of ever-varying elements, some of which are excited by momentary sensory stimuli from the surroundings of the glass, whilst others become active through associ- ation, according to the past experience and mental habits of the subject. Since the co-operation of these latter factors has been rendered possible only by the action of positive influences, it may be said, though the expression is no doubt more popular than psychologically correct, that such a " negative " image is constituted from the combination of a number of " positive " images. The wide scope which the suggestion of a negative hallucination leaves for individual development places it in the same cate- gory with the suggestions which are couched in vague terms, and given without details (as in the cases of suggested lameness quoted above). A nega- tive suggestion is, in fact, nothing but an extremely vague positive suggestion clothed in negative form. The suggestion, " This glass is no longer visible," is just as much a command to see something else as the AND ILLUSIONS. 21 S suggestion, " You cannot walk properly," is an invi- tation to represent some kind of lameness. As with any other vague suggestion, each subject will interpret the suggested negative hallucination in a character- istic manner. In one case the bare surface of the table, in another the uninterrupted pattern of the wall-paper; in a third, perhaps a curdling mist occupying the place of the glass supplies the chief feature of the negative hallucination — " the non- perception of this glass." In many subjects, how- ever, the response to the command does not take the form of a hallucination at all, but of a conviction that they have been forbidden to look at the glass. I observed lately in a series of cases that upon the command, " You are not to see X.," the hypnotised subjects looked away from the person indicated. If told to look about them they obeyed, but always avoided looking point-blank at X., and would glance up or down whenever his figure was about to come into the field of vision.^ A state which Bernheim has proposed to call "psychic blindness"^ occurs in re- sponse to the vague suggestion " not to see," and is expressed in the most various ways, now by the hallu- cination of a curdling grey mist, and again perhaps by the reproduction of the effect caused by shutting the eyes or entering a dark room, and so on (see, above, the explanation of the disappearance of visual phantoms on closing the eyes, an act which suggests the dis- appearance of visual images). It is therefore clear ' Only on a superficial view can such cases be attributed to oversight through inattention. Careful observation soon shows in the majority of cases that there is a positive, energetic averting of the gaze from X. , or an anxious endeavour not to catch sight of him. ° (Not soul-blindness), Bernheim, De la Suggeslioftj etc. 2l6 HALLUCINATIONS that there is a fundamental distinction between the content of consciousness in a subject rendered " psychically blind " by a negative suggestion, and in one whose consciousness is diverted into a particular channel, who absorbed in an auditory hallucination, for instance, becomes insensible to impressions of light. In the latter case visual sensation forms no part of consciousness, but in the former a visual sensation, subjective, of course, and differing in different individuals, is included in the content of consciousness. " Psychic blindness," says Bernheim,^ whose term is here more correct than his theory, " is the blindness which comes through imagination. It is due to the destruction of the image through psychical activity," and not, be it added, through diversion of psychical activity. It might of course be objected that the negative character of the hallucination is the mere result of the restriction of consciousness to the positive phenomena which accompany it, that in the last resort non-perception itself is only the diversion of attention. Such would seem to be_ Wundt's^ view, since he says — " I think we must here assume that the idea that tactile sensa- tions will no longer be experienced has the effect of a positive diversion of the consciousness to other sensory impressions, if only to the acoustic images corresponding to the words, ' Your skin is no longer sensitive.' I find approximations to this in the normal state. There is a well-known psychical device for lessening the pain of an operation, the extraction of a tooth, for example, which consists either in fixing one's attention on some other object, or in holding firmly to the thought, ' I feel no pain.' In my opinion the process is in these two cases one and the same." ' Bernheim, ibid. * Wundt, a/, cil., p. 65. AND ILLUSIONS. 217 In reality, however, this view is founded on a misconception. Of course it is possible by fixing the attention on one subject to drive all other impressions out of the mind. But the true negative hallucinations which we have just described cannot be thus explained; for the positive hallucination is itself the hallucinatory non-perception of the external object, and is in nowise to be regarded as something different from the negative hallucination, as something accompanying it. The perception of a dark, formless mist, for instance, in the place of the glass, is for that particular subject the "non-perception," the "blind- ness." If a hypnotised subject is taken to a cross-road and there told not to go on, the negative idea of motion instilled into him will, it is true, be realised for the bystanders in a positive action ; but the standing still of A., B.'s turning to the right, C.'s wheeling to the left, D.'s marking time, and E.'s walking backwards, are not merely something which accompanies " the not going on," but are in fact " the not going on" itself. For the same reason it is incorrect to speak of a positive sensory delusion as " combined " or " associated with " a negative one, though the expression is often used, and I have myself employed it before my own view had been fully developed. When the delusion that he is in a dungeon is suggested to a hypnotic subject, and all his sense-impressions are coloured by it, so that the papered wall of the room becomes for him a damp dungeon wall, then the perception "dungeon wall " is identical with the non-perception of the wall-paper; or, to turn to our former illustration, the perception of a green screen in a certain place, localised by cutaneous sensibility, eye accommoda- 2l8 HALLUCINATIONS tion, etc., is one and the same with the non-perception "of the persons passing behind it.^ Moll raises another objection. He points ^ to those negative hallucinations which vanish the moment the attention is drawn to the invisible object. " We can see clearly in such cases that the negative hallu- cination is caused by the diversion of the attention from the object, and that the direction of the attention to it is a counter- suggestion. I say to a subject, ' When you wake, X. will have gone away.' When he wakes, and is asked how many people are present, he says ' Two ; you and L' I then point out X., and tell the subject to look at him. Thereupon he sees X., and the suggestion has lost its effect." In my opinion Moll himself gives the right explana- tion of the phenomenon in the words, " the direction of the attention is a counter-suggestion." At least I have never seen a case where X. became visible if every sug- gestion which might arouse the idea of seeing him again was carefully excluded. I invariably succeeded in turning the subject's attention to the place where X. stood without destroying the negative hallucination. We are therefore led to conclude from all these ' By demonstrating the impossibility of separating the positive and negative sides of a hallucination, the theory here briefly indicated disposes of Moll's contention that no valid objection can be urged against his view of the part played in negative hallucinations by diversion of attention. Of course non-perception through oversight may be induced by skilful suggestion, or by auto-suggestive develop- ment of a command, for instance, if the subject concentrates his entire attention on the search for the vanished object; but this would be, like the efforts not to see X. in the case given above, only an individual interpretation of a vaguely expressed suggestion, which had not pro- duced a hallucination but an overmastering inclination, and 'the acting out of that inclination. If, however, a hallucination is produced, then, as we have stated above, diversion of attention can no longer be con- sidered as a specific element to which a part can be assigned or denied. " Moll, Hypnotism (fourth English edition), p. 255. AND ILLUSIONS. 219 considerations that negative hallucinations, in contra- distinction to the negative phenomena of rapport, which have a dissociative character, are conditioned by cerebrostatic enforced association — that is to say, that they are true hallucinations in every sense, and the only negative thing about them is the verbal form of the suggestion. Experiment confirms this conclusion. The anoma- lous results obtained in certain cases are not to be explained by diversion of attention, but force us to assume that the effect of the suggestion is to associate with a particular sensory impression the activity of certain element-groups which correspond to the idea of the non-perception of a certain object. W. James ^ states that when the subject had been made blind to a certain pencil line by suggestion he would sometimes regain his sight of it when it was combined with other lines into a figure, a face, or some such object. The following case of my own forms a good counter- part to the experiment in which the coins taken out of an "invisible" purse^ proved also invisible to the subject, and serves to show how these anomalies of suggestion may be elucidated from the present standpoint. S , a village lad aged eighteen, was hypnotised by the Nancy method. His capacity for negative hallucinations was soon established, for upon suggestion several persons became invisible to him both during and after the hypnotic trance, even though their efforts to attract his attention were not of the mildest description, and although ordinarily these very indi- viduals possessed great authority over him. A Swedish match with a brown head was then shown to S — — , the white end having first been charred a little on one side. It was then ' W. James, Princ. of Psych., ii. p. 608. ^ Binet and Fere, Animal Magnelisin, p. 308. 220 HALLUCINATIONS AND ILLUSIONS. suggested that the match was lost, that he could not see it, and so on. The experiment proceeded in the usual way, with the result that S remained blind to the match when the point de repere was visible to him, but saw the match when the point de repere was hidden. In the middle of this experiment two matches were shown to S in such a way that he could only see the brown heads and a part of the white wood. According to the rule he should have seen two matches, but to the usual question, " How many matches do I now hold?" he replied, " None." This experiment, as well as some others which followed it and yielded similar results (unfortunately symptoms of " training " soon appeared in the case of S ), seems to contradict the rule. This contra- diction disappears, however, if we assume that S mistook the heads of the matches, that is to say, the brownish-black visual impression emanating from them, for the brownish-black /02«/ de repere. But the most interesting thing is that he transferred the non-perception of one match to several, indifferently, whether one, two, or six matches were presented to him. It is noteworthy also that on the first occasion of the transference of the negative impression from one match to several the answer to the question was noticeably long in coming, a circumstance which manifestly depends on the fact that the non-perception in this case did not, as in the preceding instances, take place automatically, but was constructive in character.^ ' W. James, op. cit., ii. p. 607, gives another curious case where the person whom the subject was not to see still remained visible, but appeared as a stranger. It should be noted that just as the spon- taneous negative phenomena of rapport have been mistakenly classed with negative hallucinations, so the spontaneous amnesia of somnam- bulism has' been confused with amnesia induced by suggestion. In reality the same kind of difference exists in both cases. CHAPTER VII. THE INITIATION OF FALLACIOUS PERCErTION. The Problem : How are Keflex Hallucinations to be accounted for? — (i) Syncesthesia, (2) Hallucinations of Memory, as possible explanations — Author^ s attempt to explain them by distinguishing between the preparatory and the starting Factor — A New Conception of the Point de Repere. The Problem. — The dependence of hallucinations on sensory stimuli has been more or less indicated by previous writers, especially in treating of dreams. But they have for the most part contented them- selves with referring the perception to some definite stimulus, and explaining the particular form of the dream by individual reaction. Consequently no serious attempt has been made to elucidate the problem with which I now propose to deal. How comes it, we must ask, that sensory stimulation of one sense may produce a hallucinatory response in another, that, for instance, the temperature sensation experienced by a sleeper when the bed-clothes slip off may give rise to a visual hallucination of icebergs and polar bears; or again, that a verbal suggestion given to a hypnotic subject may induce the tem- perature hallucination of touching red-hot iron ? Synesthesia. — In the first place, we might answer 222 HALLUCINATIONS this question by assuming that the effect of a stimulus on one sense may, under certain conditions, penetrate into other sensory regions, reaching by some means or other beyond the elements first affected, and arousing alien element-groups in a second sense. This view has received some experimental support, and has been adopted, among others, by Jolly on the strength of his own observations. Thus he found in one case that electrical stimulation of the fifth nerve produced not only subjective sounds, but full-fledged auditory hallucinations, which did not correspond to the opening and closing of the current, but appeared under all conditions in which pain was produced.^ Chvosteck,^ however, opposes this conclusion, and thinks the flow through the trigeminus less probable than that the auditory nerve was directly affected by the strength of the current. For though he obtained like results in a similar series of experiments, these only occurred under galvanism; other excitations — pricking, pinching, etc. — failed to produce any audi- tory sensations whatsoever.^ Again, Higier, op. cit., quotes a case of Hutchinson's where a totally blind patient experienced visual hallucinations as a result of irritation of the cornea due to inflammation. He also cites two cases of F^r^'s where visual hallucina- tions occurred, in the one case in association with neuralgia of the optic nerve, and in the other with neuralgia of the trigeminus. These cases, he thinks, ^ Jolly, Arch.f. Psych., iv. ^ OvioiiecVtJahrb.f. -Psych., xi. 3. ' Binet's experiments are also interesting, " Recherches sur les Altera- tions de la Conscience chez les Ilyst^riques," Pev. Phil., xxvii. p. 165. llemiansesthetic hysterics were secretly pricked with a needle on their insensitive region. The prick was not felt, but the subject saw at the same moment a light or dark spot. AND ILLUSIONS. 