HART MEMORIAL LIBRARY CORNELL UNIVERSITY LIBRARY GIFT OF THE HART MEMORIAL LIBRARY Cornell Universitv Library AE 5.J66 1886 Johnson's (revised) universal cyclopaedi 3 1924 009 437 991 .„„. DATE DUE 5 ¥2 XI Cornell University Library The original of this book is in the Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924009437991 o JOHNSON'S -~ CREVISED) UNIVERSAL QYCLOPiEDIA: A SCIENTIFIC AND POPULAR TEEASUET USEFUL KNOWLEDGE. ILLUSTRATED WITH MAPS, PLANS, AND ENGRAVINGS. EDITORS-IN-CHIEF. FEEDEKICK A. P. B.AENAED, S.T.D., LL.D., L.H.D., M.N.A.S., PRESIDeSt of COLUMBIA COLLEGE, NEW YORK ; AENOLD^UYOT, Ph.D., LL.D., M.N.A.S., PROFESSOR OF SEOLOOY jAlD PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY, COLLEGE OF HEW JERSEY. ASSOCIATE EDITORS. Martin B. Anderson, A.M., LL.D., Fresideut of the University of Kocheeter, N. T. John G. Babnabd, A.M., LL.D., M.N.A.S., Col. U. S. Engineers, Bvt. Major-Gen. U. S. A. C. F. Chandler, Ph. D., M.D., LL.D., M. N. A. S., Frof. Anal. Chem., School of Mines, Columbia College Aaron L. Chapin, A. M., S. T. D., Fresident of Beloit College, Wisconsin Henry Dbisler, A. M., LL.D., Jay Frofeasor of Greek, Columbia College Theodore W. Dwight, A. M., LL.D., Frofeasor of Municipal Law, Columbia College OcTAvius B. Fbothingham, a. M., Late Pastor Third Unitarian Society, N. Y. City Theodore Gill, A.M., M.D., Ph.D., M.N.A.S., Frof. of Zoology, Columbian University, Washington, D. C. Asa Gray, M.D., LL.D., M.N. AS., Fisher Frofessor of Natural History, Harvard University Horace Greeley, LL.D, Founder of the New York Tribune Samuel S. Haldeman, A. M., LL.D., M. N. A. S., Prof, of Comparative Fbilology in the Univ. of Peun. William T. Harris, A. M., LL.D., Ed. of The Journal of Speculative Phil., St. Louis, Mo. Joseph Henry, LL.D., M. N. A. S., - Late Secretaiy of Smithsonian Institution Eoswbll D. Hitchcock, A. M., S. T. D., LL.D., President of the Union Theol. Sem., New York Charles P. Krauth, A.M., S.T.D., LL.D., Vice-Provost of the University of Fenn. John Le Conte, A. M., M. D., LL.D., Prof, of Physics, Univ. of California S. B. Luce, Eear-Admiral, U. S.JJ. George P. Marsh, LL.D., M. N. A. S., Late Minis, Flenipo. of U. S. at Rome, Italy John S. Newberry, M. D., LL.D., M. N. A. S., Prof, of Geology and Palaeontology, Columbia College WiLLARD Parker, A. M., M. D., LL.D., Professor of Surgery, Columbia College, Med. Dept. William G. Peck, A. M., LL.D., Professor of Astronomy and Mathematics, Columbia College John D. Philbrick, LL.D., D. 0. L., Late Supt. of Public Schools of Boston Philip Schapp, Ph. D., S. T. D., LL.D., Baldwin Prof, of Sacred Lit., Union Theol. Sem., N. Y. Julius H. Seelyb, A.M., S.T.D., LL.D:, President of Amherst College, Mass. AiNSWORTH E. Spofford, LL.D., Librarian of Congress William Staunton, S.T.D., Founder and First Beet, of St. Peter's Church, Brooklyn, N. Y. Alexander H. Stephens, A.M., LL.D., Of Georgia, Member 43d Congress, U. S. A. Abel Stevens, A. M., LL.D., ' Formerly Editor of the Methodist, New York Thomas O. Summers, S. T. D., LL.D., Late Professor of Syst. Theol., Vanderbilt Univ., Tenn. Wm. p. Trowbridge, A.M., Ph.D., LL.D., M.N.A.S., Prof, of Engineering, Columbia College Theodore D. Woolsey, S.T.D., LL.D., Ex-President of Yale College, Conn, ASSISTANT EDITORS. Porter C. Bliss, A. M., L. P. Bbockett, A.M., M.D., George Chase, LL.B., Clarence Cook, Prop. E. D. Hudson, Jr., M. D., Clemens Petersen, A. M., John N. Pomeroy, LL.D. WITH NUMEROUS CONTRIBQTIONS FROM WRITERS OF DISTINGUISHED EMINENCE IN EVERY DEPARTMENT OF LETTERS AND SCIENCE IN THE UNITED STATES AND IN EUROPE. ^m^kk i» '^W ^m^ f ^Iw ^Mmt^ huMm %WW^^^* VOL. I. ^. A^ — Oereus. (TESTIMONIALS AT THE END OF LAST VOLUME.) NEW YORK: J. JOHISrSON^ & CO., llfcREAT JONES STREET, NEAR BROADWAY. M. T. BEOWN, DAVENPOET, IA. MDCCCLXXXVI. (J:^ . COPPER-PLATE MPS ESPECIALLY EN&RAVED FOR JOHNSON'S CYCLOPEDIA, r, _ o^,ji Africa. Alabama. Alaska Territoiy. Arizona Territory. Arkansas. Asia. Australia. California. Canada. Centre of U. 8. Pop. Colorado. Connecticut. ' Dakota Territory. Delaware. District of Columbia. Europe. Europe nnder the Eomans. Europe under Carlo vingians. Europe under Napoleon I. Europe, Languages of. Florida. France. Georgia. German Empire. A Name. Great Britain and Ireland. Greece. Idaho Territory. Illinois. Indiana. Indian Territory. Iowa. - ■ ' - Kansas. Kentucky. Louisiana. Maine. Maryland. Massachusetts. Michigan. Minnesota. Mississippi. Missouri. Montana Territory. Mts. and Eirers of the World. National Emblems. Nebraska. Nevada. New Hampshire. New Jersey. New Mexico Territory. PHTSIGAL MAPS OP THE WORLD. yi Name. New. York. Nortli America. North Carolina. Ohio. Oregon. Pennsylvania. Ehode Island. Eussia. South America. South Carolina. Stellar Type Spectra. Switzerland. Tennessee. Texas. Turkey. ■ United States. Utah Territory. Vermont. Virginia. Washington Territory. "W^jest Virginia. Wisconsin. World. Wyoming' Tervitoiy. ^l Principal Mountains, Plateaus, and Plains, Distribution of Temperature of the Air. Lines of Equal Magnetic Declination. Ocean Currents and Great Elver Basins. Tidal Wave and Distribution of Volcanoes. Circulation of Winds and Course of Storms. Distribution of Bain over the Globe. Distribution of Forest Trees,. Plants, and Minerals. -•-^«^*^ihas published "Jesus of Nazareth, His Life and Teachings" (1869), "Old Testament Shadows of New Tes- tament Truths" (1870), "Morning and Evening Exercises, selected from the Writings of Henry Ward Beecher" (1871), " Laicus, or the Experiences of a Layman in a Country Parish " (1872), a " Popular Religious Dictionary," and several commentaries on books of the N. T. He is now editor of the New York " Christian Union." Abbott (Robert 0.), M. D., brevet colonel and surgeon U.S.A., born in 1824, entered the army .as assistant sur- geon in 1849. In 1862 he became medical director of the Fifth Corps, and in the summer of that year medical direc- tor of the department of Washington — a difficult position, the duties of which he performed with great honor and ad- ministrative ability and rare professional skill. Died, in consequence of overwork, June 10, 1867. Abbrevia'tio Placito'rum (" abbreviation of plead- ings "), in legal history, an abstract of ancient pleadings made prior to the Year Books. (See Year Books.) Abbreviations [Lat. ahhreviaiiones, from abbre^vio, abbrevia'tum, to "shorten" (from bre'via, "short ")], cus- tomary contractions of words and phrases used in writing, in order to save time and space. They are formed by the omission of some letters or words, or by the substitution of arbitrary signs. In mediaeval manuscripts abbrevia- tions are so numerous that special study and training are required to decipher them. For denoting moneys, weights, and measures, characters which are not properly abbrevia- tions are used as such ; for instance, ° ' " for " degrees, minutes, and seconds;" $ for "dollar;" £, "pound" (money), etc. The following are the more important abbreviations in common use : ddf ana, " of each." A. A. A. Gr., Acting Assistant Adjutant-General. A. A. G., Assistant Adjutant' General. A. B., Artium Jiaccalaureue, Bachelor of Arts. A. B. C. F. M., American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions. Abp., Archbishop. A." C.J Ante Chriatnm, before Christ; also Arch-Chancel lor. Acct,, account. A. D., Anno Domini, "in the year of owr Lord." Ad. or Adv., adverb. Adj., adjective. Admr., administrator. Admx., administratrix, .^t. or aetat., istatia, of age, A. G., Adjutant-General. A. H., Anno Hegirce, "in the year of the Hegira " (flight of Mohammed). Ala., Alabama. A. M., Anno Mundi, "in the year of tlie world." A. M., Ante Meridiem, "be, fore noon." A. M., Artium Magister, Master of Arts. Anon., anonymous. Ans., answer. Apr., April. A. Q. M., Assistant Quarter- master. A. R. A., Associate of the Royal Academy (London). Ari., Arizona. Ark., Arkansas. A. U. C, Ab Urhe Condita, "from the Founding of the City". (]'. e. Rome). Aug., August. A. v., Authorized Version. A. Y. M., Ancient York Ma- sonry. B.A.or A. B.,Bachelor of Arts. Bart, or Bt., Baronet. Bbl., barrel. B. C, before Christ. B.C.L.,BacheIor of Civil Law. B. D., Bachelor of Divinity. B. L., Bachelor of Laws, le- ffum baccalaitrens. Bp., Bishop. Brig.-Gen., Brigadier-Gen- eral. Bro., brother. Busli., bushel. [Beata Virgo, B. v.. Blessed Virgin, Lat. C, centum, a " hundred ;" also " centigrade." C, Consul; also chapter. Ca., circa, about. Cal., California. Cal. or Kal., Kalends. Cantab., Cantabrigienaie, "of Cambridge." Cantuar., of Canterbury. Cap., capitulum, " chapter." Capt., Captain. C. B., Companion of the Bath ; also Cape Breton. C. C, Cains College. c. c, cubic centimetre. C. C. P., Court of Common Pleas. C. B., Civil Engineer. Cent., centum, " hundred." Cf., confer, compare. C. G. H., Cape of Good Hope. Chap, or oh., chapter. Chron., Chronicles. C. J., Chief-Justice. C. M., common metre. Co., company; also county. C. 0. D., cash on delivery. Col., Colonel; also Colorado. Coll., college. Com., Commodore, Commis- sioner. con., contra, " against." Cor., Corinthians. Cor. Sec, Corresponding Sec- retary. Cos., cosine. Coss., Conaulea or Conauli- bua, "consuls" (of Rome). Cr., creditor. Crim. Con., criminal connec- tion or conversation. C. S. A., Confederate States of America. Ct. or Conn., Connecticut. Cwt., a hundredweight. Cyc, cyolopsedia. d., penny, pence, denarius, D., five hundred; also Dena- rius. D. A. G., Deputy Adjutant- General. Dak., Dakota. Dan., Daniel, Danish. D. C, District of Columbia; also da capo, " from tho be ginning." D. C. L., Doctor of Civil Law. D..D., Doctor of Divinity D. D. S., Doctor of Dental Surgery. Dea., deacon. Doc, December. Deg., degree. Del., Delaware ; also deline- avit, "he designed" (on engravings), Dept., department. Deut., Deuteronomy. D. F., Fidei defenaor, " De- fender of the faith." Dft., defendant. D. G., Dei gratia, "by the grace (or favor) of God." Dist., district. Do., ditto, " the same." Doz,, dozen. Dr., Doctor; also debtor. D. T., Dakota Territory. D. v., Deo volente, "God willing." Dwt., pennyweight. E., east. Ebor., Ehoracum, York. Eccl., Ecclesiastes. Ecclus., Ecclesiasticus. E. D., Eastern District (of Brooklyn, N.Y.). Ed., editor, edition. Edin., Edinburgh. E. E., Errors excepted, u. g., exemjjli gratia, " for ex- ample." E. I., East Indies. B. I. C, East India Company. E. M., Mining Engineer. Encyc, encyclopsedia. B. N. E., east north-east. Eng., English, Engineers. Eph., Ephes., Ephesians. E. S. E., east south-east. Esth., Esther. Esq., Esquire. et al., et alii, "and others." etc., et ctetera, "and the rest ;" i, e. other such things ; and so forth. Bt seq., et sequena, " and the following." Exr., executor. Exod., Ex., Exodus. Exon., Exonia, Exeter. Exx., executrix. Ez., Ezra. Ezek., Ezekiel. F. or/., franc, florin, farthing, foot. F. and A. M., Free and Ac- cepted Masons. F. or Fahr., Fahrenheit. F. A. S., Fellow of the Anti- quarian Society ; Fellow of the Society of Arts. F. A. S. E., Fellow of the Antiquarian Society of Ed- inburgh. F, B. S., Fellow of the Botan- ical Society. F. D., Fidei defenaor, " De- fender of the faith." Feb., February. F. F. v., first families of Vir- ginia. F. G. S., Fellow of tho Geo- logical Society. Fla., Florida, F. L. S., Fellow of the Lin- najan Society. F. R. A. S., Fellow of the Royal Astronomical (or Asiatic) Society. F. R. C. P., Fellow of the Royal College of Physi- cians. F. R. C. S., Fellow of the Royal College of Surgeons. Fri., Friday. F. R. G, S., Fellow of the Royal Geographical Soci- ety. F. R. S., Fellow of tho Royal Society. F. B. S. E., Fellow of tho Royal Society of Edin- burgh. F. S. A., Fellow of the Soci- ety of Antiquaries. F, S, S., Fellow of the Statis- tical Society. F. Z. S., Fellow of tho Zoo- logical Society. 6a., Georgia. ■Gal., Galatians. gal., gallons. G. B., Great Britain. G. C. B., Grand Cross of the Bath. G. M., Grand Master. Gen., General, Genesis. Ger., German. Gov., Governor. Gr., Greek. G.T., Good Templars; Grand Tiler. Gtt., guttte, " drops." Hab., Habakkuk. Hag., Haggai. H. B. C, Hudson's Bay Com- panv. H. B. M., His or Her Britan- nic Majesty. Hdkf., Handkerchief. h, e,, hoc eat, " this is." Heb., Hebrews. hhd., hogshead. Hist., history. H. I. H., His or Her Imperial Highness. H. M. S., His or Her Ma- jesty's Ship. Hon., Honorable. Hos., Hosea. H. R., House of Representa- tives. H. R. H., His or Her Royal Highness. H. S. S., Hiatoriie Soeietatia Sociua, Fellow of the His- torical Society. I., Is., Isl., island. la., Iowa-. Ibid, or lb., ibidem, " in the same place." Id., idem, "the same." Id., Idaho. )'. e., id eat, "that is." I. H. S., leaua Homiutim Sal- vator, "Jesus Saviour of men." 111., Illinois, incog,, incognito, "unknown,'' Ind., Indiana. Ind. Ter., Indian Territory. In lim., in limine, "at the outset." In loc, in loco, " in the place.'' I. N. R. I., Jeana I^azaremia Rex Judseornm, " Jesus of Nazareth, King of the Jews." Inst., institute. inst., inatante menae, " in the present month." Int., interest. 1. 0. 0. F., Independent Order of Odd Fellows. 1. 0. S. M., Independent Or- der of the Sons of Malta. Isa., Isaiah. It., Italian. J. A., Judge Advocate. Jam., Jamaica. Jan., January. ABBREVIATIONS. Jas., James. J. C, Jurisconsult.. J. C. B., Juris Civilia Doc tor, Doctor oi CivULaw. J. D., Jui-ia Doctor, Doctor of Law. Jer., Jeremiah. Jno., John. Jona., Jonathan. J. P., Justice of the Peace. Jr. or Jun., Junior. Jud., Judith. J. U. D., Juris utriiisque Doctor, Doctor of both Canon and Civil Law. Judg., Judges. J. V. D., Juris utriusque Doc tor, Doctor of Civil and Canon Law. K., King. Kal. or Cal., Calends. Kan., Kansas. K. B., Knight of the Bath K. C, King's Counsel. K. C. B., Knight Commander of the Bath. K. G. C. B., Knight Grand Cross of the Bath. K. G., 'Knight of the Garter. K. P., Knight of St. Patrick. K. T., Knight of the Thistle. Kt., Knight. Ky., Kentucky. La., Louisiana. Lam., Lamentations, Lat., latitude. Lat., Latin. L. D., Lady Day. Lev., Leyiticus. L. H. D., Literarum Huniani- orum Doctor, Doctor of Literature — -conferred only by the Kegents of the Uni- versity of the State of N. Y. L. I., Long Island. Lib., liber, book. Lib., lb., I., libra, a "pound." Lieut., Lieutenants LL.B., Bachelor of Laws. LL.D., Legum Doctor, "Doc- tor of Laws." L. S., Locus Sigilli, "Place of the seal." Lon., longitude. L. R. C. P., Licentiate of the Royal College of Physi- cians. L. R. C. S., Licentiate of the Royal College of Surgeons. L. S. D.riiirt, Solidi, De- narii, "pounds, shillings, [and] pence." M., Monsieur, mille (a "thou- _sand"), a mile; noon. M., 10,000. M. A., Master of Arts. Mace, Maccabees. Mad. or Mme., Madame. Mag., magazine. Maj.-Gen., Major-Genoral. Mai., Malachi. Mar., March. Masc, masculine. Mass., Massachusetts. Matt., Matthew. M. B., Bachelor of Medicine. M. C, Member of Congress. Md., Maryland. M. D., Medicines Doctor, " Doctor of Medicine." Me., Maine. M. B., Methodist Episcopal. M. B. S., Methodist Episcopal South. M. H. S., Massachusetts His- torical Society. Messrs. or MM., Messieurs, " gentlemen." Mic., Micah. Mich., Michigan. Minn., Minnesota. Miss., Mississippi. Mile., Mademoiselle. Mme., Madame. M. N. A. S.,Member of theNa- tional Academy of Sciences. Mo., Missouri. Mon., Montana. M. P., Member of Parliament. M. R. A. S., Member Royal Academy of Sciences. M. R. C. S., Member of the Royal College of Surgeons. M. R. I. A., Member of the Royal Irish Academy. MS., manuscript ; pi. MSS. Mt., mount. Mus. D., Doctor of Music. N., north, or noon. N. A., North America. N. A. S., National Aead.ofSci. N. B., Nota Bene, " mark well;" also North Britain and New Brunswick. N. C, North Carolina. N. E., north-east. New Eng- land. Neb., Nebraska. Neh., Nehemiah. Nem. Con., Nemine contradi- cente, or Nem. Diss., JVe- mine dissidente, " no one contradicting or opposing." Nov., Nevada. N. P., Newfoundland. N. G., New Granada. N. H., New Hampshire. N. J., New Jersey. N. M., New Mexico. N. N. E., north north-east. N. N. "W"., north north-west. No., Numero, " Number." N. 0., New Orleans. Nov., November. N. P., Notary Public; also New Providence Island. N.S., Nova Scotia, New Style. N. T., New Testament. Num., Numbers. N. "W., north-west. N. W. T., North-west Terr. N. Y., New York. N. Z., New Zealand. 0., Ohio. Ob., ohiit, " died." Obad., Obadiah. Obdt., obedient. Obs., obsolete. Oct., October.. 01., oleum.,, oil. 01. or Olym;, Olympiad. Or., Oregon. 0. S., Old Style. 0. T., Old Testament. Oxon., Oxoniensis, "Oxo- nian " or " of Oxford." Oz., ounce. P., Ph-e, " father." Pa., Pennsylvania. Pari., Parliament. P. C, Privy Councillor. P. E. I., Prince Edward Isl- and. P. E., Protestant Episcopal. Per Ann., Pr. An., Per An- num, " by the year." Per Cent., Per Centum, "by the hundred." Pet., Peter. Ph. D., Philoaophiie Doctor, "Doctor of Philosophy." Phil., Philippians, Philip. Phila., Philadelphia. Philem., Philemon. Philom., Philomathes, " a lover of learning." Philomath., " a lover of learn- ing." Pinxt. or pxt., pinxit, "he painted." Pk., peck, pi., plu., or plur., plural. plff., plaintiff. plupf., pluperfect. P. M., Post Meridiem, " after noon." P. M., Postmaster. P. 0., Post-office. P. of H., Pat. of Husbandry. Pop., population. Port., Portuguese. PP., Patres, " fathers." pp., pages. P. P. C, pour prendre congS, " to take leave." P. R., Porto Rico. Pres., President. Priv., privative. Prof., Professor. Pro tem., Pro tempore, "for the time." Prob., problem. . Prov., Proverbs. Prox., Proximo or Proximo mense, *'ln the next month." Ps., Psalm. P. S., postscript, privy seal. Pub. Doc, public document. Pxt., pinxit, painted it. q., farthing (quadram). Q., Queen, question, Quintus. Q. C, Queen's Counsel. Q. d.. Quasi dicat, "As if he should say." Q. B. D., Quod Erat Demon. strandum, " which was to be demonstrated." Q. E. F., Quod Erat Facien dam, " which was to be done." Q. M., Quartermaster. Q.P.,"as much as you please.' Qr., quarter, farthing. Q. S., Quantum SuJFicit,^ " sufficient quantity." Qu., query. Q. V. or q. v., quod vide, " which see," or quantum via, "as much as you please." R. (Rex), " King," or Hegina,. " Q,ueen." R. A.,. Royal Academician, or Royal Artillery. R. C.,. Roman Catholic. R. E., Royal Engineers. Rec. Sec., Recording Secre- tary. Ref. Ch., Reformed Church. Reg. Prof., Regius Professor. Rev., reverend. Revelation. R. I., Rhode Island. R. M., Royal Marines. R. M. S., Royal Mail Steamer. R. N., Royal Navy. Ro. or Robt., Robert. Rom., Romans. R. R., Railroad. R. Rs., Railroads. R. S. D., Royal Society of Dublin. R. S.. E., Royal Society^ of Edinburgh. R. S. V. P., r^pondez,8'ilvous plait, " Reply, if you please." Rt. Hon., Bight Honorable. Rt. Rev., Right Reverend. S., south, saint, or shilling. S. A., South America. Sam., Samuel. Sans., Sanskrit. S. C, South Carolina. Sc. or Ss., scilicet, " to wit ;" also sculpait, " he engraved it" (on engravings). S. £., south-east. Sec, Secretary. Sept., September, sin., sine. S. J., Society of Jesus, S. J. C, Supreme Judical Court. S. M., Sa Mojeate, His or Her Majesty. Sp. or Span., Spanish. S. P. Q. R., Senatua Popu- luaque Romantia, "the Ro- man senate and people." Sq. or Seq., sequena, the fol- lowing; Sqq., sequentea, the same in plural. Sq. ft., square foot. Sq. in., square inch. Sq. m., square mile. SS., saints ; also " esses," a collar worn by knights and others in heraldry. Ss. or Sc, scilicet, "to wit," "namely." Ss., semis, "half." S. S., Sunday School. S. S. E., south south-east. 5. S. "W., south south-west. St., saint and street. S. T. D., Sacrosanctse Thcol- ogiae Doctor, Doctor of The- ology. S. of T., Sons of Temperance. S. T. P., Sacroaanctir Thenl- ogiae Profeaaor, Professor of Theology. S. W., south-west. Syr., Syriac. T. B., Topographical Engi- neers. Tenn., Tennessee. Tex., Texas. Text. Rec, Textua Eeceptus. Thess., Thessalonians. Tit., Titus. U. G. R. R., Underground Railroad. Ult., Ultimo, ultimo mense, " in the last month." U. P., United Presbyterian. U. S., United States. U. S. A., United States Army. U. S. A., United States of America. U. S. N., United States Navy. U. S. P., United States Phar- macopoeia. U. S. S., United States ship or steamer. U. T., Utah Territory. V. or vs., versus, against. Va., Virginia. V. D. M., Verbi Dei Minis- ter, "preacher of the word of God." Ven.,, Venerable. V.-G., Vicar-General. Viz., Videlicet, " namely." V.-P.,. Vice-President. vs., vera««,," against." Vt., Vermont. W., west. Wash., Washington. W. I., West Indies. Wis., Wisconsin. W. N. W., west north-west. W. S. W., west south-west. W. T., Washington Terri- tory, W. Va., West Virginia. "Wj., Wyoming Territory. X, XptcTTos, Christ. • Xmas., Christmas ; Xtian, Christian, etc. Yr., year, your. Zeeh., Zeehariah. Zeph., Zephaniah, 6, and. Ac, et csetera, or and so forth. Y«, Y', The, That. (This use of Y originated in the Anglo-Saxon character p, which was equivalent to the mod- ern th. In manuscripts this character degenerates into a form like a black letter y (g), which was retained after Its origin and real sound had been lost sight of.) 8 ABBREVIATOR— ABD-UL-MEDJID. Abbrevia'tor, a notary of the papal court and of the church councils, whose business is to prepare briefs and per- form various important services as secretary. The number of these notaries was formerly about seventy-two. Abbt (Thomas), an eminent German author, born at Uhu in 1738. He became professor of mathematics at Rinteln in 1761, and contributed to the improvement of the German language. His chief works are"Vom Vordienste" ("On Merit," 1765) and " Vom Tod fiirs Vaterland" (" On Dying for [one's] Fatherland," 1761). Died in 1766. Abd, an Arabic word which signifies " servant" or slave, and forms the prefix of many Oriental names, as Abd-Allah, " servant of Allah." Abd-eb-Rahmax, " ser- vant of the Merciful" (i. e. of God). Abd-el-Hamid (Du Couret), a French traveller, born in 1812, set out in 1834 for the East, visited Egypt, travelled up the Nile, through Abyssinia, to the shores of the Red Sea, and returned along the Red Sea to Cairo. In consequence of the Eastern habits contracted on his travels, he embraced Mohammedanism, and assumed the name of Abd-el-Hamid. After having been imprisoned in Persia for political reasons, he was released through the interven- tion of France, and returned to his native country in 1847. In 1348 he was despatched by the government to Timbuctoo. He published the result of this exploration in " MSmoire a Napolgon III." (1855); he also published "Mgdine et la Mekko" (3 vols., 1855). Abd-el-K&'der {i. e. the "servant of the Powerful," in other words, the " servant of God "), a distinguished Arab chieftain, born near Mascara, in Algeria, in 1807. His father, Mehi-cd-Deen, was a maraboot, or religious noble, of no little influence. Algeria having been invaded by the French in 1830, Abd-el-KS,der was chosen emir (prince) by the Arabs of that country. He defeated the French at Macta in 1835. A treaty of peace was con- cluded in 1837. In 1839 hostilities were again renewed, and in the war which followed, against a power r,o much superior to his own, Abd-el-K£lder displayed extraordinary energy, combined with a marvellous fertility of resources, but he was at length, in 1847, obliged to yield to over- whelming odds : he laid down his arms on condition that he should be sent to Ale,\andria or St. John d'Acre. But, in direct violation of the terms of capitulation, he was taken to France, where he vvas detained as a prisoner until 1852. In 1860, when the Christians of Syria were threat- ened with massacre by the fanatical Mohammedans of that country, Abd-el-K^der, with extraordinary diligence and at the risk of his own life, protected many thousands of those defenceless people so long as the danger lasted. In 1864 he paid a visit to Egypt, where he was well received by the viceroy, and received from M. de Lesseps a piece of land. He also joined the order of Freemasons. In 1865 he visited Constantinople, where he was received with great honors. In 1867 he attended the Universal Exhibition of Paris. Abd-el-Kader has written in the Arabic language a work which he sent to the French Academy, and which was translated into French by Dugat, under the title " Rappel §. rintelligent, avis il I'lndifferent" (1858). Abd-el-K^der contributed important notes and commentaries to Daustas' " Les Chevaux du Sahara." (See " Life," by Churchill, London, 1867.) D. at Damascus May 26, 1883. Abd-el-Latif 5 an Arabian historian and physician, born at Bagdad in 1162. He wrote a valuable work on the history, antiquities, and geography of Egypt, of which De Sacy published a French version. Died about 1230. Abd-el-Wahab', the founder of the sect of Wahab- ites or Wah^bees, was born in Nejed, Arabia, in 1691. He recognized the Koran, and endeavored to reform the Mo- hammedan religion, which he affirmed had become cor- rupted. Died in 1787. (See Wahabees.) Abde'ra [Gr. 'ApSrjpa], an ancient city of Thrace, noted as the birthplace of the philosopher Democritus. The stu- pidity and ignorance of the people of Abdora was proverbial. Abd-er-Rahmau III., surnamed A\-Nasir-Lidin- Illah, or Al-Nasser-lid!nillah, a celebrated caliph, was born about 888 A. D. He began to reign at Cdrdova in 912. . He was distinguished as a patron of learning and the arts. During his long reign the Moslem empire in Spain was raised to the highest pitch. Died in 961. Abdication, or the resignation of his throne by a king, was in former times of very rare occurrence, and generally occasioned by mental exhaustion, not to say derangement, as in the cases of Diocletian, Charles V., and Christina of Sweden. But in our century it has become a common affair, frequently resorted to for political ends. Charles IV. of Spain abdicated in 1808 ; Gustavus Adolphus IV. of Sweden in 1809; Louis I. of Holland in 1810 ; Napol- eon I. 1814 and 1816; Victor Emmanuel I. of Sardinia ia 1821 ; Charles X. of Franco in 1830 ; Louis Philippe of France, Louis I. of Bavaria, and Ferdinand I. of Austria in 1848; Charles Albert of Sardinia in 1849 ; and Amadeus of Spain in 1873. Abdo'men [Lat. abdo'men (gen. ahdom'inia), from abdo, abdere, to "hide"], that portion of the trunk of the human body which lies below the diaphragm. It contains the liver, pancreas, spleen, and kidneys, as well as the stomach, the small intestines, and the colon. The abdomen is lined by a serous membrane, the peritoneum, which is folded over the viscera, allowing them a certain freedom of motion, but retaining them in their proper relations to each other by means of the mesenteric fold. The external wall of the abdomen is divided by writers into thirteen "regions," by means of four imaginary transverse lines and five verti- cal ones. The first transverse line crosses the point of the ensiform cartilage ; the second is on the lowest ribs; the third goes through the anterior superior spinous process of the ilium; the fourth is on the upper margin of the pubic bone. The first and fifth vertical lines run through the shoulder-joint, from the insertion of Poupart's ligament into the pubes ; the second and fourth lines ascend from a point on the oi-est of either ilium vertically towards the posterior border of the axilla; the third line passes along the spinous processes of the vertebrae. Of the thirteen re- gions, five are anterior, four arc lateral, and four are pos- terior. From above downward, the anterior are the epi- gastric, umbilical, hypogastric, and right and left inguinal regions. The lateral regions are the right and left hypo- chondriac and the right and left iliac. The posterior regions are the inferior dorsal and lumbar regions of either side. Abdomen, in entomology, the hindmost of the three regions into which the body of an insect is divided. It is composed, typically, of eleven rings or segments, more or less distinct from each other, but the number is often only ten. It contains a portion of the intestines and the sexual organs. In the perfect insect its segments have attached to them no legs or wings. In many insects its last segments bear appendages of various uses and forms, as pincers, stings, ovipositors, etc. In some insects the abdomen is not well differentiated from the thorax. Abdomina'les [the plu. of the Latin adjective abdom- ina'lisj " belonging to the abdomen "], or Abdominal Fishes, in the Linnsean classification, an order including all osseous fishes of which the ventral fins are beneath the abdomen and behind the pectoral fins. In the system of Cuvier the name is given to an order of more limited extent, a subdivision of the Malacopterygii or soft-rayed fishes, having the ventral fins, if present, beneath the ab- domen and not attached to the bones of the shoulder. It includes the Cyprinidae (carp, etc.), EsoeidEe (pike, etc.), Siluridas, Salmonidaj (trout, salmon, etc.), Clupeidse (her- ring, etc.), Cyprinodontida3, etc. The order is not recog- nized by all naturalists. Abduc'tion [from the Lat. ab, " away," and duco, due- turn, to "lead"], in law, the forcible or fraudulent carrying away of a person. It is usually confined to females re- moved with a view to their marriage or seduction. It is allied to the word kidna2'>phi(j, which would include the case of males. Abduction is an offence severely punished by statute law, both in England and in this country. Abd-uI-Aziz' [written in French Abdoid-Aziz, and in German Abd-ul-Asis], a son of Mahmood II., was born Feb. 9, 1830 ; succeeded his brother, Abd-ul-Medjid, as sul- tan of Turkey, Juno 25, 1861. He reduced the imperial civil list from seventy-five million piasters lo twelve million, abolished, among other barbarous practices, that of assas- sinating the sons of the princesses, favored the introduc- tion of Western manners and customs, and did much to de- stroy the old and cherished traditions of the Turks. De- posed May 29, 1876, and is supposed to have been assas- sinated June 4, 1876. (See Turkey.) Abd-ul-Hamid II., padishah or sultan of the Turkish empire, thirty-fifth of the dynasty of Othman, born in Con- stantinople Sept. 5, 1842: he is the second son and fourth child of Abd-ul-Medjid (which see); he was adopted by his father's second wife, who was childless. He was brought up with his brother Murad in the harem, and received but little education. In 1867 his uncle, Abd-ul Aziz, then sul- tan, took him with him to Paris to the Exposition of that year, and what he saw there developed in him a love of study, which greatly improved his mind. On the deposition of Abd-ul-Aziz (May 29, 1876), Murad, eldest son of Abd-ul- Medjid, succeeded, but proving incompetent from insanity, he was deposed Aug. 31, and Abd-ul-Hamid was invested with the sword of Othman Sept. 7, 1876, as Abd-ul-Hamid II. He is said to belong to the " Old Turkish " party, and has thus far carried on the government with considerable ability. Abd-ul-MeJid' [written in French Abdoul-Medjid, ABECEDARIANS— ABERDEEN. 9 and in German Ahd~ul~Medachid], sultan of Turkey, the eldest son of Mahmood II., was born in 1823. He suc- ceeded his father July 1, 1839, when his capital was men- aced by the victorious army of Mehemet Ali, viceroy of Egypt. This danger was averted by the intervention of England and other great powers in July, 1840. He favored religious liberty and the reforms which his father had in- itiated, but his good-will was partially frustrated by the resistance of his fanatical subjects. He died June 25, 1861, and was succeeded by his brother, Abd-ul-Aziz. (See Turkey.) Abeceda'rianSy n sect founded in tbe sixteenth cen- tury by a person named Storck, who professed that learn- ing was not necessary, not even the knowledge of the alphabet (A B C, hence their name), for the proper under- standing of the Scriptures; and some went so far as to maintain that it was not desirable to know how to read. A'Beck'et (Gilbert Abbot), a humorous English writer and lawyer, born in London about 1810, He contributed to the London " Times " and " Punch." Among his works is " The Comic Blackstone" (1844-46). Died in 1866. A'Becket (Thomas). See Becket. Abeel' (David), D. D., an American missionary, born at New Brunswick, N. J., June 12, 1804. He published "A Journal of a Residence in China, 1829-33," " A Missionary Convention in Jerusalem, 1838," and **The Claims of the "World to the Gospel." Died at Albany Sept. 4, 1S46. A'toegg (Julius Eriedrich Heinrich). See Appendix. A'bel, the second son of Adam and Eve, was killed by his brother Cain. He is regarded as a type of faith and as the first martyr. (See Genesis iv. and Hebrews xi. 4.) A'bel (Clarke), an English surgeon and naturalist, b. in 1780. He was naturalist to Lord Amherst's embassy to China, 181 6, and published "Narrative of a Journey in the Interior of China." Died at Cawnpore, India, Nov. 24, 1826. Abel (Niels Henrik), an eminent mathematician, born at Findo, in Norway, in 1 802. He gained distinction by his discoveries in the theory of elliptic functions, and was highly eulogized by Legendre. Died in 1829. Abelard [Lat. Ahxlai-dus], or Abailard (Pierre), a celebrated French philosopher and dialectician, born near Nantes, in Bretagne, in 1079. He studied dialectics underthe Nominahst Roscellinus and the Realist William dc Cham- peaux, and afterwards theology under Anselm of Laon. Ho taught in various places, largely in Paris, drawing around him great numbers of pupils from different parts of Europe. He sought to avoid the extremes of Nominalism and Real- ism, though his'^ootriue is not far removed from strict Nomi- nalism. He had marvellous subtlety; he was able to foil the first masters of his age in logic; and was as audacious in propounding his notions as he was ingenious in defend- ing them. But he lacked moral courage; he loved truth less than he thirsted for fame; his vanity and selfishness had no bounds; and his treatment of one of his pupils, tho beautiful and accomplished Eloise, whom he first seduced, afterwards married, and then deserted, leaves upon his memory an indelible stain. He was one of the most promi- nent founders of Scholasticism, and exerted a larger influ- ence upon the intellectual activity of his time than any other man. He died in 1142. Themost complete work on Abelard is Charles de Rfimusat's "Abelard," Paris, 1845. (See also Cousin's " Introduction to the Works of Abelard;" Bering- ton's "History of Abelard and Heloise," and Wight's "Abelard and Eloise," N. Y., 1853.) J. H. Seelye. A'belites, or Abe'lians, a sect of Christians who lived in Northern Africa in the fourth century. They en- joined marriage without carnal intercourse, in order not to propagate original sin, claiming in support of their practice the example of the patriarch Abel. They adopted children, who were brought up to the same kind of marriage. They were extinct before the time of Augustine. Abeii, Ebn, or Ibis, a prefix to many Arabic proper names, denoting " son of." Abcnaquis. See Abnakis. Aben'cerrag^e, the name of a noble Moorish family of Granada, in Spain. Tho implacable feud between this family and the Zegris formed the subject of several Spanish and French dramas. A'bendberg, a mountain of the Bernese Alps, in the Swiss canton of Berne, rises abruptly from the s!^ shore of Lake Thun, and has an altitude of about 5000 feet above the sea. On its southern slope was an asylum for cretins, founded about 1842, but since abandoned. A'ben Ez'ra, b. at Toledo about 1088 ; d. at Calanorra in 1167 ; wrote commentaries on the Pentateuch and Isaiah which denote a great progress in the department of biblical exegesis. A'bensberg, a small town of Bavaria, 18 miles S. W. of Batisbon, has a castle and a mineral spring. Here Ka- poleon defeated the Austrians April 20, 1809. A'ber, u, Cymric term signifying "meeting-place of waters," occurs as a prefix to names of places in Great Britain — e. (/. Aberdeen. It is probably etymologically re- lated to the Persian ab, "water." Tho corresponding Gaelic term is Invei'—e. g. Inverness, Aberbrothwick. See Arbroath. Ab'ercorn, dukes of, marquesses of Abercorn (in tho Irish peerage, 1790), Viscounts Hamilton (in the peerage of Great Britain, 1786), earls of Abercorn (1606), barons of Paisley (1587), of Abercorn (1603), of Hamilton, Mount- castle, and Kilpatrick (in the peerage of Scotland, 1606), Viscounts Strabane (1701), Barons Strabane (1616), Mount- castle (in tho Irish peerage, 1701), marquesses of Hamilton (in the Irish peerage, 1868), and dukes of Chatelhgrault (in France, 1548), ono of the most prominent noble families of Great IJritain. Abercorn (James Hamilton), first duke of, born Jan. 21, 1811, succeeded his grandfather as marquis of Hamilton in 1818, and became lord lieutenant of Ireland in 1866, which position he held until 1868, when he was cre- ated duke of Abercorn, and when the Derby ministry re- turned to power he was restored in 1874 lord lieutenant of Ireland; held tlie office till 1876. D. Get. :n, 1885. Ab'ercrombie (James), a British general, born in 1706, who in 1758 took command of near 50,000 men in New York, in order to recover the forts which the French had taken. On the 8th of July he attacked Ticonderoga, but was re- pulsed by the French with great loss, and was soon removed from the command. Died April 28, 1781. Abercrombie (Jambs), D. D., an eloquent Episco- palian clergyman and scholar, born Jan. 26, 1758, preached in Philadelphia, where he died June 26, 1841, Abercrombie (John), M. D., an eminent Scottish phy- sician, born at Aberdeen in 1780. Ho graduated as M. D. in 1803, practised in Edinburgh, and attained the reputa- tion of being the first consulting physician in Scotland. He published "Inquiries concerning the Intellectual Powers of Man" (1830), and "Tho Philosophy of the Moral Feel- ings" (1833), which were highly esteemed. Died in 1844. Abercrombie (John J.), an American officer, born in 1 798 in Tennessee, graduated at West Point in 1822, colonel Seventh Infantry Feb. 25, 1861, and Aug. 31, 1861, briga- dier-general U. S, volunteers. He served chiefly on the Western frontier (1822-61); as adjutant First Infantry (1825-33); in the Black Hawk war in 1832; in the Florida war, 1837-40; engaged at Okee-cho-bee (brevet major); in tho war with Mexico, 1846-48; engaged at Monterey (wounded and brevet lieutenant-colonel). Vera Cruz, Cerro Gordo, and aide-de-camp to Major-General Patterson, 1846- 47; as superintendent of recruiting service, 1853-55. In the civil war served in the Shenandoah campaign, 1861- 62; engaged at Falling Waters; in the Virginia Peninsula, 1862 ; engaged at Fair Oaks (wounded) and Malvern Hill, and till 1864 in conimd;nd of troops before Washington, D. C. Brevetted brigadier-general U. S. A. for long and faithful services, and retired from active service June 12, 1865. D. Jan. 3, 1877. George W. Cullum. Ab'ercromby (James), Barox Dunfermline, born in 1776, was a son of General Sir Ralph Abercromby. He was chosen Speaker of the House of Commons by the Whigs in 1835, and resigned in 1839, when he passed into tho House of Lords, Died in 1858, Abercromby (Sir Balph), a distinguished British general, born in Clackmannanshire Oct., 1734, entered the army in 1758. After the peace of 1783 he passed ten .years at home in retirement. He distinguished himself in the disastrous campaigns in Holland in 1794 and 1795. In 1795 he took command of an expedition sent to the West Indies, where he captured several islands from the French. He was the second in command of the army which the duke of York led to Holland in 1799, and was appointed in 1800 commander-in-chief of the expedition to Egypt, which was then occupied by the French under Bonaparte. The British army, which landed early in Mar., 1801, was attacked by Menou, near Alexandria, on the 21st of that month. In this action the French were defeated, but Sir Ralph was mortally wounded, and died on the 28th of Mar., 1801. He was distinguished for superior talents, bravery, and humanity. Ab'erdeen', or Aberdeen'shire, a county of Soot- land, is bounded on the N, and E. by tho North Sea, on tho S. by Kincardine, Forfar, and Perth, and on the W. by Inverness and Banff. It has an area of 1970 square miles. Tho Grampian range of mountains extends along the southern boundary of this county, which contains several high peaks. Among these are Ben-Macdhui, 4390 feet, 10 ABEEDEEN— ABEKEATION. QncI Cairngorm, 4060 feet high. It is drained by the Dee end the Don. The principal rocks are granite and mica- slate. More cattle are raised in Aberdeen than in any other county in Scotland. Pop. in 1S51, 212,032; in 1871, 244,607; in 1881,267,990. Aberdeen, a city and seaport of Scotland, and the capital of the county of Aberdeen, is on the North Sea, at the mouth of the river Dee, 9.S miles N. N. E. of Edin- burgh. It is a handsome city, with spacious streets and granite houses, and is celebrated as a seat of learning. Among the principal public buildings are the town-house, several churches, and Marischal (pronounced mar'shal) College, founded in 1593. Aberdeen has a good harbor and an extensive trade, the chief articles of e-Kport being fine cotton and woollen fabrics, granite, grain, cattle, and fish. Here are flourishing manufactories of cotton and woollen goods, combs, machinery, etc. Old Aberdeen, which is about 1 mile N. of the new city, is the seat of King's College and University, founded in 1494, united with Marischal College in 1860 as the University of Aber- deen. The Free Church Divinity College was built in 1850. Pop. in 1881, 105,189. Aberdeen, capital of Monroe co., Miss, (see map of Mississippi, ref. 5-H, for location of county), is on R. R. and the W. side of the Tombigbee River. It buys and ships about 16,000 bales of cotton yearly, and has a fine court-house, one of the best river bridges in the South, a female college, and a great trade. It contains several steam-mills and a steam cotton-compress. Pop. in 1870, 2022; in 1880, 2339. Aberdeen, Dak. See Appendix. Aberdeen, Huntington township. Brown co., 0. (see map of Ohio, ref. 8-D, for location of county), on Ohio River opposite Maysville, Ky. Pop. in 1870, 871 ; in 1880, 885. Aberdeen (George Hamilto.v Gordon), fourth earl OF, a British statesman, born in Edinburgh Jan. 24, 1784, graduated at Cambridge in 1804. He began his public life as a Tory, was sent as ambassador to Vienna in 1813, and was raised to the British peerage as Viscount Gordon in 1814. In 1828 he became secretary of state for foreign affairs in the cabinet of the duke of Wellington, with whom he resigned in Nov., 1830. He was reappointed to that office by Sir Robert Peel in 1841, gradually abandoned the high Tory piinoiples, and favored a pacific foreign policy. In 1846 ho resigned office with Sir Robert Peel, after whose death (1850) he was regarded as the chief of the Peeiite party. He became, in Jan., 1853, prime minister in a cab- inet formed by a coalition of parties. In 1854 England was involved in a war against Russia., to which measure Lord Aberdeen gave a reluctant support. Either from this cause, or because the war was Conducted with ill success, the ministers became very unpopular. Lord Aberdeen -I'e- signed in Feb., 1855, and was succeeded by Lord Palmer- ston. Died Dec. 14, 1860. Aberdeen (George John James), fifth earl of, old- est son of the preceding, born Sept. 28, 1816, was for a number of years, as Lord Haddo, a member of tho House of Commons, where he voted with the Liberals ; succeeded his father in the peerage in 1860. Died Mar. 22, 1864. Aberdeen, earls. Viscounts Formantinc, Barons Had- do, Methlie. Tarves, and Kellie (in the Scottish peerage since 1682), Viscounts Gordon (in the peerage of the United Kingdom since 1814), and baronets (in the Scottish peer- age since 1642), one of the most prominent noble families of Great Britain, an offshoot of the ancient Scotch family of the Gordons. — Sir John Gordon of Haddo was in 1642 created baronet by Charles I. for services rendered to that monarch in the battle of TurriiF. — Sir George Gordon of Haddo was lord high chancellor of Scotland when in 1682 he was created an earl. He ^was an uncompromising oppo- nent of William of Orange. Died in 1720. Abergavenny, commonly pronounced ab-er-ga'ne, a market-town of England, in Monmouthshire, on the Usk, which is here joined by tho Gavenny, and crossed by a fine bridge, 13 miles W. of Monmouth. Pop. in 1881, 788R. Abergavenny, earls of, and Viscounts Nevill (in the peerage of Great Britain, 1784), barons of Avergavenny since the time of Henry III., a prominent noble family in the peerage of Great Britain. — AVilliam Nevill, fifth earl of, was born Sept. 16, 1826, and succeeded his father in 1868. Hi8j"9ldest son and heir is Reginald William Bransey, Visc'ount Nevill, born Mar. 4, 1853. Ab'ernethy (John), a dissenting minister, born at Coleraine, in Ireland, in 1680. He was for many years pastor of a Presbyterian church at Antrim, and incurred the censure of the synod by bis independent spirit. About 1730 he removed to Dublin, where he preached to an inde- pendent congregation. Died in 1740. Abernethy (John), an eminent English surgeon, bom about 1765, was a grandson of the preceding, and a pupil of John Hunter. He was chosen assistant surgeon of St. Bartholomew's Hospital, London, in 1786, and event- ually chief surgeon of the same. As a lecturer on anat- omy and surgery he gained immense popularity. He published in 1809 an important work, " (Jn. the Constitu- tional Origin and Treatment of Local Diseases," the doc- trines of which have greatly contributed to improve the science of surgery. Many anecdotes arc related of his eccentric manners and of his witty or petulant speeches to his patients. Died in 1831. Aberra'tion [Lat. aberra'tio, from ah, " from," and er'ro, erra'tum, to "wander"], a term variously employed: in optics it denotes the unequal deviation of rays of light when refracted by a lens or reflected from a concave mirror. There are two kinds of optical aberration — viz.. Chromatic (from the Greek XP"!^", "color") Aberration, or Aberration of Refrangibility, and Spherical Aberration, or Aberration of Sphericity. In astronomy also there is the Aberration of the Celestial Bodies, sometimes (but less correctly) term- ed the Aberration of Light. 1. Chromatic Aberration, or Aberration of Refrangibil- ity, — A convex lens may be regarded as a number of prisms having their bases in contact. Hence, when a sheaf of rays of white light passes through it, the rays undergo not only refraction,, but also decomposition ; and since tho variously colored rays into which white light is divided by a prism, possess different refrangibilities, it follows that when light is converged by a convex lens it is refracted to different foci. The violet rays, being the most refrangi- ble, form a focus nearest to the lens ; while the red rays, being the least refrangible, form a focus farthest from the lens. Thus, in place of one focus, there are, in reality, an almost infinite number — viz., one for each of the differently refracted rays (the rays even of the same general color being not all refracted equally), and in the order of violet, indigo, blue, green, yellow, orange, red. Hence the rays do not meet at tho same focus of the lens; and this devia- tion of the foci is called the chromatic aberration of a lens. 2. S]}herical Aberration, or Aberration of Sphericity. — Lenses and mirrors are usually ground with spherical sur- faces, and so long as tho aperture does not exceed eight or ten degrees, the rays of homogeneous light refracted or re- flected by different parts of them meet very nearly at the same focus of the lens or mirror. But as the aperture of a spherical mirror increases, the rays reflected from the edges cross each other at a point on tho axis nearer to the mirror than those which are reflected from portions of the mirror near its centre. Thus, the rays are deviated from the true focus of the mirror. Again, with regard to spherical lenses of large aperture, the rays which pass through the lens near its circumference are refracted to a point nearer to the lens than those which pass through its central portion. In the case of mirrors this deviation of light from the focus is called spherical aberration by reflection, while in the case of lenses it is called spherical aberration by refraction. It may be remedied by giving lenses and mirrors parabolic surfaces — a plan which is almost invariably followed in the construction of specula for astronomical purposes. 3. Aberration of the Celestial Bodies, often (but less cor- rectly) termed the Aberration of Light, in astronomy, an apparent displacement of a celestial object, due to the pro- gressive motion of light. This aberration is caused — 1, by the motion of the earth in its orbit; and 2, by the motion of the observed celestial objects. It was discovered by Bradley in 1727. This astronomer reasoned that If tho earth's motion bears only an appreciable relation to tho velocity of light, wo ought -to expect that the rays from a star would seem to come from a point nearer than is actu- ally the case to that point in the heavens towards which the earth's course is directed. The phenomenon he had observed corresponded exactly with this explanation. Tho change of place due to the velocity of'light, estimated from the eclipses of Jupiter's satellites, corresponded (within tho limits of observational error) with the observed changes in the apparent positions of the fixed stars. It follows, from a consideration of the earth's path, that each star appears t,o describe a small ellipse about its true place. This fact is of great importance in its direct bearing on observational astronomy, bpt it is perhaps no less important on account of the evidence it supplies as to the motion of tho earth. The correction of the observed position of a celestial object for aberration gives the true position for the mo- ment when the light which makes it visible left it ; but this is not the true position for the moment of observation, ex- cept on supposition that the observed object is at rest. If the body itself is in motion, then, in addition to the correc- tion of position for aberration, there must be a correction for the amount of proper motion which has taken place in the interval since the light which makes it visible left it. In order to make this correction we must know the rate of ABEET— ABINGEE. U proper motion and the distance of the body. If the abso- lute proper motion of the body is given in miles, or length- measure, and not the apparent in angular measure, and is parallel to the motion of the earth, then the whole correc- tion may be treated as aberration, by taking the sum or the difference of the velocities per second of the two bodies, according as they are in the opposite or in the same direc- tion, and comparing this with the velocity of light. If the velocities of the two bodies are in the same direction and equal, their difference is zero, and the correction is nil. Hence, a body .moving in the same direction as the earth, and with the same velocity, is unaffected in apparent po- sition by aberration. The same will be true of a body not moving in the same direction as the earth, provided that when its velocity is decomposed into rectangular compo- nents, one of which is parallel to the earth's motion, tnis latter component velocity is equal to the earth's velocity and in the same direction. It follows from the foregoing that the bodies of a group or system, as observed the one from the other, are unaffected by aberration in consequence of any common motion in which all participate alike, but that they suffer displace- ment from this cause only in consequence of their relative motions. The moon partakes of the annual motion of the earth round the sun, but suffers no aberration on that ac- count; and so the sun, though it may have a proper motion in space, is unaffected by this cause in its apparent posi- tion, as viewed from the earth or from any other member of the solar system, since this motion is one in which all the bodies of the system equally participate. F. A. P. Barnakd. A'bert (John J.), a graduate of the U. S. Military Acad- emy, class of 1811, born in Maryland, 1785. Immediately resigning, he became a lawyer in the District of Columbia; and in the war with Great Britain, 1812-15, served as pri- vate in the militia at the battle of Bladensburg, Aug., 1814. Appointed brevet major of U. S. Topographical Engineers, Nov. 22, 1814, he was placed in charge of the bureau. Mar. 19, 1829, and on the organization of an independent corjpa of that title was made, with rank of colonel, its chief, July 7, 1838. Eetired from active service Sept. 9, 1861. Died at "Washington, D. C, Jan. 27, 1863. As an ofBcer, and as chief of Topographical Engineers, Colonel Abort exercised an important agency in the development of the earlier national works of civil engineering in the U. S.- — e. g. the canal around the Falls of the Ohio at Louisville; the Ches- apeake and Ohio Canal; the Potomac aqueduct, etc. His exhaustive report on water-supply, in connection with the Chesapeake and Ohio Canal (1838), is a standard of refer- ence. He was a member of the Geographical Society of France and other learned societies. Ab'eryst'with, a market-town, seaport, and fashion- able watering-place of Wales, at the mouth of the Ystwith, 34 miles N. E. of Cardigan. Pop. in 1881, 7088. Abe's Spring, capital of Calhoun co., Fla. (see map of Florida, ref. 2-C, for location of county). Pop. of pre- cinct in 1880, 607. Abey'ance [Norman Fr. abbaimmce, "expectation;" literally, "gaping" or waiting with open mouth], a legal term signifying " in expectation or suspense." It is used to indicate the condition of property where there is no per- son in whom its ownership is vested. In the law of real es- tate it is generally applied to a fee, which is said to be in abeyance when there is no particular owner of the inherit- ance. It has been laid down that a fee can be in abeyance only while there is a freehold estate (or life interest) in the land vested in some person. It is denied by writers of high authority that a fee can be in abeyance. The tendency of modern law certainly is to discountenance this theory, and to reduce the cases of abeyance to the narrowest possible limits. The term has been applied in some instances to personal property, as in case of captures at sea in time of war, as to the title after capture and before condemnation in the prize court. Ab'gar, or Ab'garns [Gr. 'A^yapos], written also Aba- gams, Agbarus, and Augarus, a name common to several kings of Edessa, in Mesopotamia. The fourteenth of these kings, Abgar Uchomo, is said to have been in corre- spondence with Christ. The genuineness of this correspon- dence has found defenders even in the nineteenth century. Abgil'Ins (John), son of the king of the Frisii, became a Christian, and accompanied Charlemagne in several of his expeditions. He received the title of Prester, or Priest, on account of the excessive severity of his life. He is not to be confounded with the Mongolian Prester John of the eleventh century. A'bib (after the Babylonian captivity called Nisan), the first month of the Hebrew sacred year, and the seventh of the civil year. Abich (WiLHBLM Hermann). See Appendix. Abida-Jebel, a volcanic mountain of Abyssinia, in Mudaito ; lat. 10° 9' N., Ion. 41° E. A'bies [Lat. abiee, a " fir tree "], the name of a genus of coniferous trees which have leaves growing singly on the stem, as the fir and the spruce. The Abiee excelsa produces the valuable timber called "white deal," also Burgundy pitch and frankincense; Vae, Abiee SaZsamea yields the balm of Gilead, or Canadian balsam. The famous cedar of Leb- anon, which affords excellent timber, is called Abies cedrua by some botanists. Several species of Abies are highly prized as evergreen ornamental trees — viz. Abies excelsa (the Norway fir), Abies alba (white spruce), Abies nobilis (noble silver fir), Abies pectinata (European silver fir), and Abies balsamea (balsam fir). The Abies balsamea, Abies Canadensis (hemlock spruce), Abies alba, Abies Fraseri, and Abies nigra are natives of the Eastern U. S., while the most magnificent species of the genus, Abies Bouglasii, Abies Menziedlif Abies nobilis, Abies grandis, and Abies amabilis, grow on the western coast of North America. The ancient genus is now divided into four — Abies for the firs, Picea for the spruces, such as the Norway and our black and white spruces (these two names have been used differently, but this is the ancient and recent scientific use), Tsttga for hemlock spruces ; Pseudotsuga for Douglas spruce. Ab'ila, capital of the tetrarchy of Abilene, identified, some fifty years ago, with Silk, on the right bank of the Barada, near the point where it breaks through the Antili- banus range of mountains towards the plain of Damascus. It was on the great road between Heliopolis and Damascus, 32 miles from the former city and 18 miles from the latter. There was another Abila E. of the Jordan, a few miles S. of the Yarmuk (or Hieromax),the northern bound- ary of Gilead. Abile'ne, an ancient tetrarchy, whose capital was Abila (which see). It is impossible to fix its limits. St. Luke (iii. 1) speaks of it as the tetrarchy of Lysanias, who was apparently a son of the Lysanias mentioned by Jo- sephus. (See Krafft's " Topographic Jerusalems," 1847.) A'bilene, capital of Dickinson co., Kan. (see map of Kansas, ref. 5-G, for location of county), on E. R. and the Kansas River, 95 miles W. of Topeka, is a great point for shipping cattle eastward by rail. Pop. in 1880, 2360. Abilene, Tex. See Appendix. Abim'elech ("the royal father"). I. A king of Gerar, a city of the Philistines, in the time of Abraham ( Gen. xx. 1, aq.). II. Another king of Gerar in Isaac's time (Gen. xxvi.), perhaps a son of the foregoing. III. A son of Gideon (Judges ix.), was for three years (B. C. 1322- 1319) a self-constituted king over a great part of Israel. Ab'ingdon, a market-town of England, in Berkshire, on the Ock where it joins the Isis, 51 miles W. N. W. of London. It contains a tine memorial of Prince Albert, erect- ed in 1860 and surmounted by his statue. It has a free grammar school. Pop. in 1881, 7019. Abingdon, city and R. R. centre, of Knox co.. III. (see map of Illinois, ref. 4-C, for location of county), 85 miles N. E, of Quincy. It is surrounded by a rich agricultural district and is the seat of Hedding College, controlled by the Methodist Episcopal Church, and of Abingdon College, sustained by the Christian denomina- tion. It has a plough-factory, steanj-mills, and public parks. Pop. in 1870, 948; in 1880, 1511. Abingdon, the capital of Washington co., Va. (see map of Virginia, ref. 7-B, for location of county), in a township of its own name, on R. R., 315 miles W. S. W. of Richmond. It has three female colleges of high grade, an extensive iron-foundry, and is the birthplace of several distinguished men. The county was organized in 1776, and is the first spot of earth named in honor of the Father of his Country. Emory and Henry College is in this county, and a large male academy, both fiourishing institutions. The Maury Literary Society of Abingdon has a valuable library. Immense deposits of salt and gypsum are found here, and a large part of the salt used in the Southern States during the war was obtained from salt-wells bored in this vicinity. Pop. in 1870, 715 ; in 1880, 1064. Abingdon, earls of. Baron Norreys (1572, in the English peerage), a noble family of Great IBritain. The first earl was created in 1682. — Montagu Bertie, the sixth ear], was born June 19, 1808, and succeeded his father in 1854. He is lord lieutenant of Berkshire. Ab'inger (Sir James Scarlett), Lord, born in Ja- maica, 1769, was educated at Cambridge and the Middle Temple, and was called to the bar in 1791. He became one of the most accomplished barristers of his time. In 1818 he entered Parliament as a Whig, but afterwards became a 12 ABINGTON— ABOLITION OF SLAVEEY. decided Tory. In 1827, and again in 1829, he was attorney- gem 1 ;J. He was raised to the peerage in 1834, and was ap- pointed chief baron of the exchequer. He died April 7, 1844. Ab'ington, a township of Plymouth oo., Mass. (see map of Massachusetts, ref. 4-J, for location of county), on R. R., 18 miles S. by E. of Boston, and has manufac- tures of boots, shoos, and tacks. Pop. in 1870, 9308 ; in 1880, 3697; in 1885, 3699. In 1874 part of its territory was set off to R(tGkla.nd township, and in 1875 part to South Abington to^vnship. Abiogen'esis [from a priv., fiiwv, "life," and -yeVeo-is, "generation"], a name proposed as a substitute for epon- taneoHK or equivocal (feneration — i.e. the doctrine that cer- tain animals or plants have spontaneously originated, and without birth from previous living beings. Although cred- ited by some naturalists, it has no scientific basis as gene- rally presented. Abipones, a tribe of Indians living in the Gran Chaoo, in the Argentine Confederation. They lived formerly W. of the Parand, between lat. 28° and 30° S., between Santa F6 and Santiago del Estero, but at present have removed towards Corrientes. The Abipones are of high stature, good swimmers, and tattoo themselves. Long lances and arrows with iron points are their weapons. In 1783 their number was estimated at 5000, but they have been reduced to 100 at the present day. They are related to the Tobas. Abka'sia, or Aba'sia^ a narrow territory in Western Asia, belonging to Russia, lies between the Caucasus Moun- tains and the Black Sea, which bounds it on the S. W. Area, estimated at 3486 square miles. Pop. about 80,000. The inhabitants, under the emperor Justinian, became Christians, but subsequently embraced Mohammedanism. Ablu'tion [Lat. oblutio, from ab, "from," and lit^o, Iti'tvm, to " wash "], a religious ceremony of the Roman Catholic Church, signifies the washing of the sacramental cup and of the hands of the priest. Abna'ki, or Abenaaui, frequently called Tarran- tenes or Taranseens, a name given to the former tribes of Algonquin Indians of Maine and vicinity. They were once formidable enemies of the Indians of Southern New England and of the colonists, siding with the French against the English, but the latter overcame them and expatriated the greater part. Their remnants are Catholics, their an- cestors having been converted by the labor of SSbastien Rale (1658-1724) and others. Rale compiled a dictionary of their language (published in 1833). Their history has been written by Maurault (1866) and by Vetromile (1866). Ab'ner (the "enlightener"), the uncle of Saul, the first king of Israel. Abner became commander-in-chief of Saul's army, and for some time after the death of the king he was the chief support of Ishbosheth, his successor ; but subse- quently went over to the side of David, then king of Judah. With David he found such favor that the jealousy of Joab was aroused, and Abner was slain by him B. C. 1046. Abo [Sw. pronunciation, o'boo], a Russian city and sea- port, on the Aurajoki near its entrance into the Gulf of Bothnia; lat. 60° 26' 58" N., Ion. 22° 17' E. It was built by Eric IX. of Sweden in 1157, was subsequently taken by tlie Russians, and in 1809 was, with the whole of Finland, coded to Russia. It was the capital of Finland until 1819, and is now the see of a Lutheran archbishop. It has a cathedral, a town-hall, and a custom-house. The Univer- sity of Abo, having been destroyed by fire in 1827, was rebuilt at Ilelsingfors. Pop. in 1880, 22,967. Abo - Bjbrneborg, a government of Finland, is bounded by the governments of Wasa and Tawastehus, and by the Gulfs of Finland and of Bothnia. Area, 9895 square miles. The chief occupation of the inhabitants is commerce and shipbuilding. The government has ^also some factories. Pop. in 1879, 340,602. Chief town, Abo. Abo, Peace of, concluded August 17, 1743, between Sweden and Russia, put an end to the war begun by Swe- den at the instigation of France in 1741. During this eon- test, and through the misconduct of the Swedish generals, the Russians gained entire possession of Finland. The greater part of this territory they ofiTered to restore on con- dition that Sweden should elect the prince of Holstein- Gottorp successor to the throne. This condition the Swedes complied ^with, and the treaty of peace was accordingly signed at Abo. Abolition of Slavery. Ancient servitude of the constrained, involuntary kind appears to have risen, flour- ished, decayed, and passed away without provoking any organized moral or religious opposition. That, so far at least as Europe was affected, was irrespective of race or color ; for, though the Egyptians and Arabs bought and held negro slaves, they were not known in Europe till in- troduced into Spain by the Moorish invasion and conquest. After the slavery of negroes had been firmly planted in, and quite generally diffused over, the New World, slaves began to be taken to Europe by their American masters, and legal opinions for a time affirmed the validity of their bondage in countries where no law forbade it; but this was arrested, so far at least as Great Britain was concerned, by the famous decision of Lord Mansfield, who, in the case of the negro Somerset, brought to. England from the West Indies by his master, held that slavery can only exist by virtue of positive law, and that, there being no such law in England, the master, though a Briton, forfeited all right in and power over him by taking him to that country. The first systematic agitation for the overthrow of sla- very began with certain American Quakers — John Wool- man and Anthony Benezet of Philadelphia being conspicu- ous among them — about the middle of the last century. Benezet published in 1762 a book in exposure and denun- ciation of the slave-trade. His friend William DiUwyn removed to England some time afterwards, and there en- listed Granville Sharpe and others in the cause. The agi- tation soon after arising in this country against the Stamp Act and other arbitrary measures of the British govern- ment, incited many Americans to consider questions of natural right, and thus to condemn and oppose slavery. Hence, Thomas Jefferson, himself a slaveholder, yet op- posed to slavery, had no difficulty in inducing a majority (sixteen to seven) of the Congress which met next after the acknowledgment of our independence to vote to exclude slavery (in March, 1784) absolutely and for over from all the Union not included in any State. The proposition did not then prevail, since the votes of a majority (seven) of all the States were required to enact it, and the absence of a delegate from New Jersey reduced the States voting yea to aixj against three voting nay — North Carolina being divided. The proposition, restricted to an inhibition of slavery in the territories already ceded by the States to the Confederation, was renewed in 1787, when it was unani- mously passed, and it was reiterated with like unanimity by the fii'st Congress which assembled under the Federal Constitution, when it received the approval of President Washington. Meantime, the convention which formed that Constitu- tion had authorized Congress to prohibit the importation of slaves after twenty years; and this was done — Congress having forbidden, in 1794, our people to engage in carry- ing slaves to other lands, absolutely outlawing all partici- pation in the slave-trade by our people, and all importa- tion of slaves into this country, by an act passed March 2, 1807 — twenty-three days before the British Parliament, after a struggle which had lasted nearly a quarter of a century, did likewise. A British society for the suppression of the slave-trade was organized by Dillwyn, Granville Sharpe, and Thomas Clarkson in 1787, to whom William Wilberforce, already in Parliament, soon lent his powerful aid. William Pitt, then prime minister, admitted the justice of their cause, and gave them a cold and hesitating support; Charles James Fox, his great rival, was its hearty supporter; so was Edmund Burke. Yet bill after bill for the suppression was defeated either directly or by postponement until after Pitt's death and Fox's accession to the premiership, when (in June, 1806) a resolve pledging the House to the meas- ure passed the Commons by 100 yeas to 41 nays, and a bill founded thereon was next winter carried through both Houses, and received the royal assent Mar. 25, 1807. Great Britain was slowly followed in this step by Sweden, Denmark, Holland, France, and several of the South Ameri- can republics. Spain and Portugal reluctantly promised to do likewise, but were tardy in fulfilling their compact, even though they had accepted money or favor from Great Britain as- a consideration therefor. The slave-trade was first declared a felony by act of Parliament in 1811, while acts passed in 1824 and 1837 made it piracy, punishable by transportation for life. So soon as the slave-trade had been placed under the ban of the law, its British adversaries reorganized for a war upon slavery itself, against which they had hitherto put forth no combined or systematic efforts. Mr. Wilber- force presented their petition to the House of Commons in 1823, when it was defeated; Mr. Brougham took the lead in their behalf in 1830 ; and the struggle for parliamentary reform which followed the death of George IV. and the accession of William IV. brought a large adhesion of. strength to their cause; so that in May, 1833, Mr. Stanley (the late earl of Derby) introduced, as secretary for the colonies, resolves which proposed the total (though gradual) emancipation of the slaves held in the British colonies, and a payment to their owners of £20,000,000. These resolves passed both Houses, and were followed by a bill of like tenor, which likewise passed and received the royal as sent Aug. 2, 1833. It took effect Aug. 1, 1834, but an ABOLITION OF SLAVERY. 13 apprenticeship system was engrafted upon the measure, ■whereby the slavery of some was virtually prolonged for four, and that of others for six years. Experience proved , this apprenticeship tainted with all the vices of slavery, re- lieved by scarcely any of its advantages j so the last traces of slavery were, by common consent, effaced from British soil Aug. 1, 1838. The more northern of our States arc justly entitled to the credit of having first in modern times discerned and pro- claimed the wrong and mischief of slavchoMing. Abolition received in Great Britain powerful and, for a time, com- manding influence in Church and State; but the slave- holders were distant colonists, not directly represented in Parliament, and their defeat would not disturb the exist- ing social order in the mother-country. Not so in the original New England States, New York, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, then eminently commercial, was long the focus of an extensive slave-trade, wherein some of her first families were involved ; and slaves were held as firmly, though not so numerously, in New York and Penn- sylvania as in Virginia and the Carolinas before the Ecvo- liition. Soon after the Declaration of Independence, Mas- sachusetts adopted a bill of rights, which her highest court soon decided was incompatible with slavery, which was thereby outlawed. In Pennsylvania an abolition society, whereof Dr. Franklin was a member, was organized in 1780, and did not cease its earnest efforts until it had seen that State made a homo for freemen only. In New York a similar organization was effected somewhat later, and the State was brought to dcci'ee the emancipation of her slaves by the constitution of 1821, though, with regard to some who were then minors, the liberation did not take effect till about 1830. In New Jersey the work was still more gradual, but hardly a handful were held in a nominal bondage after that date. Slavery had ceased to be a power north of Delaware and Maryland as early as 1820, save through the political, commercial, and social ligaments which bound the North and the South closely together, and made the wishes and supposed interests of the latter potent throughout the former. As in England the earV efforts of the abolitionists were directed against the African slave-trade exclusively, and a general crusade against slavery disclaimed, so in this coun- try the anti-slavery spirit was long contented with resist- ing the extension of slavery into regions previously un- seourged by it. There were, indeed, unconditional aboli- tionists, of whom Benjamin Lundy, AVilliam Lloyd Gar- rison, Alvan Stewart, Nathaniel P. Rogers, Lewis Tappan, and Elijah P. Lovejoy may be deemed representative pioneers; but their school was limited in numbers, and had little immediate influence on legislation or govern- ment, since an overwhelming majority of those earnestly opposed to slavery held that the spirit, if not the letter, of the Federal Constitution forbade all interference by Con- gress with the internal polity of a State, and restricted to moral influence the efforts of the citizens of one State to subvert or modify the institutions of another State. But when, in 1818, the Territory of Missouri framed a consti- tution and applied for admission into the Union as a State — said constitution recognizing and upholding sla- very — the representatives of the free States very generally resisted such admission until she should provide at least for gradual emancipation. The Senate opposed any such re- strictions, but a compromise was ultimately effected where- by Missouri was admitted as a slave State on condition that slavery should never exist in any territory of the U. S. north of the parallel of 36° 30' N. latitude. The House consented to this by barely three majority (90 to 87J, nearly all the nays being cast by Northern opponents of slavery. (See Missouri Compromise.) On the admission of the re- public of Texas into the Union in 1845 the Missouri Com- promise line of division was agreed upon and extended through all the public domain then acquired. In 1846, pending the war with Mexico, Mr. David Wilmot of Penn- sylvania introduced into the House a proposition to pro- hibit for ever slavery from all new territory that might be acquired from Mexico, at the termination of that war. This proposition became celebrated as the Wilmot Proviso, and gave rise to continued and heated discussions in the House and the Senate until 1850, when another compromise, as it was called, was made in which Henry Clay was the pacifi- cator. The agitation was renewed again in 1854, when a bill was introduced into the Senate by the Hon. Stephen A. Douglas for the organization of State governments in the Territories of Kansas and Nebraska, and providing for the repeal of the so-called Missouri Compromise act of 1820. The bill was adopted by the Senate by a large majority, but in the House it encountered very strong opposition, passing finally by a vote of 113 to 100. The question whether slavery should exist within the States to be formed under this act was thus referred to the people of the Terri- tories themselves, and was left to be decided by what, in the popular parlance of that day, was called "squatter sovereignty." As the Territories were thinly peopled, there consequently arose a rapid migration towards them, espe- cially towards Kansas, from both North and South, each section aiming to secure a predominance in the popular vote and in the constitutional convention. Occasional col- lisions between these rival colonists naturally occurred, at- tended in some instances with serious violence; and the struggle for power was protracted through several years. Both parties prepared and presented constitutions to Con- gress embodying their respective views. The election of Mr. Lincoln as President in 1860 finally decided the con- troversy, and Kansas was admitted as a free State in 1861. The same event occasioned the withdrawal from their seats in Congress of the Senators and members of the House from seven of the Southern States, and gave the advocates of slavery restriction by Federal legislation a majority in the Senate for the first time since the government was or- ganized. The House was still more decidedly anti-slavery. As the war went on, defeats, even more than victories, dif- fused and intensified among Unionists the hatred of sla- very; so that when Mr. Lincoln (Sept. 22, 1862) proclaimed that if the revolted States should still continue in rebellion he would, on the 1st of January ensuing, declare free all who were held as slaves wit];jin those States, public senti- ment was ripe for sustaining that policy. Secession being still rampant, the President issued his second proclamation on the day appointed; after which no Federal commander was at liberty to remand slaves who had fled from their mas- ters to find protection within the Union lines. From that date the war for the Union became, what in essence it had necessarily been from the outset, a struggle for freedom to all, and European rulers, who had smiled upon the Con- federacy in the earlier stages of the contest, were repelled from taking its part openly when it was seen that its fate involved that of American slavery. The Thirty-seventh Congress initiated the work of direct, outright emancipation by an act proposed by Senator Wil- son of Massachusetts, abolishing slavery in the Federal District, and paying the owners an average compensation of $300 for each slave liberated. This bill passed the Sen- ate, April 3, 1862, by 29 yeas to 14 nays, and the House, April 10, by 92 yeas to 39 nays. This was followed by an attempt to proffer a like compensation to the so-called Border States if they would consent to emancipation ; but it was strenuously opposed by their representatives and by the entire Democratic party, and ultimately failed in the House for lack of a two-third vote to take it up out of its order on the last day of the session. A bill prohibiting absolutely all slaveholding in any Federal territory became a law, by the President's approval, June 19, 1862. A bill decreeing the freedom of all slaves of persistent rebels found in any place occupied or commanded by the forces of the Union, forbidding their rendition to their masters, and providing that negroes might be enlisted-to fight for the Union, after undergoing sundry transmutations ulti- mately passed the House by 82 yeas to 42 nays, and ihe Senate by 27 yeas to 12 nays, and became a law, by the President*s approval, July 17, 1862. A constitutional amendment (the thirteenth), abolishing and prohibiting evermore the enslavement of human be- ings, was proposed in the Senate by Mr. Henderson of Missouri at the former session, when it passed that branch, April 8, 1864, by 38 yeas to 6 nays — six Senators not voting. Being sent to the House, it failed to command the requisite two-thirds — yeas, 85; nays, 66; when Mr. Ashley of Ohio kept it alive by changing his vote to nay and then moving a reconsideration. When that Congress reassembled. Dee. 6, 1864, for its final session, Mr. Lincoln had been trium- phantly re-elected and the civil war was plainly near its end. The President, in his annual message, recommended a reconsideration and passage of the amendment aforesaid ; and this was accomplished, Jan. 31, 1865, by 119 yeas to 57 nays — 12 chosen as Democrats or Conservatives voting with all the Republicans in the affirmative — every Repub- lican present and voting; eight Democrats absent. By the ratiflcation of threre- fourths of the States, and by the utter collapse of the civil war, this amendment became a part of the supreme law Of the land, and its authority has never been contested. By its force slavery was banished from the U. S., as it had already been from every portion of this continent except Brazil and the Spanish islands of Cuba and Porto Rico. In Brazil an act was passed in Sept., 1871, freeing all the slaves belonging to the govern- ment, and securing freedom to all those born after the date of the enactment. (There has not yet been published any complete history of the abolition of slavery ; the best work on the abolition of the slave-trade is Clarkson's "History of the Abolition of the Slave-Trade," 2 vols., 1808.) Horace Greeley. 14 ABOLITIONISTS— ABSCESS. Aboli"tioilists, a name applied to those persons — more particularly in the U. S. — who were distinguished for their zeal against the institution of slavery. (See Anti- Slavery Society, by Hox. Horace Greeley, LL.D.) Abo'mey, an African town, capital of the kingdom of Dahomey ; lat. 7° 30' N., Ion. 1° 40' E. It contains sev- eral royal palaces. Pop. estimated at from 50,000 to 60,000. Abo'ny, a town of Hungary, in the county of Csongrad, 47 miles S. B. of Prague. Pop. in 1880, 11,186. Aborig'i-nes [a Latin word derived from at, " from,'' and ori'go (gen. ori'ginis), " source," " origin "], the earliest original inhabitants of a country — that is, those who occu- pied it at the period when it began to be known, and who either were (according to a once prevalent opinion) indig- enous to the soil, or had immigrated thither before the dawn of history. Some of the ancients supposed they had always inhabited the same soil, and sprang from it, as the Athe- nians, who thence called themselves autoch' thonea (from av- Tos, " itself," and x9i»»', " earth," " soil," " land ") ; i. e. sprung from the land or soil itself. But the Romans and modern nations use the word aborigines to designate those inhabit- ants of a country of whose origin nothing certain is known. Thus the Indians of America are properly called aborigines, because they were found there at its discovery, and as to their origin we have only their own tradition (which is not uniform) that their ancestors came from a distant region in the North-west. (See American Indians.) , Abor'tion [Lat. ahortio], the premature birth or exclu- sion of the human foetus. It is doubtful whether the act of causing an abortion is an offence at common law unless the mother is quick with child, on the untenable ground that life does not begin until that period. The early stat- utes took the same distinction. Later legislation in Eng- land wholly discards it, and makes it a felony to procure the miscarriage of a female by unlawful means at any period of her pregnancy. The laws of the various States in this country still maintain to some extent the older rule. About (Edmond), a popular French novelist and polit- ical writer, born at Dieuze (Meurthe) Feb. 14, 1828. In 1868 he wrote, as one of the contributors to the " Gaulois," a series of witty and satirical letters, in consequence of which that paper was suppressed by the authorities; but he was nevertheless assisted by the imperial government, which in 1870 appointed him councillor of state. At the beginning of the war he was for a short time war-correspondent for the " Soir." Sept. 14, 1872, he was arrested by the Germans, but was released Sept. 21. He published in 1855 a work on modern Greece, "La GrSce contemporaine," which was much admired. He had been sent to the French school of art in Athens by his government. Among his works are novels entitled "Tolla" (1856), "Germaine" (1857), a political treatise on "The Roman Question" (1860), "Madelon" (1863), "Le Progres" (1864), "La vieille roche" (3 vols., 1865-66), "L'infame" (1867), "Les mariages de province" (1868). His " Le Roi des Montagnes " (1856) is one of his best works. D. Jan. 17, 1885. Aboville (FRAN901S Marie), Count, a French general, born at Brest Jan. 23, 1730. He directed the artillery at Yorktown, Va., in 1781, and was inspector-general of artil- lery under Napoleon I. Died Nov. 1, 1819. Abrabanel', or Abarbanel', b, in Lisbon 1437 ; d. in Venice 1508; traced his pedigree back to King David; was the pensioner of Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain, but was afterward exiled as a Jew; lived mostly in Italy, whence he made short journeys to other countries, and wrote, besides some commentaries, his " Herald of Salva- tion," an elaborate exposition of the .Jewish doctrine of the M«ssiah, first printed at Saloniki in 1526. Abracadab'ra, a term probably of Persian origin, was in former times highly prized as a magical formula, and supposed to be efficacious in the cure of fevers. A'braham, originally Abram, an eminent Hebrew patriarch, called the " Father of the faithful," was born at Ur, in Chaldea, according to Hales, 2153 B. C. ; according to Ussher, 1996 B. C. (Bunsen says he lived about 2850 B. C ) "Abraham" signifies "the father of a numerous people.'' He migrated to Canaan, where he led "a nomadic life in tents, was greatly renowned for piety and wisdom, and was called a friend of God. He died at the age of 175 years (See Genesis xi.-xxv. ; Acts vii. ; Hebrews xi. 8-17.) A'braham-a-Saiic'ta-Cla'ra, a popular German preacher and Augustine friar, whose name was Ulricii Megeele, was born in Suabia June 4, 1644. He was ap- pointed preacher to the imperial court at Vienna in 1669 and published many religious works. His sermons were seasoned with witty, humorous, or whimsical expressions Died Dec. 1, 1709. A'brahamiteSjthe name of a sect of Bohemian deists who are said to have rejected all parts of the Bible except the Ten Commandments and the Lord's Prayer. They were suppressed in 1783. A'braham Osh'ki, a Jew of Portuguese descent, who translated the Bible, word for word, into Spanish. It was published in 1553 at Ferrara, and although the first edition is now seldom met with, it is still esteemed in Spain both by Christians and Jews. Abran'tes, a fortified town of Portugal, in Estrema- dura, on the Tngus, 73 miles N. E. of Lisbon. Grain, oil, and fruit are sent from it to the market of Lisbon. Pop. in 1878, 6076. Abrantes, Duke of. See Junot. Abraxas Stones is the name of a kind of gems found in Syria, Egypt, and Spain. They are of various forms, but all have the word Abraxas or Abrasax engraved on them in connection with certain mystical symbols, mostly consisting of fantastical figures, composed of the body of a serpent, the head of a bird, and other incongru- ous parts. The word Abraxas was first used by the Egyp- tian gnostic Basilides, and denoted not the supreme being, but the assemblage of the 365 world-spirits ; the letters composing the word expressing, according to the Greek numeration, the number of 365. His disciples, who used this kind of gems as amulets or talismans, and after whom they are often called Basilidian stones, spread them all over Egypt and Syria, and in the fourth century the dis- ciples of Priscillianus brought them to Spain. Abridg'ment [Fr. ahriger, to " shorten "], a condensa- tion or compendium of a book or literary work. In the law of copyright an abridgment, when fairly made, is re- garded as a new work, and accordingly its publication is not an infringement of the copyright. A distinction is taken in the legal decisions between an abridgment and a compilation. The latter is more readily regarded as an infringement, as the words of an author arc reproduced, while in a true abridgment the thoughts arc expressed in other words and in a condensed form. Abro'lhos (i. c. "open your eyes"), a group of small rocky islands which belong to ^he province of Espirito Santo, Brazil. The largest of these, Santa Barbara, 40 miles from the coast, has a lighthouse in lat. 17° 58' S., Ion. 38° 42' AV. Abrn'zzo, the northern part of the former kingdom of Naples, but now included in the kingdom of 'Italy. It is bounded on the N. E. by the Adriatic. It is divided into three provinces— viz. Chieti, formerly called Abruzzo Ci- teriore (or Citra) ; Teramo, formerly Abruzzo Ulteriore (or Ultra) I. ; and Aquila, formerly Abruzzo Ulteriore II. Ab'salom, the third son of King David, by Maacah, a Syrian princess, was remarkable for his personal beauty. Having, by his popular arts and fair speeches, gained the favor of the people, ho rebelled against his father and raised a large army, which was defeated by the army of the king. Retreating from this battle, Absalom was killed by Joab, although David had given orders that his life should be spared. (See 2 Samuel xiii.-xix.) Ab'salon, called also Axel, an eminent prelate and general, born in Iceland in 1128, was a liberal patron of learning, and was distinguished for his wisdom in coun- cil. Ho was one of the ministers of the Danish king Wal- demar I., and became archbishop of Lund in 1178 Died in 1201. Ab'scess [Lat. abecea'eua, from 069, "away from," and ce do, to " go," because the pus separates itself from the rest of the body], in surgery, is a circumscribed collection ot pus in any part of the animal organism, as distinguished from "purulent infiltration," which designates such a col- lection not circumscribed. The term "diffuse abscess" is however, applied, though improperly, to purulent infiltra- tion. An • acute abscess" is one which is the result of active inflammation. "Cold abscess" is the result of chronic inflammation. The tendency of an acute abscess is to point or "come to a head;" that is, from the outward pressure of the accumulating pus, the walls yield mechani- cally in the direction of least resistance. In favorable cases the evacuation of the pus, natural or artificial, is the initiation of recovery; but if the abscess be of the "cold" IttT^it?.! »•'*''''"'?*"' """^ o^t^sive, or be associated with metastatic symptoms or septicaemia, the question of recovery becomes a much more complicated one. Deen- seated abscesses, when they traverse considerable tracts of the body and "pmnt" at a distant part, are called "con- ouf n7„« T'l T'' ''™ "'■'"'' '^ ''"'-y P'-opo'-'y passing out of u e Such abscesses aro often for a long time difli- cult ot detection, and their treatment taxes, too often in dreted^bvl""" "J the surgeon. In gene'ral, abscess i^ detected by observation of the general and local symptoms. Iho general symptoms are fever and subsequent rigors j the ABSCISSA— ABSTRACT SCIENCE. 15 local are "pain, heat, redness, and swelling," followed by softness and fluctuation of the fluid contents. (See Pus.) Abscis'sa [from the Lat. ahscindoy abaciaBiim, to "cut off"], a term used in geometry to denote a segment cut off from a straight line by an ordinate to a curve. Abse'cum, or Absecom, Atlantic co., N. J. (see map of New Jersey, ref. 7-C, for location of county), on R. E,., and near Absecum Bay, 7 miles N. W. of Atlantic City. Absecum lighthouse is a brick sti-ucture on the S. side of Absecum Inletj lat. 39° 21' 55" N., Ion. 74° 24' 32" W. It shows a fixed white dioptric light of the first order, 163 feet above the sea. Pop. in 1880, 507. Absentee) a term applied to capitalists and proprie- tors of land who do not reside on their estates, but spend their incomes in other countries. This practice is very prevalent among the Irish nobility and gentry, and some political economists ascribe the poverty of Ireland partly to this absenteeism. Absinthe [Fr. for "wormwood"], a liqueur much used in France, prepared from alcohol mixed with volatile oil of wormwood, oil of anise, and other ingredients. It has peculiarly intoxicating effects, which are due to the oil of wormwood, the state resulting from its use being very dif- ferent from the result of alcohol poisoning. Trembling, vertigo, fearful dreams, and epileptiform convulsions are among its severer consequences. Absinthe-drinking is one of the most dangerous forms of stimulation yet invented — the more so because its immediate consequences are usually more agreeable than those of alcohol. Ab'sis, or Ap'sis [Gr. ii/fts, an "arch"], a name given formerly to that part of a church in which the clergy were seated or the altar was placed. It was either circular or polygonal on the plan, and covered with a dome. Ab'solute [from the Lat. ah, "from," and soht'tua, "loosed," a "part" (from aol'vo, solii'tum, to "loose")], originally, loosed or freed from all conditions, absolutely independent j hence, positive, unconditional, unlimited. As a scientific term it is the reverse of relative, as absolute velocity. In metaphysics it represents the unconditioned infinite and self-existent. Absolute monarchy is that which ia not limited or restricted by constitutional checks. Absolute Alcohol. See Alcohol, by C. F. Chaxdleu. Absolu'tion [Lat. absolvtio'], in canon law, is the par- don and remission of sins which a Roman Catholic priest pronounces to a penitent offender. Absor'^bents [for etymology, see Absorption], a term applied to a set of vessels of a peculiar character in the animal body. (See Lymphatics.) Abso'rokas, a tribe of American savages. (See Crows.) Absorp'tion [Lat. abaorp'tio, from a6, "from," and aor'heo, aorp'tum, to "sip or suck"] is the 'function by which nutritive matter is absorbed into an animal or plant. Plants absorb carbonic acid gas by their leaves and other green parts, and it is supposed that this absorption takes place principally through the atomata of the leaves, and' both by the upper and under surface of the leaf j in some plants much more powerfully by the one surface than by the other. But plants also derive their nourishment par- tially, although not principally, from their roots, and it is at the extremities of their fibrils that absorption takes place most rapidly, by capillary attraction and a process called Endosmosb (which see). Absorption in animals is known to be largely by endosmose, and that process, mechanical rather than vital, is affected, it is believed, only indirectly by the nervous energy. Abs'tinence [from aha, " from," and te'neoj to " hold," to "keep"], the act or state of abstaining from food, drink, etc. Abstinence^ Total, that is, from all indulgence in the use of intoxicating beverages, was practised in early ages by the Nazaritee and Rechabites, mentioned in Scrip- ture. Some of the Hebrew prophets rigorously inveigh against the prevalence of drunkenness, yet hardly indicate total abstinence as the proper remedy. The Essenes (which see) — a Jewish sect contemporary with the Messiah — were distinguished for temperance in eating and drinking, es- chewing generally the use of flesh and wine. Mohammed peremptorily forbade the use of wine as a beverage by his followers. In the feudal ages, societies designed to shield their members and others from the evils of drunkenness were often formed, but not on the basis of absolute disuse of stimulants. The discovery of alcohol by an Arabian chemist about 1000 A. D. had, through the art of distilla- tion, greatly expanded and intensified the evils of intem- perance, especially in Northern Europe, where beer had generally been the most potent stimulant attainable by the masses. The discovery and settlement of America, largely increasing the average rewards of manual labor, especially on this continent, rendered intemperance more common, by increasing the ability of the common people to purchase alcoholic stimulants; and this country, especially through- out the half century succeeding its Declaration of Inde- pendence, was hardly equalled in the prevalence of intoxi- cation even by the British and Scandinavian kingdoms, and was unapproached by any other nation. The earliest known organization of a total abstinence society in the XJ. S. was " The Temperate Society of Mil- ton and Northumberland" (Saratoga co., N. Y.), founded by Dr. Billy J. Clarke in 1808, which at its commence- ment had forty-three members. Distilled liquors and wines were absolutely prohibited by its rules, but not the mode- rate use of beer. In 1813 was formed the "Massachu- setts Society" for the suppression of intemperance. In 1826 the American Temperance Society was organized. The evils resulting from the free use of ardent spirits were so general and glaring that kindred societies were soon formed in many cities, villages, and rural townships, the movement being strongly aided, especially among zealous Christians, by Dr. Lyman Bcecher's "Six Sermons on In- temperance." Dr. Eliphalet Nott, president of Union College, was also early and honorably distinguished as a pioneer in the temperance cause. It was not till 1833 that, at a national meeting of the friends of temperance, held in Philadelphia, the principle of " total abstinence from all that may intoxicate" was propounded, only to be voted down; but it was again proposed, and adopted, at a national convention held at Saratoga Springs in August, 1836, and became henceforth the basis of the temperance movement, to which a great impulse was given by tha " Washingtonians" (in good part reformed drunkards), who began their work in 1841, and for a time seemed destined to sweep all before them. The first State to pro- hibit the sale of intoxicating beverages was Maine, in 1851. The other New England States soon followed her example. New York had already (in 1846) authorized the voters of her several cities and townships to forbid such sale by a popular vote; but her court of appeals pro- nounced this unconstitutional, as it likewise did (in 1859) a law of absolute prohibition enacted in 1855. Chief- Justice Shaw of Massachusetts held that every citizen injured or annoyed by the proximity of a grogshop might lawfully abate it as a nuisance, but his two associates, on appeal, overruled him. Partial, if not general, prohibition was enacted in seve- ral Western States, but here, as elsewhere, most imperfectly enforced. The Washingtonian eifort gradually spent its strength and faded out, being succeeded by new organiza- tions, whereof the " Sons of Temperance," " Good Tem- plars," "Rechabites," " GJ-ood Samaritans," and "Cadets of Temperance " are still active and flourishing. The total abstinence movement in Great Britain first attracted public attention in 1831. The "pledge" to drink no intoxicating liquors was first adopted by a national gathering at Manchester in 1834. It has never yet become so influential in that as in this country, and its upholders have only ventured to ask of Parliament a "permissive" act — that is, one allowing any locality to forbid and outlaw the liquor traffic by^ a majority vote — and this has never been conceded. The votaries of total abstinence in Great Britain are generally found in the humbler walks of life. In Ireland total abstinence was first eff"ective]y com- mended by Father Mathew, who, by his simple expositions and exhortations, persuaded millions of his countrymen and fellow- Catholics to take the pledge, which many of them have since broken. Since his death, in 1856, the re- form has decidedly lost ground in Ireland, while it has as yet made little headway in any part of Continental Europe or South America. Horace Greeley. AbstinentS) a Christian sect of Gaul and Spain in the latter part of the third century A. D., who condemned mar- riage and the use of flesh-meats and wine, declaring that they were made by the devil, and not by God. Ab'stract [from the Lat. aha, "from," and ira'lio, trac'tum, to "draw"], literally, that which is drawn away or separated (or viewed separately) from aU'external cir- cumstances or conditions, and hence opposed to Concrete (which see). Abstrac'tion (see preceding article), the intellectual process by which the mind separates one of the attributes of an object from the others, and thinks of it exclusively. An idea or notion of an abstract or theoretical nature is sometimes called an abstraction. Abstract Science (metaphysics, logic, mathematics) starts from a proposition whose truth is tested by the necessary laws of thought ; from which proposition a whole system is evolved by inference and deduction. All dis- coveries, so far as they are not incidental, are made by ap- plication of abstract science (experiment), as all inventions are made by application of knowledge of the real object (experience J. 16 ABSUBDUM, REDUCTIO AD— ABYSSINIA. AbsuTd'um, Reduc'tio ad, a, term used in geom- etry to denote a mode of demonstration, in whicli tbe truth of a proposition is demonstrated by proving that the con- trary is absurd or impossible. Abt (Franz), a German composer, born at Eilenburg Deo. 22, 1819. He became in 1855 first chapelmaster to the duke of Brunswick. His works are chiefly songs. They are very popular in Germany and the U. S. D. Apr., 1S85. Abu (also written in English Aboo), an Arabic word, signifying "father," occurs as a prefix to many Oriental names. Abu, a mountain of India, in Rajpootana, connected with the Aravulli range, is about 5000 feet above the level of the sea. It is a celebrated place of pilgrimage for the Jainas, who have four temples at Dilwara, near the middle of the mountain. One of these is said to be the most su- perb of all the temples of India. Abubekr', or Aboo-Bekr, a_ caliph, the first of Mohammed's successors, was born in Arabia about 570 A. D. His original name was Abh-el-Kaaba, which was exchanged for Aboo-Bekr (j. e. "father of the virgin"), because his virgin daughter Ayesha was married to the prophet. He began to reign in 632 A. D., and died in 634, leaving a high reputation as a man and a ruler. Abugirgeh, a large Fellah town of Middle Egypt, about 2 miles W. of the Nile and 122 miles above Cairo. Abukir', a village of Egypt, on tho site of the ancient •Canopus, and on the sea-coast at the west side of Abukir Btiy, 15 miles N. E. of Alexandria. Here is a castle. Abukir Bay is on the coast of Lower Egypt, between the village and castle of Abukir and the Kosetta mouth of the Nile. In this bay Admiral Nelson gained a decisive victory over the French fleet, Aug. 1, 1798, and tho Turks were defeated by the French under Napoleon I., July 25, 1799. Abulca'sis, or Abnlka'sis, written also Abul- Kasem, Khalaf Ebn Abbas, a celebrated Arab phy- sician and surgical writer, born near C6rdova, in Spain. His principal work was published in 1778, under the title of "Abulcasis de Chirurgia." The portion of it devoted to surgery is regarded as the most valuable treatise of the kind that has come down to us from early times. Died about 1110. Abulfa'raj ['La.t.Abul/ara'giiis'] (Gregorius), a learned historical writer, born in Armenia in 1226, became maph- rian or primate of the eastei'n division of the Jacobite Christians in 1266. He wrote in Syriac and Arabic several valuable works, among which is a " History of the Dynas- ties." Died in 1286. — There was also a famous Oriental poet, Ali Abulfaraj (897-997). AbuNFazl, an eminent Oriental historian, who in 1574 became vizier or prime minister of the great Mogul emperor Akbar. He was a wise and liberal statesman. He was as- sassinated about 1600. Among his important works are a history of Akbar, called "Akbar Nameh," and "Institutes of Akbar" ("Ayeen Akbari"). Abulfe'da, a Moslem prince and celebrated Arabian author, was born at Damascus about 1273. He fought with distinction for the sultan of Syria against the Tartars or Mongols, and was rewarded with the title of prince of Ha- mah. He wrote an important work entitled " An Abridg- ment of the History of Mankind," and another, " Tho De- scription of the Countries," which is regarded as the best Arabic work on geography that is extant. Died in 1331. Abu Sambul, Abusimbal, or Ipsambul, a ruined place in Nubia, on the W. bank of the Nile, 1014 miles above Cairo and 8 miles above the Second Cataract. It contains two of the best-preserved specimens of the great rock-hewn temples of ancient Egypt. It has also four sitting colossal statues, which are not only tho largest, but are considered the finest, specimens of Egyptian plastic art. One of these figures is fifty feet high as it sits. Abutment, the part of a pier or wall from which an arch springs, and which resists the lateral or outward pressure. (See Bridge, by Gen. J. G. Barnard, U. S. Army.) Aby'dos, an ancient city of Upper Egypt, on the left hank of the Nile, 5 or 6 miles from the river, and about 100 miles below Thebes. Here are the ruins of a temple of Osiris and a temple of Memnon, in which Mr. Bankes dis- covered in 1818 the celebrated tablet of Abydos, now in the British Museum. A second tablet of Abydos, containing 76 shields, was discovered by Mariette in 1865. Banke? tablet contained only 26 shields. Aby'dus, or Aby'dos [Gr. 'A|3vSo!], an ancient city on the Hellespont opposite Sestos, where Xerxes crossed over to Europe on a bridge of boats, 480 B. C. It was also cele- brated for its connection with the story of Hero and Lcander. Ab'yia and Cal'pe, the names of tho pillars of Her- cules, standing on both sides of the Straits of Gibraltar. The former was in Africa. Abyssin'ia, in its widest sense, comprises the Ethiopic plateau, extending S. W. from the Red Sea, descending on the N. to the Nubian lowlands, and on the W. to the plains and valleys of Sennaar and Kordofan. It is not generally used in this sense, however, but excluding the narrow strip of lowland which separates it from the Red Sea and forms its boundary on the N. E., the Galla country on the S., and Nubia on the W. and N. W. It lies between tho parallels of 9° and 16° 20' N. lat. and the meridians of 31° 40' and 40° E. Ion. Its area is 128,646 square miles. Toporjrnjihy. — Abyssinia consists of a series of plateaus, average elevation 5000-8000 feet, from which rise moun- tain-groups, the loftiest of which are 15,200 feet above the sea. Near the Red Sea the land is low, waterless, and un- healthy. The plateaus and mountains are fissured by rivers — viz. the Abai, passing through Lake Dembea, the Atbara, and the Taeazze. The mountains are volcanic, but most of the volcanoes are now extinct. Climate. — The valleys and lowlands are hot, subject to fevers, and ravaged by wild beasts; the mountains and hills have a healthy and temperate climate and few wild animals. Soil and Productions. — The soil of tho valleys and low- lands is very rich, and the vegetation of a tropical charac- ter. In the hills and mountains the soil is fertile, but the vegetation is not tropical. There are few forests, and the mountain-torrents carry the soil of the hills into the Nile valley on the W. All tho cereals grow well and yield large crops. Cotton, sugar-cane, tobacco, and cofiee are raised largely in the lowlands ; coffee grows wild. IndttBfnee. — The people are mostly farmers and herds- men. There are some rude manufactures. Education and Religion. — The Abyssinians are naturally intelligent and quick-witted, but there is very little educa- tion ; few can read or write. The Copts are nominally Christians, but their religion is very corrupt. Circum- cision precedes baptism, communion is administered daily to the laity, and confession rigidly enforced, but morals are at a low ebb. The Falashas adhere to the Jewish ritual. The Gallas and some other tribes are Mohammed- ans, and there are some heathen. The Roman Catholics have attempted repeatedly to gain a footing here, but have failed. There are somo Protestant missionaries. History. — The Copts of Abyssinia are a mixed race, originally, probably, from Yemen. They first became noted at Axum. Their rulers claimed to be lineal descend- ants of Solomon and the queen of Sheba, and governed them peacefully to the end of the fourth century. About A. D. 350 Christianity was introduced, and became the national religion. The first great advance of Mohammedanism cut them off from all connection with other Christian nations, and great corruption and debasement ensued. The patriarch must be a Copt, and was generally an ignorant monk. The Mohammedans attempted to destroy the kingdom in tho sixteenth century, but the Portuguese defeated them, and they and the Jesuits converted the royal family to Cathol- icism. The people, however, refused to be converted, and in 1630 severed all connection with Rome. The power of the Hazie or royal family continued to decline, and at the beginning of this century was only nominal, the governors of Amhara being the actual rulers. About 1850, Lij Kassa, of the royal blood but of poor parentage, became governor of the province of Kuara; he soon revolted, and after sev- eral failures and some successes dethroned Ras Ali, the Amhara ruler, and defeated Uhie, prince of Tigre, and in 1855 was crowned negus nejriissrc (Idng of kings), under tho title of Theodore II. He was at first a good ruler, liaving an able adviser in John Boll, an Englishman, who had been in Abyssinia since 1842 ; but after Bell's death, in 1860, he became a cruel tyrant, and so oppressed the people as to drive them to rebellion. He insulted the British govern- ment and imprisoned its citizens and consuls, and in the autumn of 1867 an armed expedition with about 12,000 troops was sent to Abyssinia, and landed at Mulkutto Jan. 3, 1868, and on April 14 captured Theodore's last and strongest fortress, and Theodore killed himself. After the British army withdrew, anarchy prevailed. Gobazie, prince of Amhara, proclaimed himself king, but in 1871 was de- feated by Prince Kassa of Tigre, who in 1872 was crowned Emperor John II. of Ethiopia. Population, etc. — There are numerous petty states and provinces occupied by distinct tribes and races ; Tigre, Amhara, and Shoa are the largest. The pop. of Abyssinia is 3,000,000. The Coptic race predominates; there are also Falasha (a peculiar Jewish tribe), negroes, Gallas, and Arabs. "The principal towns are Gondar, in Amhara, the residence of the abuna, or bishop ; Adowa, capital of Tigre; Ankobar, capital of Shoa; Antalo, Massowa, Angolola, Aliya, Amba, and Magdala. L. P. Brockett. ACACIA— ACA DEMY. 17 Aca'cia [from the Gr. ax^, a "sharp point," on account of the thorns on the tree], a genus of the order Leguminosse, found in Asia, Africa, America, and Australia, com- prising manj beautiful trees, among which is A. Arafcica, which produces some of the gum-arabic of commerce, but the most and best is yielded by A,vcrek. (See GcMS.) Catechu is an extract from the wood of A. Catechu of India and Burmah ; this and other species are much valued for timber, etc. The species with willow-like foliage, cultivated in conservatories, are nearly all Australian. Aca'cians, followers of Acaci- Acacia Arabica. us, bishop of Csesarea 340-365, and of Acacius, patriarch of Constantinople 471-489. The former neither held that Christ was a created being nor that he was of like sub- stance, but simply that he was like the Father, His doc- trines were condemned at the Council of Sardica, 347, and at the Council of Seleucia, 359. Acacius, patriarch of Constantinople, sided with the emperor Zeno, whose edict was issued in 482, and was drawn up, it was supposed, by Acacius himself. Acad'emy [Gr. "AKaSTj/mia ; properly 'Axa^v/teta ; Lat. acade' mia; Fr. acadimie\j a word originally npplied to an Athenian garden or grove and to the school of philosophy which Plato founded in that place, which was in a suburb of Athens. The name is supposed to have been derived from Academus or Hecademus, a mythical person who, according to Greek tradition, presented the garden to th'^ people of Ath- ens. The modified systems or schools of philosophy which the successors of Plato adopted were designated by the titles of the Middle and the New Academy. The word academy is also applied to a society of authors, savants, or artists found- ed for the improvement of literature, science, or art. The first institution of which we read, at all corresponding to this idea, was the Museum, a society of scholars established at Alexandria by Ptolemy Soter in the third century B. C, which concentrated in that city all that was most eminent in science, philosophy, poetry, or criticism. The Jews in different cities, the Constantinopolitan emperors, and the Arabian caliphs founded societies of the same description. Charlemagne, among his various efforts for the propagation of literature, collected an association of learned men, who read and compared the works of antiquity, and gave them- selves in their academic intercourse the assumed names of different ancient authors. But this institution was dis- solved at the death of Alcuin ; nor do we find any memorial of a similar society, except a few among artists, chiefly in France, until after the taking of Constantinople by the Turks, when the Greek scholars driven into Italy held literary meetings, which gradually assumed a more regu- lar form. In 1560 a society called the Academia Secre- torum Naturae, was founded at Naples in the house of Baptista Porta, but was abolished by a papal interdict. It was, however, succeeded by the Academia Lyncei at Rome, of which Galileo was a member, the objects of which, like those of the former, were chiefly connected with the pursuit of natural history. From the beginning of the seventeenth century academies multiplied in Italy. Among the most eminent of those bearing a philosophical charac- ter was the Academy del Cimento at Florence in that cen- tury ; and in more recent times the Academy of Sciences at Bologna deserves to be mentioned with honor. But Italy has been most prolific in academies of literature and phi- lology, which form by far the greatest number in the cata- logue of 550 such institutions which have been enumerated as existing or having existed in that country. A general and somewhat ridiculous fashion prevailed in the seven- teenth and eighteenth centuries, among literary men of that country, of forming themselves into societies for the promo- tion of literary objects, to which they gave fanciful sym- bolic names, every member assuming in his own person some analogous appellation. Among the most celebrated was the Academy (It. Accademia) degll Arcadi at Rome, of which the meetings were held in a meadow, and the members en- acted shepherds and shepherdesses. It was founded about 1690, and still subsists, having various afQIiated societies in other places. The Accademia degli TJmidi, one of the oldest of these associations, became afterwards the Floren- tine Academy. The Accademia degli Intronati ("of the Deafened"), degli Umoristi ("of the Humorists"), and others with similar quaint appellations, have acquired celebrity in Italy. Of her philological academies the most illustrious is the Accademia della Crusca {i. e, "Academy of the bran"-'), founded at Florence in 1582, which by its *3n allusion to its oflSce of winnowing or purifying the national language. Vol. I.— 2 famous dictionary established the Tuscan dialect as the standard of the national language. It is now incorporated with the Accademia Fiorentina. The first institution of this kind iu France, the Acade- mic Franpaise, was founded in 1635, by Cardinal Riche- lieu. It was formed for the purpose of refining the French language and style, and, although in its first period it was chiefly remarkable for the adulation which it bestowed on its vain though able founder, it became in process of time by far the most celebrated and influential of all European literary societies. It consisted of forty members, and a place among them was eagerly sought after for a long period as one of the highest honors wliich could bo attained by an author. Like that of La Crusca, it published a dictionary of the national language in 1094. The Royal Academy of Sciences was founded by Louis XIV. in 1660, and pub- lished 130 volumes of memoirs up to the year 1793, when it was abolished by the Convention. The Academy of Painting and Sculpture, and that of Inscriptions and Belles-Lettres, were the other two principal academies of Paris. The latter was founded by Colbert in 1663, and re- modelled in 1701. At the Revolution all four were abol- ished, and in 1795, at the suggestion of Condorcet, the National Institute of France was established in their stead. It consisted of four classes, arising out of the four acade- mies of which it was composed. According to its reorgani- zation by Napoleon in 1806, these classes were remodelled, and each of them consisted of a certain number of sections, each furnished with a specified number of acting and cor- . responding members. The first class, or that of sciences, had sixty-three members and 100 correspondents; that of languages, forty, and sixty correspondents; that of history and antiquities, forty, and sixty correspondents j that of the arts, twenty-eight, and thirty-six correspondents. The first, third, and fourth- each named eight foreign associates. In 1816 the Institute was again remodelled by Louis XVIII. The four classes again took the name of academies, and be- came more independent of one another, their joint property being managed by a commission of eight members, two from each, under the superintendence of the minister of the interior. The first academy (that of sciences) retained the same number of members ; the second and third were reduced to thirty-eight and thirty-seven respectively ; the fourth was increased to forty. To the Academy of Inscrip- tions and Belles-Lettres and that of Sciences was added a class of free academicians, of the number of ten, with no privilege except that of attendance. The Academy of Arts had the right to choose its own number of free members. Of similar institutions iu Germany, the oldest was the Academia Naturae CuriosBe, a scientific association, founded in 1662 in Franconia, afterwards taken under imperial pro- tection, when it received the name of the Academia Csesareo- Leopoldina. The Royal Academy of Sciences at Berlin was founded in 1700 by Frederick I. of Prussia; Leibnitz was its first director. Other German academies of sciences are those of Gottingen, established in 1750; the Bavarian Academy at Munich, established in 1759, chiefly for his- tory, and in 1829 divided into three sections ; and the Saxon Association of Science, founded in 1846, and divided into two classes. The Imperial Royal Academy of Sciences at Vienna originated in 1846. Turkey established a similar institution in 1851, and Egypt in 1859. The Imperial Academy of Sciences at St. Petersburg was founded by Catherine I., and endowed by Catherine II. with great munificence, but established on the French model. She separated from it the Academy of Arts. In England the name of academy has been chiefly con- fined to associations for promoting the arts. The Royal Academy of Arts was founded in 1768, and consists of forty members. It has separate professors of painting, architec- ture, anatomy, and perspective, and a council of nine is elected annually. The Academy of Ancient Music was founded by private association in 1710; the Royal Academy of Music, under the patronage of George III., but dissolved shortly after. The present Academy of Music was founded ■ in 1822. The principal literary and philosophical societies, answering in character to the branches of the French In- stitute, are: 1. The Royal Society of London, which is con- fined to objects of a scientific character. It had its origin as early as 1645, but was established by royal charter in 1662. Its acts have been published under the name of '* Philosophical Transactions " from 1665 to the present day. 2. The Antiquarian Society, which was established in 1751, and whose acts are published under the title of "Archae- ologia." 3. The Society of Arts, which originated in 1718. 4. That of Literature, which was founded in 1823. Besides these, there are numerous societies which bear the name of the peculiar branch of science to which their exertions are confined. The Royal Society of Edinburgh obtained a charter in 1783, and another, with more liberal provisions, in 1811. 