iSeto gorfe &tatc College of Agriculture at Cornell ©ntbersitp atbata, i?. 9. Hifirarp SEED CONTROL: ITS AIMS, METHODS, AND BENEFITS. GILBERT H. HICKS, OF THE Division of Botany, United States Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C. BOSTON: Press of Rockwell and Churchili^. I 896. Cornell University Library The original of tiiis book is in tine Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924000716757 SEED CONTROL: ITS AIMS, METHODS, AND BENEFITS. It seems like a waste of time to call the attention of the farmer, gardener, and fruit grower to the importance of planting good seed. From the remotest period it has been known that men cannot gather grapes from thorns or figs from thistles, and yet this is being attempted to a considerable extent in American husbandry every year. Many farmers are dissatisfied with the low prices their products bring, with high tariffs and low tariffs, with the weather, and multitudinous other unfavorable conditions for profitable agricult- ure ; yet only a few — a surprisingly small number — attach due weight to the fact that one of the very foundations of success for them is pure seed, germinable and true to name. It is unques- tionably true that the present conditions in this country, including the sharp competition with both home and foreign products, render the profitable pursuit of agriculture exceedingly precarious, at least in many cases. I believe, on the other hand, that it is equally true that by proper attention to business, by using the best seeds, the best soil, and the best methods of cultivation and marketing, every farmer and gardener can make for himself a comfortable living and by proper frugality accumulate a substan- tial store for future necessities. It is urged that there is already a plethoric yield of agricult- ural products, — more than our markets demand. While this may apply to inferior or mediocre articles, it does not hold good for those of the best quality. Every year sees a larger demand for first-class vegetables, fruits, and cereals. Americans of the present time are living more highly than they used to, and are willing to pay high prices for the best table luxuries. The man who raises the best crops, then, is coming out away ahead of liis neighbors who are content to " make a living ; " indeed, the time seems to be fast approaching in America when the husbandman who does not apply brains as well as fertilizers to his fields will not be able to make even a living. The listlessness which exists in some quarters at present must give way to intensive application of the right sort. The trouble is not that the agriculturist does not work hard enough, but that in many cases his labors are misdirected and futile. Of what use is it if a man works a piece of ground early and late, in season and out, if he plants tares when he wants wheat ? Some of the conditions for successful crops are beyond the control of the producer, but such conditions are being gradually lessened. In the matter of good seed it would seem at first sight that any one could obtain it by paying the price asked. Indeed, some American seedsmen would have us believe that it is difficult in this country to procure any other kind, — that all of the trashy seed of which we read is sold in Europe. We wish to state at the outset that we have no grievance whatever against American seedsmen as a class ; that the trade numbers as honorable men as can be found in any profession; and our remarks at this time will apply only to the abuses of the American seed trade, from the wholesaler down to the hardware merchant or grocer in a country village, who sells his customers old garden seeds that not even the trump of Gabriel could induce to come up. It makes no difference to the farmer whether his seed comes directly from the large dealer or from the village merchant, if it does not germinate or turn out to be what he ordered. He does not stop to quibble over the point made by a recent writer in an American journal, that a man who sells bad seed is not a seedsman. If this be true, we shall have to get new names for the butcher who sells tainted meat and the grocer who adulterates his wares. After a careful study of this subject, including the testing of a considerable quantity of seeds and conversation with some of our prominent seedsmen, I am prepared to state without fear of suc- cessful contradiction, what any one may easily find out for him- self, if he takes a little trouble, that there is an immense amount of trashy and inferior seed sold in this country every year and we believe the time is fully ripe for the inauguration of seed con- trol methods in the United States. Such methods would benefit the first-class seedsmen fully as much, if not more, than the consumers themselves. As it now is even the man who pays a high price for seed cannot always get it, though, on the other hand, it Should be noted that some farmers get poor seed because it costs less than a good quality, and therefore they consider it cheap. No intel- ligent man needs to be told that such seed is dear at any price, and likely to entail a long series of losses from the fouling of his land and the introduction of inferior strains of agricultural plants. Poor seed may be classified as follows : 1. Impure. 2. Not true to name. 3. Of low vitality. Impurities may be either accidental, due to imperfect handling or cleaning, such as weed seeds, chaff, dirt, and foreign seeds ; or the result of deliberate fraud, as " killed " seed, artificially col- ored sand, admixtures of seeds of inferior value, etc. If the impurity consists only of inert matter, i.e., sand, chaff, and " killed " seeds, the wrong lies in the fact that the buyer pays for something which is of no value, but which cannot injure his land or crops. On the other hand, where seeds of weeds occur the farmer not only sows but carefully cultivates plants which are not only usurping the place of the crops he desires; but may even poison his family and stock. This last statement is an extreme case, but one not at all uncommon. If the seeds are not true to name a great loss is entailed to the farmer from the fact that an entire crop, with all tha cost and labor it implies, has been wasted. However,^ in cases of this kind, e.g., if a gardener plants a field to some particular variety of radish and it turns out to be totally different from the kind ordei'ed, the buyer has heretofore had redress by claiming dam- ages against the seedsman for obtaining money by false pretense. Numerous cases of this kind have occurred in America, but dealers are usually careful to avoid such difficulties. With regard to weed seeds, upon which much stress is laid by Seed Control Stations, it is possible that their baneful effects are sometimes overestimated by those forming an opinion on the value of commercial seed, judged from the standpoint of the 6 germination of the former. Experiments conducted with a few kinds of weed seeds tend to show that the seeds of some of our native plants produce a small number of seedlings as compared with those of cultivated plants. A large number of our worst weeds are perennial and, although they produce seeds, do not depend upon this method for self preservation ; hence their seeds frequently show a small germinating capacity. A very large proportion of our serious annual weedSj on the other hand, pro- duce enormous numbers of seeds, apparently upon the principle that, in some cases at least, but few of them will germinate. Again, the conditions of germination of many weeds seem to be different from those of cultivated plants, in that the seeds of the former often require