223 must be explained in the way indicated. It seems to me, however, that the explanation of the last two cases suggested on page 175, Note i, covers the facts more easily and satisfactorily. So much as to the experimental evidence, which, it must be owned, is of a somewhat ambiguous character. It is, how- ever, upon the phenomenon of synsesthesia, to which much attention has recently been directed, that this theory chiefly depends for support. Synsesthesia, that is to say constant involuntary association of a certain image or (subjective) sensory impression with an actual sensation belonging to another sense, is observed in a variety of forms. Thus a particular taste may call up the image or sensation of a particular colour (taste-photism, taste- chromatism). There are also chromatisms of smell, temperature, muscular resistance, etc.; or again, the sight of a particular colour may be associated with the "subjective" perception of each definite musical sound or "clang" (light-phonism). The most con- spicuous member of the whole group of synaesthesise is audition color^e, or sound-seeing — that is to say, the peremptory association of a definite " subjective " colour sensation with the hearing of an actual sound. I therefore propose to consider it in some detail. The special colour sensations associated with par- ticular " clangs ". always remain constant in the same individual, but the relation is purely individual and not referable to any general law. That is to say that whilst one person on hearing the vowel a always sees white, for another the colour invariably associated with this vowel may be light blue. O is often asso- ciated with black ; indeed, deep tones and vowel- sounds seem generally to be associated with dark, 224 HALLUCINATIONS and sharp, high-sounding vowels with the lighter colour sensations. The kind of sound which pro- duces these colour sensations also varies in different individuals. In one case they may be related to the vowel-sounds, in another to the timbre of the speaker's voice. In some cases the tones of various musical instruments are associated with definite colour sensations. The degree of externality with which the chromatisms appear also varies very much ; they may consist in the mere spontaneous mental association of a certain colour with a cer- tain sound, or they may occur as fully-developed objective sensations. I select the following interest- ing case from the account of his experiments given by Professor Gruber, of Jassy, at the London Inter- national Congress of Experimental Psychology. The subject was a Roumanian friend of Professor Gruber's, whom he describes as a man of exceptional endow- ments — a gifted scholar, antiquarian, etc. — with a mind peculiarly well qualified for the task of self- observation.i "Whilst I repeated the vowels slowly and distinctly my subject assumed an attitude of expectant attention, and pictured them to himself in his own handwriting as I uttered them — a, bright white ; e, bright yellow ; i, bright blue ; o, deep black ; u, faded black ; and the two other vowel- sounds peculiar to the Roumanian language, a and i, brown and blackish-grey respectively. The same with the con- sonants, but on hearing these he perceived two colours, one belonging to the consonant itself and the other to the vowel which occurs in its name. For instance, on hearing F \^ef\ he saw the letter written in scarlet with a narrow band of orange colour on the left side . . . the orange colour was formed by ^ Internal. Congress of Experimental Psychology, Second Session, London, 1892, pp. 10 et seq. AND ILLUSIONS. 225 the blending of the bright yellow of the e with the scarlet of the /. If I reversed the pronunciation of the letter and called it ' fe,' then the orange-coloured streak appeared on the right side. I found it possible to isolate the special colour of the consonants. To accomplish this it was necessary that the subject should not hear the name-sound of the consonant, but should try to picture the written letter vividly and at the same time to suppress its sound-image. "The diphthongs, triphthongs, syllables, and substantives — that is to say, the ^phonetic chromatisms' of spoken language — appeared ashorizontal bands of colourconsisting of vertical stripes. These stripes, or ^ amplitudes^ corresponded to the sound of the words. The diphthongs, of which the Roumanian language possesses twenty-three, exhibited very remarkable character- istics. We found that the bands corresponding to these diphthongs were all of the same length (70 millimetres), and also of the same height (35 mm.). Thus the form of the chromatism corresponding to a diphthong was proved to be that of a rectangle formed by two squares of 35 mm. placed side by side. (I shall explain immediately how we obtained these measurements. ) The length of the stripes, or ' amplitudes,' on the other hand, was not the same for all diphthongs. According to the variations of the amplitudes we were able to distinguish five classes, and these classes corresponded to the five natural philological classes of diphthongs in the Roumanian language.' I succeeded by objective measure- ments in establishing the following law in the case of this subject : while the length of the amplitudes varies according to the class to which the diphthong belongs, their sum remains constant. " The chromatisms which we found to correspond to numbers were not rectangles, but circles and ellipses. But first let me describe the objective method I employed to measure the various chromatisms. Let us take the example with which we started. The number doi (two) is for my subject a chroma- ' Ebers states that Lepsius, the Egyptologist, used his chromatisms as a guide in his philological inquiries, and Gallon {Inquiries into Human Faculty) gives the case of a lady who found the colours associated with the letters a great help to her in spelling certain words. IS 226 HALLUCINATIONS tism of a pure bright yellow, deeper towards the middle, some- what fainter towards the edge, but clearly defined by a circular outline. My subject has the power of externalising his chroma- tisms ; he projects them, for instance, upon the opposite wall, at no matter what distance. I chose for our experiments a distance of three metres, which is that at which his vision is most distinct. I then cut out a disc of white paper, which I supposed to be about the same size as his chromatism of the number dot, and surrounded it with bright red. The subject then projected his chromatism into the white disc, but the disc proved to be smaller than his chromatism, for he saw a circle of orange caused by the superposition of its subjective yellow on the objective scarlet. I enlarged the disc. This time he saw a white ring between the objective scarlet and the subjective yellow. The paper disc was now too large, so we continued experimenting till we got the edges of the chroma- tism to touch precisely the edges of the white disc. We were thus able to judge of the shape of the chromatisms, and could measure them to a millimetre. ... In a long series of experiments we determined, by this empirical method, the exact size and form of all the chromatisms of numbers and diphthongs. No matter how often we repeated the experiments, the results were always the same. If the experiments with the diphthongs had yielded remarkable results, in the case of the numbers a still greater surprise was in store for us. "As before, we took two dimensions, height and length, or vertical and horizontal diameter, but in this case we found that the vertical diameter depended on the number of syllables in the name. For instance, the monosyllable dot had a vertical diameter of 21 mm., equal to the horizontal diameter, but the dissyllable patru (four) a vertical diameter of 22 mm., while its horizontal diameter remained at 21 ; and pairu-zecC qi patru (forty-four) had a vertical diameter of 26 mm. Thus we found that with every added syllable the vertical diameter increased by a millimetre. Innumerable control-experiments of every sort yielded the same result. The horizontal diameter, on the other hand, corresponded to the class to which the number belonged — that is to say, to the units, tens, or hundreds, etc., and remained the same for all the numbers of the same class. For example, 100 and 999 exhibited the same horizontal Units 21 mm. Thousands . Tens 23 ,. Tens of thousands Hundreds 26 „ Hundreds of thousands AND ILLUSIONS. 22/ diameter. The following is a table of the horizontal diameters of the chromatisms : — 30 mm. 35 .. 41 „ etc. " In comparing these numbers, which we had obtained quite empirically, we found that they followed a very simple rule. The difference in the horizontal diameters between class and class corresponded to the series of the natural numbers, thus : — Diameters: 21 23 26 30 35 41 48 56 65 75 Differences: 23456789 10 " But what astonished us most of all was the fact that both the 'phonetic' element (which grew vertically) and the arithme- tical or psychical element (which grew horizontally) increased by the same unit, a millimetre." These observations, which of course only hold good of this particular subject, in that they indicate highly complex subconscious processes capable of achieving results impossible to the normal conscious- ness, testify at least to the genuineness of the pheno- mena^ The question now to be considered is whether in such a case we have to deal with real double-sensa- tions, or only with phenomena of association. Even Myers ^ considers it more probable that slight cases ^ It is of course difficult to say how far such a scheme may or may not depend on unconscious and unintentional suggestion on the part of the observers acting on the neuropathic constitution of the subject. (See Congrh internal, de Psychologie physiologique, Paris, p. 96.) Com- pare the case in Ziehen's PsycMatrie, p. 19, where the phenomenon is apparently due to an association of addition. For instance, the per- cipient saw the sum of two numbers, for which his respective chroma- tisms were red and yellow, as orange coloured. The results, however, of other observations with the same patient, which have been kindly furnished to me, do not support this view. 2 Proceed, of the S.P.R., 1892, p. 457; Dessoir, Arch. f. Physiol, und Anat., 1892. 228 HALLUCINATIONS are to be ascribed to association, due for the most part to infantile experience working upon an innate predisposition. But in cases where the phenomena are found in fuller development he considers that there is real synaesthesia, an actual irradiation of sensitivity into the sphere of a second sense, and he points, in support of his view, to the many forms in which these reflexes have been found to occur,i and the abnormal precision and inevitableness with which they act, and, further, to the ascertained fact that only a very small percentage of persons can remember when their " photisms " or "chromatisms " began.^ S. Epstein ^ draws a distinction between cortical phenomena and phenomena which, according to him, originate somewhat in the following manner : — ■ Only a small proportion of the bundle of nerve fibres which carry sound sensations reach the cortex ; the greater number branch off sooner, forming a regular network of axis-cylinder prolongations, which extend into the anterior corpora quadri- gemina and there terminate. These axis-cylinder prolonga- tions are connected first with the trochlear, oculomotor, and abducens nerves ; secondly, with the fibres of the optic nerve proceeding from the superior part of the corp. quad. In accordance with these anatomical indications a small part only of the excitation started by the acoustic stimulus would be directed to the cortex, while the rest reaching the corp. quad, would exert a reflex centrifugal action through the fibres of the optic nerve on the retina. ' A case is descriljed in the Revtie de rilypnolisme, December 1892, p. 185, where a man who had long exhibited audition coloiee developed gustation coloree in addition, when in a low slate of health. ^ It appears from Prof. Flournoy's Enqulle sur I'au.iition colork that among 213 persons presenting syneeslhesia only 48 could assign a date to the origin of these associations. ' A lecture delivered before the third International Congress of Physiology at Berne, 1895. AND ILLUSIONS. 229 The question whether the phenomena are to be regarded as pathological or physiological has been vari- ously answered. The pathological view is advanced by Neiglick and Steinbriigge, F6r6 postulates a " tonality particuli^re de I'organisme,"' while Perroud, Chaba- lier, and Urbantschitsch consider the phenomena as physiological. Urbantschitsch founds his view on the results of his own experiments. He succeeded through excitations of the senses of smell and taste in arousing reflex sensations in other senses in the great majority of his subjects,^ but observed that notwithstanding the frequency with which they were manifested, a combination of favourable circumstances was, as a rule, required to evoke them. Consequently he considers that the remarkable thing about these synaesthesiae is not their mere occurrence, but the great vividness which they assume in some cases, and the fixed character of the associations. In any case, it seems probable that heredity plays a part, since whole -families are occasionally found to possess this faculty, though the nature of the asso- ciated sensations differs in different members. Too little is yet known of the subject, however, to justify us in explaining hallucinations as "synaes- thesiae''; pending further inquiry, we must rather regard synaesthesiae as hallucinations whose regular recurrence and fixed character point to an automatic association acquired very early in life.^ 1 Compare also the remarks in the report of the Covgres International de Psychol. Physiol., Paris, 1890, pp. 94-96. ^ From the results of Fechner's inquiry it would appear that about a fourth of the persons answering are subject to syntesthesia. ^ For literature see Nussbaumer, " Ueber subjective Farbenemp- findungen, die durch objective Gehorsempfindungen erzeugt werden," Wien. vied. Wochenschr., xxiii. (1873), P- 123; Bleuler und Lehmann, 230 HALLUCINATIONS Hallucination of Memory as a possible Explanation. — Again, we might answer the question in another way, by assuming that no laallucination in a second sense really takes place at all; that in the case we have used to illustrate this point there may have been no actual visual hallucination of polar bears and ice- bergs, but only an extremely complex perception of the stimulation of the temperature sense caused by the slipping off of the bed-clothes. Thus the cold would be perceived as " the cold felt on seeing polar bears and icebergs," and the complex would be split up in the memory into parts separated in time. The possibility of such an explanation has already been Zwangsmdssige Lichtempfindung durch Schall u. verwandte Erschein- ungen, etc. {1881) ; J. Stinde, Farbige Tone und tSnende Farbeii (1885); Steinbrllgge, Ueher secunddre Sinnesempfindungen (1887); Urbantschitsch, Arch. f. Physiol., xlii. (1888), p. 154; Krohn, " Pseudo-chromaesthesy," Am. Journ. of Psychology, v. ; Binet, " L'audition coloree," Rev. d. Deux Mondes (i Oct. 1892); F. Suarez de Mendoza, L'audition colorh (1892}. Such a case as the following, described by Arndt, cannot be classed here: — "A patient suffering from hernia experienced auditory hallucinations which he believed to be independent and primary. But observation showed that they varied with the disease, becoming more violent as it become acute, and ceasing altogether when Herr A. succeeded in reducing the rupture permanently." Hoppe explains this correctly as a reflex psychosis with hallucinations, not as direct reflex hallucinations. Nor can the following case, reported by F. de Rause, Gaz. d. Paris (1871), 33, be classed as such. In a gun- shot wound in the lungs the ball had entered just below the spina scapulse and come out in the first intercostal space. Every time that lactic acid diluted with water was injected into the anterior wound gustatory sensations were experienced. The patient could recognise the taste of the liquids injected^— of tea, for instance— and could even tell whether the mixture was strong or weak. When the liquid was injected into the posterior wound the experiment did not succeed. Chassinat, Gaz. d. Paris (1871), 35, reports a similar case. AND ILLUSIONS. 23I indicated above, but it would be no easy matter to find unequivocal proofs of its general applicability. Moreover, the difficulties admit of another explana- tion. A Third Hypothesis. — This third hypothesis allows us to suppose that a visual hallucination indeed takes place, but that the temperature stimulus is not to be regarded as the starting factor. The change of temperature co-operates with many other circum- stances to bring about the required state of heightened tension in a particular element complex, and thus directs to it the irradiation of processes initiated otherwise by stimulation of the visual sense. It only prepares the way for the hallucination, it exerts only a suggestive influence on its content. To use a metaphor, it lifts the lid from a powder-cask, so that a falling spark explodes this particular cask and not one of the others which remain closed. But the initiation of the hallucination by a visual stimulus is not to be conceived of in Binet's sense, that is if I rightly understand, him. From the results of his experiments in co-operation with F^r^ — e.g., from the doubling of the imaginary object by the prism, and its reflection in a mirror — Binet was led to conclude that the hallucination is always attached to a certain sensation derived from a real external source.