18 ACADIA— ACANTHUKUS CHIRURGUS. Among the most valuable published transactions of academies and similar societies, besides those already mentioned, are those of Colbert's "Acadfimie des Inscrip- tions et Belles-Lettres " (60 vols. 4to, from 1701 to 1793); those of the Institute being continuations of the memoirs of the former academies of which it was composed ; those of the Royal Academy of the Sciences and Belles-Lettres at Berlin ; at first in Latin, then in French (from its remodel- ling in 1744 by Frederick the Great), now in German ; the "Acta" of the Imperial Academy of St. Petersburg; the '* Commentarii " of the Academy of Bologna ; and the -"An- tichiti d'Brcolano," published by the Herculanean Academy of Naples. The " Vetenskaparnes Sallskap " at Stockholm has published over 100 vols, of its valuable " Transactions." The American Academy of Sciences and Arts was founded in 1780 by the council and house of representatives of Mas- sachusetts. The National Academy of Sciences of the U. S., incorporated by the Thirty-seventh Congress in 1863, was limited by the original charter to fifty members, citizens of the U. S., fifty foreign associates, and a variable number of honorary members. Its stated meetings are held twice a year. Special meetings are held on call. Committees pur- sue at all times investigations required by the government. The Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia was founded in 1812. Besides a valuable scientific library, it contains one of the best natural-history collections in the world, especially rich in birds. (See Military Academy, and also Naval Academy.) J. Thomas. Aca'dia [Fr. Acadie], sometimes called Arca'dia, Acca'dia, or Ca'die, the peninsula now called Nova Scotia. It was settled by the French in 1603. Acadia originally included New Brunswick and a part of Maine. It was the subject of frequent quarrels between the French and English on account of the valuable fisheries near its coast, and was finally ceded to England in 1713. The in- habitants having refused to take the oath of allegiance to the British king and to bear ariis against the French, the governor and his council resolved to remove them to the other British provinces. The French settlers, 8000 in number, were forced to give up their property, and were sent off in such haste that many families were separated. This event has furnished the subject of " Evangeline," one of Longfellow's most admired poems. AcEUnt'Ia, a town and seaport in the Central American republic of San Salvador, is situated on the Pacific Ocean, 12 miles S. of Sonsonate. It consists, besides the custom- house and the dwelling of the captain of the port, of a large warehouse, almost entirely in ruins at present, and a few huts and sheds. Under the Spanish rule it was for a long time the only port on the W. coast between Acapulco and Realejo; at present it is second in importance in San Salvador, and has over one-third of the foreign trade of this republic. The chief article of export here is Peru- vian balsam, of which 20,000 pounds are annually exported. Acale'phae (or, in English, Ac'alephs, and some- times Acale'phans), [from the 6r. iicaA#i), a "nettle"], (in the singular Acale'pha or Ac'aleph), a class of radiated animals according to th6 system of Cuvier. They are commonly called jelly-fishes or sea-nettles, and some- times sea-blubber. The body of these animals is composed of a transparent, gelatinous substance, and in one section of the class, the true Medusse, the body is entirely unsup- ported by any hard framework. The quantity of solid matter contained in them is very small, over ninety-nine per cent, being water; they may therefore be described as almost "living water." If one of them be taken from the sea and laid upon the surface of a dry board or rock, it de- liquesces very rapidly. One of these, weighing fifty ounces when taken from the water, has been found not long after- wards to be nothing but a little dry cellular tissue, weigh- ing only five or six grains. All the senses in the Acalephse save that of touch are thought to be wanting. They pos- sess, however, a muscular and a nervous system, as well as a distinct digestive apparatus. The digestive organs are lodged in a common centre or a longitudinal axis. From this centre proceed ray-like processes, with tentacular ap- pendages presenting a great variety of form. In these are the peculiar nettlhuj organs, which are generally composed of an oval capsule containing a spirally-coiled filament, which is suddenly thrown out whenever the animal is in any way disturbed. These filaments are lined to their very extremities by barbnles, which are arranged in such a man- ner as always to point backward when the filament is pro- jected. A system of vessels from the gastric cavity pro- ceeds through the body. The existence of blood has not yet been detected. The acalephs have no teeth; in some of the animals of this class, such as the Phyaalia (or Portuguese man-of-war), food is obtained by suction through the flask- like appendages which hang down beneath, each possessing an orifice and a sucker. The Aoalephee are of various forms and sizes; many of them are shaped somewhat like an 1 umbrella when spread. While most of them are Acalepha. extremely small, the larger sometimes attain a length of three feet or more. The phosphores- cence of the sea is In part caused by multitudes of I minute Acalcphae. The larger acalephs subsist on small fish and other , marine animals; they are I propagated by eggs, etc., ^^^^ according to the process of alternate -generation. The eggs produce a brood totally different from the I parent, and resembling I Infusoria, which attach themselves to some sta- tionary object and as- sume a polyp-like form, and by gemmation pro- duce a progeny which in time attains to the origi- nal form, or, in other words, becomes like the grandmother. (See Al- TEHNATB GENERATION.) i 'S | They possess the power, ==j also, of multiplying by gemmation alone, little ones being almost ready formed from the sub- I stance of the parent, mostly from the walls of the peduncle or from the surface of the ovaries, and being very similar to their parents. These animals are classified ac- cording to the different powers of locomotion which are exhibited nijiuu are eAUluiLCU lu them. They are grouped in three orders — the Ctenophors, Discophora;, and Hydroids, ranking in the order named, the Hydroids being the lowest in development. In some instances the Hydroids closely approach the character of the polyps; but others are plainly acalephs, and there are many intermediate gradatiojis. Acantha'cefE [so named from Acanthw, one of its genera], a natural order of monopetalous exogenous plants, having irregular didynamous flowers, and particularly known by their calyx being imbricated in two broken whorls, and by their seed growing from hooks on the pla- centa. Several species of this order have beautiful flowers, like the Thunbcrgia. The U. S. have several genera. „ -^."?,'^*,''^*'P>s [Gr. i^avta, a "spine." and i^mV a shield J, a genus of buckler-headed fishes found by Dr Newberry m the corniferous limestone of Ohio. It some- what resembles Cephahwpis, the buckler or carapace bear- ing similar denticulated spines, but the cranial plates are covered with a peculiar vermicular ornamentation, and were not ankylosed together. Acan'thophis [from the Gr. 5.a„fla, a "thorn," and 0*15, a serpent"], a genus of venomous serpents allied to the viper, and natives of Australia. They have a horny spine at the end of the tail. The genus includes the dread- ed death adder, Acanthaphia antarctica, one of the most venomous of known reptiles. Acanthopteryrians [Gr. i,„vflo5, a "thorn," and iTTepvf (gen. ^Tipvyn), a "wing" or "fin"], one of the two primary divisions of the Osseous fishes in the system of Cuyier. This order, which includes the perch and mack- erel, IS characterized by bony spines formed from part of the rays of their dorsal, anal, and ventral fins, and is the most extensive order of fishes generally recognized. Acanthuridac. See Teuthidid.*;. Acanthu'rus»Chirur'gus, or Sea-Surgeon, owes its name to the sharply-pointed and keen-edged spine on the side of the tail, which cuts and wounds like a surgeon's lancet. The scales of this fish are very small, and the sin- gle spine on each side of the tail is movable and set in a longitudinal groove. Its food is of a vegetable nature. It IS found on the Atlantic coasts of tropical America and Africa, and is tolerably plentiful in the Caribbean seas ■* Literally " thorn-tailed," from the Gr. anavfla, a " thorn " and owpa, a " tail." ' ACANTHUS— ACCENT. 19 Leaves artistically modified. Acan'thus [from the Gr. ixavea, a. "thorn"], the sys- tematio name of a genus of herba- ceous plants, na- tives of Southern Europe, belonging to the natural order Acanthacese. The most remarkable species of this ge- nus are the ^caii- thiis mollia and the Acanthus apinositSf which have large white ilowers and shin- ing leaves of a beautiful form. This foliage is said to have suggested to the architect Callim- achus the first idea of the ornate and beauti- ful capital which forms the most striking feature in the Corinthian order of architecture. A Capel'la, or A la Capel'la, in music, means "in the church style ;" it is equivalent to alia breve, a time- signature which frequently appears in church music. It likewise denotes that the instruments are to play in unison with the voices, or that one part is to be played by a num- ber of -instruments. Acapul'co, a seaport-town of Mexico, on the Pacific Ocean, and in the state of Guerrero, 190 miles S. S. W. of Me.tioo ; lat. 16° 55' N., Ion. 99° 48' W. The harbor is nearly landlocked, find is one of the best in the world. The climate is hot and unhealthy. It formerly commanded the whole trade between the Spanish dominions in America and those in the East Indies. Since the discovery of the California gold-mines it has again become one of the most important ports of Mexico. The harbor is so deep that large ships can anchor -close to the granite rooks. The steamers which ply between Panama and San Francisco touch here regularly. The greater part of the town was destroyed by an earthquake in 1852. Pop. about 5000. Acari'dse or Acar'ida [for etymology see AcAnus], a family of small animals, including the acarus or mite and other minute insects belonging to the order Arach- nlda. Their food consists of both animal and vegetable substances. Some of them are free and lead a wander- ing life, while others are parasitic, living on other ani- mals. Those of the former class have their mouths fur- nished with distinct mandibles, and are often found in great numbers in old cheese, brown sugar, and dried fruit, and in the cabinets of entomologists. One of the most destructive of these is the Acariis destructor. Those of the latter class are possessed of a sucker, by which they adhere to the skins of animals, where they are supplied with nourishment. ^^ A few species of the Acaridaa are aquatic, and have their legs furnished with hairs, by means of which they' swim with facility. The Acaridae are propa- gated by eggs, and are extremely prolific. When mature they usually have eight legs, the young or imperfectly de- veloped animals having only six. It was an Acarus whose appearance under the electrical experiments of Mr. Crosse startled the public several years ago with the supposition that it was generated or created by the electrical fluid. From its discoverer it was called Acarus Crossii. (See Spontaneous Genekation.) Acar'ina [for etymology see Acinus], a sub-order of spider-like insects, inferior in rank to true spiders, includ- ing the ticks, the mites (Acaridse), and other families, having the various articulations merged into or closely joined to the abdomen. Acarna'nia, a district of ancient Greece, bounded on the N. by the Ambracian Gulf, on the B. by the river Achelous, and the S. and W. by the Ionian Sea. Accord- ing to tradition, it was named from Acarnan, the son of Alcmaeon. It is mostly occupied by well-wooded hills or mountains. Acarnania and ^tolia constitute a nomarchy or province of modern Greece, with an area of 3025 square miles. Pop. in 1879, 138,444. Ac'arus [from the Gr. a/cap^;, " that which cannot be cut on account of its smallness" (from a, negative, and Keipu, to "cut")], a genus of minute animals, including the common mite found in figs and other dry provisions (the Acarus domesticua), and many other species. (See AcARIDiG.) The itch is caused by an acarus which was * For an account of the parasitic Acaridse the reader is re- ferred to Kuechenmeister's "Manual of Parasites," vol. il. formerly known as the Acarus scabiei, but which is now usually called Sarcuptes hominis. Ac'ca Lauren'tia was the name of a woman to whose grave the ancient Komans brought sacrifices on the occa- sion of a festival, on the tenth day before the calends of January. According to a Roman legend, she married the rich Tarrutius, and upon her death left her whole property to the Eoman people ; while, according to another legend, she was the nurse and foster-mother of Romulus and Remus. Accelerando, in music, signifies, with gradually in- creasing velocity of movement. Accelera'tion [Lat. aecelera'tio, from ad, "to" (im- plying " addition "), and cel'ero, celera'tum, to " hasten "], a continuous increase of the velocity or rate of motion of a moving body. The measure of velocity is, in general, the space through which that velocity, if unvarying, would carry a body in a unit of time (in mechanics, one second). When motion is uniform, the spaces passed over in suc- cessive units of time are equal. When it is accelerated or retarded, these spaces increase or diminish, and cannot be taken as measured of the velocity at either the beginning or the end of the period. In order, therefore, to compare the successive velocities of an accelerated or retarded body, the spaces must be taken which are passed over in consec- utive equal but indefinitely small intervals of time. If these minute spacss increase, the velocity is accelerated; if they diminish, it is retarded. Their differences show whether retardation is uniform or otherwise. If they increase, it is increasing ; if they diminish, it is diminishing. Thus, the differences of these differences, or the second differences, indicate the character of the variation. If the second dif- ferences are positive, the acceleration is increasing or the retardation is diminishing, and vice versd. If the second differences are zero, the acceleration or retardation is uni- form. The simplest case of a force producing a uniform acceleration is that afforded by the act-ion of the earth on falling bodies. The increase of velocity in this case is pro- portional to the time, and nearly equal to 32.2 feet per second. Acceleration op the Fixed Stars denotes the appar- ent greater diurnal motion of the stars than of the sun, the cause of which is that the sun's apparent yearly motion, takes place (though much more slowly) in a direction con- trary to that of its apparent daily motion. Compared with the sun, the stars thus seem to gain about three minutes fifty-six seconds each day, coming by that interval earlier each successive twenty-four hours, to the meridian. Acceleration of the Moon, or Acceleration op the Moon's Mean Motion, is one of the most remarkable pe- culiarities of the lunar motions. It was noticed by Halley that when the ancient eclipses are compared with mod- ern lunar observations, the moon is found to be moving faster now on her course round the earth than in former days. The explanation of this peculiarity was long sought for unsuccessfully by the leading professors of the New- tonian system of astronomy. Indeed, it may be said even now that the acceleration of the moon is a problem but par- tially solved. We owe to Laplace the first successful attempt to explain the difficulty. He showed that the moon's mo- tion is accelerated through the slow process of diminution which the eccentricity of the earth's orbit is undergoing. Owing to this change, there results (on the whole) a slight diminution of the sun's influence upon the moon's motions. This explanation, however, fails fully to account for the phenomenon. The part still outstanding is attributed by Prof. Neweomb to the retardation of the earth's diurnal motion of rotation by the friction of the tides. This part, which is apparent only, may range from two to six seconds per century j the other part, which is real, is about six seconds. Acceleration of the Planets. The motion of the planets in their orbits is variable, being quicker or slower according as the planet is at a less or a greater distance from the sun. Hence, in moving from the apogee to the perigee of the orbit, the motion of a planet is accelerated, and on the contrary, in moving from the perigee ta the apogee, the motion is retarded. F. A. P. Barnard. Ac'cent [Lat. accen'tus, from ad, "to" or "according to," and ca'iio, cnn'tum, to "sing" or "sound"]. In Eng- lish, accent usually denotes the greater stress which is laid on some one syllable of a word, as, for example, in nation, protect', ev'ident, for'midable. In our language the accent is seldom placed farther from the end of a word than the pre-antepenultimate (as in ex'quisitely, hoa'pitabte, for'mi- dable). Even this is comparatively rare, and the pronun- ciation of such words is attended with some difficulty to many speakers. The accent on the antepenultimate (as in ed'ucate, ev'ident, niortal'ity), on the penultimate (as in devo'tion, na'tion, etc.), and on the ultimate (as in exhort' j proceed'), is of continual occurrence. 20 ACCENTOE— ACCIDENT. In French, accent denotes not a eireaa of voice, but for the most part simply a quality of sound; thus, e with the acute accent (i) represents a sound nearly similar to the English a in fate; with the grave accent {i) it indicates a sound nearly like our e in met, and with the circumflex (i) a sound similar to the last, but still more open. A with the circum- flex (tZ) is pronounced like our a in /ar or farther {&), while a without any accent approaches very nearly to our a in fat (4). The grave accent on the preposition d ("to ")^^is merely used to distinguish this word from the verb a {" has "), which is always written without the accent. In German, accent is essentially the same as in English ; in Italian, Spanish, and most other European languages (including the modern Greek), it is similar, or very nearly similar, to that of our tongue. With regard to the ancient Greek accent, there is a great diversity of opinion among scholars. The most probable theory seems to be that the acute accent of the Greeks caused the syllable on which it was placed to be sounded in a higher key than the other syllables, but without any greater stress or force of utterance, and that " when a high- tone ultima, followed by other words in close connection, dropped down to a lower key, it was written with a grave accent instead of the acute." (See on this subject an inter- esting paper read by Prof. Hadley before the American Philological Association, July 27, 1870.) The acute fol- lowed by a grave on the same long syllable combined to form the circumflex. They were at first probably written separately, as in the word crwjua, but afterwards the two were joined, as in (rufxa. The invention of the Greek signs of accent is due to Aristophanes of Byzantium, a cele- brated grammarian, who lived and taught in Alexandria, and who flourished about 260 B. C. (or about 200 B. C, ac- cording to some writers). Accent in music is analogous to accent in language. It consists of a stress or emphasis given to certain notes or parts of bars in a composition, and may be divided into two kinds — grammatical and rhetorical or aesthetic. The first kind of accent is perfectly regular in its occurrence, always falling on the first part of a bar. It is true that long or compound measures of time have, besides the chief accent in every bar, some subordinate accent, but these are only slightly marked. As a general rule, we may observe that the grammatical or regular accent must not bo exag- gerated. It should be marked only so far as to give a clear sense of rhythm. The aesthetical accent is irregular, and depends on taste and feeling, exactly as do the accent and emphasis used in oratory. In vocal music well adapted to words, the words serve as a guide to the right use of aesthet- ical accents. Accen'tor [Lat. the "warbler"], a genus of warblers, Accentor. including the hedge-accentor or sparrow {Accentor modu- laris), a familiar and abundant European bird, five and a half inches long, brown above, steel-colored beneath. Its song is fine, but short. It has been introduced into the U. S. The Accentor Alpinns of the Alps is a larger bird. Accep'tance, an engagement to pay a bill of exchange. (See Bill op Exchange, by Prop. T. W. Dwight, LL.D.) Accep'tants, or Constitu'tionists, a name given in 1713 to the Jesuits in Prance who accepted the constitu- tion or bull Unigenitus issued by Pope Clement XI. The Jansenists, who rejected the pope's bull, were called Ap- pellants or Eecusants, and appealed to a general council. They were imprisoned and persecuted, but after the death of Louis XIV., the regent, the duke of Orleans, prevailed on the greater part of the recusant bishops to accept the bull with certain modifications. The Appellants continued their resistance after the Unigenitus became national law (1730)* Acces'sary, or Acces'sory [from the Lat. ad, "to," and cedo, ceaaum, to " go "], in criminal law, a participant in a felony who is not the chief actor, and is not pres- ent at its commission, but yet in some way is connected with it, either before or after the fact (or act committed). An accessary before the fact is one who, though not present, procures, counsels, or commands another to commit it. An accessary after the fact is one who, knowing a felony to have been committed, receives, relieves, comforts, or asisists the felon. In offences below the grade of felony there are no acces- saries. All implicated are regarded as principals. By the common law of England the sajne rule is applied to the case of treason. In manslaughter, as defined by common law, there can be no accessary before the fact. Acces'sion [Lat. aceeeeio, from nd, "to," and cedo, eea- simi, to " go "], in law, a species of title to property borrowed from the civil (or Soman) law, and defined to l)o the right to all which one'sownpropertyproduces, whether that prop- erty be movable or immovable, and the right to that which is united to it by accession, either naturally or artificially. By this principle the increase of an animal belongs to its owner, or a building becomes the property of the man on whose soil it is erected. An important instance of the ap- plication of this doctrine is found in the manufacture by one person of materials belonging to another. The prop- erty in its manufactured state belongs, in general, to the owner of the materials. A leading exception to the prin- ciple is, that if the manufacturer, acting in good faith, without the consent of the owner, changes the identity of the materials, as if he converts grapes into wine or grain into whisky, he will become the owner of the" manufac- tured article. This rule would not be applied in favor of a wilful wrong-doer. The word "accession" is also used to indicate the fact of succession in government, such as the " accession " of a new dynasty in monarchies, as in the case of the House of Hanover in England. T. W. Dwigiit. Accessory, or Accessary, in painting, a term ap- plied to everything introduced into a picture that is not an essential part. In an historical painting the human or ani- mated figures arc the principal objects, and all the others are accessories. Ac'cidens, or Per Accidens {i. e. "by accident"), a Latin phrase used by the older philosophers to denote an effect not following from the nature or essence of the thing, but from some accidental quality. It is opposed to per ae: thus, fire burns per ae; heated iron burns per accidena, Ac'cident [from the Lat. ad, "to," and ca'do, to "fall," to "happen"], in logic, is one of the predi- cables ; in its strictest logical sense it is that which may be absent from or present in the subject, the es- sence of the species to which the subject belongs re- maining the same. Thus, if it be predicated of a man that he is "walking,"o'r that he is " a native of Paris," the first expresses what is termed a separable accident, the latter an inseparable; i. e. the individual may cease to walk, but cannot cease to be a native of Paris, but neither of these alters the species, man, to which the individual belongs. It is to be observed with re- gard to the accident, as well as the other predicables, that they exist only relatively to each other, so that the same quality may be accidental when predicated of the species which is a property when predicated of the individual. Thus, "malleability " is an accident of the subject " metal," because many inetals are not malleable. But it is one of the properties of gold, iron, etc., as distinguishing these from the non-malleable metals. Accident. This is an important topic in equity jurisprudence. It has been defined to be such an un- foreseen event, misfortune, loss, act, or omission as is not the result of any negligence or misconduct in a party. It is, however, difficult to bring all the cases in which the court assumes jurisdiction within the bounds of a definition. Some of the leading oases of interference by the court are — 1. Where negotiable or other instruments have been lost, and there is no adequate remedy in a court of law. 2. Where a clause has been inadvertently omitted from or in- serted in an instrument. The court in such a ease makes the instrument conform to the intent of the parties. 3. Penalties and forfeitures. In this class of cases the court relieves against the penalty or forfeiture where the injury occasioned by the broach of duty is susceptible of complete ACCIDENTAL COLORS— ACCOUNT. 21 compensation, as in the case of an omission to pay rent on an appointed day. There would be no relief in case of a wilful wrong, nor where the forfeiture is in the nature of a statutory remedy for a breach of duty. 4. Cases of omis- sion, through inadvertence or want of knowledge of facts, to defend an action. The court has power to allow the ne- cessary steps still to be taken. It is a general rule that the court will not interfere in favor of a mere volunteer, such as a donee or devisee in a will. Thus, if a seal were accidentally omitted from a conveyance made without con- sideration, or a clause were omitted from a will, there would be no relief. It is a further rule that relief will not be granted as against a purchaser who has acquired legal rights in good faith and for a valuable consideration. Acciden'tal Col'ors are colors depending on the hy- persensibility of the retina of the eye for complementary colors, the eye, when strongly impressed by one color, spon- taneously producing the complementary color for its own relief. If we look for a short time steadily with one eye upon any bright-colored spot^ as a wafer on a sheet of white paper, and immediately after turn the same eye to another part of the paper, a similar spot will be seen, but of a different color. If the wafer be red, the imaginary spot will be green ; if blue, it will be changed into yellow ; the color thus appearing being always what is termed the com- plementary color of that on which the eye was fixed. Accidentals^ in music, are those flats and sharps which are prefixed to the notes in the course of a move- ment, and are not indicated by the signature at the com- mencement. Accidentals, in painting, are those fortuitous or chance effects, occurring from luminous rays falling on certain objects, by which they are brought into stronger light than they otherwise would be, and their shadows are conse- quently of greater intensity. This sort of effect is to be seen in almost every picture by Rembrandt, who used them to a very great extent. There are some fine instances of accidentals in Raphael's Transfiguration, and particularly in the celebrated picture, the Notte of Correggio, in which the light emanates from the infant Christ- With these effects may be classed such accidental lights as those from a forge or a candle, or some such object, of which the use is extremely important to the painter of still-life. Accip'itres [from the Lat. accip'io, to "take"], the plural of the Latin accip'iter, the name given by Linneeus to an order of carnivorous birds, including the eagle, vul- ture, hawk, and owl. More recent ornithologists have named this order Raptores. This order comprises all the true birds of prey, though the shrikes and a few other birds, from their habits, almost deserve the Jatter title. As may be seen in the accompanying illustrations, the beaks Head and Foot of Head and Foot of Pere- Head and Foot of the Osprey. grine Falcon. American Spar- , row-hawk. and claws of the Accipitres arc marvellously adapted, by their sharpness and curvature, to the predatory habits of these birds. Acclama'tion [Lat. aedama'tio], a term used in pub- lic and deliberative assemblies. A motion or proposition is adopted by acclamation when the assent is so nearly unani- mous that the counting of votes is omitted. The different modes of electing a pope are called scrutiny, acclamation, and inspiration. Acclima'tion [from the word eUmate], the adaptation of a human being to a climate different from that to which he is accustomed. Such adaptation is accompanied by a change in the organism, assimilating it to those of natives of the country which the acclimatized person has adopted. Certain tropical climates, it would appear, can never be safely endured by any native of cold or temperate regions. The British troops in Bengal never become truly acclimated, but the ill-health and mortality increase with the length of stay in that climate. The same experience has been met with in West Africa and elsewhere. On the other hand, the French island of R6union, which is very unhealthy even for planters and merchants and most others, has a healthy and hardy peasantry of French descent, whose immunity from disease is probably to be ascribed to their abstinence from alcoholic stimulants and from all excesses — an absti- nence which is enforced by their utter poverty. This im- portant subject has only of late received careful attention. Acclimatiza'tioiiy the adapting an animal or plant to a foreign climate. Although many plants and animals have a remarkable capacity of adapting themselves to changes of climate, yet such changes are often attended with maladies called "diseases of acclimatization." Special associations (called "acclimatization societies") for accli- matizing animals, plants, etc. have been formed in many countries. Instead of "acclimatization," the French use the word " acclimatation." The acclimatization of foreign field and singing birds in the U. S. has been attempted near most of our larger cities with considerable success. The "Acclimatization Society" of Cincinnati in 1873 imported many hundred pairs of Grerman birds at great expense. The object is not only to naturalize foreign songsters, but to increase the number of birds destructive of insects injurious to vegetation. Simi- lar societies exist at Sandusky, St. Louis, and other points, both in the Northern and Southern States. Among the birds imported are the blackbird (a singer), thrush, golden finch (very beautiful and a sweet singer), green-bird, bull- finch (easily tamed and trained), redbreast, starling (a fine singer), lark, greenfinch, goldfinch, knotpecker, the wagtail, the magpie, hedge-sparrow, titmouse, nightingale, rodtail, German quail (a singer), and fence- sparrow. Accolade, a ceremonious act by which, in former times, knighthood was conferred. It was an embrace and a gentle blow or "dub" on the shoulder of the new-made knight, made by the sovereign. Accol'ti (Benedetto), an Italian writer and lawyer, born at Arezzo in 1415, became chancellor of the republic of Florence in 1459. He wrote a Latin history of tho cru- sade which Godfrey of Bouillon conducted to Palestine. This was the basis of Tasso's great poem. Died in 146G. Accomack Conrt-Housey capital of Accomack co., Va. (see map of Virginia, ref. 6-J, for location of county), 95 miles E. by N. of Richmond. Pop. not in census of 1880. Accommodation Paper. See Bill of Exchange. Accom'plice [ad-con-pUeavef to "fold up together"], one of several persons associated in a crime. In its broad- est use it includes all connected with the offence, whether as principals or accessaries; but it is generally applied to those who give evidence against their fellow-criminals. Accord' and Satisfac'tion, in law. The word "ac- cord " by itself denotes an agreement, but as used in this common phrase it denotes an agreement between the parties to a legal claim or demand that something different from a complete payment or discharge, according to the terms of the claims, shall be received in satisfaction there- of; and such accord, if it have the proper legal requisites and result in the satisfaction agreed upon, is a complete defence to a suit upon the original demand. This defence is available in actions both of contract and of tort. The subject is governed oy well-settled rules, such as that the thing to be done must not be uncertain, that it must be advantageous to the injured party, and that the agreement must be fully carried into effect. Thus, it would not be a valid accord to give the injured party something to which he was already entitled ; as, c. g., to pay a portion of a debt when the whole became due. Sometimes a new agreement, though unperfo^ed, amounts to a satisfaction of a prior claim, but this happens only when there is a positive agree- ment to this effect. George Chase. Accords in music, is synonymous with concord, the relation of two sounds which arc agreeable to the ear. Accor'dion, a musical instrument, in which the tones are produced by the vibration of metallic springs moved by wind, which is applied by a bellows. It was invented by Damian, a Viennese, about 1829. Account' [remotely from the Lat. ad, " together," and compu'to, to "reckon"], a computation or calculation; a statement of the receipts and payments of one who acts in a fiduciary relation, as an executor or a trustee, or a state- ment showing in detail the transactions between merchants or others who have dealt together. An account current is one that is open, running, and unsettled. An account stated is one which has been adjusted between the parties, and a balance struck. An account may also become stated without any express agreement, and by implication, as where one of two merchants who have dealt together draws 22 ACCRA— ACETATE. np a formal statement of their dealings and sends it to the other, and the latter receives it and retains it without ob- jection for a reasonable time. He is thus presumed to as- sent to its correctness. Account, or account render, is the name of a common- law action which lay against one who by virtue of his posi- tion or ofBce ought to have rendered an account and refused to do so. This action is now almost obsolete. A court of equity has much more complete power to grant relief in all cases of mutual accounts, and in cases where the taking ot an account is incidental to other matters over which that court has jurisdiction. Some of the instances in which an account may be taken on the one ground or the other are agency, general average, apportionment, contribution be- tween sureties, waste, trusts, express or implied, including administration, guardianship, and partnership. In suits for an account both parties are deemed to be substantially plaintiff's for many purposes, and an affirmative decree may be made for the defendant, if a balance be found in his favor, as well as for tie plaintiff. T. W. Dwight. Accra, or Ac'ra, a small territory in Africa, on the Guinea coast, belongs for the most part to England. It is about lat. 5° 30' N., Ion. 0° 12' W. The English portion has about 3000 inhabitants, chiefly negroes. Accre'tion [from the Lat. ad, "to," and cresco, cretum, ito "grow"], the gradual accumulation of soil along the bants of a river or the sea, formed by the washing of the water. In the case supposed the increase belongs to the owner of the adjacent land. If the increase be sudden, the alluvion formed upon the sea-shore or navigable river belongs to the state. Ac'crington, a manufacturing town of England, in Lancashire, is situated in a deep valley between several hills, and at the junction of two railways, 13 miles E. of Preston and about 22 miles N. by W. of Manchester. It has increased rapidly in population and importance, and is considered the centre of the cotton-printing business. It has also extensive manufactures of cotton cloth, and coal- mines in which many of the inhabitants are employed. Among the public buildings is a fine Gothic church built in 1838. Pop. in 1881, 31,435. Accuba'tion [Zat.accuba'tio, from ad, "to," "upon," and cu'bo, to "lie"], the reclining posture in which the an- cient Greeks and Romans took their meals. Two or three couches were spread around the dining-table, each of which was capable of containing three persons. The guests lay on their left sides, their heads or elbows being supported by pillows, the feet of the first being behind the back of the second, and those of the second behind the third. The middle place was generally deemed the most honorable. Ac'cum (Fbiedrich), a German chemist, born at Biicke- burg in 1769. Having removed to London in 1793, ho became professor of chemistry in that city about 1802. He promoted the use of gas for illumination by a valuable work entitled a "Practical Treatise on Gas Light" (1815). He wrote other works. Died in Berlin in 1838. Accu'mnlated [from the Lat. ad, "to," "up," and cn'mulo, cunnda'ium, to "heap"] Force is the power of a moving body to overcome resistance. When a force acts on a body so as to produce its motion, the force must be in excess of the resistance to the motion, and, as power is imparted to the body at each instant, this is termed ac- cumulated force. Thus, if a strong man should pull on a rope attached to a ship at rest, but floating free in still water, his efforts at first would seem unavailing, because his strength would be so slight compared with the vis inertiK (which is proportioned to the weight) of the ship. If, however, he continue to pull steadily, the force applied will gradually impart a slow motion to the vessel. 'This is an example of the accumulation of force, which, however, is less manifest in this instance, owing to the fact that not merely the vie inertise of the vessel, bat also the weight and friction of the opposing water, are to be overcome. But let us suppose a mass of iron or lead of many thousand tons to be suspended by a huge chain or cable extending to an immense height.* In this case, as there would be no appreciable resistance from the air, the constant applica- tion of a very small force would at length, by accumulation, Gom'municate a rapid motion and prodigious momentum to the huge mass in question — a momentum which a force a thousand times as great could not suddenly overcome, and indeed could only overcome at all by a continual applica- tion, and consequent accumulation, of force in an opposite direction. * It is obvious that if the chain or cable were not very long, the weight soon after it began to move (acting like a pendulum) would necessarily rise considerably higher than the point at which it was first suspended ; hence a great part of the force ap- plied would be lost in overcoming the attraction of gravitation. Accusative. See Declension, by J. Thomas.J Aceph'ala ["without a head," from the Gr. a, priv., and Kt^a\ri, the "head"], a term applied to a class of mol- lusks called otherwise Conchifera or Lamellibranchiata. (See Co.NCHOLOGY, by George W. Tbyon, Jb.) Aceph'ali [etymology the same as the preceding], a term applied in the early Christian Church to bishops ex- empt from the jurisdiction of their patriarchs. Aceph'alocysts [from the Gr. a, priv., xejiaMj, "head," and Kv*>. to "gap," to "open"], a term applied by botanists to a dry, hard, one-seeded, indehiscent fruit or pericarp, as that of the buttercup and the thistle. A'chenwall (Gottfried), a distinguished German writer on statistics, born at Elbing in 1719, is reputed to have originated statistical tables. He became professor of philosophy at Gottingen about 1750. He first introduced the term " Staatswissenschaft," by which he proposed to include all the knowledge essential to statesmanship. Died in 1772. '^ Ach'eron [Gr. 'Xxipov, gen. 'kxipovroi\, the ancient name of a river of Elis ; also a river of Epirus. It was also ap- plied in mythology to a river of the infernal regions. Acheron'tia [from Ach'eron, in the Greek mythology a river of the dead], _ or Death's-head Moth, is a genus of lepidopterous insects belonging to the family Sphingidse. There is found in England and other European coun- tries a species of this genus (the Ackeron'tia at'ropoa), having on the back of the thorax a remarkable represen- tation of a human skull, and it has hence received the name of death's-head moth. This is a very handsome insect, and is from four and a half to five and a half inches in expanse of wing. If disturbed or handled, it makes a peculiar squeaking noise, the only known example, it is said, of a lepidopterous insect having what may be called a voice. It is much dreaded by the ignorant and superstitious, who consider its appearance to be ominous of evil. It does not hesitate to attack bee- hives, devouring the honey and putting the bees to flight. Though possessing no weapons of defence that have yet been discovered, it appears to sufier no harm from its armed enemies. Its larva is a large caterpillar about five inches in length, with beautiful markings ; the color is a kind of greenish-yellow, and the back is traversed by lines partly blue and partly white, speckled with black spots. The caterpillar feeds mostly on the leaves of the potato plant • and it retires deep into the earth, and changes into a chry- salis in the month of September. It emerges the following June or July, transformed into a perfect insect. This moth is seen most frequently in the mornings and evenings of autumn. Death's-head Moth. Acherii'sia* I. A lake in Epirus, into which the river Acheron flows. II. A cavern in Bithynia, near the city of Heraclea ; through it Hercules is said to have dragged Cer- berus up to the light of day. A-Cheval [Fr., meaning "on horseback" or "as- tride"], as a military term, indicates the position or situ- ation of a body of troops astride, as it were, of a river or road, etc., which separates or divides one portion from an- other. Achill, ik'il, or Eagle Island, an island off the W. coast of Ireland, forming part of the county of Mayo. It is about 15 miles long by 12 miles broad. Pop. about 5000. On the coast is a sheer precipice 2200 feet high. Achil'les [Gr. "Ax'^Aevs], a famous Grecian warrior, the hero of Homer's " Iliad," was the son of Pelcus, king of Thessaly, and the sea-nymph Thetis. From the name of his father, he was often called Peli'des. At the siege of Troy he was pre-eminent for courage, strength, and swiftness, but,^ having been oflended by Agamemnon, he refused to fight. But when his friend Patroclus had been killed, he returned to the war to avenge his death. He slew Hector and many other Trojans. According to a poetic legend, his mother, by dipping him in the river Styx, had rendered him invulnerable except his heel, by which she held him. He was killed with an aiTOW by Paris, who shot him in the heel. Achilles (Tatius). See Appendix. Achil'les' Ten'don [Lat. ten'do Achil'lis\ connects the soleus and gastrocnemius muscles of the calf of the leg with the heel-bone. It is capable of resisting a force equal to 1000 pounds weight, and yet is sometimes ruptured by the contraction of these muscles in sudden extensions of the foot. The name was given in allusion to the death of Achilles, the Grecian hero, by a wound in the heel. An- cient surgeons regarded wounds or serious bruises of the Achilles tendon as fatal. In modern surgery, however, tenotomy, or the division of this or other tendons, is a not infrequent operation, especially in the treatment of club- foot. In that form of this afTection called Tal'ipea equi'nut the tendo Achillis is unnaturally shortened, so that the heel in standing does not touch the ground. Achil'Ii (Giovanni Giacinto), Dn., an Italian Protestant, formerly a Dominican friar, was bom at Viterbo in 1803. He left the Catholic communion about ] 839, and issued an Italian version of the New Testament, which is regarded, by some, as the best in that language. In 1850 he went to England, and became involved in a lawsuit (in 1852) which was brought against Dr. John Henry Newman for slander. The case was tried before Lord Campbell, and a verdict given for the plaintiff, Dr. Achilli. Dr. Achilli has also been professor of the Italian language and literature in the Eng- lish College at Malta. Achromat'ic ["without color," from o, priv., and xpmjia, " color "], a term applied to lenses and telescopes through which objects appear colorless, or without the dis- coloration which arises from the unequal refrangibility of the rays of light. (See next article.) Achro'matism [for etymology, see preceding article], (See Aberration, Chromatic.) A prism of flint glass will cause a certain amount of refraction and of dispersion, and if' a similarly-shaped prism of the same glass be placed be- hind it, in the reverse position, the refraction and disper- sion in one direction by the first prism will be exactly neutralized by the refraction and dispersion in the opposite direction by the second prism, and as a result there will be no refraction and no color. But suppose a prism of crown glasK, having the same dispersion as the one of flint glass, be placed behind the latter in the reverse position, the two dispersions, being opposite and equal, will neutralize each other, and the result will be white light ; but the mean re- fractions being different, they will not neutralize each other, and the beam of light will pass through achromatic, or almost free from color, but refracted more or less. As a lens may be looked upon as a combination of prisms with curved surfaces, achromatic lenses may be produced in the same way as achromatic prisms. Absolute achromatism ia perhaps unattainable by art, owing to the spectra from dif- ferent dispersive media not having an exact proportionality to one another. This is called irrationality of dispersion. It may be remedied in some degree by introducing a third lens of plate glass in addition to the flint and crown glass lenses. An under-corrected lens is one in which the cor- recting lens of flint does not quite accomplish the purpose, and the violet ray will come to a focus a little within the rod. In an over-corrected lens the error is of the opposite kind, and the order of colors inverted. F. A. P. Barnaiid. Achromatic Telescope. See Telescope. Achtkarspe'len (the "eight parishes"), » town of ACHTYEKA— ACOMA. 25 the Netherlands, in the province of Friesland. Pop. in 1879, 10,224. Achtyr'ka, a town of Russia, in the government of Kharkov, 69 miles N. E. of Kharkov, on the Vorskla River. Pop. in 1882, 17,820. Aci, or Aci Reale, a town and seaport of Sicily, in the province of Catania, at the mouth of the river Aci, near the foot of Mt. Etna, and 7 miles by rail N. E. of Catania. It is built mostly of lava, and has many fine edifices. Here are mineral springs and the Cave of Polyphemus. Pop. in 1881, ,38,547. Ai^'id [Lat. agidusj '* sour "], in chemistry, a term ap- plied to an important class of compounds. The various acids usually have the following properties: (1) solubility in water; (2) a sour taste; (3) the power of turning vegeta- ble blues to red; (4) the power of decomposing carbonates, and displacing the carbonic acid with effervescence; (5) the power of neutralizing more or less the alkalies, at the same time losing most of their own characteristic proper- ties, forming salts. (See Salts.) A great number of acids are compounds of oxygen with various elements. Others contain chlorine, iodine, or other elements, instead of oxy- gen. (See Chemistry.) Various theories have been ad- vanced to account for the peculiar properties of acids. That of Dulong, proposed in 1816, is now generally ac- cepted. It is known as the binary or hydrogen theory of acids. All acids are considered aalta of hydrogeti (Ger- hardt) — i. e. compounds of hydrogen with simple or com- pound acid radicals ; thus : Hydrochloric acid H(C1), Hydriodic acid H(I), Hydrocyanic acid H(CN) or H(Cy), Nitric acid H(N03), Sulphuric acid H2(S04), Phosphoric acid HsfPOi). Salts, according to this theory, are produced by repla- cing the hydrogen by metals or basic radicals ; thus, hydro- chloric acid and potassic hydrate form potassic chloride and water: HCH-KHO—KCl-HHjO. Nitric acid and ammonic hydrate yield ammonic nitrate and water : H(N03) -I- (NH4)H0 = (NH4)(N03) + HjO. Sulphuric acid and calcic hydrate yield calcic sulphate and water : H2(S04) + CaHaOj = Ca(SOi) + 2H2O. Phosphoric acid and sodio hydrate yield sodic phosphate and water: H3(P04)+2Na HO = Na2H(P04) -t- 2H2O. Acids are monobasic, bibasic, tribasic, etc., according as they contain one, two, or three atoms of replaceable hydrogen. Acids may produce several classes of salts, according as they contain more or less atoms of hydrogen. Hydrochloric acid forms one salt with potas- sium, KCl. Sulphuric acid forms two — the neutral, K2(S04), in which both atoms of H are replaced by K ; the acid, in which only one is replaced, KH(S04). Phosphoric acid forms three classes, thus: K3(P04), K2H(P04), KH2(P04). An atom of a monatomic radical replaces one atom of hydrogen, as shown above in the case of K,(NH4) and Na. An atom of a diatomic radical, as calcium, replaces two atoms of H, as shown above in the case of sulphuric acid and calcic hydrate. This is further illustrated by the fol- lowing formulse : Radicals. Salts. K(C1). Ca(Cl2). Bi(Cl3). K2(S04). KH(S04). Ca(S04). K3(P04). K2H(P04). KH2(P04). Ca3(P04)2. " " Ca2H2(P04)2. " " CaH4(P04)2. Compound ethers are salts in which the hydrogen of the acid is replaced by the alcohol radicals. (See Ether.) Ethyl chloride (C2H6)'C1; amyl nitrate (CsHiO^NOs); ethylene iodide (C2H4)"l2. Acids are of three types : (1) The water type: water- ^jo, ^]0i, HsJOa! nitric acid ^^^^' \ 0; sulphuric acid 'g^'')" | O2; phos- phoric acid ^iT ' [ O3. (2) The hydrochloric acid type: hydrochloric acid HCl; hydriodic acid HI; hydrocyanic acid H(CN). fH (3) The ammonia type: ammonia NHs—N-^ H; cyanic Acids. Radicals. HCl K' it Ca" tC Bi'" H2(S04) K' (( K' tt Ca" H3(P04) K' Ca" acid (carbamide) n|^°)"; succinamide N I^*^**'^^"' Sttlphocyanic acid N j W ' . "(4) Intermediate acids are formed from two or more atoms of two different types. Sulphamic acid (SO3H3N) is derived from j/q i; chlorhydrosulphuric acid (SO3HCI) HCl 1 from ji Q f ■ (See Amio Acids.) (See a very interesting paper on normal and derived acids by G. F. Barker, in the "American Journal of Sci- ence" [2] xliv., 1867, p. 384.) C. P. Chandler. Acidim'eter [from the Lat. at^'idum, an " acid," and the Gr. fitrpav, " measure "], an instrument for determining the strength of an acid by its saturating power. It usually consists of a glass tube graduated into a hundred equal parts, and containing an alkaline liquor of known strength, the proportion of which requisite to saturate a given quan- tity of any acid is the equivalent of that acid. (See Chem- ical Analysis and Volumetric Analysis.) Acipenseridae. See Sturgeon. Ack'land (Lady Harriet Caroline Fox), a daughter of the earl of Ilchester and wife of Major John D. Ackland of the Twentieth regiment of foot in the British army, was born in 1750, and accompanied to America her husband, who was wounded and made prisoner at Saratoga Oct. 7, 1777. She attended upon her husband (who died in the following year) with great constancy and heroism. Died July 21, 1815. Ack'ley, R. R. junction, Hardin eo., la. (see map of Iowa, ref. 4^H, for location of county), 132 miles W. of Dubuque. Pop. in 1880, 1517; in 1885, 1473. . Acknowledgment [from the English word inojo- ledge], in law, the act by which one who has executed an in- strument declares or acknowledges, before some authorized officer, that it is his act or deed. The term is also applied to the officer's certificate of this fact endorsed on the instru- ment. The general object of an acknowledgment is two- fold : first, to comply with the recording acts, so that the instrument may be lawfully recorded; secondly, to give the instrument such authenticity that it may be put in evidence in courts of justice, without further proof of its execution. As a general rule, it is not necessary to the validity of the instrument, though the laws of some of the States provide that a wife's conveyance of real estate or release of dower is invalid unless on a private examination apart from her husband she acknowledges that she executed it freely and without fear or compulsion of her husi>and. This rule is borrowed in its substance from an English practice under a so-called statute of fines. The officers generally author- ized to take acknowledgments are judges and clerks of courts, mayors, justices of the peace, commissioners of deeds, and notaries public. Acknowledgments of conveyances of real estate should correspond in form with the requirements of the law of the State where the land is situated, though that law sometimes permits them to be valid if they conform to the law of the place where they are executed. T. W. Dwight. Ac'land (Henry Wentworth), M. D., D. C. L., F. R. S., born in 1815, was educated at Christ Church, Oxford, where he took his degree of M. D. in 1848. He was one of the founders of the University Museum, and became in 1858 regius professor of medicine. He accompanied the prince of Wales to America in 1860, and has published " The Plains of Troy" (1839) and a valuable "Memoir on the Visitation of Cholera in Oxford in 1854," besides numerous scientific and medical papers. Acceme'tSB {i. e. the " sleepless "), [from the Gr. a, priv., and Koiinaofiat, to " fall asleep "], an order of monks, some- times called Watchers, which was founded at Constantinople early in the fifth century. They performed divine service day and night, and were divided into three classes, each of which had its share of duty. They established many mon- asteries and were held in high estimation. Studius, a Ro- man noble and a member of this order, built a monastery called Studium, and the monks were styled Studitse. Hav- ing afterwards favored the doctrines of Nestorius, their credit declined. Ac'olyte [from the Gr. anijAovSos, a "follower"], a func- tionary who, in the Roman Catholic Church, assists the priest in the performance of religious services. Aooording to Roman Catholic authorities, acolytes formed the second of the inferior orders of clergy in the primitive Church, subdeacons being the first. It is now the fourth of the minor orders. Aco'ma^ a village of' Valentia co., N. M., supposed by some to be AeuoOf mentioned by the Spanish historians. It is inhabited by Indians, is built on a high sandstone rock, 26 ACONCAGUA— ACOUSTICS. and is reached by a spiral staircase out in the rock. It has a church and a missionary station, but no priest. Aconca'gua, one of the highest peaks of the Andes, 18 in Chili, lat. 32° 38' 30" S., Ion. 70° 0' 30" W., on the frontier between Chili and the Argentine Republic. Its height is 22,4,22 feet above the level of the ^ea. Aconca'gua, a province of Chili, is bounded on the N. by Coquimbo, on the E. by the Argentine Republic, on the S. by Santiago and Valparaiso, and on the W. by the Pacific. Area, 4932 square miles. This province is the most moun- tainous part of Chili, and contains the highest peak of the Chilian Andes, Aconcagua. The climate is very dry, and owing to the high mountain-ranges there is very little veg- etation in this province. Pop. in 1878, 135,190. Chief town, San Felipe. Ac'onite [Lat. Aconi'tum], a plant of the genus Aconi^- tum and the order Ranunculaoeae. The Old World contains many species of this genus, some of them, particularly Aconitiim ferox of India, very poisonous. The Atlantic U. S. have two native species. The Aconitum Napellua, or monkshood, a native of Europe, Asia, and the Rooky Moun- tains of the U. S., is the plant which yields the aconite used in medicine. This plant abounds in the deadly alkaloid aconitine, but when administered in suitable doses is useful in rheumatism, neuralgia, n.nd in fevers. This remedy, in minute quantity, is a favorite with homoeopathists, but was employed by physicians before the rise of homoeopathy. The "winter aconite" (Erauthis) of Europe is of the same family, but is more nearly related to hellebore. Aconitia. See Monkshood. Ac'orus Cal'amus (sweet flag), a medicinal plant of the order Aracese. Its aromatic stem (rhizoma) is used as a stomaehio and tonic. It is a native of both continents, and is known as " sweet flag." Acos'ta (Gabhiel), a. Jewish reformer, bom in 1587 in Oporto, Portugal, was educated in the Catholic religion, but went to Holland, where he embraced the faith of bis fathers, and changed his name to Uriel. He was condemned and persecuted as a heretic by the rabbis, and died by suicide in 1647. His autobiography was published in Latin and German in 1847. Acotyled'onous Plants [from the Gr. a, priv., and itoTvAijSoli', a "seed-leaf"], plants without cotyledon or seed- lobes. The term is synonymous with Ckyptogamous Plants (which see), for the latter plants are propagated by spores, and not by true seeds. A few seed-bearing plants, like the dodders, have, however, no cotyledons. Acous'tics. The term acoustics is derived from the Greek iKovanKos, from icou'io, to "hear" — "belonging to the sense of hearing." Acoustics has for its object the study of the nature, the production, and the perception of sound. ^ Strictly speaking, sound is a sensation which is produced when vibrations of a certain character are excited in the auditory apparatus of the ear. These vibrations are gene- rated by progressive tremors in the atmosphere, called sound-waves, the nature of which we shall briefly consider Let it be premised that the particles of the air, and of all elastic media, are ordinarily maintained in a state of equi- librium and rest by mutually repellent forces. If any par- ticle be disturbed from its position of equilibrium, it must be by an impulse received from some body foreign to the tnedium ; and when so disturbed it is solicited to return by a force directly proportioned to the distance, or amplitude of Its displacement from that point. Also, the velocity with which It will be animated on reaching in its return the point of original rest will be directly proportioned to the extreme amplitude of its displacement; so that in vir- tue of its inertia, it will make an equal and similar excur- sion in the opposite direction. When in its return from this it reaches once more the point of equilibrium, it will have passed over the entire range of its movement in both directions; and this is said to constitute one complete osculation or double vibration. From the law of force above stated the following deduc- tions are made by the help of the calculus. Put a to rep- resent the extreme amplitude of displacement; V, the "^^ w^" °?'!^ °^ "•^ vibrating particle (the velocity with which the particle passes the point of equilibrium, expressed by the distance such velocity, continued uniformlyf would carry a body in one second of time) ; T, the time of a com- plete double vibration ; and t, the ratio of the circumference to the diameter of the circle. Then V= 2i,—, and T = 2„ from which last expression it appears that the time of vibra- tion is constant, whatever be the amplitude of displace- ment, since a vanes directly as V. But in an elastic medium one particle cannot be dis- placed from the position of equilibrium without disturbing the equilibrium of its nearest neighbors. The neighboring particle towardswhich it is driven will begin, almost but not quite in the same instant, to move in the same direction ; and this will disturb the next, and through it the third, and so on, the tremor being rapidly propagated throughout the medium. The distance to which this tremor will have reached when the particle first disturbed has completed one entire double vibration is the length of the sound-wave, or of one complete undulation. The relation between vibration and undulation may be made more clear by the following illustration. Since VT is the distance accomplished in time, T, with velocity, V, and since VT = 2ira, it follows that if, with radius, a = CA or CB, we describe a circle, ADBB, a particle p' will de- scribe the circumference, ADBE, with velocity V continued uni- form, in the same time, T, in which the vibrating particle p performs a complete double vi- bration on the diameter AB. If p' leaves D in the same in- stant in which p passes C, the two will be together at B, and again at A; and it is further provable that, at any inter- mediate instant, the line join- ing p and p', as FG or HK, will always be parallel to CD, and perpendicular to AB. Also, that if the arcs of revolu- tion be reckoned from D, and the time from D to F, or from D to H, be called t, the distance y= CG or CK, of p from the point of equilibrium, C, will always be representaHe by the formula y = a sin 2ir- ; and the velocity, v, of the same particle will always be u =V cos 2ir-. Now the rapidity of the propagation of the tremor through the elastic medium is, for all tremors producing the sensa- tion of sound, vastly greater than the velocity k or V; and this velocity of propagation is uniform, although the sev- eral velocities of the particles of the medium which succes- sively take up the tremor, diminish with the increase of distance from the origin, because of the diffusion of the exciting force through a constantly increasing number of particles. This diminution for moderate distances may be disregarded. If the foreign body which disturbs p be, for instance, the hmb of a tuning-fork making 500 double vibra- oAn*!?.? ^' ^^""Z' ** '™^ "^ describing CB will be but the ^OOOth part of a second. During this time the tremor in tne air will advance more than six inches, while CA will hardly exceed ^i^th of an inch. The velocity of propaga- tion in this case, therefore, exceeds the mean velocity of vibration more than 240 times. But if we consider the movement of p through CB to be made up of an indefinite number of exceedingly minute elementary motions, these elementary motions will have all the different velocities cor- responding to the possible values of FG between C and B • and each one of these velocities will be successively trans- mitted along the line of propagation, one behind the other: so that, when p reaches B and comes to rest, ail these over°a disT'" '""/• ''^'-f '" "^ '"^ of particles 'extending nnH fL ?'^ ?• v^. ""'^^^' *''« '*'g«^' »>«i'>g foremost, ftself 4^"' T^'^V' '"™' ''«'"g t'^''' »f the particle p I„„ , \j ''?'?™^ towards C, it leaves its next neighbor towards the right partially unsupported, and that ndgh- serVes^of^n™' '^T' "" ^^erT occurs then a second series of propagated movements, all the molecules moving in the returning direction, though the tremor advances forming the wave of dilatation, as the former was the wave of compression. Sound-waves may accordingly be rrprl sented graphically by a curved line, as in Fig^2^ where'^tho Fig. 2. ?e?en°ts til^l "^"''l ''^°'"' *'' horizontal straight line rep- resents the wave of compression, and the part below the wave of dilatation. The ordinates to the different parts of in .h?'i-ff 'T''™* ""' ^'"'>'='««« animating the partTeles vancin»'verocr''"'''°I 1^ "'^^^' *•">»« "^"^^ ^rng ad! vancing velocities, and those below, reoedine The dis tance between M and N is the length of a complete undn lation, commonly represented by l Then if xTFig 3) hi Fig. 3. ACOUSTICS. 27 taken to represent any distance from the point of rest, C, of Hie disturbing or sounding body, the distance, y, of the particle iA x %'Din its ^Hw^fi^uiUbrium will be expressed by the formula y = aAn2w\^--\; and the velocity animating that particle at the instant by the formula jj = V COS % '(^!)- For examples under the first formula, let ( = n T ; i. e. let p have made an exact number of complete oscillations ; then by giving different values to cc we ascertain the condi- tion of corresponding points along the line. Thus if x = 0, we havey = Oj or ^ is at this moment in its position of equilibrium. Making x successively = —, — , — , — — ,^,2Jx, 8 4 2 4 and substituting these values, we have the corresponding values of y equal to — a ^, — a, 0, + a, ^ ; positive signs indicating displacement to the right, and negative signs the reverse. For examples under the second formula, let * = m T, as be- X A 2a 7a 5a A 7a fore, and put x = - T' o' ~r> successively. fi' 3' 3 ' 8 ' 3 ' 2' 4 We shall then have i, = + i V, - i V, - JV, + ^-^V, - J V, V, 0, for the corresponding velocities; positive signs indi- cating movement towards the right, and negative signs the reverse. The signs of displacement and movement for the same particle are half the time alike and half the time un- like. Velocity of the Propagation of the Sound-toavea in the Air. — This has been the subject of a considerable number of experiments, of which we give below the most important. In 1822 a determination of this kind was undertaken by some members of the French Academy ; the stations selected were at Montlh^ry and Villejuif, the distance being 18622.27 metres. Cannon were alternately discharged at the two stations at night, and the time which elapsed between the flash and the perception of the sound noted. On the first night twelve and seven shots were heard — ^on the second only one. The result was, that at a temperature of 0° C. sound travels with a velocity of 331.2 metres per second. It is somewhat strange that to this important experimeat only two nights were devoted.* We have besides this, the more careful experiments of Moll and Van Beek f in the following year, who obtained for their result at 0° C, 332.05 metres per second j and finally we must add the experiments of Bra- vais and Martins, J who measured the velocity of sound in a slanting upward direction from the Lake of Brienz to a station on the Faulhorn, obtaining as result at 0° C. a velocity of 332.37. This last experiment is interesting as showing that sound travels with the same velocity, in an up- ward direction as on a level-, as is required by the formula of Laplace. Recently several pieces of apparatus have been devised by which the velocity of sound can be measured when the distance travelled over is only a few feet; so that it is now possible to make this experiment in a small apartment. Suppose that we generate a sharp, short sound at the open extremity of a tube, the other end being closed by a mem- brane; the sound-impulse, reaching the closed end of the tube, would announce its arrival by giving the membrane a little push outward ; and if we had fastened on it a pen- cil, this might be caused to make a mark on a sheet of Eaper at the same instant. Let us now imagine that we ad, near each other, two such tubes, the second one being longer than the first, but bent so that both still terminated side by side, each with its membrane and pencil, and that finally our sheet of paper, instead of being stationary, were in motion. Then, under these circumstances, the sound-wave travelling through the shorter tube would make its mark first, and the paper would have a chance to move a few inches before receiving the pencil-mark due to the companion wave; and if we knew the rate of the paper's motion, it is evident that we could easily calculate the velocity with which the sound had travelled through our apparatus. This general explanation will give an idea of the principle involved in a number of new contrivances, with some of which it is even possible to experiment at various temperatures and on other gases than our atmos- phere. A simple and cheap apparatus of this kind was, in 1866, devised by Br. Ernst Neumann,^ a school-teacher in Dresden ; the diflferenoe in the paths of the sound-waves was about twenty feet, although the length of the appa- • " Ann. de Chlm. et de Phys.," T. xx., p. 210. f Pogg. "Ann." Bd. v., s. 351, 469. iPogg. "Ann." Bd. Ixvi., s. 351. gPogg. ''Ann.," cxxviii., s. 307. ratus was only three: the sound was generated by the dis- charge of a child's brass cannon. The, paper was attached to a circular disk arranged with a handle, which enabled the experimenter to revolve it with a velocity of only one turner second, which was roughly accomplished by watch- ing a^Beconds pendnlsm, consisting of a ball attached to a string having a length such as to cause it to vibrate sec- onds. The mean of a number of experiments gaTe a re- sult far more accurate than would have been expected. Using the same general idea, but causing the sound-waves to act on little gas-burners connected with the two mem- branes, in the same year Ivan Zoch|[ in Erlangen contrived a far more delicate instrument, with which he obtained re- sults rivalling those of the French Academy in 1822, although in his case the difference of the paths was only three or four feet. With it he measured the velocity in various gases, and by driving a current of air through during the experiment was actually able to ascertain the change due to this cause. A somewhat similar idea was used in this fruitful year by Prof. Quincke^ of Berlin, in a very beautiful contrivance, where, unlike the two pre- ceding, the signal was given not to the eye, but to the ear, the two sounds being made to destroy each other, produ- cing silence in a manner presently to be explained. With this instrument Dr. Seebeck** has proved that in amall tubes sound travels slower than in the open air, partly, as it would seem, owing to friction, and partly to loss of heat developed by the sound-wave itself through conduction by the walls of the tube. He has also shown that in email tubes the velocity is less in the case of deep notes than with those which are higher, Laplace's formula for the velocity of sound in gases and vapors is V = the number of metres traversed by the sound-wave in a second of time ; g = the accelerating force of gravity = 9.8088 metres; A = the height of the mercury in the ba- rometer reduced to the height it would have at 0° C. ; d = the specific gravity of the gas, mercury at 0° being taken as unity ; K = the quotient of the specific heat of the gas at a constant* pressure, divided by its specific heat at a con- stant volume = 1.42. It is seen from this formula that the velocity is directly proportional to the square root of the pressure the gas is under, and inversely proportional to the square root of its specific gravity. It is evident also that the velocity is independent of the height of the barometer, for a change in the barometer afi'ects not only h in the nu- merator, but also d in the denominator, in such a way that the value of the fraction remains constant. No term re- lating to the distance of the sounding body enters the for- mula; hence the velocity is independent of the distance — that is, of the amplitude of the sound-wave. The follow- ing is a convenient formula for calculating the velocity of sound in air at various temperatures : D = 333. MVT+at; a = coefScient of expansion of air for 1° C. = 0.003665 ; t — the temperature in degrees of the centigrade scale; M standing for metres. It was also found experimentally that sound moves quicker with the wind and slower against it; the final velocity being in the one case equal to the sum, in the other equal to the difference, of the velocity of wind and that of the sound-wave itself. In gases, the ve- locity of sound, of course, as indicated by the formula, in- creases with the temperature; in air this increase is about two feet per second for each degree centigrade. The veloci- ty of sound in oxygen gas at 0° C. is 1040 feet; in carbonic acid, 868 feet; in hydrogen, 4164 feet. In 1827, Colladon and Sturm determined experimentally the velocity of sound in fresh water. The experiment was made on the Lake of Geneva, and it was found to be 4714 feet per second at a temperature of 15° C. Laplace has also given a formula for the velocity of sound in liquids : g as before = 9.8088 mfitres, and A is the amount which a column of the liquid one m^tre long shortens under a pres- sure equal to its own weight ; it hence is necessary to de- termine the compressibility of the liquid in order to employ this formula, as the velocity is inversely proportional to [I Pogg. " Ann.," cxxviii., s. 497. i Fogg. "Ann.," cxxviii., s. 177. •*Poge. "Ann." cxxxix., s. 104. Compare also the experi- ments of Kegnault on this subject (" Comp. Rend." t. Ixvi., p. 209); also those of Kundt (Pogg. "Ann.," cxxx., s. 3S7); and finally those of Schneebell (Fogg. " Ann.," cxxxvi., s. 296;. 28 ACOUSTICS. the square root of the compresBibility. The velocity of sound in alcohol at 20° C. is 4218 feet; in ether, at 0°, 3801 J in sea-water, at 20° C, 4768. The velocity of sound in solids can be calculated by this last formula, and can also be experimentally determined; that in At 20 C.o At 100=. Gold' is 5,717 5,640 Lead " 4,030 3,961 Copper " 11,666 10,802 Iron " 16,822 17,385 The Intensity of Sound varies inversely as the square of the distance of the sounding body from the ear; it is also proportional to the square of the amplitude of the sound- wave. Thus far, we can hardly be said to possess a pho- nometer, or instrument for the purpose of comparing the relative intensities of two sounds or sets of sound-waves; hence we must regard with interest a step recently taken in this direction by Prof. A. M. Mayer of Hoboken, who, by employing small vibrating flames and the principle of in- terference, succeeded in solving this problem in certain cases. For details we must refer the reader to the original article, published in the January number of the "American Journal of Science and Arts," 1873. Befieetion of Sound. — The waves of sound can be reflected like the waves of light, and obey the same law, the angle of incidence being equal to the angle of refleetion ; this can be proved indirectly with the aid of spherical or parabolic mirrors, though, from the circumstance that the sound- waves are large relatively to such reflecting surfaces as can be used, the experiments are far more difUcult than with the almost infinitely shorter waves of light. The author has recently contrived a new method by which the reflec- tion of sound can be studied, and the relative reflecting powers of different substances examined. A circular disk with open and closed sectors, or with sectors of different materials, is made to revolve rather slowly near a sound- ing-reed, in such a way that the sound is from time to time reinforced by refleetion. The result is, that a sound re- sembling "the beats" is produced, these alternations of sound and comparative silence disappearing when the disk is made complete, or when its alternate sectors are com- posed of substances having the same power of reflection. The same apparatus can be used to determine the relative powers of different bodies for the transmission of sound. Echoes are cases of the reflection of sound, and the wonder- ful power of very long tubes in conveying sounds to a great distance is due to the same property. Refraction of Sound. — Sound-waves can be refracted or bent out of their course by denser or rarer bodies in a man- ner corresponding to light; this can be demonstrated by the use of a large lens of carbonic acid enclosed in a thin mem- brane, when it will be found that the sound-waves from a watch will be concentrated just as a glass lens concentrates the rays of light. Recently, the refraction of sound has been directly studied with a prism, according to the method which has long been used in light. Prof. C. Hajech gene- rated sound-waves in the interior of a box 6, by the aid of a bell which was struck by clockwork ; travelling along a tube t, they reached the prism P, and were refracted by it as in- dicated in Fig. 4. The amount by which they were bent out of their path was ascertained by moving the ear over the graduated circle cc, which was in an adjoining room, till the position of maximum intensity had been ascertained. The sides of the prism were made of thin membrane, of paper, or finally of sheets of mica. Experiments were per- formed on hydrogen, ammonia, illuminating gas, carbonic acid, and on sulphurous acid gas. Besides these gases, two Fig. 4. liquids were also employed — ordinary water and water satu- rated with common salt. Amongst other results it was found that the same prism refracted waves of different lengths (or different tones) alike. The results of these measurements corresponded with those indicated by the known velocities of sound in the substances employed, taken in connection with the explanation of refraction as given in the undula- tory theory of sound. Sound-waves rendered Visible. — Quite recently this feat has been accomplished by the German physicist Topler, who employed the snap of an electric spark for the generation of the sound-wave, and then illuminated it by the instan- taneous light of a second spark. He -was thus not only able to see with distinctness a simple sound-wave, but also to observe its reflection, refraction, and the interference of two sound-waves. (Pogg. Ann., oxxxi., s. 180, 1867.) Inflection of Sound-waves. — From the circumstance that the sound-waves are not minute relatively to the obstacles they encounter, it happens that they manifest this property of travelling around corners in a high degree. The corre- sponding experiments with light require some care, but the inflection of sound-waves is something that we with diffi- culty escape from, obstacles placed in their path casting but little acoustic shadow. Interference of Sound-waves. — Thus far, we have occu- pied ourselves with single sets of waves, and have supposed the particles of air to be acted on by only one wave at a time. It will, however, more commonly happen that it is necessary to deal with particles which are at the same in- stant being acted on by more than a single wave. Let us take the simplest case, and suppose our particles acted on by two equal and similar sound-waves; now; it may hap- pen under these circumstances that the two waves agree in their action, any particular layer of air being at the same moment subjected to a condensation or rarefaction from both these sources. AVhen this happens the motion of its particles will be twice as great, and we shall hear a louder sound. But something else is equally likely to occur : it may happen that just at the moment when the layer ought to be condensed by one wave, its companion attempts to rarefy or expand it; these two motions will then neutralize each other, and instead of sound we shall have silence. This can be illustrated with two similar organ-pipes which give exactly the same note; sounding them both together may give a louder tone, or one which is quite faint. If closed organ-pipes are used, the silence, as far as the mu- sical note is concerned, is quite complete, nothing but the hoarse noise which is always mingled with it being percep- tible. We can combine both these experiments into a single one by employing organ-pipes which give slightly different tones ; if now both sets of waves start fairly together, the condensations and rarefactions being in harmony, this state of things cannot long remain, owing to the inequality in their length, as is shown in Fig. 5, where condensation is marked heavily, rarefaction lightly. Already at 1 the con- densation coincides with the rarefaction ; farther on, at 2, the old state of things -has returned ; and the condition at 3 is the same with that at 1. Hence, in this experiment we must expect to have alternations of sound and silence, the tone rising and swelling to a maximum, then dying away again to repeat itself, etc. These alternations are called beatSy and furnish even to the unmusical ear a very Fig. 5. liVilWIi'i'ili'i 12 3 accurate means of judging of the identity of musioal tones. Having considered briefly these general properties of sound- waves, we pass on to some of their distinguishing charac- teristics. Among the most important of these is — Length of Sound-waves. — The pitch of the note, other things being equal, depends on the length of the wave; long waves give low notes — short waves, those that are high. The longest waves, in the air at a temperature 0° C, which are capable of producing the sensation of sound, have a length of about 66 feet. The tone, from a musical point of view, is imperfect, and in order to remove this de- fect entirely it is necessary to shorten the wave to about 27i feet. On the other hand, when the waves arc reduced to a length of three or four tenths of an inch, they again become inaudible; to have a useful musioal effect their length must be increased to about 3.2 inches. Instead of speaking of the length of the sound-waves, which evidently must vary with temperature, it is more oustomary to use the number of vibrations producing a given sound ; thus, as sound travels at the rate of 1 090 feet per second in the air at 0° C, it follows that a wave 66 feet long will execute in a second 16i vibrations, and one which is 27i feet long, forty vibrations, etc. We give below a table, arranged in octaves, of the number of vibrations of the notes used in music : ACOUSTICS. 29 ICi 33 66 132 264 528 1066 2112 4224 c„ C C o' c" C" C C o' c" C2 C, C Cl 02 c-3 0-2 c-1 e» el o' ut-, Ut-l Utl Ut2 Ut3 Utl o"" o'"" o"" c'"" c* 05 04 »<• Ut6 Ut, uts Aa will be seen, several modes of notation are employed, the last being the French — that preceding, the method proposed by Sondbaus for scientific purposes. In large organs C with IG^ vibrations is reached, the effect being imperfect ; the piano reaches a with 3520 vibrations, and sometimes c with 4224. The highest note employed in the orchestra is do, with 4752 vibrations (piccolo flute). The practical range in music is from 40 to 4000 vibrations, em- bracing seven octaves. The human ear is, however, able to reach eleven octaves; that is, the sensation of sound is produced by vibrations varying from 16^ up to 38,000 in a second. It is not difficult to measure the length of the sound- waves or the number of vibrations producing them ; a very simple means is with the sirene of Cagniard de Latour. This instrument consists of a circular revolving disk C F (Fig. 6), which is provided with fifteen small apertures cut in its substance in a slanting direction ; below this disk is a second one, which is stationary, and also provided with a similar set of holes. When air is driven through the apparatus by a wind-bellows the upper disk is set in rotation after the manner of a reaction mill, which has the effect of rapidly opening and closing the set of apertures, so that when a sufficient velocity of rotation has been at- tained, the pulses of air rushing through produce a low musical note, the pitch rising with the velocity or number Fig. 6. of vibrations communicated to the air in a second. Upon the axis is an endless screw, E H, which, acting on a toothed wheel, S, registers the number of turns made by it in a given time, say in fifteen seconds. In using this appariitus it is only necessary to raise the pitch of the note furnished by it till it is in unison with the note whose number of vibra- tions we wish to determine. If, then, this unison is main- tained for fifteen seconds, we can, without calculation, read the required number of vibrations directly on the dial-plate of the sirene; then, by dividing the velocity of sound in the air by this number, wo have the length of the wave. In the case of a tuning-fork the number of vibrations can be still more directly ascertained by attaching to one of its arms a small piece of fine wire or a minute portion of a feather, and causing this to act as a pen on a revolving cylinder. This latter is covered by a sheet of paper which has been smoked by burning camphor, and when set in revolution registers the vibrations made by the tuning-fork on the lampblack surface. Seconds marks are simultane- ously impressed on the smoked paper by an electro-mag- netic attachment; so that afterwards it is not difficult to obtiiin the desired result with a high degree of accuracy. There are also other methods of measuring the length of sound-waves, based on the principle of interference, and quite recently Prof. Mayer of Hoboken has succeeded in measuring wave-lengths directly in the air. (American Journal of Science a?irf Arts, for Nov., 1872, p. 387.) The Form of a Sound-wave. — In all that has preceded, and also in the formulas for the sound-wave, we have as- sumed that the particles of air swing backward and forward, obeying the law of the pendulum; and this is true for pure, simple tones, such as those furnished by tuning-forks. The ear is so constructed as to be able to take up these pendulum-like vibrations, which then produce appropriate sensations in the brain, but it is not capable of directly taking up vibrations which are executed according to laws different from that of the pendulum. Let us take a simple case, and suppose the air acted on by two pendulum-like sets of impulses, due to the joint action of two tuning-forks, one of which in a second executes twice as many vibrations as the other. The particles of air will then obey a new law, and will assume positions and velocities which are the reanltants due to the action of the two original forces, and the form of the wave will be entirely altered. When this new kind of wave strikes upon the ear it is instantly analyzed into its two constituents, which independently affect their corresponding nervo-fibrils, and a peculiar sensation is pro- duced, due to the presence of two distinct sensations; in" deed, as Helmholtz, to whom we owe these interesting facts, has shown, it is possible after some practice to actually recognize the two original constituents. If we add a third, a fourth, or any number of new sets of impulses, the law changes with each, and also the resulting form of the wave, and consequently the final sensation. Conversely, if by any other means we generate waves having forms tiot nor- mal, and present them to the ear, they will instantly be analyzed into a sufficient number of normal forms to meet the requirement, and a corresponding number of sensations will be produced. For example, reed-pipes, or a reed alone, furnish waves with an abnormal form, and the sound from them is analyzed, as Helmholtz has shown, by the ear into sixteen to twenty sets of normal waves or pure simple tones. We may add here that, as in this example, it is not neces- sary that these distinct sets of waves or notes should be in- dependently generated, but merely that the original wave should have a form capable of being analyzed into these simple constituents. Even the form of the wave furnished by the sirene is not normal; along with its proper or fun- damental note the octave is virtually present in an amount which is often somewhat embarrassing. These higher notes, which accompany the proper or fundamental tone, are called over-tones, or harmonicals, and it is their presence which determines the quality of the sound, or its timhre or clang- tint. In the case of tuning-forks the over-tones are absent, hence the hollow and somewhat poor character of the sounds they emit ; with closed organ-pipes they are scarcely present to any extent, though more so with open pipes, where the first and second over-tones can be distinctly re- cognized — i. e. the octave and the twelfth. In reed-pipes they are present in great abundance and strength, so as quite to change the character of the fundamental note ; the same is true of stringed instruments. It is the presence of these over-tones which enables us to distinguish between different instruments, even when sounding the same funda- mental note, and finally which, as we shall see, enables us to recognize the voices of different persons under similar conditions. Our inability to distinguish at once the pres- ence of particular over-tones is simply the result of want of practice, and is shared alike by the musical and unmusical. This can be corrected by practice, or by the use of the resonators contrived by Helmholtz. These instruments have usually the form of a hollow sphere, open at both ends of its diameter ; one of these openings has a shape adapting it for insertion into the ear; the other aperture is larger, its size being determined by experiment. The size of this opening and the capacity of the sphere are so related that when the sphere is placed in connection with the ear the experimenter is rendered comparatively deaf to all notes but one, the strength of this latter being greatly exalted by the instrument. The analysis of which we have just spoken was to a great extent effected by the aid of these con- trivances, a large number of these spheres being of course necessary for purposes of investigation. We may add here that Mr. R. Koenig, so celebrated for his beautiful acoustic apparatus, has pushed this matter one step farther, and by connecting these resonators with manometric capsules and small gas-flames has succeeded in rendering vm&^e the phe- nomena of which we have been speaking, thus enabling a person who is deaf stili to pursue these investigations. Cause of Diesonance or Discord. — This peculiar effect, which sometimes attends the reception of two or more sets of sound-waves, has also recently been explained by the investigations of Helmholtz, which have thrown a flood of light on this obscure subject. It has for a long time been known that when two sets of sound-waves are simultaneously presented to the ear, the relation between their length being in some simple proportion, such as 1 : 2, 2 : 3, 3 : 4, or 4 : 6, an agreeable effect is produced, the sounds seeming to melt into each other, producing what is known as consonance ; while, on the other hand, more complicated relations often generate discord. To account for this, many fanciful theories have been proposed, of which we will merely allude to that of Leibnitz, who imagined that the mind delighted in the 30 ACOUSTICS. t)erception of simple mathematical relations, and was dis- pleased by the reverse ! It is hardly necessary to say that this is not the true explanation, which we must seek in cer- tain relations of the nerves of sensation to external stimu- lating causes. The nerves of vision, touch, and hearing are endowed with the following property : when stimulated, the sensation produced is at the first instant at a maximum, and rapidly becomes less intense ; if, however, the nerves are allowed to rest for small intervals of time, they quickly re- gain their former sensitiveness, and this process may be repeated indefinitely. If, now, we expose the eye, for ex- ample, to light, we obtain the maximum sensation ; then the periodic withdrawal and return of the light may readily be so arranged as to produce in succession a long series of these maxima of sensation, which quickly become disagree- able, and even may be dangerous : it is the case of a flicker- ing light, whose bad effects are so well known. The sensa- tion of tickling is strictly analogous to the above, and is produced by corresponding causes. The nerves have, how- ever, another well-known property : after stimulation the sensation' produced is found to remain, or "persist," for a minute interval of time with undiminished strength ; so that in the case of light and sound, if the successive stimu- lations follow each other at sufficiently rapid intervals, these evil effects are naturally abolished, and only continuous sensations are perceived. Discord is, then, as Helmholtz has ascertained, due to the presence of the beats, or to rapid alternations of sound and comparative silence, they corre- sponding to the flickerings of a flame. When from any cause these beats follow each other at the rate of about 33 in a second, the discord is at its maximum, becoming more tolerable with twice this number, and finally disappearing altogether as their number is increased to about 120 in a second. On the other hand, if the beats follow quite slowly — for example, at the rate of three to five in a second — the effect is not unpleasant, and can even be employed in music, suggesting as it does the idea of trilling. Discord is then due to the production of beats by the interference of the over-tones, which almost always accompany the funda- mental notes, and, as has been shown by calculation, this can be entirely or partially avoided only by the use of such simple ratios as those above indicated. For further details we must refer the curious reader to the original work of Helmholtz (" Die Lehre von den Tonempfindungen," 1865). Effect of Communicating Motion to the Source of Sound or to the Ear. — In all the foregoing it has been tacitly as- sumed that during experiment the position of the source of sound and of the recipient ear remained invariable; when this ceases to be true, certain curious changes are produced, which recently have grown into importance, ow- ing to their correspondence with certain optical phenomena by which it is possible to study the motion of the fixed stars towards or away from our planet. Let us suppose that the sounding body is stationary, and that the ear of the ob- server is moved with some rapidity towards it; then it will result that in a given time the observer will receive a larger number of impulses than at first, and that the pitch of the sound will be correspondingly elevated. The same effect will be produced by moving the sounding body towards a stationary ear. And from the same cause it is evident that motion of the ear away from the source of sound will lower the pitch of the note, etc. These ideas were first brought forward by Christian Doppler in 1842, and since then have been repeatedly subjected to the test of experiment. Dr. Ballat in Belgium, with the aid of a locomotive and a party of musicians, proved their correctness in a quantitative manner, and Dr. Mach has contrived an apparatus with a moving reed-pipe by which they can be studied in an ordi- nary room ; and finally by the use of tuning-forks Prof. Mayer of Hoboken has succeeded in illustrating them before large audiences. {American Journal of Science and Arte, April, 1872, p. 267.) The Voice. — As the human vocal organs are built essen- tially on the plan of a reed-pipe, it is desirable at the start to understand the construction and action of one of these in- struments. A reed organ-pipe consists, then, of two parts, a vibrating tongue or reed, and a variously shaped pipe. When connected with a wind-bellows the reed is thrown into vi- brations, and after the manner of a sirene permits the air to pass through in a series of puffs, which, linking themselves together, generate a jpusical tone. The waves furnished by the reed are not, however, normal in form, but, as pre- viously explained, have a form such as would be generated by the joint action of a fundamental normal tone or wave, combined with a set of shorter waves or over-tones : in other words, practically it furnishes a fundamental note with a series of strong over-tones, the particular funda- mental note and corresponding set of over-tones depending on the construction of the reed itself and the manner in which it is tuned. The function of the pipe is to strengthen any or all of these notes ; thus, conical pipes strengthen all the over-tones up to a certain height, excluding those that are not much longer than the aperture of the pipe itself, while oylindrical pipes strengthen the odd over- tones, or those whose rates of vibration are related to each other as 1, 3, 5, etc. Hence, the pitch of the note is de- termined by the rate of the reed's vibrations — the quality, or clang-tint, of the sound by the shape and size of the pipe. In the human vocal organs the reed is supplied by two vibrating membranes at M (Fig. 7), called the vocal cords. For the production of sound it is necessary that they should be stretched, and that at the start the opening between them should be closed. Air is then forced through them from the lungs ; they are set in vibration, and allow it an interrupted passage, exactly as in the case of a reed, as has been shown by experiments on the living and dissected larynx, or with the aid of artificial vocal cords made of sheet india-rubber. The pitch of the voice de- pends on the extent to which the membranes are stretched. MUller, by increasing the tensive force half an ounce up to eighteen ounces, raised the tone with one of his dissected preparations more than two octaves. The pitch depends also to some extent on the strength of the current of air employed, rising as the latter is increased. The human voice includes not quite four octaves, though no one single voice would be able to compass a scale of this extent. The pitch also,iother things being equal, depends on the length of the vocal cords ; that of men is about 18 millimetres, with women it is only 12. The clearness of the voice depends on the accurate closure of the slit between the cords, from time to time, while they are in operation. Theory and ex- periment alike point to the fact that when the vocal cords are set in action waves having an abnormal form are gene- rated, corresponding to a fundamental note with a set of Fig. 7. over-tones. The function of the cavity of the mouth and nose CC (Fig. 7) is to strengthen or weaken the fundamental tone and various sets of the over-tones ; and in this action the size of the opening of the mouth also plays an import- ant part; thus, the quality of the sound uttered, or its clang-tint, depends finally on the shape and size of the cavity of the mouth and nose. This cavity, then, corre- sponds to the pipe of a reed organ-pipe. The vocal cords retaining all the time the same tension, by altering the shape and size of the cavity of the mouth and its opening we can generate sounds having a different clang-tint, as, for example. Ah, 0, etc. It is not even necessary to set the vocal cords into action if a complex sound consisting of many tones is supplied from some outward source ; thus, we were recently informed by President Barnard of Columbia College that by taking advantage of the complex sounds or noise of a railroad car, and by varying suitably the cavities just referred to, he has succeeded in producing musical notes in rapid succession, such as the notes of any familiar melody, at pleasure. . The Voicel-aounda are the simplest which can be uttered by the human voice, and have frequently been made the ACOUSTICS. 31 subject of investigation. In 1831, WilHs in England found that by mingling certain tones produced by reed-pipes he could to some extent imitate the vowel-sounds. [Pogg, Ann. Bd., xxiv., 8. 397.) In this mode of working there is the obvious difficulty that reed-pipes furnish large sets of notes, 80 that it is not possible to obtain very accurate knowledge by such experiments. More recently, Helmholtz, with the aid of his resonators above described, succeeded in analyz- ing the vowel-sounds, although they present greater diffi- culties than most other sounds of equal complexity. This results from the circumstance that, from childhood upward, we all have been accustomed to regard the tones of the vowel-sounds as independent wholes, making no attempt to ascertain their musical components, since in the case of a vowel-sound the clang-tint is all important, and is in- deed the only means by which we judge of its identity. Helmholtz ascertained that vowel-sounds are produced by the presence of a fundamental note mingled with its higher over-tones in various proportions ; he even was able to prove that the intensity of the highest of these over-tones varies somewhat in different individuals, being greater in voices that are shrill than in those whoso sound is softer. Having finished this labor, he undertook the artificial reconstruction of the vowel-sounds from pure constituents. These are best furnished by vibrating tuning-forks. One of these instru- ments, alone by itself, furnishes a tone which at a little dis- tance is quite inaudible, but by causing it to vibrate directly in front of a hollow metallic cylinder of exactly the right capacity, its sound is greatly strengthened, and can be dis- tinctly heard in a room of large dimensions. The cylinder is of course entirely closed with the exception of a circular opening at the end near the fork. When the fork is thus caused to vibrate in connection with a resonator, the sound is instantly extinguished if the aperture in the cylinder be closed, but as it is gradually opened the sound correspond- ingly gains in intensity ; so that it is evidently in the power of the experimenter to regulate the loudness of the tone produced. A tuning-fork, however, soon ceases to vibrate, and accordingly must be provided with a contrivance to obviate this difficulty. By placing it between the arms of an electro-magnet having the form of a horseshoe, it can be caused to vibrate for any period of time, provided the magnetic attraction is intermittent, and always exercised at exactly the right moment. This is accomplished by breaking and re-establishing the electric current with the aid of another tuning-fork, which vibrates at exactly the same rate ; and the second fork, being also provided with a similar electro-magnet, is able independently to maintain itself in vibration for any length of time, as is the case with the vibrating attachment so often found on electrical apparatus for medical purposes. It would not be possible with this arrangement to sustain in vibration a third fork whose rate was a little slower or faster than that of its two companions; but if its rate should be exactly twice, three, or four times as great, this end could easily be accomplished ; for then, though the attractive impulses might be fewer than desirable, at least they would always be rightly timed. Hence, it is evident that a series of forks whose rates of vibration are as 1, 2, 3, etc. can be kept simultaneously in vibration by a contrivance of this nature. This was, then, the plan actually employed by Helmholtz; keys being con- nected by strings with the valves of the resonators, and being opened by the pressure of the fingers, the proper notes were obtained with the desired strength. Helmholtz's vowel-sound apparatus, as made by Mr. Koenig of Paris, consists of eight tuning-forks with their resonance-cylin- ders, the fork which establishes and regulates the current being on a separate stand. These forks give the following notes : Ut2, Uts, S0I3, Ut^, Mii, SoU, Utg, Sis. AVhen all these forks are set in vibration, their resonance-cylinders remaining closed, only a low humming sound is heard, but by pressing one or more keys the corresponding notes are called forth with any desirable degree of strength. The German vowel-sound « can be approximately imitated by sounding the Utg fork alone, or better by adding the two first over-tones — i. e. the octave and twelfth, TJts and S0I3. is obtained with a weak Uta and strong Ut^; Uts, Sols, and Mi4 mingling to a small extent. The German a, with Utg and Mi4 strong; Uts, Ut4, S0I4 having a moderate strength. In the same language the le is given by Mis Q-i^d S0I5 strong, with the notes Ut4, Uts, SoU weaker; and finally the e by the aid of S0I5, Sis, and Ute strong; Uts and Ut4 being weaker. Of course, since only pure musical notes are employed, they can only reproduce the musical constituents of the vowel-sounds; hence the effect resembles the sound of the vowels as sung rather than pronounced. Corresponding with these remarkable experiments, Helmholtz also found it possible to imitate with the same apparatus certain varie- ties of organ-pipes ; at least to reproduce the musical con- Btituents of their tones, though of course the noise with which they are often accompanied was absent; he in addi- tion imitated the nasal tones of the clarionet by the use of a portion of the forks, while the joint action of the whole set gave the softer tones of the bugle-horn. For exciting the apparatus into action he used only two of Grove's cups, though other experimenters have since then found it some- what difficult of manipulation, and lately an attempt has been made by Appun to replace it by a series of reeds pro- vided with resonators, with which it has been found possi- ble to reproduce some of the sounds in question (« and a).* We must here mention the remarkable results attained in the last century by Prof. v. Kempelen in Vienna with hia speaking machine, which more recently has been greatly perfected by the two Fabers, uncle and nephew, f Some months ago the latter exhibited in Columbia College this wonderful apparatus, which is capable of uttering not only syllables, but words and sentences, with a certain mechan- ical precision. In it the human vocal organs are directly imitated by vibrating plates of ivory, and it is remarkable that it is operated on by only fourteen keys or stops, which give the five vowels and the nine consonants, 1, 7; w, /, », h, dy g, ech. The other consonants are produced partly by combinations of the above, and partly by increasing the strength of the current of air from the bellows. For the purpose of causing the machine to speak French, an extra attachment is provided, whereby more nasal tones can be generated. Mr.Faber has also connected with it a singing attachment, in which, by means of quick changes in the form of the vocal cords, the musical scale can be executed. ConaonantB, — These sounds are generally regarded not as constituted of notes having any particular musical relation to each other, as in the case of the vowel-sounds, but rather as consisting of different varieties of noise. Thus, as ex- amples of explosive noise we have p and h, t and d, k, g, q; of frictional noise, a, z, ach, I, f, v, m, v, and h; of intermit- tent noise, r. J The mechanical mode by which the conso- nants are produced is to a considerable extent understood, but their actual acoustic elements resist all attempts at com- plete analysis. That they have an acoustic character can- not, however, be doubted, and some progress has been made towards ascertaining the natural pitchof their predominant notes. Thus, upon repeating (in German) the consonants b, ky t, f, 8, it will be found that b is the deepest in tone, s the highest; and that, taken together in the above order, they constitute a series of perceptible musical gradations. For further information wo must refer the reader to the original investigations of Dr. Oskar Wolf, who seems to have succeeded in actually determining the pitch of the predominating constituent in the case of most of the conso- nants. ^ The Ear. — Thesensation of sound is produced by the stimulation, of certain nerve-fibrils in the interior of tho ear, and this result is brought about by the aound-wavea in ■ the following manner: These waves first strike upon tho external ear, and possibly are, to some slight extent, con- centrated by it; afterwards they travel along the tube D (Fig. 8), and reach the tympanum or drum of the ear at Fig. 8. C. This consists of a thin membrane which closes the ex- ternal passage, and which is capable of being set in vibra- tion or of responding to an immense variety of waves or impulses. It may here be remarked that a catholicity of this kind has not thus far been observed in experiments on membranes artificially stretched, whose ran<^e is found to be far more limited. There is also s^e reason to believe that the tympanum is capable of a certain degree of " ac- commodation " to the sounds that are presented to it, fol- lowing the well-known analogy of the eye in this respect. Attached to the inner side of the tympanum is a series of * " Sprache und Ohr," by Dr. Oskar Wolf, page 11 . t " Der Mechanism us der menschlichen Sprache nebst Beschrei- bung einer Sprechenden Machine von Wolfgang v. Kempelen," Vienna, 1791. t See the work of G. Gattfied Weiss, Braunschweig, 1868. 2 "Sprache und Ohr," Dr. Oskar Wolf, Braunschweig, 1871. 32 ACOUSTICS. three small bones, called respectively the malleus, c, the incus, and the stapes, o (the hammer, the anvil, and the stirrup. See Figure 8). These bones are rather closely bound together, and transmit the vibrations of the tym- panum finally to the stirrup, which is destined to commu- nicate them to the inner ear. The portion we are now en- gaged with has a communication with the mouth by means of the Eustachian tube, E, which is closed except in the act of swallowing; its function is to preserve an equilib- rium between the pressure of the air in the middle ear and that on the other side of the drum. While the middle ear is filled with air, the inner ear is filled with a liquid, and is com- pletely enclosed for protection in solid bone. In Fig. 9 a seo- Fio. 9. tion of the inner ear is given. SSS are the semicircular canals cut open ; V is the vestibule ; o and >■ are the foramen ovale and the foramen rotundum ; C is a section of the coch- lea. We give in addition a. plan of the car, after Helmholtz (Fig. 10), the cochlea, for the sake of clearness, being sup- posed to be unrolled. A is the vestibule, C the cochlea, a FiQ. 10. B-.a the foramen ovale, h the foramen rotundum,/ the nerves of hearing. The sacs at d contain attached to their walls small crystals of carbonate of lime in contact with the nerves, and their functi»n, as it appears, is to render us sensible of simple short sounds or shocks, which probably would not affect the vibratory apparatus presently to bo described. They act as drags on the nerves when the latter vibrate with the water in which they are bathed, and thus produce sensation. This is the simplest portion of the ap- paratus for hearing, and is found in many of the lower ani- mals, where the more complicated arrangements are en- tirely absent. These sacs contain also, in connection with the nerves, certain microscopic hairs, that are quite elastic and brittle, and probably capable of being set into vibration when the particular notes to which they are tuned are pre- sented to them, just exactly as a tuning-fork can be set in vibration by the waves proceeding from a second fork of the same pitch. (See Fig. 11.) In the cochlea we also find a membrane (the organ of Corti) with a great number of fine microscopic cords stretched in it, which probably have the same function. The reader will find, by opening a piano and pressing the foot on the right-hand pedal, that if then tlie vowel-sounds, for example, are pronounced in a loud, clear voice over the strings, it will result that the strings which are capable of giving the notes of which they are biiilt up will be set in vibration, and will echo back some- what faintly the original sounds. And so it is probably in this portion of the ear; these microscopic strings, being thus set in vibration, stimulate the nerves connected with them and produce corresponding sensations. If the sound is compound or the form of the wave abnormal, this sound is analyzed into its constituents, since the cords (and rods) can only execute normal vibrations; which circumstance explains much that was said under the head " Form of the Fig. 11. Wave ;" and we see finally that the clang-tint is the sensa- tion produced by the simultaneous action of two or more of these strings upon their appropriate nerves. The coch- lea contains about 3000 of these strings, and if, with Helmholtz, we sup- pose that 200 of them are useful for rendering us sensible of tones not used in music, there will remain for the musical tones proper 2800 for the seven octaves, or 400 for each octave, 33J for each half tone. Now, according to the experi- ments of B. H. Weber, skilful musicians can distinguish ^j of a half tone, which is a small- er quantity than corre- sponds to the number of these strings. It would appear, then, that in this case two of these strings are at the same time excited into action, and the musician by practised attention is able to notice which of them vibrates the more strongly. As rendering the above views more probable, we may mention the experi- ments of Von Henscn on the ears of certain minute forms of crabs, which he enclosed in an artificial ear corresponding to the labyrinth. The ears of these crustaceans are partially external, and consist of sets of hairs capable of vibration, connected with the, nerves, as in the case we have just been considering. When differ- ent notes were sounded. Von Hensen was able with the microscope to notice that certain hairs responded, etc.* The functions of certain portions of the ear are still in- volved in much obscurity; this is the case, for example, with the three semicircular canals, concerning whose object and use we possess as yet no certain information. Among the fishes the myxine has one of these canals, the lamprey has two, the higher forms, three; and it appears that in birds of prey they become highly developed. In closing this article it may be proper briefly to men- tion the results obtained with the phonauiorjrixph of Scott and Koenig. This may be regarded as a gigantic ear, en- dowed w^ith the power of permanently registering the vi- brations of its own tympanum. It consists of a parabolic mirror, M (see Fig. 12), of zinc, which concentrates the sound-waves, and causes them to set in vibration a thin membrane, <, which is provided with a " pen " attached to its centre. The vibrations are in this way finally inscribed on the surface of a revolving cylinder, C, which is covered with paper smoked by burning camphor. The figure gives a view of this apparatus seen from above. With this Fig. 12. instrument Koenig suc- ceeded in obtaining the autographic curves due to single notes, or to the joint action of several within the compass of an octave. Bonders, how- ever,was able, after much trouble, to obtain the complex curves due to the vowel-sounds. For « (German) it was a common sine curve, as it should be; this was also true for u and i, the instrument being able to reproduce neither the weak over-tones of the first, nor the high over-tones of the second. The form of the curve altered with the pitch of the voice uttering the vowel, but changes in dialect produced only slight modi- fications. With diphthongs the duration of the sound and modifications due to change from one diphthong to another were rendered visible. Consonants spoken just before a vowel altered only the beginning of the curve, and pro- * Von Hensen, " Studien fiber das Gehoerorgan der Dekapo- den ;" Von Siebold u. KolUker, " Zeitschrift f Or wiss. ZooloKM," Bd. xiU. ACQUAVIVA— ACTA EEUDITOEUM. 33 duced only a corresponding modification when uttered immediately after the vowel.* The duration of a in the word daag = 42, in dageH=37, in dag = 16 vibrations, ea«h single vibration consuming ^j- of a second, so that the actual durations wore, 0.16, 0.142, 0.061 of a second of time. 0. N. Rood. Acqnavi'va, a town of Italy, in the province of Bari, 16 miles S. S. W. of Bari. Pop. 6517. Ac'qui, a town of Italy, in the province of Alessandria, on the Bormida, 21 miles by rail S. S. W. of Alessandria. Here are sulphurous springs, which are much frequented, and ruins of an old Roman aqueduct. Acqui is of great antiquity, and its hot sulphur baths were known to the Romans, who called the place Aqua Statiella. Good wine is made in the vineyards of the district, and the rearing of silkworm s is followed with much care. It has a cathedral, several fine buildings and silk- factories, a royal college, and is a bishop's see. Pop. in 18S1, 11,283. Acquit'tal [from the Old Fr. acgtiiter, to " forsake "], in law, a release from a contract or other obligation j more usually employed in criminal practice, where it denotes a judicial deliverance from a charge of guilt, either by a ver- dict of not guilty by a jury upon a trial, termed "acquittal in fact," or by mere operation of law, as where one has been charged simply as accessary, and the principal is ac- quitted. An acquittal is a bar to any future prosecution for the same offence. In the U. S. this is secured by a con- stitutional provision that "no person shall be twice put in jeopardy for the same offence." The judicial construction of this clause prevents a second trial for the same offence after an acquittal. A'cre [from the Ang.-Sax. acer or cecer, a "field," ety- mologieally allied to the Lat. ager and Ger. Acker], a superficial dimension of land, is equal to 4840 square yards. The English acre is the same as that of the U. S. A French acre contains about one arpent and a half. Acre, Ak'ka, or St. Jean d'Acre [Phoenician Accho, and called by the Greeks Ptolema'ia], a city and seaport of Syria, is on the Mediterranean, 30 miles S. of Tyre, and 8 miles N. of Mount Carmel ; lat. 32° 64' N., Jon. 35° 6' B. The "key of Palestine," it has been the scene of many famous sieges and battles. It was taken by the Crusaders in 1104, and retaken by the Saracens in 1187. In 1191 it was recovered by the Crusaders (under Guide of Jerusalem, Philip of France, and Richard the Lion-hearted of England), and held by them till they were finally driven out of Palestine in 1291. Bonaparte be- sieged it for sixty days in 1799, but failed to take it. In 1840 it was bombarded and captured by the English fleet. Pop. about 8000, of whom 5600 are Moslems. Acre'lius (Israel), a clergyman, born at Ostaker, Swe- den, Dee. 25, 1714, was educated at Upsal, and was ap- pointed in 1749 a provost to take charge of the Swedish congregations on the Delaware. After a sojourn in America of seven years, he returned to Sweden in 1756. He wrote a description of the Swedish colonies in America (1759). Died April 25, 1800. Ac'TObat [literally, " one who goes or moves upon his extremities (toes),"'from aicpo;, "extreme," and /SiTTji, "one who treads or goes "], a term applied to a rope-dancer or to a person who entertains the public by performances on the tight rope or slack rope, and by gymnastic feats of agility, such as vaulting and tumbling. Acrob'ates (i. e. the "acrobat"), a genus of Australian marsupials, includes the " pigmy acrobat," " dwarf phalan- ger " or "opossum mouse" (Acrohates pygmseiu), which in its character and habits resembles the flying squirrel. It is two inches long, and its tail is of about the same length. Acrocerau'nia [from aspov, a " peak " or " promon- tory," and Kefavvoi, "thunder"], the ancient name of a chain of mountains on the western coast of Greece, and extending into the sea by a bold promontory ; so cd.lled because violent thunder-storms are said to be frequent in that region. The modern name is Chimara. The Acroce- raunian promontory is Cape Linguetta : lat. 40° 27' N Ion. 19° 18' B. Ac'ro-Corin'thns, a steep rocky hill near the city of Corinth, in Greece, is about 2000 feet high. On this hill stood the acropolis or citadel of Corinth. The view from the top is very extensive and beautiful. Acrofe'enous [from the Gr. acpox, " summit," andy^i'u, to " be born "], a name applied to certain cryptogamous plants (acrogens), as ferns and mosses, in which the stem increases by the coherence of the bases of the leaves and by elongation at the summit, and not in diameter by the * F. 0. Bonders, " Zur Klangfarbe der Vocale :" Fogg. "Ann." 1864, cxxiii., s. B27, 528. Vol. I.— 3 addition of fresh matter to their outside, as in exogens, or to their inside, as in endogens. AcTO'lein, Acryl'ic-Al'dehyde, CsH40=C(CH2)"H COH, an intolerably pungent body produced by the dehydration of glycerine. It is always produced when neutral fats con- taining glycerine are subjected to destructive distillation, and is chief cause of the offensiveness of that operation. Acronuridae. See Teuthidid.