a long period of rest, and perhaps, also, alternate freezing and thawing, before they will germinate. However, in such cases, while the injurious effects may not be seen immediately, the weeds are likely to appear in future crops, when least expected. Professor G-off, of Wisconsin, found that seeds of " Redroot " {Amaranthus retroflexus) would not ger- minate at all when fresh, but after being kept for several years in a bag in a dry place they sprouted quite well. On the other hand, Dr. J. C. Arthur, after conducting a test with various weed seeds at the New York Experiment Station in 1887, came to the conclusion that some species became incapable of germinating after being kept dry three or four months, and therefore he thinks that the danger of fouling land from sowing weed seeds with farm or garden seeds is not so great as commonly supposed. Seeds of Russian thistle, collected October 30, were tested in our laboratory the following May. After fourteen days but ]5.5 per cent had germinated. Seeds of the same species one year and a half old failed to sprout at all during the same period. The truth is that too little work has been done along this line to warrant any definite conclusions. There is a field for study here which is well worth the attention of those engaged in Seed Control. In general, however, it may be said that no seed should be sold which contains as high as five per cent of weed seeds. In making reports on impurities, the European Seed Control Stations take into account the kind of weed seeds present in a sample. Eor example, ia the Scandinavian Stations the follow- ing, among others, are reckoned as "bad" weed seeds: cockle chess, Canada thistle, dodder, wild mustard, sow thistle, creeping buttercup, wild chamomile. Such seeds, though they may ,be scarce in a sample, would readily spread throughout a field. In the case of dodder, Russian thistle, and some other weeds, no commercial seed is worth sowing if it contains a single seed of these species which is capable of germinating. The third cause of poor seed, namely, low vitality, furnishes the greatest argument for seed control. lu this respect the buyer, under present conditions, is most likely to be defrauded, and in such a manner that it is very -difficult for him to obtain redress,,- ^ Siost people judge of the germinating quality of seed from its appearance. If plump, sound, and glossy it is presumed to be germinable. Some go so far as to throw a handful of seed upon a hot stove ; if it pops open suddenly it is supposed to be good. Others test their seed by placing a small quantity in water ; if it sinks it is thought sound; if it floats it is considered dead. Neither test is at all satisfactory. In the latter case a layer of air closely enveloping the seed often keeps good seed afloat, while poor seed may sink as readily, since the speciflc gravity of seeds is greater tlian that of water. The appearance of seed cannot be relied upon in forming an estimate of germinative ability. An artificial gloss is often given to seed in the process of cleaning. Modern seed-cleaning machinery is constructed not only to take out foreign matter, but also, in many instances, with attachments which clean the surface of the grains. The rubbing of the seeds together, of itself, gives them a glossy appearance. Sometimes polishing brushes are used with the express object of making old seed look like new. Cases are even known where seeds have been rubbed against oiled surfaces for the same purpose. Without stopping here to discuss the subject of possible injury to the seed coat which any artificial treatment is likely to pro- duce, — a belief which prevails among the best seedsmen of the country, for which reason such seedsmen do not use polishers, — it is evident that a glossy surface affords no certain criterion of the vitality of seed. Furthermore, there is not always strict uniformity in the color of seeds, even of the same variety. Dull- looking seeds often germinate better than shiny ones of the same species. Nevertheless it is true that some seeds, especially the clovers, rapidly lose their bright color with age ; hence in some instances the color test, to the eyes of an expert, is very use- ful. However, the most practised eye is readily dQceived in this respect. In the matter of vitality the buyer of seed is at a great dis- advantage: The dealer usually claims that with proper condi- tions seed of a considerable age will germinate well. If one purchases seed and it does not come up, the seedsman coolly tells him that it was not the fault of the seed, but of the manner of planting, state of the weather, etc. Most of them in their catalogues take particular pains to emphasize this statement. The dealer says his seed is good, for he has carefully tested it and knows its viability. Furthermore, the seedsman tells us that, on account of the lively competition in the trade, no man can afford to sell seed of a poor germinating quality, since he would lose his business. How is it, then, that so much badly germinating seed is sold to American farmers ? This question is not so difficult to answer as one might think. The seedsman is in the business for what he can get out of it ; he has seed to sell, not to throw away. Like people in all other kinds of trade, he is often caught at the close of the season with much old stock on his hands. Does he test this at the beginning of the next season, and, finding that the germinatioa has de- creased ten or twenty, perhaps fifty per cent, sell it to the farmer at a corresponding reduction ? There may be such instances, but they are certainly the exception and not the rule. On the other hand, like a grocer or merchant in the same pre- dicament, the seedsman frequently works off his old stock to the best advantage. This is a common practice, and it is no secret at all among the trade. One of the most prominent clover seed dealers in the United States admitted to me that he sold old clover seed in this way. In other words, if it was not too old he made no discrimination to ordinary customers, but if he found that Jts germinating power was pretty low he mixed it with fresh seed in whatever proportions it would stand. I have talked with quite a number of seedsmen in the country upon this point, and have yet to learn of one who throws away all of his old seed or sells it to the public at a lower price. Of course, seedsmen themselves do not pay as much for old seed as for new if they can help it, but in many cases no differ- ence is made in the small lots sent out to the people, except that care is taken to mix in enough fresh seed to render the • sample salable. This, to a large extent, accounts for the fact that rare vegetable and flower seeds often show a remarkably low vitality — a more or less frequent experience of every horticulturist and farmer. In ordinary seasons of business the common seeds move rapidly in trade, but the rare sorts are apt to be left over from year to year. The fact that such seed always costs more than the ordinary varieties makes the evil a very exasperating one. To obviate, at least in a measure, the troubles arising from planting seed of low vitality, the seedsman frequently advises his customers to sow more seed per acre or rod than experiments have shown to be necessary if fresh seed were used. In fact, I may say, that with the present inadequate knowledge of seeds in this country, where the matter of prudence and economy has not entered into horticultural practices to the same extent as in Europe, there is very often an unnecessary waste in seed-sowing. Better pay more for good seed and sow only what is necessary. Labor