^ He maintains that a sensory nucleus for the hallucination is in each case furnished by some special object {point de repere), which becomes completely overgrown and obscured by the hallucinatory super- 1 Moll, Hypnotism, p. 104, mentions the similar results obtained by Jendrassik : " If a rf is drawn with the finger on a sheet of white paper, and it is suggested that the d is real, the subject sees the d. If the paper is turned upside down he sees/, and in the looking-glass q." 232 HALLUCINATIONS structure ; some minute black speck, for instance, upon a card may, according to him, furnish the point de repere for a hallucinatory picture projected upon it, and when the object to which the hallucination is attached is doubled by a prism, enlarged by a magnifying-glass, or reflected in a mirror, the sensory stimuli proceeding from it become the nucleus of a hallucination, which is in like manner doubled, en- larged, or reflected. But it has been proved by other observers that hallucinations do not always follow optical laws.i Further, we may ask, with Gurney,^ how the hal- lucination can be explained when it appears in free space where no special points of external excitation can possibly be connected with it; for instance, if the phantasm of a woman's form appears immediately in front of me, and my eyes are firmly riveted to it, that is to say, are focussed on a point in clear space where there is nothing objective to be seen ? A mark on the wall of the room some distance behind the figure can hardly be supposed to form the nucleus of the hal- lucination in this case, since to see the wall would require a very different adjustment of the eyes. Besides, how is it in any case conceivable that a point of external excitation situated in one pla.ce could act as the point de repere of a hallucination ap- pearing elsewhere? New difficulties arise when we seek to explain phantasms appearing in the dark, and ' Compare James, Principles of Psychol., ii. p. 130. Bernheim, De la Suggestion, etc., pp. 101-105, seems lo me to have firmly established the suggestive origin of the whole series bf phenomena. The real nature of the poi7tt de rephe is well brought out in Dixey's experiments, and also in those of Mrs. Sidgwick (Report, pp. 108, log). ''■ Gurney, op. cit. AND ILLUSIONS. 233 still more when we attempt to account for moving hallucinations on this theory. In the latter case, for instance, the point de repere cannot follow the phantasm, and we should have to suppose that the percipient attaches his hallucination in turn to all the objects in front of which it glides. Again, how would M. Binet explain the behaviour of an apparition which came directly towards the percipient ; for instance, the phantasm of a bird flying towards him — a form of hallucination in connection with which convergence of the eyes has been observed ? Is it possible to conceive that the phantasm can detach itself from its point de repere, from what is supposed to be its sensory nucleus, and flutter about in free space with- out losing its sensory character ? All these diflSculties disappear, however, if we assume that the sensory character of a fallacious perception originates, not in one specific sensory stimulus, but in the general fact that the nerve-tract of the sense affected is at work ; that instreaming currents from the periphery discharge the elements of the " hallucinated " centre in the same way as in normal perception. For just as we cannot say that an act of perception is altered, by the introduction of a new object into the field of vision, into a new act of perception which is the sum of the former plus the perception of the object, no more can we speak of a hallucination — the hallucination of a white figure, for example — as though it were a separable part, capable of being subtracted from or added to some percept, — "a room with a white figure in it," for example. In neither case can we refer a part of the perception to one particular sensory stimulus. The most that we can say is that the sum of the sensory stimuli has a 234 HALLUCINATIONS certain effect on the brain-state which obtains at the moment, and that the cerebral process which is brought about by both these factors is accompanied by an act of perception, which is either " objective," i.e., can be shared by all individuals alike, or " sub- jective," i.e., a fallacious perception. A view somewhat similar to the one presented here in physiological terms has been expressed by Volkmann von Volkmar^ in terms of psychology. It is true he employs the old distinction between illusions and hallucinations, but he points neverthe- less to an intermediate class of phenomena to which it seems to me his " hallucinations " ought in the last analysis to be referred. " Not seldom, indeed, we encounter cases where between the sensation and the projection (or localisation) a reproductive element intervenes, so that whilst the sensation still furnishes the occasion for the projection, this latter is eked out and completed by the reproductive image. The sensation endows the mental image with objective vividness, and the image adopts the nameless sensation and gives it a name. The sensation starts the projection, but the completed projection represents the sum of sensation and image. This somewhat complex form of sensory deception resembles an illusion in having a sensory basis, and a hallucination in the projection of a mental image. It may therefore be said to begin as an illusion and end as a hallucination, and may be regarded in two ways, according as the sensory or the representative element predominates in the projection. In false perceptions of the former sort'' the mental image insinuates itself unre- marked into the sensation, which it modifies without destroying ^ Volkmann von Volkmar, Lehrbuch d. Psychol. (4th ed.), ii. pp. 147 et seq. I quote the passage, but without committing myself to the author's psychological standpoint. ^ We are reminded here of the numerous examples cited by Helmholtz to prove that the position, surroundings, and form of an object all help to determine its colour. AND ILLUSIONS. 235 its sensory character; in those of the latter sort the sensation flows side by side with the transforming: process, and only serves to give the mental image the tone and appearance of a sensation. It should be noted, moreover, that on the other side true hallucinations are related to this class of sensory deceptions because, though initiated by the reproductive element alone, a sensation never fails to accompany them sooner or later." In any case this theory seems best to cover all the facts, since, while it refers the sensory character of the hallucination to the participation of the sensory nerves, it explains the content of the hallucination by refer- ence to the specific processes started by the sensory stimuli in connection with the cerebrostatic condition present at the time. On this view Binet'spoint de repere resolves itself into a purely suggestive factor, which assists in two ways in the result In the first place, by stimulating the element-groups (whose activity conditions the false-perception) associated with it through suggestion or self-suggestion, and placing them in the required state of heightened tension, it prepares the way for the hallucination ; in the second place, it frequently serves to localise the phantasm. By including under his term each and every sensory impression which by acting as a mental cue may pre- pare the way for a hallucination we are really enlarg- ing the scope of Binet's theory. Thus when a visual hallucination is suggested to a hypnotised subject, a clicking sound made with the finger-nails, or the muscular feeling corresponding to a certain move- ment of the head and eyes, or the touch of the hypnotist's hand, may serve as 2. point de repere. CHAPTER VIII. THE MANIFESTATIONS OF FALLACIOUS PERCEPTION. • Various Degrees of Distinctness in Sensory Phantasms. — Per- cipients Attitude — Sensory Character of the Phenomena not disproved by a certain feeling of Subjectivity — Attempts to explain '■''Audible Thinking'" — Automatic Articulation — Spontaneous Cases — Experimental Evi- dence. In the preceding chapter I have endeavoured to trace the origin of the sensory quality in false perception. I shall now proceed to consider its manifestations — i.e., the various forms of externalisation of the halluci- natory percepts. If we consider first the distinctness of the percept we shall find that this is not always uniform. From the accounts we can clearly recog- nise a gradation. Sometimes the hallucinations seem to be scarcely distinguishable from vivid mental images; or, again, they may be externalised to such a degree as to differ in no particular from the ordi- nary correct perception of plainly recognised objects. Between these two extremes, of course, there are countless delicate gradations, of which the most important must be discussed here.^ But first let me advert briefly to Wundt's^ remark * Cf. for these discussions, Report, pp. 70-133. ^ Wundt, Grundzilge der physiologischen Psychologic. On the other hand, Friedmann (Ueber den Wahn) says of illusions that thc-y are somewhat wanting in plasticity. HALLUCINATIONS AND ILLUSIONS. 237 — an irrelevant one, certainly, according to my view of the matter, — that complex visions are usually described as much more vague and evanescent in character than illusions (in Esquirol's sense) to which the external point of attachment gives "an element of fixity."^ But the fact that detailed, fully developed phantasms are often less clearly described has nothing to do with their, distinctness in them- selves, but must be accounted for by the confusion of mind which obtains in many morbid conditions {e.g., in fever delirium), as also in dreams and drowsy, half- asleep states. On the contrary, the greater distinct- ness of the more complex, and consequently rarer,^ type of phantasm is indicated first by the circum- stance that the English census gives more cases of complex than of simple hallucination (showing that the former are better remembered), and secondly, by the comparative frequency with which they affect several senses at once.^ The gradations of distinctness above referred to yield different images according to the sense affected. 1 Wundt, taking his stand on the ground of the centrifugal theory, does not pay sufficient attention to the psychological differences of quality which exists between a mental image, however vivid, and all illusions of the senses — even if their perceptibility to the senses should only arise from a higher degree of the accompanying physiological process. ^ Rarer, because corresponding to the discharge of less extensive complexes of elements. In hypnotised persons, too, the hallucinations are more rarely complex. A man who has the hallucination of a glass of red wine need not, in addition to visual hallucination, experience also the hallucination of the feelings corresponding to the weight, temperature, etc., of the glass. ^ If we reckon among simple phenomena those cases which, as sensations of light, sound, touch, remain entirely dissociated, or in which the appearance, though realistically perceived, was not re- cognised as this or that concrete person, and the other reported cases 238 HALLUCINATIONS Degrees of Distinctness in Auditory, Painful, Ol- factory, and Gustatory Hallucinations. — In auditory delusions the lowest degree is represented by the "psychic" hallucinations of Baillarger. These are " soundless " internal voices, which seem to the sub- ject to be addressed to him from outside ; they are spoken of by the insane as " spiritual," or as " soul- language." ^ By their> soundlessness they are clearly distinguished from more highly externalised acous- mata, where the " sound " element is more or less strongly marked, the voices sometimes seem- ing to whisper softly in the ear, or to be heard faintly from a great distance, and in other cases sounding loud and distinct. Hallucinatory (non- as complex, the figures, according to the English tables, will stand as follows : — Total. Simple Hallucinations. Percentage of Simple Hallucinations. Unknown Persons. Indistinct Total. Hallucinations of one sense Hallucinations of more than one sense 1619 251 572 49 190 28 762 77 circa 47 circa 31 So that, in hallucinations affecting more than one sense, we find complex phantasms to be 16 per cent, more numerous. This figure, however, is certainly a good deal too low, if we take into considera- tion that among the forgotten experiences the majority must have been simple, and affecting one sense only. ' Griesinger, op. cit., p. 102; cf. Munich Collech'on, xxiv. a. Louise Hansen, at Liibeclc in 1871, sees the face of her mother, who was then dying at Hamburg. "I saw my mother in a grey cloud. The face looked out of the cloud ; she made a request of me, and I answered yes, and at the same moment cloud and face vanished. The request was not made in articulate language, and as we speak, but by an exchange of thoughts, quite as clear and intelligible as though spoken aloud." AND ILLUSIONS. 239 vocal) noises, such as the ringing of the door^bell, steps in the hall, or in the room itself, knocks at the door, etc., seem, as a rule, to be indistinguishable in intensity from corresponding objective sounds. Sometimes, in dreams, the hallucinatory noises are said to be loud enough to awaken the sleeper. In such cases, however, we are often concerned, not with hallucinations, but with external noises heard with abnormal intensity in a state of dissociation.^ In other cases it may be subjective sensations which are hyperaesthetically perceived, for instance, certain attacks (not, of course, to be confounded with epi- leptic seizures), called by Weir Mitchell^ "sensory shocks," which occur with alarming violence in neuras- thenic and hysterical subjects, and after the excessive use of tobacco. On going to bed, — not on awaking, — and while going to sleep, a sudden shock is felt like a blow inside the head, in most cases accompanied by a sensation of sight, hearing, or smell so intense that these attacks, often preceded by an aura, are actually dreaded by those subject to them. This observation seems to coniirm Hoppe's view, that the frequently reported subjective sensation of a loud crash or jar is to be taken as a symptom of fatigue. Here are two examples : — \^Munich Collection, xvii. 2, and xvi. i.] "Fraulein R. Mei. . . ., an actress, reports : ' I thought I heard (on January 1 2th, 1888, in my apartments, between 11 A.M. and noon) a violent blow on the surface of the table at whieh I was sitting. Fraulein M. R., my maid, who was in the room, also heard it. We were not touching the table, and were both greatly startled by the sound. We examined the table, and found it ' See above, p. 117, Note i. ^ " Some Disorders of Sleep,'' in American Journal of Medical Science, vol. t., pp. 120-123. 