m$ i: iiiiliii! iiii ;ili ■ r^: '4«* ©lEJ^D'BiaillFlMii Ciili . JUJSV'DJi] C/\l Hi DDJVJjVJLEfJOJAL I, xV" tr .©^'IBMiil^lF'Q)!^^ . WILLLA-JrU TICETKOR, HCiSl'Oli: W'UMYfi J.UNG, \EA\'-Y()Hir, T T ASH, FlIi:,i\.l)T;;LPDl,\ -KU- ) S4 liliiiilillllililiillililililliillll ■'ToO. :i.; : ordL;.£- 'j.' _ . ■' ■:( C'ji"! 're vTlli:.''iVJliadibr.J ■-, rie ■_ ^■^%:? -!n^ ot ri-i.^ ^,- ADVERTISEMENT. The general design of this work is perhaps sufficiently indicated by the titlepage, and the arrangement will be understood at once, by looking over the table of contents. It will be seen that the maps, plans, and charts, are illustrated by copious tables, placed in immediate connection with them ; thus rendering the work, for consultation on the topics to which it is devoted, in the highest degree, convenient. The great number of the maps, and the vast amount of matter of a geographical, historical, commercial, and statistical nature, embraced in the volume, together with the convenient mode of arrangement, it is believed will make the work of particular value to all classes of readers. No pains have been spared, to render it correct ; and it is hoped, as well as believed, that it may be relied upon as an authentic book of reference. Many of the plans and charts in this work are new, and these are thought to be not merely curious and interesting, but important, as they serve to convey accurate impressions, where imperfect or erroneous ones are likely to prevail. As to the utility of works like the present, devoted to general statistics, and embrac- ing exact geographical and historical data, for reference, there can be no doubt. There is no class of works of higher estimation in Europe, and their importance is beginning to be duly appreciated in this country. It is hoped that the present volume may contribute to a more deep conviction of their value, and a more active circulation of statistical knowledge among us. Although the materials for the Tables have been compiled from a great variety of sources, yet there are several works which have been more particularly made use of, and from some of which whole paragraphs or tabular statpments have been taken, with little or no modification. Among these works are Balbi's Abrege de Geographic ; Murray's Encyclopaedia of Geography ; Huot's edition of Make Brun's Precis de la Geographic Universelle ; the volumes of the American Almanac and those of the Companion to the British Almanac ; the Encyclopaedia Britannica ; Malchus's Statistik and Staatenkunde ; Macul- loch's Commercial Dictionary, &c. Beside these works, Humboldt's Voyage aux Regions Equinoxiales and Essai sur la Nouvelle Espagne ; Lyell's Principles of Geology ; Balbi's Atlas Ethnographique du Globe ; the Weimar Statistischer Almanach ; Bottin's Almanach du Commerce ; Edward's Quarterly Register ; Niles's Weekly Register ; Hazard's. Pennsylvania Register ; Minor's Railroad Journal ; the Missionary Herald ; Darby's Gazetteer of the United States ; Macgregor's British America, &c., have furnished valuable data, or served as useful guides. It is only an act of justice to acknowledge, that the two tables forming the Political Chart of the Globe, are a modification of the elaborate chart of Balbi, to whose other works the compiler is very much indebted on almost every subject treated of in these tables. BOSTON: Printed by Lewis and Fenniman, Bromfield Street. CONTENTS. Frontispiece — Thefive varieties of the Human Race . . No. 1 lUustratiTe titlepage 2 Advertisement 3 Contents 4 PHYSICAL VIEW OF THE WORLD. General Geological View . ' .5 View of the principal Caverns throughout the Globe ... 6 View of Minerals 7 View of Mineral Springs . 8 Chart exhibiting the Comparative Extent of Contments, Oceans, Seas, Lakes, and Islands 9 General View of Continents, Oceans, Seas, Lakes, and Islands . 10 General View of Mountains 11 Chart exhibiting the Comparative Height of Mountains . . 12 View of Valleys, Deserts, Plains, Steppes, &c 13 Cataracts and Cascades 14 Comparative Length of Rivers. Snow Line and Distribution of Vegetables 15 General View of Rivers, &c. 16 Classification and Geographical distribution of Animals . .17 Comparative Size of Animals 18 General View of Varieties of the Human Race ; referring to the Frontispiece 19 Climatology — including a General View of CUmate ... 20 Astronomical Chart, illustrating the Sphericity of the Earth ; Com- parative Size of the Planets ; their Distances from the Sun, &c. 21 ' General Astronomical Views 22 NORTH AMERICA. General View of Maine , . . 23 Map of Maine 24 Map of New Hampshire and Vermont 25 General View of New Hampshire and Vermont . . 26 General View of Massachusetts 27 Map of Massachusetts 28 Map of Rhode Island and Connecticut 29 General View of Rhode Island and Connecticut .... 