*. Acron'ycal [from the Gr. axpoi, "extreme," and nJf, "night"]. A star or planet is said to be acronycal when it is opposite to the sun, or passes the meridian at mid- night. It rises acronycally when it rises as the sun sets, and sets acronycally when it sets as the sun rises. Acrop'olis [from the Gr. aKpoi-, a "peak "or "sum- mit," and iro^is, " city "], the name given to the citadel of an ancient Grecian city, usually built on the peak or top of a hill. The Acropolis of Athens was especially celebrated, and was adorned ^ith the temple of Minerva or Athena, called the Parthenon, and the Erechtheum, the ruins of which still excite the admiration of all travellers. Acros'tic [Gr. afcpdirTixov, from aicpoc, "extreme," and o-Ti'xos, " order," " line," " verse "], a term applied to a poem so contrived 'that the first, last, or other series of letters of the lines shall form some name or phrase. Sir John Davies wrote twenty-four hymns to Astrcea, each of which is an acrostic on Blizabetha Regina (Queen Elizabeth). On a somewhat similar principle, in the poetry of the Hebrews the initial letters of the verses were made to correspond to the letters of the alphabet in their proper order. The 119th Psalm affords perhaps the most remarkable example of this. Every line in the first division of the psalm be- gins with K (aleph), and in the second division with 3 (beth), and so on. Acs, a village of Hungary, in the county of Komom, on the right bank of the Danube, has a beautiful palace of the prince of Liechtenstein, and in the Hungarian revolu- tion was the scene of several battles, of which that of Aug. 3, 1849, was the most important. Pop. 3933. Act [Lat. ac'tua (from a^go, ac'tum, to "do")], in dra- matic literature, is a division of a drama ; it is again sub- divided into scenes. The Greek dramas of the old model were naturally divided into separate portions by the ohorio odes (or stasima), which occur at intervals, during which the stage was left to the solo occupation of the chorus. Nevertheless, the Greek writers do not notice this division in express terms; nor do we know the origin of the famous rule of Horace, that every dramatic piece should be re- strained within the limits of five acts, neither more nor less. The division into acts must be in great measure ar- bitrary ,f although rules have been laid down by various writers to define the story or plot which should be contained in each of them. Thus, Vossius gives it as a rule that the first act should present the intrigue, the second develop it, the third be filled with incidents forming its knot or com- plication, the fourth prepare the means of unravelling it, which is finally accomplished in the fifth. Act, a term applied in legal and political language to a law or statute which is approved and ordained by the legis- lature, as an act of Parliament, an act of Congress. The proposed law is called a. bill until it has passed through the first, second, and third readings, and has been approved by both houses of Parliament (or Congress) and signed by the executive. Act, in the English universities, is an exercise per- formed by students before they receive a degree. The stu- dent who is said "to keep the act," and is called the re- spondent, chooses certain propositions, which he defends by syllogisms. Several other students, called "opponents," who are nominated by the proctor, try to refute his argu- ments. Act of Settlement, in Great Britain, is the title of the statute 12 and 13 of William III., c. 2, by which the crown was limited to the House of Hanover, and all Roman Catholics were excluded from the throne. Ac'ta Diur'na (" Daily Acts "), the name of an official gazette or journal published by authority in ancient Rome. It contained brief notices of the transactions of public as- semblies, legal tribunals, etc. Julius CsBsar was the first to order that the Acta Diurna should be drawn up in regular form and published. Ac'ta Erudito'rnm ("Acts of the Learned") was a literary journal founded at Leipsic in Germany in 1682 by Otto iMcncko and others. It had a high reputation, and was continued until 1782. t " Sakoontall " (a drama by ICaiidisa), perhaps the most ex- quisite production of the poetic genius of the Hindoos, was di- vided into seven acta- 34 ACTA MABTYKUM— ACTION. Actinia. Ac'ta Mar'tyrum ("Acts of the Martyrs"), a collec- tion of the lives of Christian martyrs. The most noted is that of Ruinart, Paris, 1689, commemorating the martyrs of the first four centuries. Ac'ta Sancto'rum ("Acts of the Saints "), a collection of the lives of Christian saints of all ages. The most ex- tensive collection is that of the Jesuit Bollandists, which be- gins with January and follows the calendar. The fi rst volume appeared in 1643 ; the fifty-fourth, which comes down to Oct. 14, in 1793 ; the fifty-fifth in 1845 ; the sixtieth, which comes down to Oct. 29, in 1867; the sixty-first in 1875. Actse'on ['AKTaiwi'], in Greek mythology, a grandson of Cadmus, was a famous hunter. It is said that he was changed into a stag and killed by his own hounds because he had seen Diana bathing. Ac'tian Games, games celebrated at Actium, in Greece, in honor of Apollo. They were restored by Au- gustus to commemorate his victory over Antony at Actium (31 B. C). Actin'ia [from the Gr. okti's or a/crtV, a "ray"], a genus or sub-order of radiated marine animals, of the class Zoophyta, and order Acti- noida, often call- ed sea-anemones. They are gene- rally attached to rocks or shells, are of a soft, ge- latinous texture, and have nume- rous tentacula, by which they seize their prey. Some species of Actinia are very f^ beautiful, and resemble flowers. Among the most remark- able genera of the order Actinoida is the Bunodes (which see). Ac'tinism [from the Gr. AktCv or cIktis, a *'ray"]. The effects produced by the rays of the sun are of three kinds, illumination, warming, and chemical change. The first two of these are obvious enough, and are always perceived wherever the solar rays penetrate. The chemical changes produced by light occur only under certain conditions, and are not obvious to common observation. Certain salts have very long been known to undergo decomposition in the sun- light, or even in the diffuse light of day j and among these the salts of silver are especially remarkable. To this prop- erty, the so-called indelible inks, of which silver nitrate is the basis, owe the permanency of the traces left by them. The chloride, bromide, and iodide of silver are more sensi- tive still. When a beam of compound light is dispersed by the prism, the most energetic action upon silver salts is found in the violet rays of the spectrum ; but this effect, as shown by Stokes, extends very far .into the darkness beyond the violet. Stokes made the additional remarkable discovery that these non-luminous chemical rays become luminous when certain substances are presented to them. Such sub- stances among others are solution of quinine sulphate, in- fusion of hopse-chestnut bark, glass tinted yellow by oxide of uranium, and fluor spar. This phenomenon was named by its discoverer, yZKO>*esfie?ice. (See Fluorescence.) The heating effects of the spectrum, on the contrary, are found to be more remarkable in the red than anywhere else among the luminous rays; while the maximum heating effect is entirely outside the spectrum and in the dark. This discovery, made long ago by Sir William Herschel, is a counterpart to the more recent one of Stokes just men- tioned J and both taken together show that the sunlight, as dispersed by the prism, spreads through a wide space, in which the rays exciting vision occupy only the middle part. The luminous, heating, and chemical effects of light being so broadly different, it was natural, in the earlier stages of this investigation, to ascribe them to agencies or forces essentially differing from each other in physical cha- racter. It was common, therefore, to say that the sunlight is made up of three independent species of rays, the color- ific, the calorific, and the chemical. Instead of the word chemical. Dr. Draper, of New York, proposed, in 1842, to substitute the term tithonic to distinguish the rays of the class last mentioned; this term being derived, by a fancied analogy, from the beautiful myth of Tithonus and Au- rora. Sir John Herschel, a little later, suggested the term actiniCf which ultimately prevailed. To the three kinds of rays above mentioned. Dr. Draper, in 1844, proposed to add a fourth, under the name phosphorogenic rays,; that is to say, rays which cause certain substances, which have been acted upon by them, to continue, for some time afterwards, to ^jhoBpkrtreece, or to give light in the dark. Dr. Draper believed it to have been established by his experiments, that these rays, though imparting to material bodies the light-producing power, are themselves totally distinct from light. The more recent labors of this eminent investigator have led him, however, to the conclusion — which is the doctrine now generally received — that, physically consid- ered, the sunlight is homogeneous, the variety of effects produced by it being consequences of the different degrees of rapidity with which the vibrations of the luminiferons ether are performed, and being especially dependent on the nature of the surface and of the substance upon which the rays are received. Tyndall has recently made some interesting additions to our knowledge of the actinic properties of light, in experi- ments upon the vapors of a variety of volatile compounds which when highly rarefied are instantly decomposed by it. In the course of these experiments he has incidentally demonstrated the cause of the blueness of the sky, or of distant mountains seen through a large hody of interven- ing air. This tint is owing to the presence in the air of ex- ceedingly minute particles of precipitated vapor. The actinic properties of light have formed the basis of an art having an almost endless variety of useful applica- tions. (For particulars in regard to this, see the article Photography, by Prof. Henry B. Cornwall, E. M.) F. A. P. Barnard. Actinom'eter [from the Gr. oktiV, a " ray," and fitTpov, a "measure"], an instrument for measuring the actinic or chemical rays of light. (See Actinism.) Several methods of doing this have been proposed; thus, a sensitive surface of chloride of silver is found to darken, when exposed to the light, in proportion to the intensity of the light and the duration of exposure ; and since this darkening is produced entirely by the actinic rays, the depth of tint produced by exposure for a few (say five) minutes will give an approxi- mate idea of the intensity of the actinism present. The difiiculty in this case is to prepare chloride of silver paper which shall always have the same degree of sensitiveness. Dr. Draper employed for the above purpose the reaction originally observed by Gay-Lussac and Th6nard, that chlo- rine and hydrogen, when mixed in equal volumes, do not combine in the dark, while they unite to form hydrochloric acid when exposed to the actinic rays of light. Draper dis- covered the important law that this action varies in direct proportion to the actinic intensity of the light and to the time of the exposure. Other actinometers have been pro- posed, based upon other chemical reactions; thus, a solu- tion of chloride of gold and oxalic acid will remain clear in the dark, but precipitates gold when exposed to actinic rays. Ac'tion [from the Lat. ago, actum, to "perform," to "move"], in law, means a proceeding before a court of justice by one person against another to obtain redress for the infringement of a right, in the manner prescribed by law. This definition would exclude such proceedings as mandamus and prohibition. The word is not properly ap- plied to courts of equity, but the corresponding proceeding is there termed a suit. Actions are distinguished into civil and criminal. A civil action is instituted for the enforce- ment of a private right or the redress of a similar wrong. In reference to the place in which they are to be brought, they are either local or transitory. Civil actions are either real, personal, or mixed. Criminal actions are prosecuted in the name of the state against some person charged with the commission of a crime. The distinction between real and personal actions refers to the point whether the recovery of land is sought, or damages by ^ay of compen- sation, or specific personal property. An action is local when by a rule of law it must be brought in a particular locality, such as a county. Actions not so localized are termed transitory. The number of actions under these rules is quit© con- siderable. The distinctions between them are sometimes subtle and perplexing. There is a marked tendency in this country to modify or to do away with them, and to estab- lish a single form of civil action, embracing proceedings both in law and in equity. The New York code of pro- cedure assumes to give a definition sufficiently comprehen- sive to include both an action at law and a suit in equity. It abolishes all the old forms of action, and recognizes but one action, termed a " civil action." The rule of this code has been extensively followed in the Western States, and has had much influence upon legal opinion in England. . . , T. ^Y. DWIGHT. Action, a series of events forming the subject of an epic; a^^' .*??. ^i^^^tures of ^ncas form the action of the T.!!*^ ,'. ^ i^'*' ^**^" ^^^"*^ '^^^^^ t^ree qualifications: it should be but one, should be entire, and should be great ACTIUM— ADAMS. 35 Action, in oratory, signifies gesture, or the adaptation of tiie countenance and gesture of tile speaker to liis subject and sentiments. This sermo corporis ("language of the body "), as Cicero calls it, is a very important part of ora- tory. Demosthenes said that action was the " beginning, the middle, and the end of the orator's office or art." Action, in painting and sculpture, is the state of the sub- ject as imagined in the artist's mind at the moment chosen for representation. Action, in mechanics, denotes the eflFort which a power or body exerts upon another body. It is an axiom in mechanics that action and reaction are always equal. Thus, if an anvil be struck with a hammer, the resistance of the former to the latter is exactly equal to the force with which the hammer acts upon the latter. Ac'tium [Gr. ■A«iio>'], (now called A'zio), a promon- tory and town of ancient Greece, in Acarnania, near the entrance of the Ambracian Gulf. Here occurred the great naval battle of Actium (31 B. C), between Octavius Caesar and Mark Antony ; the former gained a decisive victory. Ac'ton, a piece of defensive armor, formerly worn in the shape of a shirt with short sleeves. It was made of leather, to which pieces of iron were sewed. Acton (Lord .John Emerio Edward Dalbeeg), born in 1834, was elected to Parliament for Carlow in Ireland in 1859. He belonged to the liberal Catholic party, in whose interest he founded in 1861 the "Home and Foreign Re- view." In 1865 he was returned to Parliament, and in 1869 created a baron. Acts of the Apostles. See Apostles, Acts op. Ac'upnnctnre [Lat. aeupunetu'ra, from a'cua, a "needle," And pun' go, pnnc'tiim, to "prick"], or Acu'- punctura'tioil) a term applied to the surgical operation of puncturing a diseased part with needles. This method is extensively used in Japan and China for the cure of many diseases, and has been successfully applied in the treatment of rheumatism. Steel needles are made use of, about three inches long, and set in handles. The surgeon, by a rotary movement, passes one or more to the desired depth in the tissues, and leaves them there from a few minutes to an hour. Their insertion causes no pain ex- cept the first prick — a fact of which the quacks of the six- teenth century did not fail to take advantage. The relief to pain afforded by this simple operation is sometimes as- tonishing, and the wounds are so minute as to be harmless if skilfully made. Ada) a town of Hungary, in the county of Bacs, on the river Theiss, 30 miles S. of Saegedin. Pop. in 1880, 9693. Ada, on R. K., capital of Norman CO., Minn, (see map of Minnesota, ref. 4-A, for location of county). Pop. of tp. in 1885, 720. Ada« on B. B,., Hardin CO., 0. (see map of Ohio, ref. 3-D, for location of county), 57 miles W. of Crestline. It has a college, the North-western Ohio Normal School, and numerous manufactories. Pop. in 1880, 1760. Adagio, i-di'je-o [composed of ad, "at," and agio, "ease," "leisure"], an Italian musical term, signifies a slow movement or measure of time. Adair (John), an American general, born in South Caro- lina in 1759. lie commanded a' body of Kentuckians at the battle of New Orleans in 181 5, and was governor of Ken- tucky from 1820 to 1324. He was U. S. Senator (1805-06) and member of Congress (1831-33). Died May 19, 1840. Adal', a narrow tract of Eastern Africa, bordering on the Red Sea, and extending from Massowa to the Strait of Bab-el-Mandeb. It has two great salt plains, Asali in the N. part and Aussa in the S. The noted salt lake of Bahr Assal is 570 feet below sea level. Adal is inhabited by nomadic tribes of Donakila (or Danakil). Adalbert. See Appendix. Ada'lia, or Satalieh (anc. Attnlia), a seaport of Tur- key in Asia, in Anatolia, on the gulf of the same name, 175 miles S. B. of Smyrna, in lat. 36° 52' 2" N., Ion. 30° 45' E. It is built on the slope of a hill, has narrow, dirty streets, and a small but good harbor. Tropical fruits are exported hence. Pop. estimated at 1.3,000, of whom about 3000 are Greeks. Ad'am [Heb. DIK, i. e. "man"], the first man (see Gen. i., ii., and iii.), is supposed to have been created, according to the Hebrew chronology, 4004 B. C, and according to the Septuagint chronology 5411 B. C, though some writers contend that no chronology of the creation of man was in- tended to be given in Genesis. Adam (Adolphe Charles), a celebrated French com- poser, born July 24, 1803, published numerous popular operas and ballets, of which the most celebrated are "Le postilion de Longjumeau," which was played for the first time in 1836, and gained great applause ; " Le roi d'Yvetot " (1842), "Richard in Palestine'-' (1849), and "Lajolie fiUe de Gand " (1839). Died May 3, 1S56. Adam (Lambert Sigisbert), an eminent French sculp- tor, born at Nancy in 1700. Some of his works adorn tho garden of Versailles. He became professor in the Royal Academy at Paris in 1744. Died in 1759. — Nicholas Se- BASTIEN, a skilful sculptor, a brother of the preceding, was born at Nancy in 1705. Among his works is " Prometheus Bound." Died in 1778. Adam (Robert), the most celebrated British architect of the eighteenth century, was born in 1728, went to Italy in 1754, and from Italy to Dalmatia, where he visited the ruins of the palace of the emperor Diocletian, on which he published " The Ruins of the Palace of the Emperor Dio- cletian at Spalato" (1764). Among his most prominent works are the university building and St. George's church in Edinburgh, the buildings known as the Adelphi in Lon- don, besides many private residences. He died in 1792. Adam of Bremen (Adam Beemensis). See Appendix. Ad'amant (Lat. ad'amaa ; Gr. iSdjtM, " that cannot be subdued or broken," from a, negative, and Sa/iau, to " sub- due"], the ancient name of the diamond, is also a word used to denote a substance of extraordinary hardness and strength or durability. Ad'am ites, an heretical sect who are said to have sprung up in the second century, who rejected marriage and appeared in public naked. This name was also as- sumed by a sect of fanatics who arose in Bohemia in the fifteenth century and advocated a community of wives. They still exist in Bohemia, and are said to be guilty of great excesses, though outwardly discreet. Adams, on R. R., Berkshire co., Mass. (see map of Massachusetts, ref. 2-C, for location of pounty), contains Mount Greyloek, 3600 feet high, the highest point in Mas- sachusetts, In 1878 part of the township was set off as North Adams, which is the western terminus of the Hoosac tunnel. Pop. in 1880, 5591; in 1885, 8282. Adams, on R. R., Jefierson co., N. Y. (see map of New York, ref. 2-G, for location of county), 156 miles W. N. W. of Albany, is the seat of Hungerford Collegiate Institute ; it also contains a foundry, a malt-house, tanneries, a cab- inet-shop, a sash-and-blind factory, and carriage manufac- tories. Pop. in 1870, 1352 ; in 1880, 1250. Adams (Alvin), born 1804 in Vermont; went to Bos- ton, Mass., about 1837, and engaged in the produce busi- ness. A few years after, the first express-route in the United States was started by William Harnden, between New York and Boston. Soon after, Mr. Adams started an opposition route, and for three years did all his business alone. He entered into partnership with Ephraim Farns- worth, who was succeeded by William B. Farnsworth. Adams & Co. then rapidly extended their business over a large part of the United States. About 1850 the style of the firm was changed to " The Adams Express Com- pany " and additional capital invested. The California express was then started, and an immense business done there. Mr. Adams acquired great wealth, and died Sept. 2, 1877. Adams (Charles Baker), an American naturalist, born at Dorchester, Mass., Jan. 11, 1814. He graduated at Am- herst College in 1834, served as tutor there 1836-37, was professor of chemistry and natural history in Middlebury College 1838-47, when he became professor of zoology and astronomy in Amherst College, which post he held till his death, Jan. 19, 1853. He wrote reports upon the geological survey of Vermont, also " Contributions to Conchology." Adams (Charles Francis), LL.D., D.C.L.,an American diplomatist, the son of John Quincy Adams, was born in Boston Aug. 18, 1807. He graduated at Harvard in 1825, and was admitted to the bar in 1828. In 1848 he was nominated for Vice-President by the Freesoilers, who sup- ported Mr. Van Buren for the presidency. He published " Life and Works of John Adams." Having joined the Republican party, he was elected a member of Congress in 1858 and in 1860. In 1861 he was appointed minister to England, the duties of which position were, during the American civil war, very arduous and critical. He per- formed these duties with much ability and prudence, and returned in 1868. In 1871 he was appointed one of the arbitrators on the Alabama claims. Adams (Charles Francis, Jr.). See Appendix. Adams (Daniel), M.D., was born atTownsend, Mass., Sept. 29, 1773, and graduated at Dartmouth in 1797. He was prominent in New Hampshire politics, and was widely known as an educator, editor, and physician, and as the author of an excellent arithmetic and other school-books. Died at Keene, N. H., June 8, 1864. 36 ADAMS. Adams (Hannah), born at Medfield, Mass., in 1755, ■was one of the first women of America to engage in literary pursuits. She was a person of great excellence of character, and possessed real merit as a writer. She wrote a "View of all Religions " (1784), " History of New .England " (1799), "Evidences of the Christian Religion" (1804), "History of the Jews" (1812), "Letters on the Gospels," an "Autobi- ography," and other works. Died at Brookline, Mass., Nov. 15, 1831. She was the first person whose remains were buried at Mount Auburn. Adams (Henry A.), U. S. N., born in 1833 in Pennsyl- vania, graduated at the Naval Academy in 1851, became a passed midshipman in 1854, a master in 1855, a lieutenant in 1856, a lieutenant-commander in 1862, a commander in 1866. While attached to the sloop-of-war Levant in 1856 he took part in the engagement with the Barrier Forts at the mouth of the Canton River, China. He served on board the Brooklyn at the passage of Forts St. Philip and Jack- son and the capture of New Orleans in 1862, and partici- pated afterwards, while attached to the North Atlantic blockading squadron, in both attacks on Fort Fisher. Of his services at Fort Fisher, Admiral Porter, in his official despatch of Jan. 28, 1865, writes : " I recommend the pro- motion of Lieutenant-Commander H. A. Adams, without whose aid we should have been brought to a stand-still more than once. He volunteered for anything and every- thing." D. Feb. 1, 1878. Foxhall A. Paekee. Adams (Henry Brooks). See Appendix. Adams (Isaac), born in 1803 at Rochester, N. H., in- vented in 1828 the well-known Adams printing-press, which he further improved in 1834. D. 1883. Adams (Rev. Jaspeb), D.D., was born atMedway, Mass., in 1793, graduated at Brown University in 1815, was pro- fessor of mathematics there (1819-24), was president of Charleston College, S. C, in 1824 and again in 1827-36, of Geneva College in 1825-27. He was (1838-40) a professor of geography, ethics, etc. at West Point. Died Oct. 25, 1841. Adams (John), the second President of the United States, was born in Braintree, Mass., on the 19th of Oct., 1735, 0. S. He graduated at Harvard College in 1755, studied law, and was admitted to the bar in 1758. For this profession he was well fitted by a clear, sonorous voice, a ready fluency of speech, and a quick conception. In 1764 he married Abigail Smith, a woman of superior intelligence. His attention was drawn to political affairs by the passage of the Stamp Act in 1765, and he offered on that subject a series of resolutions which were very popular. He removed to Boston in 1768, became one of the most courageous and prominent advocates of the popular cause, and was chosen a member of the General Court (the legislature) in 1770. He was one of the delegates that represented Massachu- setts in the first Continental Congress, which met in Sept., 1774. In a letter written at this crisis he declared : "The die is now cast ; I have passed the Rubicon. Sink or swim, live or die, survive or perish with my country, is my unal- terable determination." He distinguished himself in Con- gress by his capacity for business and for debate, and ad- vocated the movement for independence when the majority of the members were inclined to temporize and to petition the king. In May, 1776, he moved and carried a resolution in Congress that the Colonies should assume the duty of self- government. In June a resolution that the United States "are and of right ought to be free and independent" was moved by Richard Henry Lee, seconded by Mr. Adams, and adopted by a small majority. Mr. Adams was a mem- ber of the committee of five appointed June 11 to prepare a decLaration of independence, in support of which he made an eloquent speech about July 2. He was the chairman of the board of war appointed in June, 1776, and was sent as commissioner to France in 1778, but returned in July, 1779. Having been appointed as minister to negotiate a treaty of peace and eorameroe with Great Britain, he went to Europe early in 1780. Conjointly with Franklin and Jay he nego- tiated a treaty, the preliminary articles of which were signed Nov. 30, 1782. He was employed as minister to the court of St. James from 1785 to 1788, and during that service wrote his " Defence of the American Constitutions " (1787). In 1789 he became Vice-President of the United States, and .about that time identified himself with the Fed- eral party, by which he was re-elected to the oflSco of Vice- President in 1792. In 1796, Mr. Adams was chosen President of the United States, receiving seventy-one electoral votes, while his com- petitor, Thomas Jefferson, received sixty-eight votes. He sympathized with the anti-Gallican party, and pursued the policy of neutrality between France and England. In- volved in a quarrel with the French Directory, which in- terfered with the maritime interests of the Americans, he sent Mr. Murray as minister to France early in 1799, in order to avert a war. This act gave much offence to the Federalists, and broke the unity of that party. Among the unpopular measures for which Mr. Adams was held respon- sible were the Alien law and the Sedition law. In 1800 he was the Federal candidate for the office of President, but he was not cordially supported by Gen. Hamilton, the favorite leader of his party. Receiving sixty-five electoral votes, he was defeated by Thomas Jefferson, who received seventy-three votes. Mr. Adams then retired from public life to his large estate at Quinoy, Mass., and gave his attention partly to agricul- ture. The general neglect and odium which he experienced were at last compensated by the election of his son John Quincy to the presidency of the United States. He died on tho 4th of July, 1826, on the same day with Thomas Jeffer- son. It is a curious coincidence that three Presidents of the United States (Monroe being the third) have died on that anniversary. J. Thosias. Adams (John), LL.D., eminent as a classical teacher, was born in Canterbury, Conn., Sept. 18, 1772, and gradu- ated at Yale College in 1795. After presiding over Plain- field Academy, and Bacon Academy in Colchester, Conn., he was made principal of Phillips Academy, Andover, Mass., May, 1810, resigned that position after great success in 1833, and died April 24, 1863. Prof. Thomas C. Upham and many other distinguished scholars and philanthropists were among his pupils at Andover. Adams (John Cocch), an English astronomer, born in Cornwall June 5, 1819, was educated at Cambridge. In 1841 he began to search for the causes of the irregularities in tho motion of Uranus. He ascertained that they were caused by the attraction of a planet then unknown, and thus par- takes with Leverrier the honor of the discovery of Neptune, for which he received the Copley medal in 1848. He be- came Lowndean professor of astronomy at Cambridge in 1858. Adams (John Quincy), the sixth President of the United States, was born in Braintree, Mass., on the 11th of July, 1767. He was eldest son of President John Adams and his wife, Abigail Smith, who was descended from the family of Quincy. In 1778 he was placed at a school in Paris, and in 1780 passed to the University of Leyden. He returned home in 1785, and finished his education at Harvard College, where he graduated in 1788, after which he studied law with Theophilus Parsons, and was admitted to the bar in 1791. Having gained distinction by some political essays, he was appointed minister to The Hague in 1794. In 1797 he married Louisa Catherine Johnson of Maryland, and in the same year was sent as minister to Berlin, from which he was recalled in 1801, when the Re- publicans obtained power. He was elected a Senator of the U. S. by the Federalists in 1803, but voted for Jefferson's embargo in 1807, and thus separated himself from the Federal party, and lost his seat in the Senate in 1808. Before this date he had distin- guished himself as a public speaker, and had been appointed professor of rhetoric at Harvard College (1805). In 1809 he was sent as minister to Russia. He was one of the com- missioners that negotiated the treaty of peace with Great Britain, signed Dec. 24, 1814, and he was appointed minis- ter to the court of St. James in 1815. In 1817 he became secretary of state in the cabinet of Monroe, in which posi- tion he remained eight years. In 1824 four candidates for the presidency were presented — John Q. Adams, Andrew Jackson, Henry Clay, and William H. Crawford — all of whom professed to be Democrats. Mr. Adams received eighty-four electoral votes, Jackson ninety-nine, Crawford forty-one, and Clay thirty-seven. As neither had the re- quisite majority, the election devolved on the House of Representatives, which chose Mr. Adams. This result was due to the influence of Henry Clay, and when Mr. Adams nominated him as secretary of state, the friends of Jack- son accused Adams and Clay of " bargain and corruption," but the charge is not generally credited. His administra- tion was opposed by a powerful party, formed by a coa- lition of the Jaoksonians with the friends of Crawford. This party had a majority of tho members of Congress, and, uniting on General Jackson as their candidate, tri- umphed in tho election of 1828, when Mr. Adams received only eighty-three electoral votes out of two hundred and sixty-one, which was the whole number. In 1830 he was chosen by the voters of his native dis- trict to represent them in Congress, in which he distin- guished himself by his applioation to business, his asser- tion of the right of petition, and his resolute opposition to what he considered to be tho encroachments of the slave- power. "With unwavering firmness," says W. H. Seward, " against a bitter and unscrupulous opposition, exasperated to the highest pitch by his pertinacity— amidst a perfect tempest of vituperation and abuse — he persevered in pre- senting these petitions [against slavery] one by one, to tho ADAMS— ADDA. 37 amoant sometimes of two hundred in a day." He con- tinued to represent the same district in Congress for seven- teen years, during which he maintained a position inde- pendent of party. He was seized with paralysis in the Capitol on the 21st of Feb., 1848, and died on the 23d of that month. In reli_gion he was a Unitarian. He left many writings in prose and verse, which have been pub- lished; also a voluminous diary of his public life. He had an only surviving son, Charles Francis Adams, noticed above. J. Thomas. Adams (John Quincy), a grandson of the preceding, and son of Charles Francis Adams, noticed above, was born at Boston, Mass., Sept. 22, 1833, graduated at Har- vard in 1853. He was the Democratic candidate for gov- ernor of Massachusetts in 1867 and 1868, but was both times defeated. He was also a candidate for the vice-pres- idency in 1872, on the ticket with Charles O'Conor. Adams (John R.), D. D., born in Plainfield, Conn., graduated at Yale College in 1821, was three years a teacher in Phillips Academy, Andover, Mass., was Presby- terian and Congregational minister in various towns of New Hampshire, New York, Massachusetts, and Maine; was chaplain during the civil war in the 5th Maine and 121st New York regiments. For his services he received public acknowledgments from the governor of Maine. Died April 26, 1866, at Northampton, Mass., aged sixty-four. Adams (Julius W.). See Appendix. Adams (Nehemiah), D. D., an American theologian, was born at Salem, Mass., Feb. 19, 1806, graduated at Harvard in 1826, and at Andover Theological Seminary in 1829. He first settled at Cambridge in 1829, and in 1834 became pastor of the Essex street church in Boston. He resigned his pastorate in 1870. He published several the- ological and other works, and a ** South-side View of Sla- very" (1854), which was severely condemned by the oppo- nents of slavery. He had a high reputation for scholar- ship and pulpit eloquence. D. Oct. 6, 1878. Adams (Samuel), a celebrated American patriot and orator, born in Boston Sept. 27, 1722, was a second cousin of President John Adams. He graduated at Harvard Col- lege in 1740, and became a merchant, but was not success- ful in that business, which he soon abandoned. In 1765 he was chosen to represent Boston in the General Court of Massachusetts, in which he distinguished himself by his courage, energy, and oratorical talents, and acquired great influence. Before the Revolution he was an unflinching advocate of the popular cause, and took such an active part in political meetings that he was one of the two lead- ing patriots who were excepted from a general pardon of- fered in 1775. He was a member of the first Continental Congress, which met in Sept., 1774, and he signed the De- claration of Independence in 1776. He remained in Con- gress about eight years, was afterwards elected to the senate of Massachusetts, and was a member of the State conven- tion which ratified the Federal Constitution in 1788. His political affinities connected him with the Republican (or JeflTersonian) party. He was elected governor of Mas- sachusetts in 1794, was re-elected twice, and retired to pri- vate life in 1797. Having survived his only son, he died Oct. 2, 1803. In religion he was a decided Calvinist. In the letters and other writings of John Adams occur several pas- sages which express a high opinion of the talents and merits of Samuel Adams, in whose productions he says may be found " specimens of a nervous simplicity of rea- soning and eloquence that have never been rivalled in America." (See W. V. Wells's "Life and Public Services of Samuel Adams," 3 vols. 8vo, 1865.) Adams (Seth), a brother of Isaac Adams, the inventor, was born at Rochester, N. H., April 13, 1807, and was for many years associated with his brother in the manufac- ture of the Adams printing-press. He was extensively engaged in sugar-refining in Boston, Mass., was a member of the city council and board of public works, and has given considerable sums of money to Bowdoin College. Adams (William), D.D., LL.D., a son of John Adams (principal of Phillips Academy, Andover), a distinguished Presbyterian divine, born in Colchester, Coim., Jan. 25, 1807, graduated at Yale College 1827, and at Andover The- ological Seminary 1830. He was ordained at Brighton, Mass., Feb., 1831, settled over the Central Presbyterian church in New York City, Nov., 1834, and over the newly- formed Madison Square Presbyterian church, Feb., 1853. An acknowledged leader in the New School branch of the Presbyterian Church, he took a prominent part in the re- union of the two branches in 1870. He has published many sermons, addresses, and articles in reviews, besides the following volumes: "The Three Gardens — Eden, Geth- semane, and Paradise, or Man's Ruin, Redemption, and Restoration," 1856; "Thanksgiving: Memories of the Day, and Helps to the Habit," 1867 ; " Conversations of Jesus Christ with Representative Men," 1868. In 1873 he was chosen president and professor of sacred rhetoric in the Union Theological Seminary, N. Y. D. Aug. 31, 1880. Adams (William T.), a popular American writer, known under the pseudonym of Oliver Optic, born in Medway, Mass., July 30, 1822, has published numerous works for children — viz. "The Riverdale Series" (1860), "Young America Abroad Series" (1866-69 and 1871-77), "Great Western Series" (1875-81), etc. ; edited "Student and Schoolmate" (1858-66), " Our Boys and Girls" (1867- 75), and is now (1886) editor of " Our Little Ones." Ad'amson (John), an English author, born in 1787. He wrote a " Memoir of Camoens" (1820) and "The His- tory, Antiquities, and Literature of Portugal" (2 vols., 1842-46). Died in 1855. Adamson (Patrick), born at Perth, Scotland, in 1543, was licensed as a preacher ; studied law, and went to France as tutor to a young gentleman; returned in 1573, took orders, and became minister of Paisley ; was made arch- bishop of St. Andrews in 1576 by his patron, the earl of Morton, regent of Scotland, He had many contests with the Presbyterians respecting episcopacy. Died Feb. 19, 1592. Adam's Peak, a mountain in Ceylon in lat. 0° 52' N., Ion. 80° 32' E., which has a height of about 7000 feet. It is considered by the Booddhists as the holy centre of the world. A temple is situated on the highest portion of the peak, under which the footprints of Booddha and Sripa- dam ({. e. "luck") are said to bo seen. Booddha is said to have left those traces upon his last visit to the earth. The Brahmans and Mohammedans also consider it a holy mountain — the former, because they consider Booddha as an avatar (incarnation) of Vishnoo ; the latter, because they ascribe the footprints to Adam, who is said to have here mourned for 1000 years his expulsion from Paradise, standing on one foot. Ad'amsthal , a village of Moravia, Austria, 9 miles N. of Briinn. In the neighborhood is the curious calcareous cavern Regciskala, which belongs to the large system of caverns which is found to the N. of Briinn. Adamsthal is growing considerably, and is much visited by tourists. Ada'na, a city of Asia Minor, on the river Sihoon, about 20 miles from the sea and 18 miles E. of Tarsus. It has some trade in grain, wine, cotton, etc. Here are interest- ing ancient remains. Pop. estimated at 25,000. Adanson (Michel), a celebrated French naturalist, born at Aix April 7, 1727, was educated at the college of Plessis. He went to Senegal in 1748 to explore the natural history of that region, in which he passed five years in his arduous and dangerous enterprise, and collected an im- mense number of animals and plants. He published, after his return, a "Natural History of Senegal" (1767), and "The Families of Plants" (1763), in which he opposed the artificial system of Linnseua. In 1759 he was elected a member of the Academy of Sciences. He expended the labor of several years on an encyclopaedia entitled " The Universal Order of Nature," which he left in manuscript, perhaps unfinished. A part of his mature life was passed in extreme poverty, but he afterwards received a pen. sion from the state. He was a man of noble but eccentric character, and was regarded as a naturalist of the first order by Cuvier, who composed a eulogy on him. Died Aug. 3, 1806. Adanso'nia, a genus of plants of the natural order Sterculiacese, was named in honor of the great naturalist, M. Adanson. The Adaneo'nia digita'- ta, or baobab, is found in tropical Africa, and is one of the largest trees in the world. It does not grow very high, but its trunk is often more than twenty feet in diameter. The fruit of the baobab is called monkey-bread. By a loose and vague over-estimate, some of these trees have been said to be 5000 years old. A'dar, the name of the sixth month in the civil year of the Jews, which included part of February and March. Ad'da (anc. Ad^dua), a river of Northern Italy, rises in the Valtellina, among the Rhsetian Alps, and enters Lake Como, which is an expansion of this river. After issuing from that lake it flows nearly southward through Lombardy, and empties itself into the Po 7 miles above Cremona. Length of river and lake, about 130 miles. Adansonia. 38 ADDAX— ADELUNG. Addax. Ad'dax, the O'ryx (or Ad'dax) naaomacula'tus *f the naturalists, is a large ante- lope found in Nubia, Kor- dofSLn, and other parts of Northern or North Cen- tral Africa. Its broad spreading hoofs enable the animal to obtain a firm foothold upon the dry and yielding sand. Its horns, which are from three to four feet long, are beauti- fully twisted into a spiral, having two turns and a half. Tho general color of the addax is a milk- white, but there is a black patch of hair on the fore- head, and it has a dark brown mane, with more or less of reddiah-brown mixed with gray on the head, shoulders, and part of the back. Addemeeree, or AddemlrS [ad-deh-meo'ree], some- times written Al-Damiri, surnamed ICemal-ed-Deen (or ed-D1n) [ke-mal'ed-deen'] ("Perfection of the Faith"), a. distinguished Arabian naturalist, was born in Egypt about 1350. He wrote also on biography and history. Among his works is "The Lives of Living Creatures." Died about 1405. Ad'der, a common name of the viper, or of any venom- ous serpent belonging to the family Viperidse. The name is popularly applied to several non-venomous snakes, Addington (Hexky). See Sidmouth. Addington (Isaac), born in Boston, Mass., Jan. 22, lfi45 ; member of House of Representatives and speaker in 1685 ; opposed the administration of Sir Edmund Andros, and on its overthrow in 1689 became clerk of the Council of Safety, to whom the people committed the government; secretary from his appointment in 1690 till his death j judge of the court of common pleas 1693-1702; chief- justice of the Superior Court 1702-03. He was many years chosen to the council, and was judge of probate court 1702-15. Died Mar. 19, 1715. Ad'discombe Ho.use, situated about a mile from Croydon, England, was formerly the residence of the earl of Liverpool, and was purchased in 1809 by the East India Company, and opened by them in 1S25 as a collegiate in- stitution for the education of cadets for the whole of their military service except the cavalry. It is now called the Royal India Military College. Addison, on R. R., Steuben co., N. Y. (see map of New York, ref. 6~E, for location of county), contains many im- portant manufacturing establishments. Pop. in 1880, 1596. Addison (Alexandee), born in 1759, was a noted lawyer of Pittsburg, Pa., and was judge of that circuit for twelve years ; published " Observations on Gallatin's Speech," " ]?enn. Reports," etc. Died Nov. 24, 1807. Ad'dison (Joseph), an English humorist, moralist, and author of great merit and celebrity, was born at Milston, near Amesbury, in Wiltshire, on the 1st of May, 1672. Ho was a son of Lancelot Addison. In 1687 he entered Queen's College, Oxford, from which he passed to Magdalen Col- lege in 1689. He became a good classical scholar, and as a writer of Latin verse probably excelled all his contem- poraries. At an early age he enjoyed the friendship and patronage of Dryden, Lord Somers, and Montagu (Lord Halifax), tho last of whom persuaded him to enlist as a Whig in the civil service of the state. Having in 1699 re- ceived a pension of £300, he visited France and Italy, and wrote a charming " Letter from Italy," in verse, addressed to Lord Halifax (1701). He lost his pension on the death of William III. (1702), and returned home in 1703. His next work was " The CampaigOj" a poem on the battle of Blenheim (1704), which was greatly admired, and was re- warded with the office of commissioner of appeals. He afterwards produced his interesting " Travels in Italy," and " Rosamond," an opera. He was appointed upder-secretary of state in 170B, and was elected to Parliament in 1708. His diffidence disqualified him for public speaking, but this defect was compensated by his success as a political writer. He became in 1709 secretary to Lord Wharton, lord lieu- tenant of Ireland, and contributed to the " Tatler," of which his friend Richard Steele was the editor. On the 1st of Mar., 1711, Addison and Steele began to issue daily " The Spectator," the most elegant and famous periodical and miscellany that ever appeared in England. Addison wrote the best of the essays, which form an epoch in literary history and have exerted a powerful and salutary moral influence. Among his literary merits are grace and propriety of diction, elegant taste, genial philosophy, and inimitable humor. " As an observer of life, of manners, of all the shades of human character," says Macaulay, " he stands in the first class." "The Spectator" ceased to appear daily in Dec., 1712, but was revived as a tri-weekly paper in 1714. Among his other works are the tragedy of " Cato " (1713), which was received with great applause, an ingenious " Dialogue on Medals," and a series of able political papers called " The Freeholder" (1715). In 1716 he married the proud and uncongenial countess-dowager of Warwick, and early in 1717 was appointed secretary of state. He resigned this office in 1718, and died June 17, 1719, leaving only one child, a daughter. His marriage appears not to have been happy. Addison was greatly distinguished for his wit and colloquial powers. Lady Mary Montagu, who had con- versed with the most eminent wits, pronounced him " the best company in the world." " His humanity," says Ma- caulay, " is without a parallel in literary history. The highest proof of human virtue is to possess boundless power without abusing it. No kind of power is more formidable than the power of making men ridiculous; and that power Addison possessed in boundless measure. But it would be difficult, if not impossible, to find, in all tho volumes which he has left us, a single taunt which can be called ungenerous or unkind." "Whoever wishes," says Dr. Johnson, "to attain an English style, familiar but not coarse, and elegant but not ostentatious, must give his days and nights to the volumes of Addison. . . . He not only made the proper use of wit himself, but taught it to others. He has restored virtue to its dignity, and taught innocence not to be ashamed. This is an elevation of literary character ' above all Greek, above all Roman fame.'" (See Johnson's "Lives of the Poets;" Macaulay, "Critical and Historical Essays;" Aiken, " The Life of Addison," 1843.) J. Thomas. Addison (Lancelot), D. D., father of Joseph, was born in AVestmoreland, England, in 1632; educated at Queen's College, Oxford ; was seven years chaplain at Tangiers ; became a royal chaplain about 1670, dean of Lichfield 1683, and archdeacon of Coventrj' in 1684. Died 1703. Addison's Disease [named from its discoverer, the late Dr. Addison of Guy's Hospital, London], or Supra- renal JMelasma, a rather rare disease, the most obvious symptom of which is a gray-black or bronze color of the skin, gradually coming on. The chief lesion discovered after death is a cheesy degeneration of the supra-renal cap- sules, the result of a peculiar chronic inflammation. Pa- tients usually suffer from extreme debility, depression of spirits, pain in the epigastrium and back, often accompanied by dyspepsia, vomiting, diarrhoea, and grave nervous symp- toms. No remedy is known, and the disease, though care- ful nursing is extremely useful, is probably never cured. A'del, on E. R., capital of Dallas Co., la. (see map of Iowa, ref. 5-F, for location of county), lias a fine water- privilege. P. in 1880, 989; in 1885, 1105. A'delaer (Cokt Sivektsen). See Appendix. Ad'elaide, a city, the capital of South Australia, is situated on both sides of the river Torrens, 8 miles from its entrance into the Gulf of St. Vincent. It was founded in 1836, is the seat of an Anglican and a Roman Catholic bishop, and contains a government-house, an assay-office, a theatre, and extensive manufactures. Pop. in 1881, 38,479 (exclusive of suburbs). Port Adelaide, about 6 miles N. N. W. of the city, is the centre of the commerce of the colony. It has a heavy trade in copper, grain, and wool. Adelaide is connected by railways with Dry Creek, Victor Harbor, Gawlertown, Kapunda, and Kooringa. Adel'phia [i. e. " brotherhood ;" from the Gr. iSfA(()d5, a "brother"], a collection of the stamens of a flower into a bundle. Linnaeus em- ployed this term for those plants in which the stamens, instead of growing singly, combine into one or more parcels or brotherhoods ; thus, Monadelphia signified stamens all connected into one parcel; Di- adelphia, into two parcels, and so on. A'delsberg, a market-town of Carniola, Adelphia. Austria. A short distance from the town is the Adelsberg Grotto, which is one of the most peculiar caverns of the world. It consists of five diflerent parts, and is full of beautiful formations, which are partly suspended from the ceiling (stalactites), in part hang down upon the wall like draperies (incrustations), and part arise from the ground in the form of obelisks or columns (stalagmites). Pop. of Adelsburg in 1880, 3513. A'delung (Friedhich), a German philologist, born at Stettin Feb. 25, 1768, became a resident of St. Petersburg, and preceptor to the grand duke, who was afterwards tho emperor Nicholas. He wrote on the Sanscrit language and literature. Died Jan. 30, 1843. ADELUNG— ADJUTANT-GENERAL. 39 Adelung (Johann Christoph), an eminent philologist, an uncle of the preoeding, born in Pomerania Aug. 8, 1732. His reputation is founded chiefly on his "Attempt at a Complete Grammatioo-Critical Dictionary of the German Language" ("Versuoh einea voUstandigen grammatisch- kritischen Worterbuohes der Hochdeutschen Mundart," 1774-86). Among his* other worlsa is one on lan- guage, entitled " Mlthridates oder allgemeine Sprachen- Kunde," one of the most important of the early works on comparative philology. Died at Dresden Sept. 10, 1806. A'den, a seaport of Arabia, in Yemen, is on the Gulf of Aden, at Cape Aden, in lat. 12° 46' 15" N., Ion. 45° 10' E. It was a magnificent emporium in the Middle Ages, and, being favorably situated near the entrance of the Red Sea, was the chief mart of the products of Asia. From these advantages, and its climate, rendered cool and de- lightful by the sea-breeze (although the rugged volcanic hills with which it is surrounded, without a particle of vegetation, make it anything but attractive in appear- ance), it was named, after the Oriental manner, Aden (i. e. "Eden"). The British obtained possession of it in 1839, since which time the population and trade of the place have rapidly increased. It has a good harbor, a dry and healthy climate, and one of the most important and ad- vantageous positions on the route from Europe to India, whether by the railway from Alexandria to Suez, or by the Suez Canal and the Red Sea. Aden resembles Gib- raltar in its position on a rocky promontory and in its military importance ; it has been strongly fortified by the British, itnd is valuable as a coaling and supply depot be- tween Europe and India. It has considerable trade. The total area is 70 square miles. The population was in 1881, including troops and followers, 35,165. Adeiij Cape^ a rocky promontory at the S. extremity of Arabia, adjoining the town of Aden, rises to the height of 1776 feet. It is joined to the mainland by a low sandy isthmus less than a mile wide. Aden; Gulf of, that part of the sea lying between Arabia and Adel, and extending from the Strait of Bab-el- Mandeb to the Indian Ocean or Arabian Sea. On some maps this is marked as the Arabian Gulf. Length, about 500 miles. Adept' [Lat. adeptuB, from ad, "for," and apius, " fitted "], a term applied to a person who is skilful or well versed in any art or science; formerly applied especially to an alchemist who was supposed to have discovered the secret of turning base metal into gold, or to have found the philosopher's stone. A'dernd, a town of Sicily, at the foot of Mount Etna, 17 miles N. W. of Catania. Pop. in 1881, 20,163. A'dersbach Rocks, a remarkable group of high and detached sandstone rocks, near the village of Adersbach, in the ^. E. part of Bohemia. They present fantastic forms, and occupy an area of several miles in extent. One of the pinnacles is over 200 feet high. Adet (Pierre Augusts), a French chemist and poli- tician, born at Nevers in 1763. He was sent by the French Directory as ambassador to the United States in 1795, but he suspended his functions in 1797, for the alleged reason that the American government had violated its neutrality. Died in 1832. Adhe'sion [Lat. adhe'aio, from ad, "to," and Aa'reo, Jue'aum, to " stick "], the attractive force which canses the smooth surfaces of two substances to adhere together, or which causes a fluid and solid to unite. The amount of adhesion between solid surfaces is measured best by the adhesion balance of J. J. von Prechtl. Capillary attrac- tion is an instance and particular manifestation of adhe- sion. Adhesion, a term used in botany to denote the union of contiguous parts, as when the petals adhere and form a monopetalous corolla ; the ealyx often adheres to the ovary, and then seems aa if it grew from the apex of it. This tendency causes great diversity of appearance in the organs of plants. Adiaph'orites [from the Gr. iSia^opot, "indifferent"], a name given to Melanchthon, and those who agreed with him in submitting, in things indifferent, to an imperial edict. When Charles V. in 1548 issued an edict called the Interim, relating to disputed religious doctrines, the Protestants be- tame involved in a controversy in which this name origi- nated. Ad'ige [Lat. Atli'eafa], a river in Italy, rises among the Alps in the Tyrol, where it is called the Etsch. Flowing southward, it passes by Trent, and enters Lombardy. After passing by Verona, it flows nearly south-eastward, and falls into the Gulf of Venice about 13 miles N. E. of Adria. It is a rapid stream, about 220 miles long. It is navigable from its mouth to Trent, but the velocity of the current impedes navigation. Ad'ipocere [Lat. adipoce'ra, from ad'eps (gen. ad'ipia), "fat," and ce'ra, "wax"], a substance which results from the decomposition of animal bodies, and resembles sperma- ceti, or a mixture of wax and fat. Human bodies buried in wet ground are often reduced to this condition. Ad'ipose [Lat. adipo'aua, from ad'epa (gen. ad'ipia\ "fat''], of the nature of fat, fatty. Adipose tissue ia an animal membrane which contains the fatty matter. It presents an aggregation of very small spherical pouches or vesicles filled with fat or oil. This tissue is organized and vital, but the fat is not. Adiron'dac Mountains, a group of mountaina, the highest in the State of New York, occupy parts of the counties of Hamilton, Essex, Franklin, and Clinton, and are in the N. E. part of the State. This range contains the highest summits in the State. Mount Marcy or Taha- was, whose height is 5370 feet, is the most elevated, and is situated in Essex county; Dix Peak, 5200 feet; Mount Mclntyre, 5183 feet; Sandanoni and Mount McMartin, each about 5000 feet; Dial Mountain, about 4900 feet. The Adirondac range also forms the watershed between the tributaries of the St. Lawrence and those of the Hud- son and Mohawk. These mountains being of primitive formation, are remarkable for grand and picturesque sce- nery. They are covered with forests of maple, ash, beech, pine, hemlock, cedar, and other trees, and abound in game. A number of lakes occur among the Adirondacs, which are also drained by the Saranac and Ausable rivers. The Ad- irondacs are a favorite resort for summer recreation. The waters abound in trout, and deer and other game ia to be found in the forests. Iron ore and lumber are obtained here. Ad'it [Lat. ad'itua, from ad, " to," and e'o, i'tnm, to "go"], a horizontal passage and entrance into a mine, de- signed partly to drain water from it. Adits occur chiefly in mountainous regions, and are sometimes several miles long. Adja'cent Angle, an angle contiguous to another, so that one side is common to both angles. Ad'jective [Lat. adjectivum, from ad, "to,'' and jacio, jacium, to "cast," to "put"], in grammar, the name of a class of words which are joined to nouns, in order to qual- ify the general ideas expressed by the nouns. A^jonrn'ment, a term applied to the postponement of the proceedings of the U. S. Congress, or of either house of the British Parliament, from one time to another speci- fied time. It diff'ers from prorogation, which is an act of royal authority, whereas the power of adjournment is vested in each house respectively. Ad'jutant [Lat. adju^tana, fvova adju' to, to "assist"], the title of a military officer who assists the superior officer of an army, regiment, etc. He carries orders from the chief- to the subordinate ofBoers, and collects the reports which are made by the latter to the former. He inspects escorts and guards, keeps the journal or account-book of the regiment or division, and acts as secretary to his chief. In the U. S. a regimental adjutant ranks as first lieutenant. Ad'jutant [Gieo'nia ar'gala), an East Indian bird, al- lied to the stork, is called argala by the natives. It is about five feet high, has long legs and an enormous bill, and can swallow a cat or a small leg of mutton with the greatest facility. It is very useful as a scavenger, clean- sing the streets and public squares of various offal and dead animals. The famous marabou feathers are obtained from the adjutant and a kindred species, the marabou (marabout) of Africa. Adjutant- General, the principal organ of the com- mander of an army in publishing orders. The same organ of the commander of a division, brigade, geographical di- vision, or department is styled assistant adjutant-general. The lawa of the U. S., however, provide for bdt one adju- tant-general, with the rank of brigadier-general, made by regulations chief of a bureau of the war department, and charged, under the general, with details affecting army dis- cipline, with the recruiting service, records, returns, etc., two assistant adjutants-general, with the rank of colonel ; four with the rank of lieutenant-colonel ; and ten with the rank of major. The bureau duties of adjutants-general and assistants are — publishing orders in writing ; making up written instructions, and transmitting them ; recep- tion of reports and returns ; disposing of them ; forming tables showing the state and position of corps ; regulating details of service ; corresponding with the administrative departments relative to the wants of troops ; corresponding with the corps, detachments, or individual officers serving under the orders of the same commander ; and the method- 40 ADLER-ADMIRALTY. ioal arrangement and care of the records and papers of his office. The active duties of adjutants-general consist m establishing camps; visiting guards and outposts; ™"s'<=^- ineand inspecting troops ; inspecting guards and detaoti- mlnts; forming parades and lines of battle; the conduct and control of deserters and prisoners ; making reconnais- sances; and in general discharging such other active duties as may be assigned them. Adjutant-Genebal of a State. See Militia. Adler (Felix), bom at Alzey, Germany, August 13, 1851 ; son of Samuel Adler, rabbi emeritus of the Temple Emanuel, New York ; graduated from Columbia College, and subsequently studied at Berlin and at the University of Heidelberg, where he obtained the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. Keturning to the United States, he was elected to the professorship of Hebrevf and Oriental litera- ture at the Cornell University in the spring of 1874. On May 15, 1876, he inaugurated the Society for Ethical Cul- ture, a religious movement the principal tenets of which he briefly describes as follows : " There is a principle of unity in nature, all the laws of which a,vc adumbrations of an underlying unity. The same principle of unity is obli- gatory in the sphere of action, and imposes its imperative mandate on the will." The society has founded a system of district nursing among the poor, a free Kindergarten, a workingman's school, where technical and art education are made integral parts of the course of instruction, and a family home for neglected children. H9 published in 1877 a series of discourses, " Creed and Deed," in addition to which he lectures weekly in Chickering Hall during the winter. The society has its centre in l^ew York, and has a branch at Chicago. Louis Bekg. Ad'ler (Georg J.), Ph. D., a Germap philologist, born at Leipsic in 1821, came to the U. S. in 183.S. He was for some time professor of German in the University of New York. He wrote several German-and-Latin sol^ool manu- als and an excellent German-and-English dictionary. D. in New York Aug. 24, 1868. Ad'lercreutz (Carl Johan), Count, a Swedish gen- eral, born April 27, 1757, served against Russia in 1788, and in the Finnish war of 1808. On Mar. 13, 1809, in con- sequence of several unpopular actions of the king, Gus- tavus IV., he arrested the king in tho name of the people, which act gained him great populi),rity. Died Aug. 21, 1815. Ad'ler Sal'vius (Johan), a celebrated Swedish ambas- sador and diplomatist, was born in Strengnas, Sweden, in 1590, and died at Stockholm in 1652. He was sent by Gus- tavus Adolphus on various missions of importance, and during the Thirty Years' war he enjoyed the fullest con- fidence of that monarch. After the conclusion of peace he was created a councillor and baron. Ad'lersparre (George), Count, a Swedish officer and statesman, born Mar. 28, 1760, took part in the wars of 1788 and 1808 against Russia, and in the deposition of Gustavus IV. He received many indications of favor from the new king, but was dissatisfied with the result of the revolution, because he had not gained as much influence as he desired. He published from 1830-33 a number of secret documents, as well as his correspondence with Charles XIII. and others, in consequence of which he was sentenced to pay a fine. He nevertheless continued to publish these documents. Died Sept. 2S, 1835. Adme'tus [Gr. 'A«(i>jto!], son of Pheres, who was the mythical founder and first king of Pheras in Thessaly. He was one of the Argonauts, and took a part in the Caly- donian Hunt. He won the hand of Aloestis by coming to the suit in a chariot drawn by boars and lions, that being a condition imposed by the bride's father, Pelias. The god Apollo procured from the Fates a grant that Admetus might be exempt from death if his father, mother, or wife should die for him. The touching story of Alcestis and her devo- tion, death, and restoration to life is the subject of one of the most celebrated tragedies of Euripides. Administra'tion [from the Lat. ad, "for," andtntn- istro, minietratum, to " be a servant "]. This word literally signifies " management " or the conduct of business. It is often used to indicate the action of the executive depart- ment of government, as distinguished from the legislative and judicial. It sometimes is employed with reference to trust funds, but its technical meaning is the management or disposition, according to law, of the personal estate of an intestate or of a testator having no executor. The common-law distinction between heirs on the one hand and executors and administrators on the other, should be noted. When an owner of real estate died, his estate devolved upon his heirs, who were persons related to him by blood ; when an owner of personal property died, leaving a testament or will, that branch of his estate devolved upon his executors, if such were named; if there were none, then upon admin- istrators appointed by a court of justice. Administration in this sense was in England under the control of the ec- clesiastical courts until 1857, when it devolved upon a newly-created court of probate. In the U. S. it is gene- rally vested in special tribunals termed probate, or orphans , or surrogates' courts. By such a court administration 13 conferred on the person or persons entitled to it by the local rules of law. It is in general committed first to the widow or husband, then to the children, and then to the other next of kin, in a prescribed order. The court has power of selection among the next of kin in equal degree. These provisions are substantially copied from early Eng- lish statutes. The person thus entrusted with the admin- istration is called an administrator. The court grants him "letters of administration" as evidence of his authority. He represents the deceased. He must make an inventory of the personal estate, collect the assets, and convert the property into cash, pay the debts, render an account, and distribute the balance in his hands among the persons en- titled to it. He is a trustee, and under the control of a court of equity as well as of the probate court. When the deceased leaves a will, but there is no executor, the person to whom administration is granted is termed an administrator "with the will annexed" (cam testamento annexo). In this case the will is to guide the administra- tor in his duties. Should an administrator die before his duties are fulfilled, another is appointed to perform the res- idue of his functions, called " administrator de boms non." While an administrator exercises full control over the personal estate of the deceased, his authority is confined to it unless it is insufficient to pay debts; in which case the probate court generally has by statute the right to di- rect him to sell enough of the real estate to satisfy them. Letters of administration confer no power to bring ac- tions in foreign states. Where there are assets in another state or country, a subordinate or ancillary administrator is appointed, who acts under the direction of the foreign court, and remits according to its order any funds which he may receive to the principal administrator. T. W. Dwight. Administrator. See Administration. , Ad'miral [Fr. amiraV\, the title of a naval officer of the highest rank, derived from the Arabic amir or emir, " com- mander." The English word was formerly amiral, as in Milton's " Paradise Lost." Vice-admiral is the title of the officer next in rank to the admiral ; and a rear-admiral is the third in the scale. The grades of rear-admiral and. commodore in the U. S. navy were first established by act of July 16, 1862, which pro- vided that the number of each. grade shall not exceed 9 rear- admirals, 18 commodores, 36 captains, 72 commanders, 144 lieutenant-commanders, 144 lieutenants, 144 masters, and 144 ensigns. Squadrons would be commanded by rear-ad- mirals, and the individual vessels thus : First rates by commo- dores; second rates by captains; third rates by commanders; fourth rates by lieutenant-commanders. By act of Congress of Dec. 21, 1864, the President was authorized to appoint from the rear-admirals one vice-admiral, who shall De the ranking officer in the navy of the U. S., and whose relative rank with officers of the army shall be that of lieutenant-gen- eral in the army. This grade was created for and bestowed upon Rear -Admiral Farragut. By act of July 25, 1866, it was provided that the number of officers of each grade on the active list should be 1 admiral, 1 vice-admiral, 10 rear-ad- mirals, 25 commodores, 50 captains, 90 commanders, 180 lieutenant-commanders, 180 lieutenants, 160 masters, 160 ensigns, and in other grades the number now allowed by law. The rank of admiral thus created was bestowed upon Vice- Admiral David Farragut, succeeded by David D. Porter. A law was passed abolishing grades of admiral and vice- admiral when said grades became vacant. Congress, 1882, provided for a reduction of active list to 6 rear-admirals, 10 commodores, 45 captains, 85 commanders, 74 lieut.-eom- manders, 250 lieuts., 75 masters, 75 ensigns ; medical corps, 170; pay corps, 96; engineercorps, 170. Ad'miralty [from the word admiral], the tribunal which has cognizance of maritime causes. This court was established in England about the time of Edward III., and was at first held before the lord high admiral or his deputy. At present, admiralty jurisdiction is there exercised by the judge of the admiralty, who holds an instance or a prize court by means of separate commissions ; the former being the ordinary admiralty court, and the latter being a special tribunal instituted in time of war to take cognizance of matters pertaining to prizes. In the U. S. exclusive ad- miralty and maritime jurisdiction is by the Constitution delegated to the Federal courts. It was for a long time an unsettled question whether the word as there used had the limited sense employed in the early English statutes of 13 and 15 Rich. II., restricting ADMIRALTY— ADBIA. 41 admiralty jurisdiction, or whether it had a wider significa- tion. The latter view has finally prevailed, principally owing to the arguments of Mr. Justice Story; and the word embraces not only cases occurring on tide-waters, but on navigable streams above tide-water, including the great lakes. It rests with Congress to determine upon what court the jurisdiction shall be conferred. It has accordingly vested it in the first instance in the district court. No distinction is taken here between the instance and the prize court.. Admiralty jurisdiction is either civil or criminal. Its civil jurisdiction embraces cases of maritime contracts (such as affreightment, repairs of ships, bottomry bonds, pilotage, seamen's wages, and salvage), general average, collisions, and maritime trespasses in general. The prin- ciples and course of practice of the court in civil cases are in the main derived from the Roman or civil law. Admiralty, the office of lord high admiral of England ; also the department of the navy or the commissioners who control the navy. The chief minister of marine in Grreat Britain is styled first lord of the admiralty. Admiralty Islands, a cluster of islands in the Pacific, N. E. of Papua. The largest is nearly 60 miles long, and is in lat. 2° S., Ion. 147° B. Admis'sions [from the Lat. admitto, admissuv}, to "send to," to "suffer one to enter"], in the law of evi- dence, are acknowledgments or concessions by a person of the existence of certain facts. When they relate to the mat- ter in dispute, they are admissible in evidence against the party making them. They may be made either by a party to an action or by some one identified with him, as by a partner. The admissions-of an-agent will affect his prin- cipal. Those made by a predecessor in interest will affect his successor. Thus, the admissions of an ancestor will charge an heir. In form, an admission may be either di- rect or implied from conduct, or in some instances even from silence. The effect of an admission is usually only to raise a presumption against the party, which he may rebut ; but some admissions are regarded as of so high a character that the law will not allow them to be contradicted. (See Estoppel, by Prop. T. W. Dwight, LL.D.) Ado'be, the name of the sun-dried bricks of which houses are built in Mexico, Arizona, California, and Central America. The adobe brick is made of sandy loam, and the houses are usually only one story high. Adol'phus (or A'dolph) of Nassait was elected em- peror of Germany in 1292, as successor to Kudolph of Hapsburg. In 1298 the German princes transferred the imperial crown to Albert, but Adolphus refused to abdicate. A war ensued between these rivals, and Adolphus was killed in battle in July, 1298. Adol'phus Fred'erick, duke of Holstein-Gottorp and king of Sweden, was born May 14, 1710. He was elected bishop of Lubeck in 1727, crown-prince of Sweden July .3, 1743, and became king on April 5, 1751. The Swedish nobles continued their arrogance under him to the utmost, BO that at last he threatened to resign. In consequence of this the parliament revoked the restrictions of the royal prerogatives. Died Feb. 12, 1771. Adol'phus (John), an 'English historian and lawyer, born in 1768. He was noted for eloquence, and practised with great success in criminal causes. His defence of Thistle- wood, accused of treason, in 1820, was highly commended. His principal work is a " History of England from the Ac- cession of George III." (7 vols., 1802-45). Died July 16, 1845. Ad'onai [an ancient plural of Heb. Tl^X,"Lord," with suffix denoting a pronoun of the first person ; of. Fr. mon- aieur], a term applied in the Hebrew Scriptures to God. Owing to the veneration of the Hebrews for the most sacred name of the Deity, Jehovah (or Yahveh ) was not pronounced in reading the Scriptures ; but Adonai was read instead of it wherever it occurred. When the Hebrew text came to be vocalized, the proper pointing of Adonai, 'J'lK, was given to niri' (? Jehovah), so that the true pronunciation of the latter name has been lost. (See Jehovah.) Adon'ic Verse is composed of a dactyl and a spondee (or of a dactyl and a trochee). It is specially adapted to lively poetry, but is seldom used alone, being generally com- bined with other metres. The beautiful and well-known Latin hymn, however, commencing with " Flaudite cceli, Kideat aether," etc., affords an instance in which this metre runs through the whole piece. Ado'nis [Gr. 'kSavu'], a youth who was celebrated in ancient poetic legends as a model of youthful beauty and a favorite of Venus. Addicted to the pleasures of the chnse, he was killed by a wild boar. An annual festival in honor of Adonis, called Adonia, was celebrated in Asia Minor and other countries bordering on the Mediterranean. He was called Thammuz by the Hebrew writers. — Adonis was also the name of a river which rose in Mount Lebanon, and flowed through Phoenicia into the sea. Adonis, a genus of herbaceous plants, of the natural order Kanunculacese, natives of Europe. Several species of this genus are cultivated for the beauty of their flowers. Ad'onists, a name given to some biblical critics who maintain that. the Hebrew points usually annexed to the consonants of the word Jehovah are not the proper points belonging to that word. Adop'tian Con'troversy, The, originated in Spain near the end of the eighth century. Felix, bishop of Urgcl, and Elipandus, archbishop of Toledo, advanced the doctrine that Christ was by nature and generation the Son of God only as regards his divine nature, but as to his human nature he was merely the Son of God by adoption. Those who espoused these views were called Adoptionists (in LtU. Adoptiani). They have been called the Nestorians of t-he West. No particular notice was taken of them so long as they confined the propagation of their opinions to Moham- medan territory, but when they undertook to spread the new doctrine in the Frankish empire, Charlemagne promptly put a stop to it by convening two synods, one at Ratisbon (792), another at Frankfort (794), both of which condemned Adoptianism as heresy. Elipandus, who still adhered to his views, died in 799. Felix recanted at the Council of Aix-la-Chapelle in 799, and died in 816. Adop'tion [from the Lat. ad, " to," " for," and optio, a " choice "], in law, is the taking a child of other parents as one's own. The practice, which was common in ancient Rome, was recognized by the civil law, and is found in countries and states where that law and its modifications still prevail. In some other states the matter is regulated by statute. The parents, guardians, next of kin, or other legal representative of the child, must in general give con- sent after notification of the intent to adopt. Adopted children do not, in most countries, inherit property coming from collateral relatives of the adoptive parents. Adop- tion is usually authorized by a probate court or other es- tablished authority after due notice. The adoption of an adult person is known in the civil law as adrogation. Ador'no (Antonio) a doge of Genoa, was driven out and re-established three times in succession. By his per- suasion thcGenoese agreed to the treaty, signed Oct. 26, 1396, which rendered them subjects of Charles VI. of France. Adour, a river of South-western France, rises in the Pyrenees and enters the Bay of Biscay a few miles below Bayonne, which is on its bank. Length, about 200 miles. It is navigable to Dax. Adowah, or Adoa, the capital of the Abyssinian province of Tigre, is situated in a well-cultivated and popu- lous plain near the ruins of Axoom, the former capital of Abyssinia. It is the most important commercial town of Abyssinia. Pop. about 5000. A'dra (anc. Abde'ra), a seaport of Spain, in Andalusia, 46 miles S. E. of Granada. Here are extensive lead-mines. Pop. about 7400. Adrain' (Hon. Gaenett B.), b. in New York City Deo. 20, 1816; graduated at Rutgers College, N. J., in 1833; admitted to the bar in 1837. He was a prominent lawyer of New Brunswick, N. J., and a Representative in the 35th and 36th Congresses. D. Aug. 17, 1878. Adrain (Robert), LL.D., born at Carriokfergus, Ire- land, Sept. 30, 1775, served as an officer in the rebellion of 1798, was badly wounded, escaped to the U. S., was pro- fessor of mathematics in Rutgers College (181 0-13), Colum- bia College (1813-25), and the University of Pennsylvania (1827-34). Died at New Brunswick, N. J., Aug. 10, 1843. Adramy'ti (the ancient Adramyt'tiitm), a seaport of Asia Minor, on the Gulf of Adramyti, 83 m. N. of Smyrna, exports olives, wool, and gall-nuts. Pop. about 8000. Adraste'a [Gr. 'ASpairTcia, perhaps from a, negative, and 5i5paa-K(o, to " escape," because her punishments were certain], a Greek surname or epithet for the goddess Neme- sis, who administered retribution for iniquity.— Also, a nymph of Crete, to whom, with Ida and the Curetes, Rhea entrusted the infant Zeus in the Dict£ean grotto. Adras'tus [Gr. 'ASpao-ro!], a king of Argos and a eon- temporary of Theseus, was the father-in-law of Polynices. He commanded the famous expedition called the war of the " Seven against Thebes," to restore Polynices to the throne of Thebes. This enterprise, which was not success- ful, was a favorite theme of ancient epic and tragic poets. A'dria, or Ha'dria, an ancient town of Italy, situ- ated between the Po and the Adige, in the province of Rovigo, 13 miles E. of Rovigo. It was in ancient times a 42 ADBIAN— ADVERB. seaport on the Adriatic, but it is now 14 miles from that sea. Pop. in 1881, 15,806. A'drian, city and R. R. centre (see map of Michigan, ref. 8-J, for location of county), capital of Lenawee co., Mich., 30 miles W. of Toledo and 74 miles W. S. W. of Detroit, is intersected by the river Baisin, which furnishes water-power. The city has fine schools, the Central pub- lic-school building costing 8100,000. It has also a min- eral spring, a Masonic temple, costing §100,000, and an opera-house. Adrian College, a leading Methodist insti- tution, is finely located on the western boundary of the city. Adrian has a variety of manufactures, among the principal of which is that of R. R. and street cars. Pop. in 1870, 8438; in 1880, 7849; in 1884, 9319. Adrian, emperor of Rome. See Hadrian. A'drian [Lat. Adrianunl I,, a native of Rome, was elected pope in 772. His dominions were invaded by the king of the Longobards, against whom Adrian was de- fended by Charlemagne. Under this pontiff Rome enjoyed more than usual prosperity. Died in 795. Adrian II., born at Rome in 791, succeeded Nicholas I. as pope Dec. 14, 867. Died in 872. Adrian III. succeeded Marinus as pope in 884. Died May 9, 885. Adrian IV. (Nicholas Bueakspbar), the only Eng- lishman who ever attained the dignity of pope, was born near St. Albans. He became cardinal-bishop of Albano in 1146, and was chosen pope in 1154. He was a strenuous asserter of papal supremacy. Died in 1 159. Adrian V. became pope July 12,-1276. Died Aug. 18 in the same year. Adrian VI., a native of Utrecht, and a preceptor of the emperor Charles V., succeeded Leo X. in 1522. He favored reform, and was honest and virtuous. Died in 1523. A'drian de Castel'io, or Adriano di Castello, a native of Tuscany, was agent for English affairs at the court of Rome; afterward bishop of Hereford, and was translated to the bishopric of Bath and Wells. He was made cardinal by Pope Alexander VI. ; wrote Latin poems, etc. Died about 1520. Adria'ni (John Baptist, or Giovanni Battista), born at Florence, Italy, in 1513. He became in 1549 professor of eloquence in the University of Florence, and held that office till his death ; wrote " History of his own Times." Died in 1579. Adriani (Marcello Virgilio), father of John Bap- tist Adeiani, was born at Florence, Italy, in 1464, and be- came professor of belles-lettres ; in 1498 became chancellor of the republic. Died in 1521. A'drianists, disciples of Simon Magus, who flour- ished about A. D. 34. They were probably a branch of the Simonians and named from some prominent disciple. Adria'no (The Friab) was born in Cordova, Spain. He was an historical painter, a pupil of Cespedes, and painted a Magdalen which was pronounced equal to Titian in style. Died in 1630. Adriano'ple [anciently AdrianopoUt ; Turk. Ed- reueh], a large city of European Turkey, on the river Ma- ritza (the ancient Hebrus), 130 miles W. N. W. of Constan- tinople. The name is derived from the Roman emperor Hadrian, who founded a city here. It was the capital of the Ottoman empire from 1361 until 1453. Here is the famous mosque of the sultan Selim, which is said to be the finest Moslem temple extant, and has four lofty minarets. Among the other public structures are a palace, the bazaar of Ali Pasha, and an aqueduct by which the city is sup- plied with water. Here are extensive manufactures of silk, cotton, and woollen stuffs. Among the exports are opium, leather, wool, and attar of roses. Adrianople is the resi- dence of the governor-general of the vilayet Edreneh, and of a Greek bishop. Pop. in 1879, 62,000. Adrian's Wall was built to prevent the irruptions of the Scots and Picts into the northern counties of England, which were then under the government of Rome. This wall extended from the Tyne to Solway Firth ; it was 80 miles long, 12 feet high, and 8 feet thick, and was pro- vided with watch-towers. It was named after the emperor Adrian, its second founder, and repaired by Severus in 208. Adriat'ic Sea [Lat. ^fare Adriaticum], a portion of the Mediterranean, lying between Italy on the one hand and Illyria and Albania on the other. The name was de- rived from the town of Adria. It is about 500 miles long from N. W. to S. E., and has a mean width of about 100 miles. The N. W. part of it is called the Gulf of Venice, and at the S. B. end it is connected by the Strait of Otranto with the Ionian Sea. The N. E. coast is rocky and begirt with a great number of islands. The depth and extent" of the Adriatic have been greatly diminished by deposits of sand and mud and by the formation of alluvial tracts along the shore. The encroachment of the land is most remark- able on the W. and N. W. coasts of the Gulf of Venice. Adul'lam, a city of Judah, was the seat of a Canaan- ite king, and evidently a very ancient place. Its site has recently been identified by Ganneau with 'Aid-el-Ma (the Arabic equivalent of AduUam), about 8 miles N. E. of Eleutheropolis (modern Beit-Jibrin). The famous cave of King David is in a hill about 500 feet high. The sides of the valley are full of caves. Adul'tery [Lat. adulterium], criminal sexual inter- course between a married person and one of the opposite sex, whether married or single. This act has been pun- ished by the laws of some nations with great rigor — among the ancients often with death. In the English law the act is not treated as a temporal crime, hut left to the cogni- zance of the spiritual courts. A civil action for damages may by common law be brought by a husband against one who has committed adultery with his wife. This is called an action " for criminal conversation." It is also a ground of divorce — at first partial, but now, by statute, total. In some of the States of this country adultery has been made a crime, while in others the English law in its substance still prevails, and only the civil proceedings are allowed. Advancement [Old Fr.], in law, is a provision of money or other property, made by a parent for a child in advance or anticipation of the estate or distributive share to which such child would be entitled on the parent's death. An expenditure for the education and maintenance of a child is not regarded as an advancement. It must be made with a view to a portion or settlement in life. The parent's intent is the main subject of inquiry. In the English law of real estate it only applies in case of several female heirs, who take the interest called coparcenary. In the American law of descent the subject is of general ap- plication. The effect of an advancement is to reduce the child's share to that extent, estimating the value as of the time of the receipt. An advancement differs from a debt in that the latter can be recovered by action, while the former can only be deducted from a distributive share. It is at the option of the person advanced to bring in to the general distribution the amount received or not. In the English law the act of bringing it in is termed hotchpot. The doctrine strictly applies only to cases of intestacy. There is a cognate doctrine termed "ademption," appli- cable to the case of property left by will. In this country tjie subject is often governed by statute, sometimes estab- lishing distinct rules for real and personal estate. The word " advancement " is also used in the law of trusts to indicate that a purchase of land made in the name of a wife or child or other person as to whom the purchaser stands in the place of a parent shall actually belong to such person, and shall not, by the fiction of a resulting trust, revert beneficially to the purchaser. T. W. Dwight. Advancement of Science. The British Associa- tion for the Advancement of Science was founded in 1831 by Sir David Brewster, Sir John Herschel, and others. The American Association for the Advancement of Science was formed in 1 847. Ad'vent [Lat. adven'tm, from ad, "to," and ve'mn, ven'tum, to "come," referring to the coming of Christ], a term applied by the Church to the period of four weeks preceding Christmas. The Catholics, and some Protestants, observe Advent by abstaining from public amusements and nuptial festivities. The Greek Church lengthens the period to six weeks. Ad'ventists, a body of Christians found chiefly in the U. S., whoso distinctive characteristic is a belief in the speedy advent or second coming of the Lord Jesus Christ. In 1833, William Miller of Massachusetts was led by the study of the prophecies of the Bible to the belief that the second advent and the final judgment would occur in 1843. He had at one time about 50,000 followers; and notwithstand- ing the failure of this and other predictions fixing a def- inite date, there are, it is believed, about 70,000 members of the Adventist churches, who at present do not presume to foretell the period of the second advent, but live in ex- pectation of that event. They generally practice adult im- mersion, believe in the necessity of a change of heart and a godly life, in the ultimate annihilation of the wicked, and in the sleep of the dead until the final judgment.— There is a separate organization of Seventh-Day Advent- ists, which in 1880 had 144 ministers, 46 licentiates, 640 churches, and 15,570 members. Ad'verb [Lat. adverbium, from ad, "to," and verbum, a ' word"], one of the parts of speech in grammar. Adverbs are in all languages indeclinable (though sometimes subject to the change of form known as comparison), and are used ADVEESE POSSESSION— ^GIUM. 43 to express modifications of verbs, adjectives, or other ad- verbs, as to place, time, cause, manner, intensity, certainty, conditionality, quality, quantity, etc. The function of an adverb is often performed by sentences or parts of sen- tences. Most English adverbs are formed by adding the suffix ly to an adjective or its root, though many are not thus formed. Adverse Possession. See Disseizin. Ad'vocate [from the Lat. ad, "to," and voco, vocatum, to "call"], a word which in the ecclesiastical and civil law courts corresponds to counsellor or counsel in common law courts. The term by which the members of the bar in Scotland (following the civil law) is known is the Faculty of Advocates. In a popular sense, the word denotes a de- fender or protector generally, especially one who pleads for his client in open court. Advocate, Lord, is in Scotland the title of an im- portant public functionary, the public prosecutor of crimi- ^ nals and the senior counsel for the Crown in civil causes. ' He is sometimes styled king's (or queen's) advocate, and is the first law-ofl&cer of the Crown for Scotland. Advocate of the Church [Lat. advoeatva ecdeaiie], in the Middle Ages a canon or a layman, often a prince or baron, who assumed the protection of a bishop's see, a monastery, or a particular church. Sometimes the office was hereditary, when it appears to have implied the duty of. defending the Church's rights by force of arms. Oftener, perhaps, it was held by an advocatua cauaarum, a person appointed by a prince to defend the Church temporalities in secular courts of law. They often administered justice in the name of the Church. They collected tithes and other revenues, and were frequently priests who enjoyed lucrative benefices. The people suffered so severely from their op- pressions that Pope Urban III., in 1186, undertook to re- form the abuse ; but so great was the opposition of the Church and nobles that it was not for many years that the evil was modified. Advocates, Faculty of, is the title of the associated members of the legal profession in Scotland. This society was formed in 1532. Advocates' Library, the largest library of Scotland, belongs to the Faculty of Advocates, and is located in Ed- inburgh. It was founded in 1G82 by Sir George Macken- zie, and contains about 260,000 volumes. It ranks as the third library in the number of volumes in Great Britain. Advoca'tus Diab'oli {i. e, the "devil's advocate"), a phrase applied in the Koman Catholic Church to a person whose business is to magnify the faults or detract from the merit of those who are proposed to be canonized as saints. He is opposed by an advocatua Dei', or " God's advocate,'' An advocatua diaholi nearly prevented the canonization of Saint Charles Borromeo in 1610. Advow'son, in English law, the right of presentation to an ecclesiastical benefice or a ^^^acant living in the Church. The lord of a manor by building a church ac- quired the right of nominating the minister, and, as long as this right continues annexed to a manor it is called an advowson appendant. Most of the benefices of the Eng- lish Church are presentative advowsons, which are re- garded as property, and are bought and sold. Of nearly 12,000 church benefices, about one-half belong to the Crown, the bishops and other higher clergy, the universi- ties, etc. ; the remainder are in the gift of private persons. In most cases, however, the bishop has a right to reject the appointee if he chooses. Ad'ytum [Gr. aSvrov, "inaccessible"], \l;he innermost shrine of a temple or sacred building, accessible only to certain priests and others duly initiated. Of a similar character was the " holy of holies " in the Temple of Jeru- salem. The adytum, or cella, was the place where the deity worshipped was believed to be especially present. Some writers have called the innermost recesses of the human spirit the " adytum." iEchmarotarch [from the Gr. aixfid\o}T09 (from aixju-^, the "point of a spear," and iALo-Ko/iat, to " betaken "), " taken with the spear," and apxto, to "rule"], the title of the gov- ernor of the captive Jews residing in Chaldsea, Assyria, and the adjacent countries. He was called by the Jews them- selves 7-oBchgaluthf "chief of the captivity." ^'dile [Lat. esdi'Uaj from se'dea, a "temple" or "build- ing"]? a Roman magistrate who superintended the temples and other public buildings, the public games and spectacles, and performed various other duties. Two curule ajdiles were annually elected. There were also "plebeian aediles." Colonies and other towns had eediles. This office was one of dignity and honor, though reckoned as a minor magis- tracy. (See ScnnBERT, " De Romanorum ^dilibus," 1828.) Ag'don [Gr. 'Ajj5ti»'], in Greek mythology, a daughter of Pandareus of Ephesus. According to the Odyssey, she was the wife of Zethus, king of Thebes. Envious of Niobe, her brother Amphion's wife, she attempted to slay the eld- est son of the latter, but by mistake killed her own child, Itylus. Zeus changed her into a nightingale, whose sad notes are the expression of Aedon's woe. There are other and difierent traditions as to Aedon's crime and suffering, but in all she is transformed into the nightingale. jEge'an Sea [Lat. u^gse'nm Ma're; Gr. AtyaiorTreAavos, perhaps from alyCq, a "squall," though other etymologies have been given], or Grecian Archipelago, the name given by the ancients to that part of the Mediterranean between Asia Minor and Greece. Its length from N. to S. is about 400 miles, and its breadth about 200. Jt is very deep, and encloses numerous islands, several of which are of volcanic origin, while others are composed of white marble. Many of them rise to the height of 1600 feet. JSgid'ius Colon'na, an eminent schoolman, born at Rome in 1247 of an illustrious stock. He was the pupil of Aquinas and Bonaventura, and became an Augustinian hermit. In 1292 he became prior-general of his order. He went to France, where Philip the Bold made him tutor for his son, afterwards Philip the Fair. In 1296 he became archbishop of Bourges. For many years he taught with applause in the University of Paris, and was called Doctor Fundatiaaimua and princepa theologorum. Died Dec. 22, 1316. He left a great number of writings, most of which are now in MS. ^gi-'na [Gr. Alytva], Egina, or Engia, an island of Oreece, in the Gulf of iSgina {Saron'icua Si^nus), 16 miles S. S. W. of Athens. It is 8 miles long, and nearly the same in width. It is of an irregularly triangular shape. Area, 41 square miles. The western half is a fertile plain j the remainder is diversified by mountains, hills, and valleys, which produce almonds, wine, olive oil, etc. This island is celebrated for its architectural remains. (See ^ginetan Sculptures.) Pop. 6000. At the N.W. end of the island is the modern town of Egina. Mount St. Elias, the highest point of the island, is in lat. 37° 42' N., Ion. 23° 30' E. The island is difficult to approach. ^gina. Gulf of (the ancient Saron'icua Si'nua), is a portion of the iEgean Sea lying between Attica and the Morea. It contains the islands of ^gina and Salamis. ^giue'tan Sculptures. The small island of ^gina contains very interest- ing remains of ancient sculpture. On an emi- nence in the eastern part of the island stand the rliins of a temple, usually called the tem- ple of Jupiter Panhel- lenius, but now be- lieved to have been a temple of Athena. Among these ruins a series of statues, six- teen in number, were excavated by a. com- Sany of Germans, lanes, and English- men in 1811, and are now in the Glyptothek at Munich. The various figures that have been discovered seem true to nature, as in the old Greek style, with the structure of bones, muscles, and even veins, distinctly marked; but the faces have that unpleasant, forced smile characteristic of all sculpture before the time of Phidias. .fSgi'ra [Gr. Alyetpa], one of the, twelve cities of the an- cient Achaean confederation in Greece. It probably stood near the sea and on the river Crius, though its eite is not well known at present. It was famous chiefly for its tem- ples of Zeus, Apollo, Artemis, and Aphrodite Urania (the "heavenly Venus," a goddess who was especially worshipped here), as well as of other divinities. This town is called Hiiiiereaia by Homer. ^'gis. See Appendix. jEgis'thus [Gr. Alyto-flos], in classic mythology, a son of Thyestes, and an adopted son of Atreus. He seduced Cly- temnestra while Agamemnon was absent, and was her accom- plice in the murder of that king. He was killed by Orestes. i^'gium [Gr. klytov, now Voatitza], a city of ancient Greece, belonged to the Achaean League, and after 373 was the chief city in that confederation, of which it was long the capital. It had a good harbor. Remains of its ancient buildings are yet to be seen. The modern town is a place of some importance. It is surrounded by gardens. On Aug. 23, 1817, it was visited by an earthquake which destroyed two-thirds of the houses. Pop. in 1879, 5311. 1 1 ) il ^^^B £ Id 1 ff If 11 H \u^ ISfJ ^i*p i';; '-J *■ . .-=£-- --T-'J^^- ■»-■'■■•<- ^jj-J i^::'.m \^.Q'^^,wiMm^^m^ Sfc^'* '"«M ip !|w^ ^»w Ws^' Kums in ^gma 44 JEGLE MAEMELOS— iEEAEIANS. jE'gle* Mar'melos, the eoientifio name of a remark- able fruit tree growing in the central and southern parts of India, and belonging to the natural order Aurantiacese. It sometimes attains the size of a large apple tree, which in shape it may be said to resemble, being broad and spread- ing, rather than high. The fruit is always of a somewhat irregular form, and when mature varies in size from five to eight or nine inches in diameter. At the season when it is fully ripe there arc no leaves on the trees, which, with their naked branches supporting here and there a fruit of such .^gle Marmelos. magnitude, present a singular and striking appearance. It is popularly known in India as the b^l or bael (sometimes incorrectly written bhel) fruit. It has a hard but rather thin shell or rind, resembling in consistency the shell of a squash, and contains a soft, yellowish pulp of a peculiar flavor, esteemed delicious by many, and abounding in a bland, transparent mucilage (with which the seed-cavities in particular are filled), which, it is said, renders this fruit singularly beneficial in dysentery and other complaints at- tended with irritation of the bowels. The seeds are situ- ated in a small cavity which they do not nearly fill, the re- maining space being occupied by the transparent mucilage already described. The half-ripe fruit, dried, has recently been introduced into the British pharmacopoeia under the name of Beta; it is mildly astringent, and is said to be very efiicacious in cases of diarrhoea and dysentery. The ripe fruit is an excellent aperient, being very gentle and for the most part effectual in its operation. If the culture of this valuable fruit could be successfully introduced into the West India Islands and the southern parts of North America, it might richly repay the expense and labor in- curred in making the experiment. iSgospot'ami [Gr. Alyoi TroTajuoi], a small river and a town in the Thraoian Chersonese, where the Spartan Ly- sander defeated the Athenian fleet in 405 B. C. This victory ended the Peloponnesian war. A large aerolite fell near this place about 465 B. C. .lEgyp'tus [Grr. AiyuirTot], a SOU of Belus and a brother of Banaus, became king of Arabia, and conquered the country which derived from him the name of Egypt. Ac- cording to a legend, he had fifty sons, who were murdered (except one) by the daughters of Danaus. (See Danaides.) iS'lia Capitoli'na^ a name given to the colony which was planted by the emperor Hadrian at Jerusalem ; this title it retained until the time of the Christian emperors. .lElianus (Claudius). See Appendix. Aelst, or Aalst, van (Evebt), a skilful Dutch painter, born at Delft in 1602. His subjects were dead game, golden and silver vessels, etc. Died in 1658. — His nephew Wil- liam, born in 1620, painted flowers, fruits, and still-life with wonderful success. Died in 1679. Aeltre,or Aaltere^, a large trading village in the Bel- gian province of E. Flanders, 13 m. W. of Ghent. Pop. 6520. .iSne'as [Gr. Aii/ei«], the hero of Vergil's ".Sineid," was, according to tradition, the son of Anchiscs and the goddess Venus. He was one of the most valiant defenders * ^'gle [Gr. Aiy^i;, "splendor" or "glorious beauty"], the name of one of the Hesperides, was probably applied to this tree as meriting a place in the fabled jgarden which, according to the poets, was assigned to the care of^those celebrated nymphs. of Troy against the Greeks. According to Vergil, he, after many adventures and disasters, settled in Italy, and married Lavinia, the daughter of King Latinus. The origin of the Koman state is traditionally ascribed to him and his heirs. yEne'id [Lat. jEne'ia] is the title of Vergil's great epic, the most celebrated and beautiful poem in the Latin lan- guage. It is regarded as an imitation of Homer's " Iliad " and " Odyssey," and, in the opinion of most critics, is infe- rior to them in originality and sublimity. ^o'lia [Gr. Aio^ia], or yE'olis [Gr. AioWt], a region of Asia Minor, so called from the^olians, who settled there and founded several cities on different parts of the coast. It was more especially in Lesbos, and along the neighbor- ing shores of the Gulf of Elea, that they finally concentrated their principal colonies, and formed a federal union, called the MoWan League, consisting of twelve states and several inferior towns. The soil of this country is very fertile. ^o'lian Harpy a simple musical instrument, the sounds of which are produced by the vibration of strings moved by wind. It is formed by stretching strings of cat- gut, tuned in unison, across a wooden box, which is placed in an open window. Athanasius Kircher (1602-80) was the inventor. .^o'lians [so named from JE'ohis, a son of Hellen], one of the primitive tribes of the ancient Greeks. They were the dominant race of Thessaly and Boeotia. They founded on the western coast of Asia Minor many states or cities, among which were Smyrna and Mitylene. The MoWa dia- lect was harsh, and approached the character of the Doric. It preserved the digamma for a long time. The fragments of Alceeus and Sappho present the typical .Slolio language. (See ^OLiA.) ^ol'ipile, or ^ol'ipyle [from the Lat. JS'olus, the " god of the winds," and pi'la, a " ball "], a hollow metallic ball, having a small orifice with which a curved tube is con- nected. When filled with water and heated, steam passes out violently. It was thought by the ancients to illustrate the origin of the winds ; hence the name. .35'olus [Gr. AiloAos], in Greek mythology, the god who controlled the winds and reigned in the .fflolian Islands. (See Vergil's "Mneii," book i., 51-63.) JE'on [Gr. aiux], a Greek word signifying an age, a period of time ; also eternity. The Gnostics used the word .aeons in a peculiar sense, as distinct entities or virtues that emanated from God before time began. ^pinus (FiiANz Ulrich Theodou). See Appesdix. .iSra'rians [Lat. terarn], a class of inhabitants of an- cient Home who did not belong to any of the tribes or oon- turies, and who had no civic rights except the protection of the state. Any citizen, no matter how high his rank, ^KAKIUM— AERONAUTICS. 45 for bad conduct might be degraded to the rank of an sera- nan by the censors, but the punishment was not in all cases a lifelong one. The Caerites seem to have been serarians ; at any rate, the disfranchisement of a citizen was sometimes called "tn Cseritnm tahulaa referri" Qv "being placed in the list of Cserites." Persons declared infamous became cerarians. This class is also believed to have included a large number of small retail merchants, who came to Borne from the provinces without authority, and were received Into no tribe. .Srarians paid a heavy tax, but were ex- empt from military duty. iUra'rinm, the public treasury in the temple of Saturn at Rome, in which money and the public accounts and archives were kept. Besides the regular treasure, there was an Eerarium aaenim, or reserve, and later a military treasury. The funds belonging to the populus, or patri- cians, was called publicum, and kept in a separate treasury, though in the same building. A'erated Bread [from the Lat. aer, "air"], an un- fermented bread, the ingredients of which are wheat flour, salt, carbonic acid, and water. The carbonic acid is tho- roughly mixed with the flour and water in air-tight vessels by means of machinery especially adapted to this purpose, so that it is as light as the best fermented bread. A'erated Waters are extensively used to allay thirst in feverish conditions. The most common is carbonic rtcid tcatey, incorrectly called soda water, for it seldom contains soda. It is made by placing chalk or marble in a vessel with water and sulphuric acid, when the carbonic acid is evolved in the form of gas. The latter is afterward forced into water under pressure, so that the water dissolves about five times its own volume of the gas. It forms a brisk, sparkling li(^uid, with a pungent but pleasant taste. The first soda fountain in America was put up by Prof. B. Silli- man, Sr., in New Haven, Conn. Leaden reservoirs for aerated water are dangerous. When copper lined with silver or tin is used, safety requires the lining renewed at least once in two years. Carbonic acid water is, when iced, a most re- freshing drink in sea-sickness and in many cases of disease. The effervescing draughts called aoda powders and seidlitz powders are other forms of aerated beverages. In the former, bicarbonate of soda and tartaric acid are added to water in a tumbler, and a refreshing draught instantane- ously prepared. Seidllts powders contain tartrate of soda and potassa and bicarbonate of soda in one paper, and tar- taric acid in the other; and when both are added to water, effervescence ensues, and the liquid is then taken. A more agreeable and useful purgative aerated water is the effer- vescing solution of citrate of magnesia in carbonic acid water, the invention of an American pharmacist. Aerated waters are also produced naturally. Water, as it comes from a spring, tastes differently from the same water after being boiled ; and this is due to the unboiled water con- taining the gases oxygen, nitrogen, and carbonic acid — especially the latter — dissolved in it. Kain water has a mawkish taste, chiefly because of the impurities dissolved in it ; but when that rain water trickles down through the earth, it is filtered and purified, and absorbs more or less air and gas. When it is dashed from ledge to ledge of rock, it becomes still more thoroughly aerated. Many spring waters are aerated in a peculiar way, which confers upon them important medicinal properties ; these will be noticed under the head of Minbbal Waters, by C. F. Chandleb. Ae'rial Perspec'tive, in painting, is the art of giv- ing due gradation to the strength of light and shade and the colors of objects, according to their distances ; or the laws which regulate the apparent distances of bodies, as modified by the variations in the transparency of the air or in the brightness of the light. ^'rians^ an heretical sect founded in the fourth century by ^rius, a native of Pontua. They were Homoiousians (i. e. they maintained that the Son was similar to the Father in essence, but not identical with him). Afirodynam'ics [Lat. aerodinam'ica, from the 6r. irii>, " air," and Svvaiw, " power "], the dynamics of the air, and of gaseous bodies generally ; the phenomena exhibited by gaseous bodies, whether at rest or in motion under the ac- tion oi forces. These phenomena are seldom treated inde- pendently ,' but are in part common to all fluids, gaseous or liquid. As peculiar to gases, they present themselves in innumerable special forms ; e. g. the transmission of sound ; the movements of projectiles; of the pendulum; of rail- way trains, etc. Also in pneumatics, in aeronautics, in the application of the force of the wind as a mechanical power, and to navigation, etc. Aeroe, a'ro'?h, or Arroe, a Danish island in the Bal- tic, 10 miles S. of Funen, is 14 miles long and about 5 miles wide. It is fertile and well cultivated. Pop. about 12,400. Aerolites. See Mbtbobitb, by PKor. J. L. Smith. Afirom'eter [from the Gr. aijp, "air," and jierpov, "a measure "], an instrument formerly used to make the neces- sary corrections in pneumatic experiments to ascertain the mean bulk of gases. Sronau'tics [from the Gr. dijp, " air," and vavrri^, a "sailor"]. The credit of the in- vention of the bal- loon (1783) is con- ceded to Stephen and Joseph Mont- golfier, sons of a paper - maker at Annonay, near Lyons, France ; but the principles on which a bal- loon could be con- structed were al- ready pretty gen- erally known to scientific men. The Jesuit Francis Lana of Brescia in 1670 projected a balloon which, though impracticable of construction, was founded upon the fundamental principle established by Archimedes that a body will float upon or be suspended in a fluid denser than itself. Curiously, the Jesuit anticipated recent visionary schemes of application to offensive warlike purposes, in the prediction that "no walls or fortifications could then protect cities, which might be completely subdued or destroyed, without having the power to make any sort of resistance, by a mere handful of daring assailants, who should rain down fire and confla- gration from the region of the clouds." The Montgolfier balloon by which, June 5, 1783, the first public ascent was made, was a spherical bag consisting of pieces of linen, merely buttoned together, suspended from cross poles ; two men kindled a fire under it, and kept feed- ing the flames with small bundles of chopped straw ; the loose bag gradually swelled, assuming a graceful form, and in the space of five minutes it was completely distended, and made such an effort to escape, that eight men were re- quired to hold it down. On a signal being given, the stays were slipped, and the balloon instantly rose with an accel- erating motion till it reached some height, when its velocity continued uniform, and carried it to an elevation of more than a mile ; but its buoyant force being soon spent, it re- mained suspended only ten minutes, and fell gently in a vineyard, at the distance of about a, mile and a half from the place of its ascension. The substitution of hydrogen (the lightest of all gases, generated by the application of dilute sulphuric aeid to iron filings) for smoke (or the heated products of combus- tion) was soon after tried by M. Charles of Paris with ulti- mate success. But hydrogen is troublesome to make, and, moreover, expensive. Coal gas (oarburetted hydrogen), easily obtained from gas-works, has almost superseded it in modern times, though much heavier (about two-fifths the density of air). The balloon itself is made of varnished silk or calico or rubber cloth, and enveloped in a netting to Which the suspending cords of the car are attached. The balloon offered to scientific men a ready method of exploring, for scientific purposes, the higher regions of the atmosphere. Of the earlier ascents perhaps the most note- worthy are those made by Biot and Gay-Lussac. The latter (Sept. 15, 1804), ascended to the height of 23,040 feet or nearly four and a half miles above the level of the sea. But this feat was surpassed by Messrs. Glaisher and Coxwell in an ascent from Wolverhampton in 1862. The precise ele- vation they reached could only be guessed, but it could scarcely be less than 35,000 feet, and might possibly extend to 37,000 feet, or seven miles, a height much exceeding that of any mountain on our globe. Mr. Glaisher, who is the greatest authority on the phe- nomena of balloon ascension, having ascended higher than any other and always for scientific purposes, has given the following table for the diminution of density of the air ; At the heisht of 1 mile the barometer reading is 24.7 in. " 2 miles " " 20.3 " " 3 " " " 16.7 " 4 " " " 13.7 " „ g u .< .. 11 3 .. " 10 " " " 4.2 " 15 " " " 1.6 " " 20 " " " 1.0 " less. Concerning temperature the result of all his mid-day ex- periments is thus expressed : " The change from the ground to 1000 feet high was 4° 5' with a cloudy sky, and 6° 2' with a clear sky. At 10,000 feet high it was 2° 2' with a cloudy sky, and 2° with a clear sky. At 20,000 feet high the decline of temperature was 46 AERONAUTICS. 1° 1' with a cloudy sky, and 1° 2' with a clear sky. At 30,000 feet the whole decline of temperature was found to be 62°. Within the first 1000 feet the average space passed through for 1° was 223 feet with a cloudy sky, and 162 feet with a clear sky. At ] 0,000 feet the space passed through for a like decline was 455 feet for the former, and 417 feet for the latter; and above 20,000 feet high the space with both states of the sky was 1000 feet nearly for a decline of 1°. As regards the law just indicated, it is far more nat- ural and far more consistent than that of a uniform rate of decrease." One of the most important determinations to be made, especially in connection with aerial navigation, is that of the atmospheric currents. So long as, without power of self-propulsion, the balloon is committed to the air to be borne as it lists, it is scarcely correct to talk of navigation. That there is some degree of certainty in air-currents may be indicated by a curious fact mentioned by M. Flamma- rion (a distinguished French aeronaut) — namely, that the traces of his various voyages are all represented by lines which had a tendency to curve in one and the same general direction. "Thus," says he, "on the 23d of June, 1867, the balloon started with a north wind directly towards the south-south-west, and, after a while, due south-west, when we descended. A similar result was observed in every ex- cursion, and the fact led me to believe that above the soil of Prance the currents of the atmosphere are constantly deviated circularly, and in a south-west-north-east-south direction." On the 12th of Jan., 1864, Mr. Glaisher left the earth, where a south-east wind was prevailing. At a height of 1300 feet, he was surprised to enter a warm current, 3000 feet in thickness, which was flowing from the south-west, that is, in the direction of the &ulf Stream itself. At the elevation in question the temperature, according to the usual calculation, should have been 4° or 5° lower than that at the ground, whereas it was 3^° higher. In the re- gion above, cold reigned, for finely-powdered snow was falling into this atmospheric river. Here, therefore, was a stream of heated air previously unsuspected, which, if its course is steady, as it appears to be during winter, con- stitutes a prodigious accession to our resources, and adds another to the many meteorological blessings the world en- joys. "The meeting with this south-west current" (writes Mr. Glaisher) " is of the highest importance, for it goes far to ex- plain why England possesses a winter temperature so much higher than our northern latitudes. Our high winter tem- perature has hitherto been mostly referred to the influence of the Gulf Stream. Without doubting the influence of this natural agent, it is necessary to add the effect of a par- allel atmospheric current to the oceanic current coming from the same regions — a true aerial Gulf Stream." It is the result of meteorological observations made at the Smithsonian Institute and elsewhere that in the temperate zones of our continent the resultant direction of all the winds is from the west. During the time of sailing vessels the average length of a voyage from America to England was scarcely more than one-half of that in the opposite direction. All thunder-storms come to us from the west. The higher clouds are perpetually seen moving eastward. From the published letters of Prof. Henry to Mr. Wise, the aeronaut, concerning his proposed aerial voyage across the Atlantic, the following extracts are made : "All the observations that have been made on the motion of the atmosphere, as well as the deductions from theoretical considerations, lead to the conclusion that the resultant mo- tion of the air around the whole earth, within the temper- ate zones, especially about the middle of them, is from west to east, and therefore, provided a balloon can be sustained at a suf&cient height and for a sufi&cient length of time, it would, under ordinary circumstances, be wafted across the Atlantic. But the question is. Can the balloon be sustained at a sufficient height and for a sufficient length of time to make the journey ? This is a question that can be deter- mined only by actual experiment. ... I had no doubt of the fact that, if your balloon can be sustained in the air sufficiently long, a voyage might be made across the Atlan- tic ; but this is the point which, it would appear to me, from my partial knowledge of what has been accomplished in the art of ballooning, is yet to be satisfactorily established. No one, however, has had more experience in the art than your- self, and you ought not to venture on the hazardous jour- ney without the fullest assurance that the balloon can be sustained at the requisite elevation for, say, ten days." {Jf^ew York Times, July 11, 1873.) In the above (as is believed) is found the sole basis for the notion of reaching by balloon the European continent from ours. Some attempts have been made to apply mathe- matical analysis to the determination of the general direc- tion of the winds, but the imperfect knowledge of the re- condite data and the difficulty of defining them analytically are insuperable obstacles. A determinate current — a "gulf stream" — might afi'ord Bome slight basis of calculation for an aerial voyage, but scarcely enough to form the basis of balloon navigation. Self-propulsion has been aimed at by hundreds of invent- ors, few of whom have possessed knowledge of the real data or difficulties of the problem. (See Flying, Artificial.) An exhaustive mathematical investigation of M. Gustavo Lambert ("De la Locomotion M^canique dons I'air et dans I'eau," Paris, 1864) is presumed to be an exponent of the scientific basis upon which M. de L6me founds his project. A pamphlet of nearly 100 large and closely-printed octavo pages cannot here be summarized. We must content our- selves with a statement of a practical result, premising that the idea of a flying machine is pronounced impracticable; that while the aerial ship must be self-aiiataining, spherical or spheroidal forms (such as now in ordinary use) are inap.- plicable. Self-sustenation being attained, the problem is asserted to be identical xoith the naval problem; hence the balloons should have forms analogous to those of very sharp- built ships. Their length should be ten to twelve times their greatest transverse dimensions. The feebleness of tonnage compared with the volume of air displaced, imposes enormous dimensions. Thus for the driving screw (or helix) 15, 20, or even 25 metres of radius may be necessary. The figures sug- gested for the very smallest type are as follows : Cross-sec- tion, 200 square metres (about 46 feet diameter) ; length, 120 metres (400 feet); tonnage, about 15 tons; speed, 40 metres per second (88 miles per hour) ; engine, 360 horse- power, driving a screw of 4 arms of 15 metres radius at a rate of 45 revolutions per minute. The carcass of the bal- loon, or rigid framework, "is arranged upon the tubular principle of Stevenson." The covering to consist of an exterior gummed envelope, made very smooth, and an in- terior envelope (containing hydrogen) divided into air-tight compartments. As the total weight diminishes by the con- sumption of the fuel, air is admitted into these compart- ments in place of the hydrogen. The screw shaft extends from end to end, traversing, through packing boxes, the partitions ; by which mutual points of support are obtained. It is believed that such a structure need not weigh more than 5 tons ; and hence 10 tons will be allowed for the navigators, the engine, the water, and the fuel. The author admits that if ordinary marine engines are taken as types the allowance is greatly inadequate; but he thinks a high- pressure cylinder engine of 60 horse-power ean be made to weigh only 6 tons, by which a speed of 20 to 25 metres per second (44 to 55 miles per hour, equal to that of a " gale of wind") may be had. There will remain 4^ons (of ton- nage) to spare, of which one ton is assigned to naviga- tors and water and three tons to fuel, by which a run of 50 hours' duration may be made. The author supposes that, for ordinary voyages, 55 miles per hour will (except in cases of strong head-winds) allow supply stations to be reached in much less than 50 hours ; generally in 10 hours. Furthermore, with the apparatus as just described, it would be possible to go, with fair loind, from Paris to New York. This assertion (in the author's language) "is neither hazard- ous, Utopian, nor rash ; it is a solution which the reader may verify with the figures before him." The author anticipates that ultimately engines of very high pressure, of 400 horse- power, and weighing but 5 or 6 tons, may be counted upon, and even that a " steam-turbine " can be realized, by which the weight of cylinders, cranks, and connecting rods will be dispensed with ; and finally that if gun (or explosive) pow- ders can be substituted for steam, a speed of 100 metres per second (220 miles per hour) may be realized, and 24 hours' fuel-supply carried. A more recent investigation has been communicated to the French Academy by M. Duroy de Bruignac, in view of the results of which, he asks, " Is it not permitted to affirm that aerial navigation is possible with motors already known ?" but it is doubtful whether he has placed the matter on any more certain basis than M. Lam- bert, whose results have just been quoted. The nearest ap- proach to a practical solution has been made by the cele- brated French naval constructor, M. Dupuy de Lome, of whose "Aerostat Dirigeable" an end view is given p. 48, and a brief description under head Flying-Machine. Mr. Glaisher, whose aeronautic experience has been al- ready alluded to, expresses no such hopes. He tells us that he has attempted no improvement in the management of the balloon, that he found it was wholly at the mercy of the winds, and that he saw no probability of any method of steering it ever being discovered. {British Quarterly Bev.) But Mr. Glaisher's field of thought and observation has been, as regards aerial navigation, quite diverse from our author's, and the problem is not to be decided by an ipse dixit of this kind. At the commencement of the French Revolutionary war, about ten years after the production of the Montgolfier AERONAUTICS. 