240 HALLUCINATIONS quite intact. I was knitting a stocking and studying my part in a play. My maid was busy with household work. I was in perfectly good health and wide awake, yet was profoundly dis- turbed by the occurrence. Between 4 and 5 P.M. I received a telegram, informing me that my mother, who had been ill for some time, — in fact, I had been e,xpecting to hear of her death for the last three weeks, — had died on the same day, between II and 12. I had not seen her for two years. My mother^s last words were addressed to my brother, a lad of sixteen ; ' Give my love to my R , and always do as she tells you.'" [Munich Collection, xvi. i.] "At 31 Am . . . strasse, Munich, one day in February 1874, about 8 p.m., I distinctly heard a hand strike several violent blows on a piece of furniture standing in the room. My husband (who died in 1883) heard the same thing, and at once expressed his annoyance. The cook, too, who was just bringing in supper, heard the blows, and was frightened. My husband at once examined the piece of furniture, thinking that it had cracked. Nothing could be discovered, and no crack or other cause of the peculiar noise was to be found elsewhere in the rooms. I at once assumed that an aunt of mine, then in a dying state in the Pfalz, had in this way called our attention to herself. It turned out that this aunt had been thinking much of us, especially in connection with testamentary dispositions. She died soon after, in March 1874." That hallucinations of pain often attain great vivid- ness may be obser.ved by every dentist, in patients who feel pain before the diseased tooth is even touched.! Moreover, the same thing is to be seen in hypnotism, where suggested burns and scalds cause the severest pain ; nor are spontaneous cases, like that of Mrs. Severn,^ so very rare. In this case the subject awoke with the feeling of having been struck and wounded on the mouth, sat up, pressed her ' Cf. the case of Bernheim {Eludes Nouvelhs), where the hallucinatory pain was confined to a particular spot and represented an ulcer in the stomach. '^ Proceedings S.P.R., vol. ii. p. 128. AND ILLUSIONS. 24I handkerchief to the spot, and was astonished to see no blood.^ Hallucinations of smell also vary in degree, as may easily be seen in post -hypnotic suggestion. Sometimes the subject is able to recognise the specific odour distinctly; sometimes, again, the sensation is vague and blurred. The same is the case vs^ith hallucinations of taste. Observations made during experiments in telepathy^ show that, though the "transferred" sensation is frequently quite clear and distinct, so that the percipient can really indicate what he tastes, in other cases the taste experienced is much less definite. "It burns, and there is some sugar about it — ^just enough to soften it. It burns . . . you would feel it burning, I can tell you," — this is the degree of accuracy with which the subject of a successful experiment in the telepathic transference of taste-sensations describes the taste of ground ginger, which the experimenter had in his mouth. Another time, when the agent had sugar in his mouth, the percipient thus describes his subjective taste-sensations: '' It's getting better. Sweetish taste — sweet — something like sugar." Degrees of Distinctness in Visual Hallucinations. — Gradations can best be recognised in cases of visual * \_Munich Collection, xv. 2.] " In the spring of 1889 I lay down one night between 10 and 11. I had put out the light, but was still awake ; was not unwell ; was just wondering how it was possible for some persons, whom I had seen, to fall so easily into a hypnotic condition. All at once I felt as if a cold hand had struck me in the face, at the same time I was conscious of pain. I could even feel the fingers. I was so much frightened that I did not venture to get up." 2 Cf. e.g. Proc. S.P.R., vol. i. pp. Z26, 276; 1883-S4, pp. 2-5, 8, 18-22, 205, 206. l6 242 HALLUCINATIONS hallucination, with which, therefore, I shall deal rather more in detail. The lowest degree of definite external- isation may be assumed, where the narrator uses such expressions as "I saw with my mind's eye," etc. The appearance is not a mere mental image, but neither is it perfectly externalised. The following narratives of waking hallucinations may serve as examples : — Mr. Rawlinson writes : — " I was dressing one morning in December 1881, when a certain conviction came upon me that some one was in my dressing-room. On looking round, I saw no one ; but then, instantaneously, in my mind's eye (I suppose), every feature of the face and form of my old friend, W. S ," etc.i "In the convalescence^ from a malarial fever, during which great hyperesthesia of brain had obtained, but no hallucinations or false perceptions, I was sitting alone in my room, looking out of the window. My thoughts were of indifferent trivialities ; after a time my mind seemed to become absolutely vacant ; my eyes felt fixed, the air seemed to grow white. 1 could see objects about me, but it was a terrible effort of will to perceive anything. I then felt great and painful sense as of sympathy with some one suffering, who or where I did not know. After a little time I knew with whom, but how I knew I cannot tell, for it seemed some time after this knowledge of personality that I saw distinctly, in my brain, not before my eyes, a large, square room," . , . etc. The narrator then points out that the natural order of per- ception was reversed — the emotion came first, then the feeling that a particular person was in question, and lastly, the vision or perception of the person.' ^ Proceedings S. P. R., 1884 (vol. ii.). p. 158. Cf. Phantasms of the Living, vol. i. p. 209. '^ Proc. American S.F.R., pp. 398 sqq. Cf. Phantasms of the Living, cases 21, 27, 38, 56; vol. i. pp. 196, 209, 235, 255. ' Cf. the case of unconscious hallucination already mentioned (p. 125), and the following observation of Janet's {^Lntei national Congress of Experimental Psycliology, Second Session, p. 165). "Many patients were tormented by fixed ideas. Some had full consciousness of those ideas, and openly stated what they were. Others could not well AND ILLUSIONS. 243 In the next stage of visualisation the percipient sees a face or figure projected or depicted, as it were, on some convenient surface — the image being thus truly externalised, but in an unreal and unsubstantial fashion, and in a bizarre relation to the real objects among which it appears. In this respect it might be compared to the " after image " of the sun, or of some object that has been intently scrutinised through a microscope, which we involuntarily import into our view of the surrounding scene.^ An excellent ex- ample of this kind of hallucination is the following : — " My mother had not been very well, but there was nothing alarming in her state. I was suffering from a bad cold, and went to bed early one night, after leaving her in the drawing- room in excellent spirits and tolerably well. I slept unusually well, and when I awoke, the moon was shining through the old casement brightly into the room. The white curtains of my bed were drawn to protect me from the draught which came through the large window, and on this curtain, as if depicted there, I saw the figure of my mother — the face deadly pale, with blood flowing on the bed-clothes. For a moment I lay horror-stricken and unable to move or cry out ; till, thinking it might be a dream or a delusion, I raised myself up in bed and touched the curtain. Still the appearance remained (although the curtain on which it was depicted moved to and fro when I touched it), as if reflected by a magic-lantern. In great terror I got up," . . . etc.= describe them, and did not clearly know what it was which tormented them. Others had no notion of those fixed ideas, which provoked only states of emotion and impulses in them. For example, a young man had continual fear, without being able to explain what he was afraid of. It was sufficient to make him gaze on a shining surface for some time for him to see the flames of a fire ; and after listening to a monotonous sound for some time he became aware of other sounds — those of the bugle of the fire-brigade; in a word, that process revealed the persistent idea of a fire which he had witnessed at some previous date." 1 Proc. S.P.R., vol. ii. p. 163. '^ Ibid, 244 HALLUCINATIONS Another example, perhaps somewhat more distinctly externalised, — although the image was certainly not so clearly defined as the other objects in the per- cipient's field of vision, — is to be found in the statement of Richard Searle. " One afternoon, a few years ago, I was sitting in my chambers in the Temple, working at some papers. My desk is between the fire-place and one of the windows, the window being two or three yards on the left side of my chair, and looking out into the Temple. Suddenly I became aware that I was looking at the bottom window-pane, which was about on a level with my eyes, and there I saw the figure of the face and head of my wife, in a reclining position, with the eyes closed, and the face quite white and bloodless, as if she were dead." ' In connection with the above I may mention an experiment of my own. A hypnotised subject, while realising the hallucinations suggested to her, saw the objects as pictures hanging on the wall. She was struck by a want of distinctness in the pictures (marine views), and explained it by the unfavourable character of the light, which was reflected from their surfaces. In reality, of course, the percipient had eked out an imperfect hallucination by imagining it to consist of pictures hung in a bad light. Baillarger describes this class of phantasms as seen through a veil of gauze, or some similar substance; but in the following case the incompleteness of the externalisation is expressed a little differently. The percipient sees the phantasms quite distinctly, only he sees other objects through them. [Mtmich CoHeciion, xxix.] " I have seen and heard persons who spoke to me ; they usually looked, I might say, trMisparent, like grey mist, yet they were wearing clothes like ours." ^ ' Proc. S.P.R., vol. ii. p. 163. " Compare also below (App. I.), Munich Collection, xxvii. p. 214. AND ILLUSIONS. 24S In the statements accessible to me, I have but rarely met with this kind of phantasm, though it is a type to which the visions and spectres of pictorial art frequently conform, and which also occurs in various forms in the religious traditions of remote peoples; thus among the Omahas the name for spirits is " Wa-na-he," i.e., transparent bodies. However, this type of partial externalisation sometimes crops up in experimental cases. I need only mention the case where the hypnotised subject was required to see the bearded experimenter as a young, handsome, and beardless man, as in fact he did, though at the same time he could see the old, bearded face through and behind the young one.^ Finally, coming to the highest development of hallucination, we have the realistic bodily appear- ance combined with non-perception of that part of the field of view covered by the apparition.^ Indeed, in hypnotic cases it would seem that the vividly ex- ternalised phantasms produced by suggestion tend to appear more real than the actual objects or beings which they represent when placed alongside them.^ The explanation is surely obvious. Besides the differences in distinctness already dis- ' Forel, Der Hypnotismus, 2nd ed., p. 53- ^ Forel's narrative, op. ciS. , p. 65. ^ Cf. for instance, Moll, Hypnotism, p. 168. " Y. being in the hypnotic trance, I say to him, ' When you *wake, X. will be sitting on this chair ; you will be wide awake and have all your senses about you.' Y., on awaking, in fact thinks he sees X. on the chair, converses with this imaginary person, etc. I then point out to him the real X. with the words, ' Now, which is the real X. ? You see one on the chair, the other you see standing here.' Y. feels the chair and the real X., in order to convince himself which is X. and which empty air. After trying for some time, he finally comes to the conclusion, ' He is sitting here on the chair,' " 246 HALLUCINATIONS cussed, variations also occur in the colouring of the phantasms-. Sometimes they are perceived only in outline and with no colour, sometimes they resemble photographs, showing light and shade only, others again resemble dark silhouettes. We* are here re- minded that among the Greeks and Romans the souls of the dead were held to resemble the phantasms of dreams, a conception probably arising out of the latter; the Tasmanians used the same word for shadow and ghost; the Algonkin Indians call the human soul odalshuk — his shadow; in the Quiche language naiul expresses shadow, soul; the Arawak ueja means shadow, picture, soul.; the Abipones have only one word {loakal) for picture, shadow, soul, and echo.^ Frequently, again, the images occur in their proper colours, sometimes fainter in tone, but sometimes extraordinarily bright and vivid.^ Gratiolet asserts that hallucinations by night, in the dark, and with closed eyes, as well as in the case of the blind, are mostly light in colouring, even fiery, but some- what pale, and with a tendency to undulatory motion; that in the dusk, or with defective illumina- tion, white figures are very frequently seen, appearing to occupy positions in space at a measurable distance, ' Radestock, Traum uiid Schlaf, p. 11. - Cf. A. V. Vay, Visionen im Wasserglase ; Griesinger, op. cit., p. 91 ; V. SchrenckNolzing, Die Bedeutung narcotischer Mittel, p. 70. "The glowing colours of a sea-piece suggested to him by me whilst he was in a slate of coma induced by haschisch, were remembered by Herr U. in all their vividness, and induced him to make use of the idea in a picture, especially the colouring, which otherwise (i.e., in a waking condition) was never perceived with the same intensity." Cf. Radestock, op. cit., p. 148; also Sander, " Sinnestauschungen," Real- Encyklopadie, xviii. p. 326; Brach, " Geschichte eines Phantasma Visionis," Med. Zeit. v. Ver. f. H. in Pr. (1837, No. 5); Smithsonian Institute, ii. p. 9. AND ILLUSIONS. ^f and not moving to and fro; and that those seen in full daylight most nearly resemble real objects.'- Such a general statement as this, however, can scarcely be regarded as borne out by experience.^ It would also be a mistake to assume that all hal- lucinations will fit exactly into the above scheme. Thus there are phantasms which in the course of their development pass through different stages of definite- ness, growing from vagueness to comparative distinct- ness, or, on the contrary, gradually fading away. \_Munich Collection, x. 13.] "In April 1886, between 4 and ■ 5 A.M., upon awaking, I saw my sister, who had died at the age of nine, standing before my bed. She was dressed in her shroud, and had a wreath on her head. She approached my bed. At first I saw dim, nebulous outhnes, out of which the figure was developed as it approached me. It was just dawn- ing ; her features looked deathly pale, as they had done in the coffin. I screamed aloud. The not yet fully developed figure vanished before my eyes. A sister sleeping in the same room was not awakened by my scream, and did not share my im- pressions. I had been greatly excited the day before, but believe that I was fully awake at the time." " In the spring of 1889 I saw, at night, as I was lying awake in bed, a person nearly connected with me approach my bed. The course of the vision was as before. The face was distorted and ghost-like. My thoughts had been much occupied with this person during the past few days." Von Krafft-EbingS has noted that, in insanity, hal- lucinations often appear more dimly and indistinctly ' Griesinger, op. cil., p. 99. ' J. Mourly Void ("Experience sur les reves," Revue de VHyfno- tisme, Jan. 1896) found " that the colours seen before falling asleep, parlicularly black and luhite, tend to enter into dreams, or to evoke in dreams their complementary colours. In some cases," he adds, "it seems as though it were the contrast between darkness and the intense light which takes effect in the dream." ' Sinnesdelirien, p. 37. 248 HALLUCINATIONS in the first period, afterwards become clearer, and gradually cease during the period of convalescence. While, on the one hand, there are some observa- tions which seem to indicate (see above, p. 128, Note 3, and p. 129, Note 4) that hallucinations may leave after-images, others, again, might lead us to underrate the distinctness possessed by hallucinatory percepts. In some hypnotic experiments, for instance, it has been observed^ that, "when subjects are asked to trace their hallucinations with a pencil, or even to describe them minutely, they often show a vague- ness and uncertainty which their previous expressions and actions would hardly have led one to expect."