30 Greneral View of New York 31 Map of New York 32 Map of New Jersey and Pennsylvania 33 General View of New Jersey and Pennsylvania .... 34 (Jeneral View of Delaware, Maryland, and Virginia . . 35 Map of Delaware, Maryland, and Virginia 36 Map of District of Columbia 37 View of District of Columbia 38 General View of North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia . 39 Map of North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia ... 40 Map of Florida 41 General View of Florida 42 General View of Mississippi and Alabama 43 Map of Mississippi and Alabama 44 Map of Louisiana and Arkansaw ... ... 45 General View of Louisiana and Arkansaw 46 General View of Tennessee and Kentucky 47 Mapof Tennessee and Kentucky 48 Map of Missouri and Illinois 49 General View of Missouri and Illinois 50 General View of Ohio and Indiana 51 Map of Ohio and Indiana 52 Map of Michigan and the Great Lakes 53 General View of Michigan and the Great Lakes .... 54 Population of the Principal Cities in America, Asia, A&ica, and Oceania 55 Plans of the Principal Cities in the United States .... 56 Map of the United States exhibiting Railroads and Canals . .57 View of Raihroads and Canals in the United- States and other Countries 58 General View of the United States 59 Map of the United States 60 Map of Upper and Lower Canada 61 Gfeneral View of the Canadas 62 General View of British America 63 Map of British America 64 Map of Mexico and Guatimala 65 General View of Mexico and Guatimala 66 General View of West Indies 67 Map of West Indies 68 Map of North America . • 69 General View of North America 70 SOUTH AMERICA. General view of the Republics of Equator, Venezuela, and New Grenada, formerly Colombia . . ... 71 Map of Equator, Venezuela, and New Grenada .... 72 Map of Brazil, Bolivia, and Peru 73 General View of Brazil, Bolivia, and Peru 74 General View of the United States of the Plata, Paraguay, Uru- guay, Chili, and Patagonia 75 Map of the United States of the Plata, Paraguay, Uruguay, Chili, and Patagonia 76 Map of South America .... . . 77 General View of South America ....... 78 General View of the Atlantic Ocean ....'. 79 Map of the Atlantic Ocean ... .... 80 EUROPE. Map of Great Britain and Ireland ., 81 General View of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland 88 General View of France 83 Map of France ... 84 Map of Spain and Portugal . .85 Cfeneral View of Spain and Portugal 86 General View of Italy 87 Map of Italy 88 CONTENTS. MapofGfermany and Switzerland No. 89 General View of Germany and Switzerland 90 General View of Greece 91 Map of Greece , 92 MapofHungary and Turkey in Europe, &c 93 (Jeneral View of Hungary, Turkey, Servia, Walachia and Mol- davia 94 General View of Norway, Sweden, and Denmark ... 95 Map of Norway, Sweden, and Denmark 96 itfap of Netherlands and Belgium 97 General View of Netherlands and Belgium .... 98 General View of Cities of Europe 99 Map of Cities of Europe 100 Map of Southern Europe 101 General View of Southern Europe 102 General View of Northern Europe 103 Map of Northern Europe 104 Map of Europe 105 GeneralView of Europe 106 AFRICA. General View of Egypt ..... . . 107 Map of Egypt 108 Mapof Northern Africa 109 General View of Northern Africa . 110 General View of Southern Africa Ill Map of Southern Africa 112 Map of Africa 113 GeneralView of Africa 114 General Historical View of the Shores of the Mediterranean . 115 Map of the Shores of the Mediterranean Sea .... 116 ASIA. Map of Turkey in Asia and Caucasian Countries . . . 117 General View of Turkey in Asia and the Caucasian Countries . 118 General View of Persia, Arabia, and Afghanistan . . . .119 Map of Persia, Arabia, &c. 120 Map of Hindostan 121 General View of Hindostan 122 General View of Siberia and Central Asia 123 Map of Siberia, and Central Asia 124 M&pof China, Japan, &c 125 General View of China, Japan, &c 126 (General View of Further India or Chin-India, &c. . . . 127 B^ap of Further India and N. W. Oceania or Malaysia . . . 128 Map of Northern Asia 129 General View of Northern Asia 130 General View of Southern Asia 131 Map of Southern Asia 132 Map of Asia 133 General View of Asia 134 OCEANIA, &c. General View of Oceania 135 Uilap of Oceania 136 Map of Pacific Ocean 137 General View of Pacific Ocean 138 General View of Western Hemisphere 139 Map of Western Hemisphere 140 General Map of Eastern Hemisphere 141 General View of Eastern Hemisphere 142 General View of Northern and Southern Hemispheres . . 143 MapofNorthern and Southern Hemispheres . . . .144 GENERAL VIEWS OP MANNERS, CUSTOMS, GOVERNMENTS, COMMERCE, EELIGION, &c. View of the Modes of Travelling in diflferent Countries . . 