47 balloons^ an Aerostatic Institute was formed by command of the French Directory (at the suggestion of Guytou de Morveau) in the Kcole Polytechnique, and under its super- intendence reconnoitring war balloons were constructed by a M. Cout€, and supplied to each republican army in the field. The army of the Rhine and Moselle was provided with two — viz., the " Hercule " and " Intr^pide ;" another named the " Celeste " was prepared for the use of the army of the Sambre and Meuse; the "Entreprenant" for the army of the North ; and a fifth was destined for the army of Italy. That attached to the army of the Sambro and Meuse, under Gen. Jourdan, was first used May, 1794, by Col. Coutelle, at Maubeuge, before Mayence, in reconnoitring the ene- my's works. This balloon, which was 27 feet in diameter, and took at first fifty hours to inflate, was retained to the earth by two ropes, and the aeronauts communicated their observations by throwing out weighted letters to the gen- eral beneath. After this method of reconnoitring had been successfully practised four or five days, a seventeen -pounder gun was brought down to a neighboring ravine, and (being thus masked) suddenly opened fire upon the balloon. Sev- eral shots were fired without effect, and the machine was then hauled down ; but the next day the gun was forced to retire and the reconnoissances were then carried on as be- fore. After two or three weeks, the balloon was removed to Charleroi, distant from Maubeuge about 36 miles. To save the expense and trouble of another infiation,it accom- panied the troops at a sufficient height to allow the cavalry and baggage wagons to pass beneath, ten men marching on either side of the road, and each man holding a separate rope attached to the balloon, which was thus retained at its proper elevation. After making one observation on the way, the balloon arrived before Charleroi at sunset, and the captain had time before close of day, to reconnoitre the place with a general ofiicer. Next day they made a second observation in the plain of Turaet, and at the ba-ttle of Fleurus, which took place on the following day, June 17, 1794, the balloon was employed for about eight hours, hov- ering in rear of the army at an altitude of 1300 feet. {Prof. Paper, R. E., vol. xii.) This notable instance of the successful employment of a reconnoitring balloon is thus commented upon in the French history, " La Guerre de la Revolution de France :" " Ce fut eL cette bataille (Fleurus), que Ton fit, pour la premiere fois, I'essai d'un areostat, avec le secours duquel le G6n6rai Jourdan put €tre parfaitement instruit des dispositions et des mouvemens d'ennemi ; ainsi, cette d^couverte regardSe jusqu' alors comme un objetde pure curiosity, dut ^tre, dfes cet instant, rangfi parmi les inventions utiles." {Idem.) We hear too of balloons at a battle near Liege and in the sieges of Mayence and Ehrenbreitstein in 1799. That wo hear no longer of them during the Napoleonic wars is evi- dence that no adequate results were obtained from them. An attempt was, however, made to revive them in the African campaign of 1830, but there was no opportunity for making use of them. The Austrians are said to have em- ployed reconnoitring balloons before Venice in 1849, and the Russians in observing from Sebastopol. The French again made use of them in the late Italian campaign of 1859, but this time the service was in charge of civilian aeronauts, the MM. Godard. Ascents were made from Milan, Gargonzola, Castenedolo, and the Castiglione Hills j and, according to the Timen Paris correspondent (in the letter dated 11th of Jan., 1862), they proved great failures, as judged from a military point of view. {Idem.) The balloon was tried for our service in the recent civil war. Ascents were made from our lines on the north of the Potomac, during the fall of 1861, with no material results. It formed a part of our equipage and impedimenta during the Virginia peninsula campaign, including the siege of Yorktown and the operations before Richmond. The writer is not aware of a single official report recording any mate- rial service rendered by the balloon, but numerous news- paper paragraphs concerning it have been quoted, like the following referring to the battle of the "Seven Pines," or "Fair Oaks," of June 1, 1862: "During the whole of the engagement on Sunday morning. Prof, Lowe's balloon hov- ered over the Federal lines at an altitude of about 2000 feet, and maintained successful communication with Gen. Mc- Clellan at his head- quarters. It is asserted that every movement of the Confederates armies was distinctly visible, and instantaneously reported." {Times, June 17, 1862.) The balloons in use were of two sizes — the smaller of about 30 feet diameter containing 1300 cubic feet, and the larger of double this capacity. The latter size I believe are found preferable. While encamped before Richmond, Capt. F. Beaumont, R. E., spent some time in our camp (part of which as a guest of the writer) and paid particular atten- tion to our balloons. I avail myself of his labors {vide Prof. Papers R, E., vol. xii.) for a description : "The balloons were made of the best and finest descrip- tion of silk, double sewn and prepared with the greatest care ; the summit of the balloon containing the gas valve being made of el-ther three or four folds of cloth, to ensure sufficient strength in that part subject to the greatest strain. The varnish, on which the success of the apparatus much depends, was a secret of Mr. Lowe's, the chief aeronaut, his balloons kept in their gas a fortnight or more, and their doing so he laid to the fact of the varnish being particu- larly good; there was always a small amount of leakage, still at the end of a fortnight sufficient gas remained in the balloon to enable him to make an ascent without its being replenished. In balloons for military purposes this is an important point, as they must be kept ready to ascend at any moment. I have little doubt, however, that many well prepared varnishes could be found to answer the purpose as well ; the network covering the bag was gathered in, in the usual manner, and ended in a series of cords attached to a ring, hanging about level with the tail of the balloon, and from this hung the wlckerwork car, the ring being about level with a person's chest when standing upright in the car. The string for working the valve passed through the centre of the balloon, and coming out at the tail was loosely tied to the ring, to which were fastened the guys, three in number ; thus the car, though swayed about by the motion of the balloon^ hung always nearly vertically be- neath it. " The gas generators, two in number, were nothing more than large tanks of wood, acid proof inside, and of sufficient strength to resist the expansive action of the gas; they were provided with suitable stop-cocks for regulating the admission of the gas, and with man-hole covers for intro- ducing the necessary materials. The gas used was hydro- gen, and indeed for practical purposes, all things consid- ered, there is none other that is nearly so suitable ; its low specific gravity makes it a sine qua non for a military aeronaut, as independently of the ease with which it is pro- duced, when a balloon is attached to the earth it is of the first importance that it should offer as little resistance to the air as possible, as its stability depends upon this point. The hydrogen was generated by using dilute sulphuric acid and iron ; any old iron, such as bits of the tires of wheels, old shot broken up, etc., was used ; so that it was necessary to provide only the sulphuric acid, which in large quantities is cheap, and with proper precautions very easy to carry. " The gas generated passed through a leathern tube into a lime purifier, and thence in a similar manner into a sec- ond, the action of the lime simply absorbing the carbonic acid and other extraneous gases, and sending the hydrogen quite, or very nearly pure, into the balloon. On leaving the generator its temperature was high, even the leathern pipe being so hot that the hand could hardly bear to touch it, but after passing the second purifier it was delivered, barely warm, into the balloon. The whole of the appa- ratus was so simple that nothing more remains to be said about it. " In using it the balloon is unpacked and laid in well-or- dered folds on a carpet spread on the ground to receive it; the tail is then placed ready for connection with the last purifier, properly charged with lime and water, and the connection by leather pipes between the purifier and the generator having been established, the latter is charged; care must be taken not to complete the communication be- tween the last purifier and the tail of the balloon until a clear stream of hydrogen is obtained, so as to avoid getting foul air into the machine. Under ordinary circumstances, in three hours from the time of the machine being halted, it can be prepared for an ascent; but this, should circum- stances require it, might be shortened by employing two generators and making a suitable alteration in the purify- ing arrangement. Such alteration, however, would rarely be necessary, as the balloon, when inflated, can, unless in very windy weather, be very readily carried ; twenty-five or thirty men lay hold of cords attached to the ring and march along, allowing the machine to rise only sufficiently to clear any obstacle that there may be in the way. "Each generator required four horses to draw it, and each balloon, with the tools, etc, four horses. The sul- phuric acid it is essential to keep in a carriage to itself, but two horses will draw a sufficient quantity of concen- trated acid to last for a long time. The undermentioned is a reeumS of the balloon corps and apparatus with General McClellan's army : "Balloon Corps, 1 chief aeronaut, ") . . » . 1 captain, assistant do., stS?m!n"" 50 non-commissioned officers and privates, J " Apparatna, 2 generators, drawn by 4 horses each. 2 balloons, " " 4 horses each (including tools, spare ropes, etc.). 1 acid cart, " " 2 horses. 48 AEEOPHYTES. " When the machine is inflated it is kept to the ground by a series of sand-bags which are hooked on to the net- work, so that they can be disengaged at a moment's notice ; thus coniined, with the sentry to guard it, the machine re- mains unhurt in any weather short of a very violent wind storm, in which case it should be hauled down altogether. " "When it is required for an ascent, the captain and some thirty of his men get round the balloon and carry it to the appointed place; the weight to be lifted having been put into the car, the ballast is so adapted, that including a couple of bags of sand, which it is not safe to go up with- out, there should be a buoyancy of, say, 20 or 30 pounds; the three guy ropes having been attached the men leave go of the car together and seize the ropes, one of which is led through a snatch-block attached to a tree, or some securely fixed object; the ropes are then paid out, and the machine rises to the required height; the motion of the guy ropes is regulated by the aeronaut through the captain on the ground. Of course, on the proper manipulation of the ropes the convenience and safety of the aeronaut depend." The following extract gives an idea of what could be seen. " During the battle of Hanover Court-house, which was the first engagement of importance before Richmond, I happened to be close to the balloon when the firing began. The wind was rather high, but I was anxious to see, if possible, what was going on, and I went up with the father of the aeronaut. The balloon was, however, short of gas, and as the wind was high, we were obliged to come down. I then went up by myself, the diminished weight giving increased steadiness, but it was not considered safe to go higher than 600 feet on account of tho unsettled state of the weather. Tho balloon was very unsteady, so much so that it was difficult to fix my sight on any particular object ; at that altitude I could see nothing of the fight. It turned out afterwards that the distance was, I think, over twelve miles; which, from 1000 feet, ani on^a clear day, would in a country of that nature have rendered the action in- visible." Aerostat of De Lome. (See-p. 46 and Flying-Machine.) With some considerable experience at Yorktown and be- fore Richmond, the writer can only say that, while no means of obtaining information in war should be neglected tho slight amount obtained by the balloon did not compensate for the enormous expense and incumbrance which it in \°''"'''\ ^,° "■v™"' °^ """ *■"«' "^^ *« nMximum aimed at— probably the maximum practicable; for the weight of the rope becomes a limiting element to higher ascensions by captive balloons. In reality I doubt whether more than 600 or 700 feet were ever attained ; a very slight wind sufficing to carry the balloon off at a large angle with the vertical through the point of attachment. With modern firearms three miles' distance from the enemy is about a minimum for so large an object, for though tho hittin" nf the balloon may involve no great risk to the observer (since it would descend slowly) its injury should be guarded against. The view at three miles' distance from 600 feet height is anything but a " bird's eye " one ; but at least it surmounts all adjacent obstacles. But suppose the enemy's position lies in a wooded country and extends for several miles. How muoh of it will be exposed by such a view ? If a fortification or a line of battle, with a clear front, is the object, there will be improved vision ; but to make out anything really specific and useful, a telescope (not a mere binocular) of high power and (hence) small field is indis- pensable. Now tho motion of the balloon renders the use even of the opera-glass difficult ; of the telescope absolutely impracticable. Only once in all his ascents (before York- town) did the use of a telescope appear practicable, and of so little service had it always proved it had been left behind. Descending to obtain one and reascending, a breeze had disturbed the dead calm in which only it can be used. Some information was obtained from it before Yorktown — much more from the trenches. Before Richmond it rendered no service worthy of record. The count of Paris confirms, in his " History of the Civil War," these views of the writer. (See, for military uses of the balloon, articles by Capt. Beau- mont and Lieut. Groyer, " Prof. Papers R. B.," vol. xii.) We hear of no use of the balloon for reconnoitring pur- poses during the recent Franco-German war ; but it at least proved itself to have a use. During tho German siege up- wards of fifty of these aerial packets sailed from the be- leaguered metropolis with despatches for the outer world. They conveyed about two and a half millions of letters, re- presenting a total weight of about ten tons. Most of them took out a number of pigeons, which were intended to act as postmen from the provinces. One called Le Gin6ral Faidherbe was furnished with four shepherd's dogs, which it was hoped would break through the Prussian lines, carry- ing with them precious communications concealed under their collars. Tho greater number of these balloons were under the management of seamen, sometimes solitary ones, whose nautical training, it was naturally supposed, would qualify them more especially for the duties of aerial navi- gation. More than one fell into tho hands of the enemy, having dropped down right amongst the Prussians. In some of these cases the crews were generally made prison- ers, but in others they effected their escape; and more than once their despatches wore preserved in a very remarkable way — in one instance being secreted in a dung-cart, and in another being rescued by a forester, and conveyed to Buffet, the aeronaut of the "Archimede," who had been sent out in search of them, and had traversed the hostile lines on his errand. Many of these postal vessels were carried to a con- siderable distance, some landing in Belgium, Holland, or Bavaria; whilst one, " La Ville d'Oileans," was swept into Norway, and came to anchor about 600 miles north of Christiania. A few, unhappily, never landed at all. Le Jacquard, which left the Orleans railway station on tho 28th November, with a bold sailor for its sole occupant, disappeared like many a gallant ship. It was last observed above Rochelle, and probably foundered at sea, as some of its papers were picked up in the Channel. " Le Jules Favre" (the second of that name), which set out two days subsequently, has arrived nowhere as yet ; and one of the last of these mail-balloons, the " Richard Wallace," is miss- ing, as much as if it had sailed off the planet into infinite space. So long as these machines continued to be launched by day, they were exposed to a fusillade whilst traversing the girdle of the Prussian guns, the bullets whistling round them even at an elevation of 900 or 1000 metres. To avoid this peril it became necessary to start them by night, al- though the disadvantages of nocturnal expeditions, in which no light could bo carried, and consequently the barometer could not be duly read, were held by many to outweigh all tho dangers attaching to German projectiles. (British Quarterly, Oct., 1871.) Another event so exceptional as tho siege of Paris may again justify tho use of balloons for similar services, and in open countries they may perhaps oooasionally serve use- fully for military reoonnoissanoes. To science they do not appear (as now constructed) capable of adding much to tho little (something indeed), they have already given, even though Sir John Leslie ("Enoyo. Brit.") directs us to "a skilful and judicious application of balloons for a more essential improvement of the infant science of meteor- ology." When the " balloon of the future "—that in short which M. Lambert confidently predicts, shall have ap- peared, then, indeed, science, commerce, social and busi- ness intercourse, and the art of war, may all hail it as an important adjunct; till then wo must wait. J. Q. Barnakd. A erophytes, or Ag'rial Plants [from the Gr. iip, the "atmosphere," and ^vt6v, a "plant"], are plants which grow in air only, as distinguished from terrestrial plants or AEROSTATIC PEESS— ^THIOPS. 49 those which grow in earth, and hydrophytes, ot those which live under water. The epiphytal orchids and many lichens are aerial plants, deriving sustenance from the air and its Vapors. They are to be distinguished from parasites, like mistletoe, which feed on, and not merely grow on, trees, etc. A6rostat'ic Press, a machine used to extract the col- oring-matter from dyewoods and other substances by at- mospheric pressure. For this purpose a vessel is divided by a horizontal partition pierced with small holes. Upon this the substance containing the coloring-matter is laid, and a cover, also perforated, is placed upon it. The liquid which is to dissolve the coloring-matter is then poured on the top, and the air being drawn from the under part of the vessel by an air-pump, the liquid is forced through the sub- stance by the pressure of the atmosphere. Aerostat'ics. See Aekodynamics. ^s'chines [Aio-xinis], a celebrated Greek orator, bom at Athens 389 B. C, was the greatest rival of Demosthenes. He served with distinction at the battle of Mantinea (362 B. C), and was in early life an opponent of Philip of Mace- don. Having been sent with other negotiators on an em- bassy to the Macedonian court in 347 B. C, he afterwards became a friend of Philip and an adversary of Demosthenes, who accused ^schines of receiving a bribe from the king of Macedon. He made a famous oration against Ctesiphon, because the latter proposed to reward Demosthenes with a golden crown, but he was defeated in his contest by the matchless eloquence of his rival, and was exiled in 330 B. C. He then retired to Rhodes, where he taught rhetoric with applause. Three of his orations are still extant ; they have been edited by Eranke (1860) and others. Died in 314 B. C. ^s'chylus [G-r. AiaxvXos], s.n excellent Athenian tragic poet, born at Eleusis, in Attica, in 525 B. C, He was the most ancient of the three great tragic poets of Greece. He fought with distinction at the battle of Marathon (490 B. C), and again at the battle of Salamis. ' In 484 he gained his first prize in tragedy. He composed, it is said, about seventy tragedies, and gained thirteen prizes, but ho was defeated by Sophocles in 468 B. C, soon after which he went to Syra- cuse, where he was honored by King Hiero. He died at Gela, in Sicily, in 456 B. C. According to a commonly re- ceived tradition, he was killed by a falling tortoise which an eagle dropped. Only seven of his tragedies are extant — viz., '* Prometheus Bound," " The Seven against Thebes," " The Persians," " Agamemnon," " The Female Suppli- ants," " Choephori," and "Eumenides." His "Oresteia," which is certainly one of the most powerful works of art which the human mind ever' created, is the only complete trilogy which has been left to us. It consists of the three tragedies, "Agamemnon," "Choephori," and "Eumen- ides," and shows in the most striking manner how the Greek tragedies which we possess must be considered only as parts of greater compositions — as acts of dramas ra;ther than as dramas. Its idea is to show the redeeming influ- ence of the state in the life of mankind. iEscnla'pius [Gr. 'A a celebrated Spartan gen- eral and king, was a son of King Archidamus II. He be- gan to reign at the death of his brother Agis in 398 B. C, two years after which war was renewed between the Spar- tans and the king of Persia. Agesilaus commanded the army which invaded Asia Minor, and gained several vic- tories, but in the mean time the Athenians, Thebans, and other Greek peoples had formed a coalition against Sparta, to defend which the king was recalled by the ephori in 394 or 395 B. C. He maintained his reputation in this war, which was ended by a treaty of peace in 378, Sparta was again involved in a war with the Thebana, who under Epaminondas gained a decisive victory a.t the great battle of Leuctra, 371 B. C, at which, however, Agesilaus was not present. He afterwards defended the city of Sparta with success when it was besieged by Epaminondas. He died about 360 B. C, aged 84 years. Agglu'tinate [from the Lat. ad, "to," and glu'tino, glutina'tum, to "glue" or "cement"] Ijanguages, a term applied, in comparative philology, to languages which are in a certain state of development intermediate between those which are strictly monosyllabic like the Chinese, and those which are inflectional like the Greek or Latin. Examples of languages in the agglutinated state are found among the Indian languages of America and tho Turanian languages of Asia. In the Aryan languages con- jugation and declension are doubtless the result of glueing on pronouns to verbs and nouns j but in them these termi- nations have coalesced, so as to form practically a single word, and the primitive parts have therefore, in a greater or less degree, lost their original and independent force. In the Turanian languages, however, the declension and con- jugation can still be taken to pieces, and the affixes are seen to be distinct from the roots to which they are ap- pended, as in {Turkish, etc. (See Max MUller's " Lec- tures on the Science of Language," first series, lect. viii.) Agh'mat, a fortified town of Morocco, on the N. de- clivity of Mount Atlas, 24 miles S. of Morocco. Pop. about 6000. Aghrim, or Anghrim, awg'rim or awn'rim, a parish of Galway, Ireland, 13 miles N. B. of Loughrea. Here the army of William III. gained a decisive victory over that of James II., July 12, 1691. Agincourt, J'zhiN'kooR', or Azinconrt, i'z8.N'koor', a village of France, in the department of Pas de Calais, 18 miles B. of Montreuil, and 10 miles N. W. of St.-Pol. Near this place the English king, Henry V., who had about 15,000 men, gained a complete victory over the French army of about 60,000 on the 25th of Oct., 1415. A'gio [in Italian, aggio, a word originally signifying "ease," "convenience," "accommodation"] was used in Italy to denote the difference between the real and nominal values of money, or the percentage difference between the values of the current and standard money of a place. The premium or discount' on foreign bills of exchange is some- times called agio. Agis IV., of Sparta, born about 264 B. C, was a wise and meritorious ruler. He began to reign conjointly with Leonidas in 244 B. C, when Sparta was in a degenerate condition. Ho attempted to restore the old Spartan insti- tutions and to reform the corrupted morals of the people. He also proposed to improve the condition of the poorer citizens by an agrarian law. Condemned by the ephori on a charge of subverting the laws, he was strangled in 240 B. C. Agnadello, in-yi-del'lo, a village of Northern Italy, 10 miles B. of Lodi. Here the French duke of Vendfime defeated Prince Eugene Aug. 16, 1705, and Louis XII. of France the Venetians May 14, 1509. Pop. about 1600. Agnano, §,n-y3,'no, a lake of Italy, 3 miles W. of Na- ples, is about half a mile in diameter. It occupies the crater of an extinct volcano. Ag'nate [from the Lat. ad, "to," and naa'cor, natus, to " be born "]. In Roman law, agnates are those who descend through males from a common ancestor, in opposition to cognates — i. e. all the descendants of a common ancestor, whether through males or females. Ag'nes, Saint, a Roman virgin, who is said to have suffered martyrdom under Diocletian, in 303 A. B. Agne'si (Maria Gaetana), an Italian woman of ex- traordinary learning and intellect, was born at Milan Mar. 16, 1718. About the age of twelve she could converse in Greek, . Latin, and other languages on abstruse subjects of philosophy and mathematics. During the illness of her father, who was a professor of mathematics at Bologna, she lectured in his place. She published a work called "Ana- lytical Institutions" (1748), which displays mathematical genius of a high order. Died Jan. 9, 1799. Agnes Sorel, mistress of King Charles VII. of France, was born 1409, became in 1431 lady of honor to the duch- ess of Anjou, and so fascinated the king by her beauty that he appointed her lady of honor to the queen. She exercised in some respects a most beneficial infiuence over the king, whom she stimulated to action against the Eng- lish, who then invaded France. She died Feb. 9, 1450 — as it is supposed, by poison administered by the dauphin. Ag'ni, or Ag'nis [etymologically related to tho Latin ig'n/ie^, in Hindoo mythology, the god of fire. He was a deity of great importance among the early Aryans, but after the rise of the gods of the Hindoo triad he sank into a very subordinate position. He is sometimes represented with two faces, three legs, and seven arms, with his head surrounded by flames, and is generally painted of a deep- red color. By some he has been made to correspond to the Vulcan of classic mythology, but he does not anywhere appear as an artificer, like that deity. His principal cha- racters are those of a purifier and bearer of incense to heaven, thus being made a mediator between man and the gods. His two faces are supposed to be a type of fire in its two characters — beneficent (or creative) and destructive — and his seven arms to indicate the seven prismatic colors. Agnoe'tEB [from the Gr. iTvoe'io, to " be ignorant "], in ecclesiastical history, the name of a sect in the sixth cen- tury who maintained that Christ in his human nature was ignorant of many things, particularly of the day of judgment. An earlier sect of this name denied God's omniscience. Agno'men [from the Lat. ad, " to," and no'men, a "name"]. Besides the prsenomen, nomen, and cognomen, the ancient Romans sometimes had a fourth name (agno- men), which was derived from some illustrious action or remarkable event. Thus, two Soipios had the name Afri- canus given them on account of their victories over the Car- thaginians in Africa. The younger of these celebrated gen- erals had a second agnomen — viz. .ffimilianus — because he was the son of L. Paulus .Slmilius, and adopted into the family of the Scipios. Fabius Gunetator {i. e. "Fabius the delayer") was so called because by his prudent delays he alone, of all the Roman generals, could oppose Hannibal successfully at the height of the latter's career. Agnosti'cistn, in its most exact form, denies the pos- sibility of any knowledge of God. It is of recent growth, and is traceable to Kant's theory of knowledge. Philo- sophically, it is an exposition of the bounds of human thought and knowledge, and upholds the impossibility of knowledge of the Infinite, in opposition to the theory of restricted but true knowledge of the First Cause as infinite and absolute. Theologically, it is by inference an expo- sition of limits of the Infinite and restrictions on the Ab- solute, implying that God cannot reveal himself to created intelligence. The term agnostic, taken from Paul's mention of the altar to the "Unknown God," was first suggested by Prof. Huxley in 1869. Ag'nus De'i, the name applied to the fifth and last section of the Roman Catholic mass, beginning with the 56 AGOBAED-AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY. words " Agnus l)ei, qui toUis peccata mundi" (i. e. " Lamb of Qcd, who takest away the sjns of the world"). It is also applied to tie figure of a lamb bearing a cross, which is often worn by Roman Catholics. Agobard. See Appendix. Agon'ic [from the 6r. a, " without," yavia, an " angle"] Iiine is the name applied to the line which joins all the places at which the magnetic needle points due north and south. The plane of the magnetic meridian of a place, which is the vertical plane passing through the two poles of a magnetic needle freely suspended at that place, does not, generally speaking, coincide with that of the geograph- ical meridian, a vertical plane passing through the place and the north and south terrestrial poles. The angle formed by these planes is termed the magnetic declination. At cer- tain places these planes coincide, and such places are called places of no declination. The line which joins all these places is termed the line of no declination^ or the agonic line. A line of this kind passes through the eastern part of South America to Hudson's Bay, thence towards the North Pole to the White Sea; passing southward, it cuts Arabia, and, after traversing the Indian Ocean and the eastern portion of Australia, goes through or near the South Pole to join itself again. It is not fixed in position, but is at present mov- ing slowly westward on our continent. There is a second agonic line which has been observed near China and Japan. Agonis'ticiy an ascetic sect of Christians who lived in Northern Africa in the fourth century. They renounced labor and matrimony. Their name, derived from the Greek aytovLtrrrjq {agonie'tes), a "wrestler," appears to have been given in allusion to their wrestling with " the world, the flesh, and the devil." Agos'ta, or Augus'ta, a seaport of Sicily, in province of Catania, on the Mediterranean, 14 miles N. of Syracuse. It has a good harbor, defended by two forts. In 1693 it was nearly destroyed by an earthquake. Pop. 9735. Agou'ra (Procyon cancrivorus), the crab-eating rac- coon of South America, is larger than the common raccoon, has a shorter tail, and more variable colors. It is com- monly of a blackish-gray, with six rings around the tail. In habits it resembles the common raccoon. Agoult, d' (Marie C. S.), Coustess. See Appendix. Agouti^ S.-goo'tee {Dasyproc'ta), a genus of rodent mammals related to the porcupines. The common agouti (Dasyproeta agouti) is a native of Brazil, Paraguay, Gui- ana, and the neighboring countries. Formerly, in these districts it existed in great numbers, but from its frequent ravages on the sugar-cane, potatoes, and yams, it has in many parts been hunted out and almost exterminated. It is between the size of a hare and a rabbit, has long hind' legs, round ears, bright black eyes, and a short, stumpy tail, which, as well as the rump and thighs, is covered with long, coarse, bristly hair, whence the name Dasyproeta (from the Gr. &a(Tv^j " rough," and TrpwKrds, " tail " or " hinder parts "). The agouti is an omnivorous animal, eating almost all kinds of vegetables, fruits, roots, meats, etc. Its habits are all quick and active, and even while eating it continually turns its head from side to side, in order to guard against danger. The animal is easily domesticated, but as it is specially fond of using its teeth on all kinds of furniture, it is but little valued as a pet. It gnaws with great rapidity, taking but a few minutes to cut its way through an ordinary door. Add to this that its playfulness and all its amusing qualities seem to be lost in its do- mestic state. In some countries its flesh is eat- en, but a prejudice gen- erally prevails against it. There are several other species, such as the black agouti [Dasyproeta cris- Lata), whose range is nearly the same with -r., , . that of the common Black Agouti, agouti, but is perhaps more limited. The agoutis are said to have been the largest mammals inhabiting the West In- dia Islands at the time of their discovery. A'gra, or AkbarSbad', a city of Hindostan, in the North-west Provinces, and capital of the division of the same name, is on the right bank of the river Jumna, 134 miles by rail S. S. E. of Delhi, and 754 miles by rail N. N. E of Bombay ; lat. 27° 11' N., Ion. 78° E. It was the capital of the Mogul and Mohammedan emperors of India from 1504 to 1647, and was once a large and splendid city, but a great part of it is now in a ruinous state. The houses are mostly built of red sandstone. Here are several magnificent edifices, the most celebrated of which is the TSlj Mahal, a mausoleum erected by the emperor Shah Jehan (1627-06) in honor of his favorite queen. This edifice, the finest in India, and perhaps in the world, is built of white marble, surmounted with a dome seventy feet in diameter, and adorned inter- nally with exquisite mosaics of cornelian, lapis lazuli, and jasper. It cost above £3,000,000. Among the articles ex- ported from Agra are cotton, sugar, salt, and indigo. Many houses in Agra were destroyed by the Sepoys during the mutiny of 1857. Pop. in 1881, 137,908. Ag'ramy or Zag'raby a royal free city of Croatia, and the capital of that country, on the left bank of the Save, 172 miles S. of Vienna. It is the seat of a Roman Catho- lic archbishop, and has two gymnasia, two Realsehulen, two normal schools, two theological seminaries, besides many other institutions of learning. Six annual fairs are held here. Pop. in 1880, 28,360. Agra'rian Law [Lat. lex agra'ria, from a'ger, a "field"]. This term originated in the ancient republic of Rome, and signified a law enacted to distribute or regulate the public land, ager publicus. Such laws were opposed by the patricians, who had appropriated to their own use the lands acquired by conquest, and who had long enjoyed the privilege of occupying them as tenants, on the condition of paying to the state a tithe of the produce. The consul Spurius Cassius first proposed to divide a portion of public land among the poor citizens, but the measure was defeated by the aristocrats. In 367 B. C. an agrarian law was origi- nated by Lioinius Stole, ordaining that no man should pos- sess more than 500 jugera (330 acres) of the public domain, and that such public land as any man occupied in excess of 600 jugera should be distributed among the poor citizens. Tiberius Gracchus was the author of an important agrarian law. These and later agrarian laws were never executed. In Sparta the attempt of King Agis IV. to enforce an agrarian law led to his murder by the ephori (240 B. C). Agreement. See Costract, by Prof. T. W. Dwight. Agric'ola (Cneius Julius), a Roman general and statesman, born at Forum Julii (Fr^jus), in Gaul, June 13, 37 A. D. He was appointed governor of Aquitania by Ves- pasian in 73, and became consul in 77. About a year later he was sent as governor to Britain, which he conquered, and governed with much ability and moderation. By a wise and humane policy he promoted the civilization and pros- perity of the natives. Ho erected a chain of forts from the Clyde to the Frith of Forth. He was recalled about 85 A. D. by Domitian, who was jealous of him. Died Aug. 23, 93 A. D. He was the father-in-law of the historian Tacitus, who wrote a Life of Agricola. Agricola (Johann), originally Schneider or Schsit- TER, a German theologian, born at Eisleben April 10, 1492, studied at Wittenberg, and became a friend of Luther, with whom he was afterwards involved in a doctrinal contro- versy. He obtained a chair at Wittenberg in 1536. Ag- ricola and his followers were called Antinomians (opposers of the law), because they maintained that a Christian is not bound to obey the Mosaic law. He wrote many theo- logical works, and published a valuable collection of Ger- man proverbs. Died in Berlin Sept. 22, 1566. Agricultural Chemistry is the study of the chemical relations of those substances which compose the products of the farm. Since the chemistry of these substances is most intimately connected with their physical, geological, and physiological aspects, the term agricultural ohgmistry, as commonly understood, embraces a wide range of natu- ral science in its applications to vegetable and animal pro- duction. The object of agriculture is to develop from seed and soil the largest possible value of useful plants and use- ful animals at the smallest cost. Nothing is plainer than that the farmer should accurately understand the nature of those materials and agencies which build up his crops and increase his herds. He should know whence the ma- terials of his crops may be drawn, what ones are placed at his disposal naturally in surplus, and what must be pro- vided by his own care. He should know how to control or work in harmony with the energies whose action is essen- tial to his success. Agricultural chemistry inquires, first of all, what the plant and animal are made of. It finds that both, when living, consist largely of water, to the ex- tent of forty to ninety per cent., which is indispensable to their existence as a vehicle for the process of circulation or transfer of nutriment. The dry plant or animal maybe divided into matter volatile by heat, ninety to ninety-nine per cent., and one to ten per cent, of ash. The volatile or combustible matter is either organized — «". e. possesses a structure, or is a tissue of organs, inimitable by the art of man, through whose mechanism the principle of vitality operates— or else it consists of substances which are the direct results of chemical change? in the organized matter. Muscle-fibre and wood-fibre are of the former, sugar and urea are of the latter kind. The volatile matters are thence termed organic ; they consist of carbon compounds, most of which are highly complex in their atomic constitution. AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY. 57 The most important organic matters of our staple field- crops are few in number — ^being, 1. The amyloids, com- pounds of carbon with hydrogen and oxygen, the last two being in the proportions in which they exist in water — vi?., cellulose or wood-fibre, starch, the sugars and the gums ; 2, The pectoids, also compounds of carbon, hydro- gen, and oxygen, comprising pectose — the hard pulp of fruits and roots — and pectine, pectosic and pectic acids — the gummy or gelatinous matters of ripe and cooked fruits ; 3. The fats and fixed oils ; 4. The organic acids, oxalic, malic, citric, and tartaric j 5, The albuminoids, albumen, casein, fibrin, and their analogues, which, besides carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, contain fifteen to eighteen per cent. of nitrogen, with one-half to one per cent, of sulphur. The ash of the plant consists of phosphates, sulphates, chlorides, silicates, and carbonates of potassium, sodium, calcium, magnesium, and iron. The growth of a plant is the development of a germ or seed when acted upon by the solar ray, with access of water, air, and soil. The organic matters above enume- rated as constituents of crops are exclusively generated and organized by the plant. Carbonic acid gas supplies car- bon, water furnishes hydrogen and oxygen, while nitrogen is derived partially from minute quantities of ammonia mingled with the air. Nitrogen is, however, chiefly ob- tained from the nitrates of the soil. All the ash-elements come exclusively from the soil. The agriculturist cannot aid the nourishment of his crops except through the soil, and there he can only influence the supplies of water, of nitrogen, and of ash-elements. Carbon, the most abun- dant ingredient of all crops, making up forty-four to forty- eight per cent, of the dry matter, is furnished so fully by the atmospheric carbonic acid that additional supplies from the soil are not directly advantageous. The atmosphere contains, it is true, but a very small proportion of this gas — one-twenty-five hundredth of its bulk — but this is con- siderably in excess of the wants of the most luxuriant growth. The fertility of the soil depends, chemically — 1, upon the presence in it of all the ash-elements and of nitrates in proper quantity; and 2, on their occurrence there in such states of combination as give a constant and regulated supply. Numerous experiments have demonstrated that a soil destitute of any one of the following substances — viz., phosphoric acid, sulphuric acid, potash, lime, magnesia, oxide of iron — is absolutely barren by virtue of such de- ficiency. It is also certain that a soil which contains the usual amount of potash, but only in the form of feldspar, or of phosphoric acid, but only as apatite, or of magnesia, but only as serpentine, is infertile, because these substances do not yield their elements to the solvent agencies of the soil or plant rapidly enough to serve as plant-food. Alumina is an abundant element of soils, but it is always absent from agricultural plants ; and recent investigations also appear to show that silica, which is present in many plants, is an accidental ingredient, and in no manner essential to their growth or perfection. Soda likewise ap- pears to be unessential to most of the vegetative processes; for, although it is perhaps never entirely absent from culti- vated plants, it often occurs in them in extremely minute quantity, so that the soda which is indispensable to the blood and milk of animals must be obtained, in part at least, directly from mineral sources. Nitrates and ammonia-salts — which are the natural sup- plies of nitrogen to crops — rarely are, and never need be, present in the soil in more than the minutest proportion. It is only requisite that they be generated or gathered there as rapidly as crops remove them. The process of nit- rification, whereby inert or inassimilablc nitrogen existing in the soil or in the air is converted into nitric acid, is one of the utmost agricultural importance, though still largely involved in mystery. The great bulk of any soil is chemically indifferent in the nourishment of the present crop. The weight of an aver- age loamy soil is about 4,000,000 pounds per acre for each foot of depth. A crop of grain of thirty-three bushels re- moves but 140 pounds of ash-elements — viz., forty pounds in the seed and 100 pounds in the straw. A hay-crop of two tons carries off but 260 pounds of ash-ingredients. These quantities, if assumed to come from two feet of depth, are respectively hut l-30,000th and l-57,000th of the entire mass of soil. Hellriegel's experiments give results which warrant us in concluding that 55 pounds of potash, 17 of soda, 17 of magnesia, 23 of lime, 55 of phosphoric acid, 11 of sulphuric acid, 8 of chlorine, and 54 of nitrogen (in the form of nitrates), are all that need be present, in soluble condition, in 1,000,000 pounds of soil, in order to establish there a fertility equal to the production of 33 bushels of barley-grain and 2000 pounds of straw per acre. In other words, tho 140 pounds of ash-eleraents may be taken from 1,000,000 pounds of a soil in which but 186 pounds exist in soluble condition, and in which, therefore, the propor- tion of real plant-food — nitrogen, but not water, included — is but l-4000th. Good soil, in the practical sense, how- ever, yields, and may contain, a larger proportion of imme- diately available plant-food than one part in 4000, but rarely more perhaps than ten times that amount. As cropping removes these substances from the soil, they are replaced more or less rapidly and completely by weath- ering, whereby, under the influence of moisture, carbonic acid and oxygen, aided by heat and by the alternations of heat and cold, the rock-dust of the soil is gradually fluxed into soluble pabulum, and charged with nitrates. The soil is endowed with absorptive qualities which en- able it to retain in a state of comparative insolubility certain ash-elements, especially those which are in general the least abundant--viz., phosphoric acid and potash — even when applied to it from external sources in the most solu- ble form and in large quantity. This absorption of plant- food by the soil is accompanied by a corresponding libera- tion of other substances, especially of lime and sulphuric acid. The impalpable matter of the soil, consisting largely of aluminous and ferruginous silicates, is mainly the seat of these absorptions ; sand, silica, carbonate of lime, humus, and even pure clay (kaolinite), being destitute of the power in question. Soils may be fully supplied with all the nutritive ele- ments in proper quantity and form, and yet be infertile. This may happen on account of faults in physical condi- tion, whereby they arc rendered uncongenial to plants. A certain medium porosity, admitting of access and efflux of water, and a quality of being suitably warmed by the sun and of carrying heat through the cool of the night, are no less indispensable to high productive power than an ap- propriate chemical condition. Manures improve the soil by supplying one or several of those ingredients required by plants which are deficient either by reason of yearly removal of crops or from original poverty of composition. Practice has taught that phos- phates and nitrogen in assimilable form arc most com- monly the substances which strikingly benefit land, and chemical analysis shows that of these the former is ordina- rily the least abundant ingredient of soils, and the latter is one which is not only not abundant, bxit one which rapidly wastes by solution in rain-water, being daily carried off in immense quantities, through springs and rivers, into the sea. The action of fertilizers is not, however, fully explained by their affording a direct supply of lacking nutritive ele- ments ; manures operate indirectly to feed crops, by their chemical effects upon the soil. It has been abundantly demonstrated that common salt, gypsum, and other salino matters may react on the soil to convert potash and mag- nesia, for instance, into soluble forms, and thus to give the same result as would follow au immediate application of the last-named substances. Certain manures which are used in large doses, such as stable-dung, peat, marl,'and lime, also influence the fer- tility of the soil, by amending its texture or otherwise modifying its physical characters. » It is theoretically possible to produce a maximum crop of any given kind, continuously and perpetually, upon the same plat of land. In practice, however, it is far easier, and therefore far cheaper, to alternate or rotate crops. A hoed crop implies surface-tillage, several times repeated during the growing season, thus effectually exposing the upper soil to the oxidizing influence of the air, A field put into grass or clover is to some extent under opposite conditions. In the one case, organic matters waste rap- idly ; in the other, they accumulate in the soil. In the first instance, the surface-soil tends to lose t|iat porosity and attractiveness for moisture due to the presence of humus, which is a quality of the utmost significance in cli- mates subject to drouth. In the second instance, the soil gains in these respects. On the other hand, the lower soil, which under hoed crops is yearly broken up by repeated ploughing, may settle down to injurious compactness in a pasture or meadow. Deep-rooted crops affect the soil very differently from those whose radication is confined to near the surface. The reasons for rotation thus become, to some extent, apparent. Agricultural chemistry is compe- tent to show, further, that some plants, while occupying the soil, enrich it, and, though yielding the farmer a large and valuable harvest, yet actually manure the land for a subsequent crop. Clover has long been known as a plant of this kind. A good clover-crop, when made into hay, removes from the soil twice or thrice the ash-elements and nitrogen that are contained in a good wheat-crop, and yet the good clover-crop will develop in a soil where the good wheat-crop can only be raised by help of manure. More than this, the good clover-crop not only grows on the un- aided soil, but likewise fertilizes that soil, so that it can 58 AGEICULTURAL GEOLOGY— AGEICULTUEE. subsequently make the good wheat-crop. The enriching effects of clover are absolute in respect of nitrogen. The clover plant is able, in a given time and on a given sur- face, to assimilate nitrogen much more rapidly, or to a much greater amount, than the wheat plant can. It there- fore flourishes better on a limited supply, or gives a full crop where wheat would make perhaps but half a crop ; and, besides, leaves in the soil where it has grown more nitrogen in its roots and stubble than an entire wheat-erop contains. In respect of ash-elements, the clover plant can add nothing to the soil in the way of quantity, but it strongly influences their quality. It transmutes the in- soluble matters into soluble, and collects largely, by its deep-penetrating roots, from stores of food which the wheat plant can scarcely reach. When its roots decay, these substances remain where a succeeding wheat-crop can at once utilize them. This enriching process has again its narrow limits. If we keep land in clover, it becomes "clover-sick," probably from exhaustion of the deep-lying plant-food, and this disease is hard to cure, because of the inaccessibility of the subsoil to fertilizing applications. By judicious rotation of crops a soil of moderate quality may be made to yield fair harvests without loss of product- ive power. In order thus to economize in the fullest de- gree the resources of soil and crop, the farmer needs an accurate knowledge of their nature, such as can only be ob- tained by encouraging the study of agricultural chemistry. In studying the utilization of vegetable- products for obtaining the various animal matters which are employed as food, etc., agricultural chemistry enters into a higher and more difficult field. Here it has been obliged, by nu- merous experiments, to test much of the empirical know- ledge which agricultural practice had too vaguely supplied, and also finds itself under the necessity of investigating the most purely scientific questions of physiology. Although many useful practical results have been obtained, this de- partment of our knowledge is extremely incomplete, and, save in technical details, is too closely allied to the general subject of animal nutrition to require notice in these pages. Of useful books on agricultural chemistry, those of LiEBia and Boussingault take pre-eminence ; the former by their brilliant suggestiveness, the latter by their ac- curate experimental study of many points of the highest practical interest. In Germany, WoiiFP, Heiden, Knop, and Maver have recently published excellent systematic treatises. G-reat Britain has produced no extended work since J. F. W. Johnston's " Lectures," which are still valuable, though far behind the time. In the United States, two books by S. W. Johktsos have been received with favor. (See Lieeig, "Agricultural Chemistry," 1841; "Modern Agriculture," 1859; "Natural Laws of Hus- bandry," 1863, etc. J Boussingault, "Economic Rurale," 1851; " Memoires de Chimie Agrieole," 1854 ; "Agronomic, Chimie Agrieole," etc., 1860-68 ; "Wolff, " Naturgesetzliche (irrundlagen des Ackerbaues," 1856; " Landwirthsehaftliche FUtterungslehre," 1861; Heiden, "Diingerlehre," 1868; Knop, "Lehrbuch der Agricultur Chemie," 1868 ; Mayer, " Agricultur Chemie," 1871 ; Johnston, " Lectures on Ag- ricultural Chemistry and Geology," 1847; Johnson, "How Crops Grow," 1868; "How Crops Feed," 1870.) S. W. Johnson. Agricultural Geology — geology applied to agricul- ture — embraces whatever can be learned in regard to the nature of the substructure of any district with reference to drainage and water-supply, the origin, physical structure, and mineral constituents of soils, the distribution and prop- erties of mineral fertilizers, etc. It is chiefly valuable as teaching the probable resources of a district in soil, subsoil, mineral manures, etc. To the farmer it is often desirable that he should know the results likely to be obtained from deep ploughing and deep draining. These depend greatly on the nature of the rock, the dip and compactness of the strata, and the form of the surface in reference to the strati- fication. In a majority of cases, the subsoil is derived from the underlying rock, and the soil is derived from the sub- soil ; so that for the most part the soil indicates the rock. Thus in any estimate of the fertility of land the nature of the underlying rock comes into consideration, for both the depth and texture of the soil depend, to a considerable ex- tent, on the rock beneath, and the productiveness is depend- ent on these. Thus, soils formed from rocks which abound in phosphates are often of extraordinary fertility. Even the fossils and shells that are found in, and are characteristic of, rocks increase the value of the land where they occur. Agricultural Schools.. See Scientific Schools. Agricultural System, a theory of political economy invented by F. Quesnay (physician to Louis XV.), who taught that those only increase the wealth of a country who develop the resources of the earth, such as the products of the vegetable and mineral kingdoms. Agriculture [Lat. at/rieuUu'ra, from a'ger, gen. a'grij a " field " or " land," and eo'lo, ciiltum, to " till ;" lit- erally, the " tillage (or cultivation) of land "] is the art of increasing and assuring, by human effort and care, the pro- duction and growth of such material substances as con- tribute to the sustenance or enjoyment of our race, whether directly or through the nourishment of such animals as minister to the comfort and well-being of mankind. Its origin and progress are nearly identical with those of civilization. The absolute savage gathers and consumes the seeds, nuts, roots, etc. that gratify his appetite or renew his wasted strength ; he may collect and save them in seasons of plenty to minister to his needs in time of want, but he never thinks of planting or tilling with intent to increase his stores. Save under the immediate pressure of hunger or cold, he has no habit of working — no days or hours set apart for industry. Were it otherwise, he would cease to be a savage. The barbarian is primarily a careless, nomadic cattle- breeder or shepherd. Having captured and domesticated certain animals, he spares a part of them for weeks, or months, or years, that, they may be available in time of greater need. Some of them — the horse and the dog, for instance^— he values and preserves, though, unless sorely pressed by hunger, he rejects them as food. Some rarely found, like the beaver, otter, mink, etc., he prizes for their fur, whereby he may defend himself against cold, and sometimes increase his personal attractions. The breeding and rearing of the horse, cow, sheep, camel, reindeer, ass, hog, etc. form the earliest and rudest depai'tment of bar- barian- industry. Poorly and scantily fed or sheltered, these animals increase slowly, and thousands of them are often swept off by the unusual severity of winter. Land is lightly valued by the ruder herdsmen : if one locality does not serve, they seek and find another. A great dearth or famine has sometimes set in motion tribe after tribe, until a hunt for food became a migration, then an irruption, overturning dynasties and subjugating races more polished but less warlike than their conquerors. Though the origin of agriculture is lost in the darkness which shrouds pre-historic times, it can hardly be doubted that men first sowed seeds in the annually-inundated lower valleys of the Nile and other great rivers, which, cradled in distant mountains, are swelled by melting snows more slowly and equably than others. These valleys are often more or less extensively seeded by grains or nuts brought down by the floods; and when such seeding failed or proved inadequate, observation would soon teach those whose subsistence depended on the process to supplement or eko out Nature's niggard, capricious bounty by human providence and industry. Nature had presented a pattern whereon man might profitably improve. After a time the sower strewed his seeds over the face of the stilled and slowly-receding flood, knowing that the softened soil be- neath would retain and cover the germs which the sun would speedily quicken : hence the Hebrew proverb, " Cast thy bread upon the waters, and thou shalt find it after many days." Such seeding required no animal or mechanical power, no implement but the human hand and arm, while the annual inundation supplied in abundance the elements of growth. Such was probably the infancy of agriculture. But the area naturally inundated is small and limited, while, under favoring circumstances, population, tends ever to increase. To cultivate more acres was indispensable; and the most facile, rather than the most fertile, were first selected for such use. But here the earth required break- ing up and pulverizing ; so the aid of strong, docile ani- mals was soon invoked, and rude implements devised to render their muscular strength serviceable. The yoke and the plough were thus called into existence — both rude, as the yoke still measurably is ; the original plough being a forked stick or tree-top, with one prong left five or six feet long for a beam, and the other shortened to a foot or two, and sharpened, to serve as a coulter and share. Asia, Africa — nay, even Spain and Portugal — have made but moderate improvements thereon to this day ; while West- ern Europe and the United States have left the primitive plough almost out of sight. Yet it was not till the begin- ning of the eighteenth century that Jethro TuU persuaded a few British farmers that iron was the true, chief material for ploughs ; and only the enlightened cultivators of the present century have substituted steel for iron. The ruling classes in most nations of antiquity wronged themselves by degrading labor. In the Brahminioal hierarchy, which has so long petrified a large portion of the human race, priests rank above soldiers, and soldiers form a caste which looks down oq the tillers of the soil. Nearly all the ancient kingdoms of Semitic origin or genius, the Hebrews excepted, concurred substantially in this mis- taken estimate. Greece should have been more enlightened, but her ruling caste also, in the days of her glory, was a AGEICULTUEE. 59 caste of warriors, while her soil was tilled mainly by slaves. Kome, in the days of her republican vigor, was a community of cultivators, every citizen being allotted land (usually about six acres), which he was expected to till with his own hands, as was done by some of her greatest warriors and wisest statesmen. But wars of conquest soon filled the re- public with slaves captured in battle, and rural labor, as well as household service, was devolved on them, render- ing tillage menial and (in the general regard) degrading. Agriculture drooped and withered under this bur^ien, and Italy, naturally the garden of Europe, drew a great part of her bread for ages at first from Sicily, then from Egypt and other distant regions, which ignorance, neglect, and wretched husbandry could not render sterile or unfruitful. Feudalism in the West, Islamism in the East, planted themselves on the ruins of the mighty but corroded fabric of Roman power; and it was not till the Crusades had somewhat shattered the claims of feudalism that any sub- stantial progress in agriculture was made since the ages of Moses and Homer. The average serf of "Western Europe, at the date of the Norman conquest, and for generations thereafter, was nowise more fortunate, and was barely more efficient, than the Hebrew cultivator of the age of Samson or of David. The law given by Moses, the book of Job, and the paint- ings still fresh and vivid in the Egyptian temples, to- gether carry us back nearly or quite five thousand years, and show us that the plough has been in use for more than that number of years. Moses ordained that the soil should lie fallow every seventh year — a rude but tolerably certain mode of restoring, by rest and atmospheric influences, its exhausted fertility. Isaac, the son of Abraham, is said to have reaped a hundred-fold in one instance — a wondrous product if the crop were the most prolific known to West- ern Asia in that age. Indeed, historians agree that a yield of five bushels per acre of wheat was the full average of antiquity, if not beyond it. Rye, barley, and oats did better, though not much. Even middling husbandry, with modern implements and methods, yields at least twice as much per acre, and thrice as much per bushel of seed, as did that of Europe and Asia from ten to forty centuries ago. In the production of the grape, the olive, the apple, fig, etc., as also in the roaring of cattle, the ancients stood more nearly on a plane with us, save that their stock was inade- quately and capriciously fed and sheltered in winter, whence great losses were from time to time encountered. A very few eminent breeders kept choice animals, but the great majority thought no more of blood in cattle than of grafting their apple trees or underdraining their marshes. In Greece, agriculture scarcely attracted the notice of the intellectual, powerful, and cultivated minority, who were intent on war and politics, art and music; and no work of noticeable ability survives to attest Greek devotion to, or interest in, the improvement of the soil. Kome was less sterile in this respect j her writers on agriculture proffered suggestions which, though more than two thousand years old, may still be pondered with profit by practical farmers. The original allotment of land to each Koman citizen ranging from two up to six acres, the advantage of thorough over shiftless cultivation is especially insisted on by them, while the advisability of early planting, tilling, harvesting, etc. is forcibly commended. Slavery having degraded labor, while luxury enervated the richer classes, Koman agriculture sank into decay, and Italy was for centuries largely supplied with bread-grain from abroad. The Northern barbarians who overturned and divided the Roman empire were but rude cultivators, and despised the arts of peace, as only befitting serfs and slaves. Of course they did nothing to improve the wretched methods of cultivation which they found in vogue in Greece, Gaul, Iberia, and Italy. But the Saracens, who soon wrested a great part of Southern Europe from the grasp of their degenerate offspring, introduced irrigation and kindred arts from Northern Africa, and made the Spanish peninsula flourish as it had never donC/till then. The fact that their revenue in Spain amounted in the tenth century to $30,000,000 (equal to twenty times that amount in our day) indicates an efficiency and a thrift in cultivation, as well as manufactures, unknown to their modern successors. So long as Europe bent to the yoke of feudalism, agri- cultural improvement was scarcely possible. The tillers of the soil were mainly tenants at will, bound to rush to arms at the call of their lord, and liable to be dispossessed at his nod. They usually paid their rents in kind, and one who grew unusually large crops would have been promptly required to increase his quota of rent. Leases for fixed terms, or for two or more lives, gradually replaced the older methods, the landlords at length discovering that their own true interest required that the tenant should be incited to improve his processes, enlarge his fields, and in- crease his crops. The condition of the masses under the feudal system precluded efiicient cultivation. Sunk in the grossest igno- rance, grovelling in superstitious fear of a haughty priest- hood, taking the law from the mouths of their landlords or feudal masters, they had neither means nor will to improve their holdings and methods. Wheat they seldom ate ; their scanty crops of this grain were required by their masters j rye, barley, and oats afforded their meat and their drink — beer or mead being their only luxury. Even the aris- tocracy of most European countries, but especially of Eng- land, knew few edibles but these, esculent vegetables being as yet few and poor. Says "The British Cyclopasdia:" "It was not till the end of the reign of Henry VIII. that any salads, any carrots, or other edible roots were produced in England. The little of these vegetables that was used was formerly imported from Holland and Flanders." Butcher's meat had been and was abundant and cheap, only because most of the country was uncultivated, lay in common, and was ranged over by cattle that received little care and less fodder. The invention of printing, the discovery of America, the dayspring of inquiry and mental freedom in- augurated by Martin Luther, rung the knell of feudalism. The New AVorld supplied some excellent edibles to the Old — Indian corn and the potato foremost among them. No other grain but rice yields food for man so bounteously as the maize j no other root is so generally acceptable as the potato, though several others yield a larger bulk or weight per acre. Even if the maize were already known to China and the far East, its value to Europe was not lessened. And even tobacco, though making a heavy draft upon the soil, has largely contributed to enhance the gains of the husbandman, since many communities pay as much an- nually for this seductive narcotic as for bread. Modern agriculture dates from the invention of printing, and the consequent multiplication of books and of readers. "The Book of Husbandry," the first English work of de- cided merit devoted to tillage, was first published in the reign of Henry VIII. (1534), and is attributed to a judge named Fitzherbert. It is eminently practical in its incul- cations, and nearly as minute in its descriptions as its lineal successor, Mr. Stephens's " Book of the Farm." It was soon followed by several others of like purpose, which are often judicious, though sometimes fantastic, in their recommendations. The introduction of red clover and the turnip into Great Britain, about 1645, probably did more for her farmers than all the books ever printed had thus far done. It is said that Lord Bacon, having assiduously- collected all the works treating of agriculture known in his day, after dipping into them sufficiently to form an opinion of their contents, at length consigned them to the flames, saying that they laid down rules arbitrarily and with no regard to principles. Wo presume this sweeping criticism contemplated the writings of German and French, as well as British, writers on the art of cultivating the soil. Jethro Tull, a gentleman farmer of Berkshire, whose "Horse-hoeing Husbandry" appeared in 1731, seems to have been the first author who contemplated the farmer's calling with the eye of genius. He had for thirty years been drilling in his crops with decided advantage, and he tells others how to profit by his example. Ho insisted on the advisability of repeated ploughings before seeding, and of sowing in drills' so wide apart as to admit of cultivation with a horse-hoe. Underdraining being as yet unknown, he laid his land in ridges, with shallow ditches interven- ing; he sowed but three pecks of seed to the acre; he hoed his wheat in the fall, and again in the spring ; and, making the ridges of this year on the ground allotted to the ditches of last year, he grew thirteen crops of wheat in succession on the same field, and maintained that the soil was nowise exhausted thereby. He thus anticipated the Loisweden practice of our day, which consists in marking oft' a (drained) field into strips three feet in width, cultivating these in alternate years, and tilling the fallow spaces be- tween the strips of grain. It is claimed for this practice that the crop is as large as when all the ground is sown, and that wheat after wheat may thus be grown arf infini- tum ! Tull sowed turnip seed in the same drills or ridges, at depths of one, two, and four inches respectively, calcu- lating that the lowest would germinate in spite of any but the severest drouth, and that, the young plants appearing at different times, a part of them must at all events escape the fly. British agriculture owes very much to the turnip, which grows luxuriantly in its moist, cool climate, yet is there left in the ground, scarcely touched by frost, until gnawed away gradually by sheep, which are thus fattened more cheaply than they otherwise could be. The breeding of choice sheep and cattle received signal attention in Great Britain during the last century, and the improvements thus effected have been maintained and ex- tended. The Durham and Alderney breeds of cattle, the Leicester, Cotswold, and other excellent breeds of long or 60 AGKICULTUEE. coarse-wooUed sheep, are among the trophies of that cen- tury. The Merino was brought from its native Spain by George III. in 1788, but experience proved it unsuited to the British isles, where mutton is of more consequence than wool. The high price of grain, caused by the persistent wars between France and England for twenty-five years prior to 1815, stimulated the progress of British agriculture. Scotland participated fully in this improvement, whereby millions of acres were reclaimed from heath and bog or rugged pasture, and made largely productive of grain and roots. Underdraining was greatly promoted by an act of Parliament providing that money should be advanced from the public treasury to defray its cost, upon the secu- • rity of a first mortgage on the property thus reclaimed. The progress of agriculture since 1800 has b.een so rapid that its recent triumphs outweigh all that preceded them. The use of dissolved bones as a fertilizer is hardly yet sev- enty years old, yet it has increased the annual grain-har- vest of (Jreat Britain by millions of bushels. For a gene- ration the farmers of this and other countries saw cargo after cargo of bones taken from their shores to fertilize British fields, without even asking what this should sug- gest to them ; but now they use all the bones attainable (mainly in the shape of superphosphate), and look around for more. Guano — whereby the fields of Peru and Chili were fertilized long before Columbus dreamed of a shorter passage westward to China and Japan — first found its way to Great Britain in 1 841 ; its annual application already costs that country millions of dollars, and is still increas- ing. Lastly, the employment of steam in the direct service of agriculture, not only in threshing and winnowing, but in ploughing and tilling as well, is among the great and beneficent improvements of boundless scope and promise for which mankind are indebted to the intelligent and ener- getic cultivators and mechanicians of Great Britain. American agriculture, like that of continental Europe, has too generally been content to follow and to copy where it might have pointed and led the way. Wrestling with giant forests, with stumps and roots, and often with a rocky or a sandy soil, with his capital absorbed in the pur- chase of his generally superabundant acres, the average American cultivator has been content to do as his grand- father did, heedless of all suggestions of improvement. Underdraining, deep-ploughing, the use of commercial fer- tilizers, etc., he instinctively dislikes, and resists so long as resistance is possible. Thus far the substantial triumphs of American agriculture have mainly been the trophies of mechanical genius. Thus, the cotton-gin of Eli Whitney has done more to diffuse comfort and plenty throughout the civilized world than any single achievement of an Ameri- can farmer. Our people were among the first to reduce the weight and lessen the draft of the plough, and they have been among the foremost in its gradual transmutation from a rude implement, constructed mainly of wood, to one far more effective, whereof barely the handles are of wood, while the land-side, as well as the share, and nearly or quite all besides, are made of polished and excellent steel. In axes, scythes, hoes, spades, and nearly every other instrument of manual effort on a farm, our country may boast a decided superiority. In the profitable substi- tution of animal for manual exertion, however, have our most signal triumphs been won. By ploughing instead of hoeing Indian corn we have immensely increased the area cultivated, while reducing the cost of the product. Under our prompting the sickle has been superseded by the cra- dle in cutting all the smaller grains, and this again by the reaper, which cuts acres more rapidly than roods could be cut with the cradle. The mower (always akin to. and sometimes identical with, the reaper) has so reduced the cost and fatigue involved in our hay-harvest that cattle are kept far more cheaply in our old States, estimating their cost in hours of labor, than they could be prior to the last twenty or thirty years. Horse-rakes, hay-tedders, with fanning-mills and kindred devices for separating grain from chaff, threshers of many diverse patterns, corn-busk- ers, potato-diggers, etc., have immensely economized our labor and increased the bulk and value of our annual har- vests. Underdraining, subsoiling, irrigation, etc. have as yet been naturalized among us entirely by the efforts of an enlightened but nowise numerous minority, but their benefits are so signal and indubitable that the many cannot long hesitate to adopt them. In the use of steam in ploughing we are deplorably backward, owing in good part to our recent great and ex- hausting civil war. But for this a thousand portable steam- engines would doubtless have been tearing up our fields ere this, as is the case already in Great Britain, and must soon be here. As it is, we may fairly boast of mic step in advance of our great rival. On the plantation of Mr. Ef- fingham Lawrence, fifty miles below New Orleans, on the west bank of the Mississippi, the largest steam-engines yet constructed by Messrs. John Fowler & Co., the British makers of steam-ploughs and other cultivating machinery, are steadily and profitably employed, not merely in plough- ing that glutinous, leathery clay to a depth of twenty-six to twenty-eight inches, but similar engines, worked entirely by blacks till recently slaves, are lifting and pulverizing to a depth of fully two feet the spaces which separate the rows of growing oane; and doing the work so thoroughly, when the cane is about one foot high, that it needs no further tilling till matured — the plants pushing their roots quickly into the mellow earth, and thence drawing suste- nance for a growth so luxuriant as to smother and choke out all future weeds. So far as is known to this writer, no earlier cultivation of growing crops by steam has been seen on this planet. And this is a hint by which thousands must profit. But few years can elapse before the vast prairies of the West and South-west will be cultivated largely, if not mainly, by steam — the same locomotive being employed to plough, seed, till, harvest, thresh, winnow, and perhaps transport the grain to the nearest steamboat wharf or railroad sta- tion. Working on untired through day and night, con- suming nothing when idle, and thoroughly pulverizing fifty acres per day to a depth unattainable by horse-power, the steam-engine will prove here, as elsewhere, the might- iest friend and most useful servant ever vouchsafed to hu- man genius at the call of an urgent need. Early History of Agriemltvre. — As the Greeks and Ro- mans appear to have arrived at as great a degree of perfec- tion in legislation as the moderns, so they may be said to have attained great excellence in the art of agriculture. Till within the present century very little difference existed between the most approved agriculture of climates analogous to that of Italy and the agriculture of the Romans as de- scribed by Cato, Columella, and other ancient writers. The chief superiority of the moderns consists in their machinery, and especially in their knowledge of the sciences connected with this pursuit; the last, though extremely important, being of very recent date, and as yet by no means generally diffused. By science are not only acquired more enlightened and greatly improved methods of treating the soil, taut su- perior breeds both of plants and animals have been origin- ated j by improved machinery a more perfect tillage has been produced, and also a more complete separation of the produce of the soil from the refuse of the plants and other impurities. In Great Britain the history of agriculture begins with the Roman Conquest. Julius Cassar found the iuhabitan/s in a state of semi-barbarism, but Agricola left them in pos- session of all the arts of civilization known to the Romans, Agriculture declined with the invasion of the Saxons, hut was preserved through the dark ages after the establish- ment of Christianity by the intelligence of the members of religious establishments, who gradually became possessed of the greater part of the landed property in the country. The culture of the land will be found to have depended in every country principally on its climate and civilization, though partly, also, on its government and population. In the warmer climates, where nature produces fruits in the greatest abundance for the food both of men and animals, and where very little care is required to procure shelter or clothing, agriculture has made little progress, because it is comparatively unnecessary for the prosperity of the inhabitants. On the other hand, in climates of a directly opposite character agriculture has made equally slight prog- ress, owing to the almost insurmountable obstacles opposed to it. ^ It is therefore only in intermediate climates, where the soil admits of labor by man throughout a great part of the year, that agriculture is calculated to attain the highest degree of perfection. Literature of Agriculture, — The literature of agriculture begins with the works of the Romans, of which Coiamel- la's work, " De Re Rustica," may be considered the most comprehensive and valuable. Virgil's " Georgics," a poem unequalled of its kind in any language, may be said to teach, with all the attractions of the most exquisite poetry, everything that was then known of the art of agriculture. In the dawn of modem agriculture, the principal writers were— Crescentius in Italy, Herrera in Spain, Olivier de Serres in France, Hereshbachius in Germany, and Fitz- herbert in England. (For the recent literature of scientific agriculture, the reader is referred to the bibliography at the end of Agricultural Chemistry.) At the beginning of the present century the most comprehensive author on agriculture in Italy was Fillippo Re; in France, Tessier; in Germany, Mayer; and in England, Marshall. About the best work from which a general idea may be obtained of the agriculture of Franco and corresponding climates is " Maison, Rustique du xix= sigcle, ou Encyclopedic d'Agri- culture pratique," complete in one volume, 8vo.; and the AGRICULTURE, DEPARTMENT OF— AHLQUIST. 61 corresponding British worlsa are Loudon's " Encyclopedia of Agriculture ;" Stephens's " Book of the Farm ;" Mor- ton's " Cyclopedia of Agriculture ;" and Wilson's " British Farming." (See " The American Farmer," 2 vols., by Hon. C. L. Flint.) Horace Greeley. Agriculture, Department of, was established by Congress in 1862 in Washington, D. C. By means of an- nual and monthly reports it diffuses information deemed advantageous to the agricultural interests of the country. It purchases and propagates seeds and plants, which are dis- tributed to the people of the U. S. It is under the com- missioner of agriculture, who is appointed by the President and confirmed by the Senate. It has a fine building, which stands W. of the grounds of the Smithsonian Institution. Connected with it are a museum, chemical laboratory, prop- agating gardens, and a library. Its monthly reports of the prospects of the staple crops are especially valuable. At the propagating gardens plants received by exchange from foreign governments and botanic gardens are tested with a view to introducing new and useful plants in U. S. Agrigen'tiim (now Girgen'ti), an ancient city of Sicily, situated on the slope of a mountain on the S. coast of the island. It was founded about 582 B. C, and once had about 200,000 inhabitants. Here are magnificent ruins, among which are the temple of Concord (said to be the most perfect extant structure of the early Greek architecture), and the tem- ple of Olympian Jupiter, about 350 feet long. (See SiR- genti.) Ag'rimony [Lat. Agrimn'nia], a genus of herbaceous plants of the natural order RosacesB. The Agrimonia JEu- patoria, a native of Europe and the TJ. S., has been used in medicine. Several species grow in the Southern U. S. Agrippa, King. See Herod Asrippa. Agrip'pa (Henry Cornelius), of Nettesheim, German physician, philosopher, and astrologer, was born at Cologne Sept. 14, 1486. He cultivated many departments of know- ledge, and engaged in various pursuits in many countries of Europe. He acquired fame by his talents and his sup- posed skill in occult science, but he was regarded as an im- postor and heretic by some of his contemporaries. He lectured on theology at Cologne and other places, and practised medicine in France. Among his works is a satire "On the Vanity of the Sciences" (in Latin, 1530). Died Feb. IS, 1535. Agrip'pa (Marcus Vipsanids), an eminent Roman statesman and general, born in 63 B. C. He became in his youth a friend of Ootavius (afterwards the emperor Augus- tus), to whom he rendered important military services, es- pecially at the battle of Actium, where he commanded the fleet, in 31 B. C. Agrippa and Maecenas were the principal ministers and advisers of Augustus after he had obtained the supreme power. He married Julia, the daughter of Augustus, about 21 B. C, and had several sons, two of whom were adopted by the emperor. Died in 12 B. C. Agrippi'na I., a Roman lady, the daughter of M. Vipsanius Agrippa and his wife Julia, was married to the famous Germanious. Her virtue is highly commended. Died about 32 A. D. Agrippina II., a daughter of the preceding, was born about 14 A. D. She was the mother of the emperor Nero, and wa.s notorious for her profligacy and her crimes. Her third husband was the emperor Claudius, whom she killed by poison. She was put to death by her son Nero in 60 A. D. Ag'telek, or Bar'adla, the name of one of the largest and most remarkafble stalactitic caverns of Europe, is in the county of Gomor, in Hungary. Here is a labyrinth of cav- erns, one of which is 96 feet high, 90 feet wide, and extends about 900 feet in a direct line. Aguardiente (ah-gwar-de-en'ta),Spanish for Brandy, which see. A'gna Volcan'de (i. e. "volcano of water"), a moun- tain of Central America, in the state of Guatemala, situated about 25 miles S. W. of Guatemala ; so called from the fact that it sometimes pours forth torrents of water. The old town of Guatemala has been twice destroyed by it. Its crater is 15,000 feet above the sea-level. A'gnas Calien'tes (i. e. "warm springs "), a state of Mexico, is bounded on the N., E., and W. by Zacatecas, and on the S. by Jalisoa. Area, 2216 square miles. The soil is very fertile, but poor in minerals. Pop. in 1880, 91,115. Capital, Aguas Calientes. Aguas Calientes, a town of Mexico, the capital of the state of its own name, is on a plain or table-land 6000 feet above the sea, and 250 miles N. W. of the city of Mexico. It has numerous churches and three convents, and is sur- rounded by gardens and orchards of olives, pears, figs, etc. Hot springs occur in the vicinity. Pop. 22,380. A'gue [probably from the Fr. agu, an old form of aigu, " sharp," in allusion to the violence of the disease] is the common name for the Intermittent Fever (whicli see). Aguesseau, d' (Henri Francois). See Appendix. Agnilar' de la Fronte'ra, a town of Spain, on the Cabra, 22 miles S. S. E. of C6rdova, is noted for the white- ness of its houses and the cleanness of its streets. It has several fine public squares, a town-hall, and a dismantled Moorish castle. Pop. 11,836. Aguilar (Grace), a Jewish authoress of Spanish ex- traction, was born at Hackney, near London, June 2, 1816. Among her numerous works are "Women of Israel," " Home Scenes and Heart Studies," and " Home Influence, a Tale." She died at Frankfort Sept. 16, 1847. Agulhas, Cape, the most southern point of Africa, is about 100 miles E. of the Cape of Good Hope. A light- house was erected on it in 1849 J lat. of lighthouse, 34° 49' 8" S., Ion. 20° 0' 7" E. Agusti'na, called the "Maid of Saragossa," died at Ceuta, Spain, in 1857. She greatly distinguished herself during the siege of Saragossa by the French in 1809, and as a reward for her services was made a lieutenant in the Spanish army and received numerous decorations. Byron extols her in " Childe Harold," canto i., stanzas 54, 55, 56. Agyn'ians [from the Gr. a, neg., and yuv^, a "woman "], a Gnostic sect of the seventh century who condemned mar- riage and the use of certain kinds of meat. A'hab [Heh.Acliai'], eighth king of Israel, who reigned B. C. 918-896. His wife was Jezebel, daughter of Ethbaal, the usurping king of Tyre. He dwelt at Jezreel, which he adorned with splendid buildings. The story of his weak- ness, his idolatry, and the stern opposition of the prophet Elijah is related in the first book of Kings. Ahab was killed in battle with Benhadad, king of Damascus. Ahan'ta, a negro kingdom in Upper Guinea, which was formerly independent, but was conquered by Ashantee. It is one of the healthiest, richest, and most civilized districts on the coast, having a fertile and well-cultivated soil. The chief productions are sugar-cane, rice, and timber. The chief articles of export are palm oil, ivory, and gold. In 1683, Frederick William, the great elector, attempted to start a colony here, but in 1718 Prussia sold all her pos- sessions on the Gold Coast to the West India Company in Amsterdam. The Dutch took possession of several other districts in this neighborhood, but in 1872 ceded all their possessions on the Gold Coast to Great Britain. Ahasue'rus, the name of one Median and two Persian kings mentioned in the Old Testament. The Ahasuerus of Esther was probably Xerxes, the invader of Greece, who reigned from 486 to 465 B. C. He invaded Greece in 480, and is supposed to have married Esther the year after. A'liaz [Heb. Achaa, " possessor "], twelfth king of Judah after its secession from Israel, reigned B. C. 741-725. His reign was greatly disturbed by the attacks of Rezin, king of Damascus, and Pekah, king of Israel, as well as those of the Edomites and Philistines. Ahaz called to his aid the powerful Tiglath-Pileser, king of Assyria, who over- threw the enemies of Judah, but made Ahaz his vassal, and carried off rich treasures from the temple and palaces of Jerusalem. Ahaz was an idolater. A statement in 2 Kings xvi. 2 as to his accession would make his son and succes- sor, Hezekiah, to have been bom when he was eleven years old, but this must be a transcriber's Qrror or the date of a viceroyship. Ahazi'ah, ninth king of Israel, succeeded his father Ahab, and ruled under the direction of Jezebel, his mother, B. C. 897-896. — Also the name of the sixth king of Judah, B. C. 885-884. A famous error of some transcriber (2 Chron. xxi. 5, 20) makes him younger than his own son. Ahith'ophel [Heb. Achithophel, "foolish"], a Hebrew politician and councillor of David. He took the side of Absalom in his rebellion, but, foreseeing the failure of the enterprise, went home and hangeol himself. Ahl'feld (JoHANN Friedrich), an eminent German preacher, born Nov. 1, 1810, became in 1847 clergyman in Halle, and in 1851 in Leipsic, and gained in both places the reputation of an excellent pulpit orator. He published several collections of sermons, all of which have had a large sale. Ahl'i^uist (August Enselbert), a celebrated Finnish philologist, born Aug. 7, 1826, not only made the Finnish language his especial study, but also made it his object to raise it to the rank of a written language, and to create a national Finnish literature. For this purpose he travelled under the greatest difficulties through Northern Russia and Siberia to acquaint himself with the tribes of the Uralian- Altaio race living there. At present he is professor of Fin- nish language and literature in the University of Hel- singfors. His chief works are " An Attempt at a Moksha- 62 AHLWAKDT— AIKEN. Mordwinian Grammar" (1862), a " Grammar of the Wotish Language," and a description of iiis travels in Siberia (1853-58). He has also written many poema in the Finnish language, and made several translations from the German of Schiller. Ahl'wardt (Theodore Wilhelm), a German Oriental- ist, born July 4, 1828, became in 1861 librarian and professor of Oriental languages at the University of Greifswalde. He published " Chalef el Ahmara Qasside " (1859), besides sev- eral historical works. Ah'med IV., sometimes called Abd'oI-HSmid, a Turkish sultan, born in 1725, succeeded to the throne in 1773. His reign is chiefly notable on account of the two disas- trous wars with Russia, in which Turkey lost the Crimea, a portion of Ciroassia, with some other territories, and a number of important fortresses. Died in 1789. Ab'meAkb&A' (i. e. "the abode of Ahmed"), a city of British India, in the presidency of Bombay, is on the river Subbormuttee, 16 miles by rail N. N. W. of Surat ; lat. 23° 1' N., Ion. 72° 48' E. It was formerly a large and magnificent capital, but is now much decayed. Here are several beautiful mosques and other remains of its ancient splendor. It was founded by Ahmed Shah in 1412. Pop. 116,873. Ah'mednug'gnr (». «. the "fort of Ahmed "), a city and fortress of Briti^sh India, in the presidency of Bombay, on the Seena, 162 miles by rail E. of Bombay. It was founded by Ahmed Nizam Shah in 1493, and became a cap- ital of the kingdom of the same name. It was taken by General Wellesley in Aug., 1803, and the fortress is now held by a British garrison. Pop. about 20,000. Ah'raedpoor'-Barra (i. e. "great Ahmcdpoor"), a town of Hindostan, situated in a fertile tx'act 30 miles S. "W. of Bhawlpoor. It has manufactui'cs of matchlocks, gun- powder, cotton, and silk stuffs. Pop. about 20,000. Ah'mOod, a town of British India, in the presidency of Bombay, 12 miles N. by W. of Baroach. Pop. about 13,000. Ahn (JoHASN Eranz), a German writer and author of a new method of learning foreign languages, born at Aix-la- Ghapelle Dec. 15, 1796, published a "Practical Course for the Quick and Easy Acquisition of the French Language" (167th ed. 1870), and other similar works, which have found Jin immense circulation. His method has been imi- itated by many other writers. Died Aug. 21, 1865. Ah'rens (Heinrich), an eminent German, born July 14, 1808, lectured in Paris in 1833 on the history of German philosophy since the time of Kant, and became in 1834 pro- fessor of philosophy in Brussels, in 1850 professor of ab- stract law and political economy at Graz, in 1859 of prac- tical philosophy and political science at Leipsic, and in 1863 was elected representative of the university in the first chamber of Saxony. His principal works are " Cours de droit naturel " (6th ed. 1869; German ed. 1846) ; " Philo- so'phie des Rechts" (1851-52; 6th ed. 1870); "Juristisohe Encycl." (1855-57), which has been translated into several foreign languages. _ Ah'riinan, the principle of evil among the ancient Per- sians. (See Ormtjzd.) Ah'waz, a small town of Persia, 100 miles N. E. of Bassorah, was once an important city. The ruins of the ancient city extend 12 miles on the bank of the Karoon. Ai, the native name of the Bradypue tridacti/lua, or three- toed sloth, an edentate mammal of South America. There are several varieties of this animal. It takes its name from the loud cry which it makes while moving in the forests. It is very tenacious of life, and will move its legs long after it has been disembowelled and beheaded. In habits it re- sembles the other sloths. A'i (a " ruin "), acity of Palestine, which was destroyed by Joshua. Its site is not positively known. — Also a city of Ammon, destroyed by the Babylonians. Aid'an, Saint, first bishop of Lindisfarne, was born in Ireland, and was sent as a missionary bishop to Nonhum- bria by the bishop of lona about 635 A. D. He was suc- cessful in establishing Christianity, being aided by the king and nobles. Died Aug. 31, 651. Aides- de- Camp, confidential officers selected by gen- eral ofllcers to assist them in their military duties, are e.c- qfficio assistant adjutants-general (act Mar. 2, 1821). They are in the U. S. service attached to the person of the gen- eral, and receive orders only from him. Their functions are difficult and delicate. Often enjoying the full confidence of the general, they are employed in representing him, in writing orders, in carrying them in person if necessary, in communicating them verbally upon battle-fields and other fields of manceuvre. It is important that aides-de-camp should know well the position of troops, routes, posts, quarters of generals, composition of columns, and orders of corps. It is necessary that their knowledge should be suflioiently comprehensive to understand the object and purpose of all orders, and also to judge in the varying cir- cumstances of a battle-field whether it is not necessary to modify an order when carried in person, or if there be time to return for new instructions. (Scott's Military Diction- ary.) The existing law of the U. S. allows six aides-de- camp (colonels) to the general ; two and a military secre- tary (lieutenant-colonels) to the lieutenant-generals ; three (captains or lieutenants) to a major-general; and two (lieu- tenants) to a brigadier-general. Aidin', or Guzei-Hissar (ano. Tral'les), a town of Asiatic Turkey, in Anatolia, on the river Mender (Mean- der), about 68 miles S. B. of Smyrna, with which it is con- nected by railroad. It has a large trade, being next to Smyrna in commercial importance, and is the residence of a pasha. Here are several fine mosques and synagogues. American missionaries have established here a flourishing Protestant mission. The ruins of the ancient Tralles are in the vicinity. Aidin is noted for its figs, great quantities of which are produced in the neighborhood, and many are exported. Pop. 30,000. Aido'ne, a town of Sicily, in the province of Caltani- setta, 20 miles E. S. B. of Caltanisetta. Here are mineral springs. Pop. 5229. Aignan (Etienne), born in 1773 at Beaugency-sur- Loire. He was chosen a member of the French Academy in 1814; joined the liberal opposition, after the restoration of 1815, as a publicist; wrote " The Condition of the Pro- testants in France" (1818), and made a fine translation of the Iliad in verse in the French language. Died in 1824. Aiguebelle, a small town of France in Savoy, on the left bank of the Arc, 15 miles E. of Chamb6ry. Pop. in 1881, 1059. Here the combined French and Spanish armies defeated Duke Charles Emmanuel III. of Savoy in 1742. The road built by Napoleon over Mont Cenis commences near Aiguebelle. Aiguebelle, d' (Paul Alexandre Neveue), a French naval officer in the service of China, was born Jan. 7, 1831. He took part with the Franco-Chinese corps against the Tai-Pings, and took in 1864 the important city of Hang- Chow-Foo. He entered the Chinese service, was created a mandarin of the first rank, organized an important military arsenal at Foo-Chow-Foo, and in June, 1869, he launched the first man-of-war of the new navy built on the European plan. He was then made grand admiral of the Chinese fleets, which title was expressly created for him. Aigues Mortes, a town of France, in the department of Gard, 19 miles from Nimes. Pop. in 1881, 3564. The large saline works of Peccais are in the neighborhood. An interview between Francis I. of France and the emperor Charles V. took place here in 1538. Louis IX. embarked from this place on the seventh crusade Aug. 25, 1248, and on July 4, 1270, on the eighth and last crusade. Aiguille [Fr., a " needle "], the name of numerous sharp- pointed peaks in the Alps. Aiguillon (Armand Vignerod Duplessis Richelieu), Duke op, a French statesman, born in 1720, was governor of Alsace, and afterwards of Brittany. He gained the favor of the king's mistress, Madame du Barry, and through her influence was made prime minister. Upon the acces- sion of Louis XVI. he was removed from office and banished from court, and died in 1782. • Aiguillon (Armand de Vigserot Duplessis Riche- lieu), Due, son of the preceding, earnestly supported the popular cause in the States-General of 1789. He com- manded one of the armies in 1792, but was proscribed by the ruling party the same year, and escaped by flight. Died in 1800. r j t, Aualon. See Ajalon. Aik'en, on R. R., capital of Aiken co., S. C. (see map of South Carolina, ref. 6-D. for location of county), is noted as a resort for invalids, especially those suffering from pulmonary complaints. Being situated on a plateau 600 feet above the level of the sea and 400 feet higher than the city of Augusta, which is 17 miles distant, and the soil being sandy and porous, the system of natural drainage is almost perfect, rendering the atmosphere peculiarly dry and elastic. The dew-point is invariably low. The climate is a mean between the dry, cold region of Minnesota and the moist, temperate section of Florida, and has proved effica- cious in restoring health to thousands of invalids. Pot) in 1880, 1817. ^ Aiken (Charles Augustus), D. D., LL.D., was born at Manchester, Vt., Oct. 30, 1827, graduated at Dartmouth College in 1846, and at Andover Theological Seminary in AIKEN— AINSWOKTH. 63 1853, was pastor of a Congregational church in Yarmouth, Me., from 1864 to 1859, professor of the Latin language and literature at Dartmouth from 1859 to 1866, professor of Latin in the College of New Jersey from 1866 to 1869, president of Union College from 1869 to 1871, and became professor of Christian ethics and apologetics in the Prince- ton Theological Seminary. Ho translated and edited the book of Proverbs in the American edition of Lange's " Commentary," and has published several articles in the "BibUotheca Sacra" and "Princeton Review." Aiken (William), born in Charleston, S. C, in 1806, graduated at South Carolina College in 1825. He was prominent in public affairs, was governor of South Caro- lina (1844-46), and a Democratic member of Congress (1851-57). He was a man of great wealth, being pro- prietor of Jehossee Island, where he formerly employed 1000 slaves in rice-culture. He was distinguished while in public life by his wisdom and moderate views, and has con- tributed largely to the cause of education and to benevolent objects. While in Congress in 1857 he lacked but one vote of becoming Speaker of the House of Representatives. Aik'in (John), M. D., an English writer, born in Lei- cestershire Jan. 15, 1747. He produced, conjointly with his sister, Mrs. Barbauld, an instructive juvenile book called "Evenings at Home" (1792-95), which had great popularity. He practised medicine in London and other places. Among his numerous works is a biographical dic- tionary, entitled " General Biography " (10 vols. 4to, 1815). He edited the "Monthly Magazine" (1796-1806). Died Dec. 7, 1822. Aikin, (Lucy), a daughter of the preceding, born Nov. 6, 1781, wrote, besides other works, a memoir of her father (1823), and "Life of Joseph Addison " (1843). Died Jan. 29, 1864. Aik'man (William), a distinguished Scottish painter, born at Cairnby Oct. 24, 1682; died in London Juno 7, 1731. Ailan'thus, or Ailan'tus {i. e. "tree of heaven"), a tree which is a native of China, and has remarkably large pinnate leaves. It grows rapidly, and is often planted as an ornamental or shade tree in the cities of Europe and the U. S. The foliage is handsome, but it causes much an- noyance by the rapid spread of suckers from the parent tree. The staminate flowers, which are borne on distinct trees, have an offensive odor that often produces headache and nausea. The female plants are free from this objection, and the clusters of winged fruit which they bear are quite ornamental, so that they should always be chosen for shade trees. Besides the above {Ailanthus glandulosua) there are several other species, chiefly tropical. They belong to the order Simarubacece. Ailanthus Silkworm (the Al'tacua cyn'thia of the naturalists) is so named from its feeding on the leaves of the ailanthus tree. The silk obtained from this worm is ex- tensively used in China and it is even thought by some that it will, for most purposes, ulti- mately supersede the culture of the common silkworm, as it is much hardier and not subject to many diseases to which the other is lia- ble. In addition to this, the tree is easily Ailanthus Silkworm. cultivated, being readily acclimatized in most temperate countries. The eggs are hatched in a similar manner to those of the common silkworm, and the larvse, after being fed through their first moult with picked leaves, are trans- ferred to the trees, and there left. AillVy Peter of, an eminent French prelate, born in Picardy in 1350. He became archbishop of Cambray in 1395,. and a cardinal in 1414. He denounced and wished to reform some abuses in the Church. He was called "Malleus Hgereticorum " and" Aquila Doctorum." Died Aug. 9, 1420. Ailred (iEthelred or Alured), Saint, Cistercian abbot of Rievaulx, Yorkshire, born in England in 1109, was educated in Scotland. He wrote numerous sermons, histories, and other works, part of which were edited by Twisden (1652), by Camerarius (1631), and by one Gibbon (Douai, 1631). Died Jan. 12, 1166. Airsa, Marquesses of (1831), Barons Ailsa (1806, in the United Kingdom), earls of Cassilis (1509) ; Barons Ken- nedy (1452, in Scotland) ; baronets (1632, in Scotland), a prominent family of Great Britain. — Archibald Kennedy, the third marquess, born Sept. 1, 1847, succeeded his father in 1870. Ail'sa Craig, an island 10 miles from the coast of Ayr- shire, Scotland. It is a crag of trap-rock of a somewhat columnar character. It is 1098 feet high, and 2 miles only in circumference. It is not inhabited. It gives his title to the marquis of Ailsa, its proprietor. Ailu'rus=s- Furgens, the scientific name of an animal of the class Mammalia, order Carnlvora, family Ursidge, found in the mountains of Nepal. By the inhabitants of that country it is termed panda, chitwa, and wak, the last name having been given it on account of its peculiar cry. It is about the size of a large cat, and is remarkable for its singularly rich and beautiful fur, which is mostly of a bright chestnut-brown, but deepens into a fine rich black on the chest and outside of the legs. It has a short head and a thick muzzle. The head is of a whitish fawn-color, with a ruddy chestnut spot under each eye. The tail is of the same color as the body, being marked with a series of dark rings. " The coat of the panda is not only handsome in appear- ance, but is very thick, fine and warm in texture, being composed of a double set of hairs — the one forming a thick woolly covering to the skin, and the other composed of long glistening hairs, that pierce through the wool and give the exquisitely rich coloring to the surface of the fur." Cuvier regarded the panda as the most beautiful of known quad- rupeds. It is much to be regretted that these animals do not exist in sufficient numbers to render their fur an ar- ticle of commercial value. The food of the panda is chiefly of an animal character, consisting of birds, their eggs, the smaller mammalia, etc. Its habits are partly arboreal. Aimard (Gustave), a French novelist, born Sept. 13, 1818, came to America at an early age, and after a short stay travelled throughout Southern Europe. Among his works are "Les Trappeurs de TArkansas," "Les Aventu- riers," " L'Araucan," etc. Died Apr. 30, 1883. Aim6-Martin (Lours), a French writer, born in 1786, became in 1815 secretary of the Chamber of Deputies. He published, among other works, " Lettres &, Sophie sur la physique, la chimie et Thistoire naturelle" (1810), and "L'^ducation des mdres de families" (1834). He also pub- lished the complete works of Bernardin de St.-Pierre, with a biography of the author. Died June 22, 1847. Ai'mon, or Ay'mond, a French Benedictine of Fleury, wrote a "Historia Francorum," extending from 253 to 654; also a life of Abbo of Fleury, and other works. Died in 1008. Ain, a department of Eastern France, is bounded on tho N. by the departments of Sa6ne-et-Loire and Jura, on tho E. by Haute Savoye, on the S. by Isere, and on the "W. by Rh6ne and Sa6ne-et-Loire. Area, 2239 square miles. The department is watered by the Rh6ue and the SaSne, which flow along its boundaries, and by the Ain. The western part consists of a large plateau, which is very fertile. In the E. large mountain -ranges prevail, which contain iron, asphaltum, and the best lithographic stones in France, Pop. in 1881, 363,472. Chief town, Bourg-in-Bresse. Ain-miiller (Maximilian Emanuel), a German paint- er, born at Munich Feb. 14, 1807, is noted as the restorer of the art of painting on glass. Among his works are the windows of the cathedrals of Ratisbon and Cologn?. Died Dec. 8, 1870. Ai'iioS) a race inhabiting the Koorile Islands and the north of Japan. They have attracted attention mainly from the greatly exaggerated, though not utterly false, statements of travellers, that their bodies were entirely cov- ered with hair; from which circumstance they are often called "hairy Kooriles." They are said to be of a mild and amiable disposition. They worship the sun and moon, but have no priests or places set aside for religious ser- vices. They have a written language, which seems to be Aryan, are certainly not Turanian, and have been gradu- ally supplanted by the Japanese. Ainsworth, Neb. See Appendix. Ainsworth (now Pasco), W. T. See Appendix. Ainsworth (Robert), an English classical scholar, born near Manchester in 1660, taught school in London. He published a well-known Latin dictionary (1736). Died April 4, 1743. Ainsworth (William Francis), an English physician and geologist, born at Exeter Nov. 9, 1807. He accom- panied Colonel Chesney on an expedition to the Euphrates in 1835. He published "Researches in Assyria" (1842), and " Travels and Researches in Asia Minor, Mesopotamia, Chaldea, etc." (2 vols... 1842). * Ailurus signifies "having a waving tail," like that of a cat; fromato^os, "quickly moving" or "waving,"and ovpa,a"tail." 64 AINSWORTH— AIX-LA-CHAPELLE. Ainsworth (William Harrison), an English novelist, born in Manchester Feb. 4, 1805. He published " Eook- wood" (1834) and "Jack Sheppard" (1839), the latter of ■which had an extraordinary success, and " The Tower of London." In 1845 he became the proprietor of the " New Monthly Magazine." His numerous stories have had great popularity. Died Jan. 3, 1882. Aintab', a town of Asiatic Turkey, on the S. slope of Mount Taurus or Alma-Dagh, about 60 miles N. of Aleppo, and 92 miles N. E. of Antioch. It is well built, and has . manufactures of leather, woollen cloths, etc. The American Protestant missionaries have had for years a flourishing mission among the Armenians of this town. Pop. 43,410. Air [Gr. aijp, from aw, to "breathe;" Lat. a'cr] was con- sidered an element by the ancient philosophers, but it is now known to be a mixture of oxygen and nitrogen with some other gases. (For information respecting the prop- erties and phenomena of the air, see Acoustics, by Prof. 0. N. Rood, LL.D.; Barometer, by Pres. P. A. P. Bar- nard; and Pneumatics. (See also Atmosphere.) Air (in painting). See Aerial Perspective. Air, a town of Africa. See Asben. Air-Bed, a sleeping apparatus made of air-tight cloth or vulcanized India rubber, divided into compartments and inflated with air. The coolness, cleanness, and elasticity of this bed render it desirable for the use of the sick. Air-Bladder, or Swimming-Bladder, an organ in flshes which enables them to modify their specific gravity, and to move easily upward or downward, by increasing or diminishing the volume of air (in some instances replaced by nitrogen) in the bladder. This air is supposed to bo ob- tained by secretion. The mackerel and some other species of flsh have no air-bladder. It is the analogue of the lungs of air-breathing animals. Air-Ceils, in birds, are cavities connected with the res- piratory system, and are distributed over the inside of the chest and abdomen. They also penetrate the bones and quills. Communicating with the lungs, they give a great extension to the surface with which the air inhaled comes in contact, and serve to increase the muscular energy and the animal heat, and to diminish the specific gravity. Air-Gells, in plants, are spaces in the cellular tissue, containing air. They occur chiefly in aquatic plants. Air'drie, a market-town and parliamentary borough of Scotland, in the county of Lanark, 11 miles B. by N. of Glasgow, with which it is connected by railway. It is well built and lighted with gas. The growth and prosperity of Airdrie have been increased by mines of iron and coal which are worked in the vicinity. Pop. in 1881, 13,363. Aire-sur-1'Adour, an old town of France, in Landes, on the river Adour, 20 miles S. E. of Mont de Marsan, is the seat of a bishop, has a cathedral and a college. It was once the capital of the Visigoth kings. Pop. in 1881, 4562. Aire-sur-Ia-Lys, a fortified town of France, in Pas de Calais, on the river Lys, 10 miles S. B. of St. Omer. It has a Gothic church. Pop. in 1881, 8238. Airey (Richard). See Appendix. Air-Glin, an instrument for projecting bullets or other missiles by means of the elastic force of condensed air. A strong reservoir of metal is constructed, into which air is forced by a condensing syringe. The reservoir may be of any form, but it is most conveniently disposed of by pla- cing it within the stock. The bullet should fit the barrel very ex.Tctly, so as to leave no windage. On pulling the trigger, the condensed air escapes through the valve and rushes with violence into the barrel, propelling the bullet before it ; and the instant the finger is withdrawn from the trigger, the valve is closed by the pressure of the air in the magazine, which remains in a somewhat less condensed state for the next discharge. Thus the same supply of air in the magazine will serve for several successive discharges, but the force becomes weaker and weaker after each. The force with which a projectile is propelled from an air-gun is commonly much less than that produced by an ordinary discharge of gunpowder, but they may be so made as to be very formidable weapons. Air'Iie, Earls of. Barons Ogilvy of Airlie (1491 ), Barons Ogilvy of Alyth and Lintrathen (1639, in the Scotch peer- age), a prominent family of Great Britain. The first earl of Airlie was created in 1639. — David Graham Drdmmond Ogilvy, the tenth earl, was born May 4, 1826, and suc- ceeded his father in 1849. Air-Plants, a term applied to certain epiphytic tropi- cal plants, which hang in festoons from forest trees, and are able to live suspended in the air, without the presence of earth or water. The family of OrohidaceBB furnishes some beautiful specimens of air-plants. Air-Pump, a machine by which a partial vacuum is formed and air is exhausted from a vessel, was invented by Otto Guericke in 1654, and subsequently improved by several persons. It consists of a circular brass plate, on which is placed a bell-glass, called a receiver, and two ver- tical brass cylinders, each of which is furnished with apis- ton. By means of a hole in the centre of the plate, and a connecting tube, a communication is formed between the receiver and the cylinders. The movement of the piston expels the air from the cylinders, into which a portion of air then rushes from the receiver, and a valve is placed at the mouth of the connecting tube, so that no air can re- turn into the receiver. Another valve in the piston opens outward and permits the air to escape. The air-pump is used in many scientific experiments to demonstrate the pressure of the atmosphere and various other properties of air. Air'y (George Biddell), C. B., LL.D., D. C. L., F. R. S., born at Alnwick, Northumberland, June 27, 1801, graduated B. A. at Trinity College, Cambridge, in 1824, being senior wrangler. In 1826 he became Lucasian professor of phil- osophy, and in 1828 Plumian professor of astronomy. In 1835 he was appointed astronomer-royal, and placed in charge of the Greenwich Observatory. Dr. Airy has at- tained a very high rank as an astronomer and physicist, and has written much upon weights, measures, coinage, railways, and other kindred subjects. He has made im- portant improvements in astronomical and philosophical instruments. He wrote the article " Gravitation " in the " Penny Cyclopaedia," and " Trigonometry," " Figure of the Earth," and " Tides and Waves " in the " Bncyclopasdia Metropolitana ;" also '^Mathematical Tracts," "Ipswich Lectures on Astronomy," "Errors of Observation," trea- tises on '* Sound," " Magnetism," etc., besides very nume- rous and important monographs and papers for periodicals. Aisne, a river of the N. part of France, rises in the department of Meuse, flows nearly westward, passes by Soissons, and enters the Oise near Compiegne. Length, about 150 miles. The canal of Ardennes connects it with the Meuse. Aisne, a department in the N. of France, is bounded on the N. by the department Nord, on the E. by Ar- dennes and Marne, on the S. by Seine-et-Marne, and on the W. by Oise and Somme. Area, 2839 square miles. It is traversed by the Oise, the Aisne, and the Marne rivers. The soil is fertile, and the manufacturing industry in this department is very large. Wheat and hay are among the staple productions. It is subdivided into 6 arrondisse- ments, 37 cantons, and 838 communes. Chief town, Laon. Pop. in 1881, 556,891. Aiss6 (Mademoiselle), a Circassian woman, born in 1693, was bought at the age of four years by the French ambassador in Constantinople, who brought her to France. Her position in society, together with her romantic adven- tures, gave her quite a celebrity in the last century. Died in 1733. Her letters were published, with notes. Aitkin, on R. R., capital of Aitkin co., Minn, (see map of Minnesota, ref. 6-E, for location of county). Pop. in 1880, 136; in 1885, 705. Alton (William), born in Scotland in 1731 ; director of botanical garden at Kew, England, 1759-93; published "Hortus Kewensis," a catalogue of plants in the Royal Botanical Garden at Kew. Died in 1793. Aitze'ma, van (Lieuwe), a Dutch historian, born at Doccum in 1600, wrote a " History of the Netherlands from 1621 to 1668." Died in 1669. Aix, aks (anc. A'quse Sex'tix), a city in the S. E. part of France, in the department of Bouches-du-Rh6ne, 33 miles by rail N. of Marseilles. It was formerly the capital of Provence, and was a celebrated seat of learning in the Middle Ages. It is the seat of an archbishop, has a fine cathedral, a city hall (h6tel de ville), a museum, a royal college, and a public library containing about 100,000 vol- umes. Here are manufactures of silk and cotton, and warm mineral springs, from which it derived its ancient name. Pop. in 1881, 29,257. Aix, a small town of France, in Savoy, in a delightful valley 8 miles N. of Chambgry. It is near Lake Bourget, and has thermal springs, which are much frequented. Here are some ancient Roman ruins. Pop. in 1881, 4741. Aix-la-Chapelle [Lat. A'quia Gra'num; Ger. Aa'- chen], a city of Rhenish Prussia, is situated on the frontier of Belgium, and on the railway which connects Liege and Cologne, 44 miles by rail W. S. W. of the latter. It was once a famous city, and the capital of the empire of Char- lemagne, who made it his favorite residence. It is a well- built, handsome city, with a cathedral founded in 796 A.D., a largo town -hall, an elegant theatre, a public library, and several hospitals. Here are celebrated mineral springs, the AIX-LA-CHAPELLE, CONGEESS OF— AKHLAT. 65 temperature of which is about 112° Fahrenheit. They are considered efficacious for the cure of the gout, rheumatism, and cutaneous diseases. This city has important manufac- tures of fine broadcloths, needles, and pins. The cathedral contains the tomb of Charlemagne and a collection of relics, which attract a multitude of visitors. The successors of Charlemagne and the emperors of Glermany were crowned here from the ninth century until 1531. P. in 1880, 85,551. Aix-Ia-Chapelle, Congress of. This congress was held in 1818 for settling the affairs of Europe after the war of 1815. The king of Prussia and the emperors of Kussia and Austria were present in person. The different representatives were Metternioh, Wellington, Castlejeagh, Hardenherg, Bernstorff, Nesselrode, and Capo d'lstrias, with Richelieu on behalf of France. Their deliberations resulted in the withdrawal from French territory of the army of occupation, and prepared the way for what was afterwards known as the "Holy Alliance" (which see.) Aix-la-Chapelle, Treaties of. I. Treaty of 1668. This treaty was concluded May 2, 1 668, between Louis XIV. of France on the one side, and the " Triple Alliance," in- eluding England, Sweden, and Holland, on the other. At the death of Philip IV., Louis laid claim, in the name of his wife, and under the laws of succession of Brabant and Namur, to a large portion of the Spanish Netherlands. Ho had already seized several strongholds and fortresses, when Holland, becoming alarmed at his rapid progress, concluded the triple alliance with England and Sweden. Louis, rather than resort to a war against so powerful a league, deter- mined to accept mediation ; and a treaty of peace was "concluded at Aix-la-Chapelle, by which France retained possession of Charleroi, Valenciennes, and other strong towns, which she had already seized. II. Treaty of 1748. This treaty ended, in 1748, the Austrian war of succession, in which all the great powers of Europe were, either on one side or the other, engaged. Several German princes had disputed the claim of Maria Theresa to the throne of Austria, and from this cause the war arose. It lasted with various success for eight years (from 1740 to 1748) j at the end of which time a peace was concluded which left the different states with nearly the same possessions as before. Aiza'ni, an ancient town of Asia Minor, now in ruins. Among its ruins, the theatre, with accommodations for over 12,000 spectators, is in a line state of preservation. AjacciO) 3.-y3.t'cha, or AJazzo, 1,-yiX'so, a seaport, the capital of Corsica, is on the W. coast, in lat. 41° 54' N., Ion. 8° 44' E. It has a good port defended by a cit- adel. It has also a cathedral and a library of 18,000 vol- umes. Wine and olive oil are exported from this town. Napoleon Bonaparte was born here on Aug. 15, 1769. A magnificent monument, representing the emperor Napoleon I., surrounded by his four brothers, was finished in 1865. Pop. 16,545. Aj'alon, a town of Palestine belonging to the Levites, in the land of Dan. It was probably on the spot now oc- cupied by the village of Y^lo. Over the valley in which this town was situated the moon stood still while Joshua pursued the five kings. Ajan', a region of Eastern Africa whose coast extends from Cape Guardafui indefinitely southward. A'jax [6r. AIns], surnamed the Greater, the son of Telamon, a Grecian hero, was king of Salamis. He acted a prominent part at the siege of Troy, and exceeded the other Greek warriors in strength and stature. Having been defeated by Ulysses in a competition for the armor of Achilles, he became insane and killed himself. Ajax, the son of O'ileus, surnamed the Lesser, to dis- tinguish him from Ajax the son of Telamon, was king of Locris. He was one of the Greek heroes that fought at the siege of Troy, and excelled all the Greeks in swiftness, ex- cept Achilles. According to tradition, he offended Minerva by his impiety, for which he was drowned on his homeward voyage from Troy. AJmeer, Ajmere, or R^jpoota'na, a city of British India, in the North-west Provinces, capital of a division and a district of the same name, is 220 miles S. W. of Delhi, and situated in a picturesque valley. It contains several massive temples and mosques ; also an English and Oriental school. Pop. estimated at 25,000. Ak'abah, a fortified village of Arabia, near the N. ex- tremity of the Gulf of Akabah. (See Blath.) Akabah, Gnlf of, a portion of the Red Sea, lying in the N. W. part of Arabia, and bounded on the W. by the peninsula of Sinai. It is about 100 miles long, from 12 to 17 miles wide, has high and steep shores and numerous coral-reefs. Ak'bar, or Ak'ber (written also Acbar and Ack- VOL. I.