^ I do not think that we should be induced by such observations to assume that in these cases there is mere mental vision, and deny the sensory character of the phenomenon. Perhaps the whole assumption and inference is based on a trace of the "eccentric projection theory," which I have already given my reasons for rejecting. However, I shall insist no further on this for the present; nor shall I do more than call attention very briefly to the facts that an unpractised draughtsman finds sufficient difficulty even in tracing an image projected by the camera lucida on a sheet of paper, and that many people indicate quite a wrong position for the image of a house, for instance, reflected on the surface of a pond ; or, dt any rate, cannot point out the right one without stopping to consider. I only wish to adduce two principal circumstances in explanation. In the first place, the sub-consciousness that the objects perceived by hallucination are not real, and the uncertainty arising from the discord between surface ' Proceedings of the American S.P.K., p. 98. AND ILLUSIONS. 249 consciousness and sub-consciousness; secondly, and more especially, the dream-like condition of the per- cipient.^ Attitude of the Percipient with regard to the Hal- lucinatory Perception. — The attitude of the percipient towards the hallucination depends, in the first instance, as we shall see, on his belief in its reality. But even where this belief exists, its manifestations differ considerably. Sometimes the percipient behaves as would be required by circumstances, supposing him to be in the presence of an objective reality; in other cases he fails to do so. This circumstance has been adduced as a distinctive symptom of hal- lucination as opposed to pseudo-hallucination {i.e., a. vivid image of the imagination which yet lacks the feeling of sensory affection, and therefore is a mental image and not a true hallucination). However, this does not seem to me correct That the condition of the hallucinant is frequently that of a man in a profound dream sufficiently explains the difference between his behaviour at such times and when awake. This is the explanation given by Krafft-Ebing for the circumstance that a person hypnotised by him, while allowing herself to be carried back, by suggestion, to her childhood, found no difficulty whatever in be- lieving the season to be winter, though she could see the green leaves on the trees. Even when her attention was called to this point, she showed no surprise, but found an explanation in harmony with the apathetic condition of her mind at the moment — she thought she must be in a hothouse.^ 1 Compare J. Philippe, " Sur les images mentales," Third Inter- national Congress for Psychology, p. 235 ; also Forel's remarks, p. 237. ' Krafft-Ebing, Hypnotische Experimente, p. 28. 250 MALLUClNATlONg An example given by Kandinsky may serve briefly to illustrate my point — viz., that the experience may be a genuine hallucination although the percipient does not behave towards the apparition exactly as he would do with regard to the objective reality. This author reports the case of a person who perceived the hallucinatory figure of a lion (or, according to Kandinsky, " vividly imagined " a lion), and yet manifested no particular excitement, apprehension, or terror. Now, it is true that if the man in question had met in the street a lion escaped from some menagerie, he would have been seized by the above emotions. However, it is not the mere sight of the lion which would have excited his apprehension in such a case, but the same sight in conjunction with certain definite though chiefly sub-conscious associa- tions. The sight of a lion in a menagerie will no longer affect us in the same way, even though a certain sense of uneasiness, oppression, and suspense may perhaps be produced by a secret misgiving as to the strength of the grating securing the cage. If, on the other hand, we see a lion, having finished his meal, lying drowsily behind the stout iron bars of his abode in the Zoological Gardens, there can no longer be any question of such a feeling; on the contrary, the sight is productive of a high degree of pleasure to the animal-painter.^ The sight of a lion in a picture is certainly also a perception by means of the senses, but it does not produce a ' It is the hero's failure to take into account the different effects produced by impressions on the senses under different circumstances and with other associations, which gives rise to the comic situation in Daudet's "Tartarin de Tarascon," where Tartarin, while preparing to go lion-hunting in Algeria, takes nightly walks in the neighbourhood of a menagerie, in order to accustom himself to the roaring of the lions. AND ILLUSIONS. 251 feeling of apprehension. If, in the case quoted by Kandinsky, the percipient was not terrified or excited by the apparition of a lion, this means no more than that, in consequence of the condition of the percipient's brain at that particular moment, the connection with the complex of elements usually associated with the idea of a lion roaming about at liberty did not and could not take place. The perception was confined to an isolated group of elements, corresponding to the ideas of heraldry, pictorial art, zoological studies, etc. For the sake of comparison, I here cite an experiment, in which the hallucination of a snake at first produced no corresponding emotion, but, later on, when the cognate associations had been called to mind, elicited the expression of extreme fear. I do not think that the first case is to be explained by calling the image a merely mental one, but that a hallucination of the senses is to be assumed in both cases alike.'^ " Herr A., a medical student, was hypnotised by me. No similar experiment had ever been tried on him before. The ■suggested haHucination of the staff of yEsculapius was realised, but the staff declared to be of extraordinary size. The snake's lifelike appearance was first pointed out to A. ; afterwards, when it was suggested to him as living, it coiled itself off the staff, wriggled about the room and approached A., who, smiling and following its movements with his eyes, asked me, ' Do you always keep this snake in your room?' I interrupted the scene by exclaiming, ' Look out, it's a rattlesnake.' A. immediately sprang aside, asked anxiously if the poison-fangs had been ex- tracted, and, on receiving a negative answer, fled, with every symptom of fear and confusion, from one corner of the room to another, hid behind chairs, and was so terrified that it became ' Cf. William James, Principles of Psychology, ii. pp. 442 sqq.; Dewey, "Theory of the Emotions," Psychological lievieiv, ii. pp. 13 sq,]. 252 HALLUCINATIONS necessary to put an end to the scene by means of soothing suggestions." And if the behaviour of hallucinated persons can- not be taken as a test, no more can the presence of a certain feeling of subjectivity on their part disprove the sensory character of the experience. The subject of a genuine hallucination may be aware that his own imagination has furnished the material for the vision. He is able to indicate the subjective character of the hallucination, but thinks it real, nevertheless,^ or, at any rate, cannot escape from it. Such a case occurs when patients state that their own thoughts, "the sound-images of their thoughts are words, with all the peculiarities of self- uttered words, pale images of words uttered by themselves."^ Griesinger quotes from Esquirol the answer of a melancholic patient.* His attention being called to the erroneous character of his hallucinations of hearing, he remarked, in the midst of a conversation, "Do you ever think?" " Certainly." " Very good — you think to yourself, and I think out loud." Many patients believe themselves to think so loud that other people can hear their thoughts and are annoyed thereby; or they assume that their apartments are so constructed acoustically as to strengthen the sound, not only of spoken words, but even of unspoken thoughts (Grashey).* ' Griesinger, op. cit., p. 94. "^ Grashey, " Ueber Hallucinationen," Milnch, Med, Wochenschrifl (1893), p. 154. ' Griesinger, op. cil., p. 91; cf. Leuret, Gazette Medicate de Paris (1S34, No. 10). The latter mentions a patient who said of his voices, " C'est un travail qui se fait dans ma t6te." * Such hallucinations not infrequently play a considerable part in literature, especially in descriptions of the tortures of remorse, and the like. An example of such a description is to be found in Gerhard AND ILLUSIONS. 253 Sometimes the feeling of subjectivity is feebler. The patient knows that the thoughts are his own, but they seem to be uttered by other voices. He still feels himself to some extent an active agent, but at the same time his receptivity is much in- creased. Such patients complain of their thoughts being uttered aloud by other people. When reading, they think some one is reading the same book aloud at the same time ; and when writing a letter, they complain that a strange voice is dictating the thoughts to them. In another variety of auditory hallucinations, the feeling of subjective origin becomes still more rudi- mentary. The contents of the hallucination are quite alien to the patient's mind, but a trace of the feeling remains; they hear their own thoughts, but do not recognise them as their own, considering them as " made " thoughts suggested to them by God or the devil, or some human being.^ We must not reckon in this category, however, Hauptmann's Der Apstel, pp. 79, 80. " He strode along, with a feeling as if he were walking dry-shod over water. So great and awful he seemed in his own eyes that he had to admonish himself to humility. And as he did so, he could not help remembering Christ's entry into Jerusalem, and then the words, ' Behold, thy king cometh unto thee in meekness.' For a time, he still felt the girl's looks follow- ing him. For some reason or other he took care to walk exactly in the middle of the road. ... At the same time, as if controlled by some force outside himself, he kept repeating again and again : ' Behold, thy king Cometh unto thee in meekness.' Children's voices sang these words. They lay still unformed between his tongue and his palate, but the sound of his breath seemed to become articulate, and in it he heard them. ..." ^ In addition to many other cases, Kandinsky reports such hallu- cinations as experienced by himself. He thought them too absurd to have originated in his own mind, and took them as " induced " by some of his fellow-patients. 254 HALLUCIlsrATIONS a certain not uncommon type of dream where the dreamer is haunted by the feeling that whatever happens is not actually true — that it is only a dream. He sees other people, perhaps even himself, perform- ing certain actions ; he hears conversation, but all the time the conviction that he is only dreaming persists in his mind. This is also manifested in other ways — e.g., the dreamer dreams that after doing something or other he lies down tired, goes to sleep, and dreams. Sometimes this dream within a dream is so distinct and complete that the action interrupted by it is continued from the point at which it was broken off. It is also sometimes reported of sick people and hypnotised subjects that, along with the hallucina- tion, from which they cannot escape, they have the consciousness that it was only a delusion of the senses. Or, again, the percipient may succeed in correcting the hallucination, but it returns the next moment.^ ■ A good example of this, and also of the effect of points de repire in suggesting the same delusion over and over again, is offered in the case referred to by Rosenbach {Centralhlatt fiir Ner'venheilkunde, April I, 1886). X, of a healthy family, had no further trouble to complain of than periodic digestive disturbances, followed by sleeplessness. Ex- amination showed a normal state of the organic functions, except for a moderate degree of hereditary myopia. He was able to undergo without difficulty the severe mental labour connected with his pro- fession. But for the last few years he has noticed that, after wording, he seems when in the street to meet none but persons known to him. It is only after bowing to them that he finds himself mistaken. Some- times he sees people of whom he has not even thought for years ; yet he is not one of those who are always on the look-out for resemblances. The details of the process are as follows : On the first glance he sees a person of his acquaintance standing before him, but closer examina- tion soon convinces him that he has made a mistake. Yet, in spite of this, the hallucination is caused anew by another look at the face, a few moments later, though immediately corrected by the recollection of the previous discovery. AND ILLUSIONS. 25$ In these last-named cases it is not the feeling of subjectivity with which we are concerned, but the belief in the objectivity of the hallucination. A patient may suffer from the utterance of his own thoughts, as above described, but need not therefore be in any doubt as to the reality of the voices accompanying his thoughts. Moreover, even if the belief in the reality of the appearance or voice does not necessarily accompany the hallucination, yet it is certain that the latter is in most cases so accompanied. It cannot be the quality of the psychic occurrences which distinguishes the hallucination from an objective perception. In some cases only its content may, by the impossibility of reconciling it with other experience, awaken doubts. Yet, as all our knowledge comes to us through the senses, as it is they which, every moment, enable us to receive new impressions, and as in ordinary life we find them trustworthy witnesses, we need very strong reasons to persuade us to examine into the objectivity of any perception.^ If a lady passing along the corridor in a hotel sees the apparition of a man standing at the open door of the lift, there is no occasion for her to inquire whether the appearance corresponds to an objective reality any more than there is in the case of a lady who hears the door-bell ring without knowing that no one has touched it. Thus it often happens that the percipient finds himself repeatedly deluded by hallucinations before it occurs to him to doubt the reality of the appearances while they last. When he has once dis- ^ Compare the way in which children, or primitive peoples, are completely at the mercy of sense-impressions — subjective as well as objective. 2S6 HALLUCINATIONS covered their true character, however, his blind belief in the evidence of his senses is thoroughly shaken.^ Or, again, the content of the hallucination may awaken doubt and misgivings. The apparition of a dead person, for instance, would naturally suggest the visionary char- acter of the experience. Thirdly, the doubt may arise from the contradiction between the hallucination and the sub-consciousness of its unreality. The hallucinant is in doubt ; when asked what is the matter, he does not reply, not being sure whether "his senses have deceived him."^ Or, in many cases, he asks, "Am I asleep or awake ?"^ Others are induced by their uncertainty to test the matter. Thus Holland* relates that a patient, having discovered that he was able to suggest words to the voices at pleasure, succeeded in recog- nising his auditory hallucinations as such. A lady saw the apparition of her sister, and thought, " If this is really she, I ought to see her reflected image in the mirror." A young man, who continually heard his thoughts uttered aloud, went into an open field, with no house or tree in the neighbourhood. He could see no one but a labourer ploughing at a great distance. When, even here, he heard his thoughts spoken so loudly that they could not possibly be uttered by the voice of the distant ploughman, he became convinced that what he heard was a hallu- cination. Attempts to Explain "Audible Thinking" — Many attempts have been made to explain these hallu- cinations of voices uttering the percipient's own ' The visions of Nicolai are well known in this connection. ^ Statement of Mrs. Townsend in Proc. S.P.R., vol. iii. p. 75. " Statement of Ch. Jupp, ibid. , p. 88. ■• Sir Henry Holland, Chap/ers on Menial Physiology (2nd edit. ), p. S2. AND ILLUSIONS. 257 thoughts — e.£., by assuming a duplex action of the cerebral hemispheres.