145 Detailsrespecting the Modes of Travelling 146 Detailsrespecting the Modes of Building 147 Views ofthe Modes of Building 148 Comparative Height of Monuments and Edifices, Ancient and Modern 149 Details respecting Architecture, Ancient and Modem . . . 150 Comparative Chart of States and Countries 151 General View of States, Governments, Constitutions, &c . . 153 Miscellaneous Statistics • 153 Commercial Chart ofthe Globe, showing the Exports and Imports ofthe Principal Countries in the World .... 154 Table of the Gold and Silver Coins of difierent Countries, their Name, Weight, and Value, in Federal Money . . . 155 General View of Manufactures ....... 156 Greneral View of Agriculture 157 General View of the principal Mines throughout the Globe . .158 General view of Education and Libraries .... 159 Distribution of Mankind according to Languages . . . 160 Religious Chart ofthe Globe 161 General View of Missions 162 Viewof Revenue and Taxation in difierent Countries . . 163 Political Chart of Europe, exhibiting the Area, Population, Reve- nue, Debt, Military Force, Religion, and Language of each State 164 Political Chart of Asia, Afiica, America, and Oceania . . 165 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLES, &c. Chronological Table of important Treaties in Modem Times , "166 Chronological Table of Geographical Discoveries of Modem Times 167 ChronologyofRemai-kable Events 168 Chronology of Remarkable Men 169 ANCIENT HISTORY AND GEOGRAPHY. Historical and Geographical View of Palestine or the Holy Land 170 Map ofthe Holy Land . . 171 Map of Asia Minor and the Adjacent Countries .... 172 Historical and Geographical View of Asia Minor and Greece , 173 Historical and Geographical View of Athens, Rome, Jertissfletn, and Peninsula of Mt. Sinai 174 Map of Rome, Athens, Jerusalem, and Peninsula of Mt. Sinai . 175 Map of the World as known to the Ancients .... 176 Geographical View ofthe World as known to the Ancients . 177 The Ancient World as Peopled by the Descendants of Noah . 178 Map ofthe Countries of the Ancient World, exhibiting the proba- ble Settlement ofthe Descendants of Noah .... 179 Chart, exhibiting the Distance and Direction of the principal Pla- ces on the Globe from New York . . . . 180 GEOLOGICAL ILLUSTRATIONS Geology is the science which treats of the structure, materials, relative position, and mode of formation of the great mineral masses, which con- stitute the crust of the earth ; and investigates the successive changes that have taken place in the organjc and inorganic kingdoms of nature, and the causes of those changes. Geology has nothing to do with the question of the origin of things, or with the creation of the world ; it merely aims at a careful examination of the records of its former state, inscribed upon its actual surface, and of the evidences of former life, afforded by the organic remains preserved in its strata. History, tradition, and observation show that the earth's surface is undergoing a perpetual change ; the currents of rivers and oceans are forming accumulations of land in some places and washing away the surface in others ; the waters of lakes and seas deposit succes- sive beds of ever-forming rocks ; the summits or flanks of mountains undermined and sapped by rains and frost are plunged into the valley below ; and lofly mountains and deep valleys are formed by the eleva- tion or subsidence of the surface occasioned by earthquakes. Geology goes farther and shows us that these changes have been going on from times anterior to historical or traditional knowledge ; by an examination of the structure and position of the layers, which compose the crust of the earth, it is able to determine their relative ages and the mode of their formation, whether from alluvial accumulations or by deposition from aqueous or igneous solution ; and by studying the ani- mal and vegetable remains which they contain, it proves that the whole or nearly the whole of the present land was once at the bottom of the sea, and has been uplifted by the mighty convulsions of nature. By the terra rocks in geology, we understand a great mineral mass, composed of one or several mineral substances, whatever be the state of their aggregation ; thus we include clay and sand in the class of rocks. Those rocks which have been deposited from a liquid, probably water, ai'e said to be of Neptunian origin ; those that bear the mai-ks of having been formed from a state of igneous solution are termed Plutonian or ignigeoous rocks. It was long thought that it was vain to look for order or regularity in the composition and arrangement of the great masses of which the crust of the earth is composed, but modern science has proved this notion to be erroneous. These