— 5 bar), Mohamined, surnamed Jalal-ed-Dsei;, a famous and excellent Mogul emperor, was born at Amerkote, in the valley of the Indus, in 1542. He was a son of Hum^yoon, whom he succeeded in 1556. He displayed great military talents and political wisdom, and extended his dominions by the conquest of Bengal and part of the Deccan. Under his reign the Christians and Jews were tolerated and pro- tected. He encouraged literature and promoted commerce. He ordered a complete survey and census of his empire, the result of which, with minutely detailed statistics, was re- corded in a book called "Ayeen Akbery " ("Institutes of Akbar"), which is very celebrated. Akbar was greatly distinguished for his justice, humanity, and magnanimity. He died in 1605, and was succeeded by his son Selim, sur- named Jchan-Geer. A'ken, a town of Prussia, in the province of Saxony, on the left bank of the Elbe, 24 miles S. E. of Magdeburg, has factories of beet-sugar and chemicals. Pop. in 1880, 5284. A'kenside (Mark), M. D., an English didactic poet of high reputation, was born at Newoastle-on-Tyne Nov. 9, 1721. Ho studied medical sciences at Edinburgh, graduated as M. D. at Leyden in 1744, and practised in London, where. he settled in 1748. His success as a physician was hindered in some degree by his reserve or lack of affability. His reputation is founded chiefly on "The Pleasures of the Imagination," in blank verse (1744), which was received with great favor. It was commended by Dr. Johnson "as an example of great felicity of genius and uncommon am- plitude of acquisitions." He wrote several shorter poems and medical treatises. His "Treatise on Dysentery" (in Latin, 1764) proved him to be an excellent classical scholar. He was appointed a physician to the queen in 1760. Died June 23, 1770. His character is represented as estimable and dignified in a high degree. A'kerblad (Johas David), a Swedish antiquary and Orientalist, born in 1760. He visited Jerusalem in 1792, and the Troad in 1797, gained distinction by deciphering the demotic writing of ancient Egypt, and wrote a " Letter on the Egyptian Inscription of Kosetta" (1802). Died Feb. 8, 1819. Akerman', sometimes written Akjerman, or Ak- kerman, a fortified town of Bessarabia, on the right bank of the Dniester, about 4 miles from the Black Sea, and 28 miles S. W. of Odessa. It has a port, several mosques and Greek and Armenian churches, numerous factories, and an extensive trade in salt, etc. A treaty concluded at Aker- man on Sept. 4, 1826, exempted the Danubian provinces from all but a nominal dependence on Turkey.. Pop. 29,343. Lat. 46° 12' N., Ion. 30° 22' E. Ak'erman (Amos T.), attorney-general of the U. S. for a short time under Gen. Grant, was born in N. H. in 1823, but for fourteen or fifteen years previous to his appointment had been a citizen and practising lawyer of Georgia. He sided with the Confederates in the late war, but after the surrender of the Southern arms he advociited the sanction of the reconstruction measures of Congress, was a member of the State convention of 1867-68, and acted a prom- inent part in shaping the new constitution formed by that body. Died Dec. 22, 1880. A'kers (Benjamin), commonly known as Paul Akehs, an American sculptor, born at Sacarappa, Me., July 10, 1825, went to Boston in 1840, and made busts of Long- fellow, Samuel Appleton, and others. Mr. Akers lived much in Italy, and executed some of his finest works there. The pieces done in America were chiefiy portrait busts and medallions, which were highly esteemed as likenesses and as works of art. He died in Philadelj)hia May 21, 1861. A man of fine sensibility and pure genius, he lived up to the highest ideal of his art, and was beloved by many friends. Akhalies, a class of religious warriors among the Sikhs in Hindostan. They deny God, believe in fate, and arc very fanatical and turbulent. (See Nanekism.) Akhalzikh, Akalzik, or Akis'ka, a city of Asiatic Russia, in Georgia, on an affluent of the Koor, about 92 miles W. of Tiflis. It contains a mosque and several churches, and has some trade in silk and honey. Many of the inhabitants are Armenians. The Russians defeated the Turks near this place in 1828, and it was ceded to Russia in 1829. Pop. 15,977. Ak-Hissar (t. e. "white castle"), written also Ek- Hissar (the ancient Tkyati'ra), a town of Asia Minor, in Anatolia, 53 miles N. E. of Smyrna. It contains no an- cient buildings, the houses being mostly of mud. Pop. about 10,000, two-thirds of whom are Turks. Akhlat', a town of Asiatic Turkey, in Armenia, on the N. W. shore of Lake Van, 203 miles S. E. of Trebizond. 66 AKIBA— ALABAMA. It was formerly the seat of the Armenian kings, and is at present the seat of an Armenian bishop. Pop. about 4000. Ak'iba (Bek Joseph), a Jewish rabbi of great learning and influence, was president of the school of Bene Barak in the second century A. D. Having joined the rebellion of Barchoohebas, he was flayed and burned by the Romans at the age, it is said, of 120 years. Akmol'Iinsk, a province of Russia, in Central Asia, is situated S. of the government of Tobolsk. Area, 210,556 square miles. It consists of a plateau, in the N. level, and in the S. mountainous, having very little rain. It is fre- quently visited by heavy snow-storms. Chief town, Ak- moUinsk. Pop. 381,200. Akron, city, R. R. centre, and capital of Summit oo., 0. (see map of Ohio, ref. 3-H, for'location of county), on the Ohio Canal, 36 miles S. of Cleveland, on the highest point of land between Lake Erie and the Ohio River. It has a variety of manufactures, 3 public parks, a beautiful cem- etery, a public library, and a high school, and is the seat of Buchtel College. Pop. in 1870, 10,006; in 1880, 16,512. Akshehr', or Ak-Sheher (i. e. "white city"), a city of Asiatic Turkey, in Karamania, about 70 miles N. W. of Konieh, contains near 1600 houses. It is the ancient Phil- omelion of Strabo. Ak'sii, a town of East Toorkistan, on a river of its own name, 250 miles N. E. of Yarkand. It has manufactures of woollen stuifs and jasper, and is visited by many cara- vans from all parts of Central Asia. Pop. about 60,000. Ak'yab, a town of British Burmab, at the mouth of the Aracau River, 550 miles S. E. of Calcutta. Its situation is healthy and very advantageous for commerce, with a com- modious and safe harbor. It has a large trade, especially of rice, large quantities of which are exported hence. Pop. about 10,000, mostly Bengalese and Chinese. Here is a Protestant missionary station. Al, the Arabic definite article, forms a prefix to many Oriental names, as Al-Mansoor, " the victorious," Al-Amin, " the faithful," etc. A'la [a Latin word signifying a "wing"], a Roman military term, denoting the wing of an army. At first, when the whole legion consisted of Roman citizens, it was applied to the body of horsemen who served with the foot- soldiers, but after the admission of aodi, whether Latini or Italici, it was applied to the troops pf the allies, both hor?e and foot, which were stationed on the wings. At a still later time, the also were composed of foreign troops serving with the Roman armies ; while under the empire the term was given to bodies of horsemen raised generally in the provinces, and serving apart from the legion. (See Wing.) Alaba'ma, a river of the U. S., is formed by the Coosa and the Tallapoosa, which unite about 10 miles above Montgomery, in Alabama. It flows nearly westward to Selma, and afterwards in a general S. W. direction, and unites with the Tombigbee to form the Mobile River. It is navigable for large steamboats through its whole extent, which is about 300 miles. It traverses a fertile region, of which cotton and maize are the staple products. Alabama (signifying, in the Creek language, "Here we rest"), one of the S. or Gulf States of the U. S., lying between the parallels of 30° 15' and 35° N. lat, and the meridians of 84° 5fi' and 88° 48' W. Ion. from Greenwich Length from N. to S., 336 miles ; breadth, from 148 to 20o' miles. Bounded on the N. by Tennessee, E. by Georgia and Florida, S. by Florida and the Gulf of Mexico, W. by Mississippi. Area, 52,250 square miles, or 33,44o',OOo' acres. Alabama, by census of 1880, rataked seventeen among the States in population, sixteen in value of agricultural products, and thirty-two in value of manufactures. Surface, liivere, etc. — In the N. broken and hilly, from outlying hills of the Blue Ridge ; S. of this almost level, hut gently declining to the Gulf. Principal rivers are Tennes- see, near N. line of the State, Mobile, Tombigbee, Alabama, Coosa, Black Warrior, Tensaw, Perdido, and Chattahoo- chee, and their affluents. Of these the Tennessee, Tombig- bee, Black Warrior, Alabama, Tensaw, Chattahoochee, and Perdido are all navigable. Mobile Bay is the principal bay of the State, Grand, Bonsecours, and Perdido bays being shallow. Soil. — The soil is divisible into three belts or sections — viz., 1. The S. section, one-fifth of the State, a light but pro- ductive alluvial and diluvial soil, yielding moderate cropsof corn, cotton, and fruits, with considerable forests of yellow pine. 2. The cotton belt, limestone and chalk lands, mostly prairie, producing good cotton and corn. 3. The N. section, a mineral region, yielding gold, coal, iron, etc., some of it poor and hilly land, but healthy and with good water- power. In this region also is the great Tennessee valley, with fine fertile side valleys yielding cotton, corn, cereals, and fruits, while the hillsides are well adapted to grazing. Minernls. — Of gold, discovered in Randolph co. 1836, there had been deposited in the Mint to June, 1880, $219,873. There are also mined in the State silver, copper, lead, iron- ores of various kinds, and excellent bituminous coal ; cen- sus of 1880 reports 322,934 tons of the latter. There are many rarer minerals, mineral earths, building-stones, and mineral springs. Vegetation. — The forests in the N. belong to the temper- ate, in the S. to the semi-tropical, zone. Five species of oak, hickory, chestnut, poplar, cedar, elm, mulberry, and white pine in the N. are replaced in the S. by cypress, live- oak, yellow pine, magnolia, and loblolly, with brake or American bamboo, saw-palmetto, and other small trees and shrubs. The apple, pear, plum, and hardy peach give place to the fig, pomegranate, olive, apricot, Scuppernong grape, and orange. Zoology. — The wild animals common to the W. and S. W. are found here. The alligator inhabits the rivers and bayous, and there are lizards, some venomous snakes, ter- rapin, turtles, and excellent fish, and most game-birds, also birds of prey, songsters, and birds of exquisite plumage. Climate. — Temperature in Northern Alabama delightful, frosts rare, and no intense heat. In Central Alabama, greater heat, but cool nights ; occasional frosts. In the S., protracted heat, but good breezes, cool nights, and heavy dew. Rainfall from 48 to 54 inches. Water in the N. ex- cellent j in the S., poor. Agricnltni-al Productions. — Cotton is the largest crop, the State ranking, in 1880, fourth in cotton production, and thirteenth in the product per acre. Alabama was sixth among Southern States in production of corn, but other cereal crops were small. She makes a little cane- sugar and molasses, and more sorghum syrup. Ramie is grown in S. counties, and will be a good crop, as a machine for dressing it has been invented. The number of farms has doubled in the last decade, but nearly half are rented. Of the farms, eight-tenths are under 100 acres. The census of 1880. reports 699,654 bales of cotton. 25,451,278 bushels of corn, 3,039,639 bushels of oats, 1,529,657 bushels of wheat, 28,402 bushels of rye, 5281 bushels of barley, 363 bushels of buckwheat, 94 hogsheads of sugar, 795,199 gal- lons of molasses, 810,889 pounds of rice, 452,426 pounds of tobacco, 3,448,819 bushels of sweet potatoes, 334,925 bushels of Irish potatoes. The clip of wool was 762,207 lbs. Farm Animals.'^- — The census of 1880 reports 113,950 horses, 121,081 mules and asses, 751,190 cattle, 1,252,462 swine, 347,538 sheep. Mann/acturee are not large, but increasing ; lumber, iron, machinery, and cotton goods are the principal articles pro- duced. The production of iron and steel reached 62,986 tons in 1880. The census of 1880 reports 2070 manufac- turing establishments, employing 10,019 hands. Amount of wages paid, ?2,500,000; capital invested, $9,668,008; aggregate value of products, $13,565,504. Jiailwaija.—ln Jan., 1880, there were 1852 miles of rail- road in operation, which are sufiicient for the present com- merce and passenger trafiic of the State. Finances.— State debt, net, in 1880, was $9,071,765; lo- cal debt, net, $5,656,780 ; total debt. State and local, net, $14,728,545. The assessed valuation in 1880 was : Real es- tate,$77,374,008; personal, $45,493,220; total, $122,867,228 ; total taxation, $2,061,978. Commerce. — Mobile is the only port of entry. Imports in 1880, $743,890; exports, mostly cotton, $7,187,703; for- eign exports, $1037. Total imports and exports, $7,932,630. The number of vessels entering the port in 1880 was 130 j E: langitade ' West asF ftp il_ >sfi; J82 WiaTJa ^AP^p IhcaTOQ. and Engraved on Copper-Plate — ^ EXPRESSLY "^ — ^ FOR I ELBEBTON ^LINCO^I^TOK Scale of Miles lo ao 30 40 4.i7ce7i> © cRAv*fOy^ ^/ i P|U T N A M ^ ■^eatq: \y i ^ A,-'.vC» V^ -1 "THOMJllsTON ^ [SAN5(Ensvi£X£?^>. ^ ' B Ul R \,Vtii^ ^ W A |S H_^i - 12® iRuNswie * /L WaiM.vni% W''--H I -- .«. f... * ""^■■jr—r- .«*« StviidersoT}. ^ WaaJiington. G ALABAMA CLAIMS. 67 tonnage, 61,471 tons. The number which cleared was 156; tonnage, 69,181. Bauka and Insurance. — There were, Nov. 1, 1880, 9 na- tional banks in operation; capital, $1,508,000, and out- standing circulation, $1,443,895 ; 6 State banks and trust companies ; capital, $615,000. Private bankers and sav- ings banks, 20; capital, $425,241; deposits, $1,257,221. The insurance, both life and fire, is mostly in the hands of foreign companies. Education. — In 1879 Alabama had 4 universities and colleges, with 439 students ; 59 seminaries, academies, and schools of secondary instruction, with 3784 students ; a school population of 376,649, of whom 174,485 were en- rolled in the public schools. The schools were kept nearly four months in the year; $430,131 was expended for school purposes in 1880; total number of public schools, 4629. There were also 7 scientific and professional schools. Libraries and Newspapers. — The Educational Bureau's report on libraries published in 1876 states that in that year there were 31 public libraries of over 300 volumes, aggregating 60,000 volumes in all, and many private libra- ries, having in all nearly 600,000 volumes. In 1880 there were in Alabama 125 newspapers and periodicals, includ- ing 6 dailies. Churches. — The Baptists are the leading denomination, but are followed by the others in the following order : Meth- odists, Presbyterians, Episcopalians, Disciples or Chris- tians, Roman Catholics, Congregationalists, and minor de- nominations. Population of Alabama in 18S0 was 1,262,505, white 662,185, colored 600,320, including 213 Indians and 4 Chi- Autauga Baldwin Barbour Bibb Blount Bullock Butler Calhoun Chambers Cherokee Chilton Choctaw Clarke Clay Cleburne Coffee Colbert Conecuh Coosa Covington Crenshaw Cullmau Dale Dallas De Kalb Elmore Escambia Etowah Fayette Franklin Geneva Greene Hale Henry Jackson Jefl'erson Lamar Lauderdale .... Lawrence Lee Limestone Lowndes , Macon Madison Marengo Marion Marshall Mobile Monroe Montgomery- Morgan Perry Pickens Pike Randolph Russell. Saint Clair Shelby Sumter Talladega Tallapoosa Tuscaloosa Walker Washington- Wilcox Winston Total.. 5-D 8-B G-E 4-C 2-D 5-E G-D 3-E 4-E 2-E 4-D 6-A 6-B 4-E 3-E 7-E 1-B 6-0 4-D 7-D 0-D 2-C 7-E S-C 2-E ii-D 7-C 2-D 3-B 2-B 7-E 4-B 4-B 7-F 1-E 3-C 3-B 1-B 2-0 5-E 1-0 5-D 6-E 1-D 5-B 2-B 2-D 8-A 6-0 5-D 2-C 5-0 4-B 6-E 4-E 6-F 3-D 4-D S-B 4-D 4-E 4-B 3-0 7-A 5-C 2-0 Pop. 1870. 11,623 6,004 28,309 7,469 9,945 24,474 14,931 13,930 17,562 11,132 12,676 14,663 9,660 8,017 6,171 12,537 9,574 11,945 4,868 11,156 11,325 40,705 7,126 14,477 4,041 10,109 7,136 8,006 2,969 18,399 21,792 14,191 19,410 12,345 15,091 16,668 21,750 15,017 26,719 17,727 31,267 26,151 6,0.59 9,871 49,311 14,214 43,704 12,187 24,975 17,690 17,423 12,006 21,636 9,360 12,218 24,109 18,064 16,963 20,081 6,543 3,912 28,.S77 4,155 County Towns. 13,108 8,603 33,979 9.487 16,369 29,066 39,649 19,(591 23,440 19,108 10,793 15,731 17,806 12,938 10,976 «,119 16,153 12,606 15,113 5,639 11,726 6,356 12,677 48,433 12,675 17,502 5,719 15,398 10,136 9,155 4,342 21,931 26,553 18,761 25,114 23,272 12,142 21,036 21,392 27,262 21,600 31,176 17,371 37,625 30,890 9,364 14,585 48,653 17,091 52,356 16,428 30,741 21,479 20,640 16,757 24,8.37 14,462 17,236 28,728 23,360 23,401 24,957 9,479 Prattville Daphne Clayton - Centreville Blountsville Union Springs.. Greenville Jacksonville .... La Fayette Centre.. Clan ton Butler Grove Hill Ashland Edwardsville. ... Elba Tuscumbia Evergreen Rockford Andalusia Hutledge Cullman Ozark Setma Fort Payne Wetumpka Brewton. Gadsden Fayette O.-H Bel Green Geneva Eutaw Greensborough, Abbeville Scottsbo rough... Bimiingham,.-... Vernon Florence Moulton Opelika Athens Hayneville Tuskegee Huntsville Linden Hamilton. Guntersville Mobile Monroeville Montgomery Somerville Marion Carrollton Troy Wedowee Scale Ashville Columbiana Livingston Talladega DadevilTe Tuscaloosa Jasper 4'538 St. Stephens... 31,828 4,253 996,992 11,262,505 Camden.. Double Sps. 977 761 1,644 222 1,862 2,471 882 1,061 144 2,407 194 176 387 267 222 1,369 986 1,533 598 215 426 512 7,629 816 180 81 1,101 1,833 2,268 722 3,086 208 1,359 3,.503 3,245 1,011 2,152 2,370 4,977 1,975 326 29,132 122 16,713 209 2,074 349 2,294 2,358 257 1,443 496 738 1,233 740 2,418 269 690 nese, an increase of 265,513 since 1870. In 1820 the State had 127,901 inhabitants, a little over one-tenth of its pop- ulation sixty years later. Principal Towns and Population, 1880. — Montgomery, the capital, 16,713 ; Mobile (present limits), 29,132 ; Selma, 7529 ; Huntsville, 4977 ; Eufaula, 3836 ; Opelika, 3245 ; Greenville, 2471; Troy, 2294; Marion, 2074; and Tusca- loosa, 2418. History. — First settlement in 1702, by Bienville ; Mobile planted in 1711-13; territory N. of 31° ceded by France to Great Britain in 1763, and in 1783 transferred to U. S. ; first attached to Georgia and South Carolina, but in 1802 organized as Mississippi Territory ; region S. of 31° be- longed to Spain, but in the war of 1812 seized and annexed to Mississippi Territory ; this region and Florida purchased from Spain in 1819; Creek war in 1813-14 — 480 whites killed, 400 wounded, and 1617 Indians killed ; Gen. Jack- son defeats the Creeks, who make peace and give up three- quarters of their territory; immigration increases; Mis- sissippi set off as a State in 1817, and Alabama admitted to the Union in 1819. Alabama took an active part in re- moval of Indians to Indian Territory ; as one of the largest slaveholding States in the Union, uniformly acted up to what were considered the interests of its section, taking strong ground in favor of the annexation of Texas, resist- ing all measures for the restriction of slave territory, and opposing with great vehemence what its political leaders characterized as Northern aggressions; in 1860-61 one of the first of the Southern States to declare for secession and a Southern confederacy; convention of all the Southern States held at Montgomery Feb. 4, 1861, to organize a Southern confederacy ; provisional government organized ; Jefferson Davis elected president, and Montgomery made capital of Confederacy ; Gov. Moore seized in Jan., 1861, U. S. arsenal, arms, forts, and revenue-cutter; July, 1861, capital removed to Richmond, Va. In the progress of the war Alabama took an active p.art, though the northern portion of the State contained a strong Union party. Several severe battles were fought within the limits of the State — notably, the naval actions and the capture of the forts in Mobile Bay in Aug., 1864, the siege and capture of Mobile in Mar. and April, 1865, and the capture of Selma and other towns by Gen. Wilson in April, 1865. There were also minor conflicts at Athens, Montevallo, Scottsboro', Talladega, and Tuscumbia. After the close of the war Alabama waS in the same condition with the other Southern States. Reconstruction measures : Provisional government appointed June 21, 1865, and State tempo- rarily under military control ; State convention met Sept. 25, 1865, and annulled ordinance of secession ; military government very lenient; State convention called by Gen. Pope to meet Nov. 5, 1867, to form a new constitution and State government; constitution submitted to people Feb. 4, 1868. There was much opposition to it, and many of those opposed stayed away from the polls ; the result was that, though the constitution received a majority of the votes cast, it did not receive a majority of those registered, and hence was deemed to have been rejected. Most of its provisions have, however, since been engrafted on the ex- isting constitution. The State was admitted to a represen- tation in Congress by an act passed over the President's veto June 25, 1868. Some minor troubles and difliculties were experienced before a complete adjustment was effected, but the trouble was much less than in other States of the South, and with the return of financial prosperity, and the development of the mineral, agricultural, manufacturing, and commercial resources of the State by the great rjiil- road lines now traversing it, there is every reason to believe that she has entered on a new and more rapid period of growth and advancement. Governors of the State. * Reference for location of counties. See map of Alabama. William W. Bibb 1819-20 Thomas Bibb 1820-21 Israel Pickens 1821-25 John Murphy 1825-29 Gabriel Moore 1829-31 ■lohn Gayle 1831^35 Clement C.Clay 1836-37 Arthtir P. BagBy 1837^1 Benjamin Fitzpatrick... 1841-46 Joshua L. Martin 1845-47 Reuben Chapman 1847-49 Henry W. Collier 1849-,63 John A. Winston 1853-57 Andrew B. Moore 1857-61 John Gill Shorter 1861-63 Thomas H. Watts 1868-65 Lewis E. Parsons, P>-OT..1865-65 Robert JM. Patton 1865-68 William H.Smith 1868-70 Robert B. Lindsay 1870-72 David P. Lewis 1872-74 George S. Houston 1874-78 Rufus W. Cobb 1878-82 Edward A. O'Neal 1882-80 L. P. Bbockett. Alabama Claims. The protracted negotiations, the treaty of Washington resulting therefrom, and the arbitra- tion of Geneva by which this treaty was in part executed, may justly be deemed as forming the most important cause calibre of modern diplomacy. The claims themselves were 68 ALABAMA CLAIMS. made by the government of the U. S. in favor of certain of its citizens and of itself upon the government of Great B i-itain, on account of the acts of certain warlilte vessels which sailed from British ports in the interest or employ of the Confederate States during the war of the rebellion in the U. S. The treaty of Washington describes them as " differences [which] have arisen between " [the two gov- ernments], " and still exist, growing out of the acts com- mitted by the several vessels which have given rise to the claims generically known as the Alabama claims." The Confederate cruisers in respect of which the U. S. made any reclamations before the tribunal of arbitration at Geneva should be separated into two classes : first, those which were substantially fitted out and adapted to warlike use in Great Britain, so that they actually commenced their hostile careers by sailing from a British port ; and secondly, those which commenced their hostile careers in the Confederate service within other territorial jurisdictions. First Glass. — The Florida was an iron screw gunboat. The contract for her was made in 1861 by Bullock, the Con- federate agent in England having the matter in charge, with a firm of builders in Liverpool. Her object and des- tination were well known at that place, but the formal pre- tence was kept up that she was designed for the Italian navy. She sailed for Nassau on the 23d of Mar., 1862, with a crew of fifty-two men, all British except three or four, of whom only one was an American. She was in every respect a man-of-war, except that her armament was not in place, but she could have been put in complete preparation for battle in twenty-four hours. While she was preparing to sail, shot, shells, etc. were sent by river from Liverpool to Hartlepool, and there shipped on board the steamer Bahama, which left for Nassau, and there joined the Florida. All these facts were from time to time diligently brought to the attention of the British authorities by Mr. Adams, the American minister, and by Mr. Dudley, the American con- sul at Liverpool. At Nassau certain abortive proceedings against the Florida were undertaken by the colonial gov- ernment. She sailed from Nassau on the 8th of August, having cleared for St. John, New Brunswick. At the same time, a schooner laden with the shot, shell, and other mu- nitions of war sailed from Nassau, and met her at a neigh- boring island, where the transfer was made, and the Florida immediately set out on a hostile cruise. On the 4th of Sep- tember she ran through the blockading squadron into Mo- bile, by pretending to be a British man-of-war and flying the British flag. On the 26th of Jan., 1863, she escaped from Mobile. Her career as a Confederate cruiser ended Oct. 7, 1864. Three of her captures, the Clarence, the Tacony, and the Archer, were fitted out and armed as her tenders, and aided in the work of destruction. During her cruises she was repeatedly received into British ports, and permitted to repair and to take in full supplies. of provis- ions and coals. She and her tenders captured and destroyed American merchant-vessels and cargoes amounting in value to many millions of dollars. The Alabama was built for speed, and not intended for fighting, and was manned by British subjects. She was a wooden steam sloop of about 1040 tons register, built for the Confederate States by Laird & Sons at Birkenhead, in England, and was called "No. 290," from her number in the list of steamers constructed by that firm. She was barque-rigged, was furnished with two engines of 350 horse- power each, and was pierced for twelve guns. Strict pre- cautions were taken to keep her destination a secret, but the suspicions of the agents of the U. S. having been excited before she was quite finished, the minister of the U. S. re- quested the British government to detain her. The British ministers consulted the Crown lawyers, and after some delay, caused by the illness of the queen's advocate, an opinion was given in favor of detaining her. In the mean time, the "No. 2!)0" had escaped, under a pretext of a trial trip, near the end of July, 1862. She was not equipped with guns and warlike stores when she left the Mersey, but received them at Terceira, whither they wore conveyed by another vessel. In August, 1862, Capt. Semmes took command of the steamer, which he named the Alabama, and began his cruise with a crew of eighty men. He burned the merchant- vessels which he captured, being unable to take them into any port of the Confederate States in consequence of the blockade. The Alabama never entered any port that was possessed by the Confederate States. It is stated that she captured sixty-five vessels, and de- stroyed property valued at $6,000,000. Much greater than this amount was the damage inflicted on ship-owners of the U. S. by the heavy insurance for war-risks to which they wore subjected, and by the difficulty in obtaining freightfor their vessels. After a long cruise in the Pacific Ocean, she returned to Europe, and entered the port of Cherbourg to refit and ob- tain a supply of stores, June 11, 1864. A few days later the war-steamer Kearsarge, of seven guns, commanded by Capt. Winslow of the U. S. navy, arrived at Cherbourg. Capt. Semmes came out of the port and offered battle on the 19th of June. When the vessels were about one mile apart, the Alabama began to fire rapidly and wildly, while the guns of the Kearsarge were served with cool precision and effect. Both vessels during the action moved rapidly in circles, swinging round an ever-changing centre. After they had described seven circles, the Alabama began to sink and raised a white flag. Capt. Semmes, who had lost thirty killed and wounded, escaped in the English yacht Deer- hound. Capt. Winslow lost three killed and wounded, and took sixty-five prisoners. The Alabama went to the bottom. The Georgia was built for the Confederates on the Clyde. She sailed early in 1863, and proceeded to a point off the French coast, where she met the steamer Alar, which had been sent from Liverpool with her arms, ammunition, etc. Some steps were taken by the British government to pre- vent her escape, but they were too late. After a warlike career of about a year, she returned to Liverpool, and was there sold by the Confederate agents, Mr. Adams remon- strating in vain against this proceeding. Shortly after the sale she left the port, and was captured by the U. S. cruiser Niagara. The Second CTo«s.— The Sumpter, the Nashville, the Betribution, the Tallahassee, the Cbickamauga. These were all armed and equipped in, and sailed from. Confederate ports. The claims made in respect of them were based upon allegations that they were received into British ports, and permitted to augment their supplies of coal and supplies, in excess of the maximum amount permitted by the queen's proclamation of neutrality; and also in respect of the Ret- ribution, that she was permitted to take captured cargo into one of the Bahamas, and there sell or dispose of it without any judicial process. The case of the Shenandoah was quite different. She was originally a British steamer, called the Sea-King, and had been engaged in the East India trade. She sailed Oct. 8, 1864, for Bombay in ballast, with a crew of forty-seven men. She was not then armed and equipped or fitted out as a man-of-war. On the same day another steamer, the Laurel, sailed from Liverpool, ostensibly for Nassau, having on board a number of Confederates and a quantity of guns, gun-carriages, and other munitions of war. These steamers met at Funchal, in the island of Ma- deira, where the transfer was made. Here she was taken command of by Captain Waddell of the Confederate service, and manned. A small part only of the original crew con- sented to remain with her, and she sailed with less than one-half of her regular force of men. On the 25th of Jan., 1865, she arrived at Melbourne, where she was permitted to repair and to coal. She also at the same place enlisted a large number of men, augmenting her crew by forty-five new enlistments. This was done so openly that it was the common talk of the town, and was freely commented upon by the local papers. The tribunal of arbitration decided that the colonial authorities did not exercise due diligence in preventing these enlistments. Leaving Melbourne, she proceeded to the Arctic regions, and there, beyond the reach of any U. S. cruisers, she made great havoc among the American whaling ships. This was continued for several months after the complete overthrow of the Confederacy. She finallyarrived at Liverpool on the 6th of Nov., 1865, and was surrendered to the British government, and by it delivered over to the U. S. A diplomatic correspondence arose at once from the fore- going events. We can only state in the briefest manner the points which were urged by either side. It should be carefully borne in mind that the protracted negotiations growing out of the recognition of the Southern States as belligerents by the queen's proclamation of neutrality on the 13th of May, 1861, had no necessary connection with the Alabama claims. Although the two alleged causes of complaint were often mingled, and perhaps deemed insepa- rable, in the popular opinion of Americans, yet they were entirely distinct, and were finally and definitively held to be so by the treaty of Washington. During the war the iminediate object of all communications made on the part of the U. S. was to induce the British government to inter- fere and prevent the escape of the Confederate cruisers ; the remote object of the same communications, and the sole purpose of those made after the war, was to present and urge a demand for compensation. Mr. Secretary Seward and Mr. Adams placed themselves upon the fundamental position that a neutral nation is bound by the principles and doctrines of the international n' ^"'^''P^n'^'^i' "f any mere municipal regulations, to use all the means in its power to prevent its territory from being made the base of military operations by one belligerent against the other. To this it was added that if further legis- lation was necessary to enable the authorities to carry out their international duties, it was always within the power ALABAMA CLAIMS. 69 of tbo Pavliament to enact the needed statute, and that an international obligation therefore rested upon that body to pass the act. The British government took issue with all these propositions ; they denied all international duty an- tecedent to or beyond the existing statute; this statute, they claimed, was the limit of their power and responsi- bility. The statute referred to, known as the Foreign En- listment act, was passed in 1819. In substance it provides " that if any person within any part of the United King- dom shall . . . equip, furnish, fit out, or arm" any vessel, or attempt to equip, etc. any vessel, or procure any vessel to be equipped, etc., or knowingly aid in equipping, etc. any vessel, with intent that it may be employed in the ser- vice of one belligerent, he shall be guilty of a misdemeanor, and shall be fined and imprisoned, and the vessel, with its arms, etc., shall be forfeited. Lord Kussell refused to go beyond this statute, and declared that the executive as such could not act, and that all proceedings under it must be judicial. To this end he demanded from Mr. Adams such Sreliminary technical proofs as would warrant a conviction y the courts. There was thus thrown upon Mr. Adams and Mr. Dudley the duty of acting as police agents and detectives for the British, government in obtaining the evi- dence which the local officials did not busy themselves with discovering. At last, a construction was given to this statute by the English counts in the case of the Alexandra which, upon the theory before urged by Lord Kussell, rendered the British government powerless. Like the Florida and the Alabama, she was constructed for the Confederates, in every respect a man-of-war ready for action, except that her guns and ammunition were not on board. She was proceeded against under the statute, which makes it the offence " to equip, furnish, fit out, or arm any vessel." The judge at the trial held that each one of these words means the same thing, and, as the Alexandra was not actually armed in a British port, the law was not violated. This ruling was sustained on appeal by the higher court. As the govern- ment had denied all international obligation, so this decis- ion removed all municipal duty to interfere with the oper- ations of the Confederate agents. Such was the course of the negotiations during the war. In the year 1868 a change in the sentiments of British statesmen was apparent, and it was conceded that the mat- ter was one for amicable adjustment. Under the influence of these opinions a convention was signed on the 14th of Jan., 1869, by Mr. Reverdy Johnson, the American min- ister, and Lord Clarendon, the British secretary for foreign affairs. It provided that "all claims upon the part of indi- viduals, citizens of the U. S., upon the government of Her Britannic Majesty, and all claims on the partof individuals, subjects of Her Britannic Majesty, upon the government of the U. S.," arising since Feb. 8, 1853, shall be referred to commissioners or arbiti*ators to be settled. This treaty was rejected by the U. S. Senate, receiving but one vote in its favor. The reasons for this action were many : the most important were, that the treaty was expressly limited to claims of individual citizens, and ignored the existence of any on the part of the U. S. as a nation, and that it pro- vided for the payment of claims against the U. S. The long negotiations were ended by the treaty of Wash- ington. The operative clause in this treaty is found in Art. I., which after reciting the " differences existing," as quoted before, proceeds: "Now, in order to remove and adjust all complaints and claims on the part of the U. S., and to pro- vide for the speedy, settlement of such claims, the high con- tracting parties agree that all the said claims growing out of acts committed by the aforesaid vessels, and generically known as the Alabama claims, shall be referred to a tribu- nal of arbitration," etc. This language is broad and without limit. A correspondence had taken place between Mr. Secretary Fish and Sir Edward Thornton, the British min- ister to the U. S., in Jan., 1871, preliminary to the negotia- tion of this treaty, in which Mr. Fish wrote, Jan. 30th, that ** the removal of the differences which arose during the re- bellion, and which have existed since, growing out of the acts committed by the several vessels which have given rise to the claims generically known as the Alabama claims, will also be essential to the restoration of cordial relations." To this suggestion Sir Edward Thornton acceded, and a joint high commission was agreed upon to negotiate the treaty. It will be noticed that the language of Mr. Fish's note is the same as that found in the first article of the treaty. The high commission consisted, on the part of the U. S., of Hamilton Fish, the secretary of state, Robert C. Schenck, the American minister to Great Britain, Samuel Nelson, one of the justices of the Supreme Court, Ebenezer R. Hoar, and George, H. Williams; and on the part of Great Britain, of Earl de Grey and Ripon, president of the queen's council. Sir Strafford Northcote, M. P., Sir Edward Thornton, Sir John Maedonald, and Professor Montague Bernard. They completed the treaty of Washington on the 8th of May, 1871. In the deliberations the U. S* com- missioners claimed compensation for "direct losses" in the destruction of vessels and cargoes, and in national expend- iture in the pursuit of the Confederate cruisers, and for "indirect injury" in the transfer of American shipping to the British flag, in the enhanced rates of insurance, in the prolongation of the war, and in the addition to the cost of the war ,• they proposed that Great Britain should pay a lump sum, to be agreed upon, for all these claims. The British commissioners in answer proposed arbitration. The American commissioners would not agree to arbitration " unless the principles which should govern the arbitrators were first agreed upon." Finally, the latter suggestion wa,s accepted ; arbitration was adopted, and the rules which should govern the arbitrators were agreed upon. Articles I. to XL of the treaty relate to the Alabama claims. The first describes, as has been shown, the matters submitted for decision; the others describe the constitution of the tri- bunal, its procedure, and the form of its decision. The seventh contains the important three rules, as follows: First. That a neutral government is bound, first, to use due diligence to prevent the fitting out, arming, or equip- ping, within its jurisdiction, of any vessel which it has reason to believe is intended to cruise or carry on war against a power with which it is at peace ; and also to use like diligence to prevent the departure from its jurisdiction of any vessel intended to cruise or carry on war as above, such vessel having been specially adapted in whole or in part within such jurisdiction to warlike use. Secondly. Not to permit or suffer either belligerent to make use of its ports or waters as the base of naval operations against the other, or for the purpose of the renewal or augmenta- tion of military supplies or arms, or the recruitment of men. Thirdly. To exercise due diligence in its own ports or waters, and as to all persons within its jurisdiction, to prevent any violation of the foregoing obligations and duties ; it being a condition of this undertaking that these obligations should in future be held to be binding inter- nationally between the two countries. These rules Great Britain denies to have been parts of the international law when the acts complained of were done, but for reasons of comity only consents that they retroact and apply to those acts, and be made the basis of decision. The article concludes as follows: "The high contracting parties agree to observe these rules as between themselves in future, and to bring them to the knowledge of other maritime powers, and to invite them to accede to them." In pursuaEce of the treaty, the following persons constituted the tribunal of arbitration: Count Edward Sclopis, named by the king of Italy; Mr. Jacob Staempfli, named by the president of the Swiss Confederation ; v is- count d'ltajuba, named by the emperor of Brazil; Mr. Charles Francis Adams, named by the President of the U. S. ; and Sir Alexander E. Cock burn, named by the queen of Great Britain. Each sovereign litigant was to present its claim to the tribunal in the form of a printed " case," and subsequently in an answer termed a "counter-case." Each case was to contOjin the facts and arguments relied upon by the party, and/ the counter-case was to be a reply to the case of the adversary. The American case was sepa- rated into six parts ; At gave a minute history of the acts of the British government towards the U. S. during the rebellion, and of the/fitting out and subsequent operations of each Confederate cruiser; and discussed the questions of international law mvolved in the controversy, and con- cluded with a demand of the compensation to be awarded. The British case/was separated into ten parts, and covers a similar ground /o the American case, though from a differ- ent point of vfew. Both were supplemented by many vol- umes of evidence. Two very distinct questions arose upon these papers: (1) What matters were submitted by the treaty to tlie arbitrators? and (2) By what rules and prin- ciples of law were the arbitrators to be guided in deciding the matters submitted to it? The consideration of the first and preliminary one of these questions gave rise to a con- troversy which for a while threatened to interrupt the whole scheme of arbitration. In Part VI. of the American case the U. S. presented the items of damage to which it claimed to be entitled. Quoting the language used by the American high commissioners, the case described claims for " direct " losses or damages, and other claims for "indirect" losses. The "direct" were said to include "losses growing out of the destruction of vessels and their cargoes by the insurgent cruisers, and the national expend- itures in pursuit of those cruisers." The "indirect" were said to embrace "the loss in the transfer of the American commercial marine to the British fiag," "the enhanced pay- ments of insurance," " the prolongation of the war," and the " addition to the cost of the war." The presentation of these so-called indirect claims caused a great opposition in England. The government denied that they were included. 70 ALABAMA INDIANS— ALAMO, THE. or intended to be included, in the terms of the treaty. Fresh negotiations were opened; a supplemental treaty was pro- posed ; the controversy was continued after the meeting of the tribunal, and for a while it seemed possible that the whole proceeding would be a failure. The British agent asked for an adjournment of the tribunal for eight months, to allow formal negotiations. Finally, on the 19th of June, Count Sclopis, president of tho tribunal, announced that the arbitrators, without deciding the question whether these claims were included in the treaty, " had arrived, collect- ively and individually, at the conclusion that these claims do not constitute, upon the principles of international law ap- plicable to such cases, good foundation for an award of compensation or computation of damages between na- tions." The difficulty was then ended and tho arbitration went on. The argument upon the merits which was presented by the litigant nations to this high tribunal was most able and exhaustive. There is not space to present it even in the briefest outline. It turned mainly upon the true meaning of the phrase " due diligence " used in the three rules. The counsel on the part of Great Britain was Sir Koundell Palmer, then the acknowledged leader of the English bar, and afterwards made lord high chancellor with the title of Lord Selbornc. The counsel on tho part of the U. S. were William M. Evarts and Caleb Gushing. The final decision of the tribunal was announced Sept. 14. The arbitrators decided unanimously in favor of Great Britain in respect of the Georgia, Sumpter, Nashville, Tallahassee, and Chicka- mauga, and similarly in respect of the Retribution, by a vote of three to two. They all decided (Sir Alexander Cockburu for reasons peculiar to himself) that Great Brit- ain was liable for the original fitting out and escape of the Alabama, and for her subsequent free admission into British ports. The same conclusion was reached in respect to the Florida, Sir Alexander Cockburn alone dissenting. The ruling as to these vessels applied also to their tenders. The tribunal was unanimous that no liability arose in respect of tho Shenandoah prior to her arrival at Melbourne ; but three of the arbitrators. Count Sclopis, Mr. Staempfli, and Mr. Adams, held that the colonial authorities failed to exercise due diligence to prevent the enlistment of men at that port, and that Great Britain was liable for captures made after her departure thence. The tribunal, in making their award, formulated and announcedthe following general principles, a portion of which lie a.t the basis of the whole decision, while a portion apply only to the estimate of the quantum of damages : " Due diligence should be exercised by neu- tral governments in cxapt proportion to the risks to which either one of the belligerents may be exposed by failure to fulfil the obligations of neutrality on their part." The effects of a violation of neutrality, as committed by the Alabama and other such cruisers, were not done away with by a commission subsequently issued by the Confederate government. " The government of Great Britain cannot justify itself for its failure in due diligence on the plea of the insufficiency of the legal means of action which it pos- sessed." The c|p.im of the U. S. for the national cost of pursuing the Confederate cruisers cannot be distinguished from the general expenses of the war, and is therefore an indirect loss which cannot be allowed. Prospective injuries to shippers and ship-owners, such as loss of future profits, are equally uncertain and indirect. All double claims for the same losses are rejected, but interest is allowed. Upon these principles the tribunal awarded, for actual losses of ships and cargoes and interest, the sum of $15,500,000. It is thus seen that the tribunal wholly overruled the position maintained by Great Britain from the beginning, that its statute was the sole criterion of its power and duty. In like manner the tribunal brushed away all claims by the U. S. for indirect and national losses, and strictly confined its judgment to the compensation of American private citi- zens for losses of ships, cargoes, freight, and wages. J. N. POMEROY. Alabama Indians, a remnant of the once powerful tribe of that name, reside in Polk co., Tex. They are under the care of the State, but are also assisted by tho general government. They are peaceable and quite industrious. They use the English language, but no woman is allowed to speak to a stranger. They retain the dress and many of the peculiar habits of the aborigines, but tho women arc clothed somewhat like their white neighbors. The people are remarkably tall, strong, and well formed. They num- ber about 260. Their language was of the Creek family. Alabas'ter [Lat. nlahastri'tea and alabaa'ter ; Gr. oXa^ao-Tpos], a name applied to two kinds of white mineral substances which are similar in appearance, but different in composition. The alabaster proper is a fine-grained variety of gypsum or sulphate of lime ; the finest quality of this is found near Volterra, in Tuscany. It is manufactured into various ornamental forms in Florence, Italy, which is the centre of the alabaster trade. The other is a crystalline carbonate of lime, and is harder than the first. Both are manufactured into ornaments. Considerable deposits of alabaster of the gypsum variety arc found in England, chiefly in Derbyshire and Stafford- shire. It is used there to form the plaster moulds of the potters, and is hence called "potter's stone." The fine blocks are used by the turners. A yellow variety found at Sienna is called alabastra agatato. Alabaster (William), D. D., born at Hadleigh, Suffolk, England, about 1567 ; educated at Westminster School and at Trinity College, Cambridge; was incorporated at Ox- ford in 1592 ; became fellow of Trinity ; was chaplain to Kobert, earl of Essex ; was converted to Koman Catholi- cism in France in his tWenty-fourth year, but did not long remain a Roman Catholic. He was enticed to Rome and imprisoned, but escaped at peril of his life. On his return to England he became prebendary of St. Paul's and rector of Hatfield, and was a famous Hebraist. Died about 1640. Alabaster Box, or Alabas'trnm, a Vessel for con- taining precious perfumes, used by the ancients in various countries. They were made commonly of onyx-alabaster, but other materials were used. When the woman broke the " alabaster box of ointment" to anoint the feet of Jesus, as mentioned in the Gospels, it is probable that she had a ves- sel with a long tapering neck, which was sealed, and that she broke off the neck to get at the perfume. Alabastra of this form were not unfrequent. Alabaster Cave, in Placer co., Cal., is a remarkable cavern 8 miles S. B. of Auburn, and 1 mile from the North Pork of the American River. This cave contains beautiful chambers incrusted with alabaster of various tints. It also contains a lake of undetermined extent. Alago'as, a maritime province of Brazil, is between 9° and 10° S. lat. It is bounded on the N. and W. by Per- nambuco, on the E. by the Atlantic, and on the S. by Ser- gipe and the river San Francisco. Area, 15,300 square miles. The surface is partly mountainous ; the soil of the valleys and lowlands is fertile, and produces cotton, sugar, maize, etc. Capital, Maoeio. Pop. of the province, estimated at 300,000. Alagoas [Port, "the lakes"], a town of Brazil, in the province of the same name, on the Lake Maysuaba, was until 1839 the capital of the province. It was formerly a large and important city, but since the change of the seat of government it has declined very much. It has a con- siderable trade in tobacco. Pop. about 4000. Alagon', a river of Spain, enters the Tagus about 2 miles N. E. of Alcantara. Length, about 120 miles. It is noted for its fine trout and other fish. Alain de Lille [Lat. Ala'mis de Iii'aulis], the Doctor Viiiversah'a, flourished in the twelfth century, was a Cister- cian monk, and wrote a great number of books, theological, philosophical, and poetical. (See Dupuv, "Alain de Lille," 1859.) Alais (anc. Ale'sin), a town of Southern France, in Gard, on the Garden, and at the foot of the Cevennes, 31 miles by rail N. W. of Nimes, with which it is connecteil by a railway. It is in a productive coal-field, and has several manufactories, a college, and a school of mines. Alais was a stronghold of the French Protestants in the seventeenth century, and was captured in 1B29 by Louis XIII. It has a citadel built by Louis XIV. and a fine Gothic church. The cold mineral springs in its vicinity are visited by great numbers in the summer season. Pop. in 1881, 22,255. Al^uela, a city of the state of Costa Rica, Central America, situated 23 miles W. N. W. of Cartage, has con- siderable trade through the port of Puntas Arenas on the Pacific Ocean. Pop. 12,575. Alameda, R. R. junction, Alameda oo., Cal. (see map of California, ref. 4-6, for location of county). Pop. of township in 1870, 1557; in 1880, 570S. Alamo, capital of Crockett co., Tenn. (see map of Tennessee, ref. 6-B, for location of county). Pop. in 1880, Al'amo, The [alamo is the Sp. for "poplar" tree], a celebrated fort at San Antonio, Tex. A small body of Texans, mostly from tho U. S., here bravely resisted a Mexican force of ten times their number from Feb. 11 to Mar. 5, 1836, and nearly all perished rather than surrender to a foe whom they despised. Tho six who finally sur- rendered were murdered by the Mexicans ; Travis, Croc- kett, and Bowie were here killed. In consequence of this heroic defence. Alamo is styled the " Thermopylaj of Amer- ica." " Remember the Alamo !" became the war-cry of the Texans in their struggle for independence. ALAMOS, LOS— ALAUDA. 71 A'lamos, Los, a town of Mexico, province of Sonora, 110 miles N. W. of Cinaloa, has rioh silver-mines in the vicinity. Pop. about 6000. Alamo'sa, on K. B., Conejos co., Col. (see map of Colo- rado, ref. 6-C, for location of county), on the Rio Grande Del Norte, 130 miles S. W. of Pueblo, Col. Pop. in 1880, 802. A'land Islands, or O'land, a numerous group of small islands in the S. part of the Gulf of Bothnia, near the BaUic,Qbelong to the grand-duchy -of Finland, govern- ment of Abo. About eighty of them are inhabited. Pop. about 15,000. They were ceded to Russia by Sweden in 1809. The Russian fortifications here were destroyed by the English and French troops in 1854, and by a separate convention annexed to the treaty of PariSQ( April, 1856) the emperor of Russia agreed " that the Aland Isles should not be fortified," etc. Alangfia'cese [from Alan'giunif One of its genera], a nat- ural order of plants closelyallied to the Myrtacese. It consists of Indian species having aromatic roots and eatable fruit. Ala'ni, an ancient warlike tribe of unknovrn origin, who made incursions into the Roman empire as allies of the Goths and Vandals. They invaded Asia Minor in the reign of Aurelian, and co-operated with the Vandals in the invasion of Ga.ul in 406 A. D. Alapayevsk, a town of Russia, in the government of Perm, 200 miles E. of Perm. It ha3 large iron-works. Pop. in 1882, 5422. Alarcon' y Mendo'za, de (Don Juan Ruiz), an eminent Spanish poet and dramatist, born in Mexico about 1590. He became a resident of Spain in 1622, after which he obtained the otico of reporter of the royal council of the Indies. A volume of his dramas was published in 1028. Among his works, which present a faithful delineation of Spanish manners, and are commended for elevation of senti- ment, are "Las Parodcs Oyen" ("Walls have Ears") and "La Vcrdad Sospeehosa" ("Suspicious Truth"), which Corncille imitated in his " Menteur." Died in 1639. Al'aric [Lat. Alart'eus], a celebrated conqueror, a Vis- igoth, was born about 350 A. D. Soon after the accession of Aroadius as emperor of the East, Alaric invaded Thrace, Macedonia, and other provinces, in 395 A. D. He took Athens and entered the Peloponnesus, from which he was driven out by Stilioho. Hostilities were then suspended by a treaty, and Arcadius appointed Alaric governor of Illyria in 396. He invaded Northern Italy in 402, but was defeated by Stilicho at Pollentia and Verona. Stilieho having been killed in 408, Alaric renewed the invasion of Italy, which the emperor Honorius was unable to defend. The army of the Visigoths invested Rome, then the richest and most im- portant city in the world, but they wore induced to retire by the payment of 5000 pounds of gold and 30,000 pounds of silver. After unsuccessful efforts to negotiate, Honorius rejected the terms of Alaric, who in 410 took Rome, and permitted his soldiers to pillage it for six days. He was marching to Sicily when he died at Cosenza, in 410 A. D. (See SiMOSis, "Kritisoho Untersuchungen iiber die Ges- chiohte Alarioh's," 1858.) Alaric II., king of the Visigoths, began to reign in 484 A. D., at the death of his father Eurici His domin- ions included parts of Spain and of Gaul. He was killed in battle by the hand of Clovis, king of the Franks, in 607. A Las'co, Alas'co, or Alas'ko (John), a Polish Protestant, born in 1499, became Catholic bishop of Ves- prim in 1529. Ho was afterwards con- verted, went to London, preached there a few years, but on the accession of Queen Mary, in 1553, he retired for safety to Germany. He wrote several theological works. Died Jan. 13, 1560. Ala Shehr (the ancient Philadel- phia, founded about 200 B. C. by At- tains Philadelphus), a walled city of Asia Minor, at the N. E. base of Mount Tmolus, 93 miles E. of Smyrna. Here are five Christian churches and nu- merous ancient ruins. Pop. about 15,000. Alas'ka, a Territory belonging to the U. S., purchased from Russia in 1867 for $7,200,000, and comprising the extreme N. W. portion of the North American continent and the islands adjacent thereto. It has been compared to the head and horns of a Texan bull, to which it bears a slight resem- blance, the mass of mainland forming the head, while the Sitkan peninsula and the Aleutian archipelago form the widely-extended horns. Its breadth from N. to. S. is 20° of lat., while the distance between the tips of the horns is nearly 60° of long, or about 3000 miles. Its area is stated as 577,390 square miles, or 369,529,600 acres. Its shore- lines are estimated at 25,000 miles. It was formerly called Russian America, Topography, — Mountains are a combination of Coast, Cas- cade, and Rooky Mountains, with outlying spurs. They range from 3084 feet to 19,500 (Mt. St. Elias). Rivers : Yukon, 2000 miles long, navigable 1600 miles; Kousko- quim, 600 miles ; Nushergak, Atna or Copper, Chilcat, Ta- ken, and Stickine. Extensive glaciers. MineraU. — Gold, copper, iron, semi-anthracite and bitu- minous coal, petroleum, graphite, bismuth, etc. Climate. — Nine months severe winter ; a short and hot summer on the mainland; on the islands cold less pro- tracted and warm weather longer. Soil and Productions. — The lat. (52°-72° N.) precludes any great fertility, but the islands and the Sitkan penin- sula produce wheat, barley, and the other cereals, and some root-crops, and the forests on the larger islands and the mainland are extensive and the trees of great size. Its greatest products, however, are from the fisheries, in which, in 1880,6130 persons were employed; capital invested, $447,000 ; value of products, $2,661,640. The fur-seal and the sea-otter abound, and yield to the United States gov- ernment an annual revenue of $300,000. Salmon, cod, halibut, sturgeon, and other fish swarm in the Waters. The furs and pelts of land animals also yield some revenue. The Population in 1880 was 33,426, of which 430 were whites and the remainder Creoles, Indians, and Esquimaux of various tribes. The Sitka Indians are somewhat intel- ligent, but drunken and depraved. The Aleuts on the islands are hardy, industrious, and honest. There are mis- sion stations at several points. May 17, 1884, Congress created a district government for Alaska, with a governor, and a district court sitting at Sitka, the capital, and at Wrangel. The laws are those of Oregon. Alaska is a land district; land ofiice at Sitka. (See Yukon.) Governora. John H. Kinkead 1889^85 | A. P. Swineford 1885- L. P. Brockett. Ala'tri, a town of Italy, in the province of Rome, 45 miles E. S. E. of Rome. The ancient city which occupied the site of Alatri was called Alatrium, or Aletrium, and was one of the principal cities of the Hernican league. Alatri is the seat of a bishop. Here are some of the finest and best-preserved Cyclopean or polygonal walls in Italy. They were part of the defences of the ancient city, and were built of immense polygonal blocks of stone, without cement. Pop. 11,370. Alatyr', a town of Russia, in the government of Sim- birsk, at the junction of the Alatyr and Soora Rivers, 70 miles N. W. of Simbirsk. Pop. in 1882, 8451. Alan'da, a genus of passerine birds which includes the skylark (Alau'da arven'sis), after the nightingale the most Alauda cristata : the Crested Lark. celebrated song-bird of Europe. The flesh of the skylark is esteemed a delicacy, and traps and nets of many kinds are employed for its capture. Its food consists of grass- hoppers and other insects, worms, spiders, and grubs of various kinds. The beautiful Alauda criatata, or crested lark, is one of the most common birds of Europe and 72 ALAVA— ALBANY. Northern Africa. For other speciea of this interesting genus, see Laiik. Al'ava, one of the Basque Provinces in Spain, is bounded on the N. by Biscay and Guipuzcoa, on the E. by Navarre, on the S. by Logrono, and on the W. by Burgos. Area, 1205 square miles. The country is moun- tainous, but fertile, especially along the shores of the Ebro. The chief products are fruit, wine, grain, and hemp. Here are also several mineral springs. Chief town, Vitoria. Pop. in 1877,93,191. Alb, or Altie [Lat. ol'ba, from aVhm, "white"], a long white linen vestment worn by the clergy of the Koman Catholic Church while they are performing the service. It sometimes hasa cross embroidered upon the breast. Atthe end of the tunic and around the wrists are ornaments called " apparels." Alba, Duke of. See Alva. Al'ba (the ancient Al'ba Pompe'ia), a town of Italy, province of Cuneo, on the T4naro, 30 miles S. B. of Turin. Wine, silk, grain, and oil are the staple productions of the district, in which are also quarries of marble and rock-salt. It has a cathedral founded in 14S6, and is the seat of a bishop. Pop. of the commune, 9687. Albace'te, a province of Spain, comprises the N. part of the kingdom of Murcia and a portion of New Castile. It is bounded on the N. by Cuenca, on the E. by Valencia, on the S. by Murcia, and on the W. by Ciudad Real. Area, 5972 square miles. It is bounded on the N. "W. by the Sierra de Alcaraz, and the surface is diversified by moun- tains, hills, and fertile valleys. It is drained by the river Segura, which rises within its limits'. Among its staple products are grain, wine, tobacco, oil, cattle, and sheep. Capital, Albacete. Pop. in 1877, 219,122. Albacete, a town of Spain, capital of a province of the same name, 172 miles by rail S. E. of Madrid. It stands on a fertile plain, has manufactures of knives and other steel goods, and considerable trade. Large cattle- fairs are held here in the month of September. Pop. 17,088. Al'ba Lon'ga, a very ancient city of Latium, in Italy, was founded, according to tradition, by Ascanins, the son of ^neas, several centuries before the foundation of Rome. It was situated near the Alban Lake, about 16 miles S. E. from Rome. Its remains have been discovered. Al'ban [Lat. Albn'mis], Saint, one of three Christian martyrs who are said to have suffered in England about 286 A. D., during the Diocletian persecution. Albauen'ses [from Alba, a town of Piedmont], that division of the Catharists who believed in absolute dualism. They taught that the world was created by the Evil Spirit. (See Cathari.) Alba'ni (Alessandbo), an Italian cardinal, a nephew of Pope Clement XL, was born at Urbino in 1692. Ho made a rich and celebrated collection of statues and other works of art at Rome. Died in 1779. Alba'nia, the ancient name of a country bounded on the B. by the Caspian Soa, and comprising the modern Daghestan and Shirvan. Its inhabitants were often de- feated, but never conquered, by Rome. Alba'nia (called ShkipeH by the natives, and Arnu- ontbk by the Turks), the south-western part of European S^^.V l^ between lat. 39° and 43° N., and is bounded on the W. by the Adriatic and Ionian seas. Its length N. and S. IS about 290 miles, and its width varies from 40 to 90 miles. It nearly coincides with the ancient Epirus. The surface is mountainous, being occupied with nine ridges that are nearly parallel. The highest peaks rise about 8000 feet above the level of the sea. Among the re- markable features of Albania are its subterranean rivers and its beautiful lakes. The chief articles of export .are wool, horses, timber, and maize. The Albanians are rude and warlike mountaineers, more addicted to robbery than industry. They are probably descended from the ancient Illyrians and Bpirotes. Philologists are not agreed respect ing the affiliations of their language, which has several strongly marked dialects, and is probably Indo-European The inhabitants are often called ArnaooU or Arnaouts, and Skipetar. Pop. estimated at 1,300,000. Besides these a largo number of Albanians live in Greece and other parts of the Levant. ^ o '^^"'f ^'*' "■ '°'^, ''"'^ mountain in Italy, about U miles S. B. of Rome. The lake, which is six miles in circumfer- ence, occupies the crater of an extinct volcano, and is 1000 feet deep or more. The lake has no natural outlet, but dis charges its waters through an artificial tunnel cut throuch tuTaceous rock. This tunnel or "emissary" was undertaken by the Romans in 397 B. 0. It is one of the most remark- able remains of ancient Roman engineering. It is 6000 feet long. Alba Longa stood on the N. B. margin. From the E. shore of this lake rises Mount Albano or Monte Cavo, which is over 3000 feet high, and commands an ex- tensive and magnificent prospect. On its summit are the ruins of the temple of Jupiter Latialis. Alba'no (ano. Alba'num), a city of Italy, on or near Lake Albano, and on the Via Appia, 18 miles by rail S. E. of Rome. It occupies the site of Pompey's villa, is cele- brated for beauty of scenery, and is a favorite summer residence of the wealthy citizens of Rome. Here is a museum of antiquities and a large convent. Pop. 6400. Al'bany, or Al'bainn, an ancient name of the High- lands of Scotland. It is supposed that Albany, or Albion (see Albion), was the original name given to the whole island by its Celtic inhabitants, and that it was afterwards restricted to the north-western part of Scotland, when the Celts had retired from the other parts of Britain. The title of duke of Albany was given to the second sons of several kings of Scotland and England. Albany, a small maritime division of Cape Colony, South Africa, about 450 miles E. of Cape Town, is about 65 miles long and from 30 to 40 miles wide. It is traversed by Great Fish River. The soil produces maize, barley, cotton, and other commodities. Capital, Grahamstown. Pop. 16,264. Albany, R. R. junction and capital of Dougherty co., 6a. (see map of Georgia, ref. 6-G, for location of county), on the right bank of Flint River, 106 miles S. S. W. of Macon. Large quantities of cotton are here shipped by rail. The Flint River is navigable to this point only at high water. Pop. in 1870, 2101 j in 1880, 3216. Albany, capital of Clinton co., Ky. (see map of Ken- tucky, ref. 5-H, for location of county), 126 miles S. of Frankfort. Pop. of district in 1870, 1629 ; in 1880, 2031. Albany, R. R. junction, and capital of Gentry co.. Mo. (see map of Missouri, ref. 1-D, for location of county), on Grand River, 52 miles N. E. of St.. Joseph. It has manu- factures of furniture, brooms, wagons, harness, lumber, etc., graded schools, a grist-mill, a foundry, and a ma- chine-shop. Pop. in 1870, 607 ; in 1880, 979. Albany, city and important R. R. and commercial cen- tre, capital of N. Y. and of Albany co. (see map of New Tork, ref. 5-J, for location of county), is situated on the W. bank of the Hudson River, 145 miles N. of New York City, and 164 miles (or 201 by railroad) W. of Boston, in lat. 42° 39' 49" N., Ion. 73° 44' 33" W. Original Site. — The place was first settled by the Dutch in 1614 as a trading-post, and after Jamestown was the earliest settlement by Europeans within the limits of the thirteen States. Fort Orange, or Aurania, was erected here in 1624. The village was successively called Bever- wyck and Williamstadt. In 1664 it was called Albany, for the duke of York and Albany, afterward James II. Till the Revolution it was the centre of a large Indian trade. The colony continued to be inhabited by the Dutch, brought over largely by the Van Rensselaer family, who secured, in 1629, 24 miles square on both sides of the river, and leased the lands to settlers. Feudal tenure was abolished in 1787. After the Anti-rent war in 1846 the State prohibited leases of agricultural land for a longer period than twelve years. It was incorporated as the city of Alhany in 1686, and be- came the capital of N. Y. in 1797. Modern Ckangea.—lhe site of the city extends from the bank of the river, with 4 miles of frontage, over the allu- vial plain, and after a few hundred feet rises up on the sides of the hills to and upon the table-land 150 feet high, about five miles west. The view of the city from the E. bank of the river is picturesque and imposing, from the full exposure of the public edifices, with their domes and steeples, the Helderberg and Catskill Mountains being visible in the S. W. The corporate limits reached to Schenectady in a strip of land thirteen miles long and a mile wide until lately. Slreeti, Public Bnildinge, and riintHnliont.— The princi- pal streets are Broadway and Pearl street, which run par- allel with the river, and State street, which ascends the hill to the Capitol, and thence to the limits of the city proper westward. Washington avenue runs parallel to it, W. on the N. side of the Capitol, beginning at the City Hall, and joins Central avenue, which continues to W. bound of the city. The chief public edifices and institutions are the magnifi- cent new Capitol, of which the corner-stone was laid in 1871, built of drilled granite, four stories high. 290 feet wide and 390 feet long, containing halls for the Assembly, the Sen- ate, the Court of Appeals, the State Library, and rooms for the State officers, and will cost over $16,000,000 : the State Museum of Natural History, in the marble State hall ; the new City Hall, of rough granite (1882) ; United States ALBANY— ALBEMAELE. 73 Custom-Houee and Post-Office (1882), three hospitals, As- tionomioal Objervatory, State Agricultural Museum, opera- house, and music-hall. There are about 60 churches, the largest and most imposing being the cathedral of the Im- maculate Conception. The penitentiary, opened in 1848, receives annually, most- ly for short terms, over 1000 prisoners, and has usually been self-supporting. Washington Park, in the western part of New State Capitol (Albany, N. Y.). the city, contains 81 acres, with a lake 1700 feet long, and carriage-drives of several miles. The charitable institu- tions are numerous. The beautiful Rural Cemetery, about four miles from the city northward, contains 281 acres. Education. — Albany has a high school for both sexes; one boys' academy and three for girls; a medical school, law school, and a State normal school. There are 10,000 pupils ill' the public schools. The Albany Institute is a society formed in 1791 for the advancement of science. The State Library has, with the law department, over 122,000 vols. Manufactures, etc. — The census of 1880 showed 804 manu- factories; capital, $14,684,130; average number of hands employed, 11,785; wages paid during the year, $4,666,424; value of products, $21,751,009. The most prominent man- ufacture is that of stoves, the product for 1882 amount- ing to $3,500,000. In late years nine large shoe-factories have been established. There are twenty breweries, two blast-furnaces, a cracker-bakery, twelve iron-foundries, and various other manufactures. The lumber trade of 1883 amounted to 810,000,000. It is the central market for the cattle trade from the West for New York and New England. The city is supplied with water from an artificial lake in the sand plains, W. of the city, and also by pumping water from the river into elevated reservoirs. The fire department has ten steam-engines and a fire-alarm tele- graph system. Pop. in 1790, 3506 ; in 1870 (the limits as extended), 76,216 ; in 1880, 90,758. H. A. Homes, State Library, Albany, M. Y. Albany city, on R. R., capital of Linn cc, Or. (see map of Oregon, ref. 6-B, for location of county), is sit- uated on the right (E.) bank of the Willamette River, at the mouth of the Calapooya, 28 miles by rail S. of Salem. Small steamboats can ascend to this point for eight months in the year. Albany has a collegiate institute. Pop. of precinct in 1870, 1992; of city in 1880, 1867. Albany, on R. R., capital of Shackleford co., Tex. (see map of Texas, ref. 2-G, for location of county). Pop. in 1880, 129. Albany (Louisa), Countess of, born Sept. 22, 1753.' She became in 1772 the wife of the Pretender Charles Edward Stuart, a grandson of James II. of England. Her husband having died in 1788, she was mistress of the poet Alfieri. Died Jan.'29, 1824. (See ALriEni.) Al'batross (Biomedea), a genus of web-footed birds of the family Larida3, re- markable for their great size and powers of flight. The wandering albatross (Viomedea exnlana) is the largest of all oceanic birds,having wings which measure twelve feet or more from tip to tip, but are narrow in proportion to their length. This bird is sometimes seen by voyagers over 100 miles from land. It feeds chiefly on fish. " Some- times for a whole hour Albatross. together," says the duke of Argyll, "this splendid bird will sail or wheel round a ship in every possible variety of direction, without requiring to give a single stroke to its pinions." There has been much discussion as to the means which enable the albatross to maintain this remarkable kind of motion ; and the matter is not well explained. The above bird, known also as the man-of-war bird and the Cape sheep, is found near the coasts of most seas, but especially near those of Asia and Africa. Besides the above, there are the sooty albatross, Diomedea fuliginosa, of Eastern Asia, and the Biomedea cldororhynchuHj and still other specie's arc described. Albay, a town in Luzon, one of the Philippine Islands, 258 miles S. E. of Manila, is the capital of a province. Pop. 13,115. Pop. of the province, 204,840. Al'bemarle, a town of France. See Admalb. Albemarle,eap. of Stanley CO., N.C. (see map of North Carolina, ref. 3-F, for location of county). Pop. of town- ship in 1880, 1802. Albemarle Sound, in the N. E. part of North Caro- lina, extends from the mouth of the Roanoke River 60 miles eastward to a narrow island which separates it from the Atlantic. Its average width N. and S. is about 12 miles. It communicates by narrow inlets with Pamlico and Currituck Sounds. The water in it is nearly fresh. Its greatest depth is 24 feet; average depth, 20 feet. Albemarle (George Monk), Duke of, a famous Eng- lish general, chiefly known to history as the principal agent in the restoration of the Stuarts in 1660, generally known in his own time as " Old Monk," and described by Guizot as a " person capable of doing great things though himself not a great man." He was born of an ancient Devonshire family, at Totheridge, the residence of his father. Sir Thomas Monk, near Torrington Dec. 6, 1608. He joined the army in order to escape punishment for mishandling a sheriff who was about to arrest his father for debt. In 1625 he engaged in the expedition against Spain, the un- successful attempt to capture Cadiz, made by a relative of his. Sir Richard Greenville, took part in the following year in the attack upon the isle of Rh€, and served ten years in the Netherlands. In the campaign against the Scots he served as a lieutenant-colonel. He led a regiment against the Irish, and was governor of Dublin until peace was struck by the marquess of Ormond in 1643. In the civil war Monk was taken prisoner by Fairfax in 1644, and imprisoned in the Tower, and only regained his liberty after a confinement of two years by taking the Covenant. He was given a command by the Parliamentarians, but drew upon him suspicions of treachery, and cleared himself with difficulty before Parliament. After the defeat of the royalist cause Cromwell appointed Monk a lieutenant-gen- eral and chief of artillery, in which capacity he did such service at the battle of Dunbar that Cromwell made him general-in-ehief of the army in Scotland. In 1652 he took part in the commission which drew up a pact of union between England and Scotland, and went to Scotland as governor in 1654 ; in which position he had great difiiculties in maintaining his rule against the Presbyterians. The royalists had already some hopes of his support, and Charles sent him secret overtures in 1656. Monk delivered this letter up to Cromwell. After the dealh of the dictator. Monk declared in favor of Richard Cromwell, and assumed the authority of a defender of public order only when Lambert threatened to establish a military despotism. On the 1st of Jan., 1660, he marched over the border with 6000 men, joining Fairfax at York, and marched into London on the 3d of February, without drawing sword from scab- bard. At first he kept every one in (he dark as to his in- tentions. On Feb. 28 he recalled the Presbyterian members expelled from Parliament in 1648, thus creating a majority for the king. Ho held negotiations with Charles, and Par- liament declared the latter king on the 8th of May. Charles gave Monk the offices of privy councillor, chamberlain, and lord lieutenant of Devon and Middlesex, besides creating him duke of Albemarle. In 1666 the duke of Albemarle commanded the naval expedition against Holland, was beaten by De Ruyter in the three days' conflict at Dunkirk, but defeated the Dutch admiral at North Foreland. Died Jan. 3, 1670. Albemarle, Eabls of (Viscounts Edey and Babons Ashfobd), one of the prominent families of England. — The first earl of this family, Abnold tan Keppel, born in 1669, was a Dutch favorite of William, prince of Orange, with whom he went to England in 1688. After that prince became King William III., Van Keppel was created earl of Albemarle, and was a rival of the duke of Portland in com- peting for royal favor. Died in 1718. — The sixth earl, Geobge Thomas Keppel, born June 13, 1799, was member 74 ALBERIC I.— ALBERT NYANZA. of the House of Commons for East Norfolk from 1832 to 1835, and for Lymington from 1847 to 1850. Ho suoceedod his brother as earl of Albemarle on Mar. lo, 1851. He is a lieutenant-general in the British army. Alberic I., a ruler of Rome, was born in the beginning of the tenth century, the son of a Lombardian noble. He became margrave of Camerino, and, through his marriage with the celebrated Marozia, ruler of Rome. Ho was ban- ished by John X. from Rome, and was murdered in 925. His son, Alberie II., was a powerful and wise ruler, and died in 954, after a reign of twenty-three years. He was succeeded by his son, Ottaviano, who was elected pope under the name of John XII. in 956. Albero'ni (Giulio), Cardinal, an ambitious Italian, born near Piacenza May 31, 1664. Ho began his public career as envoy of the duke of Parma to the court of Mad- rid, and, having gained the favor of Philip V., became prime minister of Spain in 1715. His foreign policy was so audacious and violent that nearly all the powers of Eu- rope combined against Spain. Among his offensive acts was the invasion of Sardinia in time of peace. Ho was removed from office in 1719, and banished from Spain. Died June 26, 1752. (See Bersani, " Storia del Cardinale Giulio Alberoni," 1862.) Al'bers (Johann Friedrich Hermann), an eminent German physician, born Nov. 14, 1805, became in 1831 professor of pathology in Bonn, established a celebrated asylum for insane and nervously affected persons in Bonn, and in 1856 became director of the pharmacological cabi- net of the university. Died May 12, 1867. Ho has pub- lished, among other works, "Handbuch der allgemcinen Pathologic" (2 vols., 1842-44), "Lehrbuch der allgemeinen Arzneimittellehre" (1853), and "Die Spermatorrhoe" (1862). Albert^ a town of France, in the department of Somme, 18 miles N. E. of Amiens, has cotton-factories and paper- mills. Pop. in 1881, 5473. Albert I., king of Saxony, born April 23, 1828, eldest son of King .Johann I. and of Queen Amalie, daughter of King Maximilian I. of Bavaria. As crown prince he took part in the campaign in Sleswick-Holstein in 1849, was made lieutenant-general in 1853, and general in 1857, com- manded the Saxon army in the war against Prussia in 1866, received the command of the twelfth army corps after the admission of Saxony into the North German Union, took part in the battles of Rezonville, Gravelotte, and Sedan in the Franco-German war of 1870, and received the command of the fourth army (of the Mouse). In July, 1871, he was created field-marshal of the empire, and soon after field-marshal of Russia. King Albert succeeded to the throne, at the death of his father, Oct. 29, 1873. He married, June IS, 1853, Queen Caroline, born Aug. 5, 1833, daughter of Prince Gustav of Vasa. He has a civil list of 2,940,000 marks per annum, or about 3700,000 : but the royal domains, consisting chiefly in extensive forests and some rich mines, became the property of the state in 1830. Albert [in German, commonly AlbrecJit] 1., archduke of Austria, born in 1248, was a son of the emperor Ru- dolph of Habsburg. He was elected emperor of Germany in 1298, but his title was contested by Adolphus of Nassau, who had occupied the throne. These rivals fought a battle, in which Adolphus was killed. Albert, who was noted for his cruelty and avarice, was assassinated May 1, 1308, by his nephew, John the Parricide. Albert V,, a son of Albert IV., was born in 1397, and became duke of Austria in 1404. He was chosen king of Hungary in 1437, and emperor of Germany in 1438. His title as emperor was Albert II. Died in 1439. Albert, archduke of Austria, a son of the emperor Maximilian II., was born in 1659. He was appointed governor of the Netherlands in 1596 by Philip II. of Spain, whose daughter Isabella he married about 1598. In 1600 he was defeated by Maurice of Nassau, who fought for the Dutch republic. The war was suspended in 1609 by a long truce. Died in 1621. Albert I., margrave of Brandenburg, snrnamcd the Bear, was born about 1106. He was the founder of the House of Brandenburg. Died Nov. 18, 1170. Albert III., of Brandenburg, born in 1414, was sur- named Achilles and Ulysses, on account of his courage and wisdom. Died in 1486. Albert (of Brandenburg), first duke of Prussia, a grandson of the preceding, was born in 1490. He was elected grand master of the Teutonic Order in 1511, and was the last who held that office. In 1525 he became a Protestant, and duke of Prussia, which he held as a fief of the king of Poland. Died in 1668. Albert (Prince), or, more fully, Albert Francis Augustus Charles £ininauue'l, prince of Saxe-Co- burg-Gotha and consort of Queen Victoria of England, was born near Coburg Aug. 26, 1819. He was a son of Duke Ernest I. His marriage with Victoria was celebrated in Feb., 1840, soon after which he obtained the rank of field- marshal in the British army. He patronized science and art, was a liberal promoter of benevolent institutions, and acquired great influence in public affairs as the prudent and trusted adviser of the queen. In 1857 he received the title of prince ponsort. Died Deo. 14, 1861. His death was lamented as a national loss. (Compare Morton, "The Prince Consort's Farms" (1863), Grey, "The Early Years of the Prince Consort" (1867), and "Leaves from the Journal of Our Life in the Highlands from 1848-61.") Albert Edward, prince of Wales, the eldest son of Queen Victoria, was born Nov. 9, 1841. He is the heir- apparent to the British throne. In 1860 he visited the U. S. He married. Mar. 10, 1863, the princess Alexandra of Denmark. His children by this marriage are — Prince Albert Edward Victor Christian, duke of Cornwall, born Jan. 8, 1864; Prince George Frederick Ernest Albert, born June 3, 1865; Princess Louisa Victoria Dagmar, born Feb. 20, 1867 ; Princess Victoria Alexandra Olga Mary, bom July 6, 1868; Princess Maud Charlotte Mary Victoria, born Nov. 26, 1869 ; and Prince Alexander John Charles Albert, born April 6, died April 7, 1871. Albert, a French revolutionist and mechanic, whose original name was Alexandre Martin, was born at Bury (Oise) April 27, 181 5. He founded in Paris in 1840 a jour- nal called " L' Atelier " (" The AVorkshop"), and was a mem- ber of the provisional government formed in Feb., 1848. Albert (Frederick Rodolph), archduke of Austria, eldest son of Archduke Charles, was born Aug. 3, 1817. In 1851 he was appointed military and civil governor of Hun- gary, which position he retained until 1860. In 1859 he was sent to Berlin to bring about an understanding between the two great powers of Germany; in 1866 was made com- mander-in-chief, and in 1869 became inspector-general of the Austrian army. Albert! (Jean), born at Assen, Holland, Mar. 6, 1698; became minister at Harlem, and afterward professor of the- ology in Leyden ; wrote theological works, and edited first volume of Hesyehius' " Lexicon." Died Aug. 13, 1762. Alber'ti (Leon Battista), an eminent Italian architect, poet, and writer on art, was born at Genoa (or, as some say, at Florence) in 1404. He was employed as an architect by Pope Nicholas V., completed the Pitti Palace at Florence, and designed the Church of St. Francis at Rimini. His " Treatise on Architecture" ("De Re .^dificatoria," 1485) is highly commended. Died April, 1472. Albertinel'li (Mariotto), an eminent Italian painter, born about 1475, was a pupil of Roselli, and a friend and imitator of Fra Bartolorameo, with whom he painted sev- eral pictures. Among his most celebrated paintings is the "Visitation of Mary and Elizabeth" in Florence, "The Virgin Mary with Saint Domenico" in the Academy at Florence, " Saint Catherine " and the " Virgin Mary with the Child " in the Louvre. Died about 1520. Albert Lea, city, R. R. junction, and capital, Free- born CO., Minn, (see map of Minnesota, ref. 11-E, for loca- tion of county), 128 miles W. of the Mississippi River. It has several manufactories, public park, library association, and high school. It is beautifully situated between two lakes, one of which bears its name, and the surrounding country of undulating prairie and timber is charmingly picturesque. An abundance of game has made it a popular resort. Pop. in 1880, 1966; in 1885, 3365. Al'bert Mausole'um, erected in commemoration of Prince Albert, consort of Queen Victoria. The first stone of this building, at Frogmoro, was laid by Queen Victoria in Mar., 1862, and the remains of Prince Albert were re- moved from St. George's Chapel to the mausoleum in De- cember of the same year. Al'bert Nyaii'za (written also Albert N'Yanza), a large lake of Africa, and one of the sources of the White Nile, is situated under the equator, about 90 miles W. of Victoria Nyanza. It is 300 miles long or more, and is 92 miles wide where it is crossed by the equator. The north- ern extremity is in lat. 2° 45' N. The southern part has not been fully explored. The surface of this lake is 2720 feet above the level of the sea. On the eastern side it is enclosed by rocky cliffs of granite and porphyry, the aver- age height of which is about 1500 feet, and by isolated peaks, which are supposed to rise 5000 feet or more above the lake. Near the western shore is a range called the Blue Mountains, about 7000 feet high. The scenery around this lake is described as extremely beautiful. The water is fresh, sweet, and very deep. The Albert Nyanza was dis- covered and named by Sir Samuel White Baker, who with his wife reached Vacovia, on the eastern shore, iu Mar., ALBEETUS MAGNUS— ALBRIGHT BRETHREN. 75 1864, after several years of arduous and perilous adven- tures. " It was," he says, " a grand sight to loolc upon this vast reservoir of the mighty Nile, and to watch the heavy swell tumbling upon the beach, while far to the south-west the eye searched as vainly for a bound as though upon the Atlantic. It was with extreme emotion that I enjoyed this glorious scene." Embarking in a boat, he explored the lake to Magungo, which is near its northern extremity, and in lat. 2° 16' N. The lake here was about 16 miles wide. The Somerset River, or Victoria Nile, which is the outlet of Lake Victoria Nyanza, enters Lake Albert near Magungo. Ascending the Victoria Nile, he discovered a grand cataract, 120 feet high (perpendicular), which he named Murohison Falls. (See Sir S. W. Baker, " The Al- bert Nyanza, Great Basin of the Nile," 1866.) Alber'tns Mag'nus (i. e. "Albert the Great"), some- times called Albeut de Bollstadt. He was born in Ba- varia in 1193, and became a Dominican friar. In 1254 he was chosen provincial of the Dominican Order, and in 1260 became bishop of Ratisbon. The episcopal office, how- ever, was very uncongenial to him, and after the lapse of two years he was allowed to resign and retire to Cologne. He lectured for many years at Cologne, and wrote numer- ous works on theology, logic, philosophy, and other sub- jects. He was reputed one of the most learned men of the Middle Ages, and was regarded as a magician by some of his contemporaries. The great scientific exploit which made his name celebrated was the introduction of the com- plete system of Aristotle to the understanding of his age, which he effected by a kind of paraphrasing or loose re- production, not of the Greek originals, but of the Arabic versions and commentaries, " De Prsedicamentis," " Super Octo Libros Physicoram," etc. Died in 1280, Thomas Aquinas was one of his disciples. Al'biy or Al'by [Lat. Albi'ga], an old city of France, capital of the department of Tarn, on the river Tarn, and on a hill 42 miles N. E. of Toulouse. It has a museum of natural history, a college, a normal school, a cathedral, a public library, and a theatre; also manufactures of coarse linens, tablecloths, and cotton goods. Here is an arch- bishop's see. The Albigenses derived their name from this town, .which suffered much in the religious wars of France, Pop. in 1881, 20,379, Al'bia, city and E. E. junction, capital of Monroe co., la. (see map of Iowa, ref. 7-H, for location of county), 100 miles N. W. of Burlington, and about 65 miles S. E. of Des Moines. The county is mostly underlaid with coal of a good quality, and mines are being opened in numerous places. Pop. in 1870, 1621; in 1880, 2435; in 1885, 2142. Albigen'ses [from Albi'ga, the Latin name of AIbi, a town of France], a name given to several sects of reformers in the south of France which called themselves Catharists. Their leading idea was a return to the primitive Church, its doctrines, and its discipline, and that idea placed them in a decided opposition to the Roman Catholic Church. In the middle of the twelfth century they took possession of the church-buildings, drove the Roman Catholic priests away, elected priests and bishops of their own, and finally held a great synod at Toulouse, 1167, in order to perfect their organization. The Roman curio, was startled at these proceedings. In 1208, Pope Innocent III. proclaimed a crusade against these reformers and against Raymond VI., count of Toulouse, one of their principal leaders. A large army was led against them by Simon de Montfort, earl of Leicester. The war was carried on with great bitterness of feeling on both sides, and with little intermission till 1229, when a treaty between the contending parties was concluded at Paris. Many of the Albigenses emigrated to other countries, while others perished in the Inquisition, which was established about the same time that the pope proclaimed his crusade. The name gradually disappears in the early part of the fourteenth century. (See Faber's " Inquiry into the History and Theology of the Ancient Vallenses and Albigenses," London, 1838.) Albi'ni (Franz Joseph), an alple German statesman and lawyer, born in Rhenish Prussia May 14, 1748. He passed some years in the service of the emperor Joseph II., after whose death (1790) he became chief minister of the elector of Mentz, whom he served with fidelity until 1802, Died Jan. 8, 1816. Albi'no [Port., from the Lat. al'hus, "white"], a per- son who has a great deficiency or an absence of pigment in the hair, skin, and eyes. The complexion is very light, the hair often snowy white, the eyes red. Albinism in the human species may bo obBerved in white and black races, and in the negro is sometimes partial, patches of the skin having the normal color. Albinism is frequent among Zuni Indians and other tribes in Arizona. A degree of nyctalopia (day-blindness) is common among albinos. Elephants, birds, mice, and other animals sometimes ex- hibit the phenomena of albinism, which is often heredi- tary. Al'bion, the ancient Celtic name of Great Britain. The name, said to signify " white island," is supposed by some, though without good reason, to have been given on account of the chalky cliffs of Kent. Albion, capital of Cassia co.. Id. (see map of Idaho, ref. 6-B, for location of county). Pop. in 188(1, 257. Albion, on R. R., capital of Edwards co.. 111. (see map of Illinois, ref. 9-G, for location of county), has a high and healthy location, good schools, and a chemical laboratorv. Pop. in 1870, 613; in 1880, 875, Albion, Ind, See Appendix, Albion, R, R. centre of Calhoun co., Mich, (see map of Michigan, ref. 8-1, for location of county), on the Kala- mazoo River, 37 miles S. of Lansing and 96 miles W. of Detroit. It is the seat of Albion College, under the con- trol of the Methodist Episcopal Church, The village has fine primary-school buildings, besides an excellent central school, large flouring and other mills, door, sash, and blind factories, a tannery, and extensive agricultural tool manufactory, machine-shop and furnace, and a library. Pop. of Albion township in 1880, 2896; in 1884, 3131. Albion, on R. R., capital of Boone co.. Neb. (see map of Neb., ref. 6-J, for location of county). Pop. in 1885, 916. Albion, R. R. centre, capital of Orleans co., N. Y. (see map of New York, ref. 4-D, for location of county), on the Erie Canal, 30 miles W. of Rochester, has a brick court- house, a jail, a furnace, public parks, a free library, and several important manufactories. It is the seat of a fine academy, and of Phipps' Union Seminary, Pop, in 1870, 3322 ; in 1880, 5147. Albion, Dane co., Wis. (see map of AVisconsin, ref. 7-D, for location of county), is situated in an important tobaeeo-growing region. Albion Centre is the seat of Albion Academy, under the patronage of the Seventh-Day Baptist denomination. Pop. of township in 1870,1142; in ISSO, 1351; in 1885, 1518. Albisson (Jean), a French politician, born at Mont- pellier 1732, made tribune 1802, and assisted in preparing a part of Napoleon's celebrated Code. Died in 1810. Al'bite [from the Lat. aVhus, "white," and the Gr, Ai'^os, a "stone"], a silicate of alumina and soda, sometimes called soda felspar. It is a constituent of granite, being associated with true felspar, from which it may bo distin- guished by its greater whiteness and translucency. It also occurs in syenite and greenstone. Al'boin [Lat. Alboi'mis], the founder of the Lombard kingdom in Italy, was a son of Alduin, whom he succeeded in 543 A. D. He conducted an army of Loogobards into Italy in 569, and conquered the northern provinces. He married Rosamund, a daughter of King Cunimund, whom he had killed. Alboin was assassinated in 573 A. D., at the instigation of Rosamund. Albo'ni (Marietta), a popular Italian singer, born at Cesena Mar. 10, 1824, was a pupil of Rossini. She per- formed with great appla.use in Paris and London in 1846- 47, and afterwards visited the U. S. She was married to the count de Pepoli. Her voice was a contralto, in the highest degree sweet and sonorous. Retired in 1863. Al Borak' (i. e, "the lightning," so called on account of its fleetness), the name of a creature on which Moham- med is said to have made journeys to the celestial regions, Albornoz' (Gil Alvarez Carillo), or ^gid'ius de Albornoz', a Spanish cardinal, born at Cuenca, He was appointed arohl#shop of Toledo by Alfonzo XI.»of Castile, whose life he saved in a battle against the Moors. In 1353, Pope Innocent VI. sent him as legate to Italy, where he distinguished himself by his military and political talents, and restored the authority of the pope over many cities. Died Aug. 24, 1367. Al'brecht, the name of many German princes. (See Albert.) Al'brechtsberger (Johann Georg), one of the most learned contrapuntists of modern times, born Feb. 3, 1736, became director of the choir of the Carmelites in Vienna, organist to the court in 1772, musical director at St. Ste- phen's cathedral in Vienna in 1792, and died Mar. 7, 1809. He published "Griindliche Anweisung zur Composition" (1790; 3d ed. 1821). Al'bright (Jacob), an American divine of the Lutheran Church, born in Montgomery co., Pa., in 1759. He founded in 1808 the Evangelical Association (which see). Died in 1808. Albright Brethren {Alhrechta BrUder). See Evan- gelical Association, 76 ALBUEKA, LA-ALBUEG. Albue'ra, La, a village of Spain, in Estremadura, on a small river of its own name, 13 miles S. B. of Badajos. Here on the 16tli of May, 1811, the British general Beres- ford defeated the French marshal Soult, who lost nearly 9000 men. The allies lost about 7000. Albufe'ra,acoast-lagoon near Valencia, Spain, abound- ing with fish and fowl, its banks studded with riee-planta- tions, owes its fame to the defeat (1811) of the Spanish by MarshalSucHET (which see). The lake and domain werecon- ferred on him by Napoleon, with title of "due d'Albufera." Albu'men [from al'bus, "white"], a Latin term signi- fying the " white of an egg," denotes in chemistry an or- ganic compound of great importance, which, besides be- ing the oharaoterietie ingredient in the white of an egg, abounds in the serum of the blood, in chyle, lymph,- the juice of flesh, and forms an important part of the skin, muscles, and brain. In Bright's disease it is found in con- siderable quantity in the urine. " It is obvious," says liie- big, " that albumen is the foundation, the starting-point, of the whole series of peculiar tissues which constitute those organs which are the seat of all vital actions." Albumen is also found in small quantities in most vegetable juices. When heated to a temperature from 140° to 160°, albu- men coagulates and becomes insoluble in water. It is also coagulated by alcohol and most of the acids. According to Liebig, the albumen of blood is CaieHsssNsiSsOes. Lie- berkiihn considers it C72H112N18SO22. The fibrine of the muscles and the albumen of blood con- tain the same elements in the same proportion. Egg albumen differs from serum albumen by being pre- cipitated by ether and by turpentine, and being almost in- soluble in strong nitric acid. When injected into the veins of dogs or rabbits it passes into the urine unchanged, while serum albumen injected in the same way does not appear in the urine at all. Coagulated albumen is white, opaque, and elastic It dries to a brittle, translucent, horny mass, which when placed in cold water swells up to its original form. Albumen is a weak acid, apparently dibasic. Its salts with the alkaline metals are soluble; they are obtained by adding the caustic alkalies or alkaline carbonates directly to albumen. The other albuminates are insoluble, and are obtained by prbcipitation : Potassic albuminate = K'aCya H110N18SO22; calcic albuminate = Ca"C72HiioNi8S022. The white of egg is recommended as an antidote to cor- rosive sublimate, mercuric chloride, as it forms mercuric albuminate, which is insoluble in water. As it is, however, slightly soluble in saline solutions, the physician should also secure vomiting, to remove the mercury from the stom- ach. Albumen is much used for clarifying syrups and other liquids. When boiled with them, it coagulates to flocks, entangling the suspended impurities, and carrying them either to the surface as a scum or to the bottom as a sedi- ment. In cooking, the white of egg is employed ; in sugar refining, bullock's blood. Albumen is also used for prepar- ing the surface of paper for_photographic printing, and for making a cement with lime. Egg and serum albumen are now manufactured in large quantities by simply drying the natural fluids in thin layers in warm air, taking care that the temperature shall not be so high as to coagulate the albumen, and thus render it insoluble. The chief application of this albumen in the arts is in calico-printing. It is employed in fastening cer- tain colors upon the fibres of cotton cloth, especially pig- ments such as ultramarine, chrome yellows, and oranges, Guignct's green, etc., and also the aniline, colors. The pig- ments or colors are simply mixed with a solution of albumen, printed on the cloth, and fixed by steaming, which coagu- lates the albumen and renders it insoluble. •A dark-colored, inferior quality of serum albumen, sold under the name of " dried blood," is used by sugar refiners to clear the solu- tions of raw sugar. C. P. Chandlee. Albu'minoids, or Pro'teids, an extensive class of organic bodies found in animals and plants. They form the chief constituents of blood, muscles, nerves, glands, and other organs of animals ; and though present in plants in much smaller proportions than cellulose, starch, sugar, etc., they still play a most important part in plant life. Their exact constitution has not been determined. Analysis shows them to contain — Carbon, 62.7 to 54.5. Hydrogen, 6.9 " 7.3. Nitrogen, 15.4 " 16.5. Oxgyen, 20.9 " 23.5. Sulphur, 0.8 " 1.6. They are amorphous, more or less soluble in water, in. 5" E. It was formerly the capital of the dey of Algiers, but since 1830 has been the capital of the French colony of Algeria. Built on tljei slope of a steep hill which rises to the height of 500 feet, it pre- sents from the sea an imposing appearance, which is partly owing to the whiteness of the houses. The old streets are mostly narrow and crooked, l)ut several straight and ele- gant streets have been made since the French became masters of the city. The houses are built of stone and brick, have 'flat roofs, and are annually whitewashed. Among the public buildings are numerous mosques, several Roman Catholic churches, a fine cathedral and exchange, and a public library. The beauty and prosperity of the city have been mueh improved by the French, and its com- merce has been greatly increased. Among the articles of export a,re wheat, coral, animal skins, and olive oil. Steam Vessels ply frequently between Algiers and Toulon and Marseilles. This city was for three centuries the rendez- vous of the Algerine pirates, who, though few in number, defied the power of the greatest nations of Europe. It was bombarded by the English admiral Lord Exmouth in July, 1816, when a large part of the city was reduced to ruins, and was tak«n by the French in July, 1830. Pop. in 1881 was 64,714, exclusive of the military. Algo'a Bay is on the S. coast of Africa, in Cape Col- ony, about 425 miles E. of Cape Town. Here is a good harbor arid a flourishing seaport called Port Elizabeth, situated at the mouth of the Baasher River. Al'gol, a star in the constellation of Perseus, is remark- able for its periodical variation in brightness. Algo'na, R. R. junction, capital of -Kossuth oo., la. (see map of Iowa,.ref. 2-F, for location of county), on the East Fork of the Des Moines River, 51 miles W. of Mason City, and about 120 miles N. by W. of Des Moines. Pop. in 1870, 860; in 1880, 1359; in 1885, 1826. Algon'kins, one of the two great families of Indians that formerly occupied the Valley of the Mississippi and the regions east of it. The Indians of New England were Algonkins. The Chippewas are at present the most nu- merous tribe of the Algonkins. Their migration eastward (some 1200 years ago) is supposed to have been later than that of the Iroquois. (See Parkman's " The Jesuits in North America;" Baldwin's "Ancient America," 1872.) Algon'quin, a post-township of McHenry oo., III. (see map of Illinois, ref. 1-F, for location of county). It con- tains the villages of Algonquin, Cary, and ' Crystal Lake. The first is noted as a milk-shipping station, also for its fine water-power and flourkig-mills and its mineral spring. Crystal Lake is a R. R. juoRtion and a fine summer resort; the lake of the same name is a beautiful sheet of water, from which ice is harvested for the Chicago market. Pop. in 1870, 2157; in 1880, 2321. Al'gorithm [Fr. algorithme; It. algoria'mo, formed from the Arabic al, "the," and the Ur. apiSfios, "jiumber," with the insertion of the letter g between the article and initial vowel of arithmoe], the art of computing in refer- ence to some particular subject or in some particular way, as the algoritJmi of numbers, of surds, etc. Algreen-Ussing (Tage), a contemporary Danish jur- ist and statesman, born at Frederiksborg, in Seeland, in 1797. He became in 1848 procurator-general for the king- dom of Denmark, and professor of law at Copenhagen. He has published several legal works. Died in 1870. Algnazil', or Alguacil', the name given in Spain to an inferior officer appointed to execute the law, correspond- ing to a constable, bailifi', or policeman. Al-Hak'em-Ibn-At'ta (called Al-Moken'na, -Mokanna, or -Mukanna, i. e. "the veiled one"), an impostor who in 774 A. D. announced himself as aprophet and lawgiver in Khoras8a,n. Having been attacked by the troops of the caliph Mahdi in 780, he set fire to his castle and consumed himself to ashes. His story is the subject of Moore's " Veiled Prophet of Khorassan." Alha'ma (>. e. "the bath"), a town of Spain, in the province of Granada, in a beautiful valley 23 miles S. W. of Granada. Here are celebrated warm springs. Pop. 6931. Alham'bra (the " red citadel "), a famous palace and citadel of the Moorish kings of Granada, was built 1248- 1314 in a suburb of the city of Granada. It is surrounded by beautiful gardens and groves of aromatic trees. The interior of the palace is exceedingly gorgeous, and richly ornamented with arabesques, filigree, and fretwork. Among the portions now standing are the Court of the Lions and the Court of the Fish-pond. The former, which is built of white marble and alabaster, is named from a fountain in its centre supported by twelve lions, and surrounded by a gallery resting on columns and arches which are admi- rably light and elegant. This place capitulated to the Span- iards in 1491, and was entered in triumph by Ferdinand and Isabella in 1492. (See Irving, " The Alhambra," 1832.) Alhanrin' el Gran'de, a town of Spain, in the prov- ince of Malaga, 15 miles S. W. of Malaga. Marble and granite quarries are worked in the vicinity. Pop. 6514. A'li) pasha of Yanina, born in 1741, was the son of an Albanese chief. Upon the death of his father, who had been robbed of all his possessions by his neighbors, his mother placed him, when only sixteen years old, at the head of their partisans. At first he was unsuccessful, ow- ing to a want of funds, but at last defeated his enemies and returned in. triumph to Tepelen, his native town. The day after his return he murdered his brother, and then impris- oned his mother in the harem, where she soon died, he having accused her of this crime. He now rendered some import- ant service to Turkey, so that he was first appointed in the place of Dervendshi Pasha, who had to look out for the safety of the highways, and then pasha of Tricala in Thes- saly. He seized thC'City of Yanina by means of a forged firman, and then forced the inhabitants to demand him as ruler from the sultan. He was for a time in correspondence with Napoleon, but afterwards occupied the places on the Albanian coast belonging to Napoleon. In 1803 he was made governor-general of Rumelia. In 1820, in conse- quence of his treasonable intercourse with France and Russia, an army was despatched against him, but owing to the Greek revolution, which he used for his own ends, he succeeded in keeping Yanina until 1822, when he surren- dered, having been promised amnesty. He was neverthe- less executed, and his head was sent to Constantinople. A'li, or A'li-Hjn-A'bi-Tft'lib', surnamed the lion OP God, an Arabian caliph, a cousin-german of the prophet Mohammed, was born at Mecca in 602 A. D. He mar- ried Fatimah, a daughter of Mohammed, whose doctrines he adopted and enforced with great ardor and courage. In 632 his rival, Abu-Bokr, was chosen caliph, after a con- test which caused a schism and the formation of the sects of :Sunnites and Shiites, the latter of which wore parti- sans of Ali. He succeeded Othm^n as caliph in 655, and was assassinated about 661 A. D. His son Hassan be- came caliph. Ali was distinguished as an author of max- ims and proverbs. His religious party, the Shiites, are especially numerous in Persia and Turkestan. His de- scendants have ruled in Egypt, Spain, Western Africa, and Syria. The sentences ascribed to him were published by Fleischer (1837); a new edition of his "divan" (lyrical poems) was published at Boul§.k, near Cairo, in 1840. Alia^ a town of Italy, on the island of Sicily, in the province of Palermo, is situated on a high mountain, 28 miles S. E. of Palermo. Pop. 5425. AIi"]Beyj a celebrated chief of the Mamelukes, born in Abkhasia in 1728. He was taken to Egypt at an early age, and raised himself from a servile condition by his ability, became bey of the Mamelukes, and in 1757 bey of .Egypt, and succeeded in becoming independent of Turkey. He attempted to restore the ancient Egyptian empire, and had almost conquered Syria when his chief general, his adopted son, was bribed by the Turks, and drove him from Egypt. He succeeded in getting up an- other army, but after a few victories was again defeated and captured, and died a few days after, in 1773. Alibert (Jean Lonis), a distinguished French medical writer,- bom in Aveyron May 26, 1766. Ho was first physi- cian-in-ordinary to Louis XVIII. after 1815. He wrote, besides other.able works, a " Description of the Diseases of the Skin " (1806-25), which is commended for its style and other merits. Died Nov. 6, 1837. Al'ibi [Lat., meaning " elsewhere "], in law, is the ab- sence of a person accused of crime from the place where the offence is charged to have been committed. If established, it is a defence to the accusation. Alican'te, a province in the south-eastern part of Spain, is bounded on the N. by Valencia, on the E. by the Adriatic, and on the S. and W. by Murcia. Area, 2118 square miles. The country consists partly of fertile plains and partly sterile mountains. Pop. in 1877, 408,154. Chief town, Alicante. Alicante (ano. Lwcen'tum), a fortified city and seaport of Spain, the capital of the above province, is on the Medi- terranean Sea ; lat. 38° 20' N., Ion. 0° 26' W. It is well built, with high and substantial stone houses, and contains 90 ALICATA— ALIZAEINE. several hospitals, one college, and a, theatre. Wine, grain, soda, oil, oranges, etc. are exported from this place, which is the chief seaport of Valencia. Pop. in 1S77, 34,926. Alica'ta, or Lica'ta, a seaport-town of Sicily, in the province of Sicily, on the S. coast, 25 miles S. E. of Gir- genti. It exports grain, wine, sulphur, etc. Near it are the ruins of the ancient Gela. Pop. 17,03B. A'lien [from the Lat. alienus, "belonging to another" {alius)]. An alien by English law is a person born out of the allegiance of the king. In this country ho is one born out of the jurisdiction of the U. S., who has not been nat- uralized or made a citizen under their laws. By the com- mon law the children of public ministers born abroad are citizens, for their fathers owe allogianee to no foreign power. By the laws of Congress, children of American fathers bora abroad, where such fathers have resided in the U. S., are American citizens. (See Citizen.) It has been claimed that, independent of this statute, such children are American citizens. (The arguments against this view are stated with great cogency and learning by the venera- ble Horace Binney in an article upon " The Alienigence of the U. S.") Aliens are subject to certain disabilities afl'ect- ing their exercise of political rights. After naturaliza- tion they are ineligible to the office of President and Vice-President of the U. S. The principal disability affecting aliens concerns the acquisition of the title to real estate. There arc two general modes of acquisition — by purchase and by descent. An alien may acquire title by purchase (including conveyance and devise) in the absence of statutes to the contrary, and can hold it sub- ject to a proceeding by the state termed " office found." This is in substance an inquiry through an authorized offi- cer into the fact of alienage ; and if that be found, the land is adjudged to belong to the state. An alien can convey no better title to a citizen than he himself possesses. This defect in the title can be cured by a private act of the State legislature. In the case of descent no title at all passes to the alien, and no inquest of office is necessary. A citizen brother can inherit from a brother, though their father be an alien, owing to the common-law rule that in- heritances never ascend, and it is accordingly not necessary to trace title through the alien father. This disability is wholly removed in a number of the U. S., and modified in others. Where the disability is not removed, legislation is almost universal in favor of resident aliens, allowing them, if they intend to become citizens, to acquire land for a limited period, and to dispose of it and to transmit it to heirs. Aliens are capable of acquiring, holding, and transmitting personal property in the same manner as citi- zens, and may freely resort to courts of justice to maintain and protect their rights. Under the laws of Congress they are not, however, entitled to take out a copyright. Aliens have been distinguished in time of war into friends and enemies. An alien enemy cannot make a contract with a citizen. It is illegal in its inception, and cannot be enforced even after peace. Nor can such an alien prose- cute actions of any kind while the war lasts, though, if there be no illegality in the claim, the right to sue revives in time of peace. An alien becomes a citizen through naturalization. The difficulties growing out of this sub- ject have led to the negotiation of various treaties between the U. S. and foreign powers. (See Naturalizatio.x.) T. W. DWIGHT. Align'ment [from the Pr. aligner, to "arrange in a line "], a military term, signifies the arrangement of men in line. - The alignment of a camp is the rectilinear dispo- sition of the tents. The word sometimes denotes the laying out or regulation of a street by a straight line. Aliment. See Food, by Edward Smith, M. D., LL.B., F. R. S. ' Alimentary Canal, the cavity in the body of an ani- mal in which food enters to be digested before it is con- veyed by the nutritive vessels into the system. In some animals it is a simple cavity, with only one opening ; in others it is a proper canal, with an outlet or anus distinct from the inlet or mouth, and is a continuous passage of variable dimensions from the mouth to the anus. The principal portions of the alimentary canal of Mammalia are the oesophagus, a duet or tube leading from the mouth to the stomach ; the more expanded cavity of the stomach ; the small intestines, which are long and convoluted; and the large intestines. The canal is lined throughout its whole length with mucous membrane. Its entire length in man is about thirty feet. Al'imony [Lat. alimonm'], in law, an allowance grant- ed by a court to a wife from the husband's estate, either during a litigation between them or at its termination. Originally, it was only granted in suits for separation, but now by statute it is usual to make the allowance in pro- ceedings for divorce dissolving the bonds of matrimony In England the ecclesiastical court had jurisdiction of this subject until 1S57, when it was vested in a court of divorce. In this country the jurisdiction is conferred in general on courts of equity. Alimony is of two sorts — pendente lite, and permanent. (1.) The object of the first is to enable the wife to carry on a litigation with her husband, or to sus- tain herself during its pendency. It is immaterial whether the proceedings be instituted by or against her. Should the wife have sufficient means of her own, no allowance of this kind will be made. The amount rests in the sound discretion of the court, and is subject to increase or dimir nution. (2.) Permanent Alimony. — This is a periodical al- lowance given from the husband's estate as the result of the litigation in the wife's favor. No allowance is made when the proceedings terminate unfavorably to her. The amount varies with the husband's wealth and position, and is commonly from one-third to one-half of his income. It is subject from time to time to variation by the action of the court, depending upon the circumstances of the case. The court has ample power to make its decree effectual, and may have recourse to the writ of ne exeat to prevent the husband's withdrawal from the State without proper security for its payment. Should the husband depart to another State, the parties might become "citizens of dif- ferent States," within the view of the U. S. Constitution ; 80 that she could enforce her claim to alimony in the Fed- eral courts. The ordinary rule that the domieil of the wife follows that of the husband would not be applicable to this ease, even though the case were one of judicial separation rather than of total divorce. T. W. Dwight. Alisma'cese [from the Gr. a^ia-zxa, a "water-plant"], a natural order of endogenous plants, natives of temperate climates. They are herbaceous, and usually grow in swamps or shallow waters. Among the genera of this order are Alis'ma and Sagitta'ria (arrowhead). Aliso is the name of a strbng fortification erected by the Roman general Drusus, in the year H B.C., at the entrance of the Eliso into the Lupia (Lippe), It was the scene of several severe contests between the Romans and the Germans. Al'ison (Aechibald), a Scottish writer, born in Edin- burgh Nov. 13, 1757, was educated at Oxford. He took orders in the Church of England in 1778, and became curate of Kenley, in Shropshire, in 1790. In 1800 he re- moved to Edinburgh, where he preached for many years. His chief works are ** Essays on the Nature and Principles of Taste" (1784), and two volumes of sermons (1814). Died May 17, 1839. Alison (Sir Aechibald), Baht., D. C. L., a son of the preceding, was born at Kenley, in Shropshire, Dec. 29, 1792. He graduated in the University of Edinburgh, studied law, and was called to the bar in 1814. In 1S32 he published his " Principles of Criminal Law," a work of standard authority. His chief work is a "History of Eu- rope during the French Revojiition" (10 vols. 8vo, 1833- 42), which comes down to lS15)tand has had a great popu- larity. "Its merits," says the "Edinburgh Review" for Oct., 1842, "are minuteness and honesty — qualities which may well excuse a faulty style, gross political prejudices, and a fondness for exaggerated and frothy declamation." He wrote a continuation of this History to the year 1852, a " Life of John, dulie of Marlborough " ( 1 847 ). In politics he was ultra Conservative. Died May 2.3, 1867. Alison (Sir Auchibald, Jn.), Bart. See Appendix. Alison (William Pulteney), M. D., a physiologist, a brother of the preceding, was born in Edinburgh in 1790. He became professor of the institutes of medicine at Edin- burgh in 1828, and professor of the practice of medicine in 1832. He published "Outlines of Physiology and Pa- thology " (1833), and other works. Died in 1859. Aliz'arine [from al-izari, the commercial name of madder iti the Levant] is the coloring-matter of madder (liiibia tinetormn). Alizarine was discovered in 1824 by Robiquet and Colin, by treating madder with strong sul- phuric acid, producing a black mass, which they called charbon de garance. On heating this, it yielded a sublimate of alizarine crystals. Preparation. — Several processes have been employed for the extraction of alizarine, more or less pure, from madder. Kopp's plan, which has been applied on a larger scale by Schaaf and Lauth of Strasburg, consisted in treating the madder with an aqueous solution of sulphurous acid, by which both alizarine and purpurine. another coloring-mat- ter, were dissolved. On adding 3 per cent, of sulphuric acid to the solution, and heating to 95° or 104° Fahrenheit, the purpuRine was precipitated. In the filtrate from the purpurine the alizarine was precipitated in an impure state. This was extensively sold under the name of "green ali- zarine." From the washings a brown alizarine of inferior ALKALI. 91 quality separated. The green alizarine was sometimes puri- fied by dissolving it in rectified petroleum, withdrawing the alizarine by agitating with soda lye, and precipitating it by sulphuric acid. It was thus obtained comparatively pure in yellow flakes, which dried to a yellow powder. Another process for extracting alizarine was based upon the obser- vation of Leitenberger that purpurine is soluble in water from 77° to 131° Fahrenheit, while alizarine requires a much higher temperature. Alizarine is largely sold to the calico-printers in the form of a yellowish-brown paste, under the name of "madder extract;" also in the form of a dry powder. It may be crystallized from solution in red prisms or by sublimation in yellow needles. Properties. — It is but slightly soluble in water, except under pressure at temperature much above the boiling- point. One hundred parts of water dissolve at 212° Fahrenheit, 0.034 alizarine. 