^ Cramer's explanation has already been given (cf. page 183). Grashey^ takes quite a different view of the matter. He finds that the difference between the two pro- cesses corresponding respectively to sensory percep- tion and ideation is not, as I think, in kind, but consists, firstly, in the different degree of intensity, and, secondly, in the feeling of the connection between our memory-images and the earlier memory-images which called them forth; in the connection of our present thought with the chain of our thoughts, with its predecessors, which gave birth to it. (Physiologi- cally, the process of association corresponds to this feeling.) An excitation proceeding neither from the peripheral organs nor through the association- channels of the cerebral cortex, he calls a hallu- cinatory excitation ; every sensation produced by such excitation a hallucinatory sensation, and every perception composed of hallucinatory sensations a complete hallucination;* he considers as illusions all perceptions arising out of hallucinatory sensa- tions combined with sensations coming from the peripheral sense-organs. If the two above-mentioned criteria are lost to the consciousness (as, e.£:, in sleep) no genuine hallucination arises, but, e.g:, a hypnagogic fallacy of judgment. The surprisingly clear and definite form assumed by the memory-pictures of objects looked at for some hours is caused, first, by a state of irritation in the corresponding parts ' See above, pp. 180-184. - o w . •sz, ^ o 2 " ^JLS APPENDIX. 361 ►J pa < 4 VO so LO 1-4 Ov <> d CO 00 H.* v w w V ■a! •5 ■* N ^^ vD 00 tv 10 m vO s vq_ VO 00 N H *"' CO § m „ to OS M M CO CO vO CO § i^ CO vO" If M "S- I^ r- m N d (< d ^ CO ii w ■-^ Ov t^ 00 a M M -a- CO rt q_ CO •* CO >- > !S t-t *-l S o ,. 3 2 o J2 bt p u ^•«'*= E S -SJ ,&^ rt "oJ rt rt CU c " "^ — .» — E.B£|g O 4J O M " - ' c ■a.S CO V w O cj 00 ■g^oU 5 S IS ^ -2 .a ■o o.'S ^ j2 g ;; rt oj -^ pp. "ie vw > n, :: Sv- s-=''g = 5 B^ S-S « S S- g g jj » =; .S ^ — H ? g-a o B ^ g u J3 S - ° "^Z-i I. B . S o k" 01 V rt 362 APPENDIX. TABLE II. Waking Hallucinations classified according to the Sense affected, and according to the kind of Percept. Preliminary Obsetvations. — While in Table I. the number of persons experiencing hallucinations is in question, the following table concerns the number of hallucinations reported, the two sets of numbers differing from one another, as not a few persons have more than one such experience to report. Each separately described hallucina- tion is reckoned by itself; cases occurring repeatedly, not separately described, are counted as one (e.g., in the English census in the case of in narratives of visual hallucinations given at first-hand and 29 of the same at second-hand, and in a still greater number of auditory and tactile cases. Cf. Tables V., VI., VII.) In the calculation of column 15 the number of persons answering is reduced in the same proportion as the number of affirmative answers is reduced by the omission of those answers in which no further particulars were given (Cf. Table I.). In the English census, e.g., we find 1295 cases of visual hallucinations (first and second-hand cases added together) — i.e., about 8.4 per cent, of 17,000 1684 — 190 X Tn • In the German census a detailed explanation is added to almost every affirmative answer; here all cases have been taken into consideration. As for the American census, I have not had access to the necessary statistics, which is also the case with the French. Of the latter, however, I was able to use the provisional results up to April ist, i8gi. (See Proceed. S.P.R., Part xix., pp. 264- 267.) At that time 2822 answers had been received, of APPENDIX. 363 which 472 were affirmative. As only 231 of these had explanations appended, column 15 is here reckoned from 231 2822 X = 1363. In Table II. d, therefore, 15130+1363 472 + 625 = 17118 answers are taken into account. Columns i, 2, 3, 8, and 9 contain the cases which, ac- cording to the report, belong to the most distinctly externalised, those, i.e., which looked exactly like human beings, animals, or objects. Under i, besides phantasms of the living, those apparitions whose prototype was already dead have been reckoned, if the percipient did not know of the death, and if it had taken place not more than twelve hours before the hallucination. Column 4 contains visual images incompletely developed, such as transparent, colourless, or shadowy and indistinct figures, apparitions oi parts of the human body, and figures which, though apparently having a bodily form, are veiled. By "Visions," 5, are to be understood scenes which do not appear to take place in the real surroundings of the percipient. Sometimes they are distinctly externalised, sometimes only visible to the mental eye. Column 11 contains appearances not clearly seen by the percipient, not identified by him, or to which he was unable to give a name; also such appearances as smoke, cases of dark shadows between the observer and the lamp, a black ball rising into the sky like a balloon, dnd (in the German report) sighs, or sounds like tapping at the windows, chairs falling over, etc. u o ►J < '^UUdAVliU'tJ J3 Buos-ia^f 10 '(juoo a9d suop'Bui.iniiiiH JO -wquinH ■41 M 0> CO M 14 Totals. •pu^H puooag ■puuH O CO •* 13 TOTALS •putJH imo.-ias g U» M« rn |S |g 1 o ■puVH ?B.1[J C-l I- t- .-H O ■* !■- T-i 00 to s •uoijBogisBBio ^ joj psquossp ^HuapsBHSui pliooa^S S Ill (N Tb"Ii« ""1 II 1 _. CO •saiiDuox JO o^iugopux •pu'BH puooeg 1 1 -" 1 1 II 13 1 3 •punH 3 '^ "^ 1 1 II \^ ^ CO la 10 Lights. •pUBH PU009^ ^ 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 -• ■pUL'pi 3 '^ "^ 1 1 II II 1 s •Bpafqo A a^'cmiu'eux 84iugaa •puUH pU009S " 1 1 1 1 1 1 II 1 '■' 1 1 1 II 11 1 o •pu^H »BaM _ 2 1"! 1 II II 1 •BUOT^raisddy 4 p9ddj9A9p X[9:)9iauiooLii puBH puooag SI 1" 1 II II 1 •puEH g -" S"" " " 1 11 1 M 12 3 Eealistic Phantasms, Voices, etc. m u a •puSH puoa9s ^ 1 "^ 1 1 IS IS 1 S •puBH a " '^ 3 ■" OS S ■puuH puooas S " |j ■^ f-. 00 00 CO d 1 ■* rf CO U1 ro CI 'iviox CO CO "ij- CO i-i i-« LO CO N •noi^'Bogiss'Bio .loj n 1 1 1 1 1 1 CI - ^ "" 1 1 1 s; " ? ON ■ffjil9i1 ^ " 1 1 1 1 1 1 00 OS ■sijoarqo J? ■* 1 1 1 " 1 " 10 CO CO ■BiBrainy fl 1 1 1 CO t- •saoiau'eddv snoj^suoH S>=» " 1 1 1 1 1 ON CO laqqo pu-B sia^ay s " \ 1 1 - 1 1 Id •suoisi^\ fr * 1 1 " 1 1 1 CO 'J padopAop ^p^axdiaooui in ■* CO 1 -^ , 1 1 IT '- 1 III VO so IN .2-3 •pasiuSoooanji ro 10 CO 1 Cn m vo l^ CO ■ N CO •pvoa 9rn JO tJ-lo>-i mOOVOVO "h N CO ro ■SuiATT 9qi JO ■<:f CO -"t 1 00 -^ VO t^ CO ' Ci "Visual ... Visual and Auditory Visual and Tactile . Visual and Olfactory Vis., Aud., Tactile Auditory .... Aud. and Taciilc . Tactile .... H 368 APPENDIX. Taisle III. — Hallucinations Classified according TO THE Age of the Percipient. English Census. 01 1 I f s S i Visual Hallucinations 72 217 300 143 81 40 22 S 4IS 129s Auditory Hallucina- tions . 3 42 91 38 21 14 5 — 290 504 Tactile Hallucina- tions . Total . I 76 II 270 32 423 17 198 14 116 3 57 I 28 5 64 769 143 1942 Note. — Of the 17,000 answers received in the English census, 6,521 indicated the percipient's age. The average age of these 6,521 was about 40. I have not seen the statistics of age given in the French or the American census. APPENDIX. 369 ix H •0: O, H <; w « *^ K O < 2 tn 3 1^ 8u ^« m 3 to o < u ►J H Z . o o ^ US o f= Kg z « 0= 1 V s 'BjeA\.suy AAii'era.iBffV JO 3 r-I ■SnueAvsuy BUOs.taj JO -((aao .19,1 12.9 2.2 1^ = 1 1 CCIM ll 1=1 ^1 t-i i eft ss: 1-1 1 0(M ooiH osM en, Ig^I® i-fci 1 1 1 gAnBnujjv JO 9j^69U9a.19(T suosie^ JO -ijaaa aaj CO Oi "d 1 KS3 c i 1 1 S0.5 ^ 1 ^01 t 11 1 -^ r-. r- .£ > -!» ri ^ 1 S ui r Immediately after waking . 16 24 s 4.S iS Awake in bed .... SI 41 s 77 PM Up . . . 78 64 7 149 M -^ Out-of-doors 31 SI 8 70 Unstated . I 4 8 13 § I Totals .... 157 166 29 352 1 B /'Immediately after wakirg . S S _ 8 a. < ° Awake in bed IQ 25 2 46 £ Up . . . 26 42 6 74 ^ ■< Out-of-doors Q lo- — 19 g Unstated . ... S 5 8 16 in a o 1 g V Totals .... 62 «5 16 163 ^ /-Immediately after waking . 18 10 8 35 g Awake in bed .... .V S4 5 90 ■S Up . . . . 47 42 22 III ■( Out-of-doors .SO ss 4 67 Unstated I 10 II Totals .... 126 140 49 31S /■Immediately after waking . 12 12 24 ■B-SS' Awake in bed 19 29 2 SO S. g-'S Up ... . 2^ 20 4 47 nr Out-of-doors s 12 2 19 Unstated . I I I 3 ^p^ [ Totals .... bo 74 9 143 "d ui ["Immediately after waking . 9 5 4 18 .§§ Awake in bed S 24 4 31 >a Up . . . 27 22 8 57 S-3 Out-of-doors 14 12 — 26 ■5 S Unstated 2 I 4 7 55 s I Totals .... 55 64 20 139 APPENDIX. 373 H O S n. H fc, s° < ui ;z O H S % O O w o Z S « « o o S ^ S "^ m fH O " £ S *~^ l-< en K O R ^O VO HH 0\ nu-1 ■^^O ■* Ti- ■STOox 0\ I>, t-i m ro ^ 00 ■*» ■pajBpun H UBl[) 9J0]^ Tf f^ CO HI •SMOiS Ot ?SDI 9tH "nmM \0 N 1^ CO vO rn o o •BIW|OX M PO M rn w Cl t^ o >l ■pai^nfl « VO t^ •nrh 1 M N N On aq} mqijii M PO M W 1 n • • • ,U1 • • • £=' • ■ • a w P. , Pi H o M H S ^ 0. m w a Pi H ta H O I «ro, III m •p3?«pun 1 " 1 III - ■oSb sarai 01 u'Bq( MOM •si'Bai OT qB«i emniq^M ""1 III- N "" 1 III N ■1 n 1 I •smox *i 1 00 ■pajBpnn •^00 "-) III •oSfB sj-eaX ox uieq} 310I1I (^ ON [ " 1 1 t-^ ■sreai ox ?si!i oq; U!q«A\ 00 •-. N hH w rO| 1 ^ ■* fa n •emox u-l •-« 1 " i 1 •pgi^pua «« 1 III 'i- ■OSU EI'GOX OX uuq^ 8I0W \n ^ ] " 1 1 t^ 'sa-Ga^ 01 4B'e[ oq} mqWAV 00 00 1 III o 1 > 13 •si^jox (-1 1-1 1 " 1 1 ■pe^Bpufl - 1 1 Ml - •oSu Bj'Bai OX u-Eq^ oaojij \0 fO j " 1 1 o •sarai OX ?SB1 aq? mqiiA^ =^2 1 Ml N ■°a.S II • "2 il (A Appendix. i'7S 15 u o HP o Q O g O U 3 1 00 .11 hs. Ln \0 n -a B is PI 1 O M 11 " O ii 11 «t5 1 1 - Ln n \r\ O^ O^ CO Il- ia „ - « CO 21 "-I "* u-1 a .a >i Ii la M - n vO «1 v s U-. 1- ^ 11 00 8 The apparition coin- cided with the death of the person seen ... Other coincidences No coincidence ... in J3 376 Al'fENDIX, Table VIII. b.— Munich Census. 1 it 1- TOTAI^S. The apparition coincided witli the death of the person seen .... No coincidence 2 3 3 3' 5 6 Totals 5 6 II ' These three cases (cf. Appendix I.: cases xxxi. a. b. d.) were narrated by one and the same person ; these figures, therefore, also point in the direction indicated on pp. 275 siji/. INDEX OF AUTHORS. Abercrombie, 51, 58, 59 Acker, 25, 26 Ackermann, 32 Albers, 56 Alt, 22 Anjel, 281 Aristotle, 3, 51 Arndt, 230 Arnold, 18 AschafTenburg, 48, 322 Asmus, 34 Athenodorus, 78 Atkins, 168 Aubanel, 13, 26, 30 Audin, 79 Auzouy, 2S Baginsky, 179 Bahnsen, J., 189 Baillarger, 16, 21, 23, 38, 118, 238, 244 Bakewell, 171 Ball, 16, 25, 174, 262, 266 Baren, Cohen v., 34 Barrett, F. W., 205 Bartens, 44 Bartisch, 161 Baruk, 25, 26 Beattie, 58 Beclard, 175 Becquet, 72 Behr, 4 Benedict, 3 Beneke, 189 Eennet, 33 Bergmann, 16.5 Berkhan, 85 Bernhardt, 4, 269 ii9i Bernheim, 61, 62, 104, 130, 200, 215-216, 232, 240, 278, 2S5 Bert, 131 Bessus, 80 Bidder, 131 Bielski, 157, i6o Billot, 33 Binet, iig, 130, 137, 149, 175, 198, 200, 219, 222, 230 el seq. Binz, so, 55 Blau, 8 Bleuler, 229 Blumroder, 3, 30, 33 Bodinus, 65, 77 Boens, 40 Boerhaave, 44 Boerner, 56, 57 Bois-Reymond, Dii, 131 Bones, 45 Bottentuit, 44 Bottex, 14, 33, III, 159 Bound, 19 Boureau, 44 Bourneville, 40 Brach, 201, 246 Braid, 309 Braumuller, Pater, 312 Brenner, 177 Brewster, 200 Brierre de Boismont, 14, 26, 29, 33, 34. 38. 42 el seq., 74, 77, 97, 114, 120, 202, 325 Bright, 174 Briquet, 46, 166 Broca, 269 Buccola, 177 Buch, 174 Buchholz, 50 24* 378 INDEX OF AUTHORS. Burckhardt-Pr^fargier, 253, 268 Burdach, 16, 189 Burke, 64 Burnett, 8 Busch, 162 Calmeil, 13, 37, III, 165 Campbell, W. W., 46 Carboniari, 180 Cardan, 78 Carnochan, 130 Carus, C. G., 63 Cellini, Benvenuto, Si Chabalier, 229 Chaddock, 42 Chapotot, 4 Charbonnier-Debatty, 40 Charcot, 35, 38 Charpentier, 338 Chassinat, 230 Cherbury, Lord Herbert of, 78 Christian, 23, 25 Chvosteck, 162, 222 Claus, 25 Cloquet, 29 Clouston, 165 Cohen, 4 Colowitsch, 24 ConoUy, 33 Cramer, A., 10, 31, 180 el seq., 257, 261, 270 Crichton, 12 Crocq, 40 Curtis, 168 Czerny, 178 Dagonet, 2, 25 Darwin, Erasmus, 19, 113 Daudet, 250 Dee, 66 Dehennes, 4 Delabarre, 175 Delasiauve, 44 Delboeuf, 50 Dendy, 13 Denneux, 40 Despine, 125, 168, 175 Dessoir, 66, 177, 227 Devay, 16S Dewey, 251 DiefTenbach, 45 Dietl, 46 Diez, 26 Dixey, 232 Donatus, 165 Dorvault, 46 Dresslar, 337 Du Bois-Reymond (see Bois-Rey- mond) Dufour, 137 Dumontpalier, 195 Duret, 140 Ebers, 22s Edinger, 167 Edgeworth, 274 Ehrhard, 178 Eichel, 169 Elliot, 169 Elschnig, 161 Emminghaus, 33, 44, 120 Engel, 4 Engelhardt, 39 Eppstein, 228 Erlenmeyer, 30, 161 Erk, van, 50 Esquirol, 13, 16, 18, 19, 27, 33, 123 124, 132, 144, T49, 150, 252 Eulenburg, 153 Ewald, 45 Fabian, 161 Falk, 9 Falret, 14, 2327, 32, 115, 325 Farquharson, 9 Fechner, 121, 139, 229, 308 F^r^, 129, 149, 200, 219, 222, 229, 231 Ferrier, 19, 113, 150, 165, 168, 170 Feuchtersleben, 34 Ficinus, 97 Fick, 176 Filehne, 169 Fischer, 161 Flechsig, 136, 165 Flemming, 161 Flourens, 134 Flournoy, 228, 338 Forel (Jena), 165, 245, 249, 322 Forel (Zurich), 323 Foster, 130 Fournier, 25, 113 Foville, 25, 112, 165 Franck, Franfois, 12 INDEX OF AUTHORS. 379 Kranceschi, 9 Frankl-Hochwait, v., 161 Freusberg, 46 Friedlander, 269 Friedaiann, 120, 196, 336 Friedreich, 4, 262, 26S Friedrich, J.B., UI Frbhlich, 179 Fromman, 65 Fuchs, 176 Funke, 183 Fiirer, 32, 17S. 267 Galezowsky, 4 Gall, 32 Gallon. 225 Gauthier, 46 Gelhorn, 25, 26 Giessler, 50 Gilbert, 337 Girma, 25 Gluge, 40, 131 Goethe, 2, 114 Goltz, IS7> iSi Gorham, 175 Gowers, 33, 16S Graefe, 3, 160, 161, 170, i74 Grashey, 24, 138, 15°. 252, 257 Graliolet, 246 Gregory, 33, 54 „ „. „, Griesinger, 15, 18. 21, 29-33, 7J< "'^ 114, 115, 125, 128, 160, 163, ib9 194, 202, 238, 246-247, 252, 325 Griffing, 338 Grohmann, 124 Gruber (Jassy), 224 Gruber, 260 Gruithuisen, 128 Gudden, 12 Gu^niot, 10, II Guensburg, 42 Guepin, 3 _ Gurney, I, 14, 62,82, 113, no, 1^4. 15s, 168, 232, 270, 287-288 Gutsch, 157 HAGEN, 16, 23, 25, 3i, 118, I22-I2S, 144, 161, 189, 325 Hall, Stanley, 208 Hammond, 203 Hanstn, 318 «<«(/. Haitmann, 189 llaslaui, 24 Hauptmann, G., 253 llecker, 2 lledinger, 161 lleimbeck, 9 Heis, 30S HelmhoUz, 176, 1S3, 234 Herbert of Cherbury, Lord, 78 Hering, 130, 183 Herrmann, 56. 13I) 183 Herth, i75 Heubner, 140 Heyfelder, 160 Heymans, 5 Hibbert, 13, 3" Higier, 32, 174, 204, 222 Hilbert, 9, 44 HildebrancU, 50 Himly, 8 Hitzig, 25, 113, iSl Hjertstrbm, 33 Hoche, 201 Hodgson, 104 Hoffmann, 116 Holland, Sir II., 114. 256, 265 Hoppe, 7, 17, 27, 42, 170, 177, 179. 230, 239, 258, 263 Horst, 309 Hack, 3 Hufeland, 9 Hughlings-Jackson, 33, 143 Humboldt, W. v., 189 Hmne, David, 121 Huppert, 24 Hutchinson, 222 ITARD, 178 Jackson (sec Hughlings-Jackson) Jacobs, 176 Jahn, 30S James, Win., 10, 15, 83, 87, 127, 130, 135, 137. 141 «'•!«!/•. '73. 219, 220, 232, 251, 262, 275, 288, 304 Jan, 50 Janet, 117, 224 Jendrassik, 231 Jensen, 50, 281 Jessen, 50, 281 Johnson, 165 Jolly, 133. 157. 160, 177, 222 Joseph, 65 38o INDEX OF AUTHORS. Josephus, 308 Jud^e, Ch,, 46 Jung, 26 Jupp, 256 Kaan, 32 Kahlbaum, 115-117, i8j Kandinsky, v., 16, 30, 113, 121, 137, 250-251, 253, 261, 264, 268 Kelp, 85 Kieselbach, 177 Kieser, 20 Kiesewelter, 63 Kirn, 23 Klein, 25 Klinke, 31, 259-260 Knapp, 8 Kbhler, 85 Kblle, 24 Kbppe, 123, 157, 159, 161 Kohlschutter, 17 Kolk, Schroeder van der, 1 13, 120, 281 Kraepelin, 22, 30, 31, 44, 48, 71, 72, 117, 147, 278, 280-281, 322 Krafft-EbiBg, 21, 22, 24, 27, 29, 30, 32, 33. 39. 42. "4. "6, 125, 175, 204, 247, 249, 278, 322, 32s Krause, 78 Krauss, A., 17, 52 Krauss, Th., 9 Krieger, 169 Ktohn, 230 Kiihne, 131 Kuykendael, 46 Kussmaul, 44, 182 Ladame, 269 Laehr, 325 Lamoine, 50 Lane, 64 Lang (Gross-llesselohe), 312 Lange, N., 46 Lange, 72 Langendorff, 157 Langwieser, 264 Lanne, 162 Lazarus, 133, 197 Leber, 4 Lefebvre, 40 Lcsue, 37 Lehert, 166 Lchmann, 229, 317 ^^ seq. Leland, 70 Lelut, 14, 28, 77, III Lemoine, 50 Lepsius, 225 Leubuscher, III, 120, 163, 203 Leuret, 2, 14, III, 252 Levinstein, 4 Lewin, 8 Linstow, 25 Lipps, 5, 340 Lissauer, K. , 4 Lissauer, 135 Locher-Zwingli, 161 Lochus, 3 Lockemann, 180 Lombroso, 77, 126, 199 Londe, 21 Longet, 134 Lotze, 189 Lowell, J. R., 282 Lucae, 178, 179 Lussana, 202 Luys, 27, 113, 165, 168 Mabille, 174 Macario, 112 Maccabees, 308 Mach, 8 Macnish, 50 MagQan, 43, 175, 194 Magne, 160 Manonry, 80 Marandon de Montyel, 23 Marc, 28 Mari, 9 Marillier, L., 83, 87, 276, 359 Martin, A., 9 Martini, De, 9 Maury, 17, 50, 51, 53, 57, 143 Mauthner, v., 9 Mayer, A., 17, 46 Menardiere, Pilet de la, 37 Mendel, 21, 23, 25, 26, 48, 150, 161, 166 Mendoza, F. Suarez de, 230 Mercurialis, 178 Meschede, 165, 180 Meyer, 3 Meyer, G. IL, 129 Meyer, L., 2, 26, 33, 120 Meynert, 23, 113, 121, 138, 140 el seq., 177, 181 INDEX OF AUTHORS. 