will be saved both in the sowing and in thinning out the seedlings. This last point is a very important one where field or garden crops are raised upon a large scale. If the seedsman would sell two pounds of seed which is fifty per cent below the proper germinating standard at the same price as one pound of standard seed, the dishonest practice — I call it by its right name — of selling low germinating seed would be greatly lessened, but such is not the case. When seedsmen are asked to guarantee their seeds they make statements like the following (I am quoting now from the cata- logue of one of the oldest and most reliable seed firms in the United States) : " Seeds of the best possible quality will fail through improper treatment. Thus, if a small seed be sown so deeply that the young plant cannot reach the surface, the seeds, however good, will fail. More failures result from a want of proper knowledge of conditions necessary to germination than from bad quality of seeds themselves. Besides the conditions" (which are stated) " affecting the germination of the seed, the young plants, after they have made their way to the surface, are liable to various accidents ; a sudden current of very cold air, or a continued dry- 10 ing wiad, may check their growth, or destroy the young plants altogether. In addition, there are numerous insects, both below and above ground, that may attack the plants, some o± these being so small that they often destroy a crop before they are discovered. . . « For the above reasons, we wish to state in this explicit term, that, while we exercise great care to have all seeds pure, reliable, and true to name, our seeds are sold without any warranty, expressed or implied, and without any responsibility in respect to the crop. If our seeds are not accepted on these terms, they must be returned at once." The above is a fair sample of the kind of guarantees (?) offered by American seedsmen in general. Others, however, warrant seed to be of good vitality and true to name to the extent that they will refund money if not. Strange to say, however, the largest firms almost without exception expressly state that they will furnish no guarantee expressed or implied. But no guaran- tee from any firm whatever can take the place of an actual test made by a disinterested party. No one asks the seedsman to guarantee a crop ; that would be ' absurdly unreasonable. Neither, under seed control conditions, is it required that the seeds should come up after being planted in the field. As we shall see presently, in making germination tests the seeds are placed under the most favorable conditions and handled by experts from first to last, so that none of the common objections of seedsmen hold good, that no guarantee can be expected since " the very best seeds do not always give satis- faction on account of sowing too deep or too shallow ; too wet or too dry soil ; wet weather, cold weather, frosts, chemical changes induced by temperature, etc." The conditions which affect germination are very complex, and the subject is a very interesting one, but we cannot treat it here. Suffice it to say that not only do different varieties of seed germi- nate best under conditions different from those of other varieties, but also that differences in season, climate, soil, and locality, differ- ence in the degree of ripeness when harvested, and methods of harvesting and keeping, make it impossible to predicate with abso- lute accuracy how different seeds of the same variety will behave when thej' are planted. Nevertheless, the germination of our common garden and forage plants is sufficiently understood by. 11 those who have made a study of the subject, to warrant the adop- tion of certain standards below which good seed ought not to fall. As to the vitality of seed, it may be confidently stated that, with possibly a very few exceptions, the germinating power of all cultivated seeds deteriorates after the first or second year, and after three or four years, often after the first, this deterioration is usually very marked. In a few cases, such as cucurbits and flax, it is commonly supposed that seed of two or three years from harvesting is better than fresh. Dr. Wittmack says that the common grass seeds, if properly kept, retain their vitality two or even three years, although, as with clover, one year seed is pref- erable. He might have added, " if fully ripe when harvested," since most grass seed contains a large per cent of immature grains ; a difficulty which is entirely unavoidable in many cases. Hard-coated seeds, such as the clovers and their allies, if kept in a dry place, usually retain their vitality better than seeds of a softer consistency. Many vegetable seeds lose their vitality in a short time. Here, as in the case of all seeds, great variation exists. For example, in a large series of tests of vegetable seeds made by Professor GofE at Geneva, N.Y., in 1886, it was found that " two germina- tions of turnip seed seven years old gave ninety-eight per cent of growth, equaling the result to be expected from fresh seed ; one sample nine years old, gave sixty-two per cent." But in the majority of instances, the old seed failed to come up well. It is not necessary to take into account at all the supposed limits of vitality of the different varieties of seed in considering the subject of seed control. What matters it to the gardener if the highest authority in the world tells him that cucumber seed will germinate when it is ten years old, and the seedsman satis- fies him that the seed is within that limit ? As before stated, the only guarantee worth anything to the buyer is the result of an actual test made by a disinterested and competent person. The necessity for seed control may be more obvious if we give the results of some tests. Although comparatively little attention has been paid to this subject in America, there are plenty of data at hand showing the need of practical reform in the seed trade. The lowest vitality and purity is found as a rule among grass seeds, among which class of seeds detection of impurities is the 12 most difficult, not ouly to the purchaser, but also to the dealers themselves. No grass is raised in the United States for seed alone, i.e., on a commercial scale. Most of the seed of Kentucky blue grass,, orchard grass, timothy, redtop, and meadow fescue used in this country is American grown. Some other species are raised here, to a greater or less extent, but in no case, so far as I have found, are these grasses cultivated for 'their seed alone, like a seed crop of peas or cabbage, for instance. This accounts for the fact that frequently large amounts of weed seeds are present in grass seeds. Generally no especial care is taken to rid the grass fields of these pests, and grass, above all other kinds of seed, is the most difficult to clean after it is once harvested. Besides, our meadows generally contain a mixture of various grasses, often of very different value. Many grasses show an average germination of only thirty to forty per cent, — timothy, redtop, the bromes, orchard grass, the fescues, and a few others, being prominent exceptions. The con- ditions of the weather at the time grasses flower have a great deal to do with their germinative ability. If a prolonged wet season ensues at this time, only a very small percentage of the seeds ripen. For example : in Germany, in 1871, only five per cent of the seeds of meadow foxtail were germinable for this reason. Again, the seeds on the same grass plant ripen very unevenly and, in many cases, rattle out easily when fully mature ; there-' fore such seed is usually harvested before fully ripe. Besides, the glumes of ripe and unripe fruits are often so nearly alike in color that it is difficult tor the collector to distinguish between them. Hence it is no wonder that pure and germinable grass seed is so hard to obtain. The cheaper grades are mostly chaff and dirt and worse than useless, while those designated " prime " and " fancy cleaned " are often of very little value. Nevertheless the following table will show that grass seed of a high germinating ability may be obtained in our markets. The figures in the first column are quoted from the price list of a seedsman in the United States and are the results of germinating tests of seed offered for sale by him. It will be noted that these figures are in every instance considerably higher than those of the second column, which are the standards of germination used by Dr. Stebler, director of the Zurich Seed Control Station. 