structures may be described as follows : 1. Structure of Mountain Rocks. The kinds of structure occur- ring in mountain rocks are the following; the compact structure, in which the mass is uniform, and when broken exhibits various fractures, as common compact quartz ; the slaty, in which the rocks split readily into layers, as common roofing slate ; the granular, when the rocks are composed of granular concretions or imperfect crystals, as primitive hmestone or statuary marble ; the porphyritic, in which there is a basis or ground with imbedded crystals, as porphyry ; amygdaloidal, when the basis contains amygdaloidal cavities, whether empty or filled with mine- rals; and conglomerated, when the rock is composed of fragments imbedded in a basis. 3. Structure of Strata and Beds. When a hill is composed of tabular masses of the same kind of rock, extending through the hill, it is said to be stratified, and the tabular masses are called strata ; if tabular masses of a different rock occur these are called beds. Several varieties are discoverable in the sti'ucture of individual strata or beds ; thus in some beds, the rock is arranged in columns, as in basalt ; in others in tables as in porphyry ; or in balls as in granite. 3. Structure of Formations. All those rocks which appear to have been formed at the same time, and in similar circumstances, and which agree in position, structure, petrifactions, &c., are said to belong to the same formation. Simple formations are those principally com- posed of one rock, as for example granite ; compound formations of more than one species, as the coal formation, which contains sandstone, slate, limestone, coal, and ironstone. 4. Structure of Veins. Veins are tabular masses that intersect the strata and beds where they occur. Like the latter they vary in position, being horizontal, or vertical, or more or less inclined. They also vary in dimensions from an inch to several fathoms in breadth, and to several miles in length and depth. Veins appear to have been originally open rents or fissures traversing the strata, which have been filled by an after- process with the mineral matters they now contain. The formations that constitute the crust of the earth are generally arranged and named as follows : 1. Primitive Rocks. The rocks of this class lie under those of the succeeding classes. Countries in which they predominate are in general more rugged and broken than those composed of rocks of the other classes ; the strata of primitive mountains are often highly inclined, a circumstance which contributes to increase the inequalities of the surface of primitive regions. Primitive rocks are of a crystalline nature, and exhibit such characters as indicate formation frotn a state of solution. They contain no organic remains, and hence are inferred to have been formed before animals and vegetables were called into existence. They abound in metalliferous minerals, and no metal has been met with which does not occur either exclusively or occasionally, in this class of rocks ; gems also occur in great variety. The following species of rocks belong to this class : 1. Granite. 2. Sye- nite. 3. Protogine. 4. Trap. 5. Serpentine. 6. Porphyry. 7. Gneiss. 8. Mica Slate. 9. Clay Slate. 10. Quartz Rock. 11. Limestone. 2. Transition Rocks. The rocks of this class, in the regular suc- cession, rest immediately upon those of the primitive class. Most of them are distinctly stratified, and the strata are fi:equently vertical, and like those of the primitive class, exhibit the same direction throughout extensive ti-acts. They are distinguished from primitive rocks by the occun-ence of fossil Crustacea, shells, and corals. The extensive deposits of limestone, particularly of the variegated kinds so much prized for ornamental purposes, which they contain ; the fine granites and porphy- ries which they afford, and the ores of lead and copper distributed among them, give them importance in the arts. This class comprises the following rock : 1. Greywacke. 2. Transi- tion Clay Slate. 3. Gneiss and Mica Slate. 4. Quartz Rock. 5. Red Sandstone. 6. Limestone. 7. Glance Coal or Anthracite. 8. Granite. 9. Syenite. 10. Porphyry. 11. Trap. 12. Serpentine. The five last do not differ very materially from the primitive rocks of the same name. 3. Secondary Rocks. This class of rocks rests, in the regular suc- cession, immediately upon those of the transition class. Much of the mineral matter of which they are composed appears to have been depos- ited from a state of mechanical suspension, a circumstance which distin- guishes them in some measure from the transition rocks, in which chem- ical deposits prevail over those of a mechanical nature. They abound in organic remains, and in them we first meet with vertebrated animals. Coal, which occurs in small quantities in transition deposits, is profusely distributed among secondary formations. Of ores the most abundant are those of iron and lead. The rocks of this class are 1. Sandstone. 