302° " 0.035 " 392° " 0.820 " 437° " 1,700 « 482° " 3.160 " It is soluble in alcohol and in ether, forming yellow solu- tions. It is also soluble in wood-naphtha, benzol, bisulphide of carbon, turpentine, glycerine, and petroleum. In sul- phuric acid it dissolves with a deep-red color, and is pre- cipitated unchanged on adding water. It is soluble in caustic alkalies and alkaline carbonates, forming a violet solution, from which it is precipitated by acids. Akaline solutions of alizarine form, with soluble lime and baryta salts, precipitates of a beautiful purple color; with alum- ina salts, a red ; with iron salts, a purple precipitate. If a piece of cotton cloth which has been printed with the common alumina and iron mordants is placed in water holding a little alizarine in suspension, it will be found on heating the whole that the cotton will become permanently dyed in shades of red and purple. Alizarine is a feeble acid, forming, as above shown, soluble salts with the alkaline metals, insoluble colored salts with most other metals. Turkey-red, madder-pink, and the various shades of purple and chocolate on calico, are compounds of alizarine with metallic bases. Origin of Alizarine, — Little if any alizarine exists in the living madder root, and after the root is gathered it is found that the alizarine increases in quantity by keeping for several years. It is now believed that the alizarine is produced from a substance called rubian or rubianic or ruberythrinic acid, a gluooside, by a peculiar fermentation induced by a peculiar madder ferment called erythrozone : Rubian. Alizarine. Glucose. C26H320l6(?) = C14H8O4 + 2C6H12O6. Rubian undergoes the same change under the influence of dilute acids. Artificial Alizarine. — One of the greatest triumphs of modern chemistry was the artificial production of alizarine by Graebe and Liebermann in 1869. By a careful study of an extensive class of bodies, Graebe established the exist- ence of a peculiar series of compounds called quinones, which contain ihe phenyl nuclenSf and in which two atoms of oxygen arc united together by a common bond, form- ing a dyad radical (O2)", which aids in binding together two adjacent carbon atoms. The molecular structure of the lowest quinone, that derived from quinic acid or from benzol, is shown in the following graphic formulae : Benzol. H Quinone. H H-C C-H H-C C-O H-i t-H H-i Lo c c 1 I H H In studying the .quinones, Graebe noticed certain gen- eral characteristics, which he attributed to their peculiar molecular structure. Thus, two of the hydrogen atoms as- sociated with the oxygen radical (O2)" may be replaced by HO, H2N, or HSOs, the product being an acid, an amide, or a sulpho-acid. The following table illustrates the most important relations in this connection of the quinones : Acidfl. Qainonlo Actd. (HO)2=C6H2=(02)". Primnry Hydrocarbons. Quinones. Benzol. Quinone. CsHo. C6H4=(02)". Naphtbalcne. OioHe. Naphtho-quinone. CloH6=(02)". Nnphtho-qulnonic Acid. (HO)2=CloH4=(02)". Five years before, Martins and Griess, while investiga- ting some derivatives of naphthalene, discovered a body very similar but not identical with alizarine ; and Graebe had obtained a body from a naphtho-quinone derivative which resembled alizarine in some respects. Graebe came therefore to the conclusion that alizarine belonged to the quinone series, and, associated with Liebermann, he began his investigation upon it. The starting-point was to as- certain the primary hydrocarbon from which the alizarine could be constructed. They therefore subjected alizarine from madder to the process devised by Bayer for the conversion of phenol into its hydrocarbon, benzol. They passed alizarine vapor over heated zinc-dust, and obtained the hydrocarbon anthracene, C14H10. It only remained to change the anthracene into its quinone, and then into its quiuonic acid, to form the alizarine : Anthracene, C14H10. Anthraquinone, Ci4H8 = (02)". Anthraquinonic acid or alizarine, {H0)2= Ci4H6= (O2)". A body, anthracenuse, had been prepared years before by Laurent and Anderson, which Graebe and Liebermann now recognized as the quinone of anthracene, Ci4H8= (Oj)". They heated this with bromine, by which they replaced H2 by B2H2, obtaining bibrom-anthraquinone, Ci4H6Br2 = (O2)". To replace the Br2 by hydroxyl (H0)2, they heated it with caustic potassa, KOH, and thus obtained the potas- sium salt of the new acid, from which the acid was pre- cipitated by hydrochloric acid as a yellow powder.indenti- cal with the alizarine derived from madder. The practical importance of this discovery attracted to it the attention of numerous chemists, and simpler processes, avoiding the use of the expensive bromine, were soon devised. An abundant supply of anthracene is obtained from the re- fuse coal-tar of gas-works, and in a few months anthracene, which had never been seen except as a chemical curiosity, became a regular article of commerce. {See Anthracene.) The process now employed for making alizarine consists in converting the anthraquinone into a mono-sulpho acid and fusing the soda salt of this with caustic soda, with a small addition of potassic chlorate. In executing this pro- cess it is found that two di-sulpho acids are formed in large quantities, which yield with soda two new isomeric color- ing-matters of great importance, C14H8O5: flavo-purpurine from the o acid, which produces yellowish reds, and anthra- or iso-purpurine from the b acid, which produces pure fiery reds. Alizarine produces bluish reds. By separating the mono- and the two di-sulpho acids, each may oe made to yield its own coloring-matter on fusion with soda, or by operating upon various mixtures of them dyestuffs pro- ducing the greatest variety of shades may be obtained. The following new dyestuffs have been prepared from alizarine ; Alizarine carmine, which is the sodium salt of mono- sulpho alizarine and the two purpurines. It is used on wool as a substitute for cochineal. Alizarine orange is nitro-alizarine. Alizarine blue is produced by heating nitro-alizarine with glycerine and sulphuric acid. Alizarine bine S. is a compound of the blue with acid sulphite of sodium. Alizarine brown is formed by the action of sodium thio- sulphate on nitro-alizarine. It gives olive-greens. The annual consumption of madder in dyeing and calico- printing exceeded 510,000,000. Large tracts in Holland, Alsace, Italy, and the Levant were devoted to its culture. It not only supplied dyestuffs, but in Alsace it yielded a large proportion of the alcohol of commerce : the root con- taining sugar, which was extracted and subjected to fer- mentation. This brilliant discovery of Graebe and Liebermann has effected a very serious change in the agricultural system of people as remote from each other as the shores of the North Sea and Asia Minor. Theoretically, 1 pound of alizarine would require 0.60 pound anthracene, which would be obtained from 30 pounds of coal-tar, requiring 660 pounds of coal. In practice, the yield is less than half this amount. There are now flS82) eight factories in Germany and one in England engaged in the manufac- ture of alizarine. The annual production is valued at 810,000,000. (For further details with regard to alizarine, consult "Die Farbestoffe," von P. SchUtzenbergen, uebcr- setzt von Dr. H. Schroder, Berlin, 1S73 ; "The History of Alizarine," by AV. H. Perkis, I. Soo. Arts, 1879 ; " Die Chemie dcs Steinkohlentheers," von G. Schultz, Braun- schweig, 1SS2.) C. F. Chandler. Al'kali [from the Arabic definite article al, and kali, the plant from which soda was first obtained], a chemical term applied to an important class of bases which combine with acids to form salts, turn vegetable yellows to red, and vegetable blues to green, and unite with oil or fat to form soap. The proper alkalies are potash, soda, lithia, cgesia, rubidia, and ammonia, which are extremely caustic. Potash is called vegetable alkali, soda is called mineral alkali, and ammonia, volatile alkali. Lime, magnesia, baryta, and strontia, having some properties of alkalies, aro called allca- liue earths. The alkalies and alkaline earths are metallic oxides, except Abimoma (which see). When an alkali and 92 ALKALIMETEE— ALLEGHANY MOUNTAINS. an acid combine in due proportion they are said to neu- tralize each other ; they really produce metallic salts : K0H + HC1=KC1 + H20. NaOH + HNO3 = NaNOs + H2O. (See Acids, by Peop. C. F. Chandler, Ph. D., LL.D.) Alkalim'eter [from alkali, and the Gr. fieVpoi/, a "meas- ure "], an instrument used to ascertain the proportion of pure carbonate of potash or of soda in a commercial sample of those articles, and to test the strength and purity of soda-ash, potash, etc. It consists of a graduated glass tube divided into 100 degrees (numbering from the top), and filled with diluted sulphuric acid, which is poured into a given quantity of the solution of the alkali until it is neu- tralized. If this process empties the tube to the eightieth degree, it shows that the article contains 80 per cent, of pure alkali. This process is called alkalimetry. The same instrument is also used to test the strength of acids, by filling the tube with a solution of alkali and reversing the process. (See Volumetric Analysis.) Alkalimetry. See preceding article. Al'kaloids [from alkali, and the Gr. elSos, " form "], an important class of substances of organic origin, having tha qualities of alkalies more or less strongly marked, and be- ing capable of forming salts with acids, like the inorganic bases. They are often substitution products of ammonia. They are divided into two classes — natural and artificial. The natural alkaloids are found in plants and animals. They are composed essentially of carbon, hydrogen, and nitrogen ; besides which a great number contain oxygen. The alkaloids have generally an energetic action on the animal system, and hence are employed as medicine ; in comparatively large doses they are often powerful poisons. They have generally a bitter taste, and form in many in- stances the active principles of the plants in which they are found. Such are morphine, found in opium j quinine and cinchonine, in cinchona barkj strychnine, in nux vomica; hyoscyamine, in henbane,- atropine, in belladonna; caf- feine or theine, in coffee and tea, etc. The animal alkaloids are few, the more important being urea, found in the urine of the Mammalia; and kreatine and kreatinine, two of the constituents of the juice of fiesh. The artificial alkaloids are those organic bases which are formed in the researches of chemists. Recently several of the natural alkaloids have been manufactured on a small scale without the intervention of the living plant or animal. Urea can be formed from the simplest form of dead organic nitrogenous matter. Coniine, the alkaloid of hemlock, has been prepared artificially. (See Amines, Urea, etc.) Al'kanet {Anchu'ea), a genus of herbaceous plants foMnd in Europe, belong to the natural order Boragina- ccEe. They have -five stamens. Some of the species are cultivated for the beauty of the flowers. The root of the Ancltiisa tiHcto'ria affords a resinous red coloring-matter, and is used to color pomades, lip-salves, hair-oils, etc. Al-Katir, or El-Chatif, a town of Arabia, on the bay of the same name, which is part of the Gulf of Persia. It has a fort, a bazaai-, and a citadel. Pop. about 6000. Alkindi, or Alcfaindus. See Appe.vdix. Alkmaar', or Alckmaer', an old and important forti- fied town of Holland, in the province of North Holland, 20 miles N. N. W. of Amsterdam, and 5 miles from the ocean. It is well built, and is traversed by several canals, by which it carries on an active trade in butter and choose. It is said to be the greatest mart for cheese in the world. Here are manufactures of soap, leather, sail-oloth, etc. This town was defended with success against the Spaniards in a long siege which began in 1573. Pop. in 1879, 13,304. Alkmaar, van. (Henry), a Low-German poet who lived about 1475-1500. Ho was the author or translator of a very popular poem and satire entitled "Eeineoke Fuchs" ("Koynard the Po.x"), which he published in Low German at Lubeok in 1498. He professed that he translated this from the Walloon and the French, but no such original is extant. Alkoran. See Koran, by Prop. Tayler Lewis, LL.D. Al'lah, the Arabic name of the Supremo Being, the only true God, as distinguished from the deities worshipped by idolaters. Al'lahab^d' (i. e. "the city of God"), an ancient and holy city of Hindostan, the capital of the North-western Provinces, is at the confluence of the Ganges and the Jumna, 498 miles by rail N. by W. of Calcutta ; lat. 25° 25' 26" N., Ion. 81° 51' E. Many thousand pilgrims annually resort to this place to bathe in the sacred rivers which here unite. The houses of the natives are mostly mean. This city is important as a military point, and is advantageously situated as an emporium of trade on the East Indian Railway, and also on the Grand Trunk road. A large pai-t of the city was reduced to ruins by the hos- tile operations between the mutinous Sepoys and the British in 1857. Pop. in 1881, 150,378. Al'lau (David), a Scottish painter of domestic and humorous subjects, was born at Alloa Feb. 13, 1744, and was called the "Scottish Hogarth." He studied and worked for many years in Rome, whither ho went in 1764. Among his works are "The Origin of Painting," which represents a Corinthian maiden drawing her lover's profile on the wall ; and illustrations of Allan Ramsay's " Gentle Shepherd." Died Aug. 6, 1796. Allan (Sir Hugh), born in Ayrshire, Scotland, in 1810, emii-rated at an early age to Canada, where he became, in conjunction with his brother Andrew, proprietor of a lino of steamships. In 1870 thoy had eighteen steamships ply- ing between Montreal and Great Britain. Ho was one of the canal commissioners " inspecting the internal naviga- tion " of Canada (1870-71), and in 1873 became prominent in support of Canadian Pacific Railway. D. Deo. 9, 1882. Allan (Sir Williaji), an eminent Scottish historical painter, born in Edinburgh in 1782. Ho worked some years in St. Petersburg, visited Circassia and Turkey, and returned to Edinburgh in 1814. Ho received IflOO guineas for his picture of "Circassian Captives." In 1835 ho was elected academician of the Royal Academy of London, and in 1840 succeeded Wilkie as limner to Her Majesty for Scotland. Among his works arc " The Death of Re- gent Murray," "Potor the Great Teaching Shipbuilding to his Subjects," " Knox Admonishing Queen Mary," and two pictures of the battle of Waterloo. Died Feb. 22, 1850. AIlan-Kardec (Hippolyte Leon Denizabd). See Appendix. Allan'toin(C4N4HoOa),acolorlcss crystalline substance found in the allantoic fluid of the foetal calf and in the urine of the sucking calf. It is produced artificially by boiling uric acid with lead dio.xido and water. Allan'tois [from the Gr. SlKKm, oAAii'TO!, a " sausage," and elSo?, a "form"], a thin membranous sac developed during incubation in the eggs of birds and reptiles, and in the embryo of viviparous animals during ^gestation. (For its development and uses, see Embryology.) Allard (Jean FRAN901S), born in 1785, went to Egypt in 1815, and thence to Persia, where Abbas Mirza gave him the title of colonel, but with no command. For that reason he went to Lahore, where he gained the confidence of the maharajah of the Sikhs, who made him commander-in- chief of his army, which he organized according to Euro- pean custom. He died in 1839. Allatoo'na, on R. R., Bartow co., Ga. (see map of Georgia, ref. 2-]?, for location of county), 40 miles N. W. of Atlanta. Gen. J. E. Johnston, when pursued by Gen. Sherman, made a stand in the strong position of Allatoona Pass, in May, 1864, until his flank was turned. The Union general Corse defended this place with success against the assault of a superior force in Oct., 1864, while Gen. Sher- man, from the 'top of Kenesaw Mountain, signalled that he should hold out to the last. Al'legan, R. R. junction, capital of Allegan co., Mich, (sec map of Michigan, ref. 7-H, for location of county), on the Kalamazoo River, has foundries, the Holly water- works, oar-works, and many other manufactories propelled by water and steam, an academy, and the library of the Allegan literary and library association. Pop. in 1870, 2374; in 1880, 2305; in 1884, 2638. Allega'ny, on R. R., Cattaraugus eo., N. Y. (see map of New York, ref. 6-C, for location of county). It con- tains a Roman Catholic college and Franciscan convent, and hits important manufactures. Pop. in 1870, 746; in 1880, 1049. Allegha'ny, a river which rises in Potter co.. Pa., makes a short circuit in New, York, and returns into the former State. Flowing afterward in a S. S. W. direction through the hilly oil-regions, it unites with the Mononga- hela at Pittsburg, forming the Ohio. It is navigable for small steamboats 150 miles or more above Pittsburg, is over 400 miles long, and its waters are remarkably clear and pure. Among the principal towns on its banks are Warren, Franklin, and Kittanning. Alleghany Mountains, or Alleghanies, a name sometimes used as synonymous with that of the Appala- chian system of mountains. (See Appalachian Mountains.) In a more limited sense it is applied to parallel ranges which traverse Pennsylvania, Maryland, and Virginia, and form the most prominent features in the physical geogra- phy of those States. The general direction of these ridges is nearly N. E. and S. W., and their mean height about 2500 feet. Among their highest summits are the Peaks ALLEGHANY SPRINGS— ALLEN. 93 of Otter, in Virginia, rising to 3993 feet above tlie sea. Tiiese ridges are remarkable for the parallelism of their direction and the uniformity of their outline and altitude, and enclose several beautiful and fertile valleys. The rocks of the Allcghanies are the Silurian and Devonian limestones and sandstones, and the group of strata called the coal-measures. Alleghany Springs, in Montgomery co., Va. (see map of Virginia, ref. 7-D, for location of county), 3 miles from ShawsviDe, on the Norfolk and Western R. R., and 77 miles S. W. of Lynchburg, are a popular retreat for in- valids and others. The springs are highly saline, and produce laxative, tonic, or alterative effects, according to the method of use. They are especially recommended for dyspeptics. Eight miles distant arc the sublime Puncheon Run Falls, and the scenery near is wild and picturesque. Allegheny, city and important R. R. centre, Allegheny CO., Pa. (see map of Pennsylvania, ref. 5-A, for location of county), separated from Pittsburg by the Allegheny River. Several fine bridges connect the two cities. Manufactures. — The census of 18S0 'showed 424 manu- factories; capital S8,451,059 : average number of hands employed, 6471 ; wages paid during the year, $2,652,774 ; value of products, $13,731,792. The city contains extensive iron and steel rolling-mills, locomotive-works, cotton and woollen mills, foundries, machine-shops, tanneries, ilour- mills, salt-works, white-lead works, etc. There are in Allegheny 3 theological seminaries, numerous benevolent and reformatory institutions, the Western Penitentiary; a soldiers' monument, costing over $40,000 ; a beautiful park, embellished with costly fountains, statues, etc.; 2 beautiful cemeteries — Union Dale and St. Mary's ; 1 pub- lic library, a fine market-house, and very extensive water- works. Pop. in 1870, 53,180 ; in 1880, 78,682, Alle'giance [Fr. alUgeance], in law, is the tie or obliga- tion which binds a citizen or subject to a state. The com- mon law distinguishes between natural and local allegiance. The former is that which a citizen owes to the state of which he is a member; the latter is due from a person who is not bound by the rules of natural allegiance, but who is temporarily subject to the laws of the state by which the allegiance is claimed. Under this theory a for- eigner temporarily residing in a country is subject to its laws. Under such circumstances, should he conspire to overturn the government he may be guilty of treason. When he departs his allegiance is at an end. Natural al- legiance, on the other hand, cannot be shaken off at the will of the citizen. Should he abandon the country to which he belongs, and engage in war on the part of a for- eign state against it, he might, in strictness, if taken prisoner, be treated as a traitor. Such a treatment would, under some circumstances, be extremely harsh, as where the state had encouraged emigration, and the consequent assumption by an emigrant of relations naturally leading to a duty to take sides in a controversy with an adopted country. The doctrines of allegiance are of feudal origin, and it has been found difficult to reconcile them with the requirements of modern times. The U. S. in their legis- lation upon naturalization have proceeded upon the theory that a citizen of a foreign country might, at his will, shake off his allegiance and become a citizen here. The Eu- ropean nations have quite uniformly denied that there is any such general rule of public law, whatever may be the opinion of individual jurists. The perplexing and irritat- ing questions thus raised have been for the most part re- cently disposed of by treaties between the U. S. and the leading foreign nations. (For these treaties see Natu- HALIZATIO.V.) T. W. DWIGHT. Al'legory [G-r. aWiiyopCa; Lat. aUegoria], a figure of speech which may be termed a prolonged metaphor ; a nar- rative in which abstract ideas are personified, as Bunyan's " Pilgrim's Progress," which furnishes one of the finest examples of allegory to be found in literature. Allegory is not confined to literature, but may also be employed in painting, sculpture, and pantomimic representations. It difl'ers from symbol with respect to the relation between idea and form. In a symbol the form is naturally indi- cative of the idea, as when a lion rising from its couch is taken as a representative of the awakening spirit of de- mocracy, while in an allegory idea and form are entirely disconnected, as when a city is represented by a female figure. Mere allegory without any power of symbolization is tiresome, and often stupid. Allegret'to [a diminutive of the It.allegro, "lively"] is a musical term which denotes a movement or time quicker than andante, but not so quick as allegro. Alle'gri (GKEeonio), an Italian composer of sacred music, born in Rome about 1580. He was a singer in the pope'ff chapel and a pupil of Nanini. His masterpiece is the " Miserere," which is annually performed in the pon- tifical chapel during Passion Week. Died in 1652. Alle'gro (i. c, "lively," "cheerful"), in music, one of the principal degrees of movement; a term which signifies that the piece to which it is prefixed is to be performed in a brisk and lively manner. The word is sometimes used as a substantive, and a name of an entire musical com- position. Al'lein, or Al'leine (Joseph), an English non-con- formist minister and writer, born at Devizes in 1634, was educated at Oxford. He was ejected from a curacy at Taunton in 1662, after which he was persecuted by im- prisonment in Ilchester jail, and was fined for preaching. His death was hastened by ill-treatment, and he died Nov, 17, 1668. Among his works is an " Alarm to the Uncon- verted" (1672), which is highly esteemed. Allein, or Alleine (Rtchabd), an English non-con- formist and Puritan, born in Somersetshire in 161], edu- cated at Oxford, was rector of Bateombe in that county, but was ejected in 1662. He published " Vindicia3 Pieta- tis" ("Vindica,tion or Defence of Piety," 1663), and other works. Died Dec. 22, 1681. Allen (OnABLEs), LL.D., a jurist, was bom at Worces- ter, Mass., Aug. 9, 1797, and was admitted to the bar in 1818; was a judge of various State courts of Massachu- setts between 1842 and 1859, and chief-justice of the Mas- sachusetts superior court (1859-67). From 1849 to 1853 he was a Free-Soil member of Congress. He was a dele- gate to the Peace Congress of 1861, and was long known as an influential lawyer and an able jurist. Died Aug. 6, 1869. Allen (Chakles). See Appesdix. Allen (David Oliver), D. D., an American divine, born at Barre, Mass., Sept. 14, 1799; graduated at Amherst College in 1823, and labored as a missionary in India from 1827 to 1853, in which latter year he returned to America. He published a "History of India" in 1856. Died July 17, 1863. Allen (Elisha H.), born at New Salem, Mass., Jan. 28, 1804; graduated at Williams College ; was admitted to the bar ; removed to Brattleboro', Vt., and in 1830 to Ban- gor, Me.; member of Maine legislature 1836-41 and 1846; in 1838 was speaker; member of Congress from Maine 1841-43; removed to Boston in 1847, and was elected to the Massachusetts legislature in 1849; U. S. consul at Honolulu, 1852-56; then became Hawaiian minister of finance, and from 1857 was chief-justice and chancellor of Sandwich Islands, holding that otiice twenty years, during which period he was several times minister plenipotentiary of S.andwich Islands to U. S. He was resident minister of Sandwich Islands at Washington from 1876 till his death, Jan. 1, 1883. Allen (Elizabeth Akebs), known as " Florence Per- cy," was born in Strong, Me., Oct. 9, 1832. Her first hus- band was the sculptor Akers. She is now the wife of E. M. Allen of New York. She published in 1867 a volume of poems of decided merit, and has contributed much to periodical literature. . Allen (Ethan), General, born at Litchfield, Conn., Jan. 10, 1737. He became an owner of iron-works at Sal- isbury, Conn., and in 1766 removed to Vermont, where he became a leader in the popular resistance to the claims of New York. The province of New York declared Allen an outlaw, and offered £150 for his arrest. On the outbreak of the Revolution, Allen heartily joined the movement, and on the 10th of May, 1775, ho surprised and captured the fort at Ticonderoga, summoning its astonished com- mandant to surrender "in the name of the great Jehovah and the Continental Congress." This capture gave the army a valuable supply of artillery and stores. He had but eighty-three men under him, among whom was Bene- dict Arnold. On the 25th of Sept., 1775, he attacked Mon- treal with a small force, but was captured and sent to England as a prisoner. He was treated with great cruelty, and was not exchanged till 1778. The British authorities tried in vain to bribe him to induce the Vermonters to join their cause, but he skilfully contrived by his negotia- tions to keep the British troops out of Vermont. He pub- lished pamphlets against the New York domination, a narrative of his captivity (1799), a "Vindication of Ver- mont" (1779), and "Allen's Theology, or the Oracles of Reason" (1784), an attack upon tho Christian religion. He professed to believe in the transmigration of souls. Died near Burlington, Vt., Fob. 12, 1789. (See his life by Hugh Moor.E (1834), and by H. W. de Puy (1853).) Allen (Fbederic de Forest). See Appendix. Allen (George). See Appendix. Allen (Heman), LL.D., born at Poultney, Vt., Feb. 23, 1779, graduated at Dartmouth 1795, became a lawyer, was chief-justiceof a Vermont State court (1811-14), member 94 ALLEN. of Congress (1817-18), U. S. minister to Chili (1823-28), and held vaj-ious other important positions. He was a nephew of Ethan Allen. Died April 'J, 1S52. Allen (Henry), an enthusiast, born at Newport, R. I., Juno 14, 1748, founder of tho "AUenites." Ho maintain- ed that Adam and Evo before the fall had no corporeal bodies, and denied the resurrection of tho body. Ho preached in Nova Scotia, and published some hymns and religious treatises. Died Feb. 2, 1784. Allen (Ini), General, born in Cornwall, Conn., April 21, 1751,was ayounger brotherof Ethan Allen. Emigrating in 1772 to Vermont, ho became a prominent and public- spirited citizen. While he was colonel of militia his regi- ment did good service at the battle of Bennington. He bore a prominent part in settling tho early difficulties of Vermont with tho neighboring States. In 1795 ho went to France to purchase arms for his State, but was talien on tho voyage home, carried to England, and there sus- tained with success an eight years' lawsuit on tho charge of attempting to supply the Irish with arms. He was afterwards imprisoned in France. Ho wrote a " Natural and Political History of Vermont" (1798) and other works. Died Jan. 7, 1814. Allen (Joel Asaph). See Appendix. Allen (Joseph W.), an English landscape painter, born at Lambeth, in Surrey, in 1803. He was tho principal scene-painter at tho Olympic Theatre, and is said to have corrupted his stj^le in landscape by the " brilliant effects " which are only adapted to the stage. Ho had previously painted rural scenery with success. Died Aug. 30, 1852. Allen (Nathan), M. D., LL.D., of Lowell, Mass., born at Princeton, Mass., April 25, 1813, graduated at Amherst in 1836. He has published several valuable pamphlets on the laws of life and health, as well as the causes affecting the changes and increase of population. Allen (Paul), born at Providence, R. I., Feb. 15, 1775, graduated at Brown University in 1796, studied law, and removed to Philadelphia, where ho engaged in journalism, serving as editor and correspondent to various journals. He published a volume of poems (1801), " Lewis and Clarke's Travels" (1814), "Life of Alexander I." (1818), and other works. His " History of the Revolution " (1819) was written by John Neal and others. He was for a time insane. Died at Baltimore (where ho was an editor of the "Morning Chronicle") Aug. 18, 1826. Allen (Philip), born in Providence, R. I., Sept. 1, 1785, graduated at Brown University in 1803. He was an ex- tensive cotton-manufacturer, and built the first Watt steam- engine ever made in Providence; was governor of Rhode Island (1851-53), and U. S. Senator (1853-69). Died Dec. 16, 1805. Allen (Richard), first bishop of the African Methodist Episcopal Church in the V. S. He was originally a preacher in the Methodist Episcopal Church, and was or- dained deacon by Bishop Asbury in 1799. He was elected bishop of tho African Methodist Episcopal Church in 1810. Died in Philadelphia in 1831. (See Methodism.) Allen (Richard L.), born in Hampden oo., Mass., Oct., 1803. Was a merchant in Buffalo, N. Y., in 1834, residing later at " AUenwood," his farm, on tho Niagara River. With his brother, A. B. Allen, he established tho "American Agriculturist" in the city of Now York, in 1842, which be- came a very successful paper. He was the author of the *' American Farm Book," and the " Diseases of Domestic Animals" (1845). D. at Stockholm, Sweden, Sept. 22, 1869. Allen (Robert), an American officer, born in 1812 in Ohio, graduated at West Point in 1836, and, July 20, 1866, assistant quartermaster-general (rank colonel), and briga- dier-general U. S. volunteers. May 13, 1863. Served in tho artillery till May 11, 1846, and subsequently in the quarter- master's department; on engineer duty in 1836, and in Florida war in 1837-38, in emigrating Chorokees to the West in 1838, in quelling the Canada border disturbances in 1840-41, in garrison in New York harbor in 1841-46, in the war with Mexico in 1846-48 on quartermaster duty, being present at the battles from Vera Cruz to tho city of Mexico (brevet major), on quartermaster duty at New Or- leans and New York in 1848-49, as chief quartermaster of Pacific division in 1849-52 and 1854^61. In the civil war served as chief quartermaster at St. Louis, Mo., in 1861- 63, and at Louisville, Ky., 1863-66; from which points he directed the furnishing of transportation and supplies for tho various armies operating in tho Mississippi Valley (brevet lieutenant-colonel and brigadiei--general July 4, 1864), and for several expeditions, including those against the North-west Indians; as chief quartermaster of the division of tho Pacific in 1860-69, and senior assistant in quartermaster-general's office in Washington, D. C 1869 Retired Mar. 2, 1878. George W. Culldil Allen (Samuel), a London merchant, born about 1635, was one of tho proprietors of New Hampshire under Mason's patent, and was governor of the colony (1691- 99). His claim involved him and his heirs in expensive litigation. Died May 5, 1705. Allen (Solomon), an American patriot and preacher, born in Northampton, Mass., Feb. 23, 1751, was a brother of Moses, noticed above. He served as a major in the Revolutionary war. Died Jan. 20, 1821. Allen (Stephen), born In New York City in 1767, be- came mayor of the same in 1821. Ho was distinguished for his public spirit and public services, being ono of the persons who originated tho enterprise of supplying New York with Croton water. He was a victim of the burning of the steamer Henry Clay in July, 1852. Allen (Stephen), D.D., an eminent divine and educa- tor of tho Methodist Episcopal Church, was born in Maine in 1810, graduated at Bowdoin College in 1835, entered the ministry in the Maine Conference in 1839, and has de- voted much of his life to education in his native State, particularly as principal of the Maine Wesleyan Seminary. Allen (Thomas), an American patriot, born at North- ampton, Mass., Jan. 17, 1743, was a brother of Moses, noticed above, and the father of William Allen (1784-1868). He was the first minister in Pittsfield, where he began to preach in 1764. In the Revolution he served as chaplain in the American army. Died Feb. 11, 1810. Allen (Weld N.), U. S. N., born Mar. 27, 1837, in Maine, graduated at the Naval School in 1856, became a lieutenant in 1801, a lieutenant-commander in 1863, a com- mander in 1871, served during the summer of 1861 at Fort Dahlgren near Alexandria, and was for some weeks in command of that important post. In 1862 and 1863 served on board tho gunboat Kanawha, and in 1864 com- manded the steamer New London, Western Gulf blockad- ing squadron. In 1885, while attached to the steam-sloop Tuscarora, Allen led the men of that vessel in the assault upon Fort Fisher, and was wounded in the left arm. Died Feb. 7, 1S75. Foxhall A. Parker. Allen (William), a lawyer, who was chief-justice of Pennsylvania before the Revolution, and a royalist after it began. He aided Dr. Franklin in founding the College of Philadelphia. Died in 1780. Allen (William), F. R. S., an English chemist and phi- lanthropist, born in London Aug. 29, 1770, was a friend of Sir H. Davy. In conjunction with W. H. Pepys he made researches on respiration, etc. He devoted much time to benevolent enterprises, and ns a minister of the So- ciety of Friends travelled in France, Germany, and Russia, in which latter country he had an interview with the em- peror Alexander in 1822. In 1825 he founded two manual- labor schools at Lindfield, Sussex. Died Dec. 30, 1843. Allen (William), D.D., b. at Pittsfield. Mass., Jan. 2, 1784; graduated at Harvard in 1 802, was licensed to preach in 1804, in 1810 succeeded his father as pastor in Pittsfield, was chosen president of Dartmouth Univ. in 1817, and was president of Bowdoin College from 1820 to 1830. His last days were spent at Northampton, Mass., where he died July 10, 1868. He published numerous volumes, both of prose and of poetry. His best known work is an "American Bio- graphical and Historical Dictionary'' (1809; 3d ed. 1857). Allen (William), governor of Ohio. See Appendix. Allen (William F.), born in Windham co.. Conn., July 28, 1808 ; studied law, and was an active lawyer for many years. He filled minor offices before he was elected (in 1842) to the assembly, of which ho was also a member in 1843 and 1844. In 1847 he was elected a justice of the supremo court for the fifth judicial district of New York, and was re-elected in 1855. He held this office until Nov., 1867, when he was elected comptroller of the State of New York. While he hold this position tho law requiring a re- organization of the court of appeals went into effect, and he was chosen by the Democrats associate justice in that court, which office he held till his death, at Oswego, N. Y., June 3, 1878. Allen (William Henry), a naval ofiicer, born at Provi- dence, R. I., Oct. 21, 1784. He served with distinction under Decatur when the latter captured the Macedonian, in Oct., 1812. Having obtained the command of the Argus, Cap- tain Allen took several prizes from the English. He was mortally wounded in a battle between tho Argus and tho Pelican Aug. 14, 1813. Allen (William Henry), M. D., LL.D., was born at Roadfield, Me., Mar. 27, 1808, educated at Bowdoin Col- lege, Mo., 1833, was professor of Latin and Greek in the Cazenovia Methodist Seminary, N. Y., from 1833 to 1835, professor of chemistry and natural philosophy in Dickinson College, Carlisle, Pa., from 1836 to 1846, pro- ALLEN— ALLODIUM. 95 fessor of philosophy and English literaturd* at the same institution from 1S46 to the close of 1849. president of Girard College, Philadelphia, from 1850 to 1863, president of the Agricultural College of Pennsylvania during 1865 and 1866, and was reappointed president of Girard College in 1867, which office he sustained with eminent ability. In 1S72 he was elected president of the American Bible Society. He was author of "A Manual of Devotion for Girard College Orphans," and of numerous and able ad- dresses, reviews, etc. Died Aug. 29, 1SS2. Allen (William Howaiid), an officer of the U. S. navy, was born at Hudson, N. Y., July 8, 1790. He commanded the Argus after William Henry Allen was mortally wound- ed, in 1813. Nov. 8, 1822, he was killed by pirates whom he attacked near Matanzas. Allen (William Stickney), an American journalist, born at Newburyport, Mass., in 1S05, was for nearly twelve years editor of the "Nowburyport Herald." He removed in 1S37 to Missouri, where he afterwards edited the " St. Louis Republican." Died June 10, 1868. Arienstein, a Prussian town, province of East Prussia, situated on the AUe, 65 miles S. of KSnigsberg, Pop. in ISSO, 7610. AUentown, city, an important R. R. centre, capital of Lehigh co., Pa. (see map of Pennsylvania, ref. 6-1, for location of county), on the right bank of the Lehigh River, 60 miles N. by W. of Philadelphia. There are many blast- furnaces at this place, large rolling-mills, foundries and machine-shops, tanneries, shoe-manufactories, tube-works, woollen-mills, fire-brick works, etc. There is a fine court- house, and a prison costing $250,000. It is the scat of Muh- lenberg College. Pop. in 1870, 13,884 j in 1S80, 18,003. Arier, a river of Germany, an affluent of the Weser, rises near Magdeburg and flows north-westward. It is about 150 miles long. Al'lerton (Isaac), one of the "Pilgrim Fathers," left- London in 1008, and went to Holland. Ho came to !New Plymouth in the Mayflower's fij'st voyage. He was a man of some wealth, and was at first a man of influence, but, was afterwards unpopular. He became a merchant of New Amsterdam (New York), residing at Marblehead, New Haven, and other points. The second of his three wives was Fear, a daughter of William Brewster, Died in 1659. AU-Mariow, the old English name for All Saints' Day (the 1st of November). AVHa, or A'lia, according to Livy, a small stream which entered the Tiber 11. miles above Rome, was the scene of the battle in which Brennus and the Gauls de- feated the Roman army, about 388 B. C. It has not been identified in modern times, AUi'ance, R. R. junction, Stark co., 0. (see map of Ohio, ref. 4-1, for location of county), containing many extensive manufactories of horse-rakes, reapers, pumps, terra-cotta ware, steam-hammers, tin-presses, besides roll- ing-mills, white-lead works, et-c.,-ete. It has excellent public schools, a college, and good libraries. Pop. in 1870, 4063; in 1880,4036. Alliance, Holy* See Holy Alliance. Ariibone (Sajiuel Austin), LL.C, an author, born in Philadelphia April 17, 1816. His principal work is a "Critical Dictionary of English Literature and Authors" (1859-70), also a "Dictionary of Poetical Quotations" (1872), etc. Became librarian of Lenox Library, Now York, in 1880. Al'lier, a river of France, is the most important affluent of the Loire. It rises in the S. of France, near the source of the Loire, flows nearly N., and enters that river at Nevers. Its entire length is about 260 miles. Allier, a department of France, is bounded on the N. by Cher and Nievre, on the E. by Sa6ne-ct-Loire, on the S. by Puy-de-D6me, and on the W. by Crcuse and Cher. Area, 2822 square miles. It is intersected by the Allier, and bounded on the N. E. by the Loire. The soil is fertile. The chief productions are wine, grain, timber, cattle, horses, and sheep. Iron, coal, and marble are found here. It is subdivided into 4 arrondissements, 2S cantons, and 321 communes. Chief town, Moulins. Pop. in 1881, 410,579. Allies (Thomas William). See Appendix. Alliga'tor [corrupted from the Sp. el lagarto, the "lizard"], a genus of American sam*ian reptiles (nearly allied to the crocodile) which abound in the rivers and swamps of the Southern U. S. They have broader heads, more numerous teeth, and more obtuse snouts than croco- diles. Various reptiles of this genus are called caymans in South America. They all hibernate in the winter or dry season, when they bury themselves in the mud. The alligator is about fourteen feet long, including the tail, which is a powerful weapon for defence, It is a fierce and voracious animal, and sometimes attacks and kills men both on water and land, but it cannot turn quickly on land. During the heat of the day it is often seen basking in the sun on the dry ground. Its back and sides are defended by hard mailed plates, which are proof against a rifle-bali. The alligator is an oviparous animal, its eggs being small, but numerous. The parent deposits them in the sand of the river-side, scratching a hole with her paws, and placing the eggs in a regular layer therein. She then covers these with sand, grass, mud, etc., and deposits another layer on top of them, and so on until she has laid from fifty to sixty eggs. These arc hatched by the heat of the sun and the decaying vegetable matter. The name alligator is also fre- quently applied to the muggur of India. The common alligator of the Southern States is the Alligator Mt'sai'saij}- piciifsig, but among the so-called alligators of Florida a true crocodile has been discovered. Alligator Fear. See Atocado Pear. AHio'li (Joseph Franz), a German Catholic theologian, born at Sulzbach Aug. 10, 1793. He became prof, of the- ology at Munich in 1820, resigned in 1835, and became soon after canon at Ratisbon. His German translation of the Bible (flth ed. 1839-45) was approved by the pope, and had a very wide circulation. He also published a '* Manual of Biblical Antiquities" (1841). Died May 22, 1873; Allison? on R. R., capital of Butler co., la. (see map of Iowa, ref. 3-II, for location of county). Pop. in 1885, 330. Al'lison (Francis), D. D., a Presbyterian minister, born in Ireland in 1705, came to America in 1735. Ho was for many years vice-provost and professor in Philadelphia College. Died Nov. 28, 1777. Allison (John), born Aug. 5, 1812, at Beaver, Beaver CO., Pa„ where he followed the hatter's trade; studied law, and took a leading part in the Whig party, and was elected to the State legislature in 1840, 1847, and 1849. From the legislature he we_nt to Congress, serving in the sessions of 1852-54 and 1855-57. In 1856 he was a member of the convention of Pittsburg which instituted the Republican party, and in 1860 he headed the State delegation in the convention at Chicago which nominated Mr. Lincoln for President. On the outbreak of the civil war he was appointed major and paymaster in the army, and served to the close with great credit. He was appointed by Pros. Grant register of the U. S. treasury Apr. 1, 1869, and held that office till his death, at Washington, D. C, Mar. 23, 1878. Allison (William B.), Dubuque, la-, born at Perry, 0., Mar., 1820 ; educated at Western Reserve College, 0., stud- ied law and practised in Ohio until his removal to Iowa in 1857, where he served on the governor's ^taff" and aided in organizing volunteers at the commencement of the civil war of 1861-65; was representative in 38th, 39th, 40tb, and 41st Congresses; was elected to U. S. Senate as a Republi- can, and has held that office since Mar. 4, 1873; his pres- ent term expires Mar. 3, 1891. Allitera'tion [from the Lat. ad, "to," and Utera, a "letter"], in composition, the frequent recurrence of the same letter, or of words beginning with the same letter, as " When friends were few and fortune frowned." Ariium [from the Gr. aAeojiiat, to "avoid," because of its offensive smell], a genus of herbaceous plants of the natural order Liliacese. natives of the temperate and cold regions of the northern hemisphere, including the garlic, onion, leek, and chive. They have mostly bulbous roots, umbellate flowers, narrow and fistulose leaves, and a pe- culiar smell and taste called alliaceoua. Allix (Pierre). See Appendix. AVIoay a seaport and market-town of Scotland, in the county of Clackmannan, on the left (N.) bank of tho Forth, and at the head of its frith, 28 miles W. N. W. of Edin- burgh, It has a good harbor and an active trade. Glass, ale, whiskey, woollen goods, and leather are manufactured here, and coal is an important article of export. Steam- boats ply daily between Alloa and Edinburgh. Pop. 9362. Allob'roges, a nation of ancient Gaul, which occupied the territory now comprised in Dauphiny, Savoy, and Pied- mont. They were allies or peaceable subjects of Rome. Aliocn'tion {ItdA.allocu'Ho, from arf, "to," and lo'qnor, locrt'tua, to " speak "], a formal address ; a term used espe- cially by the court of Rome, and applied to a speech which the pope addresses to the college of cardinals on some po- litical or ecclesiastical subject. The pope often resorts to this method to define his position or explain his policy. AUo'dium, or Allo'dial Ten'ure, in feudal law, freehold estate, land_hold by an individual in his own absolute right, and free from feudal tenure or obligation. There is no allodial land or property in England, tho laws 96 ALLOMEEISM— ALLSTON. of which declare that the king is the original proprietor and lord paramount of all the land in the kingdom. AUom'erism [from the Gr. aK\of, " different," and (lepos, a "portion" or "share"], a term denoting constancy of crystalline form under variation in the proportion of tho constituents of a compound. Thus, an alloy of zinc and antimony containing 36 per cent, of the latter metal crystal- lizes in needles which do not vary in angular measurement, though the antimony be increased 20 per cent. AUop'athy [from the Gr. aWios, " other," " different," and wdSoi, an "affection"], a supposed theory of medicine, according to which remedies are used whose effects are op- posite to the symptoms of the diseases treated. Tho term allopathy was formed after that of homoeopathy, and both terms wore introduced by Hahnemann. The two terms are contrasted, the one teaching that medicines must produce a similar affection to the disease itself, the other a different affection. The idea of this method of medication is at least as old as Hippocrates, who used the expression, "raevavria 7-wi/ ivavriiav etrrtf i^.aara " — ■" opposites are remedies of op- posites." It has been contrasted in modern times especi- ally with the maxim of Hahnemann, " aimilia eimilibus eurantur," or "like cures like," which is the fundamental principle of homoeopathy — an idea which is also advanced by Hippocrates. It is altogether an error to designate the prevalent and ancient science and practice of medicine as allopathy. The teachers and adherents of this science insist that its scope legitimately embraces all positive truth con- cerning disease and its treatment; no more to be narrowed down to an exclusive principle, such as that of allopathy, than astronomy can be made synonymous with the nebular theory, or zoology with the theory of development. Allo'ri (Alessandro), a skilful Italian painter, born in Florence in 1535, excelled in the science of anatomy. Among his masterpieces are "The Last Judgment" and " Christ disputing with the Doctors." Died in 1607. Allori (Cristofano), an eminent painter, a son of the preceding, was born at Florence in 1577. He was a good eolorist, and excelled in portraits. Among his works, which are exquisitely finished, is a Magdalene. Died in 1621. All'otta'va, in music, is a direction to play an octave higher or lower. Allot'ment Sys'tem, or Allotment of ILand, an expression commonly used in England in reference to small portions of land cultivated as gardens by peasants and other poor laborers, who hold the land as tenants. Allot- ment, as a legal term, may be defined as the grant or allow- ance of a portion of land too inconsiderable to be the subject of a formal conveyance. Allot'ropy, or AUot'ropism [from the Gr. oAXot, "other," and rpon-ij, "conversion"], in chemistry, a term applied to the diversity of form and properties which some elements exhibit under certain circumstances, as, for ex- ample, when exposed to a great heat or to an electric dis- charge. Many chemists believe that every element is ca- pable of existing under several allotropic modifications. Among the substances which afford examples of allotropy are sulphur, phosphorus, oxygen, and carbon. If tho solid and brittle sulphur be heated to 480° F., and then poured into water, it ceases to be brittle and becomes very elastic. Sulphur in its ordinary state is slightly soluble in turpen- tine and some fixed oils, but in its elastic condition it be- comes insoluble in those oils. Phosphorus affords a re- markable illustration of the same principle. In ordinary circumstances, when freshly prepared, it is a pale yellow solid, resembling wax. In this form it is extremely com- bustible, requiring to be kept under water to avoid taking fire spontaneously. 33ut if this same substance be excluded from air and kept several days at a temperature of about 450° Fahrenheit, it becomes red, and ceases to be readily combustible, so that it need not be kept under water to prevent its taking fire. Oxygen, which in its common state has no odor, may, by an electric discharge through a glass tube or bottle containing air, be transformed into ozone, which has a peculiar odor and other new properties. (See OzosE.) The diamond and graphite are allotropic forms of carbon. Allonez (Claude Jean), a Jesuit, horn in France in 1620, went to Quebec in 1658 as missionary to the Algon- kins, settled on Lake Superior in 1665, at Kaskaskia, 111., in 1676, and visited numerous tribes in the North-west. Died in 1690. He was bitterly disliked by La Salle. Allow'ances, Officers', are the payments made to oCBcers in the British army for special duties. An officer commanding and paying a company receives a contingent allowance for the expense of repairing arms, etc. An ofii- cer sent on duty from one place to another has a travelling allowance of so much a mile. A somewhat similar system is observed in the U. S. army. Al'loway*Kirk, an old ruined church in the parish of Ayr, near the mouth of the river Doon, is tho scene of Burns's poem of " Tarn O'Shanter." A monument has been erected here to the memory of Burns, who was born near the kirk. Aliox'an (C1N2H2O4), a white crystalline substance formed by the action of cold strong nitric acid on urie acid. It is converted by baric hydrate into alloxanic acid, H2.C4N2H2O5. Alloxan'tin (CsN^HiOv.SAq), a colorless crystalline compound produced by the action of hot dilute nitric acid on urie acid ; also by tho action of deoxidizing agents, as H2S, on alloxan. Alloy' [Fr. alloyer, to "mix" (as metals), probably from the Lat. ad legem — that is, "with legal tolerance;"' Fr. lot, " law "], a mixture or compound of two or more metals fused together; sometimes a compound of precious metal with a metal of less value ; thus, in coin- age, the term alloy is applied to a baser metal mixed with gold or silver in order to make it harder. Chemists apply this term to all combinations obtained by fusing metals together; thus, brass is an alloy of copper and zinc; bronze is an alloy of copper and tin ; pewter is an alloy of tin and lead. In many cases the metals do not unite in definite or invariable proportions. The density — or, in other words, the specific gravity — of an alloy is sometimes greater and sometimes less than the mean of its compo- nents. Most alloys have greater cohesion than either of the metals of which they are composed, so that a bar of an alloy will bear a greater longitudinal strain than a bar of either metal. British gold coin contains 11 parts of pure gold and 1 of copper; tho law of the U. S. requires that in 1000 parts of coin there must be 900 parts of gold ; and the intent of the law is, that the alloy shall be of copper only ; but, as in parting silver from native gold it has been here- tofore impossible to separate the whole, except at an ex- pense too great to be economical, it has been permitted to allow the residual silver to be counted as part of the alloy, Erovided the proportion of silver be not greater than one- alf. The more eflectual processes introduced of late years into the U. S. assay ofiioes have made it possible to make the parting nearly complete; and it is now provided that the silver shall not exceed one-tenth part of the whole alloy. A compound of mercury with another metal is an amalgam. All Saints' Day, or All Hallows [Ang.-Sax. all, and Ji&lig, " holy "], a festival of tho Roman Catholic, Anglican, Lutheran, and the various Oriental churches. Observed on the 1st of November, in honor of the saints in general. All Souls' Day, a festival of the Roman Catholic Church, observed on the 2d of November, in order to alle- viate the sufferings of the souls in purgatory. AU'spice, a common name of pimento, or Jamaica pepper, the dried berry of the Enge'nia pimen'ta, which is a native of the West Indies. It is called allspice becauso it is supposed to combine the flavor of several spices. All'ston (-Joseph), an American; planter, born in 1778, became governor of South Carolina (1812-14). He mar- ried Theodosia, the only child of Aaron Burr. Died Sept. 10, 1816. Allston (Robert F. W.), an American officer and gov- ernor, born April 21, 1801, in All Saints' parish, S. C, graduated at West Point in 1821, served as lieutenant of artillery on topographical duty till he resigned, Feb. 1, 1822, to become a rice-planter on the Great Pedee River ; surveyor-general of South Carolina 1823-27, member of the house of representatives of South Carolina 1828-32, of tho senate 1832-66, presiding 1847-56, deputy adjutant-gen- eral of South Carolina 1831-38, and governor of South Carolina 1856-58. He was much interested in agriculture and public education, and wrote valuable memoirs upon both subjects. Died April 7, 1864, on his plantation, near Georgetown, S. C. George W. Culluji. Allston (Washington), an American painter of celeb- rity, both at home and abroad, born Nov. 5, 1779, on his father's plantation, at Waooamaw, S. C. ; died at Cam- bridge, Mass., July 9, 1843, Being of delicate constitu- tion, he was sent to school at Newport, E. I., at the ago of seven. There he formed the acquaintance of Edward Malbone, the miniature painter, a kindred spirit, two' years his senior, whoso taste, enthusiasm, and unusual culture stimulated the lad's ambition and fixed the bent of his genius. On graduating from Harvard College in 1800, he went to Charleston, and at once began his art-lifo under the influence of his Newport friend, whom he found there. The opportunities for intelligent study of good masters were small at that time, but zeal and patience used them all. The young man scorned no helps, but copied the best he could find, and felt grateful, especially to Robert Edge Pine, whoso portraits of General Gates,- ALLUVION— ALMA. 97 Charles Carroll, Baron Steuben, and Washington were much admired as examples of color. In 1801, AUston, accompanied by his friend Malbone, is in London, a stu- dent of the Royal Academy, whereof Benjamin West was president. West became his intimate friend, and so re- mained to the last. London opened to the young artist a new world of opportunity and sympathy. His three years there were full of improvement and delight. Then the Louvre in Paris offered to him its superb gallery, rich with gems of Italian art. This prepared him for Italy, where, principally in Rome, he spent four years in close compan- ionship with Thorwaldsen the sculptor and Coleridge the poet. In 1809 he returned, richly freighted, to his native country, but soon went back to London with his wife, a sister of Dr. William E. Channing. There he produced his first great work, " The Dead Man Restored to Life by the Bones of Elisha." The picture obtained the prize from the British Association, and was afterwards purchased by the Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts. Allston's repu- tation was made. Other great paintings followed: "St. Peter Liberated by the Angel," " Uriel in the Centre of the Sun," "Jacob's Dream," with smaller things between — all eagerly sought by purchasers. But toil and confine- ment, and sorrow from the death of his wife, impaired his health; in 1818 he came to America again. The next twelve years were passed in Boston, where, in spite of a feeble body and a saddened mind, he painted the "Jeremiah," "Saul and the Witch of Endor," "Mir- iam," " Beatrice,'' and other pieces exquisite in color and feeling. In 1830, AUston married, as his second wife, a daughter of Chief-Justice Dana of Cambridge, Mass.; and at Cambridge he thenceforth lived, writing and paint- ing, in great seclusion, but enjoying the society of a group of intimate and noble friends. To this period of his ac- tivity belong " Spalatro's Vision " and " Rosalie," the for- mer one of his most weird, the latter one of his loveliest creations. The work which he meant should he his mas- terpiece, and on which he bestowed immense labor in the latter years of his life, " Belshazzar's Feast," was never finished. • It was after a week of steady, severe labor on it that the artist gently expired from an attack of heart disease. The sketch, probably never intended by the painter to be exhibited, is in the Athenaeum Gallery in Boston. If AUston had not been a painter, he might have been distinguished as an author. The few writings from his pen that have been published indicate a rare penetration and refinement of mind. His novelette, " Monaldi," de- serves to be still read and admired for its literary excel- lence. His poems were light and incidental productions, and have been forgotten. He prepared a course of lec- tures on art, which were published after his death. AUston had the poetic temperament; his passion was for beauty — not for the sensuous beauty that charms the eye, so much as for the intellectual beauty that enchants the soul. Neither the landscape nor the human face in- terested him so much as the forms that stood before his imagination. He was of a thoughtful, interior, specula- tive cast of mind, meditative and dreamy. His sensibility to spiritual impressions was acute ; he was a lover of the supernatural and the mysterious, with a love of the roman- tic. He never wholly outgrew his liking for ghost-stories, and the awful, the grand, the wild possessed an unfailing attraction for him to the end of his life. This peculiarity of his mind displays itself in the subjects of his greatest paintings — " Uriel," " Saul and the Witch of Endor," " The Vision of the Bloody Hand," " The Dead Man Coming to Life " — and not less in his last and most ambitious piece, "Belshazzar's Feast;" the great feature of which was the awful handwriting on the wall, glaring down on the scene of revelry, making the light of the candles dim and strik- ing consternation into royal hearts. Conceptions like these transcend any artist's power of execution, and much of the disappointment with Allston's work arises probably from the sense of inadequacy of the performance. The grandeur is there, the impression of intellectual power is always conveyed, the spiritual influence of a subtle imagination is always felt ; but the ^kill to tell satisfactorily the won- derful story is wanting. It is when he descends from such ambitious flights and paints a " Rosalie," a " Beatrice," a " Lorenzo and Jessica," that the exquisite quality of his art appears. These are creations of the fancy too, pure dreams of the poet, attempts to catch and portray what the eye cannot perceive, and only the most ethereal touch can feel. Their charm is indescribable. It is not in the composition, which is not always admirable, nor in the drawing, which is now and then deficient in freedom and grace, nor even in the color, rich and mellow as it is : it lies rather in the refined delicacy of sentiment which pervades the work, spiritualizing whatever the master touches. His most tremendous creations are touched with Vol. I.— 7 this subtle grace. They are never appalling or grotesque ; they are always, in some aspects, lovely. The technical excellence of Allston's art was its color. Leslie is quoted as saying that the harmony of tint in the " Uriel " suggested the best pictures of Paul Veronese ; • and the appellation given him in Rome, " the American Titian," proved that the artists there discovered in his can- vas something more than the adroit use of pigments, some- thing of the strange art of mingling them that in the great master was so inimitable. Artists could even rejoice in the melancholy incompleteness of the " Belshazzar," because it allowed them an opportunity to study the painter's method. The personal qualities of AUston were exceedingly at- tractive. His high-toned moral integrity, his enthusiasm, his utter singleness of mind, his maidenly purity of heart, fascinated all who approached him. He was free from envy and jealousy and guile. Artists revered him. Horatio Greeuough, a man of culture as well as an artist, said, " He was a father to me in what concerned my progress of every kind." And Washington Irving wrote of him : " To the last he appeared to retain all those elevated, refined, and gentle qualities which first endeared him to me — a man whose memory I hold in reverence and affection as one of the purest, noblest, and most intellectual beings that ever honored me with his friendship." AUston was slight in form, and carried about him an air of refined dignity that at once attracted attention. His countenance wore an expression of serene abstraction. His brow was broad, his eye large ; his white hair fell long upon his shoulders in his latter years. In the public street he seemed wrapped in thought till a friend spoke to him, and then he seemed the soul of love. Before his death, in 1839, his paintings, those that were in America, forty -two in number, were collected a short time for exhibition. The best of them are in private galleries ; some of the very best are in England. Mr. AUston was chosen a member of the Royal Academy soon after his return from his first long residence in England. 0. B. Frothingham. Allu'vion [from the Lat. ad, " to," and luo, to "wash"], tho soil imperceptibly formed by the constant washing of the waters along the banks of a river or the sea. (See Accretion.) It differs from "avulsion," as the latter is not gradual, but sudden and perceptible. Alln'Tium, a geological term, signifies gravel, sand, and other matter washed down by rivers and floods, and spread over land that is not permanently submerged. Such deposits, which belong to tho post-tertiary formation, often accumulate at the mouths of large rivers and form deltas. (See Delta.) All tho land of Lower Egypt is alluvial. It has been estimated that the Mississippi annually carries down a quantity of sediment sufficient to cover 268 square miles with a stratum one foot deep. Alluvial soil is fre- quently the most fertile part of the earth's surface. Al'lyl, Ac'ryl, or Propyle'nyl (C3H5), the third term in the homologous series CnH2n-i. Oil of garlic is the sulphide of allyl (C3H5)2S. Oil of mustard is the sulpho- cyanate of allyl, C3H5.CNS. Al'lyn (Robekt), D. D., an eminent clergyman and educated in the Methodist Episcopal Church, born at Ledyard, Conn., Jan. 26, 1817, graduated in 1841 at tho Wesleyan University, Conn. ; mathematical teacher in Wilbraham Academy, Mass., 1841-43, joined the New En- gland Conference 1842, was elected principal at Wilbraham 1845, principal of the Providence Conference Academy 1848 ; commissioner of public instruction for Rhode Island 1854, served three terms in the Rhode Island legislature, appointed professor of ancient languages in Ohio Uni- versity at Athens 1857, president of the Wesleyan Fe- male College, Cincinnati, 0., 1859, and president of McKen- 'dree College, 111., 1863-73. Al'ma, a small river of Russia, in the Crimea, flows W. and enters the sea about 20 miles N. of Sevastopol. On its hanks the allied armies of England, France, and Turkey defeated the Russians on the 20th of Sept., 1854. The British forces consisted of 26,000 men and 60 guns, commanded by Lord Raglan. Tho French had 30,000 men and 68 guns, and also 7000 Turkish infantry, tho French and Turkish forces being all under the command of Marshal St. Arnaud. The Russians had 36,000 men and 122 guns under Prince Mensohikoff and were strongly posted on the left bank of the river, on the heights. Alma, city, on R. R., capital of Wabaunsee CO., Kan. (see map of Kansas, ref. o-I, for location of county), in a township of same name, about 66 miles W. of Lawrence, con- tains a flouring-mill and saw-mill, and is at the junction of four creeks, each furnishing water-poij^er. Pop. in J 885, 640. Alma, on R. R., capital of Harlan co., Neb. (see map of Nebraska, ref. 7-1, for location of county). Pop. in 1880,298; in 1886, 911. 98 ALMA— ALMEIDA-GAEEETT, DE. Alma, city, county-Beat of Buffalo co., Wis. (see map of Wiaconsin, ref. 6-B, for location of county). It is on the Mississippi River, 60 miles N. of La Crosse, and witliin 4 miles of the celebrated Beef Slough Booms. It has manu- factures of bricks, wagons, flour, etc. Pop. in 1870, 565 ; in 1880, 1244; in 1885, 1521. Al'mack's, a suit of assembly-rooms in King street, St. James, London, was formerly celebrated as a fashion- able place of resort for the aristocracy. Annual balls were given in these rooms, the managers of which were ladies of high rank, who conducted them with great exclusive- ness. These rooms were built in 1765 by a person named Almaok, an anagram of MoCall, his original name. The desire of admission to balls and parties at Almack's was so eager that it is said votes in Parliament have been bought by tickets offered to wives and daughters of members. Alma'da, de (Alvako Vas), was a noted Portuguese soldier, and was made count of Avranohes by Charles "VI. of France. He was a faithful follower of Dom Pedro, re- gent of Portugal, and was killed in battle in 1449. Almaden', or Almaden' del Azo'giie {i. e. "the mines of quicksilver"), a town of Spain, in the province of Ciudad Real, 50 miles S. W. of Ciudad Real. Here are mines of quicksilver (cinnabar), which are said to be the richest and most ancient in the world, producing an- nually about 2,000,000 pounds. They were worked by the ancient Spaniards, and afterwards by the Romans. Al- maden has a practical school of mines and three hospitals. The mines were rented in the sixteenth century by the Fuggers, the famous bankers of Antwerp, and in 1843 the Rothschilds obtained the contract from the Spanish govern- ment. Pop. 8645. Al'maden, Santa Clara co., Cal. (see map of Califor- nia, ref. 4-B, for location of county), has mines of mercury and mineral springs. Pop. in 1870, 1647; in 1880, 2418. Almaden Quicksilver-mines, The, of Santa Clara co., Cal., are named after those of Almaden in Spain, the latter being the most important in the known world. The Santa Clara mines are the New Almaden, Providence, Enriquita, and G-uadalupe. The first mentioned is 14 miles from San Jos€ and 65 miles S. of San Francisco, in a region remarkable for its picturesque scenei-y. The ore (cinnabar) has from time immemorial been known to the Indians, who used it for making vermilion paint. Some Mexicans having bribed them to disclose the profound secret of its place, a company was formed in 1846, which began to work the mine. The presence of this deposit has been of incalculable benefit to California, since enormous quantities are employed in gold and silver mining. The metallic mercury is separated from the ore by a simple pro- cess of distillation, Al'magest [from the Arabic al, "the," and the Gr. ^eyto-Toff, " greatest "], a name given by the Arabs to Ptole- my's great work on astronomy, which was written in Greek, and translated in the ninth century into Arabic. Alma'gro, a city of Spain, in the province of Ciudad Real, 14 miles S. E. of Ciudad Real. It is well built, has a town-hall, two hospitals, and one Latin school. Large quantities of lace are made here; also brandy, soap, and earthenware. Pop. 14,000. Almagro, de (Diego), a Spanish soldier of fortune, and one of the conquerors of Peru, was a foundling, and was named after the city in which he was found in 1475. At an early age he went to America, where he is said to have enriched himself by plunder. Pizarro, Almagro, and Luque in 1525 united in an enterprise to conquer Peru, in which they were successful. (See Pizarro, Francisco.) In 1535, Almagro invaded Chili and gained some victories over the natives, but his progress was hindered by the en- mity and perfidy of Pizarro. He returned from Chili in 1536, and took Cuzco, which Pizarro claimed as part of his possessions. In April, 1538, Almagro was defeated in battle and taken prisoner by Pizarro, who put him to death. Almagro, de (Diego), a son of the preceding, was born about 1520. He became the leader of a party which was hostile to Pizarro, whom they assassinated in 1541. He then took the title of captain-general of Peru, but he was defeated in battle by the royal army under Vaca de Castro, and was executed in 1542. Alma'Ii, a large town of Asiatic Turkey, in the S. part of Anatolia, on the river Myra, 25 miles from the Mediter- ranean Sea. It is beautifully situated in a valley, contains several factories and mills, and has a prosperous trade. The appearance of the town is uncommonly picturesque. Pop. about 20,000. • Al'ma Ma'ter (i. e. "fostering or propitious mother"), a name used to express the relationship of a university to its "foster-children" (alumni) who have been educated in it. Al'manac, or Almanack [Arab, the "register"], an annual publication containing a calendar of the days and months of the year, the time of the sun's rising and set- ting, a notice of the eclipses of the sun and moon, and other astronomical phenomena. To these essential topics are often added predictions of the weather, and sometimes useful information of different kinds. The origin of alma- nacs is very ancient. They correspond in some respects to the Fasti of the Romans. The first printed almanao was that of George von Burback, resident at Vienna, in 1460. Regiomontanus began in 1474 a series of almanacs in their present completed form. In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries they were often used as organs of political parties, were filled with the absurdities of astrol- ogy and vain prognostications, and were enlisted in the service of superstition and imposture. Among the most widely-known almanacs of the present time is the "Gotha Almanack," which was first published in German in 1763, It is also published in French. It'contains statistics re- specting all nations, with much political information. The first American almanao was that of William Pierce, published at Cambridge, Mass., in 1639. In 1733, Frank- lin first published his celebrated " Poor Richard's Almanac." The "American Almanac" appeared from 1830 to 1861, and a new series from 1878 to 1886, and later. Over 100 almanacs are published in the U. S., embracing every pos- sible subject, a number of which appear in the German. A. R. SporpoRD. Almanac, Nautical, an annual work devoted to as- tronomical phenomena and used in navigation. The " British Nautical Almanac " was planned by Maskelyne, and first published in 1767. A similar French work, enti- tled " Connaissance des Temps," was commenced by Picard in 1679, and has been continued to the present time. There is an excellent almanac published in Berlin under the title of Ephemeris. The "American Nautical Almanac," which first a.ppeared in 1855, has a high reputation. It is pub- lished annually by the U. S. navy department through the nautical oflice. It is a large volume, published for the use of the navy, and sold at cost to others. (See Ephemeris, by Prop. J. H. C. Coffin, LL.D.) Alman'sa, or Alman'za, a town of Spain, in the ■province of Albacete, 52 miles by rail E. of Albacete. It has manufactures of linen and cotton fabrics, brandy, leather, and soap. Near this town the French under the duke of Berwick defeated the British and Spanish armies, April 25, 1707. Pop. 7900. Al-Mansoor' (Aboo Jaafar), the second caliph of the family of the Abbassides, was born in 712. He ruled from 754-775, persecuted the Christians in Syria and Egypt, founded Bagdad, and promoted arts and sciences. Almas, a town of Hungary, in the county of Bacs, 16 miles W. N. W. of Maria-Theresienstadt. Pop. in 1880, 8000. Al'meh, or AI'mah, written also Alm§ (plu. Aw^- lim), a name applied to the professional female singers and dancing-girls of Egypt. The singers are hired to per- form in the harems of the rich. The common dancing-girls are a different and less respectable class, belonging to a tribe called Ghawazi. They perform lascivious pantomimes in the streets. Almei'da, or Almey'da, a fortified town of Portu- gal, in Beira, and on the Coa, 83 miles N. E. of Coimbra. It is an important stronghold. Here Lord Wellington de- feated the French general Massena, Aug. 5, 1811. Pop. 6580. Almeida, a town of Brazil, province of Espirito Santo, is on the ocean, about 20 miles N. of Victoria. It was founded by the Jesuits in 1580. Pop. about 4000. Almeida, de (Don Francisco), a famous Portuguese commander and viceroy of India, was born in Lisbon about 1450. He was a son of the count of Abrantes. Having gained distinction in wars against the Moors, he was ap- pointed viceroy of India in 1505. He built several forts on the Indian coast, and extended the dominion of Portugal by his conquests. In 1507, Albuquerque was sent to India with a commission to supersede Almeida, but the latter re- fused to resign. He gained a decisive victory over the Egyptian fleet near Diu in 1608, and resigned his ofice about the end of that year. As he was returning to Por- tugal, he was killed by some Caffers near the Cape of Good Hope Mar. 1, 1510. Almeida-Garrett, de (Joao Baptista), a Portuguese poet and politician, born Feb. 4, 1799, minister of public education 1820-24, was compelled to leave the country several times, and was elected a member of the Cortes in 1836. Died in 1854. Among his works (16 vols., 1854r-55), the most celebrated are the epic-lyrical poems " CamSes " and "Adozinda," the satirical poem "Dona Branca," aJ well as several dramas. ALMERIA— ALMY. 99 Almeri'a^ a province of Spain, forms the E. part of the former kingdom of Granada. It is bounded on the N. by Murcia, on the E. and S. by the Mediterranean, and on the W. by G-ranada. Area, 3299 square miles. It contains rich mines of silver and lead. Grain, silk, and \yme are the chief productions. Capital, Almeria. Pop. 349,854. Almeria, dl-mi-ree'i, a city and port of Spain, on the Mediterranean, 104 miles E. of Malaga, is the capital of a province of tho same name. Under the reign of the Moor- ish kings it was one of tbe richest and most important towns in tho kingdom of Granada. It has a safe harbor, defended by two forts, and a fine cathedral. Wine, silk, cochineal, and other articles are exported from this port. It is pretty well built, the architecture of many of the houses still showing its Moorish origin, and has some fine squares. Pop. in 1S77, 40,323. Almodovar (Ildefonso Diaz de Kibera), Count. See Appendix. Armohades [Arabic, Al-Mowahidoon, i.e. "unita- rians," or advocates of the unity of God, as taught in its original purity by Mohammed], a Mohammedan dynasty that reigned in Spain and Northern Africa from 1129 to 1269. It was founded by Abu-Abdillah Mohammed, sur- named Al-Mahdi, "the director." The Almohades were the conquerors and successors of the Almoravides. The first Almohade who took the title of sultan was Abd-el-Mumen. Almoji'a, a Spanish town in the province of Malaga, 10 miles N. W. of M£ilaga, is noted for its baths. Pop. 7041. Aimon (John), born at Liverpool about 173S ; came to London in 1758 ; became a writer and publisher of political pamphlets for the opposition, having become personally known to its leaders by publications of his own j amOng them was a " Review of Mr. Pitt's Administration " (1761). Almon opened a bookseller's store in London in 1763 mainly for the publication and sale of political pam- phlets. Died Dec. 12, 1805. Almonacid'9 a town of Spain, in the province of To- ledo, on the Tagus. Here the French under King Joseph defeated the Spaniards under Vanegas on Aug. 11, 1809. Al'^mond {Amyg'dalua), a genus of plants of the nat- ural order Rosaceas, composed of trees and shrubs nearly allied to the peach. The common almond {Amyg' dalus covi- nu'nis) is a tree from twenty-five to thirty feet high, a native of Barbary, but it now abounds in the south of Eu- rope, from which great quantities of the fruit (kernels) are exported. Sweet almonds, which contain a large pro- portion of bland fixed oil, are an agreeable article of food. Bitter almonds contain a peculiar principle called aviyg' dalin, and yield a poisonous oil. The leaves of the almond contain prussic acid. The dwarf almond tree is cultivated for the beauty of its flowers, which resemble the blossoms of the peach, but are generally double. Almond'bury, a large village, township, and parish of England, in the "West Riding of Yorkshire. The village is on the Calder, 36 miles S. W. of York, and has cotton and woollen mills. Pop. in 1881, 13,977. Almon'de, van (Philippus), sometimes written Al- lemon'da, a Dutch admiral, born at Briel in 1646. He was the second in command under De Ruyter when the latter was killed in 1676, and contributed to the victory which Van Tromp gained over the Swedes in 1677. He accompanied William of Orange to England in 1688, and commanded the Dutch fleet which, aided by the English, defeated the Erench iit La Hogue in 1692. Died in 1711. AlmondSy Oil of. Both sweet and bitter almonds yield by pressure a fixed oil, which is of a light-yellow color and odorless. It consists chiefly of oleinj is soluble in 25 parts of alcohol. It is used in medicine, having a mild laxative property. It is sometimes given to new- bom infants, mixed with syrup of roses. One hundred pounds of almonds yield about fifty pounds of oil. Bitter almonds, macerated with cold water and distilled, yield a volatile oil known as the "oil of bitter almonds," or hy- dride of benzoyl. This does not pre-exist in the almonds, but is produced, together with hydrocyanic or prussic acid, from the glucoside amygdalin under the influence of the ferment emulain : Amygdalic. Water. ^^^^f^f ^S!<^ «'— C20H27NO11 + 2H2O = C7H6O + HCN + 2CfiHi206 It is a colorless, limpid oil, smelling of bitter almonds. When freed from prussic acid it is not poisonous. It oxidizes to benzoic acid, C7H6O2. It is regarded as the aldehyde of the benzoic group. It is also produced by the action of manganese dioxide and sulphuric acid on albu- men, fibrine, caseine, and gelatine. It has bee n used to a considerable extent for flavoring confection^y-and— l«r- scenting soap. For the former purpose ^h/^} which it usually contains makes it danjjerbu^^^/SiirjtlJe^ latter purpose it has been entirely superseded by the much cheaper nitrobenzol or essence of mirbane (C6H6NO2), also called artificial oil of bitter almonds, which possesses the same odor. Al'moner [Fr. aumSnier; Lat. eleemosi/na^riua], an officer whose duty is to distribute alms for a king or other person of rank, or for a monastery. The grand almoner of France was a functionary of high rank, and usually a cardinal. This office was abolished during the Revolution. In England there is a lord high almoner, who distributes the bounty of the queen twice a year. All monasteries, by the ancient canons, were to spend not less than a tenth part of their income in giving alma to the poor. All bishops were required to keep almoners. Almon'te (Don Juan Nepomucbno), a Mexican general and statesman, born in 1804 of Indian descent, was at- tached to the embassy in London in 1824 and 1832, minis- ter of war under Bustamente, and in 1841 minister pleni- potentiary. He distinguished himself in the war against the U. S., was sent to Washington in 1853, and in 1857 to Paris. He went to Mexico with the French expedition in 1862, and was declared president in Juarez's place, but was not able to gain recognition. He entered the capital with the French army June 10, 1863, and was made president of the government junta. Died Mar. 22, 1869, in Paris. Almo'ra, or Almo'rahy a town and important fort- ress of Northern Hindostan, is situated among the Him- alayas, 85 miles N. of Bareilly, and at a height of 5337 feet above the sea. Almora is noted for the British victory ending the war withNepal in 1815, and causing the annex- ation of Kumaon by the British. Pop. about 6000. Al'moravides [a corruption of tho Arabic Almorahi- tun, signifying those "bound" or "devoted" to the ser- vice of God], the name of a Moslem or Arabian dynasty that reigned in Northern Africa and Spain. It was found- ed by Adballah-Ibn-Yaseen about 1050, and continued to reign until 1145, when the last Almoravide sultan was conquered by the Almohades. A]in''quist (Karl Jonas Lubwig), a Swedish poet and prose writer, born in 1793. He published histories, works on grammar, romances, epic poems, etc. Among his works are "Amorina," a romance, and a collection of poems en- titled "Book of Thorn Roses" (i. e. "Sweet Briars"). Died Sept. 26, 1866. Alms'houseSy institutions for the reception and sup- port of indigent and sick persons who are unable to main- tain themselves. Almshouses (officially called "work- houses" in England and "poorhonses" in Scotland) have been long maintained in the latter country, in a few of the larger towns, at the public expense, but there was no gen- eral statutory provision to that efi"ect until 1845. In Eng- land public provision was made for the poor in 1535, houses for their reception were established by statute in 1563, and the employment of the poor in compulsory labor was inaugurated in 1601. Workhouses in London were established in the reign of William and Mary, and the workhouse system has been since extended by numerous statutes. A similar system was introduced into Ireland in 1838. All paupers who are able to earn their subsistence are compelled to do so. On the continent of Europe out- door relief is much more frequent, the helpless and home- less poor being cared for in the hospitals. In most of the U. S., almshouses are maintained by county or municipal authorities. In Massachusetts, almshouses, with farms at- tached, are maintained in nearly all the towns, though some of the smaller towns board their paupers in private families. The " State paupers" of Massachusetts, chiefly of foreign birth, who have no legal residence in any town, are maintained in the State almshouses, of which that at Tewksbury is the principal. Among the other celebrated institutions of this character may be mentioned that on Blackweirs Island, N. Y., that on Deer Island, near Bos- ton, and the Philadelphia county almshouse, West Phila- delphia, Pa. (See Pauperism.) AKmug Tree, a name found in the Old Testament, is supposed to denote a species of sandal-wood. Almufiecar', a seaport-town of Spain, in the province of Granada, and on the Mediterranean, 33 miles S. of Granada. It exports fruits and other articles. Pop. about 6000. A!'my(JoHN J.), born in Rhode Island April 25, 1814, became in 1829 a midshipman in the U. S. navy, a lieuten- ant in 1841, served in the Mexican war and in the Nic- aragua and Paraguay expeditions, became a commander in 18 61, a c aptain in 1865, and a commodore in 1869. g-tne-O^yil war he was an officer of the blockading .«-v,^_r(|n, Ani^tobsequently chief signal-officer of the navy. *Bfic^lQ^(4r,-ad3Hj:al; retired April 24, 1877. 100 ALMY— ALPHABET. AI'my (William), an American philanthropist, born Feb. 17, 1761, was a member of the Society of Friends. He lived at Providence, K. I., and amassed a large fortune in the cotton manufacture. He endowed a large boarding-school at Providence. Died Feb. 5, 1836. Aln'wick, a market-town of England, in the county of Northumberland, on the river Alne, 32 miles N. of Newcastle. It is well built of ^ stone, and has a town-hall, a theatre, a mechanics' m^ti- ^ tute, etc. There are remains of the old wall which j formerly surrounded the town ; one of the old gates is still to be seen. Pop. in 1881, 7440. Alnwick Castle, the seat of the duke of Northumberland, adjoining the above town, is one of the most magnificent baronial castles m Eng- land. It is supposed to be 1200 years old or more, and has belonged to the Percy family since the reign of Edward II. In 1830 it was repaired at a cost of £200,000. Malcolm III., king of Scot- land, while besieging this castle in 1093, was kill- ed, with his eldest son, by the earl of Northum- berland. William the Lion of Scotland, having laid siege to it in 1174, was defeated and made ^ prisoner. Al'oe, a genus of endogenous plants of the _^„ order LiliaceEe, natives of Africa and other warm ^=- regions, and chiefly valuable for their medicinal properties. The drug called aloes is obtained from several species, among which the Aloe So- cotrina, found in the island of Socotra, afibrds the best quality. (See Aloes.) Aloe, American. See Agave. Al'oes, a stimulating, purgative drug having a bitter taste, is the inspissated juice or extract obtained from the leaves of several species of the aloe. It is imported from Bombay, Soeotra, the Capo of Good Hope, the West Indies, etc. "Cape aloes" is obtained from the Al'oe spica'ta; " Socotriue aloes," from the Al'oe Socotri'na; and " Bar- badoes aloes," from the AToe vulfja'ris. Aloes is much used combined with other cathartics ; from its stimulating effect upon the lower bowel it is unsuitable for those suf- fering from piles. Heated with nitric aeid, aloes yields ohrysammio acid. (See Wood and Bache's " Dispensa- tory.") Aloes Wood, called also Agila or Eagle Wood, is the inner part of the trunk of the Aqnila'ria ova'ta arid the Aqiiila'ria agal'lochwn, trees which are natives of trop- ical Asia. It is supposed to be the lign-aloes of the Bible. Aloes wood contains a fragrant resinous substance, which omits a pleasant odor when burned, and is highly prized as a medicine by the Orientals. Al'ogi, a sect of religionists opposed to the Montanists, was formed about 160 A. D. They were styled Alogi, a name of double meaning, signifying their rejection of writings in which the Logos is mentioned, and also that they were without reason. Aloi'adae {i. e. " sons of Aloeus "), in Greek mythology, Otus and Ephialtes, two giants of extraordinary strength who attempted to storm Olympus, and were condemned to suffer in Tartarus. Alom'pra, the founder of the reigning dynasty of Burmah, was born about 1700. He revolted against the king of Pegu in 1763, was victorious in several battles, and became master of Burmah, in which he founded Ran- goon. Died May 15, 1760. Alopecia. See Baldness. Alo'ra, a city of Spain, in the province of Md,laga, 17 miles N. W. of Malaga. Soap and oil are manufactured here. Pop. 6818. Alosa. See Shad. A'lost, or Aalst, an ancient walled town of Belgium, in East Flanders, on the navigable river Dender, 18 miles by rail W. N. W. of Brussels. It contains the church of St.-Martin, one of the largest and finest in Belgium, a town-hall, a college, and an academy of design. Here are cotton-mills, copper-foundries, distilleries, and manufac- tures of lace, leather, etc. Alost has an active trade, and exports hops, corn, and oil. It was formerly the capital of Austrian or imperial Flanders. Pop. in 1880, 20,679. Aloysius (Saint) of Gonzaga. See Gonzaga. Alpa'ca (the Anche'niapa^co, supposed by several zool- ogists to be only a domesticated variety of the guava'co), a ruminant animal nearly allied to the lama, and belonging to the family Camelidfe, is a native of the mountains of Peru and Chili. It is rather smaller than the lama, and has a long neck, which it carries erect. Flocks of domes- ticated alpacas are kept by the Peruvians, who export great quantities of their wool. This wool, which varies in color, Alpaca. is remarkable for its length, fineness, silken texture, and a lustre almost metallic. It is longer and straighter than that of sheep. The most extensive manufactures of al- paca cloth are in England, which imports annually about 3,000,000 pounds of this wool. It first became an article of commerce in England in 1829. The alpaca has also been introduced into Australia, whence the wool was first obtained in 1859. A great part, however, of the so-called alpaca goods of commerce are made of the wool of the Cotswold, Leicester, and other long-wooled breeds of sheep. Alp-Arslan' {i. e. "strong lion"), written also Alp> Arselan, a famous Persian sultan of the Seljookide dy- nasty, was born in Turkistan in 1029. He ascended the throne in 1063, embraced Islamism, and became sole mon- arch of Persia from the river Tigris to the Oxus. Under the direction of his wise vizier, Niz^m-ul-Mulk, who was one of the most noted statesmen in early Mohammedan history, and ably assisted him in consolidating his empire and subduing contending factions, Persia enjoyed great prosperity, many colleges were founded, justice was well administered, and learning was promoted. In 1071, Alp- Arsl^n defeated and took prisoner Romanus Diogenes, emperor of Constantinople, whom he treated with great generosity and kindness. Alp-Arslan was assassinated Dec. 15, 1072. Alpena, a city, the capital of Alpena CO., Mich, (see map of Michigan, ref. 4-J, for location of county), at the head of Thunder Bay. It manufactures about 125,000,000 feet of lumber yearly, contains a large hemlock-extract factory, has an excellent harbor, and is situated about 210 miles N. by W. from Detroit on Lake Huron. Pop. in 1880, 6153; in 18S4, 9196. Alpes, Basses. See Basses-Alpes. Alpes, Hautes. See Hautes-Alpes. Alpes-Maritimes, a department forming the S. E. extremity of France, bordering on Italy. It is bounded on the N. and E. by Italy, on the S. by the Mediterranean Sea, and on the W. by Var and Basses-Alpes. Area, 1518 square miles. It is drained by the river Var. The surface is diversified by mountains and fertile valleys. This de- partment includes the county of Nice, which was ceded by Italy to France in 1860 ; also the arrondissement of Grasse, detached from the department of Var. It is partly covered with forests of valuable timber. Among its staple pro- duets are grapes, olives, oranges, lemons, figs, and silk. The chief towns are Grasse, Antibes, Cannes, and Nice, which is the capital. It is divided into 3 arrondissements, 26 cantons, and 152 communes. Pop. in 1881, 226,621. Al'pha and O'mega, the names of the first and last letters of the Greek alphabet. A, a. These words occur in the book of Revelation as a title of the Lord Jesus Christ. The two letters were used by the early Christians as sym- bols of faith, and were sometimes marked on coins, tombs, ornaments, etc. Al'phabet, a word formed of the first two Greek let- ters (a, /3, alpha, beta), and used to denote the entire series of letters (arranged in a certain order fixed by custom) ALPH^US— ALPS. 101 with which any language is written. Nearly all the mod- ern European tongues, deriving their letters, for the most part, from the ancient Romans, have, with slight excep- tions, the same characters (though pronounced differently), arranged in precisely the same order as the Koman (or Latin) alphabet. The a (ae), o (oe), and ii (ue), occurring in the German, Danish (or Nbrwegian), Swedish, and Hun- garian, but not found in the other languages, are to be con- sidered as diphthongs, or at least as compound characters, rather than single letters. W is not found in the Italian, Spanish, or Portuguese alphabet, nor in French, except in words or names of foreign origin. K is scarcely used in Prench, Spanish, or Portuguese, except in a few words of foreign derivation. The Italians discard not only w and k, but also X and y. The ancient Homans used k and y in a very few words, but w was entirely unknown to them. It was originally written vy, whence the English name of the letter, u and v, like i and J, having formerly been equivalent to each other. The order of the letters is the same in the alphabets of most of the European languages; in the G-reek, however, the letters, though nearly corresponding in power, and often similar in form, to those of the Roman alphabet, are arranged very differently, g (7) being the third and z {() the sixth in the order of the letters; and x (|), instead of being almost at the end, as in our alphabet, is near the middle, not to mention other differences. In Russian, He- brew, Arabic, and Sanscrit the order of the alphabet varies still more from the Roman, while many of the letters differ not only in form, but in power, from those of the languages of Western Europe. Not only the origin of letters, but also the successive steps or stages by which they were brought to their present perfection, is involved in great obscurity. According to a commonly-received theory, all writing was in the first instance ideographic (from the G-r. eiSia, an " image," and ypd Potassic " K.NHs-SOs, Baric '' Ba(NH2.S03)2. Dry carbonic anhydride (CO2) unites with dry ammonia (NHs), forming ammonic carbamate, NH4.NH2.C03 = N2H6CO2, or equivalent to ammonic carbonate, (NH4)2C03, less H2O. This salt contains carbamic acid, the relation of which to carbonic acid is thus shown : HO 1 Carbonic acid, H2CO3 ^ = ttq [ CO, Carbamic acid, H.NH2.CO2 = ^jj^ J CO. Ammonic carbamate exists in common ammonic carbonate, and was formerly called anhydrous carbonate of ammonia. It dissolves readily in water, and by combining one mole- 118 AMICE— AMLWCH. cule of water passes into amnionic carbonate, NH4.NH2.- C02 + H20 = (NHi)2C03. When both molecules of hydroxy! in a bibasic acid are replaced by amidogen, a rteutral amide results. Carbamide or urea, (NH2)2CO, is such an amide. Bibasic acids may thus form an amic acid or a neutral amide, according as one or both molecules of hydroxyl are replaced by amid- ogen. Tribasic acids may form two amic acids and a neu- tral amide. Monobasic acids containing only one hydroxyl yield no amic acids, only neutral amides. C. F. Chandler. Am'ice, or Amic'tUS, an upper garment worn by the Romans over the tunic ; also a linen vestment worn over the shoulders of Roman Catholic priests during the cele- bration of the mass. Ami'ci (GrovANNr Battista), an Italian optician and savant, born at Modena Mar. 25, 1784. He was skilful in the fabrication of mirrors and lenses for telescopes and microscopes. He was for many years director of the ob- servatory of Florence, where he gained distinction as an observer. He wrote on double stars and other topics of astronomy. The achromatic microscope which he con- structed was considered a valuable improvement. Died April 10, 1863. Aiu'ides^ compounds derived from ammonia, NH3, by the replacement of one or more atoms of H by a metal or by a compound radical, acid or basic. According to the character of the replacing body, they are either — 1. Amides proper, in which one or more hydrogen atoms are replaced by an acid radical j as, Acetamide, N.C2H3O.H2, Diacetamide, N.(C2H30)2.H. 2. Amines, in which one or more hydrogen atoms are replaced by a basic radical; as, Potassamine, N.KH2, Diamylamiue, N'.(C5Hii)2'H. 3. Alkalamides, in which hydrogen is replaced by both acid and basic radicals ; as, Mercurobenzamide, N.Hg.CTHsO.H, Ethylformamide, N.C2H5.CHO.H. Monamides are derived from one molecule of ammonia, NHHH. Diamides « « two " " N2H2H2H2. Triamides " " three " " N3H3H3H3. Amines and alkalamides present corresponding classes. According as one-third, two-thirds, or all the hydrogen of the ammonia is replaced, the amide, diamide, or triam- ide is said to be primary, secondary, or tertiary. Amides are well illustrated by ' r C2H3O Acetamide, N.C2H30.H2 = N -^ H Ih. It is a, white crystaJline solid, which melts at 172° F., and boils at 430° F. Heated with acids or alkalies, it unites the elements of water, forming acetic acid and ammonia, N.C2H3O.H2 + H20 = NHs + H.C2H4O2. It is formed by the action of heat on ammonic acetate, and by other methods : NH4.C2H3O2 = N.C2H3O.H2 + HzO. It acts both as a base and as an acid. By uniting with hydrochloric and nitric acids it forms compounds analogous to ammonic salts, while by admitting silver in place of hydrogen, silver-acet- amide is produced. (See Amines.) C. F. Chandlbe. Amidine. See Starch. Amid'ogen [contracted from ammonia and the Gr. yevviiaj to "produce"], a compound of one atom of nitro- gen and two atoms of hydrogen. Its symbol is NH2. It has not been obtained in a separate state, but may be traced in combination with other substances, with which it forms important organic compounds called amidea. Potas- siamide, NH2K, is a compound of the metal potassium with amidogen. Ammonia is a compound of NH2 with H. (See Amic Acids, Amides, and Amines, by C. F. Chan- dler.) Amiens (anc. Samarobri'vn and Ambia'ni), an ancient and important town of Northern France, capital of the department of Somme, is on the river Somme, and on the Paris and Boulogne R. E., 81 miles by rail N. of Paris. It was once very strongly fortified, and still has a citadel! It is the seat of a bishop, and contains a magnificent Gothic cathedral 415 feet long, 182 feet wide, having a spire 420 feet high, which was founded in 1220 and finished in 1288. Among its other ttne edifices are the hStel de ville. Chateau d'Eau, and the library, containing 60,000 volumes. Here are extensive manufactures of cotton velvet, serges, plush, and other cotton and woollen stufi's. The river, which is here divided into many canals, affords water-power for mills and manufactories. Amiens was the native place of Peter the Hermit and of Delambre. An important treaty called "the Peace nf Amiens," was signed here by the French and British in Mar., 1802. On Nov. 27, 1870, the German general Manteuffel obtained here a great victory over the French army of the Loire, and soon after the Ger- mans took possession of the town. Pop. in 1881, 74,170, Am'ines, amides in which the radical replacing hydro- gen is basic, an alcohol radical. They are monamines, diamines, triamines, etc., according as they are formed from one, two, three, or more molecules of ammonia. The nitrogen may be replaced by phosphorus, arsenic, anti- mony, etc., giving rise to phosphines, arsines, stibines, etc. The natural organic bases, alkaloids, found in plants, probably belong to this class of bodies. The amines have of late acquired great theoretical and practical import- ance. They are basic compounds, resembling ammonia to a greater or less degree in odor, alkaline reaction, and readiness to form salts with acids. A few examples will best illustrate the class : Ethylamine, NC2H7 = NH2(C2H5), a mobile liquid which boils at 66° F. It has a pun- gent odor, very like that of ammonia, turns reddened litmus blue, forms a cloud with hydrochloric aeid, pro- duces salts with acids very similar to the corresponding ammonic salts, is readily soluble in water. Biethylamine, NH(C2H5)2, and triethylamine, N(C2H5)3, are similar com- pounds. When triethylamine is mixed with ethyl iodide, C2H5I, a crystalline tetrethyl-ammonium-iodide, (C2H5)4l, is formed, analogous to ammonium iodide, NH4I. On treat- ing this compound with precipitated silver oxide suspended in water, a tetrethyl-ammonium hydrate is formed, which resembles in many respects potassie and sodic hydrates. Its solution is strongly alkaline, very bitter, destroys the skin, saponifies the fats, decomposes many metallic salts, precipitating hydrates. With acids it forms neutral salts. Its chloride unites with platinic chloride, forming orange- yellow octahedra. The analogy with ammonia is shown by the following symbols : Ethylamine, NH2(C2H5), ammonia, NH3. Diethylamine, NH(C2H5)2. Triethylamine, N(C2H5)3. Tetrethyl-ammonium, N(C2H5)4, ammonium, NH4. " iodide, N(C2H5)4l, ammonium iodide, NH4I, " hydrate, N(C2H5)4(OH), ammonic hydrate, NH4(0H). Phenylamine or aniline, C6H7N = N(C6H5)H2, is a very important member of this class. (See Aniline.) Diamines represent two molecules of ammonia in which two, four, or six atoms of H are replaced by one, two, or three molecules of a diatomic radical : Ethylen-diamine, N2(C2H4)" H4. Diethylen-diamine, N2(C2H4)"2 H2. Triethylen-diamine, N2(C2H4)"8. (See Ethylene Bases.) Triamines, triglyceryl-triamine, N3(C3H5)"'s, tetramines, and pentamines are supposed to exist. (See Kosaniline.) C. F. Chandler. Amite, a river rising in the S. W. part of Mississippi, enters Louisiana, flows southward to Ascension parish, where it turns towards the E., and falls into Lake Maure- pas. Length, about 100 miles. Amite, city, capital of Tangipahoa parish. La. (see map of Louisiana, ref. 9-F, for location of parish), on R. R. and the Amite River, 68 miles N. N, W. of New Orleans, Pop, in 1870, 910; in 1880, 1120. Am'leth, or Ham'leth, an ancient prince of Jutland, who is considered a fabulous personage by some writers. He is said to have lived about 150 B. C. His story is re- lated by Saxo Grammaticus, whose narrative was formerly considered the foundation of Shakspeare's " Hamlet." But Saxo Grammaticus was not translated into English when Shakspeare wrote his play, and the differences between the historical narrative and the tragedy give irrefragable evidence that the writer of the latter has known the former only at second hand— probably through the novel of Belle- forest, which just at that time was translated from French into English. Am'liiig (Karl Gustav), born at Nuremberg, Bavaria, about 1650, was a famous designer and engraver ; worked at Munich, Bavaria ; was patronized by Maximilian II., and very successful in portraits. He was considered the best German engraver of his time. Died in 1701. _ Am'ling (Wolfgang), born at Minnerstadt, Franconia, in 1542; educated at the universities of Tubingen, Wit- tenberg, and Jena ; became rector of the school of Zerbst in 1566, minister at Koswig in 1573, and soon after min- ister at St. Nicolai in Zerbst, He strongly opposed the FormiUa Concordia, and wrote the Confetaio Anhaldina. Died May IS, 1606, Am'Iwch, a seaport and parliamentary borough of North Wales, is on the N, coast of the island of Anglesey, 15 miles N, W. of Beaumaris. It owes its growth and prosperity to the Parys and Mona copper-mines. Pop. of civil parish in 1881, 4S47, AMMAN— AMMONIA. 119 Am'man, or Am'mon (the ancient Sabbah, the capi- tal of the Ammonites), a ruined city of Syria, in the pasha- lie of Damascus, is picturesquely situated on the Zurka, an affluentof the Jordan, 55 miles E. N. E. of Jerusalem. Here was an important city in ancient times, originally named Kabbah, which was besieged and taken by the army of King David. (See 2 Samuel xi. and xii.) After it had been once rained, it was rebuilt by Ptolemy PhiladelphuB, and called Philadelphia. It has extensive ancient remains. As late as 300 A. D. it was a remarkable city, having a mag- nificent theatre and temples. It was one of the cities of the Decapolis. Arn'man (Johann Conrad), M. D., a Swiss physician, born at Schaffhausen in 1669, practised at Haarlem, in Holland. He acquired distinction by his successful efforts to teach the deaf and dumb to speak, and wrote on that subject an essay called "Surdus Loquens" (the "Deaf Speaking," 1692). Died in 1730. Amman (Jost or Justus), an eminent Swiss engraver and designer, born at Zurich in 1539. He removed about 1560 to Nuremberg, where he worked for many years, and illustrated numerous books with his designs. He engraved on copper and on wood. Among his works are " Portraits of the Kings of France from Pharamond to Henry III." (15?6), and wood-outs of "EeineckeFuohs." Died in 1591. Ammana'ti, Ammana'te, or Ammana'to (Bar- TOLOMMEo), an eminent Italian sculptor and architect, born at Florence in 1511, was a pupil of Sansovino. He was patronized by Pope Julius III., who employed him to adorn the Capitol (in Rome) with sculptures. He completed the Pitti palace of Florence. Among his best works are a bridge called Ponte della Triniti at Florence, and three statues which adorn the tomb of Sannazar at Naples. Died about 1590. Am'meliney a white crystalline, feebly basic substance, resulting from the action of acids or alkalies on melam, is considered to be an amic acid of cyanuric acid. Its composition is CsNsHsO. Am'men (Daniel), U. S. N., born May 15, 1820, in Ohio, entered the navy as a midshipman July 7, 1836, became a passed midshipman in 1842, a lieutenant in 1849, a commander in 1863, a captain in 1866, a commodore in 1872. During the latter part of 1861, and all of 1862, he commanded the gunboat Seneca in the South Atlantic block- ading squadron; he bore a conspicuous part in the battle of Port Royal, Nov. 7, 1861, where he gained the admira- tion of his officers and men for his skill, coolness, and in- trepidity. He engaged afterwards in all the operations of Dupont's command on the coasts of Georgia and Florida. In an official report to Flag-officer Dupont of Dec. 6, 1861, Commander C. R. P. Rodgers writes : " I have to thank Lieutenant-commanding Stevens for the most earnest, cor- dial, and efficient co-operation, and also Lieutenants-com- manding Ammen and Bankhead, whose vessels were always in the right place, and always well handled." And again in a despatch of Jan. 3, 1863, Rogers says: "Lieutenant- commanding Ammen will make a separate report of the Seneca and Ellen at Seabrook before I met him. It is un- necessary for me to say to youithat his work was thoroughly done." He was engaged as commanding officer of the monitor Patapsoo with Fort McAllister, Mar. 3, 1863, and complimented by his superior officer. Captain Percival Drayton, for his services during the action ; in the iron- clad attack on Fort Sumter, April 7, 1863, and commended by Flag-officer Dupont in his despatch of April 15, 1863, for " the highest professional capacity and courage j" in both attacks on Fort Fisher Dec, 1864, and Jan., 1865, and for the "cool performance" of his duty on these occasions recommended for promotion by Rear-admiral David D. Porter ; in 1866 and 1867 a member of the board assembled to examine volunteer officers for admission into the regular navy; in 1869 appointed chief of the bureau of yards and docks, and on Oct. 1, 1871, chief of bureau of navigation. He became rear-admiral ; retired June 4, 1878. FoxHALL A. Parker. Ammen (Jacob), an American officer and teacher, born Jan. 7, 1808, in Botetourt co., Va., graduated at West Point 1831, and became, July 16, 1862, brigadier-general XT. S. volunteers. While a lieutenant of artillery he served at the Military Aoademyas an assistant instructor, 1831-32and 1834-37; at Charleston harbor 1832-33, during South Caro- lina's threatened nullification, and at Fort Trumbull, Conn., 183.3-34. After his resignation from the army, Nov. 30, 1837, he was professor of mathematics in Bacon College, Ky., 1837-39, of mathematics in Jefferson College, Miss., 1839-40 and 1843-48, of mathematics in the University of Indiana, 1840—43, and of mathematics and astronomy in Georgetown College, Ky., 1848-55 ; and civil engineer at Ripley, 0., 1855-61. During the civil war he was captain and lieutenant-colonel of the Twelfth Ohio Volunteers, colonel of the Twenty-fourth, and brigadier-general B. S. volunteers, serving in the West Virginia campaign 1861 ; engaged at Cheat Mountain and Greenbriar, in the Ten- nessee and Mississippi campaign, engaged at battle of Shi- loh and siege of Corinth, in various movements of the army of the Ohio, 1862-63, and in command of several districts in Illinois, Kentucky, and Tennessee, till he resigned, Jan. 14, 1865. George W. Cullum. Am'mergan' Mys'tery [Ger. Ammergauer Passions- spte^], the name given to the representation of our Saviour's Passion which since 1634 has taken place every ten years at the village of Ober-Ammergau, in Bavaria. The custom originated in a vow made by the inhabitants, on their de- liverance from the plague, to celebrate the Passion Tragedy every tenth year. The last representation took place in 1S80. (See Holland, "Das Ammergauer Passionsspiel im Jahre 1870," 1870.) Ammia'nus Marcelli'nus, an eminent Roman his- torian, bom at Antioch, was of Greek extraction. He served in the army in his youth (about 350 A. D.), and in the expedition which the emperor Julian conducted against Persia. Having abandoned the military profession, he settled at Rome, and there composed in Latin his " His- tory of the Roman Empire," in 31 books, of which 1 3 are lost. The entire work comprised the period from 96 A. D. to 378 A. D. His history is highly prized for its impar- tiality and other merits. (Best ed. by Wagner and Erfurdt, 1808, 3 vols.; English translation by Phil. Holland, Lon- don, 1609. Died about 395 A. D. Ammira'to (Scipione), an Italian historian, born at Lecce, in the kingdom of Naples, Sept. 27, 1531. He be- came a resident of Florence in 1 569, and was patronized by the grand duke Cosimo. In 1596 he obtained a prebend in the cathedral of Florence. He wrote, besides other works, a " Discourse on Cornelius Tacitus" (1594), and a "History of Florence " (" Istorie Fiorentine," 2 vols., 1600-41), which is regarded by some critics as the most accurate work on that subject. He has been styled the modern Livy. Died Jan. 30, 1601. Ammod'ytes [from the Gr. afifioSi/'n);, a "sand-bur- rower"], the name of a Linnsean genus of apodal fishes, characterized by a compressed head narrower than the body, and both elongated. The sand-eel is an example of this genus. Am'mon, or Ham'mon [Gr. 'Ajijiioi'], an ancient pa- ,gan deity worshipped in Egypt, Greece, and other coun- tries, was called Ammi by the Egyptians, and Jupiter Am- man by the Romans. He was sometimes represented in the form of a ram. There was a great temple of Ammon in the oasis of Siwah or Ammonium in the Libyan Desert, and another at Thebes, which city was called No-Ammon by the ancient Hebrews. Alexander the Great visited the temple of Ammon in the oasis (B. C. 331), and assumed the title of the son of Ammon. Remains of this temple still exist. Ammon, von (Cheistoph Friedrich), an eminent German Protestant theologian and pulpit orator, born at Baireuth Jan. 16, 1766. He became professor of theology at Gottingen in 1794, obtained a chair at Erlangen in 1804, and removed in 1813 to Dresden, where he was appointed court-preacher to the king of Saxony. He was a man of great and varied erudition, and belonged to the Rationalist school in theology. His most important work is "Fortbil- dung des Christenthums zur Wcltreligion " (4 vols., 1833-40). Died May 21, 1850. Ammo'nia [for etymology see below], or Volatile Alkali, an important chemical compound in the form of a transparent, colorless, and pungent gas, is formed by the union of one atom of nitrogen and three atoms of hydrogen. Its symbol is NHa. Priestley, who first obtained it in a separate state, called it alkaline air. The name ammonia is derived from aal-ammoniac, which was formerly procured near the temple of Ammon, in Libya, by burning camel's dung. It is now obtained as a by-product by the distilla- tion of bituminous coal in making gas, and from refuse ani- mal matter in preparing bone-black, etc. It combines with acids to form salts. As it supplies to plants the nitrogen they require, it is one of the most important ingredients in manures. (See Guano.) A solution of this gas in water is used in medicine, and is called spirits of hartshorn or liqtior ammmiim. One volume of water will dissolve or ab- sorb 500 volumes of ammonia. Liquid ammonia has been employed as a motive-power by Tellier, and for the produc- tion of artificial cold by Carr6. (See Ice.) This gas can also be liquefied by pressure and cold, and then becomes a colorless liquid, with the properties of ammonia much in- tensified. The smelling salt, or volatile salt of hartshorn, used as a restorative in faintness, is a carbonate of ammo- nia. Ammonic sulphate, (NH4)2S04, is manufactured in large quantities, by boiling " gas-liquor " with lime, and 120 AMMONIAC— AMNESTY. Ammonite. The internal structure was conducting the ammoniacal gas which is liberated into sul- phuric acid. On evaporating the solution, the sulphate is obtained as a white salt. It is extensively used in the manufacture of alum in place of potassic sulphate, as a con- stituent of artificial fertilizers, and for the preparation of other ammoniacal salts. Ammonio nitrate is used for the preparation of nitrogen monoxide (N2O), laughing-gas. Ammonio chloride, NH4CI, has long been known as sal-am- moniac. The "ammonia typo" is oneupon which afew inor- ganic and many organic compounds ai'o formed. ( See Amides, Amixes, etc., by Prof. C. F. Chandler, Ph. D., LL.D.) Ammo'niac [Lat. ammoni' acnm], a gum-resin used in medicine, is imported from Africa and India. It is ob- tained from the Dore'ma ammoni' acum, an umbelliferous plant containing a milky juice, which by drying is con- verted into this gum. It is used as an expectorant, and sometimes applied externally as a plaster. Ammoni'tes [from Am'mon, and the Gr. Ai'So;, a " stone ;" so named from their resemblance to the horns of Jupiter Ammon ; English Am'moiiite]f an ex- tinct genus of mollusks be- longing to the order Cepha- lopoda, and one of the most striking features in the fau- na of the mesozoic ages. The ammonites were dis- coid, chambered, spiral shells, sometimes four feet in diameter, and often beau- tifully ornamented exteriorly, similar to that of the Nautilus, except that the siphon was external, and the septa (partitions between the chambers) were arched outward, and were convoluted at their mar- gins, so that their intersecting with the walls of the shell produced beautiful foliated figures. The ammonites began in the trias, were immensely multiplied in the Jurassic and cretaceous ages, and became entirely extinct at the close of the latter. More than 500 species have been described, and they are found in the mesozoic strata of all parts of the world. Beautiful ammonites occur in the cretaceous rocks of the country bordering the upper Missouri, in the Indian Territory, and in Texas. The old genus Ammoni'tee has been lately much subdivided by Prof. Alph. Hyatt, Prof, von Hauer, and others. (See " Proc. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist.," 1S83, and article Ammonitid^.) Am'moniteSj an ancient Semitic tribe or nation, de- scendants of Ben-Ammi, a son of Lot. They inhabited the east side of the Jordan, between the rivers Arnon and Jab- bok, and adjoining the northern part of Moab. Their chief city was Kabbah. (See Amman.) They frequently waged war against the Israelites, and were conquered by Jephthah, and afterwards by King David. (See 2 Samuel xi. and xii.) About 164 B. C. they were defeated by Judas Maccabeeus. They are called " the children of Ammon " in the Old Testament. Ammonit'idae, a family of cephalopodous mollusks, of which the genus Ammoni'tes is the type. The genera of this group are all extinct, beginning witli Goniati'tes in the Devonian and carboniferous, followed by Oerati'teB and Ammonitea in the trias ; Ammonitea in great development in the Jurassic and cretaceous ; BacuU'tea, Scaphi'tea, An- cylo'ceraa, Crio' ceraa, Helico'ceraa, Hetero'eeraa, Ptycho'- ceraa, Hami'tea, TiirrilVtea, etc., being exclusively cretace- ous, and the family ending with them. The shells of the Ammonitidse are all chambered, and were generally, though not always, external ; the animal inhabiting the last and largest, called the body-chamber. The series of smaller chambers are supposed to have served as a float, by which the specific gravity of the animal was harmonized with that of the surrounding medium, and this shell maintained in a position best suited to its movements. The septa are arched outward at the centre, and rufiled at the margins; are nearly simple in the earliest stages of growth, most convoluted at full maturity, more simple again in old age. The ornamentation of the external sur- face, which consists of ridges, knobs, and spines, and is often very elaborate, follows the same law. . In most of the Amraonitidse the shell is a discoid spiral, but the cretaceous genera exhibit great diversity of form ; as Ammonitea, with a symmetrical spiral coiled in the same plane; Seaphitea, Ancyloceraa, Grioceraa, and Toxo'ceraa, showing a gradual unrolling of the coil, until in Baculitea the shell is quite straight. In Helicocerae it forms an open elevated spiral; in Turrilitea, an elongated conical closed spire, like that of a gasteropod, but sinister, turned to the left. The life-history of the Ammonitidse is very peculiar and interesting. After a long term of existence, during which they show a modest simplicity of structure and little di- versity of form, in the mesozoic ages the family is expanded and developed in the most wonderful way, their numbers being enormously increased, their size becoming gigantic, their forms being almost infinitely varied, their structure more complicated, their ornamentation more elaborate, di- versified, and beautiful. The cretaceous period was the golden age of the Ammonitidse, when they attained such numbers, size, variety, and beauty as to far eclipse all other tribes of shelled mollusks, living or extinct. Their greatness ended here, however. Like the flowering of a plant or the splen- dor and extravagance of an over-civilized nation, their extraordinary development seems to have been exhaustive of the vital energies, as in the age next succeeding their grand climacteric, so far as now known, they had no rep- resentative. The peculiar features in the career of the Ammonitid^ are best seen in contrast with that of their nearest relatives, the NautilidEe. The latter began their existence in the ear- liest palaeozoic seas as mollusks, with straight {Ortkoceraa) or coiled (JVautilua) shells, of which the structure was very simple. Of this family the Orthocerata are extinct, but the genus Nautilus has held its undeviating way through all past ages, and is now represented by living species which can hardly be distinguished from those that lived millions of years ago. The full explanation of the diff'er- ence in the history and fate of these two closely allied families is perhaps beyond our reach, but it seems prob- able that we have here another illustration of the truth which underlies the diversity of fate in human individuals and nations, as well as of species, genera, and orders in the life-history of the globe — viz., simplicity of structure and habit promotes longevity by its adaptation to general and prevailing circumstances in time and space, while a highly specialized organization will flourish only in special and rare conditions. J. S. Newberry. Ammo'nium (NH4), a hypothetical metal which is supposed to exist in the salts of ammonia, and to be com- posed of one volume of nitrogen and four of hydrogen. It is the analogue of potassium and sodium, but has never been obtained in a separate state ; a supposed amalgam of ammonium, however, may be formed by the action of the galvanic battery on a globule of mercury surrounded by a solution of ammonia, and by the action of sodium amal- gam on a solution of ammonium chloride. Ammo'nium Ba'ses^ compounds analogous to NH4.- H.O, ammonic hydrate, in which the H atoms are replaced to a greater or less extent by basic radicals, such as ethyl, C2H5, amyl, C5H11, etc. (See Amines, by C. F. Chandler.) Ammo'nium, or Am'mon, the ancient name of an oasis in the Libyan Desert, about 300 miles W. S. W. of Cairo. It is now called Bl Siwah. Here was a cele- brated oracle and temple of Jupiter Ammon, in a grove of palms ; also royal palaces and the " Fountain of the Sun," the water of which was cold at noon and warm at midnight. The ruins of the temple may still be seen. Ammo'nius, sumamed Saccas (because in his youth he was a porter and carried sacks), a Greek philosopher, born in Alexandria, was the founder of the school called Neo-Platonio about 193 A. D. Though born of Christian parents, he went over to paganism. Among his pupils were Longinus, Origen, and Plotinus. He left no writings, and died about 243 A. D. Ammonoo'suc, I,ower, a river of New Hampshire, rises in Coos county, near Mount Washington, and flowing south-westward through Grafton county, enters the Con- necticut Eiver. It is about 100 miles long. Ammonoosuc, Upper, a river of Coos co., N. H., which empties into the Connecticut at Northumberland. It is about 75 miles long. Ammoph'ila (i. e. "delighting in sand"), [from the Gr. oififiot, " sand," and ^iXcco, to "love"], (the Oalama- groatia of Gray), a genus of grasses nearly allied to Arundo, and distinguished by a spikelike panicle, and by the glumes being nearly equal, keeled, and longer than the palse of the single floret. The Ammophila arundinacea, called sand-reed, mat-grass, or marum, grows on the sandy shores of Europe, and is of great utility in fixing the shift- ing sand. It IS also used to make mats. ^^ Ammuni'tion [from the Lat. ad, " for," and munitio, " defence "], a military term applied to cannon-balls, shells, bullets, fuses, cartridges, grenades, gunpowder, and all the projectiles and explosive substances used in war. The am- munition of field artillery consists of shot, loaded shells, case-shot, shrapnel, cartridges, priming-tubes, matches, and rockets. An infantry soldier generally carries sixty rounds in his cartridge-box. Am'nesty [from the Gr. iixvYitrrCa, " non -remembrance"], an act of oblivion of past misconduct granted by the gov- AMNION— AMPfiEE. 