13 merican Seedsman. Zurich. Per ceot. Per cent 95 86 86 60 95 70 90 70 90 50 90 70 96 75 85 €0 70 SO 80 60 Grass Seed. Eedtop Crested dog's tail Orchard grass . Tall meadow fescue Sheep's fescue . Italian rye grass English rye grass Eeed canary grass June grass Eough stalked meadow grass The seedsman adds, however, that these percentages are given as information only and not as a guarantee. The purchaser ought not to suffer from the fact that, on account of the unfavorable conditions above mentioned, good grass seed is difficult to procure. The dealer should test his seed carefully, and sell it according to its real value. If the buyer is not willing to pay more for such seed than for trash, it is his own fault and he deserves no sympathy. However, the buyer under present conditions is at a great dis- advantage, as the following illustration will show : A sample of seed sold by one of the most prominent dealers in this country for yellow oat grass (Avena flavescens), was tested in our labora- tory and found to contain 74.4 per cent of impurities, of which over four-fifths was the seed of common hair grass (I)esc/iampsia flexuosa) , the balance consisting mostly of chaif and weed seeds. Two hundred pounds of this seed was bought by the person who furnished the sample, at a cost of fifty dollars per hundred. Hair grass sells for about ten dollars per hundred pounds, and is practically worthless for lawn or pasture. The grains of these two kinds of grass are very similar in ap- pearance, and exceedingly difficult to detect without the aid of a lens. The seed of yellow oat grass is imported from Europe, where it is often deliberately adulterated with that of hair grass. It is not likely that the American seedsman noticed the fraud. Of the 26.6 per cent of pure seed, but 11.5 per cent germinated under the most favorable conditions, or a little less than 3 per cent of the entire sample. In other words, there was a loss of about ninety-one dollars out of the hundred which the seed cost, 14 allowing 100 per cent germination' for the hair grass and sup- posing it to be of any value to the farmer. Of this loss nearly sixty dollars was, in all probability, the result of deliberate fraud upon the part of the European dealers, and reprehensible careless- ness, to say the least, in the case of the American seedsman. Kentucky blue grass showed but 10 per cent germinating power instead of at least 60 per cent, wliich is a fair standard for this seed. Only one per cent of a sample of Texas blue grass {Poa arachnifera) germinated. This grass, like the other Poas, usually shows a low germination, but in the case mentioned the sample was entirely worthless, since when sown in soil not a seed came up. Texas blue grass sells for three dollars a pound in small quantities, or two hundred and fifty dollars by the hundred. Out of four hundred seeds of Bermuda grass but one germinated, or one-fourth of one per cent. Although this grass rarely matures seed in the North, and is generally reproduced by its rootstocks, nevertheless good seed should show a ger- mination of from 40 to 50 per cent, especially in view of the fact that seedsmen ask f 1.50 per pound for it whether it comes up or not. Orchard grass showed a germination of 31.8 per cent in blotters and 24 per cent in soil, as against 70 to 80 per cent, the proper standard. Tall meadow oat grass contained 36.3 per cent impurity, 70 per cent of which consisted of inferior grass seeds and weed seeds, the balance being chaff and dirt. Of the 64 per cent of pure seed 60 per cent germinated, or a little more than one-third of the entire sample. Awnless brome should show a purity and germination per cent of 90 or 81 per cent intrinsic value. Pive hundred pounds of this seed were purchased at regular wholesale prices and' a sample submitted to us for test. It showed a purity of 80.8 and 65.5 per cent germination, being an actual value of 44.8, or a little over one-half that of the standard, a money loss of over forty dollars. This does not take into account the farmer's waste of time and labor, besides the injury to Ms land from sowing the inferior grass and weed seeds of which the impurities consisted. Italian rye grass tested at the Iowa Experiment Station con- tained 41 per cent of English rye grass, an inferior plant. This seed comes from Europe and is very often adulterated in this 15 way. At the sa.me station a pound of orchard grass was found to contain over fourteen hundred seeds of sheep sorrel, besides considerable ergot. Over one-half the bulk of a lot of florin {Agrostis alba) costing forty-two cents a pound was chafe, and over one-third its weight consisted of chaff and sand. All of tlie grasses enumerated were sold as good seed, at the regular market price, by prominent American seedsmen. A test of orchard grass made at the Connecticut Experiment Station a few years ago furnishes a striking example of the need of seed control in this country. Seventeen samples, obtained from regular dealers, were examined. One of them contained no OTchard grass at all, but consisted entirely of perennial rye grass, which is very unlike orchard grass, from which it is easily separated. This is an evident case of fraud upon the part of some one, since perennial rye grass is much inferior to orchard grass and costs considerably less a pound. Pive other samples con- tained, on the average, but 25 per cent of orchard grass seed, and of the entire lot only 40 per cent germinated, or less, than one-half the standard amount, while in one case the vitality was only 4J per cent. The following are the results of some germination tests made by American experiment stations: Eedtop 4 per cent, beach grass 2 per cent, meadow foxtail 2 per cent, sweet vernal 6 per cent, tall meadow oat grass 2 per cent, yellow oat grass 2 per cent, soft chess 2 per cent, crested dog's tail 9 per cent, orchard grass 10 per cent, hard fescue 3 per cent, various-leaved fescue 3 per cent, meadow fescue 6 per cent, red fescue 8 per cent, slender fescue 3 per cent, Italian rye grass 4 per cent, English rye grass 12 per cent, reed canary grass 6 per cent, Canada blue grass 11 per cent, wood meadow grass 6 per cent, fowl meadow grass 3 per cent, rough stalked meadow grass 2 per cent. In the following instances not a single seed sprouted : meadow brome, Sehrader's brome, sheep fescue, velvet grass, timothy, water meadow grass, and Kentucky blue grass. We do not know under what conditions these tests were made, and have inten- tionally selected the minimum results for purposes of illustration, but they certainly afford abundance of argument for the need of seed control in America. The mere fact that such seeds were offered for sale in this country without the