2. Slate. 3. Limestone. 4. Gypsum. 5. Coal. 6. Granite. 7. Porphyry. 8. Trap. In the primitive and transition classes geologists have not observed any determinate arrangement among the Neptunian deposits, but in this class it has been found to prevail throughout the whole series. The fol- lowing is a sketch of the order of succession beginning with the oldest formation : 1. the old red sandstone ; 2. metalliferous limestone, or car- boniferous limestone ; 3. the great coal formation, which is compound, consisting of sandstone, slate, clay, limestone, coal, and ironstone ; 4. magnesian and alpine limestone ; 5. variegated sandstone, or new red sandstone, comprising, beside the sandstone, beds of marl, with gypsum and rock salt ; 6. the shell limestone ; 7. red ground, composed princi- pally of sandstone, marls, and dolomites with salt and gypsum ; 8. lias and oolite limestones and Jura limestone ; 9. weald clay and Purbeck stone ; 10. chalk formation. 4. Tertiary Rocks. In the regular succession the rocks of this class rest immediately upon the chalk or uppermost member of the secondary class. They are looser in texture than those of that class, yet among them beds occur equally compact with those of the latter. They abound in fossil remains of animals and vegetables, containing many species dif- ferent from those now existing. The rocks of this class are 1. Plastic Clay. 2. Calcaire Grossier or London Clay. 3. Gypsum with Bones. 4. Superior marine Sandstones and Sands. 5. Upper fresh water Formation. 6. Trachyte. 7. Basalt. 8. Greenstone. 9. Wacke. 10. Amygdaloid. 11. Clinstone. 5. Alluvial Rocks. Under this head are included the various cal- careous deposits, peat, clays, loams, sands, gravels, and rolled masses or holders, which in the regular succession rest upon the newest or upper- most rocks of the tertiary class. Remains of vegetables and animals are of fi-equent occurrence in this formation. Neither remains of human industry nor human bones have been found in the older alluvia, but skel- etons and bones of quadrupeds abound ; some of these quadrupeds are of extinct species of existing genera as the elephant, rhinoceros, tapir, &c. ; some of species of extinct genera, as the mastodon and megathe- rium ; and others belong to existing species. 6. Volcanic Rocks. These rocky masses which owe their origin to volcanoes, are divided into ancient and modern or extinct and active. Ancient volcanic rocks comprise those connected with volcanoes, that have not been in a state of activity since the commencement of our his- tory. They resemble basalt, and have been sent from the interior of the earth in the form of streams or currents ; they are accompanied by puzzolana, and scoriae similar to those of active volcanoes. Modern volcanic rocks are lavas, scorise, ashes, sands, &c. ejected from active volcanoes, or fi'om quiescent volcanoes that have been known to be in a state of activity. .CAVES. Caves. Caves or Grottoes are cavities of greater or less extent, which have been formed by different causes in the crust of the earth. They are either open to day or are more or less completely concealed in the inte- rior of the earth. ExTERWAi. Caves. External caves are those hollows which are open to day, and which occur in the faces of cliffs on the sides of valleys, and in steep cliffs and precipices near the coast, or which hang over the sea. Internal Caves. Internal caves are situated either in the centre of mountains, and without any direct communication with the air, or they are situated in the interior of rocks, but communicate with the external au- by means of passages of greater or less extent. Formation of Caves. There are many different modes in which caves are formed. Those in limestone and gypsum appear to have been produced by the dissolving power of water, which has thus hollowed out the rock, and carried off the dissolved materials. Those in lava and trachyte are produced by the expansive power of gases or vapors, oper- ating upon the rocky mass in a state of fusion, or softened by heat. Others are the effect of rents in the crust of the earth, occasioned by earthquakes. Stalactites and Stalagmites. Stalactites and stalagmites are formed by the filtration of water containing calcareous matter, through the pores or fissures in the roofs of limestone caverns. When the water deposits its lime as it drops from the roof of the cavern, it forms long rods of stone hanging down