381 Mich^a, 2, 13, 17, 20, 27, 30, 32-34, 38, 16s, 202, 323 Michel, 28, 265 Mickle, 25, 26, 165 Mitchell, Weir, 10, 12, 239 MoUer, 114 Moll, 19, 59, 92, 205 et set]., 209, 218, 231, 24s, 28s, 326 Monakow, 12, 126, 132 Moos, 178 Morel, 17, 25, 159, 180 Moreau (de Tours), 13, 20, 38, 45, 46, 143, 263 Morselli, 335 Mourly-Vold, 50, 55, 247 Moxon, 9 MilUer, 338 Muller, C. F., 56 Muller, F. C. , 48 Muller, Fr., 13b Muller, J., 16, 110, 114, 159, 165, 169, 192 MUnsterberg, 142, 145, 198 Munk, 113, 134, 13s, 181 Myers, 63, 66, 70, 77, 116, 227, 262 Nancy School, 196 Naunyn, 269 Neiglick, 229 Nelson, 300 Neumann, iii, 120, 150, 281 Newton, 169 Nicolai, 256 Nothnagel, 268, 269 Nussbaumer, 229 Obermeyer, 26 Obersteiner, 26 Ochorowicz, 61 Ottolenghi, 126 Ottway, 309 Paget, 33 Paracelsus, 70 Parant, 265 Pare, 10 Parinaud, 199 Paterson, 128, 166 Pelman, 137 Perrond, 229 Perty, 41, 75, 77, 310, 311 Pfaff, 188 Pfliiger, 153 Philippe, 249 Pick, 136, 200, 202, 265, 269 Pico della Mirandola, 65 Pierson, 269 Pieraccini, 203 Pierce, 287 Piesse, 38 Pilet de la Menardiere, 37 Plater, 19, 178 Plato, 77, 190 Plutarch, 80 Pod more, 274, 315 Poe, E. A., 303 Pohl, 120 Politzer, 164, 186 Pollnow, 179 Polli, 45 Pooley, 168 Popp, 44 Pratt, 306 Prel, Du, II, 67 Preyer, 46, 153, 176, 182 Procopius, 80 Prosper-Alpin, 41 Pupke, 4 Purkinje, 50, 55, 169 QUADRI, 179 Quincey, De, 46 Radestock, 15, 41, 50, 56, 188, iS 211, 246 Rause, F. de, 230 Rawlinson, 242 Rech, 46 Regis, 25, 44, 175 Reil, 120, 202 Reinhard, 165 Rells, 63, 210 Reubold, 52 Richer, 35-38, 45 Richet, 272 Richter, 164 Rieger, 181 Ringer, Sidney, 85 Ringier, 61 Rist, 66 Ritti, 25, 113 Rizet, 10 382 INDEX OF AUTHORS. Robertson, Alex., 32 Roger, 269 Romberg, 123, 165 Rose, 9, 32 Rosenbach, 254 Rosenbaum, 153 Royce, 277 Rudolphi, 124 Ruf, 159 Sander, 3, 23, 25, 33, i(j6, 180, 246, 281 Sandras, 114 Saury, 26 Sauvage, 19, 169 Savage, 29, 54, 174, 2ii Schaller, 120 Schech, 56 Schemer, 50, 52 Schiff, 134 Schiller, 193 Schirmer, 167 Schlager, 29, 132 Schleiermacher, 4S Schmiedekam, 179 Schmidt-Rimpler, 160 Scholz, 164, 173 Schbnthal, 30 Schrader, 134 Schrenck-Nouing, 29, 35, 41, 45, 83, 187, 196, 246, 344 (App. I.), 359 Schroder, 4 Schroeder van der Kolk (see Kolk) SchrofF, 46 Schiile, 16, 25, 110, 121, 124, 125, 165, 203 Schunk, 33 Schwabach, 179 Schwarze, 177, 173 Schwann, 131 Searle, 244 ' Seashore, 191, ■^j'jT et seq. Seemann, 41 S^glas, 21, 32, 264 S^mal, 40 Sepilli, 203 Sequin, 128 Sergi, 126 Serieux, 269 Sichel, 160 Sidgwick, 82, 359 Sidgwick, Mrs., 232, 293, 320 Siebeck, 50 Siebert, 50 Siemens, 1'"., IS7 Simon, 25 Simon, M., 159 Simonowitsch, 203 Sims, 287 Sinogovitz, 158, 174 Snell, 22 Sommer, 320 Souchon, 32, 17s Sous, G., 161 Spencer, 44 Spina, 38, 44, 50, SI, 52. 57-59. 7o, 189 StauRer, 12 Steinbrligge, 229-230 Stellwag, von Carion, 4 Stenger, 165 Stinde, Jul., 230 Strahl, M., 56 Strieker, 121, 133, 137, 182 Strong, 191 Striimpell, 50 Stucki, Peter, 75 Studer, 310 Suarez de Mendoza (see Mendoza), 230 Sully, 4, 54 Swieten, Van, 9 Syzianko, 177 Szafkowski, 14, 33, 325 Tacitus, 79 Taine, 16, 118, 143 Talma, 81 Tamburini, 125, 167-168 Tasso, 81 Tavignot, 160 Thomas Aquinas, 65 Thomeuf, 24 Thomsen, 41 rhore, 26, 30, 49, 85 Tigges, 127, 166, 168, 201, 203 Tomaschevsky, 203 Toulouse, 32 Truchsess, 42 Uhthoff, 174 Ulrici, 189 Unterharnscheid, 4 Urbantschilsch, 178, 203, 229 INDEX OF AUTHORS. 3S3 Valentin, 10, 179 Vay, A. v., 246 Verga, Andr., i, 32 Virchow, 139 Vogt, 323-4 Vould, J. Mourly-, 50, 55, 247 Voisin, 25, 17s Volkelt, 50 Volkmann v. Volkmar, 234 Volta, 170 Vulpian, 131 Wagner, 50 Walker, 309 Warlomont, 40 Weber, 43 Weiss, 21, 23 Weisse, 29 Wernicke, 269 Westphal, 2, 3, 25 Weigandt, 50, 53, 54, 55, 57 Wigan, 281 Wijsmann, 120 Willbrandt, 135 Wille, 268 Winslow, 167 Wittich, 8 Wolf, 8 WolfiF, 42 Wundt, 128, 140, 154, 183, 206 et seq., 212, 216, 236, 237, 318 Wyss, 203, 210 X. (Miss), 297 Xenophon, 77 Zander, 163 Zehender, 160 Ziehen, 31, 179, 1S4, 227, 262, 266, 322 Ziemssen, 25 INDEX OF SUBJECTS. Abuomen, voices heard from, 2, 260, 265 Absinth, 43 Accelerated association, 322 After-images, 8, 96, 128-130, 173, •75. 197. 243. 248; auditory, 176, 259. Age, influence of, on hallucinations, 84, 189 Alcohol, 34, 41, 43, 7: Ambiguous stimuli, 5 Amentia, 21 Amnesia, 92 (see Forgetfulness) Anaemia, 153 Anaesthesia, 6, 211 Analgesia, 211, 216 Anxiety, 96, 191, 302, 316 Aphasia, 127, 265 Apparitions at death, 272, 286; in sky, 308-309 Association, disturbed, 138, 141, 322 (see Dissociation) ; enforced, 219, 336; obstructed, 65, 71-73. 158, 322; of ideas, 68, 72, 257, 290-291, 300, 302, 305 ; of ideas, dreams from, 50, 51 Atropin, 7, 44, 70, 202 Attention, 154, 192, 216, 217; in rapport, 205, 206, 208, 209, 213, 214, 218 Attila, 79 "Audible thinking,'' 24, 182, 184, 252, 256, 258, 259, 262, 265, 266 Auditory hallucinations, see Hallucina- tions, auditory Audition coloree (sound-seeing), 223, 227 Aura, epileptic, 33, 100 ; hysterical, 35; preceding "sensory shock," 239 Automatic articulation, 155, 259, 261- 263, 270, 322 Automatic writing, 154, 156, 261-263 Belladonna, 44 Blind, so-called "visual" hallucina- tions in the, 186, 222, 246 Borderland hallucinations, 91, 299 Bright's disease, 173 Brocken spectre, 3 Byron, 81 Cataract, :6o Catoptromancy (divination by mirror), 65 Census of hallucinations, American, 83, 275; English, 82, 87, 237, 27s ; Munich, 83, 275 ; French, 83, 87, 276 Centres of sensation and imagination identical, 133-136 Centrifugal theories, 113, 125 Centripetal theories, 132 Charles IX., 80 Chattering, spasmodic, 262, 268 Chorea, see Epidemic of dancing Chloroform intoxication, 44 Chromatisms, 223, 224 ; phonetic, measurement of, 224-227 Cinchona, 46 Clairvoyance, 273 Closing the eyes, action of, on hal- lucinations, 202-203 Coca, 34, 40 Coincidental hallucinations, see Hallu- cinations, coincidental 386 INDEX OF SUBJECTS. Collective hallucinations, see Hallu- cinations, collective Colour, associated with sound, see Audition calorie Colour-blindness, 163 Colouring of hallucinations, degrees of realism in, 246 Consciousness, dissociation of, see Dissociation Consciousness of lost limbs, 10-12 Continued dreams, 60, 61 Continued movements, 268 Complementary colours, 130, 199 (see After-images) Cramp (Kahlbaum), 183 ; co-ordin- ated (Romberg), 123 ; of the sen- sory nerves (Hagen), 123; of recog- nition (Royce), 277 ; of attention (Stanley Hall), 208 Crime caused by hallucinations, 34 Cromwell, 79 Crystal-visions, 63-70, 72, 193, 274, 297 ; indications of dream-state in, 297, 298 ; latent memories re- vived in, 66-69; "telepathic," 66, 297 Curtius Rufus, 79 Datura Stramonium, 44, 178 Deaf-mutes, "auditory " hallucinations in, 185 Defects of human organism a cause of hallucination, 6 Delusions mental, distinguished from sense-deceptions, I Delusional insanity, 23 Delirium tremens, 42, 174 Dementia, 23; acute, 21; advanced, 25; progressive, 27 Dsemoniacal possession, 37 Daemonology, 56 Dentists, unfounded charges brought against, 46; hallucinations of pain noted by, 240 Descartes, 78 Devil, see Hallucinations of Diplopia, 3 Divination by crystals, mirrors, etc., 63.65 Doubling of hallucination by pressure on eye, 200-202; by prism, see Prism Disappearance of hallucinations on closing eyes, 202, 203 Dissociation of consciousness, 7I> 75) 92. 93. 99. 103. 106, 138, 141, 147, 148, 152, 153, 211; induced by automatic movements, fixed gazing, etc., 96, 99; degrees of, 73. 156, 158, 324; partial, 322, 324 ; sense of time lost in, 100, 105 Dreams, 30, 50 etc., 59, 109, 157, 192; artificially induced, 57; caused by association of ideas (Spitta), 50, 51; caused by nerve- stimulation (Spitta), 50, 51, 52, 53, 102; hypnotic, 59; hypnotic, guidance of, 60; sense of unreality in, 254 Dream-state, 50, 292, 298 (see Dissociation) Drusus, 79 Ear disease, i6i, 263, 267-268 Early theories of hallucination, 1 10 Eccentric projection, 9, 115, 125, 127, 248 Ecstasy, 38, 39, 40, 211 Elementary sensations, see Noises in ear, ocular spectra, etc. Entoptic phenomena, see Ocular spectra Entotic sounds, see Noises in ear Epidemic of dancing, 36, 37 Epidemic hallucinations, see Hallu- cinations, epidemic Epilepsy, 33, 34, 74, 143, 167, 180, 19s Epileptic aura, see Aura, epileptic Ether, 44, 187, 267 Euphoria, 38, 50 Exhaustion, 35 (see Fatigue) ; of brain-elements, 153, 192 Expectancy, 94, 95 Fainting from terror, 99 Fallacious perception, physiological process in, 144 ; psychological con- ception of, 12, 17 ; sensory character of, 112, 322 (see Hallucination) Faradisation, 12 Fata morgana, 3 Fatigue, 6, 7, 239 INDEX OF SUBJECTS. 387 Fever-delirium, i)g, 74, 237 Fixed attention, 154, 213, 216, 217 Fixed gaze, 95, 99 Fixed ideas, 27, 38 Fly agaric, 40, 44 Folic circulaire, 22, 267 Forgetfulness, 108, 289, 299 Fox, G., 79 Galvanism, effect on auditory sense, 162, 176, 177, 222 Gastromancy, 65 General paralysis, 24, 26, 28, 73 Giddiness, 7 (see Vertigo) Gigantic apparitions, 44, 79, 93, 202 Greek idea of soul, 246 Grief, 96 Hallucinations — auditory, 23, 24, 30, 35, 44, 46, 49, 107, 108, IM, 157. 161, 178, 188, 195, 222, 238, 263 auditory, in brain lesions, 268-269 auditory, in disease of ear, 267-268 auditory, in deaf mutes, 185 auditory, in electrical stimulation, 222 auditory, experimental, 70, 7li auditory, in paranoia hallucinatoria, 23 auditory, rhythmic, 266, 267 auditory, see "Audible Thinking," Voices, etc. of artists, 38, 80, 81 "borderland," 90, 299 coincidental, 103, 272, 286-288, 293-298, 315 collective, 94, 307, 313, 316 a cause of crime, 34 of childhood, 30, 85 of the cutaneous sensibility, 29, 54 definition of, 15 differences of character in, 73 degrees of externalisation in, 236, 237, 238-248 distorted, 202 of devil, 33, 36, 37, 39, 80, 190 early accounts of, 77-80 enlarged, see Magnifying-glass preceding epilepsy, 100 epidemic, 190, 308, 310-313 erotic, 35, 44, 46, 48 Hallucinations — Continued, induced by exposure and fatigue, 6, 7, 74. 75 in hemianopsy, 128, 134, 136, 202 heredity in, 72, 88, 89 in hemiansEsthesia, 35 hypnagogic, 74, 93, 94, 117. "9. IS7. 29s. 297 in hypnosis, 58, 60, 61, 195, 198, 248, 249, 285, 300 in hysteria, 34-36, 72, 164 and illusion, author's definition, 148, 149 and illusion, Esquirol's distinction, 18, 19, 20 of insanity, :6, 20, 27, 29, 183, 322 international census of, see Census of intoxication, 41 (see Alcohol) of more than one sense, 31, 107. no, 237 of the muscular sense, 29, 180, 183, 184 of moving objects, 35, 128, 129, 233 of memory, 117, 230, 277, 323 negative, 20, 203-207, 212, 214, 215, 217-219, 326 olfactory, 27, 28, 46, 49, 53, 54, 62, 179, 180, 229, 239, 241 of the organic sense, 29 of pain, 240 post-hypnotic, 61, 62, 72, 323 in psychoneurosis, 32, 33 reflected, see Crystal-visions, Mirror religious, 38, 39, 77-80, 312 rudimentary, 108, no, in, 123 retroactive, 285 in somatic disease, 48, 49 sporadic, in the sane, 20, 278 of taste, 27, 28, 49, 241 tactile, 28, 35, 62, 105, 107, 108 unilateral, 32, 123, 128, 164, 174, visual, 30, 35, 107, 108, 197, 222- 230, 241; visual, voluntarily in- duced, 194 (see Crystal-visions, Visions, etc.) Hallucinatory colours, 200 ; conversa- tions, 265-266 Haschisch, 40, 45, 48, 187 Health, 88 Hemiopia, 166 Heredity, 72, 88; in syncesthesia, 229 388 INDEX OF SUBJECTS. Hobbes, 73 Hydromancy (divination by water), 65 Ilypersesthesia, 27, 133, 141, 167, 208; of retina, 8, 177, 239, 260, 267 Hypnotism, see Hallucinations in hypnosis ; also Rapport ; its ser- vices to psychology; and Nancy School Hypochondriasis, 2, 25 Hysteria, see Hallucinations in Icterus, 8 " Identifying " fallacy (Kraepelin), 280 Identity, mistakes of, 83, 193, 291; of sensory and ideational centres, 133-136 Idiopathic and symptomatic hallucina- tions, 20 Illusions, 257 Illusions (in Esquirol's sense], 18, 20, 234, 237, 291, 326; (author's definition), 148, 149 Inanition, 72, 160 Individual or idiosyncratic fallacies of perception, 12, 336 Inhibition, 141, 152 Insanity, hallucinations of, see Hallu- cinations of insanity Integritatsgefiihl (feeling of spiritual unity, Du Prel), 11 Intra-aural sounds, see Noises in the ear Involuntary speaking, 182, 183 (see "Audible thinking") Involuntary whispering in telepathic experiments, 318 Joan ok Arc, 39 Julian the Apostate, 65, 79 Lead-poisoning, 44 Lecanomancy, 65 Light-chaos or light-dust, 168, 169 Localisation theories, 137 Loyola, 79 Luther, 79 Macroptic vision, 202 Magnifying-glass, hallucinations en- larged by, 69, 150, 231, 232 Mania, 22, 71, 73 Marie de Moerl, 39 Melancholia attonita, 21, 211 Memory, delusions or fallacies of, 104, 105, 106, 283, 316; hallucinations of, see Hallucinations of memory ; loss of, see Amnesia ; memory- spasms (Friedreich), 262, 268 ; memories revived in dreams and . crystal-visions, 51, 66 Meningitis, 163, 167 Mental and sensory delusions distin- guished, I, 2 Mercury-poisoning, 44 Microscope, 118 Mirage, 308 Mirror reflecting hallucination, 95, 150, 200, 231, 232, 296, 298 Mirror-writing, 67, 262 Misreading of words (Miinsterberg's experiments), 198 Montana, 80 Mutism, 184 Myopia, 163 Nancy School of Hypnotism, 196 Nationality in hallucination, 85 Negative hallucinations, 20, 203, 204, 205, 206, 207, 212, 214, 215, 217, 218, 219, 326 Neurasthenia, 32 Neuritis optica, 164, 174 Nicotine poisoning, 169, 239 Nightmare, 56 Nitrous oxide, 46 Noises in the ear, 177-178, 258, 267 Number habit, 318 Nystagmus, 202 Objectivaiicn des types, 60 Ocular spectra, 159, 170 Olfactory hallucinations, see Hallu- cinations, olfactory Onychomancy, 65 Opium, 34, 40, 46, 48, 187 Optic nerve, degeneration of, 165 Optical paradoxes, 5) 340 Organic or common sensation, 6, 29, SS. IS7. 158, 187 Ovarian disease, 29 Over-work, 95 INDEX OF SUBJECTS. 389 Paralysis, 26, 28, 73, 166 Paranoia, 23, 62 Paitesthesia, 6, 25, 29 Pascal, 78 Pathological states, hallucinations in, 6, 8, etc. Peritonitis, 2 Perceptions, objective and subjective, distinguished, i " Phantasticon " (Joh. MlUler), 114 Point de repire (Binet), 149, 213, 220, 231, 232, 233; new conception of, 23s. 314 Poisons as a cause of dissociation, 153; narcotics, etc., specific action of, 46,47 Post - hypnotic hallucinations, see Hallucinations, post-hypnotic Pressure on the eye-ball, 170, 200, 201 Prism, experiments with, 130, 150, 200, 231, 232 Pseudo-hallucinations, 249 Pseudo-recognition, 277 Psychic blindness, 215, 216 " Psychic elements," 326, 329 Psychical Research, Society for, 82, 273, 292 Raphael, 80 Rapport, 204-212 Reading, prolonged, 98 Reflex hallucinations (Kahlbaum), 117 Reflex sensations, see Synsesthesia " Refluent " nerve-currents, 125, 126, 131 Repioduction, organs of, 29 "Retinal action" in hallucination, 125, 128, 130, 199-202 Retroactive hallucinations, 285 Reverberation of impression, 7 Rudimentary hallucinations, see Hal- lucinations, rudimentary Saints, hallucinations of, 32, 39, 325 Salpetriire School of hypnotism, 196 Santonin, 8, 46 Savonarola, 78 Scheme of physiological process in false perception, 144 Schumann, 81, 338 Scott, W., 81 Selection, involuntary, in Census In- quiry, 288 Self-suggestion in hypnosis, 208 Sensory and mental delusions dis- tinguished, I, 2 Septimius Severus, 65 Severn, Mrs., 240 Sex in hallucination, 83, 1S4 Shell-hearing, 70 Signes rSducteurs (Taine), 1 1 S Smell, hallucinations of, see Hallu- cinations, olfactory Socrates, 77 Solitude, 96-157 Somnambulism, 34 Sound-seeing, see Audition coIorSe Spasm of apperception (Royce), 277 Spasmodic chattering, 262, 268 " Speaking with tongues," 262 Starting factor in hallucination, 231 Subliminal consciousness, 66, 70 Subconscious ideas, 51, 194 Suggesting factor in hallucination, 231 Suggestion, 26, 94 (see Rapport); " retinal action " accounted for by, 199 Swedenborg, 39 Synaesthesia, 221, 228, 229 Tabes, 2 Telepathic hallucinations, 272 - 292, 316; experimental, 241, 317 Telepathic crystal-visions, 66 ; impres- sion, definition of, 274 Telepathy, 76, 190, 201, 241, 272, 274. 301. 313. 3J7> 320. 335 Temperament, 1S8 Terror, 34, 45, 250, 251 Theodoric, 80 Thought-transference, 317 (see Tele- pathy) Tobacco, 169, 239 " Training " in hypnotic subject, 220 " Transferred " sensations, 241 Tumours in the brain, 167, 174, 180 Typhoid fever, 8 Typhus-delirium, 34, 49 Unilateral hallucinations, see Hal- lucinations, unilateral Universal fallacies of perceptions, 3, 336. 337. 341 390 INDEX OF SUBJECTS. Vbrmin, reptiles, etc., hallucinations of, 35. 41. 42, 43 Veridical hallucinations, 230, 272, etc. Vertigo, 44, 261 Visions, 38, 39, 79, 80, 188, 189 Visual hallucinations, see Hallucina- tions, visual. Visions, Crystal visions, etc. Voices, heard by insane, 2, 24, 32, 182, 238, 260, 265; in delirium tremens, 43 ; in fever delirium, 49 Waking hallucinations, 76, 77, 82, S31 287, 300; international census of, 82 et seq., 109, 242, 275, 287 Weight, hallucinations of, 337-340 Whispering, dreams produced by, 58; whispering, unconscious, in tele- pathic experiments, 318 Witches and witchcralt, 36, 37, 56, 80, 190 Witches' salves and philtres, 41 Xanthopsia (yellow vision), 8 ZOETROPE, 7 Zigzag figure in migraine, 173 PRINTED BY WALTER SCOTT, LIMITED, NEWCASTLE-ON-TYNE. NEW BOOKS IMPORTED BY CHARLES SCR/BNER'S SONS, NEW YORK CITY. GREAT WRITERS. A NEW SERIES OF CRITICAL BIOGRAPHIES OF FAMOUS WRITERS OF EUROPE AND AMERICA. LIBRARY EDITION. . 