purchaser's knowledge 16 of their real worth is sufficient evidence that something needs to be done for the improvement of agriculture along this line. Since so much of oar grass seed comes from Europe let us turn in that direction for information. The 'following samples . were tested last year at the Zurich Seed Control Station and' i-aclude grasses from various parts of Europe. One sample of tall meadow oat grass contained 31.9 per cent of chaff. Of Italian rye grass one sample contained 86 per cent awnless seeds, a sure sign of intentional admixture with English rye grass. One sample of crested dog's tail consisted of 46.3 per cent English rye grass, 46.5 per cent chaff and dead grains, and only 7.2 per cent pure seeds ; another sample contained 78.7 per cent of chaff and dead fruits. A sample of meadow foxtail contained 81.8 per cent chaff and larva-infested grains, while another one showed but 1 per cent germination. One sample of tall meadow fescue showed germinating per cent. Seeds of this grass are usually mixed with those of the common meadow fescue, but no particular injury is done, since both grasses grow in the same soil. The latter, however, is a less expensive seed. Other fescues showed a remarkably low germination : sheep's fescue and various leaved fescue in one instance did not put forth a single sprout. Red fescue germinated in one case bnt 6 per cent. This grass is said to occur pure in the trade but seldom, being largely mixed with sheep's fescue and various-leaved fescue. June grass showed the low purity of 28.5 per cent ; germination 28 per cent. This grass is frequently adulterated with Poa comjjressa, which in Europe is considered inferior; in fact, one eminent authority classes it as a worthless weed. In America, however, it has some value, but flourishes on a different soil from June grass. Two samples labelled June grass contained 60 and 70 per cent Poa compressa. Velvet grass was found in one instance to contain 96.5 per cent impurity, and one sample germinated but 17 per cent. Seed labelled sweet vernal in some cases proved to be almost entirely the annual variety, a very inferior, if not worthless grass. This adulteration is exceedingly common, and almost impossible to detect. 17 With the exception of the common meadow fescue and June grass, America depends almost entirely upon Europe for every grass mentioned above, and seeds as worthless as those enumerated are frequently sold in our stores. There is a law preventing America from sending bad pork and beef to Germany, but there is no embargo to prevent Germany and otlier foreign countries from dumping their poor seed upon our market, a practice which prevails to an alarming extent, accounting in a very large measure for the dodder, Russian thistle, and other dangerous weeds wMeh infest our country. G-iasB seeds are not the only cm«s -wtecTi are apt to show very low germinating averages. Perhaps, on the whole, flower seeds are still more inferior in this respect. Here I wish to relate a personal incident by way of illustration. One of my very first recollections recurs to a time when my parents, who had gone to a neighboring village to make some purchases, took me with them. As we were leaving a "general" store, I found a ten-cent piece upon the floor. My people were poor, and this was the first money I had ever touched with my own hand, — almost the first I had ever seen. Taking it to the store-keeper he remarked that since the owner was unknown I was as much entitled to it as any one. I need not stop to tell you my feelings, which, however, doubtless those of you who were brought up in the country in humble cir- cumstances can appreciate. Being very fond of flowers it did not take me a moment to decide what to do with the ten-cent piece. Standing before the counter with the most glowing feelings I had ever experienced I called for ten cents' worth of flower seeds. Selecting a package labelled "China Aster," I rode home with great expectations of the beautiful, large flowers which I should obtain from that seed. My father, having been a practical farmer nearly all of his life, made a flower bed with the greatest care and planted the seeds with equal solicitude. Then I did what thousands of people do every year — waited for them to come up. This was thirty years ago, and not a single one of these seeds has come up yet. The keenness of my disappointment finally ' turned to disgust, from which I have never fully recovered. The following germination tests of flower seeds purchased from prominent American seedsmen were made in our labora- tory: 18 Ar/eratuni conyaoides Double hollyhock . Fine mixed verbena Japan primrose Moonflower . 11.6 per cent 3.3 a 10.0 11 0.0 " 0.0 " A lot of seed bougbt by us and labelled Salvia splendens (scar- let sage) did not contain a single seed of that species. Nearly 85 per cent was seed of a much cheaper and less showy species, both seed and plant being very different from Salvia spUndens, the seed of which costs about twelve dollars a pound at wholesale. The balance of the sample, 15 per cent, was discolored lettuce seed bearing a casual resemblance to the Salvia, but it had appar- ently been "killed" so that it did not germinate at all. The whole circumstance indicated deliberate fraud somewhere. The main reason for the frequent poor quality of flower seeds is the fact that not rarely the same stock is offered for sale year after year. The custom of putting up flower and vegetable seeds in small packets and sending them out in boxes to small store- keepers throughout the country, accounts for a very large per cent of the seed that never comes up. Seed from these boxes is often offered to the public long after it is capable of growing. Much of the flower and vegetable seed received from abroad in bulk, and put up in this way after reaching America, is of a low vitality when our seedsmen get it, and does not improve by remaining in a country store a few years, nor even if it is re- turned to the seedsman each year, mixed with other seed and sent out in a new box. Hon. J. J. H. Gregory, the well-known seedsman, in an excel- lent address delivered before this Society two years ago, speaking of the abuses of the seed trade, said that the agent of one firm acknowledged that a certain package of parsnip seed was on its fourth season's round, although this seed loses a great proportion of its vitality after the first year. He also mentioned a circular received by him thirty years ago from an agent of a firm in the box trade, offering certain varieties of vegetable seed at a wonder- fully low price. The agent added that although the seeds were too old to sprout they would do to mix with new seed. Judging from some of the vegetable seed we have tested we are afraid that same agent is still in the business. 