like icicles, which are called stalactites ; but when the water falls to the floor or trickles down the sides of the cavern, the calca- reous crust formed by its evaporation is called a stalagmite. The masses thus produced, whether pendent from the roofs or rising from the floor, often assume shapes resembling objects of nature or art, and frequently give the cavern a highly brilliant appearance. Contents. Beside the depositions thus formed by the percolation of water, caverns often contain great accumulations of organic matter, plants, shells, and bones. In some cases these organic remains belong to spe- cies or genera now extinct, and very frequently to those now foreign to the region in which the caves are situated. In many cases they are found covered with layers of more recent deposits, or buried under alluvial accumulations. Some caves emit peculiar vapore ; others contain clear springs; from some there is a continual rush of wind; some are trav- ersed by currents of water, and others are remarkable for the constant noises heard from them. CAVES OF AMERICA. The cave of Guacharo near Caripe in Venezuela is so called fi-om the vast number of nocturnal birds of that name which frequent it, and which are killed in great numbers for their fat. It is 85 feet broad and 77 high at its opening, and preserves these dimensions for the distance of about a quarter of a mile. A river issues from it, but it has never been ex- plored. Near the Duida Mountain in the valley of the Orinoco there is the vast cave of Ataruipe, remarkable as containing the skeletons of an extinct tribe of natives, and urns filled with bones, which have been prepared by drying in the sun, or by being besmeared with resins or some coloring matter. Nickojack cave in the northwestern part of Georgia, which is 50 feet high by 100 wide, and is traversed by a stream of considerable size, has been explored to the distance of three miles. Weyer's cave in Virginia contains a series of large halls extending for the distance of half a mile, and adorned with glittering stalactites. Mammoth Cave in Edmonson county Kentucky, is one of the most extensive known ; it extends 10 or 12 miles, containing a great number of long passages and vast halls; one of these called the chief city is said to be 8 acres in extent, with a roof 100 feet high unsupported by a single pillar; from this five avenues lead to several other apartments little infe- rior in size. Saltpetre has been manufactured from the soil of this and other caves in this region, and Glauber and Epsom salt are also procured fi:om them. CAVES IN EUROPE. One of the most remarkable of these is Fingal's Cave in the island of Staffa. Its entrance, 66 feet high by 42 wide, leads into a natural hall above 200 feet in length, which is bounded on all sides by regular col- umns of basalt. It was not discovered till 1772. The Peak cavern in the High Peak, near Castleton, Derbyshire, is a huge gulf 42 feet high, and 120 feet long, at the foot of perpendicular cliffs of amazing height. Thence the visiter is conducted through a suc- cession of dark cavernous apartments, and ferried along a subterraneous river, above which the rocks lie so close, that he is obliged to lie flat on his face. This terminates at the distance of about 2,000 feet. Poole's Hole near Buxton is chiefly remarkable for the large masses of stalactite and other petrifactions, with which it is filled. It derives its name from its having been the retreat of a famous robber of the 16th century. Baumann's Cave in the Hartz consists of a series of rooms, six in num- ber, having a total length of 760 feet ; and in the same region is Biel's Hole, formed of 15 apartments, of 650 feet in length. Near Grenoble in France is the cave of our Lady of Balme, composed of several apartments, glittering with stalactites, resounding with cascades, and containing a subterranean lake which the visiter crosses by the glare oftorches. Among the 1000 caves found in the mountains of the Austrian king- dom of Illyria, the Adelsberg is the most remarkable. It is stated to be five miles in length ; it is a perfect labyrinth, composed of long, steep, and winding passages, terminating in lofty, and spacious apartments, decorated with stalactites of the most fantastic and picturesque groupings, traversed by a boisterous torrent, whose tumultuous roarings are repeated by the echoes of the vaults, and containing gi-eat quantities of organic remains. Magdalen's cave in the vicinity is less extensive but more lofty, and its stalactites resemble colossal caryatides, sustaining high arches. The Grotto del Cane or Dog's Cave near Naples is a small aperture, deriving its interest from the exhalations which issue from it, strongly