121 ernment to those wlio have been guilty of some offence. It is usually granted to whole communities or classes of in- dividuals who have taken part, or are supposed to have participated, in some movement against lawful authority j it may be granted either before or after conviction, and its effect is entirely to efface the crime and cause it to be for- gotten by the law. An instance is an act of amnesty in England in the 20th Geo. II. c. 52, called "an act for the king's most gracious general and free pardon." This sub- ject has recently excited much interest in the U. S., owing to a provision in the fourteenth amendment to the Constitu- tion creating certain disqualifications as to holding office by persons who have participated in rebellion, and at the same time allowing their removal by a special vote of the Con- gress. Such a removal is in the nature of an act of amnesty. Am'uion, or Am'nlos [etymology doubtful], the soft, delicate, and most internal membrane containing the waters which surround the foetus in utero; also called agniUia tu' - nica. It secretes a fluid called H'quor amfmt. (See Em- bryology, by Prof. J. C. Dalton, M. D.) Am^'nioS) in botany, a thin, semi-transparent, gelati- nous substance in which the embryo of a seed is suspended when it first appears, and by which the embryo is probably nourished in its first stages. Amce'ba Dif fluens, an organism of the order Rhiz- opoda, is one of the lowest animal structures with which zoologists are acquainted. It is a mere gelatinous mass of a rounded form, capable of emitting processes and lobes from all parts of its body, and retracting them at will. This animal abounds in. the bottom of fresh-water ponds, and is well known to amateur microscopists under the name of Proteus. With the exception of a clear pulsating space, it appears to be a structureless mass of sarcode. Ainol', a city of Persia, in the province of Mazande- ran, on the river Heraz, about 12 miles from its entrance into the Caspian Sea, and 85 miles N. E. of Teheran. A bridge of twelve arches crosses the river here. Pop. esti- mated at from 35,000 to 40,000. Amo'muin [from the Gr. o/itdjuos, "blameless," "with- out fault "], a genus of plants of the order Zingiberaccffi or Seitaminese, and of the Linnaean class Monandria. They are natives of the tropical parts of Asia and Africa, and pro- duce aromatic seeds called cardamom and grains of Paradise. Amoo'y or Amu, also called Amoo Darya (anc. Oxus; Arab. Gihon), a river of Western Asia, rises on the Belur Tagh, nearly 15,000 feet above the level of the sea, receives many affluents from the mountains of Turkestan and the Hindukush, flows through Turkestan, and falls into the Aral Sea. The length of its course is 1610 miles. Ac- cording to the treaty of peace concluded in July, 1873, be- tween Russia and Khiva, this river will hereafter constitute the boundary-line between Khiva and Bokhara. Amoor'y Amur, or Saghalien, a large river of Eastern Asia, formed near lat. 53° N. and Ion. 122° E. by the union of the Shilka and the Argoon, the latter of which forms for about 400 miles the boundary between Si- beria and the Chipese empire. The Amoor flows alter- nately eastward and south-eastward, forming the boundary between China and Siberia, until it arrives at a point about lat. 48° N. It afterwards pursues a general IS". B. direction through the Littoral province of Siberia, and enters the Sea of Okhotsk or Gulf of Saghalien. Its length, exclusive of the branches, is estimated at 1800 miles. It is stated that steamboats have ascended from its mouth to the junc- tion of the Shilka and Argoon. The navigation is ob- structed by ice until May. In the lower part of its course it traverses a fertile country, covered with extensive forests of oak, ash, elm, maple, pine, etc. The largest tributary of the Amoor is the Boongari, which enters it on the right. Amoor^ Country of the [Ger. Am.urtaiid'], the name given to a part of Mantchooria which in 1858 was ceded by China to Russia. It includes the island of Saghalien and the whole tract on the left side of the Amoor lying between 43° and 54° N. lat., and containing an area of 276,000 square miles. It is divided into the province of the Amoor and the Littoral province. The area of the province of the Amoor is 173,552 square miles, and the population 44,400. The winters are very severe, and navigation is generally closed from the end of October to the beginning of May. The soil is fertile, and in the more sheltered parts many plants of Southern Asia grow luxuriantly. The forests are magnificent, abounding in oaks and nut- bearing trees. Fur-producing animals are very numerous, and the rivers yield great quantities of fish. Gold-fields have been recently discovered, and coal is abundant in the island of Saghalien. Amoret'ti (Carlo), an Italian naturalist and writer, born at Qneglia, near Genoa, Mar. 13, 1741. He produced a good biography of Leonardo da Vinci (1784), and a work on the natural history and geography of Lakes Como, Mag- giore, and Lugano, called a "Journey from Milan to the Three Lakes" (1794). In 1797 he became librarian of the Ambrosian Library of Milan. Died Mar. 24, 1816. Amor'gos, or Amor'go [Gr. 'Ajuopvos], a fertile isl- and in the Archipelago, 18 miles S. E. of Naxos, belongs to the kingdom of Greece. It is 13 miles long and 6 miles wide, and contains a small town called Araorgos. The sur- face is mountainous. The poet Simonides was born here. It has a good harbor; lat. of E. end, 36° 54' N., Ion. 26° 6' E. Pop. about 3700. Am'orites ("mountaineers"), a powerful nation of Canaan that occupied the country on both sides of the Jordan in the time of Moses, and resisted the Israelites in their march to"v?ards the Promised Land. Moses defeated their two kings, Sihon and Og, who reigned at Heshbon and Bashan respectively. Og is said to have been the last "remnant of giants" (Deuteronomy iii. 11). The Amor- ites were afterwards subdued by Joshua, but he was not able to exterminate them. They appear to have been long hostile to the Israelites, but in Solomon's time were reduced to a tributary condition. A'moS; one of the minor Hebrew prophets, was a con- temporary of Isaiah, and lived about 785 B. C. He was originally a herdsman and a gatherer of sycamore fruit in Tekoa, a town 12 miles S. S. E. of Jerusalem. He de- nounces the prevalent idolatry in vigorous and eloquent terms, using many images taken from rural and pastoral life. His prophecies seem to have all been given in one year, and his plain speaking caused the charge of conspir- acy against the government because he alienated the people. Amo'tion [from the Lat. a (ab), "away," and moveoj moiumf to "move"], in law, the removal of an officer of a corporation from his office. It differs from disfranchise- ment, which refers to the removal of a member. Amotion may accordingly take place without disfranchisement. A'moy, a seaport-town of China, on an island of the same name, in the province of Eo-Kien, and on the Chan- nel of Formosa; lat. 24° 28' N., Ion. 118° 4' E. It is sit- uated at the mouth of a river which passes by the large city of Chang-Choo-Foo, of which Amoy is the port. Amoy is one of the chief commercial towns of China, and its merchants are noted for their enterprise. It was taken by the British in 1841, and has be.en open to the trade of all nations since 1843. Among the articles of import are cotton, cotton goods, iron, sugar, camphor, and pepper. The chief articles of export are tea, sugar, porcelain, silks, and paper. Amoy is one of the chief centres of the Prot- estant missions in China. Pop. 95,600. Ampel'ic A^id, a white solid produced by the action of nitric acid on schist oils. Am'peliiij u. substance resembling creasote, obtained from schist oil. Ampelop'sis [from the Gr. afiireXo^, a " vine," and 6i|fts, "resemblance"], a genus of creepiog, vine-like, woody plants, to Which the Virginia creeper or American wood- bine [Ampelopaia quinquefoh'a) belongs. This is one of the most beautiful of our hardy creeping ornamental plants. It is highly esteemed in England, and is better adapted to the climate of America than the ivy, and is also more rapid in its growth, and has handsomer foliage. The leaves are deciduous, but they die ih a blaze of crim- son glory when touched by the frost, so that the plant is lovely even in death. It is of the order Vitaceaa. Ampere (Andre Marie), an eminent French natural philosopher and mathematician, born at Lyons Jan. 20, 1775. He produced in 1802 an interesting essay "On the Mathematical Theory of Games of Chance." He became inspector-general of the University (1808), professor of analysis in the Polytechnic School (1809), chevalier of the Legion of Honor (1809), and a member of the Institute (1814). Having made important discoveries in electro- magnetism, he published in 1822 a " Collection of Obser- vations on Electro-Dynamics," a work which displays re- markable sagacity. " The vast field of physical science," says Arago, " perhaps never presented so brilliant a dis- covery, conceived, verified, and completed with such rapid- ity." He further explained his discoveries in this depart- ment of science, to which he gave the name of electro- dynamics, in his " Theory of Electro-Dynamic Phenom- ena deduced from Experiments" (1826). Among his other works are treatises on optics and an "Essay on the Philosophy of the Sciences," etc. (1834). He was a man of genial disposition, and noted for simplicity of charac- ter. (See his "Journal et Correspondance," an interesting record of his domestic and private life.) Died in Marseilles June 10, 1836. Ampfere (Jean Jacques Antoine), an accomplished scholar and litterateur, a son of the preceding, born at 122 AMPHACANTHID^— AMPLIFICATION. Lyons Aug. 12, 1800. He enjoyed in his youth the society of Madame Rficamier, and devoted much attention to English and German literature. In 1833 he succeeded An- drieax as professor of French literature at the College of France. He became a member of the Academy of In- scriptions in 1842, and a member of the French Academy in 1847. He travelled extensively in Egypt, the Levant, and the U.S. Among his works are "Literature and Travels" ("Littgrature et Voyages," 1833), "Literary History of France before the Twelfth Century" (3 vols., 1839), an " Essay on the Formation of the French Lan- guage " (3 vols., 1841), " Greece, Rome, and Dante" (1850), and "Roman History at Rome" (" Histoire Romaine el Rome," 4 vols., 1856-64). Died Mar. 27, 1864. AmphacanthidiE. See TEniHiDiDj;. Amphib'ia [Gr. aii.it>ipia, from iiuliat, " both," and jSuSu, to " live "], a term applied to animals that live both on the land and in the water. In the Linnaean system it included all I'eptileg and cartilaginous fishes, although some reptiles would be drowned if they remained very long under water. This classification has been modified by the removal of the cartilaginous fishes from the class of Amphibia. Cuvier applied the term to such mammals as the seal and walrus, which inhabit both the land and water. Naturalists now divide the Reptilia of the olden zoolo- gists into two classes — viz., Reptilia, which includes the lizards, snakes, and turtles ; and Amphibia, which com- prises the serpent-like cecilians, salamanders, and batra- chians (frogs and toads). Most amphibians pass through a metamorphosis like that of the frog, which emerges from , the egg as a tadpole, when it is fishlike in form and breathes by gills, being truly aquatic; subsequently the tail and gills disappear, legs and lungs are developed, and the ma- ture animal, though perhaps inhabiting the water, is an air-breather. In some amphibians the first or embryonic condition continues unchanged through life, as Menohrnn- chu9, Menopoma, etc., the water-puppies and young alliga- tors of the Western rivers. The largest of these aquatic carnivorous salamanders is Sieboldia, which inhabits the lakes of Japan, and attains a length of three feet. Though now regarded as dull and disgusting creatures, this latter group of amphibians once stood at the head of all then ex- isting members of the zoological series. The amphibians first appeared in the carboniferous age, and the lagoons in the coal-marshes swarmed with aquatic salamanders, some of which were six feet in length, very active, and preda- ceous, and the monarchs of the animal world of that age. More than twenty species of amphibians have been ob- tained by Dr. Newberry from the cannel coal of one mine in Ohio. The amphibians had their golden ago in the trias, when Lahyrintkodony with a body as large as that of an ox, and teeth four inches long, ruled the animal kingdom. In the succeeding ago (Jurassic) the sceptre passed from the amphibians to the true reptiles. J. S. Nbwberby. Amphib'ole [from the Gr. a|A4^(|3oXo9, "equivocal"], a name given by Haiiy to hornblende, on account of its re- semblance to augite. (See Hounelende.) Amphic'tyon [Gr. 'Afu^iKniuv], an ancient and perhaps fabulous hero and king of Attica, supposed to have been a son of Deucalion. Amphictyon'ic Coun'cil, a celebrated congress or politico-religious court of the confederated tribes of an- cient Greece, which met twice every year at Thermopylae. It was composed of the deputies of twelve tribes — viz. Thessalians, Boeotians, Dorians (or Spartans), lonians (or Athenians), Locrians, Dolopians, Magnetes, Malians, Achffi- ans, Phocians, .^nianians, and Perrhsebians, who each sent one or two members. The predominance of northern and Pelasgic tribes proves the great antiquity of this in- stitution, which in course of time declined, and in the age of Demosthenes had lost its authority. The members of this council bound themselves by an oath that " they would not destroy any Amphictyonic city nor cut ofi' its streams in war or peace." One great object of the council was the protection of the temple at Delphi. (See Tittmann, " Ueber den Bund der Amphiktyonen," 1852.) Amphil'ochus, a brother of Alomajon, took part in the march of the Epigoni to Thebes, and in that of the Greeks to Troy. After his death he was raised among the gods. Amphi'on [Gr. 'kii^imv], in classic mythology, a Theban prince and musician, a son of Jupiter and the husband of Niobe. According to the poetic legend, he availed himself of his skill in music to build the walls of Thebes, and the stones, attracted by the sound of his lyre, moved and ar- ranged themselves in the proper position. Amphiox'ns [from the Gr. ifi0<„, "both," and Jfuj, " sharp "], the name of a genus of fishes (Leptocardii), so called because they are sharp at both ends. They are recognized as vertebrate animals only by their gelatinous dorsal cord, which supports a medullary spinal cord. They are without brain or true heart, and have various other ex- ceptional characters. The genus is often called Branchioa- toma. The popular name is laneelet. One species is found in the marine waters of the Southern U. S. Amphip'olis [from the Gr. ait^i, "around," and iroAi;, "city "j, an ancient and important city of Thrace or Mace- donia, was founded by an Athenian colony about 437 B. C. It was situated at the mouth of the river Strymon, which here enters the Strymon'icuB Sin'na, the modern Gulf of Oontessa. The waters of the river are said to have once surrounded the town (whence the name). In the Middle Ages it was called Popolia. Its site is now occupied by a small Turkish town called Yenikeui. Amphisbaeni'dae [Gr. ijniJiiir/Saii/a, from anjiit, •' on both sides," quasi at both ends, and ^aivto, " to go "], a Araphisbaena fuliginosa. family of- Lacertian reptiles with the pterygoid and quad- rate bones united, no columella and no interorbital septum, and an elongated serpentiform body with a blunt tail. The head and tail are sufficiently similar in appearance to have gained their scientific names. About two dozen spe- cies inhabit the warm portions of both hemispheres. They burrow in the earth, and have rudimentary eyes. Amphis'sa^ a town of ancient Greece, in Locris, was situated 7 miles from Delphi, on the site of the modem town of Sahna. The town was destroyed B. C. 338 by Philip of Macedon, but was rebuilt. Here was a temple of Athena, containing an image of the goddess. Amphithe'atre [Gr. aiitjueiarpov, from a/x(j>i, "around," and dearpov, a "theatre"], a spacious and uncovered edifice of an elliptical or circular form, in which the ancient Ro- mans witnessed the exhibition of public games and the combats of gladiators and wild beasts. It was constructed so that all the spectators could behold the performance, which was exhibited in an open level space called the arena, surrounded on all sides by tiers of seats, which rose higher as they receded from the arena. The most famous of these edifices was the Flavian Amphitheatre, or Colos- seum of Rome, which was built by the emperors Vespasian and Titus, finished about 80 A. D.. and is still standing.. It is about 620 feet long, 613 feet wide, and 157 feet high. The longest diameter of the arena was 287 feet. It is said to have had seats for 80,000 spectators, and standing-room for 20,000 more. The exterior was adorned by three rows of columns — Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian. The Colosseum is regarded by many as the most august and imposing ruin in the world. Amphithe'rium [from ap^i, " on both sides," and iitpCov, "beast;" named probably in allusion to its double or doubtful character], a genus of fossil insectivorous mam- malia found in the oolitic strata in Oxfordshire, England. It presents many points of analogy with the living marsu- pial genus Mi/rmecohiud. Amphitri'te ['A)i(/>iTpiTri], in the Greek mythology, a Nereid, a goddess of the sea, the wife of Neptune and the mother of Triton. She is represented sitting in a car of shells drawn by tritons, or on a dolphin. Amphit'ryon [Gr. ■Afuf)iTpv(»j'], in classic mythology, a son of Alcajus. Having accidentally killed his uncle Eleo- tryon, he was banished from Mycenae. He married Alcmena, who was the mother of Hercules. Am'phOTa [from the Gr. o(u()i, "on both sides," and i^e'pw, to " bear," from its being borne by its two handles], the Latin name of a vase with two handles which was used by the ancient Greeks and Romans to hold wine and oil. It was also a liquid measure, containing about eight and a half gallons among the Greeks, and six among the Romans. Amplifica'tion [Lat. ampUfica'Ho, from am'plus, "large," and /a'eio, to "make"], in rhetoric, is the en- largement and expansion of a subject or discourse by the use of epithets and illustrations and the enumeration of circumstantial accessories, with a view to produce a deeper impression. Cicero was much inclined to amplify his ora- tions. Exaggeration is a vicious kind of amplification. AMPLITUDE— AMSTERDAM. 123 Am'plitude [Lat. amplitu^do, from am'plua, "large/' " great"], in astronomy, is the angular distance of a heavenly body, when it rises or sets, from the east or west points of the horizon. The amplitude of a fixed star remains the same all the year, but that of the sun changes daily, and on a given day varies according to the latitude of the ob- server. Amplitude, in mechanics and physics, is used in refer- ence to oscillating and vibrating bodies, to indicate the dis- tance between the extreme positions assumed by the body. Thus the amplitude of oscillation of a pendulum is the angle between the extreme positions of the line joining the centres of suspension and oscillation. Ampu'dia^ de (Pedro), a Mexican officer who ob- tained the rank of general in 1840. He fought against the Texans in 1842, and commanded the Mexican troops which defended Monterey in 1846 against Gen. Taylor, to whom he surrendered in September of that year. Ampnl'lay a Koman vessel of glass or earthenware, used for holding oil, wine, etc., was nearly globular in form. Many of these are preserved in the collections of antiqua- ries. In the Catholic Church an ampulla is a vessel which contains wine for the sacrament. Ampulla Remenah (in Fr. la Sainte Ampoule) was a famous vessel of holy oil which, according to tradition, was brought from heaven by a dove, and was used to anoint Clovia when he was crowned at Rheims in 496 A. D. AmpuUa'ria [from the Lat. ampuUaf a "flask"], an Ampullaria dubia. interesting genus of gasteropod mollusks, called apple- shells, idol-shells, pond-snails, etc. Fifty or more species are known, mostly tropical, and all inhabiting fresh water and mud, though some are occasionally found in salt and brackish waters. They are remarkable for their tenacious hold on life, many being able to live away from the water for years. One species is occasionally found alive in hol- low logs of mahogany and logwood from Honduras. The Ampullaria dithia is brought from the Nile. Amp 11 taction [from the Lat. amputOy ampntatum, to "prune," to "lop off"], in surgery, is the removal, by operation, of any part of the body or limbs on account of disease or injury, such as would endanger life if the part were allowed to remain. The term of late denotes more especially such removal of a limb, but is still sometimes used for the excision of a tumor or gland. Amputations are properly resorted to not only after severe and very dangerous injuries, but in such diseases as gangrene, cancer, etc., which are without rational prospect of cure by other means. In general, cases where the chances of cure will probably be much increased by this operation afford legitimate subjects for its exercise. This rule would include some cases of intractable ulcers of the leg, of aneurism, and of diseased bones and joints. In- curable and unsightly deformities, where they put the pa- tient to great inconvenience, may in some circumstances be removed by the knife. An amputation in which a bone is cut off is said to be "in the continuity." An amputation at a joint, when no bones are divided, is in "the contigu- ity f* the latter operation is not often performed, though it has had recent advocates. Amputations are chiefly either "flap" or "circular" operations. The " flap " operation, in some of its many modifications, is probably the most frequently employed. One, two, or even three flaps have been employed, the size, shape, and thickness of these flaps of skin and flesh varying with circumstances. In general, they ought to be large enough to cover amply the end of the stump, and not so large as to be redundant after the wound shall have healed. The flap amputation, practised by certain mediaeval surgeons, and revived by Lowdham of England nearly 200 years ago, was made general by Listen, and has since his time been variously improved and modified. "Circular amputation" is performed by first dividing the skin and superficial fascia by a sweep of the knife around the limb, dissecting up the skin for two or three inches, and at that part dividing the muscles down to the bone. The flesh is removed from the-bone to allow the saw to be applied. The danger attending amputation is generally in propor- tion to the nearness of the operation to the trunk, as well as to the size of the limb. Thus, amputation at the hip- joint is the most doubtful of all in its results,* but even this, in some cases, especially in military surgery, may im- prove the chances of life under severe injury. Amputations at the joints are by most surgeons considered as more seri- ous than in the continuity of the limbs. Of the foot alone several different modes of amputation are in use, as Lis- franc's, Chopart's, Syme's, and Pirogoff's amputations. Amrit''; the richest place in ruins on the whole Phoe- nician coast (Syria), near the city of Tortosa. It is the ancient Marathus, and was discovered in the seventeenth century by Pocoeke, but was not explored until the present century, by Ernest Kenan. The most important ruin found here is "El Maabed" {i. e. "the temple"). Am'rita [from the Sanscrit a, signifying "without," and mrita, "dead," also "death"], sometimes incor- rectly written Amreeta, in Hindoo mythology, is the name applied to the water of immortality, which is said to have been obtained by the churning of the ocean. The term amrita or amrit is sometimes given to the food as well as the drink of the gods, and likewise to any delicious drink, Amrit'sir, or Amritsur, written also XTmritsir, the sacred city of the Sikhs, in the PunjS,b, in Korthern India, 40 miles B. of Lahore; lat. 31° 40' K., Ion. 74° 66' E. It is said to contain 399 Hindoo places of worship. Here is a magnificent temple of the Sikhs, on an island, in a large tank or reservoir, called " the Pool of Immortality," which is visited by many pilgrims. Kunjeet Singh built here the large fortress of Govindghur, which is one of the most re- markable objects in the place. Amritsir has manufactures of shawls, silk stuffs, and cotton goods ', also an extensive transit trade with India and Central Asia. Pop. in 1876, 142,381. Am'rou Ben el As, a famous Arabian warrior, horn about 600 A. D., at first opposed Mohammed, but became a zealous proselyte, aided in the conquest of Syria, con- quered Egypt, of which he became emir, taking Alexan- dria in 640 A. D., and Tripoli three years later. He became an opponent of Ali. He was a man of energy and prudence. Died in 663. Ams'dorfy von (Nikolaus), a Reformer, born in Sax- ony Dec. 3, 1483. He became a zealous Lutheran, and accompanied Luther to the Diet of Worms in 1521. He was afterwards an opponent of Melanchthon, and was much addicted to controversy about doctrines. In 1542 he was appointed bishop of Naumburg. Ho wrote numerous po- lemical works. Died May 14, 1565. Ams'ler (Samuel), a skilful engraver, born in Switzer- land in 1791. He became professor of engraving in the Academy of Fine Arts in Munich. He engraved many of the works of Raphael and Thorwaldsen, and reproduced the former with peculiar fidelity. Among his best works are the " Triumph of Alexander the Great," after Thor- waldsen, a "Holy Family," and a "Burial of Christ," both after Raphael ; also a " Christ," after Dannecker. Died in 1849. Am'sterdam', formerly Amstelredammej or Am- steldamme ("the dike or dam of the Amstel"), [Lat. AmBteloda'mnm],?).!! important commercial city and capital of the kingdom of Holland, is situated at the junction of the Amstel with the Y, and near the Zuyder-Zee, through which it has access to the ocean; lat. 52° 22' N., Ion. 4° 53' E. It is the largest city of Holland and its constitu- 124 AMSTERDAM— AMYLAMINES. tiona.1 capital, but the royal court is at The Hague. Am- sterdam stands on flat, marshy ground, into which piles, fifty feet long, are driven to form a foundation for the houses, which are mostly built of brick. The city is divided into ninety islands by a number of canals, which are crossed by 280 bridges. A part of the old ramparts have been pulled down, and twenty-eight windmills for grinding grain have been erected on the bastions. The principal streets are the Heerengracht, Koizergracht, and Prinzensgracht, each of which is about two miles long and describes a semi- circle. Canals occupy the middle of these streets, which are scarcely surpassed in elegance by those of any capital in Europe. Among the grand public buildings of this metropolis is the palace Or town-hall, a stone edifice 282 feet long and 235 feet wide, resting on 13,659 piles, driven into the ground to the depth of 70 feet. This palace con- tains a remarliable hall 120 feet long, 60 feet wide, and 100 feet high, lined with white Italian marble. The city has a beautiful justiciary hall, a modern building of Gre- cian architecture. The most beautiful church of Amster- dam is the Nieuwe Kerk (founded in 1408), which is 350 feet long and 210 wide. This Nieuwe Kerk and the Oude Kerk, which has a remarkable organ, belong to the Re- formed Church. Much of the water-supply of Amsterdam now comes from the sand-dunes of the coast. Amsterdam is liberally supplied with hospitals and other charitable in- stitutions. Among the important educational and literary institutions are the Athena3um lUustre, which has a bo- tanic garden, a school of anatomy, and chairs of art, law, medicine, and theology ; the city Latin school ; the Koyal Academy of Fine Arts, founded in 1820 ; the Arti et Ami- citise society of painters ; the naval school ; the Royal Dutch Institution for science, literature, and art; the antiquarian society ; and the society of literature and fine arts, called Felix Meritis. The Museum of Pictures, the Museum van der Hoop, and the Feodor Museum (since 1866) contain rich collections of the works of the Dutch masters. The Six collection of pictures belonging to the Six family is one of the finest private collections in Europe. The chief manufactures are tobacco, soap, canvas, glass, jewelry, cordage, machinery, steam-engines, etc. Its com- merce is more important than its manufactures. That great trade which in the sixteenth century placed Amsterdam at the head of the commercial cities of Europe gradually de- clined, partly from the rise of other ports, but principally from the difficulties of navigation caused by the silting up of the Zuyder-Zee, and, above all, the Pampus Bar. Large vessels were obliged to discharge their cargoes outside, and were then floated over the bar by means of camelsj which, when the water was pumped out of them, raised the vessel with them. To remedy this, the North Holland Canal was cut to the Helder, a distance of 51 miles. It is 124 feet broad at the surface and 31 feet at the bottom, and is avail- able for vessels drawing 18 feet of water. But even, this great highway is now inadequate, and moreover is obstruct- ed in winter by ice. To maintain the rank of Amsterdam as one of the great commercial entrepots of Europe, one of the most remarkable engineering works of modern times was commenced in 1863, and is now completed — the direct connection of the port of Amsterdam with the North Sea, 15 miles distant, by a canal terminating in an artificial harbor on that sea. This has made Amsterdam practically a seaport. Diamond-cutting is almost exclusively carried on here. (See Canal ; also "Prof. Papers Corps of Engi- neers," No. 22.) Amsterdam is the terminus of railways which connect it with Utrecht, the Helder, Haarlem, Rotterdam, and the cities of Prussia. The chief articles of export are butter, cheese, sugar, coffee, oil, spices, colors, etc. Amsterdam was founded about 1250, before which it was a mere fishing-village, with a castle, the residence of the lords of Amstel. It was fortified in 1482, and became a part of the United Provinces in 1578, after which its com- merce and population rapidly increased. Between 1630 and 1750 it was the foremost commercial city of Europe, This city was the native place of Spinoza, Admiral de Ruyter, and other eminent men. Pop. in 1867, 267,627 ; in 1883, 361,326, of whom about 59,000 were Catholics, 35,000 Lutherans, 4000 Mennonites, 1000 Remonstrants, and 30,000 Jews. Revised, J. G. Barnard. Amsterdam Treaty, between France, Russia, and Prussia, was concluded Aug. i, 1717. The mediation of France was accepted between the czar and the king of Prussia on one side, and Sweden on the other. Russia also abandoned the invasion of Mecklenburg, and Prance agreed not to renew a treaty of subsidies with Sweden. Amsterdam, city on R. R. and Mohawk River, Mont- gomery CO., N. y. (see map of New York, ref. 4-1, for lo- cation of county), 33 miles N. W. of Albany. It has about 20 manufactories and a horse railroad Pon in 1870, 5426; in 1880, 9466. , ^' Amuck', or Amook, a word used among the Malays. Men who are rendered insane and desperate by the habit- ual use of opium or hasheesh run along the streets armed with a dirk, and kill or wound all persons in their reach. This is called " running amuck." It is generally delibe- rately planned, and is the Malay mode of suicide. Where a Japanese would commit hari-kari, the Malay runs amuck ;•. e. by attacking all he meets he seeks and finds death at the hands of others. Am'ulet [Lat. amule'tum], an object worn on the per- son as a charm, and supposed to have power to protect the wearer against evil spirits, sickness, and other real or imaginary evils. Amulets were worn by the ancient Egyptians, Greeks, and Jews. The Greeks and Romans wore a variety of gems and small figures of heroes, deities, and animals. Amulets were also used by the early Chris- tians, but that form of superstition was condemned by the Council of Laodicea about A. D. 360. They are common among the Turks at the present day. An astrological am- ulet called talisman was highly prized by the Arabs. Am'urath, or Mu'rad I., sultan of the Turks, born in 1326, succeeded Orkhan, his father, in 1359, took Ad- rianople in 1361, and waged with success long and bloody wars, chiefly with the Christians, in what is now European Turkey. He was assassinated June 15, 1389. Amurath II. succeeded his father, Mohammed I., in 1421, attacked Constantinople in 1423, contended with va- rying success for many years against the Hungarians under Hunyady, and against Scanderbeg. He gained a great victory at Kosovo in 1448. Died Feb. 9, 1461. Amnrath III., one of the mo^t cruel of the sultana, born in 1545, came to the sultanate in 1574. His reign was marked by long wars with Austria and Persia, and with the janizaries at home. Died Jan. 17, 1595. Amurath (Murad) IV., sultan of Turkey, born about 1610, succeeded his uncle Mustafa in 1623. He had a pas- sionate temper, which was rendered more violent and dan- gerous by habitual drunkenness. He amused himself by shooting from his palace windows at passengers in the streets. The most important event of his reign was the capture of Bagdad by his army in 1638. Died in 1640. Amussat (Jean Zul£ma), a French surgeon and writer, born in Deux-S6vres in 1796. He invented and improved several surgical instruments, and published some able pro- fessional treatises, among which are " Researches into the Nervous System" (1825), and a "Memoir on the Torsion of Arteries" (1829), which obtained a prize of the Insti- tute. Died in 1856. Amy'cl3E [Gr. 'AjiiuK^at], an ancient town of Laconia, on the Eurotas, 20 stadia S. E. of Sparta, in a district noted for the abundance of its trees and its fertility, was famous in the heroic or legendary age as the abode of Tyndarus and Leda and Castor and Pollux, who were c&Wtii Amyclm Fratres (Amyclsean Brothers). This town was conquered by the Spartans about 775 B. C. Amyg'dalin, or Amyg'daline, a white crystalline principle which is contained in the bitter almond, and under the influence of emulsine and water yields hydrocy- anic acid and the volatile oil of bitter almonds. The sym- bol of amygdalin is C20H27NOH. (See Almonds, Oil or.) Amyg'daloid [from the Gr. ifuJ-ySaAoi/, an "almond," and etfios, a "form"], having the form of an almond; ap- plied in geology to certain volcanic rocks in which once existed oval cavities or cells now filled with nodules of some crystalline mineral deposited from an infiltrated so- lution. These nodules are composed of agate, chalcedony, calcareous spar, etc., and are commonly found in a basis of basalt, greenstone, or other trap rock. Empty cells often occur in the same rocks that contain these nodules, the ca,vities in each case having been originally formed and filled with gas or steam. Amyg'dalus [from the Gr. aj^vvSoAo?, the "almond tree "], a genus of plants of the order Rosacea;, consists of trees whose fruit is a drupe. It comprises the almond {Amyg'dalus commu'nie) and the peach (Amyg'dalm Per'- aica). Am'yl (C5H11), a compound radical belonging to the alcohol series, exists in amylio alcohol, C5H11.O.H, or fusel oil. It forms a series of compound ethers (see Ethers), some of which are used as substitutes for the essences of natural fruits. The nitrite of amyl is an ethereal liquid of agreeable odor, which has been recently brought to the attention of medical practitioners on account of its pecu- liar action on the circulation. A few drops inhaled causes a sudden acceleration of the pulse and flushing of the face. Amyl'amines, organic bases formed on the ammonia typo by the substitution of amyl, CsHu, for H. Arayla- mine is N(C6Hii)H2, diamylamine is N(C6Hii)2H, tri- J AMYLENE— ANACHAKIS CANADENSIS. 125 amylamine is N(C5Hu)3, tetrafmyl ammonium is N(C5Hii)4. (See Amines, by Prop. C. F. Chandler, Ph. D., LL.D.) Am'yl^ne (C5H10), a diatomic radical homologous with ethylene. It is produced by the dehydration of amylic alcohol, and is a transparent liquid of a faint but offensive odor. It possesses aneesthetic properties, and has been used as a substitute for chloroform, but was abandoned after having produced fatal results. (See Ethylene.) Amyot (Jacques). See Appendix. Amyot (Joseph), a French Jesuit missionary, born at Toulon in 1718. He sailed to China in 1750, was invited to Pekin by the emperor, and passed the rest of his life there. He learned the Chinese language, from which he translated several works into French, and compiled a " Mantchoo- Tartar-French Dictionary" (Paris, 3 vols., 1789-90). Few European authors have done so much to illustrate the history and customs of China. He wrote a large portion of the *' Memoirs concerning the History, Sciences, Arts, and Customs of ttie Chinese" (16 vols., 1776-1814). Died in Pekin in 1794. Amyrida'ceEE, a natural order of exogenous plants (trees or shrubs), natives of tropical regions, and abound- ing with balsamic and resinous juice. The type of the order is the genus Amfyris, which produces elemi. They have compound leaves, three to five petals, and stamens twice or four times as many as the petals. Among the products of this order are myrrh, frankincense, bdellium, elemi, olibanum, and balsam of Gilead. It comprises, be- sides Amyria, the genera BaUamodendrorif Boaweilia, Idea, and Buraera. Southern Florida has two trees of the order ■^the cachibou gum tree, Buraera gummi/era (a large tree), and Amyria Floridana (torchwood), a small tree. A'na [ica], a Greek word signifying "upward," "through," "again." In medical prescriptions. Ana, or aa, denotes an equal quantity of each ingredient. Ana^ a suffix whioh often occurs as the termination of words which are the titles of books containing collections of the anecdotes, conversations, and sayings of eminent men. Among the most remarkable of these are " Seal- igerana" (1666), "Menagiana," "Huetiana," "Walpoli- ana " (relating to Horace Walpole), and " Johnsoniana." They abound most in French literature. The " Scaligerana " was the first publication of this kind that ever appeared. Anabant'idse [from An'ahaa, one of the genera], a family of acanthopterygi- an fishes, with the superior branchihyals of the gill- arches laminated and de- veloped into a superbran- chial organ which retains water sufficient to moisten the gills for a considerable time, and with more or less spines in the dorsal and anal fins. Species are found in South-eastern Anahas scand&ns : CI irabing Perch. Asia and Africa. One, the An'ahait scan'dena, found in India, etc., is especially remarkable for a limited power of climbing. Unlike the eel, which passes over only moist ground, the anabas takes its journey over hard, dry, and dusty roads, and --frequently up steep ascents heated with the burning beams of the noonday sun, and does not seem to feel any serious inconvenience from these. It is even asserted by some writers that this fish is able to climb a tree. Anabap'tists [from the Gr. prep, avd, "again," and PaiTTiito, to "baptize"], a name applied during the six- teenth century to various bodies of Swiss and German Christians, who, while differing widely in personal cha- racter, in social and political opinions, and religious faith, agreed in discarding infant baptism, and in re-baptizing (according to the popular notion) those who personally ac- cepted of Christianity. While in this respect the German Anabaptists held a position similar to that of the Baptists of to-day, they did not, as a general thing, insist that im- mersion only is valid baptism. Indeed, they generally practised pouring or affusion. Many of the early Anabaptists were men of irreproach- able character and true Christian devotion. (See Hub- MBYEB, Menno.) Some of them believed that it was wrong, in any circumstances, to bear arms. Others, however (whose vices and follies have been imputed to all who agreed with them in rejecting infant baptism), aspiring with a fanatical zeal to purify the Church and reform so- ciety, taught that, among men living under the gospel and having the Spirit of God to direct them, human govern- ment was not only unnecessary, but an unlawful encroach- ment on their spiritual liberty; that the distinctions of birth, rank, and wealth should be abolished ; and that all Christians, throwing their possessions into one common stock, should live together as members of one family. Many of their leaders claimed to be enlightened and directed by supernatural visions and revelations. One of these, Thomas MUnzer, claimed, it is said, a divine commission to estab- lish a holy community, and to overthrow the then existing governments by the sword. He assembled a considerable force, which was totally defeated in May, 1525, near Miihl- hausen, and MUnzer, with the other leaders, was put to death. Many of his followers, however, survived, and spread their doctrines through Gerjnany, Holland, and Switzerland. A numerous body of them, under John Mat- thias of Haarlem and John Boccold (or Boekholdt) of Leyden, established themselves in 1533 at Miinster, de- posed the magistrates, and having confiscated the property of many of the more wealthy citizens, they deposited it in a public treasury for the common use. The inhabitants were drilled to military duty, and vigorous preparations Avere made for the defence of Miinster, which they styled Mount Zion. Count Waldeck, bishop and prince of Miin- ster, having surrounded the city with an army, Matthias sallied from the gates, and was at first successful in several engagements. But having onoe gone forth with a small company, they were all killed. Boccold succeeded him, with the title of King John. He wore a crown, clothed himself in purple, and took to himself numerous wives, only one of whom, however, was honored as queen. En- couraged by the example of their monarch, many of Boc- cold's followers, it is said, gave themselves up to sensuality and license. At length, in 1535, Miinster was taken, and Boccold and other leaders of the Anabaptists were put to death with torture. (See Cornelius, " Geschichte des Miinsterischeu Aufruhrs," Leipsic, 1855, and the "Dutch Martyrology;" Bouterwek's " Literatur und Geschichte der Wiedertaufer ;" Winter's "Geschichte der Baierischen Wiedertaufer ;" Calvary's " Mittheilungen aus dem Anti- quariate," vol. i., p. Ill, aeq.) The word Anabaptist is sometimes applied, at the present day, to those who baptize by immersion, and on profession of their faith, persons who have been sprinkled in infancy ; but the name is repudiated by modern Baptists, since they regard the immersion of a believer as the only valid bap- tism, and maintain that they do not rebaptize. As no his- torical connection can be established between the Baptists and the fanatics of Miinster, the name "Anabaptist" ought not to be applied to them. J. H. Gilmore. Anaba'ra^ a river of Siberia, in the government of To- bolsk, rises about lat. 66° 30' N., and Ion. 107° E., flows northward about 300 miles, and enters the Arctic Ocean in lat. 72° 40' N.J Ion. 112° 30' E. Anab'asis [from the Gr. avd, " up," and PatVw, to " go "], a Greek word signifying an " ascension," a march from a lower into a higher region. In medicine, it is sometimes applied to the increase of a disease or paroxysm. Also the title of two Greek historical works : 1. Xenophon's account of the expedition of Cyrus the Younger against his brother Artaxerxes Mnemon, king of Persia, 401 B. C, and of the retreat of the ten thousand Greeks who had served in the army of Cyrus. 2. Arrian's "Anabasis," in which are re- corded the expeditions of Alexander the Great into Persia and India. An'ableps [from the Gr. drajSAeTroi, to "look up"], a genus of haplomus fishes, characterized by a remarkable projection of the eyes from the sides of the head, and by a singular structure of the cornea and iris, in consequence of which it has two pupils on each side, and seems to have four eyes. Several species are found along the sandy coasts of tropical America. Anacau'thini [from the Gr. iv, priv., and dKav9a, a "spine"], an order of fishes distinguished by an ossified endoskeleton, the surface covered in some cases with cy- cloid, in others with ctenoid, scales; fins supported by flex- ible or jointed raysj ventrals beneath the pectorals, or wanting j swimming-bladder without air-duct. This order includes the cod and many other edible fishes. Anacardia'cese [from Annrcar' dium, one of the gen- era], a natural order of exogenous trees and shrubs, mostly natives of tropical regions, and often abounding in a resin- ous fluid of extreme acridity. The leaves are alternate and without dots, the petals perigynous, and the fruit is usually a drupe. The order is founded on Anacardium oecidentale (cashew-nut), and contains many species, among which are poison ivy, mastic, sumac, pistachio-nuts, and the mango. Anach'aris Canaden'sis, an herbaceous plant of the order Hydrocharidaceag, is a native of North America, growing in ponds and slow streams, in which it is en- tirely submerged. It has a much-branched and slender stem, and is remarkable for the rapidity of its growth. It is naturalized' in Great Britain, where it suddenly appeared in such abundance as to obstruct the navigation of the 126 ANACHABSIS— ANAGNI. Trent, Derwent, and other rivers. It was first observed in Great Britain about 1842. It causes no such trouble in the U. S. Anachar'sis [Gr. •Ai/ixapo-w], a celebrated Scythian philosopher who lived about 600 B. C, and was a friend of Solon. He was the only " barbarian " admitted to the priv- ilege of a citizen of Athens, and according to some authori- ties was reckoned among the Seven Wise Men of Greece. It is said that on his return to Soythia he was put to death, because he practised some Greek religious rites. Some of his pithy sayings have been preserved by Diogenes Laer- tius and others. A French author, Jean Jacques Barthg- lemy, published a popular work entitled " Travels of Ana- charsis the Younger in Greece" (1788), which represents with considerable fidelity the life and customs of the ancient Greeks. It was translated into English. Anach'ronism [Gr. ivaxpovic-fUK, from ivi, used for "against," and xP"""'. "time"], an error in chronology, an inversion or disturbance of the order of time. The use of cannon in Shakspeare's " King John " is an anachron- ism, as cannon were not employed in England until a hun- dred years or more after his reign. Painters who represent ancient patriarchs in modern costumes are censured for anachronism. Anacla'che, a snowy peak of the Bolivian Andes, is supposed to be 22,000 feet or more above the level of the sea ; lat. 18° 12' S., Ion. 69° 20' W. It is covered with perpetual snow. Anacle'tus, bishop of Rome, was a native of Athens. He was the successor (or, according to others, the prede- cessor) of Saint Clement. Died about 100 A. D. Anacletus, an antipope, was elected by a party of cardinals in 1130 as a rival pope to Innocent II., who was recognized by the majority of the European powers. Ana- cletus was supported by the Romans. Died in 1138. Anacon'da [Ennec'tee muri'nus, Bo' a muri'na of some naturalists], a large serpent allied to the Boa constrictor, is a native of tropical America, especially of Brazil and Gui- ana. It sometimes grows to the length of forty feet, and is the largest serpent of America. It passes much of the time in the water, preferring the shallow parts of a lake or stream. Among the generic characters that distinguish it from the boa are the small size and position of its nostrils, which open at the upper part of the end of the muzzle, and are directed upward. It is not venomous. Anac'reon ['AvaKptiav], a famous Greek lyric poet, born at Teos. in Ionia, about 560 B. C. He emigrated from Teos when that town was taken by the Persians, about 540, and passed many years at Samos, where he was patronized by King Polycrates. After the death of this patron, 522 B. C, he became a resident of Athens, to which he was in- vited by Ilipparchus. Love and wine were the favorite themes of his muse. Died in 476 B. C. According to tra- dition, his death was caused by a grape-stone which stuck fast in his throat. Some fragments of his poems are extant. Anadir'9 or Anadyry a river of Siberia, near the ex- treme N. E. part of Asia, rises north of Kamtchatka, flows nearly eastward, and enters the Sea of Anadir. Length, about 450 miles. The Sea or Gulf of Anadir is in Sibe- ria, nea.r the N. E. extremity of Asia, and is a large inlet of the Pacific Ocean. It is separated from the Arctic Ocean by a peninsula about 150 miles wide. Anadyom'ene [Gr. 'Aj-oSvoneVrj], (the goddess "rising up out" of the sea), a surname given to Venus; also the name of a masterpiece of Apelles, representing Venus ris- ing from the sea and wringing her flowing hair with her fingers. This picture was purchased by the people of Cos, who sold it to the emperor Augustus for one hundred tal- ents, or more than $100,000 of our money. Anse'mia [from the Gr.iu/,priv., and aliia, "blood"], also called Spanae'mia [from o-n-avd!, "scarce," "rare," and olfia, "blood"], a morbid condition of the body in which the blood is of an abnormal composition, there being usual- ly a defloieney in the normal number of red corpuscles, a poverty of albumen, and an excess of salts, the absolute amount of the blood being usually below that observed in health. This condition is not properly a disease, so much as a result of some disease or lesion, such as dyspepsia, haemorrhage, excessive secretion from any gland or sur- face, insufficient nutrition, defective aeration of the blood, consumption, cancer, malarial or other slow poisoning^ leuoocythaemia, excessive labor, or long-continued mental troubles. The symptoms are, first, great debility, paleness of face, lips, and tongue, wasting of the tissues, various cardiac, arterial, and venous murmurs, a small and often rapid pulse, clearness and low specific gravity of the urine. Late in the disease the feet swell and sweating is observed. The treatment is, first, if possible, to remov6 the cause! Next, the proper conditions for recovery must be establish- ed, such as proper food, due exercise, and good air. Ton- ics, if they are well borne by the patient, are generally useful. Strychnia, quinia, and, above all, iron, are often e-xtremely useful. The iron is generally thought to act as food, there being an actual deficiency of iron in the blood. Anfesthe'sia [from the Gr. av, priv., and aicrBivoimi, to " perceive," to " feel "], in medical language, when used to designate a symptom, denotes a diminution or a complete loss of the sense of feeling, either general or much more frequently local. In this sense it is opposed to the term hypersESthesia, which denotes an exaltation or excess of sensibility. Both these conditions are symptoms of dis- ease of the nervous system. When feeling proper is abol- ished while pain exists, it is called " anaesthesia dolorosa';" when both pain and the sense of touch are absent, it is " analgesia." But of late the term commonly denotes a total or partial, local or general, suspension of all the senses as the result of the application or inhalation of some chemical agent. Local anesthesia is produced by the rapid evaporation of some highly volatile substance, like ether or rhigolene, and consequent chilling of the part to be af- fected. The local application of certain drugs, such as aconitine, will also produce a degree of ansesthesia. Gen- eral anffisthesia is, however, by far the most common result of this kind to which the physician directs his efforts. The Chinese have used preparations of hemp for this . purpose for many centuries. The " Arabian Nights " contain nume- rous allusions to a similar use of this drug. Mandragora, opium, and many other soporifics were used by the ancients as anaesthetics, though such use is dangerous from the pro- found efi'ects produced. Surgical operations in later times have been successfully performed while the patient was in the mesmeric sleep or condition of "hypnotism." Such a condition is, however, usually regarded as a diseased one, and its production is outside the province of the physician. The ansesthetics generally in use are common or ethylic ether, chloroform, and nitrous oxide gas, each of which is administered by inhalation. There is some reason to be- lieve that the ansesthetic property of ether was not un- known in the sixteenth century, soon after the discovery of this agent by the alchemists. Several physicians in the eighteenth century recommended the use of ether by inhal- ation for the relief of pain. Sir Humphry Davy in 1800 observed the ansesthetic eifect of nitrous oxide, and pro- posed its use in surgery, but it was not till 1844 that Horace Wells, a dentist of Hartford, Conn., successfully employed this gas for the prevention of pain in removing teeth. The subject, however, fell for the time into undeserved neglect, though at present this gas is extensively employed in den- tistry and in some other surgical operations. Between 1816 and 1846 several American physicians pro- posed the use of ether as an anaesthetic. In October of the latter year. Dr. W. T. G. Morton of Boston (who had successfully used ether in dentistry) administered it to a patient in the Massachusetts General Hospital during a surgical operation by the late Dr. Warren. In Nov., 1847, Sir J. Y. Simpson of Edinburgh first announced chloro- form as an ansesthetic, it having been used for the relief of difficult breathing by Ives of New Haven, Conn., in 1832, and its ansesthetic effect upon the lower animals hav- ing been shown by Flourens ten months before Simpson's experiments. The use of both ether and chloroform has spread rapidly since the above discoveries. Various other agents (amylene, amyl hydride, carbon bichloride, Dutch liquid, methylene bichloride, etc.) have been proposed, but for the most part they have turned out to be more danger- ous than the older and better known ansesthetics. With regard to the relative superiority of the various agents used, opinions differ. It is claimed by some that ether is much safer than chloroform, while other practi- tioners of eminence assert that chloroform is pleasanter, cheaper, and more speedy in its effect, and equally safe if the requisite skill is employed in administration. The principal objections to nitrous oxide are, that it is not easily portable, and that its effects are very transitory. Experiments tend to show that ether produces anesthesia by causing anaemia of the brain, while chloroform appears to act by producing hypersemia. Further observations are constantly being made on these points, and these experi- ments may be fairly expected to throw great light on the subject. Chas. W. Greene. Anfesthet'icSj the name applied to certain prepara- tions having the property of producing Anesthesia (which see). Ana'gni (anc. Anag'nia), an episcopal town of Italy, situated 37 miles E. S. E. of Rome. It was the birthplace of several popes, among whom were Innocent III., Boni- face VIII., and Gregory IX. Anagnia was nearly as old as Rome, was the chief city of the Hernioi, and was an important place during the whole period of the ancient ANAGBAM— ANALYSIS. 127 Roman history, Vergil mentions it as the wealthy Anag- nia. Here are some of the finest cyclopean walls in ex- istence. Pop. 6000. An'agram [from the Gr. avd, "backward," and ypdfifjLaf a "letter" or "writing"], a word or sentence formed by the transposition of the letters of some word, phrase, or sentence. The most perfect or proper anagram, called palindrome, is formed by reading backward — i. e. reversing the order of the letters — as "evil," live. The making of anagrams was a fashionable exercise of ingenuity in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, as well as in the Dark or Middle Ages. A very curious specimen of anagram is the transmutation of Pilate's question. Quid est Veritas (" "What is Truth ?") into Ust Vir qui adest (" It is the Man who is present"). Dr. Burney made the felicitous discov- ery that the Latin sentence Honor est a Nilo ("Honor is (or comes) from the Nile") is concealed in the name of Horatio Nelson. The opponents of the Butch theologian Jacobus Arminius transformed his name into Vani Orhia Amicus ("A Friend of the Vain World").* Among recent examples of the anagram are — Florence Nightingale, "Flit on, cheering Angel ;" Sir Kobert Peel, " Terrible Poser j" French Revolution, "Violence, run forth." An'aheim, on R. R., the second town in size and im- portance in Los Angeles co., Cal. (see map of California, ref. 6-C, for location of county), situated in the centre of the largest valley in California, is 12 miles from the sea, and is the head-quarters of the wine interest of Southern California. It produces over 1,000,000 gallons of wine an- nually. Pop. in 1870, 881; in 1880, 833. Anahuac'9 a Mexican word used vaguely or in various senses, sometimes applied to the great central table-land or plateau of Mexico, which comprises more than half of the Mexican republic, and lies between lat. 15° and 30° N. and Ion. 95° and 110° W. It is elevated from 6000 to 9000 feet above the level of the sea, contains several lakes, and is bounded on the E. and W. by chains of high mountains. From this plateau rise several high volcanoes, one of which, Popocatepetl, has au altitude of 17,784 feet. Anahuac Mountains, a branch of the Rocky Moun- tains, is a chain in the northern part of Mexico, "W. of the Rio del Norte, with which it is nearly parallel, and con- nected with the Anahuac table-lands. An'akim, the ancient race of giants who lived in the S. of Palestine at the time of the exodus of the Israelites. They are called "the children of Anak" in Numbers xiii. 28. " Joshua destroyed them utterly with their cities," but a remnant of them was left in Gaza, in Gath, and in Ash- dod (Joshua xi. 21). AnaFcimCj or AnaFcite [from the Gr. av,priv., and aAKt/xos, " strong"], a hydrated silicate of soda and alu- mina, generally occurring in twenty-four-sided crystals, which are sometimes transparent. By friction it becomes feebly electrified, whence its name. It is found in the trap- rocks of Ireland, Scotland, Nova Scotia, and Lake Su- perior. Analem'ma [Lat. analem^ma ; Gr. dvdKritJiiJLa, a "sup- port" or *' object supported," from avd, " up," and ^ajit^dvu, to "take"], in geometry, the projection of a sphere upon the plane of a meridian, the eye being supposed to be placed at an infinitely distant point of the radius perpen- dicular to that plane. In this projection (which is also called orthographic) all small circles whose planes are par- allel to that of projection are represented by concentric circles of the same magnitude as the originals, all circles in planes perpendicular to that of projection are seen as chords or diameters of the meridian circle, and all other circles of the sphere are projected into ellipses. A'nal Glandsj in comparative anatomy, are organs for secreting substances which, though not always so, are gen- erally repulsive in their character, and are commonly em- ployed for purposes of defence. They present every grade of the glandular structure, nearly always opening into the termination of the intestine near the anus. The sweet fluid ejected by the aphides, and of which the ants a^e so fond, is the product of secerning tubules opening on the poste- rior part of the body ; and the singular defensive acrid vapors discharged explosively by the insects called " bom- bardiers " are likewise the products of anal glands. In the mollusks the most remarkable example of these glands is presented by certain cephalopods, such as the cuttle-fish, in which there is sometimes a single and sometimes a bi- lobed or trilobed cyst, that secretes an inky fluid which these animals eject to blacken the water around them, for the purpose of concealment in time of danger. In reptiles the anal bags are either single, double, or triple, and in many species, as in frogs and tortoises, are developed to a * It is usual for anagrammatists to treat i as the same with j, and u as identical with v. great size, and serve for aquatic respiration. In birds the anal follicles consist of a single cavity, which is termed the bursa Fabricii. In quadrupeds the anal follicles generally consist of two sacciform cavities, each having an opening near the verge of the anus. In the skunk {Mephi'tis va'- rians) the secretion of these glands furnishes to the animal its principal means of defence. In the civet ( Viverra ciueHa) and the beaver ((7as(oJ*^6er) the secretions from the anal glands have long been an article of commerce ; the former is sometimes employed, when combined with other substances, as a perfume ; the latter, under the name of castor, is used in medicine. An^'alogue [from the Gr. dvd. "according to," and Adyo?, " ratio " or " proportion "], in comparative anatomy, a member or organ of an animal that performs the same function as a part or organ in a different animal. Thus, the wing of a bird is the analogue of the wing of an insect, though different in structure. Anal'ogy [Lat. analo^gia/ Gr. dvaXoyCa, from ava, "ac- cording to," and \6yoq, " ratio " or " proportion "], literally, the state or circumstance of having proportion one to the other ; used to denote a relation or agreement between dif- ferent things in certain respects. The conclusions to which we are led respecting one thing, by reasoning from our ex- perience concerning another similar thing, form what is termed analogical knowledge. The word analogy is gen- erally employed to designate an imperfect degree of simi- larity. Thus, a physician, arguing from the effects which he had seen produced by a certain drug on one man to its probable effects on another man, would be sfeiid to reason from experience; but reasoning from the effects produced on an inferior animal to the probable effects on man, he would be, more properly, reasoning from analogy. Thus also, Bishop Butler, in his celebrated treatise on the "Anal- ogy of Religion, Natural and Revealed," has argued that the same sort of difficulties which are found in the consti- tution of nature must be looked for in the spiritual world, and that the existence of this analogy is a good reason for believing that revealed religion proceeds from God, the Creator of the material universe. In rhetoric, the word analogy designates, not the direct resemblance between two objects, but a resemblance be- tween the relations in which they stand to other objects. For example, to term youth " the dawn of life " is said to be an analogical metaphor, because there is no direct re- semblance between youth and morning, but the one maybe said to bear the same relation to life that the other does to day. In grammar, analogy means a conformity in the principles of organization of different words or collections of words. In geometry, analogy signifies nearly the same thing as proportion, or the equality or similitude of ratios. In zoology, the term analogy is usually restricted to the relation which animals bear to one another in the similarity of a smaller proportion of their organism; thus, the As- ealaphus Italicus, in the length and knobbed extremities of its antennae, the coloring of its wings, and its general aspect, exhibits a striking resemblance to the butterfly, but in all the essential parts of its organization it conforms to the neuropterous type of structure; its relation to the Lep- idoptera is therefore said to be one of analogy, while it is, in fact, connected with the ant-lions by affinity. Reasoning from analogy consists in inferring that cer- tain facts are true with reference to objects which have afforded us no examples of those facts, on the basis of the similarity of those objects to other objects better known. It warrants only probable conclusions, but the probability may often become very strong, and in the affairs of life it is often necessary to act upon conclusions thus attained; Even when its conclusions are very uncertain, they may often serve to guide inquiry and lead to discovery. Revised by J. H. Gilmore. Anal'ysis [Gr. dvdXvtn^, from avd, "throughout," and Kvia, to " untie "], in geometry, a method of conducting geo- metrical inquiries, invented by the philosophers of the school of Plato, or, according to Theon of Alexandria, by Plato himself, and one of the most ingenious and beautiful contrivances in the mathematics. " Analysis," says Pappus, "may be distinguished into two kinds : in the first, which may be called contemplative analysis, we propose to discover the truth or falsehood of an affirmed proposition; the other belongs to the solution of problems, or the investigation of unknown truths. In the first we assume the subject of the proposition advanced to be true, and proceed through the consequences of the hypothesis till we arrive at something known. If this re- sult is true, the proposition is true also, and the direct dem- onstration is obtained by stating in an inverse order the different parts of the analysis. If the ultimate consequence at which we arrive is false, the proposition was also false. In the case of a problem, we first suppose it to be resolved, 128 ANALYSIS, CHEMICAL— ANAPHOEA. and deduce the consequences resulting from that solution till we arrive at something known. If the last consequence involves only something which can be executed, or is com- prised among what geometers called data^ the proposed problem can be solved ; and the demonstration — or rather, in this ease, the construction — is obtained, as in the for- mer case, by taking the different parts of the analysis in an inverse order. If the last result is impossible, the thing ' demanded is also impossible." The names of the ancient writers on the geometrical analysis are — Euclid, in his "Data and Porismataj" Apol- lonius, in his treatise "De Sectione Rationis " and in hia "Conic Sections;" Aristseus, "De Loois Solidis;" and Era- tosthenes, "De Mediis Proportionalibus ;" but of these only the "Data" of Euclid and some fragments of Apollonius have come down to our times. A complete system of the ancient geometrical analysis may be found in the works of Dr. Simson of Glasgow. The reader may also consult with advantage Leslie's " Geometrical Analysis." Analysis is directly opposed to synthesis, which advances step by step through known propositions, from the data to the qusEsita in the case of a problem, or from the hypothesis to the predicate in the case of a theorem. Analysis is the chief though not the sole instrument of discovery, whilst synthesis adapts itself naturally to instruction. Euclid's direct demonstrations, for example, are all synthetical ; his indirect ones, however, retain the analytical character. The methods of conducting analysis and synthesis are the same in kind, the only difference being that, in the hands of the investigator at least, the several steps of the former are ex- periments suggested by experience, for which no rule can be assigned, whereas in the latter these steps are suggested by previous knowledge, gained, in fact, very frequently from a preliminary analysis. The ancient geometers conducted their analysis by means of ordinary language onlyj their successors, however, fre- quently availed themselves of the powerful resources of algebra. As a consequence of this habit the word anal- ysis, until a very recent reaction set in, lost entirely its original meaning as a method of reasoning opposed to synthesis, and by a strange perversion of terms became synonymous with algebra and the calculus ; that is to say, with the instruments employed in investigation. The fact that algebra may be, and often is, employed synthetically as well as analytically appears to have been overlooked. Revised by J. Thomas. Analysis, Chemical. See Chej[Ical Analysis, by Pkof. S. W. Johnson, A. M., and Volumetric Analysis. Analytical Geometry. See Geometry. Anam', or Annam', Empire of, called also Cochin China, a country of South-eastern Asia, is bounded on the N. by China, on the S. and E. by the Chinese Sea, and on the W. by Laos, Siain, and the Gulf of Siam. Its area is 170,033 square miles and it lies between lat. 8° 40' and 23° 22' N. The length from N. to S. is about 800 miles, and the width is very unequal in different parts. It is traversed by a long range of high mountains, the direction of which is nearly N. and S. The principal river is the Mekong (or Cambodja), which is navigable, and flows southward into the Chinese Sea. The empire of Anam was formed at the beginning of the present century out of the former king- doms of Tonquin, and Cochin China (Ko-Tchin-Tching), to which were added the province of Champa and a part of the ancient kingdom of Cambodja. The population is estimated (including that of Cambodia and the provinces now held by the French) at 21,000,000. Tonquin is the most northern part of Anam, and borders on the Gulf of Tonquin. It is intersected by the river Sang-koi, which enter the Gulf of Tonquin. The soil is fertile, and produces rice, cotton, and spices, with a variety of varnish trees and palms. Gold, silver, copper, and iron abound in Tonquin, which is the only part of Anam that is rich in metals. Cochin China is a long and narrow district, bounded E. by the Chinese Sea, and W. by a range of barren moun- tains. Much of the soil is sterile. The chief products are eagle-wood (Aloex'ylon), sugar, and cinnamon.— iowec Cochm China, now the French colony of Saigon or Cochin China, includes six provinces, 35,928 square miles, and a' population of 1,204,287. Land fertile, but low, and sickly to strangers. Exports, sugar, spices, rice, etc. Cambodia, or Kamboja. See Cambodia. Champa, or Tsiampa, is the most southern part of Anam bordering on the sea. The soil is sterile, consisting of sand- hills and granite formations, but yields one valuable pro- duct, the fragrant eagle-wood. The government of Anam is despotic. Mandarins ap- pointed by the emperor govern the provinces, and are the commanders of the army. Baddhism is the religion of the majority of the people ; among the higher classes Con- fucius has many adherents. Roman Catholic missions were planted in the seventeenth century, soon became prosper- ous, and have maintained themselves in spite of the most cruel persecutions. In 1862 the emperor engaged in a treaty of peace concluded with France to tolerate Chris- tianity and protect the Christians in their lives and prop- erty throughout the empire. In 1872 the Catholic Church of Anam (inclusive of the French Cochin China) was divided into eight vicariates apostolic, of which four were in Ton- quin, three in Cochin China, and one in Cambodja. The Christian population was in 1854 estimated at 500,000; and though from 1854 to 1862 it greatly decreased, it is now believed to exceed that number, as in 1865 the apostolic vicariate of Tonquin alone had 127,852, and that of East- ern Tonquin 43,315 Catholics. The commerce of Anam is to a large extent in the hands of Chinese merchants; the chief branch of industry is silk manufacture. The capital is Hue, at the mouth of the river of the same name. The Anamese language is, like the Chinese, monosyllabic ; the literature consists almost exclusively of imitations of Chinese works. About 214 B. C, Tonquin and Cochin China were conquered by a Chinese prince and settled by Chinese colonists. From that time to 1428 they were in turn sometimes subject to China, sometimes independent. In 1428 they threw off the Chinese yoke and formed an independent empire, under the dynasty Leh. But the au- thority of this house became soon merely nominal, Ton- quin being ruled (since 1545) by the dynasty of the Trinh, Cochin China (since 1600) by that of Nguyen. A new dynasty, Tay-song, arose in 1765, and exterminated the dynasties of Leh, Trinh, and Nguyen. Only one scion of the latter, Nguyen-anh, escaped, was educated in France, and having returned to Anam, and conquered and exter- minated the dynasty Tay-song, was under the name Gya- long proclaimed as the first emperor of Anam. His natural son and successor, Minh-menh (1820-41), and the son and grandson of the latter, Thien-tri (1841-47), and Tu-duc (since 1847), were all cruel persecutors of the Catholic Church, and thus became involved in hostilities with France and Spain. A four-years' war (1858-62) ended in a treaty of peace, by which the emperor of Anam ceded three provinces of Cochin China, Saigon, Bienhoa, and Mytho, to France- In 1867 three other provinces of Cochin China, Vinh-long, Chan-doc, and Ha-tien, were annexed to the French dominions. By treaty (June 6, 1884), France secured a protectorate over Anam, (See Veuil- LOT, "La Cochin Chine et la Tonquin," 1859; Cortambert and De Rosny, " Tableau de la Cochin Chine," 1863 ; Bas- TIAN, " Die Volker des ostl. Asiens," vol. Iv., 1868 ; and the brochures of St. Gamier, 1864-69.) A. J. Schem. Anam'boe, or Anamaboe, a seaport and British fort on the Gold Coast of Africa, 11 miles E. N. E. of Cape Coast Castle, is the residence of a governor. It exports palm-oil, gold-dust, ivory, etc. Pop. about 3000. Anamirapucu', a river of Brazil, in the province of ParS,, enters the estuary of the Amazon after a course of about 200 miles. Anamor'phosis [Gr. ii/a)iop(j>io(r«, from ii/i, "again," and iiop^oa, to "form"], in natural history, denotes the ideal change of form or development which may be traced through the species or higher members of a natural group of animals or plants. Some naturalists adopt the theory that living species have been developed from extinct spe- cies by the process of anamorphosis. The term is some- times applied in botany to an unusual development of an organ, as the calyx of a rose assuming the form of a fruit. Anamorphosis, in perspective, denotes a drawing which when viewed in the usual way appears distorted or pre- sents an image of something different, but when viewed from a particular point or reflected by a curved mirror, it appears in its proper form and just proportions. Anamo'sa, city and R. R. junction, capital of Jones CO., la. (see map of Iowa, ref. 4-K, for location of county), situated on the Wapsipinioon and Buffalo rivers, 50 miles S. W. of Dubuque. It has excellent quarries of building- stone and a State penitentiary. Pop. in 1880, 2083; in Ananassa Sativa. See Pineapple. Ananyev, a town of Russia, in the government of Kherson, 90 miles N. W. of Odessa. Pop. in 1882, 15,983. Anapa', a seaport and fortified town of Russian Cir- cassia, on the N. shore of the Black Sea, near the mouth of the Kuban. The harbor is not safe in stormy weather. The town has been by turns the property of 'Turks and Russians, and now belongs to the latter. Pop. 1882, 5037. <( -*".^P*''0''a [Lat. anaph'ora; Gr. dva0opa, from iva, again" or " back," and .jitpo), to "carry "], in rhetoric, a repetition of a word or phrase at the beginning of two or more consecutive sentences or clauses, as, " It is sown in ANABKHICH AS— ANATOLIA. 129 corruption ; it is raised in incorruption. It is sown in dis- honor; it is raised in glory. It is sown in weakness; it is raised in power." Anar'rhichas [from the 3r. ivi, " up," and appixavSru, to " clamber "], the name of a genus of spiny-finned osse- ATiarrhichas lupus, Sea Wolf. ous fishes, characterized by having their mandibular, pal- atine, and vomerine bones armed with large osseous tuber- cules bearing on their summits enamelled teeth. It in- cludes the wolf-fish, which is common to both sides of the Atlantic. A'nas [from the Lat. a'naa, a "duck"], a Linnsean genus of web-footed birds belonging to the order Palmi- Anas ciypeata, or Sboveler Duck. pedes, has been divided by recent ornithologists into many genera — namely, 4na» (the duck), jlnser (the geese), Cygnue (the swans), Aythya (red-head), Somateria (eiders), etc. The anas in this restricted sense has a flattened bill, the base of which has a greater breadth than depth, and the bill is as wide (or wider) at the extremity as at the base. Anasarca. See Dropsy. Anasta'sius I., emperor of Constantinople, was born at Durazzo about 430 A. D. He succeeded the emperor Zeno in 491. The orthodox, who considered him a heretic, revolted and defeated his army in 514. Died in 518 A. D. Anastasins II. became emperor of the East in 713 A. D. Theodosius was chosen emperor by his army, which took Constantinople and deposed Anastasius in 716. Died in 720 A. D. Anastasius I., Saist, a native of Home, became pope about 398 A.'D. He condemned the doctrines of Origen. Died in 402 A. D. — Anastasius II., Saint (Pope), a native of Kome, succeeded Gelasius I. in 496 A. D. Died in 498. — Anastasius III. was chosen pope in place of Sergins III. in 911. Died in 913. — Anastasius IV. succeeded Bugenius III. as pope in 1153. He died at an advanced age Dec. 2, 1154. Anastasius, surnamed the Librabian, a Roman priest who was librarian of the Vatican, and lived about 860 A. D. He compiled an "Ecclesiastical History" in Latin, and wrote other works. Died about 890. Anastasins, Saint, surnamed Astric, the apostle of the Hungarians, was born in 954. He converted the duke Stephen, and many other Hungarians. Died in 1044. Anastasins Griin. See Auerspebg. Anastat'ica [from the Gr. avao-rao-it, "resurrection"], the name of a genus of cruciferous plants, one species of which, called the rose of Jericho {Anastatica Hierochun- tina), grows in Palestine and has singular hygroscopic Vol. I.— 9 properties. Under the influence of drought it rolls up into a ball, becomes detached from the ground, and is canied away by the wind. When it comes into contact with moist- ure it expands into its natural form. It retains for many years this property of expanding when moistened. Anastat'ic Printing, a process by which printing and engravings may be transferred to metal, from which impressions exactly like the orig- inal can be taken. The printed sheet is moistened with dilute phosphoric or nitric acid, and pressed with great force upon a zinc plate, which is after- wards washed with an acid solution of gum, and then inked with a roller. Anas'troplie [from the Gr. ivd, "up," "back," "over," and aTpafuii, to "turn"], a term in rhetoric applied to a species of inversion or departure from the usual order of succession in words, as when Scott, in the " Lady of the Lake," says, " Clattered a hun- dred steeds along," for "A hundred steeds clattered along ;" so Virgil in the "^neid," lib. i., 1. 32, has " Maria omnia cireum " for " circum omnia maria " ("around all the seas "). An'atase [from the Gr. iKaraais, " extension," so called from the length of its crystals], a name of titanic acid or oxide of titanium, which occurs in octahedral crystals, having a splendent and adamantine lus- tre. Some specimens found in Brazil re- semble diamonds so much as to be mis- taken for them. Called also octahedrite. Anath'ema [ivaOefia, from ivd, "up," and Ti'eijfii, to " set" or "place"], a Greek word, the primary meaning of which was something "placed" or "hung up" in the temples of the gods, and hence "con- secrated" or "devoted." Among the Jews and Christians it is a curse or de- nunciation uttered by ecelesiastiqal au- thority, and a form of excommunication of heretics and other offenders. An'athoth, or A'nata, an ancient Jewish eity of refuge, about 4 miles N. E. of Jerusalem, is supposed to have been the native place of the prophet Jeremiah. Anat'idse, the name of a family of web-footed birds, of which the genus Anas is the type. It includes the duck, goose, swan, and others. Cuvier gave them the name of Lamellirostres. Anato'lia, Anado'li, or Nato'lia [from the Gr. 'AvaroX^, the " rising " or "orient"], the modern name of Asia Mi- nor, which is a large peninsula, bounded on the N. by the Black Sea and the Sea of Marmora, on the S. by the Mediterranean, and on the W. by the Grecian Archipelago. The Euphrates forms part of its ill-defined eastern boundary. It lies between lat. 36° and 42° N., and between Ion. 26° and 41° E. The length from E. to W. is about 700 miles, and the area is estimated a'. 204,434 square miles. The western coast is indented with numerous gulfs, and presents many high and precipitous cHifs. The interior is an elevated plateau, enclosed by two mountain -ranges — namely, Mount Taurus, which extends through the southern part from the Euphrates to the archi- pelago; and Anti-Taurus, which traverses the northern part. The general direction of these ranges is nearly B. and W. Some peaks of Mount Taurus attain a height of 10,000 feet or more. Between these two long ranges are several others which rise to a great height. The highest summit in Anatolia is the volcanic Arjish-Dagh, or Mount Argffius, which is situated 13 miles S. of Kaisareeyeh, and is 13,000 feet above the level of the sea. Mount Olympus, about 8 miles S. of Brusa, has an altitude of 8800 feet. The largest river of Anatolia is the Kizil-Irmak (anc. Halya), which rises in the B. part and enters the Black Sea. The western part of the peninsula is drained by the Meander and the Hermus (Sarabat), which flow westward into the M%ea,n Sea. In the central part are a number of salt lakes and barren steppes of large extent. The Kata- kekaumene, or " burnt country," a volcanic waste, is the best known of these regions. The rocks which underlie the upper regions of Anatolia are mostly granite, serpentine, and schist. Along the southern and western coasts calcareous rocks predominate, and marble is abundant. Numerous extinct volcanoes and rooks of volcanic origin occur in different parts of the coun- try. The climate presents a great diversity in consequence of the inequality of the surface. The western shores have been celebrated in all ages for their mild and genial cli- mate, and the coast of the Black Sea is favored in that re- spect. The central plateau is very hot in summer and cold 130 ANATOLIA— ANAXAGORAS. in winter, partly because it is not well watered and is gene- rally destitute of forest trees. The northern region and the other sea-ooasts are covered with extensive forests of oak, ash, beech, plane, and other trees good for timber. The coasts of the ^gean and Black seas have a very lux- uriant vegetation and a fertile soil. Among the chief prod- ucts are sugar, wine, opium, tobacco, olives, iigs, wheat, barley, and silk. The flora of Southern and Western Ana- tolia is extremely beautiful. The mountains are infested by panthers, bears, and wolves. Anatolia, which forms a part of the dominions of the sultan of Turkey, comprises the pashalios of Anatolia, Itehelee, Karamania, Adana, Marash, Sivas (or Room), Trebizond. The population, estimated at 10,970,000, not including Armenia, consists of Ottoman Turks, Turkomans, Greeks, nomadic Koords, and Armenians, The cultivation of the soil is generally neglected here, and the principal branches of industry are the production of opium, wine, and oil, and weaving shawls and carpets. The chief cities are Smyrna, Brusa (or Bursa), Sinope, Angora, Konieh, Kutaieh, and Trebizond. In ancient times this peninsula was occupied by many powerful king- doms and famous cities. (See Asia Minor, Ionia, Lydia, PosTus, etc. Hamilto.v, "Researches in Asia Minor," 1842; TcHiHATonEFP, "Asie Minoure," 1853-60; and Earth, " Iteise von Trapezunt bis Skutari," 1860.) A. J. ScHEM. Anatolia is also a pasbalic of Asiatic Turkey, form- ing the western portion of the peninsula called Asia Minor. It is the largest and richest province in the Turkish em- pire, and the most populous in Western Asia, comprising nearly half of the Anatolia described above. Anat'omy [from the Gr. ava, " up," " through," and Te/ivw, to "cut"], the science of the structure of organized bodies; so called because its results are attained and its investigations are pursued by "cutting up" or dissecting organisms. The widest and most general knowledge of organized structures is to bo attained only by the exami- nation and comparison of the structure of all species of animals and vegetables. Such a comparison has given name to the science of Comparatiye Anatomy (which see) ■ — a science embracing in its field all the other branches of anatomical knowledge. That branch of comparative anat- omy which seeks to trace the unities of plan which are ex- hibited in diverse organisms, and which discovers, as far as may be, the principles which govern the growth and development of organized bodies, and which finds func- tional analogies and structural homologies is denominated "philosophical" or "transcendental" anatomy. The study of the structure of animals is called zootomy, or animal anatomy ; vegetable anatomy is known as phytot- omy, or more frequently as structural botany. That branch of anatomy which describes the organs or viscera, etc. of any one species, and the relations of these organs to each other, is called descriptive or special anatomy, or or- ganography. Histology treats of the "tissues" or imme- diate structural elements. Microscopic anatomy is minute histology, or the science of the more remote structural ele- ments of which the body is built up. The examination of the ultimate structural elements is the province of organic chemistry, but between that science and histology there is yet an uncrossed, perhaps an impassable, barrier. (See His- tology, by Col. J. J. Woodward, M. D.) Vegetable anatomy is, and must be, chiefly histological, since the various parts of plants are structurally much less differentiated from their typical histological elements than those of most animals. Indeed, the organography of plants is very simple, the philosophical anatomist being able to show that all the proper organs of the vegetable are modifications of the leaf. Human anatomy, the science of the structure of the human body, is not only a subject oi' interest and vital importance to the physician and the surgeon, but should be understood in its general outlines by parents and teachers, and by every one who recognizes the im- portance of the knowledge of that self of which the body is so important a part. To the painter and sculptor the study of the superficial muscles and bones is consid- ered indispensable. Such knowledge is primarily sought in the dissecting-room; but the slowly accumulated results of the practical anatomist's work have been minutely recorded; and for ordinary instruction the published text-books are sufficient; while for the surgeon, and even for the artist, practical work with the scalpel is all im- portant, as substituting certainty and familiar personal knowledge for the less valuable knowledge that is acquired by reading and tradition. Practical anatomical work is pursued and legalized in most civilized nations ; and the (much exaggerated) abuses to which it has led in former times are now for the most part prevented by law. Human anatomy is " general," " special," " topograph- ical," or " surgical." " General anatomy " applies the re- sult of philosophical anatomy to the human body, assigns various organs to appropriate groups, and divides the whole subject into suitable branches or heads; "special anatomy " describes the constituent parts ; " topographi- cal" or "regional anatomy" studies the relations of parts in important portions of the body ; " surgical anatomy " is the application of regional anatomy to parts peculiarly liable to surgical operations, and its study is entered into as a preparation for such operations. " Pathological an- atomy," or the study of organs as modified by disease, is also an important branch of the science. As the leaf and its appendages in the organography of the vegetable kingdom, and as the segment with its ap- pendages in articulate animals, are regarded as the single structural "elements Upon which the whole organism is built, so in man and in all vertebrates the vertebra with its apophyses or branches is the typical element of which the osseous framework is composed, and all the sym- metrical or bilateral parts are in a manner dependencies of the osseous system. This great truth was first fully grasped by Oken. Another remarkable generalization was made by the great Bichat — that all non-symmetrical parts, such as the digestive and circulatory systems, arc of a character resembling the vege- tative growth, and not directly subject to the will. Such parts have in general non-striated muscles, and are largely supplied with nerves of the so-called sympathetic sys- tem; while, on the other hand, bilateral and symmetrical parts, as the limbs and the most important muscles, are largely under the direction of the will, and are supplied, by cerebro-spinal nerves. Two hundred and twenty- nine pairs of voluntary muscles are recognized by anatomists. The muscles, in accordance with this theory, are divided into — 1, striated muscles, or "muscles of animal life," which are symmetrical or found alike on both sides; and, 2, non-striated muscles, those of " organic life," which are found chiefly in non-symmetrical parts, or if in symmetrical parts they always exist as parts of some special organ, while striated muscles are never so found. We have seen incidentally that there are likewise two systems of nerves — the cerebro-spinal and the sympathetic or ganglionic systems, which are somewhat analogous to the two classes of muscles. Some theorists, perhaps rather fancifully, make a similar twofold division in almost all the animal tissues. Anatomists divide their science into osteology, which treats of the skeleton ; myology, the science of the mus- cles ; angiology, which describes the blood-vessels or the circulatory system ; splanchnology, relating to the viscera or organs concerned in the digestion of food; and into other branches which relate to the respiratory, nervous, and reproductive systems and the organs of special sense. These minor sciences, however, treat of the physiology (functions) as well as the anatomy (striicture) of the vari- ous parts. (For descriptions of the various organs and tissues, see Eye, Ear, Heart, Bone, Muscle, etc.) History. — It is said that the priests of ancient Egypt were familiar with the facts of human anatomy. The an- cient Greeks practised the dissection of animals, and gained considerable knowledge of their structure. Alcmseon, De- mooritus, Hippocrates, Diodes, and Aristotle were zooto- mists, but no ancient Greek seems to have suspected the existence of a nervous system or of the circulation of the blood. Erasistratus (300 B. C.) is said to have been the first to dissect the human body. Herophilus and Parthenius followed him. Later, Galen, Soranus, and Moschion prac- tised dissection of the human body. The science of anat- omy, except so far as taught by Galen, perished with the old Roman empire. Its restorers were Mundinus (born 1315), Guy' de Ghauliac, Vigo (1510), Sylvius (1539),- In- grassias, Herman, Fallopius (1523-62), Eustachius (1500- 76), but especially the Flemish Vesalius (1514-64). Leon- ardo da Vinci (1452-1519) had practically studied anatomy in its relations to art. Servetus (1509-53) is believed to have first announced the circulation of the blood; Caisal- pinus, Paolo Sarpi, and others soon after made the same announcement, but its truth was first shown by Harvey (1578-1657), a pupil of Fabricius. The later names of Asellius, Bartholine, Wharton, Willis, Ruysch, Pachionius, Malpighi, Valsalva, Cotunni, Monro, and Meckel are among the most brilliant; but the number of eminent an- atomists is very great. In recent times microscopical and pathological anatomy have been the fields of numerous and important discoveries. Drs. John Bard and Peter Middleton of New York are said to have made the first dissection in America in 1750. Chas. W. Greene. Anaxag'oras ["Ai/nf otydpos], an eminent Greek philoso- pher of the Ionic School, was born at Clazomense, near Smyrna, about 600 B. C. He passed nearly thirty years at ANAXAECHUS— ANCIENT ORDEE OP UNITED WORKMEN. 131 Athens, to which, he removed about 480, and enjoyed the friendship of Pericles. He wrote a " Treatise on Nature," of which small fragments are extant. In 450 B. C. he was accused of impiety, and, though defended by Pericles, was condemned to death or banishment, and retired to Lampsa- cus, where he died in 428 B.C. He appears to have maintained the eternity of matter. Combining great sagacity and close reasoning with diligent observation, he rendered important services to physical science. He ascribed the origin of the world and the order of nature to the operation of an eter- nal self-existent and infinitely powerful principle which he termed Nous (Mind). He taught that generation and destruction are only the union and separation of elements which can neither be created nor annihilated, demonstrated that air is a substance, explained the theory of eclipses, and refuted the doctrine that things may be produced by chance. (See Rittbr, " History of Philosophy," 1838.) Anaxar'chus ['AKalapxos], a Greek philosopher, born at Abdera, in Thrace, accompanied Alexander the Great in his expedition against Persia in 334 B. C. He gained the favor of that prince, whom he survived a short time. Anaximan'der ['A.va$Lfi.av8po, a "man," and itoIyioi', a " beard," alluding to the bearded rhaohis and flowers], an extensive genus of grasses, mostly coarse and many of them tropical. The U. S. have about fifteen species 'E. of the Mississippi. The most important of the genus is the Andropogon Schcenanthiia, extensively cultivated in Ceylon and other Oriental regions for its oil. Ceylon ex- ports several tons of this oil annually. It is called oil of citronella, and is chiefly used in perfuming the so-called " honey soap." Several foreign species are cultivated for their oils, which are sold as "oil of verbena," "lemon- grass," "geranium," etc. An'dros (Sir Edmund), an English governor, born in London Deo. B, 1637. He was governor of New York from 1674 to 1682, and was appointed governor of New England in 1686. His arbitrary and oppressive conduct rendered him very unpopular. Recent historians, however, have asserted that his private character was excellent, and that he had to contend with the unjust prejudices of the colo- nists. In April, 1689, the people of Boston revolted and deposed him. He governed Virginia from 1692 to 1698. Died Feb. 24, 1714. An'dros (Thomas), born at Norwich, Conn., May 1, 1769; joined the American army at Cambridge, Mass., in 1775, and was engaged in the battles of Long Island, White Plains, and also in other engagements ; enlisted in a New London privateer in 1781 ; was taken prisoner and confined at New York in the Jersey prison-ship, but soon after escaped ; studied theology at Plainfield, and preached Et Berkeley, Mass., from 1788 to 1834. Died Dec. 30, 1845. Androscog'gin, a river which rises in Umbagog Lake, and flows southward through Coos co., N. H., to the western boundary of Maine, which it crosses. Running then in a general S. E. direction, it passes through Oxford and Androscoggin counties in Maine, and enters the Ken- nebec River 4 miles above Bath. Its length is 145 miles. Andujar'f or Anduxar (the ancient IllUur'giH), a town of Spain, in the province of Jaen, on the Guadalquivir, at the foot of the Sierra Morena, 27 miles N. W. of Jaen. It has a trade in grain, fruit, and porous jars and pitchers, of which great numbers are made here for the purpose of cooling water. Pop. 14,096. Anduze, a town of Southern France, in the depart- ment of Gard, 7 miles S. W. of Alais. It has manufac- tures of silks, hats, and leather. Pop. in 1881, 4662, prin- cipally Protestants. Anel (Dominique), an eminent French surgeon and ocu- list, born at Toulouse in 1678, practised in Paris. He in- vented a probe and syringe, and was skilful in the treat- ment of aneurism &ndi fistula hichrijnudis. Died about 1728. Anemom'eter [from the Gr. axcfio;, the " wind," and fxerpoi', a "measure"], an instrument used for measuring the force or velocity of the wind. Several different kinds of anemometers have been invented, but the one most gen- erally used was devised by Dr. Robinson of Armagh, and made by Casella of London. It consists of four hemi- spherical cups aflixed to the ends of two horizontal cross- rods, which are attached to a vertical axis. I'he cups are so arranged that their diametrical planes catch any pass- ing current, and are caused to rotate. Motion is thus com- municated to a combination of wheelwork, and by two indices the velocity of the wind is shown. Dr. Robinson found that the cups, as well as tte vertical axis to which they were attached, revolve with a velocity equal to one- third of the wind's velocity. Lind's anemometer is also used. Whewell and Casella have devised instruments for registering the direction and velocity of the wind. (See Meteorological Instruments.) Anem'one [from the Gr. iwfiot, "wind"], a genus of herbaceous plants of the natural order Ranunculacege na- tives of Europe, Asia, and North and South America. The species of anemone are numerous, and mostly have beauti- ful flowers, the size of which is increased by cultivation. The Anemone hortenaia, or garden anemone, is highly prized and is extensively cultivated in Holland. It prefers a light soil. Among the other beautiful species are the Anemone coronaria, sometimes called poppy anemone; the Anemone Japonica, a native of Japan ; the Anemone pratenaia, which has blue flowers ; the Anemone pulaatilla (paaque flower), which grows wild in England, and has purple flowers ; and the Anemone nemoroaa (wood anemone), which has white flowers. In North America are found several species pecu- liar to this hemisphere, besides some which are common also in tho Old World. Pulsatilla, a favorite remedy with homoeopathists, is produced by a plant of this genus. Anemone, Sea, a popular name of marine radiated &ea Anemone animals belonging to the order Actinaria. They are poly- pea of a soft gelatinous texture, and have numerous tenta- cles disposed in circles and extending like rays around the mouth. When they are expanded in the water they resem- ble a polypetalous flower, and are admired for beauty of form and color. They abound on the shores of the sea, and are generally attached to rocks, stones, or shells, but have some power of locomotion. When they are left dry by the receding tide they contract into a mass of jelly. They are very voracious, and will seize by their tentacules and swal- low animals as large as themselves. Some species of the Actinaria can be kept in an aquarium, and can be fed on fish or other animal food. Among the most beautiful of the sea anemones are the Actinia meaemhryanthemum, which is common on the British shores, and has around the margin of its mouth a circle of azure tubercles ; the Actinia craaai- cornie, which is also found on the British shores, and dis- plays a variety of colors j and the Actinia dianthua, which is found in deep water. Anem'oscope [from the Gr. aveptoti "wind," and cTKoirebif'to "look"], an instrument which indicates the di- rection of the wind, as a vane or weathercock. Sometimes the vane turns a spindle which descends through the roof of the house into the chamber of the observer. An index fixed to the spindle indicates the direction of the wind on a compass-card fixed to the ceiling. Aneroid Barometer. See Barometer. Anet, a town of France, in the department of Eure-et- Loir, 9 miles N. E. of Dreux. Near it is the plain of Ivry, where Henry IV. gained a decisive victory over the army of the League in 1690. Pop. in 1881, 1447. An'eurism [Gr. avevfivtriia, a " widening "], a pulsating tumor filled with blood, and communicating more or less directly with an artery, the tunics of which are wholly or partially destroyed. A " true " aneurism has one or more arterial coats in its wall. A *' false " aneurism has a wall of condensed areolar tissue, the arterial coat having disap- peared. A "traumatic" aneurism originates in a wound or other accidental injury. A " varicose " aneurism com- municates with both an artery and a vein, but the term sometimes signifies a mere symmetrical dilatation of an artery. When such dilatations occur in groups or knots, it is a "circoid" an'eurism. When the blood gets between the coats of an artery, and thus forms a tumor, it is a " dis- secting" aneurism. The heart and its valves are liable to aneurismal dilatations. Aneurisms not traumatic are frequently traceable to the degeneration of the arterial coats known as atheroma. In general, aneurism of the extremities, when sufficiently near the surface, as when it occurs in the " popliteal space " (tho hollow of the knee), may bo treated with a fair prospect of success by long-continued compression, mechanical or dig- ital. " Ligation," or tying the artery, sometimes succeeds. Galvano-puncture has its advocates as a means of cure. The injection of powerful astringents has succeeded in some oases, but is not to be regarded as a safe proceeding. ANGARA— ANGELO BUONAREOTI. 139 The prospect, especiallT in aneurisms of the aorta and its great branches, ia that the disease will prove fatal, though there are very unfrequent cases which spontaneously re- cover by the formation of a clot within the tumor, which gradually shrinks into a hard, sometimes a chall^y, mass. The administration of sedatives and medicines which in- crease the proportion of fibrine in the blood has been often advocated. Prolonged fasting has been recommended ; but in general the safest way is for the patient to avoid all excesses, and to make use of a nutritious diet, without attempting a cure. One of the moat remarkable effects of aneurism is the absorption of neighboring tissues, and even of bones, from the continual pressure. The aneurism some- times finally bursts internally, causing almost immediate death. Revised by WiLlaed Parker. Angara', or Upper Tungns'ka, a river of Sibe- ria, rises in Lake Baikal, about 30 miles S. of Irkutsk. Passing by that town, it flows first northward and after- wards in a westerly direction, and enters the Yenisei, of which it is the principal tributary. Length, about 1000 miles. An'gel [from the (xr. ayyeKo^, a ''messenger"], a minis- tering spirit; a spiritual, intelligent being employed by God to carry commands, to announce glad tidings, and ad- minister comfort to men. The Scriptures record many in- stances in which angels became visible to men. The an- cient Hebrews believed in the existence of several orders of angels, among which were the seraphim and cherubim, and archangels. The only angels mentioned by name in the Bible are Michael and Gabriel. Raphael is mentioned in Tobit, a book of the Apocrypha. The popular notion that angels have wings is rather a poetical invention than a revealed truth. The belief in guardian angels has been cherished by Jews and Chriatians of all ages. Angel, an ancient English gold coin, so called from the figure of the archangel Michael piercing the dragon, which was on its obverse. The value of the angel (which con- tinued to be coined until 1650) varied from 6s. 8d. to 10s. An'gela (Merici), or Angela of Brescia, was born at Desenzano, on Lake Garda, Lombardy, Italy, Mar. 21, 1470, and was the founder of the order of the TJrsulines (an order of celibate women in the Roman Catholic Church); entered a Franciscan convent, but returned to the world and began to teach young children ; was called for that occupation to Brescia, where she spent the rest of her life. With eleven other maidens, she organized, Nov. 25, 1535, in Brescia, an association under the patronage of St. Ursula for teaching small children, nursing the sick, and helping the poor, and she became its superior in 1537. It was at first not strictly a religious order, but soon be- came so. Died Jan. 27, 1540. The order was confirmed by Paul III. in 1544. Angel-Fish (Squati'na), called also Monk-Fish and Shark-Ray, a fish allied to the shark, is found on the coasts of England and France and the southern coasts of the U. S. It ia about seven feet long, and is remarkable for its ugliness of form. The body is nearly four feet wide, and is flattened horizontally. An'gell (FiLippo), an eminent painter of the early seventeenth century, was born in Rome and patronized by Cosimo, grand duke of Florence. His aerial perspectives are famous, and his works are highly prized. — GiULio Cesarb Angeli (1570-18.30), and Giuseppe Angbli of Venice (bom 1715), were also successful painters. Angel'ica [so called from its supposed angelic virtues], a genus of plants of the natural order Umbelliferas, na- tives of the north temperate zone. They are mostly her- baceous and perennial, having bipinnate or tripinnate leaves. The Angelica archangelica (garden angelica) grows to the height of six feet, has greenish flowers, ia aromatic, and contains reain and essential oil. Its root is used in medicine as an aromatic stimulant and tonic. This plant was formerly cultivated for the table, being blanched and used as celery. The U. S. have several species of An- gelica and Archangelica, a kindred genus. It yields an- gelica balsam and angelic acid. Angelica, on R. R. and Angelica Creek, cap. of Alle- gany CO., N. Y. (see map of New York, ref. 6-D, for loca- tion of county). The village is 262 miles W. by S. from Albany, and has excellent water-power and a beautiful park. Pop. in 1870, 991 ; in 1880, 705. Angelica Tree, or Hercules' Club, a small tree or large shrub, found from Florida to Pennsylvania and westward. It ia the Aralia spinosa of the order Aralia- cese. It haa a stout trunk, covered, like the branchea, with prickles, and its leaves are very largo and decompound. Its flowers appear in July and August in grea,t cluaters, composed of very numerous umbels. This tree ia common in cultivation. Angelico, Fra. Sec Fiesole. Ange'lio, or de'gli An'geli (Pietro), [Lat. Pe'tma An'geliis], an eminent Italian scholar and Latin poet, born at Barga, near Lucca, in 1517. He was professor of belles- lettres at the University of Pisa for many years. His chief works are a poem on hunting called " Cynegeticon vel de Venatione" (1562), and a mediocre Latin epic poem enti- tled "The Syriad" (1591), the subject of which is the Cru- sades and the conquest of Palestine. This poem was ad- mired by his contemporaries. Died Feb. 29, 1596. Angelis (Pierre), a French painter of landscapes and conversation-pieces, was born at Dunkirk in 1685. He worked in England, and his productions were praised by H. Walpole. Died in 1734. Angel Island, California, is in the bay of San Fran- cisco, 5 miles N. of San Franciaco. It has an area of 800 acres, and extensive quarrjes of valuable brown sandstone. An'gell (James Burrill), LL.D., born at Scituate, R. I., Jan. 7, 1829, graduated at Brown University, studied two years in Europe, was professor of modern languages and literature at Brown University (1853-60,), editor of the " Providence Daily Journal" (1860-66), president of the University of Vermont (1866-71), and became presi- ^ dent of the University of Michigan in 1871. He is the author of various articles in the " North American Re- view " and other quarterlies. U. S. envoy extraordin'iry and minister- plenipotentiary to China 1880-82. Angeli (Joseph Kinnicut), an American lawyer and able legal writer, born at Providence, R. I., April 30, 1794, graduated at Brown University in 1813. Among his works are a " Treatise on the Right of Property in Tide-Waters " (1826) and " The Limitation of Actions at Law and in ■ Equity and Admiralty." Died May 1, 1857. An'gelo (or, more correctly, Ag'nolo) Buonarro'ti (Michael), a sculptor, born probably at Settignano, 13 miles from Florence, on Mar. 6, 1475. The Buonarroti (or Buo- narroti Simoni, as they designated themselves) v/oro a dis- tinguished Florentine family. The name is often found in connection with oflicea in the atate. They held faat to a tradition that the Simoni were descended from the counts of Canossa, in whose veins flowed imperial blood; but modern historians attach no value to the tradition. The child was entrusted to a nurse, wife of a stone-mason, and Michael used in after years to say in jest that it was no wonder he had such love for his profession, since he had imbibed it with his mother's milk; He began to draw as soon as he could use his hands. They used to show his early paintings on the walls of the house in which he grew up. He was destined to be a scholar, but gained little from his teachers, preferring to lounge in the studios of the artists and try his hand at drawing. His father and un- cles protested against his pursuing the artist's career, but he persevered till ho carried his point. On the 1st of April, 1488, the lad being fourteen years old, he was ap- prenticed for three years to David and Domenico Ghirlan- dajo, the latter being one of the first masters at Florence. He agreed to pay him six gold florins the first year, eight for the second, and ten for the third. While with him, Michael produced his first painting, a copy of a plate of Martin Schongauer representing the temptation of St. An- thony. The copyist colored the animals from nature. The pupil left the studio before the three years had expired — some aay because the master was jealous of his ability. The gardens of Lorenzo the Magnificent, richly stored with works of art, were tempting and accessible to a youth of his promise, and soon the attention of the merchant-prince was attracted by a fawn modelled by his hand. Lorenzo took the young Michael into special favor, showed him his treasuresj and introduced him, among others, to Poliziano, at whose suggestion the group of Hercules and the Cen- taurs was executed. At this time, too, he made a Madonna, after the manner of Donatello. Such advantages as these were of the rarest, and they were improved to the utmost. On the death of his patron and the overthrow of the Me- dici, the artist left the city and hastened to Venice ; thence to Bologna, where he stayed about a year. In July, 1495, he was again in Florence, executing works for the Medici, a Sleeping Cupid among others, which became the occa- sion of his going to Rome under strong inducements from an agent of the cardinal San Giorgio, who had purchased the Cupid, but whose after-promises were finer than his per- formance. The first great work executed in Rome was the statue of the Drunken Bacchus, a naked youth intoxicated with wine. Next came a pietd, the mourning Mary with the dead Christ in her lap, now placed in a side-chapel of St. Peter's, near the entrance. On the completion of the "pi- etS, " in 1499, the artist was induced by a change in the government to return to Florence. Two years later he re- ceived an order to cut a statue from an immense block of 140 ANGELO. marble, eighteen feet long, which had been brought from Carrara for a figure of colossal size designed for the church of Santa Maria del Fiore. The order had not been execut- ed, and the block, the despair of architects, lay in the work- shop yards adjoining the cathedral. From this block Mi- chael Angelo evoked the " David " of the Piazza del Gran Duca. The statue was finished early in 1504. Owing to its enormous weight, 18,000 pounds, three days were re- quired to transport it from the studio to the square in front of the Palazzo Vecchio, where it stood till 1873. The erec- tion of the "David" was an event in Florence; occurrences were dated from it ; a superstitious feeling even attached to it in the minds of citizens, who apprehended disaster to their city in case it should be disturbed. The fame of the great sculptor had by this time reached the cars of Pope Julius II., who was meditating the erec- tion of a colossal mausoleum for himself in St. Peter's, which was already enriched with costly monuments of art. A dispute arising between the pope and the sculptor, the high-spirited artist abruptly left Home for Florence. It was there that he designed the great painting for the ducal palace, of which the cartoon only was finished, represent- ing soldiers startled by the trumpet while bathing in the Arno. At present only a copy of small size remains, but this discloses the wonder of the work, the drawing of so many naked bodies in the various attitudes required by such a subject. A reconciliation with the pope having been effected, his next work was a bronze statue of Julius II., placed at the principal portal of San Petronio in Bologna, The unveiling took place Feb. 21, 1508. On All Saints' Day, 1509, so swiftly did this extraordinary man work, all Rome was gazing enraptured at the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel, which he literally covered in twenty months with frescoes by the order of Julius, the astonished but impa- tient pope admiring with the rest. In 151.3 the sumptuous pontilr died, mentioning the mausoleum in his will, with directions for its completion ; and Michael resumed work on it. New plans were drawn on a reduced scale, and a new contract was made, with higher estimates of cost. For three years the architect was completely absorbed in this task. It was estimated that the bronze ornaments for the tomb would require more than 22,400 pounds of metal. The blocks of marble were conveyed from his studio near the Vatican to the neighborhood of the Capitol, where were the sculptor's workshops, and where he himself took up his abode. He seems to have begun with the " Moses," with which the photograph has made all men familiar. Then, perhaps, come the two chained youths which now btand in the Museum of the Louvre in Paris. The construction of the fagade of San Lorenzo was the next great task proposed to the sculptor by Leo X., the pope undertaking that the work should not interfere with the completion of the mausoleum, which he was under contract to finish. The new work required not only a sculptor, but an architect, and besides these an engineer and a superintendent of authority. Angelo undertook the whole, would accept no aid, passed a spring and sum- mer in the mountains, discovered and opened marble- quarries, directed workmen in several places, arranged for transportation, manufactured figures in wax; in a word, made himself felt in every department of the enterprise. Buonarotti possessed prodigious powers, and tasked them to the utmost, but it seemed to be his destiny to complete none of his gigantic enterprises. Partly through the im- petuosity of his own nature, partly from the multitude and splendor of his ideas, and partly by reason of the caprices of his princely employers, his career was full of abortive schemes. The designing of the facade of San Lorenzo, the work at which ho had toiled for years as he had at no other —a work the magnitude whereof threw the mausoleum into the shade — was brought to a stand-still finally by the disas- ters which befell the family of Medici. Instead of it, the con- struction of the Medicean chapel in Florence was assigned to him by Clement VII. But neither was this completed. The two statues of Lorenzo, duke of Urbino, and of Giu- liano, duke of Nemours, the two famous figures which all the world are familiar with, attest the grandeur of the de- sign. The eff'orts of the sculptor were amazing; he worked with passion ; the toil would have killed another man. In a few months the colossal statues Morning, Evening, Day, and Night, which are regarded as his greatest conceptions! were placed in their niches. In 1533, at the age of fifty-eight, and after a rest from similar labor of thirty years, Angelo, at the instance of the pope, took up his brush to paint the " Last Judgment" on the altar-wall of the chapel whose ceiling had been covered with the creations of his hand. The mausoleum was perforce discontinued again. The artist wished to resume it on the completion of the Last Judgment, but was again overruled by papal authority; a new chapel, the Ca- pella Paolina, had been added to the Vatican, and no one but Michael Angelo must adorn it. The dilemma was painful, for he felt bound in honor to complete the mausoleum; but being released finally, he went forward with the decorations of the chapel. The two vast paintings representing the "Crucifixion of Peter" and the "Conversion of Paul" were finished, but they no longer exist as he left them. Michael Angelo was an old man when Antonio di San Gallo, the director of St. Peter's church, died, and the re- sponsible office was conferred on him. Other architects were talked of. Had Rafael been living, the post would doubtless have been his. Giulio Romano declined being a candidate for the position, on account of his ill-health. Bramante had laid the foundation of the present structure in 1606. After him several architects submitted plans and made alterations — Rafael, Fra Giacondo, Peruzzi. An- tonio di San Gallo succeeded him. But Angelo took the work up as from the beginning, with full power to do as he would; and though his designs were never carried out, the main credit for what was done afterwards belongs to him. The front fafade was not his work; the colonnades surrounding the square were not his design ; the obelisk and the fountains were placed where they are by later hands; in other points his designs were crippled; but to him belongs the glory of the great dome, which he never saw suspended, but which he lived to model. What the whole would have been could his conceptions have been put into stone, none can tell, for his inward vision alone con- templated it. The touch of the mighty hands was felt on other Roman buildings. It converted the Baths of Diocletian into the magnificent church "Degli Angeli." His brain teemed with ideas. He would have rebuilt half Rome had he pos- sessed the power. His actually-formed plans would have transformed a conspicuous portion of the city if they could have been executed. But years impaired even his prodig- ious force. He drew till his hand could no longer hold a pencil; he carved as long as he could guide a tool; but he felt old; to use his own language, "Death often pulls me by the coat to come with him." His last group, a Christ lying dead in his mother's lap, was unfinished; a flaw in the marble condemned it, and nearly sacrificed it. The artist gave it to one of his pupils. It is now in Flor- ence, beneath the dimly-lighted dome of the Santa Maria del Fiore. Urgent solicitations to return to his native Florence might have prevailed with him at this time but for his unwillingness to leave the milder climate of Rome, and his deeper unwillingness to abandon his great labor on St. Peter's, now running through five pontificates, which political disturbances, and failing funds, and continual misunderstandings had suspended. Saddened and soli- tary from the loss of friends, shadowed by the disappoint- ment of unrealized hopes, ho dwelt in Rome, his thoughts turning sometimes gloomily to things immortal and in- visible. " The fables of the world have robbed my soul Of moments given me for thoughts of God." He pours out his heart in sonnets which betray a spirit of fatigue and passionate longing for rest. The end came on the 18th of Feb., 1564, when he was ninety years old. He sank exhausted under the weight of three laborious gene- rations. The above is the barest possible outline of the career of this great man. An attempt to characterize his work even thus baldly would be impossible here; nor is it necessary, for the main features of his genius are familiar to all who are in the smallest degree acquainted with the productions of his hand. Ho was architect, sculptor, painter, poet, eminent in each, skilful in anatomy, a master of mechanics. In poetry, Dante was his model for stylo, the delight of his kindred spirit. Ho entreated the pope's permission to erect a worthy monument to Dante at his own expense in an honorable place. The finer monument he is said to have actually erected — a book of drawings illustrating the " Inferno "—was lost. Michael Angelo was rather short of stature, with broad shoulders, firm and strong limbs, thin but robust frame. Habits of abstemiousness, continence, frugality, and indus- try steeled his constitution. The wealth his genius brought him did not spoil his simplicity. " Rich as I am," he once said in his old age, " I have always lived like a poor man." His head was wide, his forehead prominent, his eye small and light. His face was disfigured in early life by a blow dealt him by a fellow-student in the Medici gardens, which broke his nose. The disfigurement had its effect on a tem- per inclined to melancholy ; but by nature he was kind, gentle, generous, self-reliant, independent, ambitious, proud, but magnanimous; too tenacious of his own rights, but not unready to concede the claims of others. His family position, his genius, and his fame gave him every social advantage, but he lived in retirement, rarely ap- peared on public occasions, avoided the companionship of ANGELUS DOMINI— ANGLESEY. 