19 As you probably know, many of our varieties of vegetable seed, excepting peas, beans, cabbage, celery, cucumber, and onion, and perhaps a few others, are imported. Such seed, even if of good quality when shipped, sometimes becomes impaired in .tran- sit, from dampness or other reasons. On the other hand, on account of the absence of any plan of seed control in this coun- try, the Europeans have an excellent outlet here for their cheap wares, a fact of which they frequently take advantage. Owing to the methods of culture, as well as their size, form, and ■weight, vegetable seeds are usually much cleaner than those of grasses and other forage plants. Where seedsmen raise vegeta- bles for seed purposes, they generally take particular pains to keep them free from weeds, a much easier task than in the cases of grasses, clovers, etc. Furthermore, seeds of grasses and for- age plants, as a rule, are harder to clean. I am told, however, by one who has been in the seed trade for many years, that there is a good deal of fraud practised by mixing small gravel and sand with vegetable seeds to increase their weight, as such seed is gen- erally sold in bulk by weight. Dirt is sometimes mixed with onion seeil, and the excuse made when such impurities are detected that it is impossible to get all of the dirt and stones out of the seed. Again, " dead " or " killed " seed is sometimes mixed with good seed. An instance, quoted to me by one who was personally acquainted with the transaction, related to a lot of vegetable seed which was received by a certain American firm. The seed proved to be a variety very inferior to that ordered. To make good the loss and avoid detection at the same time this seed was heated until the embryo was killed, when it was mixed with some of the genuine, higher priced variety, and sold as such. Similar instances are reported from Europe and are undoubtedly more common than is generally known. A few years ago the Maine Experiment Station tested a con- siderable amount of vegetable seeds bought from American seeds- men. The following are the percentages of germination of seeds obtaine'd from one dealer : Lettuce 0, turnip 4, cabbage 91, pars- nip 0, celery 33, onion 0, beet 48, carrot 23, tomato 67, radish 80. Of the ten varieties tested three were entirely worthless, one nearly so, four others below the standard, one nearly up to the proper standard, while only a single variety of them all was what it should have been. I regret to say that in this case a Massa- 20 chusetts dealer sold the seeds. It is unnetjessary to offer more proof that worthless seed is sold every year in American mar- kets, a disagreeable subject and one which needs heroic treatment. The important question is, What are we going to do about it ? Shall we continue to believe that the evils will regulate them- selves in the ordinary course of competition, as the seedsman would have his customers think ? Experience with commercial fertilizers and adulterated food products ought to be sufficient to satisfy 'the most sanguine farmer or gardener, that competition among seedsmen is not going to insure him good seed. More than a quarter of a century ago these same questions were forced upon the attention of European agriculturists as the results of some tests of commercial seed made by Dr. Nobbe, director of the Experiment Station at Tharand, Saxony. Seed control methods were introduced, and as the result there has been a great improvement in the stock offered for sale. Poor seed ■ is on the European market, too, but no man on that continent needs buy it unless he wants to do so. At the present time there are over one hundred seed control stations in Europe, not a single important country being without one or more. Germany heads the list with 38, Sweden has 16, Austria 14, Belgium 9, Russia 7, and France, England, and Scotland one each. Even Japan, Brazil, and Java have one or more, the total number outside of the United States amounting in 1894 to 117. In some cases this work is conducted in connection with a regular agricultural experiment station ; in many instances seed-testing alone is car- ried on. The general plans are similar, although considerable variation in details exists among the different stations. So far as I can learn, there are no laws in Europe compelling seedsmen to furnish good wares, but the result is reached through the pressure of public sentiment, due to the efforts of the Control Stations. Frequently the work is undertaken in connection with agricult- ural societies, all of whose members share in the benefits. Eor example, every agriculturist in the jurisdiction of the Dresden Agricultural Society is authorized to send in to the Experiment Station at Tharand, Saxony, samples of seed bought by him, to- gether with a statement of their origin and cost. The sample must be taken and sealed before a witness and be a fair average representative of the seed purchased, so that the 21 dealer canuot dispute the result of the test. Of the smaU&r seeds, as radish, rape, clover, grasses, etc., at least one-half an ounce must be sent in, and in the, ease of larger seeds, as peas, beans, cereals, maize, etc., from a quarter to half a pound. The results of the tests are printed in the official journal of the station, which also publishes equitable standards of purity and gerjnina- tion, so that the peop-le may know whether the guarantee of seeds offered to them is of a sufficiently high per cent. Seed dealers or producers can have the purity and germinative ability of their seeds examined for one or two dollars, according to the size of the seed. Special arrangements are made with parties not members of the Dresden Agricultural Society. The prices for seed testing vary according to the labor required and the country in which the test is made. A few of the stations are self-supporting, but most of them receive grants from the State to aid in carrying on the work. In many cases so-called " Control firms " are regular patrons of the stations. They pay a certain annual amount for having tests made. To their cus- tomers they furnish a guarantee for genuineness, purity, and germinating capacity based upon, but not necessarily equal to, the test made by the station for them, — the " preliminary test," as it is called. Immediately upon receipt of the seed, the customer can send a sample to the Control Station if desired, and have it tested at a reduction of from one-third to two-thirds from prices charged the dealer, or, in some cases, without- expense. This is called the " supplementary test." The firm binds itself in case its seed falls 5 per cent or more below the germination per cent guaranteed, either to refund the money pro rata or to replace the goods, paying transportation both ways. In supplementary tests made for members of the East-Prussian Agricultural Society, if more than 2 per cent of foreign matter occurs above the guarantee, or 10 dodder seeds per kilogram (about 4J seeds per pound); the dealer agrees to take back the goods, paying charges both ways, or, at the option of the buyer, to refund from 6 to 10 per cent of the cost for every 6 to 10 seeds of dodder per pound. Certain conditions exist relating to the amount of seed one must purchase to entitle him to free tests ; also to the manner of 22 drawing and sending samples, limit of the time of the year when seeds can be bought under a guarantee, time for filing claims, etc. The methods of procedure are perfectly equitable for both dealer and buyer. Not only the results of tests, but also the names of the seeds- men are published by the Experiment Station. This acts as a most wholesome check upon the sale of impure and ungermmable seed, and places the agriculturist in a position to protect himself effectually against the purchase of inferior stock. The methods of testing seeds may be briefly touched upon. After the sample is received by the station a certain portion is weighed out as a smaller average sample. From this the good seed is carefully selected and the percentage of impurity ascer- tained. The impurity is divided into inert matter, seed of foreign cultivated plants, and weed seeds. The latter are identi- fied by means of a type collection of seeds kept in the station laboratory. From the pure seed are taken a certain number of average seeds for the germination test, which is usually conducted in a basement, where the temperature can be properly controlled. This is done by placing the seeds upon shelves in doubled-walled