impregnated with carbonic acid gas. It is usual to plunge a.dog into this suffocating air for the amusement of visiters ; on being withdrawn, the animal, which had become apparently lifeless, immediately recovers its powers. The cave of Trophonius was celebrated among the ancients for its oracle ; it was a small deep hole in Boeotia, down which the person con- sulting the oracle was obliged to descend, and in which he was sub- jected to a number of fatiguing and terrifying rites ; as he usually returned pale and dejected, it became a proverbial expression in regard to a mel- ancholy person ; He has just come from the cave of Trophonius. The celebrated grotto of Antiparos, in one of the Grecian islands, is a spacious cave 350 feet long, 325 broad, and about J.75 high, situated at the bottom of a succession of steep, winding galleries, near 1500 feet be- low the surface of the ground. Colossal pillars of crystallized alabaster rise from the floor to the roof, and stalactites of the same substance hang like huge icicles from the roo^ decorated with festoons, curtains, &c., of " shining white rock and glittering crystals. NATURAL BRIDGES. Akin to these natural saloons, and often accompanying them, are the natural bridges formed by solid arches stretching over chasms, or by large masses of rock, which having fallen into a cleft have been arrested in the descent by the narrowness of the fissure, and have thus bridged over the otherwise impassable gulf. The most remarkable of these are the natural bridges of Icononzo near Bogota in New Grenada; that of Rumichaca near Pasto; that of the Ay in Cuba ; that of the Mother of God in Mexico ; the celebrated Rock- bridge of Virginia; the natural bridge of Veja, near Verona, &c. The bridges of Icononzo extend over a crevice, at the bottom of which flows the torrent of Summa Paz ; the upper bridge is a natural arch 40 feet broad by 50 long, 318 feet above the stream ; the lower is 64 feet be- neath this, and is formed of three enormous blocks, which have fallen so as to support each other. The Natural Bridge of Virginia is 60 feet wide, 90 long, and 250 high from the bottom of the fissure, over which it extends. MINERALS. Akrangement of Minerals. That department of natural history which makes us acquainted with the properties and relations of simple minerals is called mineralogy. The arrangement of simple minerals has been a subject of division among mineralogists; some contend for a chemical arrangement, according to which the species are grouped in conformity with their chemical composition and characters ; others rejecting the pure chemical, adopt the mixed method, in which the species are arranged and determined according to the conjoined chemical and external characters ; while others prefer the natural method, or the arrangement according to the external characters alone. SYSTEM OF ARRANGEMENT OF SIMPLE MINERALS. CLASS I. ' Order Vir.— Gem. Order I.— Gas. Oenus I. Andalusite. Cfenus i.~ Hydrogen Gas. II. Corundum. 1. Pure Hydrogen Gas. III. Diamond, 2. Carburetted Hydrogen Gaa. IV. Topaz. 3. Sulphuretted Hydrogen Gas. V. Emerald. 4. Phosphuretted Hy^irogen Gaa. Ti. Q,uartz. II. Atmospheric Air. VII. Axinite. Order II. — Water. viii. Chrysolite. Genus I. Atmospheric Water. IX. Boracite. II. Sea Water. I. Tourmaline. Order III. — Acid. zi. Garnet. Genus i. Carbonic Acid. XII, Zircon. II. Muriatic Acid. XMT. Gadolinite. III. Sulphuric Acid. Order VIIL— Ore. IT. Boracic Acid. Oenus I. Titanium Ore. V. Arsenic Acid. 11. Zinc Ore. Order IV.— Salt. III. Red Copper Ore. Oenus I. Natron. IV. Tin Ore. II. Glauber Salt. V. Wolfram. III. Nitre. VI. Tantalum Ore. IV. Rock Salt. VII. Uranium Ore. T. Sal Ammoniac. vin. Cerium Ore. VI. Vitriol. IX Chrome Ore. Tri. Epsom Salt. X. Iron Ore. VIII. Alum. XI. Manganese Ore. IX. Borax. Order IX. — Native Metal. I. Glauberite. Oenus I. Arsenic. , II. Tellurium. bLASS II. III. Antimony. IV. Bismuth. Order I. — Haloide. V. Mercury. Oenus I. Gypsum. VI. Silver. lu Cryolite. VII. Gold. III. Alum Stone. VIII. Platina. IV. Fluor. ' IX. Iron. V. Apatite. K. Copper. VI. Limestone. Order X.— Pyrites. Order II. — Bahtte. Oenus I. Nickle Pyrites. Genus I. Sparry Iron. II. Arsenic Pyrites. II. Red Manganese. III. Cobalt Pyrites. III. Calamine. IV. Iron Pyrites. IV. Tungsten. V. Copper Pyrites. V. Baryte. Order XT. — Glance. vi. Lead Spar. Oenus I. Copper Glance. Order III.— Kerate. 11. SilverGlanceor Vitreous Silver. Oenus I. Corneous Silver. III. Galena or Lead Glance. II. Corneous Mercury. IV. Tellurium Glance or Black Tel- Order IV. — Malachite. lurium. OentLS I. Copper Green. V. Molybdena or Molybdena Glance II. Liriconite. VI. Bismuth Glance. III. Olivenite. vri. Antimony Glance. IV. Blue Malachite or Blue Copper. VIII. Melane Glance. v. Emerald Malachite. Order XII. — Blende. VI. Green Malachite. Oenus r. Manganese Blende. Order V.