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Starting from the early periods of each literature — in Italy, for instance, from the fourteenth century, with Boccaccio, Sacchetti, and Parabosco; in France with the amusing Fabliaux of the thirteenth century ; in Germany from Hans Sachs j characteristic sketches, stories, and extracts from contemporary European and other writers whose genius is especially that of humour or esprit will be givea Indicating and suggesting a view and treatment of national life from a particular standpoint, each volume will contain matter suggestive of the development of a special and important phase of national spirit and character, — namely, the humorous. Proverbs and maxims, folk-wit, and folk -tales notable for their pith and humour, will have their place; the eccentricities of modern newspaper humour will not be overlooked. Each volume will be well and copiously illustrated j in many cases artists of the nationalities of the literatures represented will illustrate the volumes. To each volume will be prefixed an Introduction critically disengaging and marking the qualities and phases of the national humour dealt with ; and to each will be appended Notes, biographical and explanatory. '•^V, '"■*.< , i -^ i fi^ 4;-. -'1.*^^':'' LIBRARY OF HUMOUR Cloth Elegant, Large \2tno, Frice $1.25 /«>- vol. VOLUMES ALREADY ISSUED. THE HUMOUR OF FRANCE. Translated, with an Introduction and Notes, by Elizabeth Lee. With numerous Illustrations by Paul Fr^nzeny. "From Villon to Paul Verlaine, from dateless /aWz'oaj: to news- papers fresh from the kiosk, we have a tremendous range of selections." — Birmingham Daily Gazette. " French wit is excellently represented. We have here examples of Villon, Rabelais, and Moliere, but we have specimens also of La Rochefoucauld, Regnard, Voltaire, Beaumarchais, Chamfort, Dumas, Gautier, Labiche, De Banville, Pailleron, and many others. . . , The book sparkles from beginning to end. " — ff/ai« (Londpn). THE HUMOUR OF GERMANY. Translated, with an Introduction and Notes, by Hans Miiller-Casenov. With numerous Illustrations by C. E. Brock. An excellently representative volume. — Daily Telegraph (London). "Whether it is Saxon kinship or the fine qualities of the collec- tion, we have found this volume the most entertaining of the three. Its riotous absurdities well overbalance its examples of the oppres- sively heavy. . . . The national impulse to make fun of the war correspondent has a capital example in the skit from Julius Stettenheim." — New York Independent, New York : Charles Scribner's Sons. THE HUMOUR OF ITALY. Translated, with an In- troduction and Notes, by A. Werner. With 50 Illustrations and a Frontispiece by Arturo Faldi. "Will reveal to English readers a whole new world of literature.'' — Athenaeum (London). " Apart from selections of writers of classical reputation, the book contains some delightful modern short stories and sketches. We may particularly mention those by Verga, Capuana, De Amicis. . . . Excellent also are one or two of the jokes and 'bulls' which figure under the heading of newspaper humour." — Literary WorldiX^is&aa). THE HUMOUR OF AMERICA. Selected, with a copious Biographical Index of American Humorists, by James Barr. " There is not a dull page in the volume ; it fairly sparkles and ripples with good things.' — Manchester Examiner, THE HUMOUR OF HOLLAND. Translated, with an Introduction and Notes, by A. Werner. With numerous Illustrations by Dudley Hardy. "There are some quite irresistible pieces in the volume. The illustrations are excellent, and the whole style in which the book is produced reflects credit on the publishers." — British Weekly. "There are really good things in the book — things of quaint or prettyfancy, things of strong or subtle satire. . . . Even Mark Twain, in ' Tom Sawyer and ' Huck Finn,' does not show a finer knowledge of the humours of imaginative boyhood than is displayed by Conrad van der Liede in ' My Hero.' " — Daily Chronicle. THE HUMOUR OF IRELAND. Selected by D. J. O'Donoghue, With numerous Illustrations by Oliver Paque. "A most conscientiously, exhaustively, excellently compiled book; the editor could not have done his work better. . . . Every genre of Irish Humour as it is, or has been, written, from the twelfth century down to the evening-newspaper age." — The Speaker (London). THE HUMOUR OF SPAIN. Translated, with an Intro- duction and Notes, by S. Taylor. With numerous Illustrations. THE HUMOUR OF RUSSIA. Translated, with Notes, by E. L. Boole, and an Introduction by Stepniak. With 50 Illustrations by Paul Frtezeny. THE HUMOUR OF JAPAN. Translated, with an Introduction, by A. M. With Illustrations by George Bigot (from Drawings made in Japan). The Contemporary Science Series. Edited by Havelock Ellis. Crown 8z'o, Cloth. Price %\.2t, per Volume. I. THE EVOLUTION OF SEX. By Prof. Patrick Geddes and J. A. Thomson. With go Illustrations. Second Edition. " The authors have brought to the task — as indeed their names guarantee —a wealth of knowledge, a lucid and attractive method of treatment, and a rich vein of picturesque language." — Nature. II. ELECTRICITY IN MODERN LIFE. By G. W. de TUNZELMANN. With 88 Illustrations. '• A clearly-written and connected sketch of what is known about elec- tricity and magnetism, the more prominent modern applications, and the principles on which they are based." — Saturday Review. in. THE ORIGIN OF THE ARYANS. By Dr. Isaac Taylor. Illustrated. Second Edition. '' Canon Taylor is probably the most encyclopaedic all-round scholar now living. His new volume on the Origin of the Aryans is a first-rate example of the excellent account to which he can turn his exceptionally wide and varied information. . . . Masterly and exhaustive." — Pall Mall Gazette. IV. PHYSIOGNOMY AND EXPRESSION. By P. Mante- GAZZA. Illustrated. "Brings this highly interesting subject even with the latest researches. . . . Professor Mantegazza is a writer full of life and spirit, and the natural attractiveness of his subject is not destroyed by his scientific handling of it." Literary /^ar/i:^ (Boston). V. EVOLUTION AND DISEASE. By J. B. Sutton, F.R.C.S. With 135 Illustrations. "The book is as interesting as a novel, without sacrifice of accuracy or system, and is calculated to give an appreciation of the fundamentals of pathology to the lay reader, while forming a useful collection of illustrations of disease for medical reference." — -Jo^mal of Mental Science. VL THE VILLAGE COMMUNITY. By G. L. Gomme. Illustrated. " His book will probably remain for some time the best work of reference for facts bearing on those traces of the village community which have not been effaced by conquest, encroachment, and the heavy hand, of Roman law." — Scottish Leader. VII. THE CRIMINAL. By Havelock Ellis. Illustrated. "An ably written, an instructive, and a most entertaining book." — Law Quarterly ReTiiem. " The sociologist, . the philosopher, the philanthropist, the novelist- all, indeed, for whom the study of human nature has any attraction — will find Mr. Ellis full of interest and suggestiveness." — Academy. VIII. SANITY AND INSANITY. By Dr. Charles Mercier. Illustrated. " He has laid down the institutes of insanity." — Mind. "Taken as a whole, it is the brightest book on the physical side of mental science published in our time." — Pall Mall Gazette, IX. HYPNOTISM. By Dr. Albert Moll. Fourth Edition. " Marks a step of some importance in the study of some difficult physio- logical and psychological problems which have not yet received much attention in the scientific world of England." — Nature, X. MANUAL TRAINING. By Dr C. M. Woodward, Director of the Manual Training School, St. Louis. Illustrated. " There is no greater authority on the subject than Professor Woodward." — Manchester Guardian. XI. THE SCIENCE OF FAIRY TALES. By E. Sidney Hartland. " Mr. Hartland's book will win the sympathy of all earnest students, both by the knowledge it displays, and by a thorough love and appreciation of his subject, which is evident throughout." — Spectator. XII. PRIMITIVE FOLK. By Elie Reclus. "An attractive and useful introduction to the study of some aspects of ethnograpy. " — Nature. " For an introductipn to the' study of the questions of property, marriage, government, religion, — in a word, to the evolution of society, — this little volume will be found most convenient." — Scottish Leader. XIII. THE EVOLUTION OF MARRIAGE. By Professor Letourneau. "Among the distinguished French students of sociology. Professor Letour- neau has long stood in the first rank. He approaches the great study of man free from bias and shy of generalisations. To collect, scrutinise, and appraise facts is his chief business. In the volume before us he shows these qualities in an admirable degree. ... At the close of his attractive pages he ventures to forecast the future of the institution of marriage." — Science. XIV. BACTERIA AND THEIR PRODUCTS. By Dr. G. Sims Woodhead. Illustrated. " An excellent summary of the present state of knowledge of the subject." — Lancet. XV. EDUCATION AND HEREDITY. By J. M. Guyau. ,"It is at once a treatise on sociology, ethics, and paedagogics. It is doubtful whether among all the ardent evolutionists who have had their say on the moral and the educational question any one has carried forward the new doctrine so boldly to its extreme logical consequence." — Professor Sully in Mind. XVI. THE MAN OF GENIUS. By Prof. Lombroso. Illu^ trated. "By far the most comprehensive and fascinating collection of facts and generalizations concerning genius which has yet been brought together." —Journal of Mental Science. New York : Charles Scribnkr's Sons. XVII. THE GRAMMAR OF SCIENCE. By Prof. Karl Pearson. Illustrated. " The problems discussed with great abiUty and lucidity, and often in a most suggestive manner, by Prof. Pearson, are such as should interest all students of natural science." — Natural Science. XVIII. PROPERTY: ITS ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT. By Ch. Letourneau, General Secretary to the Anthropo- logical Society, Paris, and Professor in the School of Anthropo- logy, Paris. "M. Letourneau has read a great deal, and he seems to us to have selected and interpreted his facts with considerable judgment and learning." — Westminster Seaiew. XIX. VOLCANOES, PAST AND PRESENT. By Prof. Edward Hull, LL.D., F.R.S. " A very readable account of the phenomena of volcanoes and earth- quakes. " — Nature. XX. PUBLIC HEALTH. By Dr. J. F. J. Sykes. With numerous Illustrations. "Not by any means a mere compilation or a dry record of details and statistics, but it takes up essential points in evolution, environment, prophy- laxis, and sanitation bearing upon the preservation of public health." — Lancet. XXI. MODERN METEOROLOGY. An Account of the Growth and Present Condition of some Branches OF Meteorological Science. By Frank Waldo, Ph.D., Member of the German and Austrian Meteorological Societies, etc.; late Junior Professor, Signal Service, U.S.A. With 112 Illustrations. " The present volume is the best on the subject for general use that we have seen. " — Daily Telegraph (London). i IMPORTANT ADDITION TO THE SERIES. Price $2.50. XXII. THE GERM-PLASM : A THEORY OF HERE- DITY. By August Weismann, Professor in the University of Freiburg-in-Breisgau. With 2\ Illustrations. " There has been no work published since Darwin's own books which has so thoroughly handled the matter treated by him, or has done so much to place in order and clearness the immense complexity of the factors of heredity, or, lastly, .has brought to light so many new facts and considerations bearing on the subject." — British Medical Journal. XXIIL INDUSTRIES OF ANIMALS. By F. Houssay. With numerous Illustrations. " His accuracy is undoubted, yet his facts out-marvel all romance. Thes-; facts are here made use of as materials wherewith to form the mighty fabric of evolution. " — Manchester Guardian, New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. XXIV. MAN AND WOMAN. By Havelock Ellis. Illus- trated. New Edition. "Altogether we must congratulate Mr. Ellis upon having produced a book which, apart from its high scientific claims, will, by its straightforward simplicity upon points of delicacy, appeal strongly to all those readers outside purely scientific circles who may be curious in these matters." — Pall Mall Gazette. XXV. THE EVOLUTION OF MODERN CAPITALISM. By John A. Hobson, M.A. " Every page affords evidence of wide and minute study, a weighing of facts as conscientious as it is acute, a keen sense of the importance of certain points as to which economists of all schools have hitherto been confused and careless, and an impartiality generally so great as to give no indication of his [Mr. Hobsoh's] personal sympathies." — Pall Mall Gazette. XXVI. APPARITIONS AND THOUGHT-TRANSFER- ENCE. By Frank Podmore, M.A. " A very sober and interesting little book. . . . That thought-transference is a real thing, though not perhaps a very common thing, he certainly shows. " — Spectator. > XXVIL AN INTRODUCTION TO COMPARATIVE PSYCHOLOGY. By Professor C. Lloyd MORGAN. With Diagrams. " A strong and complete exposition of Psychology, as it takes shape in a mind previously informed with biological science. . . . Well written, ex- tremely entertaining, and intrinsically valuable." — Saturday Review. XXVIII. THE ORIGINS OF INVENTION : A Study of Industry among Primitive Peoples. By Otis T. Mason, Curator of the Department of Ethnology in the United States National Museum. "A valuable history of the development of the inventive faculty." — ' Nature. XXIX. THE GROWTH OF THE BRAIN: A Study of THE Nervous System in .relation to Education. By Henry Herbert Donaldson, Professor of Neurology in the University of Chicago. "We can say with confidence that Professor Donaldson has executed his work with much care, judgment, and discrimination." — The Lancet. XXX. EVOLUTION IN ART: As Illustrated by the Life-Histories of Designs. By Professor Alfred C. Haddon. "It is impossible to speak too highly of this most unassuming and invaluable hoo\i."— Journal Anthropological Institute. XXXI. HALLUCINATIONS AND ILLUSIONS : A Study OF THE Fallacies of Perception. By Edmund Parish. IBSEN'S DRAMAS. Edited by William Archer. l2mo, CLOTH, PRICE $1.25 PER VOLUME. " We seem al last to be shown men and women as they are ; and at first it is more than we can endure, , . , All Ibsen's chat ctcters speak and act as if they were hypnotised, and under their creator's imperious demand to reveal themselves. There never was such a mirror held up to nature before : it is too terrible. . . . Vet we must return to Ibsen, with his remorseless surgery, his remorseless electric-light, until we, too, have grown strong and learned to face the naked — if necessary, the flayed and bleeding^reality." — Speaker (London). Vol. I. "A DOLL'S HOUSE," "THE LEAGUE OF YOUTH," and "THE PILLARS OF SOCIETY." With Portrait of the Author, and Biographical Introduction by Willi amArcher. Vol. n. "GHOSTS," "AN ENEMY OF THE PEOPLE," and "THE WILD DUCK." With an Introductory Note. Vol. in. " LADY INGER OF OSTRATj" "THE VIKINGS AT HELGELAND," "THE PRETENDERS." With an Introductory Note and Portrait of I^sen. Vol. IV. "EMPEROR AND GALILEAN." With an Introductory Note by William Archer. Vol. V. " ROSMERSHOLM," "THE LADY FROM THE SEA," "HEDDA GABLER." Translated by William Archer. With an Introductory Note. Vol. VL "PEER GYNT: A DRAMATIC POEM." Authorised Translation by WILLIAM and CHARLES ARCHER. The sequence of the plays in each volume is chronological ; the complete set of volumes comprising the dramas thus presents them in chronological order. " The art of prose translation does not perhaps enjoy a very high literary status in England, but we have no hesitation in numbering the present version of Ibsen, so far as it has gone (Vols. I, and II.), among the very best achievements, in that kind, of our generation." — Academy. " We have seldom, if ever, met with a translation so absolutely idiomatic. " — Glasgow Herald. New York : Charles Scribner's Sons.