metal chambers, kept at a constant temperature by means of a thermo-regulator. At the Vienna Station the germinating, chambers are heated with hot air. In others the cavity between the walls is filled with water kept at a temperature of 20 degrees C. (68 degrees F.). We find the latter method much preferable. Grass seeds are usually transferred for six hours each day to another chamber kept at 30 degrees C. (86 degrees F.), since this daily increase of temperature has been found advantageous. The seeds are germinated upon damp cloth, asbestos, blotters, porous saucers, or soil. Genuineness of varieties is established by field tests. We make duplicate tests of 200 seeds each, and in most cases conduct comparative tests in blotters and soil at the same time, often supplementing these with green- house tests. In short, the seeds are germinated under the most favorable conditions for the particular species involved. The seedsman is further favored by the fact that there is a considerable difference between germinative ability and viability. By viable seeds we mean those which come up through the soil when planted, while a seed is said to have germinated as soon 23 as the little rootlet called the radicle pushes through the seed coat. 1^0 matter how favorable the soil conditions may be, very often a seed which would germinate upon a cloth or blotter will not come up through the soil from inherent lack of vitality alone. Of course a seed has no practical value unless it has energy enough to push its way up through the ground, but the very fact that seed planted in the open is subject to so many vicissitudes, coupled with the fact that the germination tests upon which guarantees are based are not made in the open ground, gives the dealer whatever advantage there is in Seed Control germination methods. We do not wish to be unjust to the seedsmen, especially to those who are honorably endeavoring to build up a trade. There is one feature of the matter, however, which must not be overlooked. As stated at the outset, the American farmer of today frequently has an uphill task to make even a livelihood. Certainly he does not often declare large dividends. He has very scanty means under the present conditions of deciding whether the seed he sows, and upon which his bread and butter depends, is what it should be, until the best part of a season has elapsed and it is too late to remedy the effect of sowing poor seed. How many, who sow grass seed for their meadows and lawns, know whether it corresponds to the name on the package or not ? Many of the varieties are unknown to the seedsman himself unless he is an expert in the business, and even experts are deceived in this matter. The more common varieties of seed themselves are often unknown to the ordinary farmer and gardener. He buys his seed almost entirely upon the statements of the dealer, and the dealer is not always reliable. A few days ago a sample of seed was submitted to me which had been purchased by a New Hampshire farmer for rye grass (Lolium perenne). It did not contain a single seed of that species, but every seed proved to be chess (Bromus seoalinus) ! Think of selling a man seed of ojie of the worst weeds he has to contend with one which is already a vile pest on many farms ! Every honorable person, be he a seedsman or planter, will join in demanding severe punishment of the perpetrator of deeds of this kind. When once awakened to the gravity of the situation, the American farmer will hold some one responsible for such dishonest 24 practices. jSTo " non-warranty " clause of a seed catalogue will enable the dealer to shirk the responsibility of selling bad seed. One of the most stupendous frauds in the seed trade relates to the pseudo-new varieties whifih are sent out with extravagant descriptions and under the most high-sounding names. Accom- panying these there may be brilliant colored pictures, perhaps showing a sachaline plant, by whose side a man looks like a dwarf, or a melon too large to be gotten into a wheelbarrow. Generally these " golden-wonder," " mammoth early," sorts are old and well- known varieties sailing under false colors. The experienced gardener may not be deceived by such representations, but other people are. Oftentimes it is largely the buyer's fault, to be sure, since a large number of people seem to delight in being hood- winked, and will eagerly purchase seed when twenty or thirty packages are offered for one dollar, or four for a quarter, regard- less of the fact that they are likely to be cheated in the trans- action. A few weeks ago a case was before the Supreme Court, at Long Island City, N. Y., in which some celery growers sued a seedsman for six thousand dollars damages. They had purchased seed under the name of " golden self-blanching celery," but it turned out to be some kind of wild celery, resulting in an entire loss of the crop. The seed had been sold under the so-called " non- warranty " provision of the seed catalogues which T have already given, hence the Court ruled that damages could not be allowed. The trade journal reporting the case says that the result is hailed with great rejoicing among seedsmen, as no doubt it is, for it means, unless some just seed control laws are enacted in this country, that the gardener, horticulturist, and farmer will have no protection whatever against the abuses of the seed trade. The dealer claims that he cannot be reasonably required to warrant a variety of seed true to name, since cultivated plants often revert to their native state. If this excuse be valid, the seedsman ought to advertise such varieties as possible reversions to the original stock. He cannot throw the blame upon the grower, since it is the seedsman's business to know that the seeds he sells are genuine, pure, and germinable, and it should be the privilege of the planter to have reliable information upon the same points and in all cases. This is the object of seed control. 25 Whether seed control methods are adopted in this country or not,, every buyer should have some reliable way of ascertaining the value of his own seed. Pnrity tests will probably not be difficult to make, except in the case of grasses. To identify these will give even the skilled buyer some trouble. If there are no scales within reach, the percentage of impurity can be estimated fairly well by measuring the bulk of pure and impure seeds, though weighing is a much more satisfactory method. In mak- ing germination tests, an average number of large, small, and medium-sized seeds should be selected in lots of one or two hun- dred for each test. In regular seed examination, two lots of two hundred seeds each are usually chosen. Sometimes lots of three hundred are used, the idea being that the larger the number of seeds taken, the smaller will be the chance of error. For prac- tical purposes one hundred will do very well, especially of the larger kinds, as corn, oats, melons, etc. Since the principal factors aifecting germination are heat, moisture, and air, it is necessary to provide proper amounts of each. Seventy degrees Fahrenheit, which is about the tempera- ture of an ordinary living-room, will do very well for most seeds. The supply of a suitable amount of moisture is a more difficult problem than that of temperature, since seeds vary greatly in the amount of moisture required for germination. In general, it may be said that large seeds and those with hard coats will stand more moisture than smaller ones, but different kinds of seed vary so much upon this point, that no safe rule can be given. Perhaps the plate method is the handiest way of making home germination