141 artists, wrote Italian, the language of Dante, instead of Latin, and was satisfied to stand on his merit as an artist. The great sculptor lies buried in Santa Crooe, in Florence. In the same church tho duke had a monument erected In his honor. Many points relating to the life and works of Michel- agniolo, as he signed himself, have been left obscure from the withholding of important family papers — first, by tho count Buonarroti, and afterwards by the city of Florence, to which tho count bequeathed them. Even yet all is not, known. The Life by Herman Grimm, translated into English by Miss Bunnett (reprinted in Boston, 1866), contains much new matter of interest. A list of Michael Angelo's works may be found in the shorter biography by Richard Duppa, LL.B. (Bohn's "European Library"). An edition of tne " Poems " was published in Florence about ten years ago. 0. B. FnOTHINGHAM. An'gelus Dom'ini ("the angel of the Lord '*), a form of prayer which Koman Catholics repeat at sunrise, noon, and sunset, when they ring a bell called the Angelus-bell. An^gelus Sile'sius, one of the most prominent Ger- man poets of the seventeenth century, whose proper name was JoHANN ScHEFPLER, was born at Breslau, in Silesia, in 1624, was brought up a Protestant, and was physician to the duke of Wiirtemberg, but in 1652 joined the Roman Catholic Church and took orders as a priest. He wrote several mystical devotional works, among which are the "Cherub's Guide-Book" and the "Angelic Kook of Won- ders" (1674). Died July 9, 1677. Special works on him have been written by Kahlert and Schrader (1853), An'germann, a navigable river of Sweden, rises in the mountains between Sweden and Norway, collects the water of several lakes, and flowing south-eastward enters the Gulf of Bothnia near Hernosand. Length, about 250 mifes. Its banks abound with beautiful scenery. An'germannland, or Angerma'nia, an old prov- ince of Sweden, is now included in the province of Homo- sand or Wes tern orrl and. Ang'ermun'dc, a town of Prussia, in the province of Brandenburg, on Lake Miinde, and on the Berlin and Stet- tin Railway, 44^ miles by rail N. E. of Berlin. Pop. in 1880, 6833. Angers 9 formerly Anglers (the ancient Juliom^aguB), a fortified city of France, capital of tho department of Maine-et-Loire, and once the capital of tho province of Anjou. It is on the Mayenne River, 4 milos N. of tho Loire, and on the railway which connects Tours with Nantes, 60 miles by rail S. W. of Le Mans. The old walls are converted into boulevards lined with handsome houses. It has a cathedral, a college, a library of about 35,000 vol- umes, a museum, and a school of arts and trades,* also manufactures of linen and woollen stuffs, hosiery, silk twist, leather, etc. Here are the ruins of an ancient castle of the dukes of Anjou, and the Hospice of St. Jean, founded by Henry II. of England. Lord Chatham and the duke of Wellington attended a military school in Angers. Pop. of commune in 1881, 68,049. Anghie'ra, de (Pietro Martire), [Lat. Pe'trva Mav^- tyr Anrfle'rias^, an eminent Italian scholar and historian, born of a noble family at Arena, on Lake Maggiorc, in 1455. He emigrated to Spain in 1487, and became a priest. In 1501 he was sent by King Ferdinand on a mission to the sultan of Egypt, and in 1505 he was appointed prior of the church of Granada. He was also a member of the Council of the Indies. His most important work is a his- tory of the Now World and American discovery, entitled " De Rebus Oceanicis et Orbe Novo Decades " (1530), which is highly esteemed. Died in 1526. An'gilbert, or En'gilbert [liB.t. AngUher'tua], Saint, an eminent statesman and Latin poet, was born in North- western Gaul. He married Bertha, a daughter of Charle- magne, and became a confidential minister of that monarch. In the latter part of his life he entered a monastery. He wrote several short poems, and was called the Homer of his time. Died Feb. 18, 814 A. D. Angi^na [from the Gr. oyxw j Lat. an' go, to " strangle "], applied to diseases attended by a sense of suffocation. (See next article.) Angi'na Pec'toris ("angina of tho breast"), called also Breast Pang and Heart Stroke, an intense pain occurring in paroxysms, and usually commencing in the re- gion of tho heart or at the lower end of the breast-bone, and extending along the left arm, more rarely going towards the right side. It is characterized by a sense of suffocation, faintness, and often by the apprehension of approaching death. This symptom has been called the " spasm of a weakened heart," and is very seldom experienced by any but persons with an organic disease of that organ. The exciting cause is not unfrequently a -strong and sudden emotional disturbance. Men over fifty years of age are most frequently attacked. Valerian, gentle aromatic stimu- lants, and saline cathartics aro considered useful in the attack, which is usually, not always, short. Between par- oxysms the patient should lead a tranquil, retired life, and make use of a plain, nutritious diet. Ang'le [from tho Lat. an'gulus, a "corner"], in popu- lar language is a point formed by the meeting of two lines whose direction is not tho same. In geometry a rectilineal angle is tho inclination of two straight lines which meet, but have not the samo direction. Tho point of meeting is called the vertex of the angle, and the lines aro its aidea or lega. Angles are measured by degrees of a circle, as their magnitude depends on tho quantity of rotation round tho vertex which would be required to make the lines coincide. An angle of ninety degrees is called a right angle; if it is more than ninety, it is obtuse, and if less than ninety, it is acute. When three or more planes meet at the same point, tho corner thus formed is a aolid angle. Angle, Curvilinear, is the angle formed by tho tan- gents to two curves at the point where the latter" meet. Angle, Dear, in fortification, an angle of the wall so formed that a small piece of ground in front of it can neither bo seen nor defended from the parapet. Angle, Facial, in zoology, is regarded as an important indication of the relative intelligence and sagacity of men and other animals. It signifies the angle made by tho meeting of two straight lines, drawn, tho ono from the most prominent part of the frontal bone to the anterior margin of the upper jaw; the other from tho external auditory foramen to the same point. The facial angle of a European is about eighty degrees j of an African negro, about seventy j of an ape, about fifty. (See Facial Angle.) Angle, Visual, in optics, is the angle formed by two rays of light, or two straight lines drawn from tho extreme points of an object to the centre of the eye. The apparent magnitude of an object depends on the magnitude of the visual angle which it subtends. Ang'ler {Lo'phiua America^ mia), a fish found on the American coasts, and called the sea-devil or goose-fish. It belongs to a family of acanthoptery- gious fishes called Lophi- adsB. It is from three to five feet long, has an en- ormous head and a very large mouth, furnished with worm-like append- ages. By means of these, and the filaments which rise from the top of its head, it is supposed to attract the fishes on which it preys. The Lophiadaa are remarkable for the Angler, or Fishing-Frog. elongation of the carpal bones, by which they are enabled to leap up suddenly and to seize fish that are above them. Ang'Ies [Lat. An^gli], an ancient Low German tribo from which England derives its name {Angle-land, Eng- land). They occupied a narrow district in the S. of Sles- wick, between the Schlei and Flensburg, whence some of them passed over, in the fifth century, in conjunction with other Saxon (or Low German) tribes, into Britain, where they conquered the native Britons and established the Anglo-Saxon Heptarchy. That the Anglian settlers of Britain should have given their name to the island is due, possibly, to the fact that the tribal name "Angles" had come to be used as a generic term for the Saxon (or Low German) tribes; just as the word "Yankee" has come to signify, to a European, any citizen of the U. S. ; but, more probably, to the fact that the Anglians were the first of the Low German settlers of Britain to accept Christianity, and hence to be recognized in the Latin literature of the period. (See Anglo-Saxon, by Prof. J. H. Gilmore, A. M.) Ang'lesey, or Ang'lesea {angle's-^- ei, or "island;" anc. Mo'na), an island and county of North Wales, in the Irish Sea, about 1 mile from Caernarvon, from which it is separated by the Menai Strait. It is about 20 miles long and 17 miles wide. The surface is nearly level and the scenery rather tame ; the soil is generally fertile, producing wheat, barley, oats, and potatoes. The principal rocks are mica-schists and limestone. Here are rich mines of cop- per and lead. The island is connected with the mainland by the Menai suspension bridge and the great Britannia tubular bridge, over which' ttfe Chester and Holyhead Rail- way passes. The ancient Mona was an important seat of Druidical power. Pop. in 1881, 50,964. 142 ANGLESEY-ANGLO-SAXON LANGUAGE AND LITERATUEE. Anglesey, Earls op, and Barons Newport- Pagnell, in the Eoglish peerage (1661), Viscounts Valentia and Barons Mountnorris in the Irish peerage. The earldom was estab- lished in the Annesley family by Charles II., but became ex- tinct 1761 in Richard Annesley, the sixth earl of this fam- ily. The title had been borne by Christopher Villiers, brother of the duke of Buckingham, and his son Charles. Anglesey (Henky William Paget), Maeqois op, a British general and statesman, born May 17, 1768, was the eldest son of the carl of Uxbridge. He entered the army, gained distinction as a cavalry officer, and be- came a major-general in 1808. He inherited the title of earl of Uxbridge on the death of his father in 1812, and entered the House of Lords. At the battle of Waterloo, 1815, he commanded the British cavalry, and lost a leg. Soon after this event he received the title of marquis of Anglesey. In 1828 he was appointed lord lieutenant of Ireland, but having become an advocate of Catholic eman- cipation, he was removed by Wellington in 1829. He held the same office from 1831-33, and was raised to the rank of fleld-marshal in 1«46. Died April 29, 1854. Anglesey, Marquesses of (1815, in the United King- dom), earls of Uxbridge (1784, in Great Britain), Barons Paget(1550, in England) and baronets (1730, in Ireland). — Hexrv William G-eorge Paget, the third earl, was born Dec. 9, 1821, and succeeded his father in 1869. He was a member of Parliament for South StatTordshire from 1854 to 1857. D. Jan. 30, 1880. Ang'lesite, a sulphate of lead produced by the decom- position of galena, was so named because first observed in Anglesey. It occurs in rhombic prisms with dihedral ter- minations, and of a white, gray, or yellowish color. Ang'lican Church, a name of the Established Church of England, sometimes called the Anglo-Catholic Church. The creed of this Church is legally defined in the Thirty- nine Articles, first adopted in 1562. The term is also some- ' times used as a coll^tive name for all the religious denom- inations comprised under the name of Episcopalians. (See EsGLASD, Church of, by Rev. B. R. Betts, A. M.) Ang'ling [from t'he'La.t.an'ffnhis, a "corner "or "angle," a " hook "J, catching fish by means of a hook attached to a line and rod, the hook being furnished with bait, which is either some object upon which the fishes naturally prey, or is a counterfeit of such an object. The practice has pre- vailed through all ages and in almost all countries. In 1496, Wynkin de Worde " emprented at Westmestre a * Treatise of Fysshinge with an Angle,' by Dame Juliana Berners." Izaak Walton in 1653 gave to the world his " Complete Angler," afterwards enriched with additions by his friend Charles Cotton, highly esteemed for correctness of details and happy humor. In angling the first consid- eration is what is termed " fishing-tackle," which .consists of the rod, line, and hook, with the requisite baits, worms, flies, etc. The line should be strong, smooth, or even, flexible, and of a material not easily injured by wet. To the rod is attached a reel, on which a part of the line is wound when it is too long for the occasion, but "especially when, having caught a strong fish, it is necessary to draw it in gradually and cautiously, lest the line should bo broken. The reel should be made so as to wind or unwind freely. The baits may consist of various kinds of worms or flies, little fishes, small pieces of fish, meat, etc. Artificial lures are much used, particularly for catching the trout and salmon. They are variously made; usually the feathers of some bird (as the cock or pheasant) are so disposed as to resemble insects on which the fish are wont to feed. (See G-. C. Scott, " Pish- ing in American Waters ;" H. W. Herbert, " Fish and Fish- ing in the U. S.," 1850; Hallock, "The Fishing Tourist," 1873; Roosevelt, " Superior Fishing," 1865.) Anglo-Cath'olics,aparty of High Church Anglicans, often called Puseyites, from one of their leaders. Dr. Pusey, otherwise known as Tractarians, from the series of ninety tracts issued by them between 1833 and 1841. They emphasize these four "Catholic principles:" apostolic succession, baptismal regeneration, the real presence in the Eucharist, and the authority of tradition. Angloma'nia [from the Lat. An'glna, "English," and the Gr. liavU, "madness" or "infatuation"], a term ap- plied among the French and Germans to an indiscriminate admiration of English institutions and national peculiari- ties, or a propensity to imitate English customs and con- ventionalities. An Anglomania prevailed in France just before the revolution of 1789. The opposite state of feel- ing is called Anglophobia. An'glo-Sax'on, a name given to the people and lan- guage which resulted from the consolidation of the differ- ent Low German tribes which in the fifth century overran Southern Britain. The name would seem to point to a blending of two distinct races, the Angles (which see) and the Saxons; but according to Latham ("Ethnology of the British Islands "), there is no distinction to be made between the Angles and the Saxons on the ground of the difference in name. "If," says he, "the Saxons of Anglo- Saxon England i^re other than Angles under a different name, they were Nbrth Frisians." According to the " Sax- on Chronicle," which is, with reference to these events, a mere paraphrase of Bede's " Ecclesiastical History of Brit- ain " — the latter work being written about 150 years after the last of the Saxon invasions, which the " Chronicle" re- cords as if it were contemporaneous with them — there were seven distinct Teutonic "invasions" of Britain, beginning A. D. 449, and including parties of Jutes, Frisians, Saxons, and Angles. That Jutes, in the sense of people from Northern Denmark or people of Scandinavian stock, were the first of the Gothic invaders to land in Southern Brit- ain, is highly- improbable ; and the topographical nomen- clature of Kent, where Hengist and Horsa, with their par- ty of Jutes, are said to have settled, bears no traces of Danish influence. By " Jutes " wo are probably to under- stand, genericaily, "Goths." Indeed, in Alfred's Anglo- Saxon translation of the passage in Bede which the " Chron- icle" manifestly follows, the Latin Jutia is rendered by Geaium (Goths), a term which is elsewhere applied to Al- fred himself. The " Chronicle " itself, by the way, expli- citly asserts (Bohn's ed., p. 341) that 787 was the first year when ships of Danish men sought the land of the English nation ; one manuscript of the " Chronicle " says that Hen. gist landed with a party of Angles ; while tradition calls him a Frisian, which he probably was. The Saxon settlement of Britain was probably partici- pated in by all the Low German tribes between the Elbe and the Schlei, although, on the ground of linguistic affin- ity, the Frisians would seem to have been most prominent. ( See Latham's " Ethnology of the British Islands ;" Marsh's "Origin and History of the English Language;" Nicholas's "Pedigree of the British People;" "Proceed- ings of the London Philological Society," vol. v.) As soon as the Saxons had subjugated the Keltic inhabitants of Britain (who resolutely opposed the invaders, and many of whom were driven before them into the fastnesses of Wales, and across the sea into Armorica, though most of them were, doubtless, amalgamated with the invading race), they began to contend with each other. The vari- ous kingdoms forming the famous "Heptarchy" (or, to speak more correctly, the " Octarchy "*' ) were at length, in 827, reduced by Egbert, king of Wessex, into a single monarchy, which attained its highest point of power and glory under Egbert's grandson, Alfred the Great (871-901). The Saxon power was completely overthrown by William the Conqueror at the battle of Hastings, in 1066. (For a full account of the Anglo-Saxons, their history, their laws, customs, etc.. see Sharon Turner, "History of the Anglo- Saxons ;" J. M. Kemble, " The Saxons in England ;" also, Lappenberg's " History of the Anglo-Saxon Kings," and Freeman's " Old English History.") J. H. Gilmohe. Anglo-Saxon Language and Literature. The pagan conquerors of England described in the article Anglo-Saxon spoke many dialects, but all of them were Low German. Missionaries were sent from Rome (A. D. 697) to convert them to Christianity. The Roman alpha- betic writing was thus introduced, and a single tongue gradually came into use as a literary language through the whole nation. It was at its best in the reign of Alfred the Great (A. D. 871-901). It continued to be written till the colloquial dialects, through the influence of the Normans, had changed so much as to make it unintelligible to the people ; then there grew out of these dialects of mingled Anglo-Saxon and Norman a new literary language, the English. The old language was long called Anglisc, Eng- liso (English), and some scholars insist that it should still be called so, and that it is nothing but Early English. But it differs more from English than Latin does from Italian, and it needs a separate name, and has come to be called Anglo-Saxon. It belongs to the Indo-European family — has similar roots and grammatical structure with German, Latin, Greek, and Sanskrit. It was the most highly culti- vated of the Germanic languages of its time; it attained the capacity of translating the Latin classics with accuraoy and ease; and it has original literature worthy of study. Its chief interest, however, is as the mother-tongue of the English. It has given us the names of the objects, rela- tions, and afi'eotions which we speak of most, the words laden with the dearest associations, the idioms on which the beauty of our poetry and the power of eloquence, wit, and humor depend. From it almost all our grammatical forms are derived. The following sketch of its grammar has been made full enough to explain our English grammar. * See on this particular subject, Sharon Turner's " History of the Anglo-Saxons," vol. i., book U., chap. 4. ANGLO-SAXON LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE. 143 Phonology. — The alphabet has twenty-four letters. Old Forms. Eoman. 2C a A a ^iZt £B M se B b B b E C D b D d D S DHdh e e E e I F F f E z G g r? H I h i L 1 L 1 OD m M m N n N n o I P P P B, ji R r I y S s T t T t Fi'J' TH th U u U " ? P VV VV l(W)(w)| X X X X Y y Y y Karnes. edh ef ee £1 dm Sn o Sss ti thorn 00 ex ypsilon The vowels sounded nearly as in Gorman : a as in far j d as in fall / as as a in glad ; le p,s a in dare ; e as in let / ^ as in they / i as in dim ; t as ee in deem ; o as in opine; 6 as in holy; u as in full ; -H as oo in /oo^/ y nearly like « in mueiCf or the French tey 7/ the same sound prolonged. There were many dialectieal variations of the vowels, and there are also certain regular variations which are carefully represented in the Anglo-Saxon writing. Words originally spelt with a sometimes appear with se, sometimes with ea, sometimes with e, sometimes with o, showing that the sound of a was as seldom pure, and as variously flattened and broken, as It is in the Middle and Southern States of America. When a or i would come before l, r, or 7i, the broken sound produced by those let- ters, such as we make in hear, leer, is written as ea and eo. So after c and g the breaking heard in our Southern States in cear for car, geardeii for garden, is carefully represented by the same ea, eo. Before m or n, o often appears for a/ as mo)i for man. A vowel is also modified by the vowel of the following syllable, the German umlaut : a followed by i changes to e ; man, man, meni, men ; 6 to i : g&s, goose, gSsi, geese / ^ to p : rails, m.ouBe, m;^si, mice / and the like. Many of the niceties of pronunciation were neglected in the Norman spelling, but they were long kept up in the folk-speech. The changes of the old to the present sounds of these vowels have been made in modern times, mostly during the Elizabethan age and since. These changes have an important peculiarity. All through the Indo- European languages, beginning with Sanskrit and coming down through Greek, Latin, Gothic, Anglo-Saxon, and the like, there is a regular gradual weakening of the vowels : a weakens to o, c, i; u to o, e ; i to e. But in English there is a vigorous strengthening of aceented vowels. The weakest vowdls, u and i, change to strong diphthongs: mCls becomes mouse, hfls, house, and the like; lif becomes life, which is pronounced Idife, or nearly so ; and a, though it becomes oftenest the mixed sound of a in fate, yet in words from Anglo-Saxon & is aw or 6 : ]>^s becomes those ; ha,m, home; brS-d, broad (brawd); and the like. Unac- cented vowels weaken or disappear. This gravitation of our words to accentual centres indicates a special vigor of utterance accompanying the new manly vigor of the Eng- lish race. Similar changes are found in modern German, Trenoh, and most vigorous modem tongues, but only in particular words, or within very narrow limits, compared with the English. The consonants were pronounced in general as in Eng- lish, but c was always pronounced as k ; g like German g, as in give, or nearly enough to alliterate with it — never as in George/ i consonant likeyy p like w; qu was repre- sented by cp; wh by hp, in which a strong h was heard be- fore the w, as a weak one now is in New England; the two Bounds of th, as in thin and thine, had two characters, \> thin, and "5 thine, which, however, are not found in any manuscript uniformly so used. HI, as in hiaford, lord; hr, as in hratSor, rather; yl, as in pi^tung, loathing ; pr, as in pritan, write; en as in cniht, knight, had the first letter distinctly sounded, as the two last had in the Elizabethan age. The weakening of c, se, and g, and of the combina- tions here mentioned, mostly occurred at the first mixture of Norman and Anglo-Saxon, several of the sounds being unpronounceable to the Normans. Inflection. — The Anglo-Saxon has three genders, three numbers, and five cases. The dual number and the instru- mental case are rare, except in the pronouns. The Noun. — There are four declensions distinguished by the endings of the genitive singular — es, e, a, and an. The three first are from the old vowel declensions, and are called strong ; the fourth is from the N-declension, and is called weak. Most nouns of the masculine or the neuter gender belong to the first or fourth declension, and are thus de- clined : EiRST Declension. SiNGULAB. Anglo-Saxon. English, Latin. Ge/rman. Nominative, fisc, fish, sol, Sohn. Genitive, fisces, fish's, of a fish, solis, Sohnes. Dative, fisce, to or for a fish, soli, Sohne. Accusative, fisc, fi^h, solem, Sohn. Instrumental, fisc§, or^, by or withafish, sole (ablative). PliUBAL. fishes, sol^s, Sohne. of fishes, solum, Sohne. to or for fishes, solibus, Sohnen. fishes, solfis, Sohne. by or toith fishes, solibus (ablative). Nominative, Genitive, Dutive, Accusative, Instrumental, fiscum, fisc^, fiscum, EouRTH Declension. Singular. Anglo-Saxon. Nominative, oxa. Genitive, oxan, Dative, oxan, Accusative, oxan, Plueal. Nominative, oxan, Genitive, oxena. Dative, oxum. Accusative, oxan. ox, of an one, to an ox, oxen, of oxen, to oxen. German, Knabe. Knaben. Knaben. Knaben, Knaben. Knaben. Knaben. Knaben. From the first declension the English endings of the possessive case and of the plural number are derived. In -Anglo-Saxon, as in German, most secondary formations and new words -were declined according to the N-declen- sion, and that seemed likely to be the leading one ; but the Normans formed their plural in -s, and in English the Norman -s joined with the Anglo-Saxon -s to kill it, and oxen, with the irregular children, brethren, is almost its only memorial in current speech. The possessive -es is a distinct syllable, and is so in Eng- lish as late as Shakspeare. Many persons imagined it to be a contraction of his, and we often find his written in its place in Early English and Semi-Saxon : AnaJc his children for Anak's children; and Bacon, carrying out the mistake, has Pallas her glass for Pallas's glass. The plural -&s is also a separate syllabic, and the Eng- lish -ea remains so in words ending with a hissing sound : glass, glasses ; church, churches ; box, boxes ; in other words it is now contracted : king, Icings, Words from Anglo-Saxon ending in / change it to v : wolf, wolves'; while those from French mostly retain f: chief, chiefs; gulf, gulfs. Some words in Anglo-Saxon from stems in -i have um- laut, as described under Phonology, in the dative singular and in the nominative and accusative plural. Thus, man, man, is declined: Nom. man; Gen. mannes; Dat. men(i); Ace, man; Plural Nom. men(i); Gen.-mannS,; Dat. man- num ; Ace. men(i). The i is dropped, and hence our plural men ; so fH,foot, plu. f^t(i), feet; g&s, goose, plu. g^s(i), geese; t6lS, tooth, tSlS(i), teeth; mfis, mouse, plu. m^s(i), mice; br&ISer, brother, brSlSer, whence brethren, with the -en of the fourth declension irregularly added. Neuters generally have no plural sign ; sceS.p, sheep, for example, is the same in the singular and plural. Hence several English words from such neuters remain without any plural sign : sheep, deer, swine ; and some are used with or without one ; as folk, hair, head, hundred, pound, sail, score, year, yoke. A few neuters end in -ru : cild, child, plu. cildru, whence first ehilder, and then, with a second plural ending from the fourth declension, ehilder-en, children. Gender has two aspects : (1.) It represents a tendency to use different sounds for relations to males from those to females ; long vowels and liquids are oftenest used for fe- males. (2.) A tendency to couple words agreeing in their 144 ANGLO-SAXON LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE. endings. From the first point of view there can be but three genders ; some languages have two, some one, some none. From the second point of view there may be as many genders as there are sets of endings. Some languages have none ; some (e. g., Congo and Caffer) have many. In Anglo-Saxon the endings control the gender ; pif- man, woman, is masculine, because it ends in man; pif, wife, is neuter, as in German. Many stems have pairs of endings — one masculine, the other feminine. Remains of these in English are sang-ere, masc, sm(/er, sang-estre, fem., sontyWer/ bsec-ere, m., baker, bffic-estre, f. (whence the old bakster), a female baker j pebb-ere, m., loeaver, pebb-estre, f., whence webster, a fe- male weaver. Such pairs are also : fox, m.,fox, fixen, f., vixen; hiaford, m., lord, from hUf, loaf, and peard, Jceeper, hiaf(or)dige, f., lady; gans, g6s, goose, gandra, m., gander. Many compounds are formed whose first part marks sex, and last part gender, peepned-, weaponed, carl-, man-, are common for males; pif-, loi/e, msegden-, maiden, cpen-, qiieen or quean, for females : paepned-man, m. ; carl-cat, not now Charlea-,hut Tom-cat; man-cild, n., man-child; pif- man, m., woman; mdSden-cild, n., girl; cpSn-fugol, m., quean-hird ; so also the expressions spere-healf, f., spear- half, on the male sidej spindel-healf, f., spindle-half on the female side. Man in his various relations and the common domestic animals have pairs of words from different roots in use through many of the Indo-European languages. The English come mostly from Anglo-Saxon : fseder, mOdor, father, mother ; sunu, ddhtar, eon, daughter ; oxa, ctl, o^ blindan men, etc. English adjectives, especially monosyllables, sometimes in Chaucer have an -e added, a relic of the definite declen- sion or the plural number; but they are now undeelined. Compariaon. — Adjectives are generally compared by adding -ir, -er, ~6r for the comparative, -iat, -est, dst for the superlative. The i of the endings works umlaut like that of man, men described in the declension of nouns : Strang, strong, compar. streng(i)ra, superl. strengest ; aid, old, corn- par. eld(i)ra, superl. eldest, whence the English elder, eldest. Some words form their superlative in -ma: tor-ma, firat. Some of these form a double superlative, fyr-m-est, from forma ; eefte-m-est, which the English has converted into aftermoat, as though compounded with moat. In the same manner are to be explained hindmost, uttermost, aoxtthmost, and the like. The irregular comparison of good, bad, much, little, is already in Anglo-Saxon. The comparison by more and moat is not used. Pronouns. — The personal pronouns are thus declined : First Person. Singular. Anglo-Saxon. German. Nominative, ic, [ich], /. Genitive, mtn, [meiner or mein], mine, or ofm,e. Dative, m^, [™ir]> ^'^e^ or to me. Accusative, mec, m^, [mich], me. Dual. Nominative, pit, we two. Genitive, uncer, of na two. Dative, unc, to us two. Accusative, uncit, unc, ua two. Plural. Nominative, pe, [^^ir]) toe. Genitive, ii, Genitive, M°j Dative, J?6, Accusative, )>ec, ]jS, Dual. Nominative, git, Genitive, incer. Dative, inc, incit, inc, you two. [da], thou. [deiner or dein], thine, or of thee. [dir], thee, or to thee. [dieh], thee. ye two. of you two. to you two. ihr], ye. "euer], your, or of you, euch], you, or to you. Accusative, Plural. Nominative, gS, Genitive, e&per. Dative, eSp, Accusative, e6iric, eSp, [euch], you. The dual was rare, and has disappeared. The English' pronouns are plainly from the Anglo-Saxon, It is worth notice that g^, ye, is nominative, e&p, you, always objective in the English Bible. The first person plural is used for the singular by authors, preachers, and chiefs in Anglo- Saxon sometimes ; ye and you appear first as pronouns of reverence for thou in Old English. Third Person, Singular. Masculine. Anglo-Saxon. German. Nominative, he, Genitive, his, Dative, him, Accusative, hlne, Masculine. Feminine. Nom. se, se6, Gen., ))aes. J)*re, Dat., Jjam, b&re. Ace, Jjone, J.a, Instr. , H, er], he. seiner or sein], his, or of him, ihm], him, or io him. ihn]. Mm. Feminine. Nominative, he5 (or hie), [sie], she. Genitive, hire, [ihrer or ihr], her, or of her. Dative, hire, t'hr], her, or to her. Accusative, he6 (or hie), [sie], her. Neuter. Nominative, hit, [es], it. Genitive, his, [seiner or sein], its, or of it. Dative, him, [ihm], it, or to it. Accusative, hit, [^s], it. Plukal for all the Gesdeks. Nominative, hi, hie (or heft), [sie], they. Genitive, heorS. (hyr^, or [ihrer], their, or of them. hira). Dative, him, [ihnen], them, or to them. Accusative, hi, hie(orhe8), [sie], them. The article and demonstrative se is thus declined : Singular. Neuter. })set, the, or that. Jjses, of the, or of thnt. )>am, to the, or to that. J?ffit, the, or that. Hi i'^, bij the, or that. Plural of all the Genders. JjS,, the, or those. Jiam, to the, or to those. J>S§r^, of the, or of those. Jj9,, the, or those. pis, "This." Singular. Neuter. J?is, this. Mses (or Jjisses), of this, J?xsum (or }>issum), to this. }>is, this. i>^s, by this, thus. Plural for all Three Genders. these. Dat., )>isum, io these. Gen., >isser3, (or >issa), of these. Ace, Hs, these. Interrogative. Neuter. Singular. hpset, what. hpsES, of what. hpam, to what. hpaet, what. hp^, by what, why. In the third personal pronoun it will be noticed that the feminine he8 has given place in English to she, from set, the demonstrative, and the plural throughout to they, their, them, from the same demonstrative. This personal pro- noun is a weak demonstrative. Hit, it, has lost its h; the neuter genitive his has given way to its, a late English growth, not in the first edition of our Bible, and seldom used by scholars even as late as Milton^ The English ob- jectives come from the old datives, and him, them, etc. are still datives in some idioms : / gave him the bookf I taught them gravtmarf and the like. Masculine. JFenrnvme. Nom. J>is, J>eos, Gen., (Hsees), )>isse, Dat., (Hssum), Msse, Ace., Hsne, J)as, Instr , H', Nom,, ] Masculine. Feminine is wanting. Singular (Plural wanting). Nom., hpsl, who, Gen., hpses, whose, Dat., hpam, to whom, Ace, hpone (or hwcone), tohom, Instr., hpjf. ANGLO-SAXON LANGUAGE AND LITEKATUEE. 145 The origin of English that, this, them, they, these, those O'S.s), who, iohaty whom, is obvious ; which, hpylc, German welehey, is from hp5,, who, and lie, like, and means of what kind, Hp3, and hpset are interrogatives in Anglo-Saxon ; whas, whose, and wham, whom, appear as relatives in Seml- Saxon ; the nominative loho is not a full relative till the fourteenth centurj, and what does not now admit of an antecedent. From these pronouns are derived a large number of ADVBKBS in Anglo-Saxon, which have come into English : where, at ivhat place; there, at that place j here (from he), at this place ; so whither, to what place j thither, to that place ; hither, to this place ; and lohence, from xohat place j thence; hence; loheii, at *o7ia(time; then; how, lohy {irom. hfi, hp;P^), in what way; thus, in this way. The DEFixiTE ARTICLE the is a weakened form of the demonstrative that, like French le from Latin Hie; it is common in Anglo-Saxon. The indefinite article an, a, is a weakened form of the numeral an, one, like Prench un from Latin nuns ; though not uncommon, it is not as fre- quent as in English. The personal pronouns are used as reflexives. Self is sometimes added, and then the pronoun and self are both declined : ic selfa, / self, not my self ; Gen. min selfes, of my self, etc. The English himself, it-aelf, themselves, her- self, preserve the old construction. NusiERALS. — The cardinals arc like the English : S,n, one; tpa, tico ; J?re6, three; . . . endleofan, eleven; tpelf, twelve ; \>rco-t^iic, thirteen ; . . . tp^ntig, twain-ten, ttoenty ; , . . from seventy to one hundred and twenty, the great hundred, huud is prefixed: hund-seofon-tig, seventy; , . . hund-te&n-tig, or hund alone for hundred; hund- endleofan-tig, one hundred and ten; hund-tpelf-tig,- o«c hundred and twenty; then hund and Jjrittig, one hundred and thirty. The ordinals are — fjrstsbjjirst; oi5er, other, second; j?ridda, third; fe&pertSa, /our(A,* and so on as in English, except fift, sixt, twelft, which have only lately changed to fifth, sixth, seventh; and except that a modern -teenth has taken the place of the old -te6t5a in thirteenth, fourteenth, etc. Verbs. — The conjugations are determined by the past tenses, the old perfects. The old way of forming the perfect in the Indo-European languages was by repeat- ing the root, a process familiar in Greek and Latin under the name of reduplication ; tan, to extend, has its perfect tan-tan ; these two syllables tend to run together, either by weathering out the unaccented one or by contraction. In Sanscrit we have ta-tan, in Greek te-ta{n)-ka, Latin te-tin-i, Gothic than and thin. In this way grew up five conjugations in Anglo-Saxon, called ancient or strong con- jugations : 1. Root vowel a unchanged in the past tense ; as, gife, give; geaf, gave; gifen, given : bidde, bid; bsed, bade; beden, bidden. 2. Root vowel i changed to d in the past tense; as, drife, drive ; dr&,f, drove ; drifen, driven : rise, rise ; r§,s, rose ; risen, risen. 3. Root vowel u changed to e& in the past tense; as, cleofe, cleave ; cle9-f, clove ; clofen, cloven. 4. Root vowel d changed to 6 in past tense; as, tace, take ; t6c, took; tacen, taken. 5. Root long or diphthong contracting with reduplica- tion to e6, e in the past tense; as, fcallen,/«^^; fedl,fell; feallen, fallen. In this classification the variations produced on the root vowel by adjacent vowels and consonants, as described above under Phonology, are not taken into account; and they are so numerous as to leave few verbs exactly alike to serve as models for new forms. Hence all new forms took the sixth or weak conjugation : 6. Past formed by suffixing -de, from dide, did; lufe, love; luf6-de, loved; lufOd, loved. English verbs which change their vowel in the past tense come from Anglo-Saxon, and generally from verbs of the strong conjugations; but there arc a few from weak verbs which had umlaut or breaking ; thus selle, sell, sealde, sold, where the root a has umlaut to e in sell, as in man, men, and has breaking to ea before Id; so sece, seek; sOhte, sought, where root 6 has umlaut to §, like goose, geese, and the -de is changed to -te. Similar are tell, told; bring from brengen, brought; think, thought ; buy, bought ; work, wrought. The vowels arc pretty badly mixed up in Eng- lish irregular verbs, and it is an inviting field for the gram- marian to clear them up one by one. Some of our auxiliaries come from old perfects used as presents, on which new past tenses are formed: maeg, may, meahte, might; can, cfloe, cou{l)d ; the I is bad spelling, in analogy with loould from will, should from shall. Verbs without a connecting vowel are eom, am; d6n, do ; gd,n, go, past edde, yode. Stande, stand, stdd, stood, has an n inserted, a relic of an old Sanscrit conjugation. Vol. I.— 10 Indicative Mood. Present and Puiure. ic h^re, I hear. ])fl, barest, thou hear est, hfi h^re^, he heareth, p6 h^ralS, we hear. g^ bora's, ye hear. M h5'ra'5, they hear. Past. ic h^rde, / heard. Jjfl hardest, thou heardest. hfi h^rde, he heard. pe harden, we heard. gS harden, ye heard. h! h^rdon, they heard. Subjunctive Mood. ic, H, or h6 h^re. ic, \>(i, or hS h^rde. p^, g6, or hi h^ren. pS, g^, or hi harden. Imperative. Infinitive. h^r >&. h^^ran. h5^ra1S g^. Gerund, it h_^ranne. Participles. Present, h^rende, hearing. Passive, h^red, heard. The -8 of hears is a softening of -"S, used already in Anglo-Saxon in the northern dialect. The same s is found in the plural. In the Midland Counties the plural -e'S changed to -n to conform with the past tense and the sub- junctive : forms like those loves, they loves, they loveth and they loven, are found as late as Shakspeare and Spenser. There are said to be 168 plurals in s, and 46 in -th in the Shakspeare folio of 1623. The subjunctive is used for our potential and imperative, as well as the subjunctive. Relics of these uses are in English: Jt ivej-e a gy-ievoua fa}dt=Tt icoidd be a grievous fault; Beit 8o=Let it be so. But a periphrastic potential, with the auxiliaries may, can, must, might, etc., is used in Anglo-Saxon as in English. The infinitive is regularly without t6, hence forms with auxiliaries still reject it, and familiar idioms in which the infinitive is the object of a verb, and to is not needed to express purpose or the like. There was a verbal noun ending, in -ing, -nng, which seems to have been confused with the participle in -ende, and given form to our present participle. The participle (h^red or gifen) is the only passive form. All the modes and tenses of the passive voice are made by joining auxiliaries with it, as in English, German, and other like languages. The two, tenses given above answer for all times — one for all past times, the other for present and future ; but forms with auxiliaries are also used. Hsebbe, have, for the per- fect, and hsefde, had, for the pluperfect, are in full use : h6 bsef'S mon geportne, he has made man, in which it is to be noticed that mon is the object of haeftS, and geportne a par- ticiple in the accusative masculine, agreeing with mon. Some intransitives form these tenses by the verb to he : hg is hi'Ser gefered, he is (has) come hither; hg pses 3-gan, he was (had) gone. These forms, which are like the Ger- man, are common in Shakspeare, Bunyan, and some of them still in conversation, ffave with an intransitive does not bear analysis, but we do not want two tense signs for the same tense. For the future, sceal, shall, and pille, will, are common, though seldom free from some meaning of duty, promise, determination, such as indeed goes with them in English. The present distinction between shall and will in the dif- ferent persons is not established in Anglo-Saxon ; ivill is more common in Northumbrian, as now in Scottish. The future perfect is not discriminated. Other ways of expressing the future occur : hS g^'S r^dan, he is going to read — French, II, va lire; ic td drincenne hgebbe, I have to drink = I shall drink; is t6 syllenne, is to be betrayed =will he betrayed. The progressive form is common, with also a slightly difi"ercnt use from the English : is feohtende, is fighting, continues fighting ; beClS feohtende, will continue fighting, etc. The passive progressive ia being fought does not occur; an ambiguous verbal noun in -ing answers the purpose : he ]i3es on huntinge, he icas a-hunting, said both of the hunter and the game. Of the emphatic form in do only rare examples are found, perhaps only when the verb is repeated. Particles. — Most English prepositions and conjunctions are from Anglo-Saxon, and the forms are often so full that we can easily connect them with corresponding words in other languages, and trace their origin and primary mean- ing. Most of those which look most primitive are from pronouns. Syntax. — There is nothing in which Anglo-Saxon differs more from English than its syntax, which is that of a highly inflected language like Latin or Greek. The most general laws are common to all speech ; a much larger number are common to all Indo-European tongues. The frequency with which different combinations are used by each makes the great diff'erence between them. Apparent anomalies of English syntax may often be easily understood by study of the Anglo-Saxon from which they sprang: "Me thinks 1 146 ANGLO-SAXON LANGUAGE AND LITEEATUBE. Haw him" Beems strange ; but in Anglo-Saxon the thinks is found to be a different verb from the common English think, and to mean eeem, and govern a dative; it seems to m€=meihinks. ^* He taught me (jrammar" — tE^can, teach, governs an accusative and dative, taiight to me. "I asked him a question " — acsian, ask, governs an accusative of the person asked. "_ffe went a-hnnting" — a is the preposition on in Anglo-Saxon. "/ loved him the more" — the is in Anglo-Saxon the instrumental case of the demonstrative Wt H)) more /or that, or by that. And so examples might be given without end. No difficult point in English syntax can be safely discussed by one "who does not know its history. For study of the language the English books are — March's " Comparative Grammar of the Anglo-Saxon," New York, 1870 ; Hapley's " Brief History of the Eng- lish Language," in Webster's Dictionary, 1865 ; Klipstein's " Anglo-Saxon Grammar," New York, 1853 ; Rask's " Gram- mar," translated by Thorpe, London, 1865; Bosworth's "Anglo-Saxon Dictionary, London, 1837; Marsh's "Eng- lish Language, and its Early Literature," New York, 1862 ; CoRSOS's " Hand-book of Anglo-Saxon and Early English," New York, 1871; Shhte's "Manual," New York, 1867; March's "Introduction to the Study of Anglo-Saxon," New York, 1870. In German : Heyne, " Kurtze Laut- und Flexionslehre," Paderborn, 1862 ; Koch, " Historische Grammatik der Englishen Spraehe," "Weimar, 1863 ; Maetz- NER, " Englisohe Grammatik," Berlin, 1865 ; EiTMifLLER, "Lexicon cum Synopsi Gram.," Qued. A Lips. ,1851; Grein, " Sprachschatz der Angelsaehs. Dichter," Cassel and Gott- ingen, 1864 ; Grimm, " Deutsche Grammatik," Gottingen, 18«. Anglo-Saxon Literature. — The pagan Anglo-Saxons had their poets and orators, and after their conversion to Christianity there was an unbroken succession of good scholars in England. Most of their writings are, however, in Latin. The prose writings in the Anglo-Saxon language may be classified as follows : 1. 'Theological. — The Gospels were read in the native tongue as part of the church service, and several manu- scripts are preserved. Editions have been printed by Par- ker, 1671, Marshall, 1665, Thorpe, 1842, reprinted in Amer- ica by Klipstein, Bouterwek, 1857, Surtees Society, 1854—63, Bosworth, 1865. .^Ifric's translation of the Heptateuch was publisbed by Thwaitos, 1698. We have also versions of the Psalms. There are many Homilies. .Sllfric, an eminent scholar, compiled or translated a series of eighty of them about A. D. 990, which were edited by Thorpe for the .ffilfric Society, 1844-46. Others are promised by the Early English Text Society. 2. Philosophical. — King Alfred translated Boethius, "De Consolatione Philosophia;." It is freely rendered, with large additions and omissions by the royal author. Edi- tions are by Rawlinson, 1S9S, Cardale, 1829, and Fox in Bohn's Library, 1864. 3. Historical. — The most illustrious of the Anglo-Saxon scholars, Beda, known to many generations as "the Ven- erable Bede," wrote in Latin an " Ecclesiastical History of the Angles and Saxons," translated by King Alfred into Anglo-Saxon, abounding in picturesque details of the he- roic adventures and characters of his time, which has been often reprinted, and its best scenes repeatedly rendered into verse. (See, for some of them, Wordsworth's "Ecclesias- tical Sonnets.") The Anglo-Saxon translation was edited with a Latin translation, by Abraham Wbeloc, folio 1644' and by Dr. John Smith, 1722. ' "The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle " gives an outline of the history of Britain fi-om the earliest times to Henry II. A. D. 1154. Copies wore kept at the monasteries as early as the time of Alfred. As far as Beda's history extends, the Chronicle has been drawn from it or a common source. It is in general a meagre affair. There are many editions : Thorpe's, 1861, has seven parallel texts, a translation and indexes. The general " History of the World," by Orosius, was translated by Alfred, with additions of some value. It has often been printed. Thorpe's edition in Bohn's Library has a transladon and glossary, 1857. Many brief biographies are found in Beda and the Hom- ilies, and some separate lives. That of St. Guthlac (see Wright's "Biographia Literaria") has been several times printed; Goodwin, London, 1848. 4. Law.— A considerable body of laws has been got to- gether. They begin with those of .ffithelbirht, who was king of Kent at its conversion. Those of Alfred have an introduction on the history of law, the laws of Moses, and their relations to Christ and Christian nations. The laws are full of valuable knowledge. The ecclesiastical rules re- lating to confession, penance, and the like ore particularlv suggestive. The best editions are Thorpe's and that of Sohmid, Leipsic, 1858. The latter has translations into Latin and German, and valuable notes and a glossary. 5. Natural Science and Medicine. — Such are in " Popular Treatises of Science," Wright, 1841, and Leeohdom's, Cockayne, 1864-66. 6. Grammar. — There is a grammar by MUrlc in Somner's Dictionary, 1659; A Colloquy and glossaries, Wright, 1867. Anglo-Saxon Poetry is very different in metrical struc- ture from the English. It is like the Old Icelandic, the Old Saxon, and the Earliest German. It is marked off into verses by alliteration, the recurrence of the same initial sound in the first accented syllables of words. ' A perfect verse of the common narrative kind has three alliterating syllables — two in the first section, and one in the second; but the first section has but one in many verses. A very artificial rhythm is used. Each section has four beats or metrical accents. Every root-syllable has its beat, and so has the final syllable of each section, and almost any sylla- ble may have a beat if the poet chooses, p^r* paes Asel'e'Sa Aleah'tor'; hljn' spyn'sSdo', MOrd'^Sir'on joyn'sume', Ead'e WeaWISeHf forlS', cpSn' Hro'5'gar'es' cyn'na,' gemyn'dig', (^rgt'te jold'-hrod'en' ^um'an' on hcal'le,' and' >a/re8'ltc' pif faV ge'seal'de', ffir'est ^ast'-Den'a' g'S'el'-pear'de', iced' hin'e ill'S'ne' set t&r'e 6e6r'->eg'e'. There was lordly daughter ; there the late's vibration, words were winsome. Forth yode Wfealhtheow. gueen of Hrothgar, of courtesies mindful, greeted in ^old-array the (?uests in the hall, and then the (gladsome wife yave the beaker first to the sovereign /lege, /ord of the East-Danes, Hithe she 6ade him be at the teer-drinking. Knowledge of the popular poetry was universal. It was disgraceful not to be able to chant in turn at the feasts. Beda, Aldhelm, Alfred learned and loved the old ballads, and made verses. Most of the poetry has perished. The early Christians condemned whatever was mixed with the old superstitions, and the Normans despised or neglected all Anglo-Saxon literature. But we have specimens of va- rious kinds : 1. The Ballad Epic. — The old ballads are brought to- gether, beautified, exalted, and fused into a long poem. "Beowulf" is the "Iliad" of the Anglo-Saxons. The ex- ploits celebrated in it are for the most part combats with monsters after the manner of Hercules, but it has the usual epic variety — the wrath of the monster, the rousing of the hero, the fitting out of the ship, the voyage, the banquet, the wordy war of rivals, woman's graceful presence, the arming for fight, and desperate and long-drawn struggles. Only one manuscript of it remains. Little notice of it was taken till the late revival of "Anglo-Saxon scholarship ; but the interest in it has risen to a great height, and many editions, translations, and essays of elucidation and inter- pretation have appeared in Germany, England, and Den- mark. We may mention Kemble, 1833-37; Ettmiiller, 1840; Thorpe, 1855 ; Grein, two editions, 1857-67 ; Gruntvig, 1861 ; Heyne, two editions, 1863-68. There are a few fragments to be classed with " Beowulf." Such are the " Traveller's Song" and the " Fight at Finns- burg," both which are given with "Beowulf" in many editions. 2. The Bible Epic is a treatment of the Bible narrative similar to that of the ballad epic. The great master in this sphere is Caedmon, who is often called the Anglo-Saxon Milton. Beda, who lived in the same region, and may have seen him, tells us that he was an unlearned man, who could not sing the common secular ballads, and that a vision ap- peared to him and directed him to sing the Creation, and that his success was esteemed inspiration. He had many imitators, and whether the poems which remain are his is not known. These are four poems, called, by Grein, Gen- esis, Exodus, Daniel, Christ and Satan. Similar are a fragment of Judith, Cynewulf s " Christ," " The Harrowing of Hell," and some fragments. Of all these wo have a crit- ical edition and translation by Grein, and of Caedmon edi- tions by Thorpe, 1832; Bouterwek, 1849-54. The manu- script is illuminated, and the illuminations were copied and published in 1833. 3. Ecclesiastical Narratives. — These are versified lives of saints and chronicles. We have Andreas (1724 lines), Juliana (731 lines), Guthlac (1353 linos), Elene (1321 lines). 4. Psalms and Hymns. — Translations of a large part of the Hebrew Psalms, and a few Christian hymns and prayers. b. Secular Lyrics. — A few from the "Chronicle," cele- brating the kings or others. 6. Allegories, Gnomic Verses, and Riddles. — "The Phoe- nix" (677 lines), "The Panther" (74 lines), "The Whale" (89 lines), Gnomic Verses and Biddies ; " Dialogue between Solomon and Saturn," in Grein, vol. ii., pp. 339-407— a favorite style with the Anglo-Saxons. ANGOLA— ANHA LT. 147 7. Didactic, Ethical. — Alfred's "Metres of Boethius" are versifications of parts of Boettiius referred to under Prose Writings above. The best edition is Grein, vol. ii., pp. 295- 339. Grein's "Bibliothek der Angelsachsischen Poesie," Gottingen, 1857, with his translations and complete glos- sary, gives the apparatus for the study of all these poems. His " Bibliothek der Angelsachsischen Prosa," now in pro- cess of publication, promises to render an equal service for Anglo-Saxon prose. (Outlines of this literature are to be found in March's "Introduction to Anglo-Saxon," New York, 1870; MoE- LEYs "English Writers," London, 1867; Wright's "Biog- raphia Brit. Literaria," London, 1842 ; EttmUllee's " Sco- pas" and "Boeeras," Qued. and Lips., 1850.) F. A. March. Ango'Ia (formerly Don'go or Ambonde), a country in the S. W. part of Africa, bordering on the Atlantic Ocean, is bounded on the N. by Congo, from which it is separated by the Danda River, and on the S. by the Coanza Eiver. It is included between lat. 8° and 10° S. The interior is said to be mountainous or hilly ; the land is well watered, and produces a luxuriant tropical vegetation. Angola is rich in minerals, among which are gold, silver, copper, and iron. Lions, leopards, elephants, and hippopotami abound here. The chief articles of export are ivory, gold, wax, and slaves. This country is subject to the Portuguese, who have Several forts on the coast. Nominally, a largo pro- portion of the population belongs to the Roman Catholic Church, which, since the middle of the si.xteenth century, has had a bisho]) in the capital; but their Christian belief is still largely mixed with pagan notions and practices. Pop. of the colony, about 600,000. Area, 25,300 sq. miles. Capital, San Paulo de Loando. Pop. of cap. 12,500. Angola, on E. R., capital of Steuben co., Ind. (see map of Indiana, ref. 1-G, for location of county), has a large school building and various manufactures. Pop. in 1870, 1072; in 1880, 1280. Ango'ra (the ancient Ancy'ra ; in Turk., Engoor'), a town of Asiatic Turkey, nbout 217 miles E. S. E. of Con- stantinople. It is situated on an elevated plain adapted to pasturage, and-is-celebrated for its breed of goats, having long silky hair which is manufactured into shawls and a stuff called mohair. Large quantities of this hair are ex- ported, and goats of this breed have been successfully in- troduced into the U. S. Here are remains of Greek and Byzantine architecture. The most remarkable is a white marble temple which was built by the ancient inhabitants in honor of Augustus ; it has on its wall a famous in- scription, much of it still legible, stating the most import- ant events in the emperor's life. On July 20, 1402, a decisive victory was gained near Angora by Tamerlane, the Tartar conqueror, over Bayazeed (Bajazet), the Turk- ish sultan, who w,as taken prisoner. It was recovered by the Turks under Mahomet I. in 1415, and from that time has continued to be a part of the Ottoman empire. The pop. does not exceed 20,000, one-third of whom are Ar- menians. (For a notice of the ancient city, see Ancyra.) Angor'no, or Angornn, a town of Central Africa, in Bornu, is near the W. bank of Lake Tchad and 15 miles S. E. of Kuka. It has an extensive trade in cotton, am- ber, and slaves. Pop. estimated at 30,000. Angostu'ra, or Bol'ivar City, an important city of Venezuela, capital of the province of Guiana, is on the right bank of the Orinoco River, 263 miles S. B. of Caracas. It is advantageously situated for trade, and exports cotton, indigo, coffee, tobacco, cattle, etc. It contains a college, a hospital, and a fine hall in which the congress of Angos- tura met in 1819. Pop. in 1881, 10,861. Angostura Bark, or Angnstnra Bark, the aro- matic bitter bark of certain trees of the natural order Rubiacese, natives of the tropical parts of .South America. The bark is so named because it is imported from Angos- tura. It is tonic and stimulant, and has been used in the cure of fever, dysentery, diarrhoea, etc. It is obtained chiefly from the (xah'pie'a oj^cind'Us or CuH'pa'riafebri'fuga. Angonleme (anc. Inculia'ma or Iculia'ma), a city of France, capital of the department of Charente, on the river Charente and on the Paris and Bordeaux Railway, 83 miles by rail N. E. of Bordeaux. It is situated on a hill, and has a cathedral, college, theatre, public library, and several paper- mills. Linen and woollen stuffs are manufactured here. This town was the birthplace of Marguerite de Valois and Balzac. Pop. in 1881, 32,567. Angonlgme, d' (Charles de Valois), Duke, a natu- ral son of Charles IX. of France, born April 28, 1573. Hav- ing formed a plot against King Henry IV., he was impris- oned from 1604 to 1616. He had the chief command of the royal army when it began the famous siege of Rochelle in 1628. Died Sept. 24, 1650. Angouleme, d' (Louis Antoine de Bourbon), Duke, born Aug. 6, 1775, was the eldest son of the Comte d'Ar- tois, afterwards Charles X. of France. He emigrated with his father in 1789, and in 1799 married his cousin, Marie Thfirese Charlotte, a daughter of Louis XVI., with whom he lived in exile untjl 1814. He commanded the French army which intervened against the Spanish liberals in 1823, and restored Ferdinand VII. to absolute power. His abilities were mediocre. Died at Gbritz June 3, 1844. Angoul^me, d' (Marie Th£r£se Charlotte), Duch- ess, the wife of the preceding, was born Dec. 19, 1778, and was a daughter of Louis XVI. In Aug., 1792, she was confined in the Temple with the king and her mother, Ma- rie Antoinette. She was released in 1795, and exchanged for Camus and others who had been captured by the Aus- trians, after which she passed many years in exile. She appears to have had more energy than the other Bourbons, She became again an exile in 1830. Died Oct. 19, 1851. Angoumois, a former province of France, included the present department of Charente and part of Dordogne. Its capital was Angouleme. An'gra,® a seaport-town, and the capital of Terceira, one of the Azores; lat. 38° 39' N., Ion. 27° 12' W. It has a beautiful situation and a good harbor. It contains a cathedral, a military college, and an arsenal. Wine, grain, honey, etc. are exported from this town. Pop. in 1878, 11,070. An'gri, a town of Italy, in the province of Salerno, on the railway from Naples to Eboli, 15 miles by rail N. W. of Salerno. Pop. 10,332. Anguil'la, or Snake Island, an island in the Lee- ward group, in the West Indies, 4 miles N. of St. Martin. Area, 34 squar© miles. The island is low and covered with forests, and belongs to Great Britain. The staple products are sugar, tobacco, and cotton. Pop. about 3100. Angnil'lula (i. e. " little eel," from the Lat. anguil'la, an " eel "), a genus of minute animals allied to the ncma- toid worms. Best known are those called "vinegar eels," found abundantly in cider vinegar. They are remarkable for tenacity of life. Anguillulnjinviatilia, after being dried until it becomes brittle, will recover its activity when placed in water. Angaillitla trittci, found on blighted wheat, has been known to revive after being kept dry for five years. An'giiis [a Latin word signifying "serpent"], a syste- matic name of a genus of serpent-like reptiles having the maxillary teeth compressed and hooked, and the palate not armed with teeth. (See Bli.nd Worm.) Anguiscio'la, or Angusso'Ia (Soponisba), an emi- nent Italian painter, born at Cremona about 1534, excelled in portraits. Invited by Philip II. of Spain, she went to Madrid, and painted portraits of the queen and others. In the latter part of her life she became blind. It is said that Van Dyke acknowledged he had derived much benefit from her conversations on art. Died in 1626. Angular Motion of a point or a body is the same as that of the line or radius vector joining the moving point to some fixed point. The angular velocity of the body in reference to the fixed point is the ratio of the angle de- scribed by the radius vector to the time occupied by its description. Angus, Bael of. See Douglas. An'gus (Rev. Joseph), D. D., born Jan. 16, 1816, edu- cated at the University of Edinburgh, president of Re- gent's Park College (Baptist), London, and author of "The Bible Handbook," " Handbook of English Litera- ture," "Handbook of the English Tongue," and other works, and editor of the best edition of Butler's " Analogy" (1855, 12mo, pp. 551). He was ore of the revisers of the English New Testament for the American Bible Union, a member of the committee of the convocation of Canterbury for revising the New Testament, and a prominent member of the Evangelical Alliance, as a delegate of which he vis- ited the U. S. in 1873. Angus (Samuel), a naval officer born at Philadelphia in 1784. He became a captain in the U. S. navy, and com- manded the vessel which in 1814 conveyed Adams and Clay to Ghent on a diplomatic mission. He served with dis- tinction in the French troubles of 1800, in the war of 1812, and was four times wounded. Died May 29, 1840. An'halt, a duchy of Germany, almost completely sur- rounded by the Prussian province of Saxony, consists of two larger parts and four enclaves, having together an area of 869 square miles. The dijchy is traversed by the Saale, the Elbe, and the Selke. While the eastern part is level, the western is mountainous and wooded. The soil is « Angm in Portuguese denotes a "creek," "hay," or "station for ships." 148 ANHALT-BEENBURG-ANILINE COLOKS. generally fertile. Cattle-raising is extensively and success- fully carried on here. Here are also mines of silver, copper, iron, and lead. The duchy has five gymnasia and three semi- naries. Pop. in 1880, 232,747. Capital, Dessau. According to the budget of 1881-82, the receipts and the expenses were both estimated at 16,528,100 marks, The public debt in 1879 amounted to 7,445,417 marks. The dukes of Anhalt claim to have descended from the celebrated Albert the Bear (which see), the first margrave of Brandenburg. In 1212 Anhalt was divided into three parts ; it was united in 1570 by Joachim Ernst, and again divided into four branches — Dessau, Bernburg, Kothen, and Zerbst — upon his death in 1586. In 1793, after the extinction of the house of Anhalt-Zerbst, its dominions were divided by the remaining three. In 1807 the three houses joined the Con- federation of the Rhine, and in 1814 the German Confedera- tion. In 1847 the house of Anhalt-KHthen became extinct, and the duke of Anhalt-Dessau took the administration of its dominions upon himself; and when, in 1863, the house of Anhalt-Bernburg also became extinct, Anhalt was again united under one ruler. (See the works of Heine, 1865 j Krause, 5 vols., 1861-66,- and Siebigk, 1867.) An'halt-Bern'burg (Christian), Prince of, a Ger- man general, born in 1568, was a man of superior abili- ties. He was the chief promoter of a league of Protestant princes formed against the emperor in 1608. He com- manded the army of Frederick elector Palatine, which was defeated at Prague in 1620, Died in 1630. An'halt-Des'sau (Leopold), Prince of, an able Ger- man general, born in 1676, commanded the Prussian troops under Prince Eugene in Italy and Flanders in 1706-12, and was second in command of the Prussian army which op- posed Charles XII. of Sweden in 1715. Died in 1747. Anhandu'hy-Mirim' and Anhandu'hy-Gnazu', two rivers of Brazil, in the province of Matto-Grosso. They rise in the Serra Galhano, and enter the Rio Ver- melho. The former is about 150 miles, and the latter about 200 miles, in length. An'holt) an island of Denmark, in the Cattegat, is 7 miles long and about 4 miles wide ; lat. of the lighthouse, 56° 44' N., Ion. 11° 39' E. It is surrounded by danger- ous shoals. Pop. 200. Anhy'dride, an oxygen compound formed by the ab- straction of water from an acid. Thus, for instance, by taking (new notation) water, H2O, from carbonic acid, H2CO3, we have carbonic anhydride, CO2. (See CHEjnsTRr.) Anhy'drite [from the Lat. adhy'drus, and the Gr. Atdo?, a "stone"], a mineral composed of anhydrous sul- phate of lime. It is harder and heavier than common sul- phate of lime (gypsum), into which it is slowly converted by the absorption of water. It occurs in several varie- ties — viz. granular, fibrous, radiated, and translucent, sparry anhydrite or cube-spar, and compact anhydrite. Anhy'drous [from the Gr. iv, priv., and SSoip, " water "], " without water," a chemical term applied to a compound which contains no water, as pure and absolute alcohol, which is called anliydrons alcohol ; quicklime as it comes from the kiln is anhydrous lime, but when it comes into contact with water, the lime and water combine and form hydrated lime. Anice'tus, Saint, was bishop of Rome about 155 A. D. The time of his death is uncertain. An'il, one of the plants from which indigo ia obtained ; a kind of indigo said to be a native of America, but now cultivated in the East Indies. It is very similar to Indi- gofera tincto'ria. Aii'iline [from «n)7, "indigo"], Phenyramine, or Am'ido-benzol', discovered in 1826 by Unverdorben as a product of the distillation of indigo, and called by him cryataltine, on account of the ready crystallization of its salts. It attracted much attention from chemists, and was made the subject of many researches, which contributed greatly to enlarge the facts and theories of modern chem- istry. It did not acquire any commercial importance till 1856, when Porkin prepared from it the beautiful purple dye ■maiivc. The brilliancy and intensity of this color attracted the attention of chemists and dyers, and in a short time an entirely now series of colors was discovered, by which the art of dyeing has been almost revolutionized. Aniline is found among the products of the distillation of bituminous coal (in "coal-tar"), of peat, bones, etc. It is prepared, however, from benzol derived from the more volatile portions of coal-tar. The benzol, CcHo, is converted by the action of nitric acid into nitrobcnzol, CeHsNOj, and this compound is changed by the action of ferrous acetate, produced by iron filings and acetic acid, into ani- line; Nltrn-benzol. Aniline. C6H5NO2 -t- 6FcO + H2O = CbHtN + SFejOs. Aniline is a colorless, mobile, oily liquid, having a faint vinous odor and aromatic burning taste. Its specific grav- ity is 1.002; boiling-point, 182° C. It is very poisonous. It dissolves very slightly in water, in all proportions in ether, alcohol, wood-naiphtha, bisulphide of caroon, and in oils, fixed and volatile. The aqueous solution is faintly alkaline, and precipitates many metallic bases from solu- tions of their salts. With bleaching-powder it produces a violet-blue color, with sulphuric acid and potassio bichro- mate, a bluish-black precipitate, and when treated with arsenic acid, stannic chloride, etc., it is converted into rosaniline. When exposed to the air, aniline acquires a yellow or red color, which is always noticed in commercial " aniline oil." It forms a numerous class of salts, most of which crystallize readily. Aniline is an amine, a monamine, or an ammonia, in which one atom of hydrogen is replaced by a radical phenyl, CsHs: (-H fH. Ammonia, N ■{ H ; Aniline, N ■{ CeHs. U U- Aniline is now manufactured in enormous quantities for the preparation of the different colors. (See Amines, Benzol, Phenyl.) C. F. Chandler. Aniline Colors. In 1835, Runge noticed the violet- blue color produced by chloride of lime with aniline, and Fritzsohe subsequently showed that chromic acid formed with aniline a blackish-blue precipitate. In 1853, Beis- senhirtz obtained a blue by acting upon aniline with po- tassic dichromate and sulphuric acid. It remained for W. H. Perkin to develop this reaction, and to lay the foundations of the great aniline industry which is now so extensive. In 1856 he isolated the color found in the last- mentioned reaction, called it mauve, and showed that it could be used .as a dye. Many chemists at once turned their attention to the subject, and a great number of new colors of almost every tint and shade were discovered, which have taken the place in dyeing, and to a consider- able extent in calico-printing, of the animal and vegetable colors in previous use. The chemical composition of many of these colors has been established, and many chemical facts of great importance have been developed by their study. (See article Coal-Tab Colors.) Aniline Reds. — Rosaniline salts are the most important of all the aniline colors. They are not only used for the production of brilliant tints on cotton, wool, and silk, but they constitute the material from which many of the other colors are prepared. Rosaniline has been shown by Hof- manu to be a colorless base, a triamine (see Amines), hav- ((CsHi)". ing the formula C20H19N3, or Nj-^ 2(C7H6)". It is pro- [Hs. duced by the union of one molecule of aniline with two molecules of toluidine, and the abstraction of six atoms of hydrogen: Aniline. Toluidine. Rosaniline. CsHtN -I- 2C,H9N = C20H19N3 -I- He. A great variety of dehydrogenizing agents may be em- ployed to effect this reaction. It is found that the best results are obtained when an aniline oil is employed which contains about 25 per cent, of toluidine. Hotmann in 1868 pepared rosaniline by treating aniline with tetrachloride of carbon, but on a manufacturing scale Medlock's process with arsenic acid is now In most general use. The aniline oil, 1 part, is heated with IJ parts of a 75 per cent, solu- tion of arsenic acid in a closed iron still provided with a stirrer. The product is boiled with water and filtered, and on adding to the solution common salt in excess, the crude hydrochlorate of rosaniline is precipitated. This is dis- solved in boiling water, filtered, and allowed to crystallize. This salt of rosaniline, C20H19N3.HCI, is known as aniline red, magenta, fuchsine, eolferino, roeeine, azaleine, etc. It appears in magnificent green crystals, with a metallic lus- tre like that of the wing-covers of Brazilian beetles or can- tharides. It is soluble in water and in alcohol, with a color varying from a beautiful cherry-red to a crimson. Verguin and Rgnard of Lyons, who first made aniline red on a manufacturing scale, used tetrachloride of tin, SnCU. Gerber-Keller prepared rosaniline nitrate, azaleine, by the action of mercuric nitrate. Lauth and Dcpouilly heat aniline with nitrate of aniline. Laurent and Castel- haz prepare aniline red directly from the crude nitrobcnzol, which contains nitrotoluol, by heating it with iron filings and hydrochloric acid. The first reaction of thoFeCljon the nitrobenzol results in the removal of oxygen from the nitrobcnzol and nitrotoluol, and the addition of hydrogen, producing aniline, toluidine, and Fe2Cl6. On heating this mixture further, the Fe2Cl8 removes hydrogen from the aniline and toluidine, and rosaniline is the result. Coupier heats together aniline, nitrotoluol, hydrochloric aoid, and ANILINE COLOES. 149 a little iron. Rosaniline hydrate, CjoHigNa.HzO, may be precipitated from the solutions of its salts by alkalies ; it is rose-red and somewhat crystalline, but by proper care may be obtained colorless. Ammonic sulphide, or zinc-powder, converts rosaniline salts into leucaniline, Ca)H2iN3, which is colorless; by adding Ha, oxidizing agents change it back to rosaniline. Advantage is taken of this fact to produce discharge pat- terns, the zinc-powder, thickened with gum, being printed upon goods previously dyed with aniline red. Silk and wool take up aniline red very readily, but cotton must be previously mordanted. For dyeing cotton the mordant generally used is tannate of tin, produced by subjecting the cotton first to a solution of sumach, then to sodio stan- nate, and finally to dilute sulphuric acid. In calico-print- ing the color is mixed with albumen or the preparation of Perkin and Schultz, a solution of aluminic arsenite in aluminic acetate. On drying and steaming the goods the color is rendered insoluble or fixed. Other reds of less importance are di-hydriodate of tri- methyl chrysaniline, C2oHi4(CHs)2N3.(HOI)2, called ohrys- aniline red; nitrosophenyline, CsHeNjO; toluidine rod, xyli- dine red, etc. Aniline Pink. — Safranine is a coloring-matter pro- duced by the oxidation of aniline. It is supposed to be C21H20N4. It forms crystallizable salts. Aniline Violets and Blues. — These colors shade into each other so gradually that they cannot well be separated. 1. Mauve, or aniline purple (of Perkin), was the first of the aniline products used as a dye. It is the sulphate or other salt of the base mauveine, C27H24N4. It may be pre- pared from pure aniline, free from toluidine, by the action of potassic diohromate and sulphurio acid. It may also be prepared by the action of cnpric chloride (Dale and Caro), or by chloride of lime. This dye has been entirely super- seded by other preparations. It was known while in com- merce as mauve, aniline purple, Perkin's violet, indisine, aniline harmaline, violine, and mauve rosolane. 2. Mofmaim's Violets and Blues. — Eosaniline contains, as shown in the formula given above, three atoms of re- placeable hydrogen. By substituting for one, two, or all of these, various alcohol radicals, as methyl, ethyl, amyl, etc., a great variety of colors, ranging from the red of rosani- line salts through purples and violets to the purest blue, are obtained. Hofmann's violets are produced by heating ros- aniline, alcohol, and the iodide of methyl, ethyl, or amyl under pressure. A violet syrup results, containing the hy- driodate of the new substitution product ; for instance, hydriodate of trimethyl rosaniline, C2oHi6(CH3)3N3.HI. To recover the iodine, the solution may be boiled with caustic potaah, which precipitates trimethyl rosaniline, which may be washed, and redissolved in alcohol containing hydro- chloric acid, or in acetic acid and water. The following are some of the more important colors of this group : Hydrochlorate of methylrosaniline, C2oHi8(CH3)N3,HCl j hydroohlorate of dimethylrosaniline, 02oHi7(CH3)2N3,HCl ; hydrochlorate of trimethylrosaniline, CioHieiCHajsNsjHCl; hydrochlorate of moncthylrosaniline, C2oHi8(C2H5)N3,IICl, called also Hofmann's red violet; hydrochlorate of diethyl- rosaniline, C2oHii(C2H5)2N3,HCl, called also Hofmann's blue ; hydrochlorate of triethylrosaniline, C2oHi6(C2H5)3N3, HCl, called also Hofmann's blue ; ethylbromate of triethyl- rosaniline, C2oHi6(C2H5)3N3,C2H5Br, called also brimula; ethyliodateofethylrosaniline,C2oHi8(C2H5)Ns,C2H6l, called also fuchsine with a blue tintj and Hofmann's violet red. Wauklyn used isopropyl iodide in a similar manner. As the successive atoms of hydrogen are replaced by the alcohol radical, the shade passes farther and farther from the original red, giving first a reddish-purple, then a full purple, then violet, then reddish-blue, finally a full blue. The picrate of triethylrosaniline yields a fine green tint. 3. Paris violet or methyl violet is the pentamethyl rosaniline hydrochlorate: [N(CH3)2.C6H4]2.C(C6H4.NH.C H3)HC1. It is prepared by the action of cuprio nitrate, sodium chloride, and acetic acid on dimetbyl aniline. This color has largely superseded Hofmann's violets. Aeid violet is prepared by converting this color into a sulpho-aoid. i. Phenyl-rosanilines. — By heating rosaniline salts with aniline (phenylamine) the radical phenyl, CeHs, is intro- duced in the place of H, giving rise to a series of purples and violets, terminating in the most beautiful blue tri- phenylrosaniline — hleu de Lyon, the only blue which has come into extensive use. This blue is insoluble in water, which rendered its application somewhat troublesome, as an alcoholic solution was necessary. Nicholson found that sulphuric acid produced a compound analogous to sulph- indigotic acid, soluble in water; this is now extensively manufactured under the name of " Nicholson's blue " or "soluble blue." The following are the more important compounds of this series : Hydrochlorate of monophenyl- rosaniline, C2oHi8(C6H5)N3,HCI, called also rosaniline vio- let, red monophenylrosaniline, and Hofmann's violet; hydrochlorate of diphenyl rosaniline, C2oHi9(C6H5)2N3j HCl, also known as rosaniline violet and Hofmann's vio- let; triphenylrosaniline or triphenyiic rosaniline, CzoHu (C6H5)3Ns, called also aniline blue, rosaniline blue, Hof- mann's blue, bleu de Paris, bleu do Lyons, bleu de Mul. house, bleu de Mexique, bleu de nuit, bleu lumierc, bleuine, azurine, and night blue ; hydrochlorate of triphenylrosani- line, C2oHi6(C6H6)3N3,HCl, known also by the same names as the above; acetate of triphenylrosaniline, C2oHi6(C6H5)j N3,H,CH302i known also by the same names as the above; bisulphotriphenyl rosaniline acid, C2oHig(C6H5)sN3, (H2S04)2.H2S04, called also Nicholson's blue and soluble blue. In this acid the last H2 are replaceable by metals with the formation of salts. 5. Tolyl-rosunilines correspond to the phenyl-rosani- lines. The most important is tritolyl-rosaniline, C20H16 (CiH7)3N3, known as toluidine blue. 6. Diphenylamin blue is prepared by oxidizing methyl diphenylainin. The variety soluble in water is the sulpho- acid. 1. Methylen blue is produced from dimethyl-aninline by first converting it into nitroso dimethyl aniline, reducing with H2S, and treating with ferric chloride. It appears in commerce as a double salt with zinc chloride. 8. Many other derivatives of aniline, rosaniline, etc. have been introduced, which exhibit shades from red to blue, passing through purple and violet. Aniline Greens. — 1. Aldehyde green, called also aniline green, viridine, and emeraldine. — In 1861, Lauth obtained a beautiful but fugitive blue by the action of aldehyde on a solution of a rosaniline salt in sulphuric acid. A young chemist, Cherpin, endeavored to fix the color, and was ad- vised by a photographer's apprentice to use sodio hypo- sulphite, a salt used for fixing photographs, on account of its property of dissolving argentic chloride, bromide, and iodide. Cherpin followed the unscientific advice, and ob- tained the most beautiful green. The original process of Lauth and Cherpin is still pursued, and is so simple that many dyers prepare the color for themselves. Aldehyde green is principally employed in silk-dyeing. 2. Iodine green, known also as iodide of methyl green. — It is produced by heating trimethyl or triethyl rosaniline violets (Hofmann's violets), or methylaniline violets, with the iodide of methyl, ethyl, or amyl. The color is a salt of a new base, which may be separated by the action of sodio hydrate. It is extensively used for cotton and silk. Its tint is bluer than that of aldehyde green, and it is more useful, as it yields a greater variety of shades in connec- tion with picric acid. 3. Perkin's green, or iodide of ethyl green. — This dye re- sembles iodine green, but differs in solubility ; it is much used, especially in calico-printing. 4. Methyl green is the double salt of trimethyl rosani- line-dimethy'l chloride with zinc chloride. 5. Malachite green is produced by the action of bcnzo- trichloride on dimethyl aniline. It appears in commerce as a double salt with zinc chloride. Salts of its sulpho- acid are known as Helvetia green. Aniline Yellows. — Aniline yellows are little used in dyeing or printing. 1. Chrysaniline, C20H17N3, called also phosphine, aniline yellow, yellow fuchsine, is a secondary product in the man- ufacture of rosaniline. Owing to the insolubility of its nitrate, it has be'en proposed to use its acetate or hydro- chlorate as a reagent to precipitate nitric acid. 2. Other yellows are ohryaotoluidine, C21H21N3.II2O, the isomeric compounds diazo-amidobenzene and amido-di- phanylimide, C12H21N3. Aniline Browns and Maroons. — Several browns have been produced directly or indirectly from aniline: De Laire obtained a maroon by adding rosaniline hydrochlo- rate to fused aniline hydrochlorate. Schultz prepared a fine garnet color by passing nitrous vapors through a solu- tion of soda holding rosaniline 'in suspension. Jacobf^cn prepares a rich brown by heating picric acid and aniline together, dissolving the product in hydrochloric acid, and precipitating with caustic soda. He obtains another by heating ammonium chromate with aniline formate. Koech- lin produces a brown on wool by printing on a mixture of rosaniline hydrochlorate (fuchsine), oxalic acid, and potas- sium chlorate, and on cotton by adding to this mixture some oupric sulphide. Browns are generally made from the residues of rosaniline. Aniline Gray. — Castelhaz has patented a process by which a beautiful gray is produced, which has, however, found little favor among dyers on account of its high cost. He subjects mauveine (Perkin's violet) to the action of sul- phuric acid and aldehyde. Carves and Thierault prepare a rich gray, called by them murein, by mixing aniline. 150 ANIMAL— ANIMA MUNDI. hydvoehlorio acid, potassio diohromate, copperas, and sul- phuric acid, Aniline Black. — No one has yet succeeded in producing a good blaolt dye from aniline, though the color produced on cotton, silk, or wool by immersing first in a solution of an aniline salt, and then in potassio dichromate, is very near a black. In calico-printing, however, blacks of great intensity and durability have been discovered, which are now extensively used; in fact, except for mourning goods, in which the black predominates over the white, the aniline black is now used almost exclusively. Light- foot discovered the first aniline black in 1863. He printed on the cotton a mixture of aniline hydrochlorate, potassio chlorate, cupric chloride, sal-ammoniac, acetic acid, and starch paste; exposed the cloth to the air for two days, and fixed the color with an alkali. Lauth improved the pro- cess by substituting cupric sulphide for the cupric chloride. Cordillot substituted potassium ferrideyanido for the cop- per salt. Alfred Paraf in 1865 introduced a mixture of aniline hydrochlorate, potassio chlorate, and hy'drofluosilioio acid, properly thickened. On exposing the goods in the " ageing-room " to a temperature of 32° to 35° C, the chloric acid is liberated, and oxidizes the aniline to a black. In 1867, Paraf patented the use of a now agent, the "chromium chromate." His mixture for printing con- tained aniline hydrochlorate, potassio chlorate, chromium chromate, starch, and water. In the ageing-room chromic acid is set free to act upon the aniline salt. Application op Aniline Coloks in Dyeins and Calico- printing. — In silk-dyeing no mordant is required ; to pro- duce an even color, however, it is found best to use a weak soap solution with the dye ; and sometimes a little acid is added, sulphuric or tartaric. For printing on silk the colors are thickened with gum-sencgal, printed from blocks, and when dry the goods are steamed and washed. A discharge style may be produced by dyeing silk with a rosanilino salt, then printing on zinc-dust thickened with gum. The ros- anilino is reduced to colorless leucaniline, producing white figures on a colored ground. By mixing colors with the zinc which are not affected by it, colored figures are pro- duced. For dyeing wool no mordant is required ; the goods arc simply handled in hot solutions ; except in the case of Nicholson's blue, which is dissolved in an alkali, the goods after passing through the solution being subjected to an acid bath. For dyeing cotton, mordants are necessary. By subjecting the goods to (1) a decoction of sumach, (2) to sodic stannate, and finally (3) to dilute sulphuric acid, a stannic tannate is produced on the fibre which has a great affinity for aniline colors. For printing, the colors arc thickened with albumen, or a solution of aluminum arsen- ate in aluminum acetate, and fixed by steaming. Aniline colors are also used for inks, for coloring leather, soaps, vinegar, candies, ivory, horn, etc. ; and lakes are prepared from them for paper-staining, printers' ink, etc. etc. The high cost of aniline colors is counterbalanced by the brilliancy of their tints and the simplicity of dyeing. The aniline color industry has acquired greater propor- tions in G-ermany than in any other country. In the TJ. S. manufacturers chiefiy confine their attention to rosanilino salts. Although coal-tar is extensively distilled here, and benzole is exported, all the aniline is imported. (For further details see Watt's " Dictionary of Chem- istry" and supplement ; Wurtz, " Dictionnaire do Chimie," and specially "Die Farbstoffe," von M. P. Schutzenber- GEU: "Deutsche Uebertragung," von Dr. H. Schroder, Berlin, 1868-73. Special works on the subject are Beck- er's " Anilin-Farberei," Berlin, 1871; Reimann's "Ani- line and its Derivatives," New York, 1868 ; Krieg's " Tho- oric und practische Anwendung von Anilin in der F'arberei und Druckerei," Berlin, 1866. Wagner's " Jahresbericht der chemischen Technologic," from 1858 to date, contains the record of the progress of this important branch of chemical industry.) C. F. Chandler. An'imal [Lat. animal, from animut, "spirit;" Gr. ai-ejioi, "wind," •■ breath"], an organized being, distinguished from plants, at least in the higher and more developed groups, by the power of voluntary motion, the faculty of digestino- food, which is usually, not always, received into an ali- mentary canal, and the possession of a nervous system, which regulates the acts of the animal and receives impres- sions from without. An organism, according to Kant's felicitous definition, is that structure wherein each part is at the same time the moans and the ei^ of all the rest. The distinction is not easily made out between some of the lower animals and plants; but recent observers claim to have made the discovery that all plants, even the most minute, have the power of taking up nitrogen from am- monia compounds — a power which, it is asserted, is pos- sessed by no animal. The power possessed by green plants of taking up carbon from carbonic acid, and by other plants of taking it from hydrocarbons, is probably not shared by animals. (The structure and functions of animals arc treated of under the heads Comparative Anatomy, Physiology, Em- bryology, etc. See also Zoology, and the names of the various groups of animals.) Animal'cule [Lat. animal' culum, the diminutive of animal], literally, a " minute animal," commonly denoting one whoso figure can only be discerned by the aid of a microscope. In popular language it is mostly applied to the microscopic animals which zoologists call Infusoria and Protozoa. Many of the so-called animalcules are now known to belong to the lower ranks of the vegetable king- dom. Animal Electricity. See Electricity, Animal. Animal Heat is the persistent and uniform elevation of temperature which a great proportion of living animals possess. This elevation does not appear to bo a constant factor of animal any more than vegetable life; for in those animals which are fixed and almost motionless there is often great diSioulty in detecting any animal heat. But oven in the so-called cold-blooded animals there is a normal range of elevated temperature. Infusoria, earthworms, snails, fishes, and especially reptiles, possess an appreciable amount of animal heat, and the temperature in health of some species has been pretty accurately determined, though it appears to vary decidedly in these animals with seasons of functional activity or rest. In all animals there seems to bo a relation between the temperature and the habitually fast or slow rate of motions. Mammals, birds, and insects have special powers of maintaining heat. In insects it is scarcely discernible in the pupa state, except when the pupa is about to enter the condition of perfect development. Hymenopterons insects especially have a high range of temperature. Humble- bees* nests have been observed with a heat 18° above that of the surrounding earth. Mr. Newport in one instance found a bee-hive with a temperature of 102° F. while the bees were aroused, though in a neighboring hive with quiet bees the thermometer stood at 48i°. It would appear that the variation of heat within the limits of health is greater in insects than in birds and mammals. The heat of birds is in most species much higher than that of mammals ; that of the swallow, an extreme example, reaching 111^° F. The temperature ofmammals varies from 94° to 107°, that of man being 98° F. in health, while in some fevers it exceeds 105°. It appears that any excess over the latter temperatute is a bad symptom in fevers, while any long-continued depression of even a very few degrees below the normal range is also a prognostic of ap- proaching dissolution. The thermometer of late has be- come an important means of diagnosis and prognosis in disease. Many of the Rodentia and Cheiroptera during a part of the year lose a great proportion of their ordinary heat, the temperature falling nearly to the freezing-point, while many of the vital functions pass into a state of abey- ance. This condition is called hibernation. The principal direct source of animal heat is generally believed to be the slow oxidation of carbon (perhaps also hydrogen, sulphur, and phosphorus), the material thus slowly burnt being introduced in the food, while the oxy- gen comes in from the air by the lungs; but it is objected by many physiologists that the amount of material con- sumed, with all possible economy of heat, seems inadequate to the effect produced. It is observed that the cutting of certain nerves in vivisection (notably those belonging to the sympathetic system) leads to great temporary increase of heat in the parts which had been supplied by the wounded nerve, the increase being followed by a permanent decrease of heat. This appears to show that the produc- tion of animal heat is, to some extent at least, under con- trol of Iho nervous system. Chas. W. Greene. Animal Magnetism. See Mesmerism. Animal Mechanics. See Locomotion of Animals. Animals, Worship of, a form of worship prevalent in many ancient lands, as once in Egypt and Persia, and even now in India, where the earlier and purer knowledge of God had become obscure, and the likeness of the Deity was sought, and supposed to be found, in the forms of ani- mated nature. The historical fact is exactly sketched by Paul in Romans i. 21-23. An'ima Mun'di is a Latin phrase signifying "soul of the world." It was used by ancient philosophers, who supposed that nature or all matter was pervaded by an ethereal essence and vital force, which organized and actu- ated created beings, but was inferior to the Divine Spirit. The Atman (Atma) or Param&tmfi, of the Hindoos was also regarded as the soul of the world in a somewhat different sense. The AtmSn was supposed to be the original life- principle from which the universe was evolved. ANIME— ANNA IVANOVNA. 151 An'im^y a resin which exudes from Hymensea Courbarily a tree of the natural order Leguminosse, and a native of Brazil. It has been used as a medicine and as incense. In England the name animS is applied to a resin known in India as copal, and obtained from the Vateria Indtca. A'nio (the modern Tevero'ne), a river of Latium (Italy), flowed nearly westward, passed by Tibur, and entered the Tiber 4 miles N. of Rome. Length, about 55 miles. An- cient Rome was in part supplied with water from the Anio by two aqueducts, respectively 43 and 62 miles long. Aoion. See Anode. An'ise, Oil of, an essential oil obtained by distilling anise seeds or star anise with water. Oil of fennel, from Anethum fcemculum and Artemisia Dracnnculus, is of a similar chemical composition. Oil of anise and of fennel contain a hydrocarbon oil, said to be isomeric with oil of turpentine, and an oxidized oil, C10H12O, called anethol or anise camphor, which solidifies at temperatures below 10° C. An'ise Seed, the fruit of the Pimpinel'la Ani'tum, an annual herbaceous plant of the order Umbelliferae, is a native of Egypt. It is cultivated in Syria, Malta, Spain, and Germany, and is used in medicine as a stimulant and a carminative. It is also used to flavor liqueurs And as a condiment. Anise seed contains a volatile oil which is em- ployed for similar purposes. A large part of the anise oil of commerce is from star anise, the fruit of Illicium amaatnm, a small tree of the order Magnoliacese. The whole plant is carminative, and is used by the Chinese as a spice. Its properties are those of the Pimpinella. It is imported from Anam and China. An'ise Tree [so named from the smell, which resem- bles that of anise], a name applied to two small trees or large shrubs of the order Magnoliacese, growing in the Gulf States — the Illicium Floridanum and the Illicium par- viflorum. Both are evergreen, the former with dark purple and the latter with small yellow flowers, appearing in May and June. The star anise oil of commerce is the product of the Illicium anisatum of Eastern Asia ; and it is believed that the same oil might be obtained from the Illicium Flor- idanum. The Illicinm pai-vijlorum has a taste and smell re- sembling those of sassafras. The Illicium religiosum of China yields a fragrant incense for temple-worship. Anis'ic Ac'id (H.CsHvGs), produced by the oxidation of anise-camphor and of the oils of anise and fennel. Hydride of anisyl, C8HYO2.H, is formed at the same time. Anis'ic Al'cohol (CsHgO.H.O) is formed by heating hydride of anisyl with potash. Anisodac'tyls, or Anisodac'tylac [from the Gr. aviaoi;, "unequal," and Box-rvko^, a "finger" or "toe"], the term applied to an order of birds, including those inses- sorial species the toes of which are of unequal length, as in the nuthatch. The name has been also applied to the odd-toed section of ungulate Mammalia, in which the toes are of unequal number, more often called perissodactyls. An'isol, or Phe'nate of Me'thyl, (C,HeO = CH3.- CsHjO), a colorless aromatic liquid formed by the action _ of caustic baryta on anisic acid. Anisol Red. See Azo-Coloks. Anisson-Duperron( Alexandre Jacques Lavhent), a French political economist, born in 1776.. He was created a peer in 1844. He wrote, besides other works, a treatise in favor of free trade. Aniu'y, or Aniiu (Greatee), a river of N. E. Sibe- ria, rises about lat. 67° N., and, after a course of 270 miles, enters the Kolyma near lat. 68° N. The Lesser Anidy rises in lat. 66° 30' N., and falls into the Kolyma near the mouth of the Greater Aniuy. Length, about 250 miles. Anjier', a seaport of Java, on the Sunda Straits, 69 miles W. of Batavia, is often touched at by vessels bound for Batavia, to take in provisions, and to land the mails and passengers, which go to Batavia overland. Aiyou, a former province and duchy of France, in- tersected by the river Loire, was inhabited in ancient times by the Andegavi, who were conquered by Csesar. It now forms the department of Maine-et-Loire and part of Sarthe, Mayenne, and Indre-et-Loire. Its capital was Angers. Geofi'roy, count of Anjou, married MTatilda, a daughter of Henry I. of England, and was the founder of the royal house of Plantagenet. His son Henry was count of Anjou and king of England. Anjou was annexed to the crown of France about 1204, and was bestowed as a fief on Charles (a brother of Saint Louis), who became king of Naples. Louis, a son of King John, was the first duke of Anjou, which was erected into a duchy about 1360. Anjott was finally annexed to the French crown in 1480, after which the younger sons of several kings bore the honorary title of duke of Anjou. Pop. about 550,000. Ank'arstrSm (Johan Jakob), a Swedish regicide, bom in 1761, was a partisan of the aristocracy. Having formed a conspiracy with Count Horn and others, he assassinated Gustavus III. at a masked ball, Mar. 16, 1792. Ho was condemned to death, and, after he had been publicly whip- ped, was beheaded April 29 of that year. An'ker, the name of an old European liquid measure of capacity, now disused everywhere except in Denmark and Norway, and having different values in different coun- tries. The anker of Copenhagen is a little more than 9^ IT. S. gallons, or a little less than 8i imperial gallons. The anker of Hamburg was 9.54 gallons ; of Bremen, 9.57 gals. ; of Lubec, 9.89 gals. ; of Amsterdam, lOi gals. ; and of Ber- lin (old measure), 12.45 gals. ; later measure, 9.07 gals. Ank'lam, or Anclam, a town of Prussia, in Pomc- rania, is on the Peene, 109 miles by rail N. of Berlin. It has manufactures of linen and woollen goods. It belonged formerly to the Hanseatic League. Pop. of the town in 1880, 12,361. Anko'ber, Ankobar, or Ancober, a town of Abys- sinia, the capital of Shoa, is situated 8200 feet above (he level of the sea, and about 265 miles S. B. of Gfindar. It contains a royal palace, and is a favorite residence of the monarch. Pop. estimated at from 12,000 to 16,000. Ankylo'sis, or Anchylosis [from the Gr. iyniKo^, "bent"], in surgery, a stiffened and more or less fixed and immovable joint, so called from the crooked position ofteii seen in limbs with such joints. Ankylosis may result from suppurative infiammation, as in " white swelling " of the knee, and is to be regarded as a favorable termination of such disease. These cases result often in neo-plastic exu- dations — new tissues — adhering to the cartilages of both articulating bones ; and not unfrequently these new growths are partly or completely ossified, converting the two bones into one. The cartilages or ligaments of a joint may be- come shrunken from disease, the opposing synovial mem- branes may adhere to each other, or other important struc- tural changes may prevent motion. " Spurious ankylosis " is a case in which a spasm or cicatricial contraction of the muscles, or even of the skin, prevents motion, while the joint itself is not the seat of disease. Cases of so-called hysteria, sometimes are accompanied by a stiffness of one or more joints ; but such cases are readily detected after the adminstration of an anaesthetic, when the joint at once becomes movable. The prospect of recovery of motion in an ankylosed joint is small indeed. Joints stiffened at an inconvenient angle may be put into better shape during anaesthesia, and then be allowed to become ankylosed again in the desired posi- tion.. Excision of joints has been considerably practised, and with some success as a means of cure. An'na, on B. R., Union co., 111. (see map of Illinois, ref. 1 1-E, for location of county), 37 miles N. of Cairo. Pop. in 1870, 1269 ; in 1880, 1494. Anna, Saint, is supposed to have been the mother of the Virgin Mary, but she is not mentioned in the Bible. The Roman Catholic Church in Austria and other coun- tries celebrates an annual festival in her honor July 26th. An'naberg', a mining-town of Saxony, in the Erz- gebirge, 18 miles S. of Chemnitz. It has mines of silver, cobalt, and tin, and manufactures of lace and silk ribbons. Pop. in 1880, 12,956. An'na Carlov'na, regent of Russia, born in 1718, was a daughter of the duke of Mecklenburg, and a niece of Anna Ivanovna, empress of Russia. She was married in 1739 to Anton Ulrich, duke of Brunswick-Wolfenbiittel, and had a son, Ivan, whom Anna Ivanovna designated as her successor. Soon after the death of that empress, in Oct., 1740, Anna Carlovna assumed the office of regent. She was deprived of power by a conspiracy which raised Elizabeth to the throne in Dec, 1741. Died Mar. 18, 1746. An'na Comne'na, a learned Byzantine princess and writer, born Dec. 1, 1083, was a daughter of Alexis I., em- peror of Constantinople. She was carefully educated in poetry, science, and Greek philosophy, was famous for her beauty and talents, and became the wife of Nicephorus Bryennius. On the death of her father, in 1118, she con- spired against her brother John, and attempted to usurp the crown or to place it on the head of her husband, but failed. She afterward became engaged in literary pur- suits, and wrote in Greek a life of her father, entitled the " Alexiad," which is an important historical document. The style is rather affected. Died in 1148. An'na Ivanov'na, empress of Russia, bom at Moscow Jan. 25, 1693, was a daughter of Ivan, a brother of Peter the Great. She was married in 1710 to the duke of Cour- land, who died in 1711. She succeeded Peter II. on the throne in 1730, and permitted her favorite Birento control the empire. He abused his power with great cruelty, and 152 ANNALS -ANNEALING. executed and banished many thousand persons. She died Oct. 28, 1740, and was succeeded by Ivan. An'nals, official chronicles of events kept by the Roman poiUlfex maximus down to 131 B. C. When Rome was sacked by the Gauls, 390 B. C, all the existing annals were destroyed except a few fragments, which is one cause of the obscurity of early Roman history. History in the form of annals was afterward written by private citizens. The Chinese claim similar annals of the history of their nation back as far as 3000 B. C. Annam, Asia. See Anam. Aii'nandale, Dnohess co., N.Y.Cseemap of New York, ref. 6-J, for location of county), the seat of St. Stephen's College (Epis.). Pop. in 1870, 3+7 ; in 1880, 221. An'na Peren'na was a goddess of the Roman my- thology. According to Virgil and Ovid, she was a daughter of Belus and sister of Dido. She went to Italy, and was received kindly by ^neas. Her favor was invoked by the Romans to obtain health and long life. An'na Petrov'na, eldest daughter of Peter the Great of Russia and his empress Catharine, born in 1708, was married to Charles Frederick, duke of Holstein, in 1725. She was mother of Peter III. of Russia. Died in 1727. Annapolis, or Annapolis Royal, a seaport of Nova Scotia, at the mouth of the river Annapolis (which enters the Bay of Fundy). It is one of the oldest settlements in North America, and was founded in 1604 by the French, who called it Port Royal. The harbor is good, but difiScult of access. This town was the capital of the province until 1750. Pop. of census subdistrict in 1881, 2833. Annapolis, city, on R. R., capital of Maryland, and of Anne Arundel county (see map of Maryland, ref. 3-F, for location of county), is,a port of entry on the S. bank of the Severn River, 2 miles from its entrance into Chesa- peake Bay, 20 miles S. by E. of Baltimore, and 22 miles E. by N. of Washington, 40 miles by rail to either of these cities, and 30 miles by water (steamboat) to Baltimore. Annapolis contains a state-house, governor's mansion. State Capitol (Annapolis, Md.). court-house and jail. It is also the seat of St. John's College and the U. S. Naval Academy, which was founded here in 1845. (See Naval Academy, by Prop. R. S.Smith). The harbor, or Annapolis Roads, is one of the finest in the country, there being a depth of 60 feet in the channel up to Round Bay in the Severn River, 7 miles from the city. The city has both gas and water works. Lot. 38° 68' 50" N., Ion. 76° 29' W. Pop. in 1870, 5744; in 1880, 6642. Ann Ar'bor, city and important R. R. centre, capital of Washtenaw co., Mich, (see map of Michigan, ref. 8-J, for location of county), on the Huron River, 33 miles W. of Detroit. The situation is elevated and pleasant. Here is the State University, a flourishing institution, founded in 1837. (See Michigan Univehsitv.) Ann Arbor contains manufactures of wool, iron, ploughs, and furniture, and has a valuable mineral spring. Pop. in 1870, 7363: in 1880, 8061 ; in 1884, 7912. An-Wa'sir (or Al-Nassir) liedinil'lah (i. e. "the defender of the religion of God "), one of the Abassidc ca- liphs, began to reign at Bagdad in 1180. He was a liberal patron of learning, and successfully defended his domin- ions against several aggressive enemies. Died in 1225. An'nates (plu.), [Late Lat., from atlnua, a "year" {i. e. a " year's wages ")], the tax of " first-fruits," a tax imposed by the popes on all bishops on their accession, and equal to one year's revenue of the benefice. The Council of Pisa (1409) complained of the custom; that of Bale (1435) called it simony; that of Trent (Nov. 11, 1563) prohibited it, but it was recognized by concordat with Naples in 1818. In England, annates were first levied in 1213. In 1534 they were made payable to the king (Henry VIII.) instead of the pope. (See Queen Anne's Bounty.) Annatto. See Annotto. Anne of Cleves, the fourth queen of Henry VIII. of England, who married her, to please the Protestants, in Jan., 1540. She was divorced in July of the same year, and retired to private life on a penson of £3000 per annum. She was daughter of John, duke of Cleves, and was born Sept. 22. 1515. Died at Chelsea July 16, 1557, and was buried at AVestminster Abbey. Anne, queen of Great Britain and Ireland, the last sovereign of the house of Stuart, was born at Twickenham, near London, on the 6th of Feb., 1664. She was the sec- ond daughter of James II. and Anne Hyde, who was a daughter of the famous Lord Clarendon. She was edu- cated in the Protestant religion, to which she afterwards manifested a constant devotion, although her father, after his accession to the throne, attempted to convert her to the Roman Catholic faith. In 1683 she was married to Prince George of Denmark, a brother of Christian V. At an early age she formed an intimacy with Sarah Jennings (after- wards the duchess of Marlborough), who exercised an almost unbounded influence over her, both before and after her accession to the throne. Anne was the mother of many (seventeen) children, all of whom died young and before she became queen. In the revolution of 1688 she supported the cause of the prince of Orange, but she was afterwards implicated in intrigues for the restoration of her father. Anne succeeded William III., who died Mar. 8, 1702, at a time when the strife of parties was extremely violent. She pursued the foreign policy of the late king, which involved England in the long war of the Spanish succession as the ally of Austria and tho enemy of France. Among the im- portant events of her reign were a number of signal vic- tories gained by the duke of Marlborough over the armies of Louis XIV., and the union of England and Scotland in 1707. Her political principles, if she had any, were favor- able to royal prerogative rather than constitutional liberty, and rendered her partial to the Tories. Anne became gradually alienated from the duchess of Marlborough, who was a Whig, and transferred her favoritism to Mrs. Masham, whose intrigues undermined the Whig party so eff'ectually that the Tory statesmen, the earl of Oxford and Lord Bo- lingbroke, came into power in 1710. The queen and these Tory ministers concurred in designs and intrigues to secure the succession to her brother, the Pretender. The Euro- pean war was ended by the treaty of Utrecht, April 11, 1713. Lord Bolingbroke became prime minister in place of the earl of Oxford in July, 1714. Anne died of apo- plexy on the 1st of Aug., 1714, and was succeeded by George I. The period of her reign, illustrated by the genius of Newton, Addison, Pope, Bolingbroke, Swift, Dc Foe, and Arbuthnot, was almost as celebrated in literature as the Augustan age of Rome. (See Oldmixon, " Life of Queen Anne," 1716; Strickland, "Lives of the Queens of England.") Anneal'ing [from the Saxon on-mlan, to " set on fire,'' to "make hot," to "burn"], a process of tempering glass and certain metals by heating them and then cooling them slowly, in order to render them less brittle and more tena- cious. The exti-eme brittleness of glass that has not been annealed is seen in the glass toys called " Prince Rupert's Drops," which if scratched with a file will collapse into powder or small fragments. Glass vessels are annealed in a long oven, one end of which is hotter than the other, and the trays in which the vessels are placed are slowly drawn into cooler and cooler parts. The operation of annealing large vessels requires several days. Iron, brass, and other metals which are hammered into plates or drawn into wire become brittle during the process, and require to be an- nealed by cooling them slowly in water or air. Steel is tempered and hardened by a process of annealing, being placed in an oil-bath or surrounded by a metallic com- pound which has a low fusing-point. The soft metals are annealed by immersion in water, which is boiled and then cooled slowly. ANNECY— ANOINTING. 153 Annecy, u town of Eastern France, in Upper Savoy, is pleasantly situated at the N. W. extremity of Annecy Lake, 22 miles by rail S. of Geneva. It has a cathedral, a bishop's palace, a church in which are preserved the relics of St. Francis de Sales, an old castle, formerly the residence of the counts of Geneva), glass-works, cotton-mills, etc. It was once the capital of the counts of Geneva. It passed from them to the counts of Savoy, afterward kings of Sardinia, who ceded it to the French in 1860. It shows traces of Koman origin. Pop. in 1881, 11,334. Annecy, Lake of, is in Upper Savoy, 22 miles S. of Geneva, about 24 miles W. of Mont Blanc, and 1426 feet above the sea. It is about 9 miles long and from 1 to 2 miles wide. Its waters are discharged through the Fieran into the Rhone. Anneke (Mathilde F. G.). See Appendix. An'nelides, or AnneKida (plu.), [Lat. anneVluB, a "little ring"], an order of articulate animals belonging to the class Vermes, comprising those true worms which have red blood circulating in a complicated double system of vessels. As at present constituted, the order contains three families — 1, the Serpuladse, or Tubicolae j 2, the ArenieolEe, or sand-worms, called Dorsibranchiatse j 3, Lumbricidae, or earth-worms — but writers variously expand or limit the order ; some making it to include a part or all of the Bra- chiopoda and other moUuscoids. An'^ni, or Ani (anc. Ab^nicum), a ruined city of Asiatic Turkey, on the Arpa-Chai River, 28 miles E. by S. of Kars. It was the capital of the Bagratian kings of Armenia until 1064, when it was taken by Alp-Arsl9,n, and was destroyed by an earthquake in 1319. Here are ruins of an ancient palace and citadel; also some Armeniaa churches nearly entire. These ruins plainly show the former importsjipuce of the city, and many are of great architectural beauty. Anniston, Ala. See Appendix. An'nius of Viter'bo [It. An^nio da Viter'ho], a learned Italian Dominican monk, whose proper name was Giovanni Nanni, was born at Viterbo about 1432. He wrote a Latin "Treatise on the Empire of the Turks" (1471). He published at Rome, in 1498, "Seventeen Vol- umes of Various Antiquities, with Commentaries," con- taining extracts from the lost works of Berosus, Manetho, and other ancient historians, which proved to be forgeries. D. in 1502. Anniver'sary [from the Lat. an'nua, a "year," and ver^Bo, to "turn"], the annua) return of a memorable day; the day on which some remarkable event is annually cele- brated. Among the Jews the Passover was an anniversary in commemoration of the exodus from Egypt. The prin- cipal religious anniversaries of Christians are Christmas, Epiphany, and Easter. Anniversary days in the Roman Catholic Church are days on which an office is annually performed for the souls of the deceased. The most popu- lar anniversary of the U. S. is the Fourth of July. Annobom', or Annabo'na, an is,land, 4 miles long and 2 wide, situated in the Gulf of Guinea, was discovered Jan. 1, 1473, by the Portuguese, and has a population of about 3000. Annonay [Lat. AnnonB&'um or Annoni' acuni], a town of France, in the department of ArdSche, is situated 37 miles S. S. W. of Lyons, at the junction of the rivers Cance and B6aume. It has a suspension bridge and large man- ufactories of glove-leather. Paper of fine quality is made here. The Montgolfiers, who invented balloons, were na- tives of the town. Pop. in 1881, 17,291. Annot^to, or Annat'to^ a red coloring-matter, is the pulp of the seeds of the Bixa orellana, an exogenous shrub which grows in South America and the "West Indies, and belongs to the natural order Flacourtiacese. It is soluble in alcohol, ether, and in potash and soda, either caustic or carbonated. It contains a yellow principle called bixin. It is used as a dye, but its colors are fugitive. The pulp is used to color cheese, is an ingredient in some varnishes, and is employed in medicine to color ointments and plas- ters. In South America annotto is mixed with chocolate to improve the flavor. Annuaire [from the Lat. an'nua, a "year"], a name given to certain French publications which appear annu- ally, as the "Annuaire historique" or " Annuaire des Deux Mondes," which corresponds to the English "Annual Reg- ister." The "Annuaire" published by the bureau of long- itudes is a celebrated scientific periodical. An'nual [Lat. annua'lia, from an'nue, a "year"], a botanical term applied to a plant which lives only one year; a plant which within the space of a year passes from a seed into aperfoct plant, bears its fruit, and perishes. The duration of the life of annuals is generally much less than a year. Some plants which are annuals in one climate are perennial in another, as the castor-oil plant. Annual, a name given by the English to a class of illustrated publications which were designed for Christmas gifts and birthday presents, and enjoyed for some years extraordinary popularity. They contained contributions in verse and prose from distinguished living authors, and were illustrated with engravings by the best artists of the time. The first of these annuals was the " Forget-me-Not," edited by Frederick Shoberl, in 1822. "The Literary Souvenir," edited by A. A. Watts, appeared in 1824; and the " Keepsake " was commenced by Charles Heath in 1827. It was afterwards edited by the countess of Blessington. Among the other remarkable annuals was Heath's "Book of Beauty," first issued in 1833. After 1840 the demand for annuals diminished and their quality deteriorated. They havo all been long discontinued. Annu'lty [Lat. annu'itaa, from an'nua, a **year;" Fr. annuiti'], a rent or sum of money which a person is entitled to receive every year. If the payment is to be continued through a period of uncertain length, it is called a contin- gent annuity J if it is payable for a definite number of years, it is an anmiity certain, A person who has unemployed capital may find it advantageous to convert it into an an- nual income, which he is entitled to receive as long as ho lives, and which is called a life annuity. The person who receives an annuity is called an annuitant. An annual in- come which is not to be paid until a number of years have elapsed is a deferred annuity. Those who invest money in the national debt of England are entitled to an income which is virtually a perpetual annuity, so that when each annuitant dies he may leave it to his heir. The accurate determination of the value of annuities in present money is a complex question of great importance and considerable difficulty, for the solution of which correct tables of vital statistics are requisite. The rate of interest is also an im- portant element in the calculation of annuities. Great labor has been expended by several learned men in the formation of tables of the value of life annuities at all the diflferent ages of human life. Annuity, in the law of England, is a sum of money payable every year, and charged on the person or personal estate of the individual who is bound to pay it; thus dif- fering from a rent-charge, which is charged on real estate. Annuities are often paid by a person who borrows money (who is called the grantor) to the person who lends the money (who is the grantee). An annuity is either for a term of years, for a life or lives, or in perpetuity ; and the last, although charged on personal property, may descend as real estate. An'nulus [Lat., a "ring"], a botanical term used in several senses. In mosses it denotes a rim external with respect to the peristome; in ferns it is an elastic rib which girds the theca or spore-case, and by its contraction dis- perses the spores : the collar which surrounds the stipes of some fungi just below the hymenium is also called an an- nulus. Annuncia'da (the Order of Knights of the Annuncia- tion) was founded by Amadeus VI. of Savoy in 1362, and was originally called the Order of the Collar. The reigning king of Italy is grand master of the order. Annuncia'tion, Feast of, a festival of the Church in commemoration of the announcement of the,conception of the Saviour to the Virgin Mary by the angel Gabriel. It is celebrated on the 25th of March, which is called Lady Bay. Ann'ville, on R. R., Lebanon co.. Pa. (see map of Pennsylvania, rcf. o-H, for location of" county), is the seat of Leban-on Valley College. Pop. in 1880, 1431. Ano'a^ a species of ruminating animal of the genus Bn'balus, having the horns erect; it is considered by some to be a connecting link between an antelope and a buffalo. It lives in Celebes. An'ode [from the Gr. avoho^, a "wny up "], a term used in the science of electrolysis to denote the positive pole, or that surface by which the galvanic current enters the body (electrolyte) undergoing decomposition. The negative pole, or the surface by which the current goes out, is called cath- ode. The elements of electrolytes are called tone, and those which go to the anode are named anions. Thus, in the de- composition of water by a galvanic battery, water is the electrolyte, the platinum plate connected with the positive pole is the anode, and the oxygen is the anion. An'odyne [from the Gr. iv, priv., and 66v>i|, "pain"], a medicine which diminishes pain. Opium, morphine, the anassthetics, belladonna, cannabis Indica, etc. are the chief anodynes — most of which tend actively to cause sleep. Some hypnotics, or sleep-producers, however, like chloral, are not anodynes. Anoint'ing [from the Lat. in, and nn'go, une'tum (Fr. oindre, part. oin<), to "anoint"], an Oriental custom of 154 ANOKA— ANSOEGE. pouring aromatic oil on the head as a mark of honor. It was practised at the coronation of kings and the consecra- tion of high priests and prophets, as in the case of Saul, David, Aaron and his sons. Spikenard, myrrh, and olive oil were sometimes used for this purpose. Anointing forms a part of the ceremonial of various sacraments in the Roman Catholic and the different Oriental churches. Anoka, city on R. R., capital of Anoka co., Minn, (see map of Minnesota, ref. 9-F, for location of county), on the left bank of the Mississippi, at the mouth of Rum River, or Miile Lac, 27 miles N. N. W. of St. Paul. It has a valuable water-power. Pop. in 1S80, 2706 ; in 1885, 4629. Ano'lis [from a native name, ano'li], a group of igua- noid saurian reptiles, natives of the warm parts of Amer- ica, most of which are remarkable for their power of in- flating the skin of the throat. They move with great agility and exhibit great brilliancy of color, which is sus- ceptible of change, and has consequently caused them to be popularly called chameleons, from which, however, they are very distinct. About sixty species are known. Anomalis'tic Year, the interval of time in which the earth completes a revolution with respect to any point in its orbit, or the interval which elapses between two suc- cessive passages of the earth through its perihelion. It is four minutes and thirty-nine seconds longer than a sidereal year, and its length is 365 days, 6 hours, 13 minutes, and 45 seconds. Anom'aly [G-r. ip, priv., and bna\6i, "level"], in as- tronomy, the angular distance of a planet from its perihe- lion. The anomaly as above defined is the true anomaly. If we suppose a fictitious planet to set out from perihelion with the true planet, and to revolve uniformly about the sun at such a rate as to return to perihelion at the same time as the true planet, the anomaly of the fictitious planet is called the mean aiimnaly. The difference between the true and the mean anomaly at any moment is the corre- sponding equation of the centre. Ano'mia [from the fir. o, priv., and xd/uo;, a "law," so called because it does not/conform to the law of struc- ture characterizing other mollusks], a Linnaean genus of the Vermes Testacea. Modern naturalists have limited the term to a genus of acephalous mollusks having two un- equal, irregular thin valves, of which the flatter one is deeply notched at the cardinal margin. The central muscle traverses this opening to be inserted into a third piece (calcareous or horny), which is always attached to foreign bodies. Numerous species, living and fossil, are found in nearly all parts of the world. Ano'na [from ano'na, the Sp. name of the custard-ap- ple], a genus of exogenous trees of the natural order Ano- naceae, natives of hot climates. Anona Hqnamosa bears an edible fruit called the custard-apple, because its seeds are suiTOunded by a whitish, sweet, cream-like pulp. The cherimoya, an excellent fruit of Peru, is produced by the Anona Cherimolia. Anona'ceEe [so called from Ano'na, one of its genera], an order of exogenous trees or shrubs, mostly natives of tropical countries, and evergreen, having simple, alternate leaves. They are generally aromatic and fragrant. The distinguishing mark of the order is that they have trimer- ous polypetalous flowers and a ruminated albumen. This order comprises about 300 species, some of which bear delicious fruits. The fruit of the Xylopia aromatica is used as pepper by the natives of Africa. The order is represent- ed in the U. S. by four species of pawpaw (Aaimina) or custard-apple. Anon'ymous [from the Gr. av, priv., and owfia, a "name"], nameless; a term applied to books published without the name of the author. Those which appear under an assumed name are called paeudonymous. The po- litical articles of the English journals are generally anony- mous, and so are the critical articles in the great quarterly reviews. Anonymous books cause much difficulty and per- plexity to bibliographers and the compilers of catalogues. The best account or catalogue of such works is Barbier's " Dictionnaire des Ouvrages Anonymcs et Pseudonymes" (3 vols., 1822-24). Anoplothe'rinm [from the Gr. av