tests which will prove at all serviceable. This con- sists in the use of two folds of white flannel cloth, thoroughly wet, between which the seeds, having been carefully counted out, are placed. A soup plate covered with a common dinner plate is used for holding the outfit. The cloths will need to be freshly moistened two or three times a week, according to the dryness of the atmosphere where the plates are kept. Other simple appliances have been recommended for home testing, such as porous flower pot saucers placed in pans contain- ing water ; plates set in similar pans and holding cloths which dip into the water so as to keep the moisture constant, etc. Probably the surest way to ascertain the germinating power of seeds is to sow them in soil in a flower pot (or, preferably, a 26 "flat"), covering them very lightly with soil or fine sand, and keeping the pots closed to retain the moisture. Seeds cannot be examined so well from time to time, howev-er, if this method is adopted. In making tests the seeds should be looked over every day, those which have sprouted being removed, and a record kept of the same. At the close of the test, the hard seeds remaining should be cut in two with a sharp knife, to ascertain whether a live germ is within. In such cases due allowance should be made, as a certain per cent of these seeds would probably have germi- nated in a longer time. Ten days is suflftcient for testing the germination of the cereals, clovers, and most vegetable seeds, except beet and carrot, which require at least fourteen days. The majority of grasses need twenty-one days ; timothy and rye grass, however, require but fourteen, while the Poas need twenty-eight days. Tree seeds require from twenty-eight to forty-two days, or longer, and special germiiiation methods. There is usually enough air within the seed or immediately surrounding it, to suffice for the mere act of germination, which is all we are concerned with at present. Each kind of seed is said to have a certain germinative energy, by which is meant the period required to sprout one-half or more of the seeds of a fresh and good sample of that species. This period varies from three to seven days in most commercial varieties, and is a matter of considerable importance, especially where a prompt decision is wished on the supposed germinative value of a sample under consideration. For example, if a certain lot of radish seed does not show fifty per cent of germination within three days, it is probably old seed. Likewise, if seed begins to get mouldy after a few days' germination trial, it may be pretty safely set down as old stock, provided the test has been properly conducted. However, no system of private seed inspection or testing, either by the dealer or grower, can secure the end desired ; namely, accurate information as to the quality of all seed offered for sale, as well as the exclusion of wares containing seeds of weeds which would prove a serious menace to agriculture. The seedsman may test his seed with the utmost care, as many do, but so long as he furnishes no guarantee to the buyer, such 27 tests are not necessarily of any value whatever to the latter. On the other hand, neither the seedsman nor the buyer would have equally as good facilities for testing seeds as a Control or Experi- ment Station devoted entirely to that purpose. With our present system of State Agricultural Experiment Stations it seems as if seed control work in this country could be best undertaken by some of them. The Department of Agri- culture stands ready to furnish any assistance along this line which properly comes within its province. A few of our stations have paid some attention to the testing of seeds, particularly the North Carolina station, but no definite control has yet come from it. A course on practical seed-testing should be given in all our agricultural colleges, as there is great need in this country among farmers and others for a good knowl- edge of seeds, further than that which is now furnished almost exclusively by seed catalogues, — a very dubious source of infor- mation in many cases. Practical lectures along this line should be given at farmers' institutes, before agricultural and horticultural societies, etc., until the farmer and* gardener become alive to the importance of the subject and the need for some system of Seed Control. I would like to see this Society take steps for the introduction of Seed Control measures within this State, perhaps asking the Legislature to appropriate an adequate sum for equipping , and conducting a Seed Control Station, at the same time requiring dealers to furnish their customers with a guarantee of the germi- nation and purity of all seeds sold by them. It is not likely that sUch a bill would be passed without great opposition from the petty dealers and quacks in the seed trade, for it would be a great blow tp their operations. On the other hand, although the cost and trouble involved might inconvenience the honorable seedsmen more or less at first, there is no question that in the end such seedsmen would be greatly benefited along with the farmer and gardener, and it is for the best interests of the trade as well as the vast army of seed planters in this country that we make this plea for seed control in America. In this paper we have not had time to deal with the importance of grading seeds according to size and weight. As a usual thing no attention is paid tq this matter in the seeds offered to home buyers. When clover seed, for instance, is shipped abroad, our exporters are required not only to equal the sample furnished in purity aiid germination, but it must be up to a certain grade in size. Foreigners recognize the fact, which our people have scarcely begun to appreciate, that there is a great difference in the value of seed wares, even in the matter of size alone, large seed as a rule producing better plants. Seed selection, however, is a great subject by itself and merits special attention at some future time. Here I wish to reiterate and emphasize the statement made at the outset, that in speaking today of the evils of the seed trade, no matter what impression our remarks may leave, we have no reference at all to the honorable dealer, by whom we mean the seedsman who is not guilty of any of the fraudulent practices, mentioned herein. We leave to others judgment on the man who sells bad seed through ignorance or carelessness, instead of intent, recalling, however, the common principle that " ignorance is no excuse." In conclusion we will state a few benefits of seed control, among the many which might be given : 1. Seed control would furnish reliable and non-partisan infor- mation of the real worth of commercial seeds. 2. The publicity given to the tests would act as a great incen- tive to dealers to furnish only good seed. 3. The honorable seedsman would be protected against the dishonorable dealer with whom he is now obliged to compete. 4. The farmer, gardener, and horticulturist could ascertain, free of cost, or for a small amount, the value of seeds purchased from dealers connected with the seed control. 6. The impositions which are now frequently practised by seedsmen upon the ignorance and credulity of their customers would be greatly diminished. 6. A universal and thorough system of seed control in America would lessen in a great measure the importation of bad weed seeds. 7. The interest awakened among farmers and others in a practical study of seeds, together with the knowledge upon the subject disseminated by the stations, although a secondary bene- fit, would be of immense value to American agriculture and horticulture.