— Mica. ir. Zinc Blende or Garnet Blende. Oenus I. Copper Mica. III. Antimony Blende or Red Anti- II. Uran Mica or Uranite. mony. III. Cobalt Mica or Red Cobalt. Hv. Ruby Blende. IV. Antimony Mica or White Anti- Order XIII.— Sulphur. mony. Oenus I. Sulphur. V. Blue Iron or Iron Mica. VI. Graphite. CLASS IIL VII. Talc Mica. ' Order I. — Resin. viri. Pearl Mica Oenus J. Mellilite or Honey Stone. Order VI.— Spar. II. Mineral Resin. Oenus I. Schiller Spar. 1. Yellow mineral Resin or ir. Cyanite. Amber. III. Spodumene. 2. Fossil Copal. IV. Prehnite. 3. Black Mineral Resin. V. Dalolite. 4. Retinite. VI. Zeolite. 5. Dysodolite. VII. Petalite. Order II.— Coal. VIII. Felspar. Genus i. Mineral Coal. IX. Augite. 1. Bituminous Coal. X. Azure Spar. S. Glance Coal or Anthracite. geographical distribution of minerals. Mineral Productions of Epkope. Although Europe does not yield the precious metals and gems in quantities equal to those produced by the other continents, yet it possesses the richest mines of iron, lead, copper, tin, coal, salt, and quicksilver in the world. The following table shows the countries which furnish these and other valuable minerals arranged in the order of production. Diamonds. Government of Perm in Russia. Gold. Russia; Austria (Hungary, Transylvania, Saltzburg, &c.); Sar- dinia. Silver. Austria (Hungary, Bohemia, Transylvania, &c.) ; Saxony; Han- over ; Ottoman Empire ; Prussia ; England ; France ; Sweden ; Nassau, &c. Tin. England (Cornwall, Devon) ; Saxony ; Bohemia. Quicksilver. Spain ; Austria (Carniola, &c.) ; Bavaria. Copper. England ; Russia ; Austria ; Sweden ; Turkey ; Prussia ; Spain ; France, &o. Iron. Great Britain ; France ; Russia ; Prussia ; Sweden ; Austria ; Neth- erlands ; Bavaria ; Tuscany ; Spain, &c. Lead. England; Austria; Prussia; Hanover; Spain; France, &c. Coal. Great Britain ; Netherlands ; France ; Prussia ; Austria, &c. Salt. Spain; Austria; France; Great Britain; Turkey; Russia; Portu- gal ; Prussia ; Sardinia ; Naples ; Bavaria, &c. Mineral Peoducts of Asia. Asia produces all the precious and useful minerals, but its soil has been but incompletely and partially explored, and its mineral treasures are imperfectly known. Diamonds. Hindostan; Ceylon; Russia (Perm and Orenburg). Gold. Japan ; Chinese Empire (Thibet, Yunnan, Hainan, &c.) ; Russian Asia (Perm, Orenburg, Tomsk, &c.) ; Birmah ; Annam ; Siam ; Malacca, &c. Stiver. China ; Russia (Tomsk, Irkutsk) ; Japan ; Turkey (Armenia, Na- tolia). Tin. Birman Empire ; Siam ; Malacca ; China ; Annam. Quicksilver. China; Thibet; Japan; Ceylon. Copper. Japan; Russia; Turkey; China; Thibet; Annam; Hindostan; Persia. Irrni. Russia ; Hindostan ; China ; Thibet ; Siam ; Annam ; Turkey , Cabul; Seikhs; Persia; Japan. Lead. China; Russia; Siam; Japan; Persia; Arabia; Turkey. Coal. In many districts, but little worked. Salt. China; Hindostan; Russia; Persia; Arabia; Turkey, &c. Mineral Products of Africa. The mineral wealth of this division of the globe is doubtless considerable, but it is very imperfectly known. Gold. Nigritia ; Mozambique coast ; Abyssinia, &c. Silver. Eastern Africa (Chicova) ; Nigritia ; Morocco. Copper. Nigritia (Molooas, Darfur, &c.) ; Eastern Africa; Country of the Hottentots ; Egypt; Atlas Mountains. Lead. Algerine Territory ; Loango. Iron. Nigritia; Southern Africa; Eastern Africa (country of the Cazem has) ; Madagascar ; Atlas Mountains ; Egypt ; Abyssinia. Salt. Morocco; Nubia; Nigritia; Cape Verde Isles; Canaries; Mada- gascar. Mineral Products of America. Although America is chieiHy remarks ble for the immense quantities of the precious metals which it produces, it yet contains in its bosom an abundance of the useful minerals, which are not, however, worked to any great extent except in the United States. Diamonds. Brazil. Gold. New Grenada ; United States (North and South Carolina, Georgia, Virginia, Tennessee, &c.) ; Brazil; Mexican States; Chili; Peru; BoUvia; United States of Central America. Silver. Mexican States; Bolivia; Chih; States of the Plata; Central America. Tin. Peru; Mexico. Quicksilver. Peru; Mexico. Copper. Chili; Peru; Mexico; United States. Lead. United States (Illinois, Michigan, Missouri, New York, &o.) ; Mexico. ' /J Iron. United States (New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Massachusetts, Connect- icut, &c.) ; Mexico ; Brazil ; Canada, &c. Coal. United States (Pennsylvania, Virginia, Ohio, &c.) ; Nova Scotia, Chili, &c. Salt. States of the Plata; Brazil; United States; Central America; Mex- ico ; Bolivia ; Bahamas, &c. Mineral Products of Oceania. This quarter of the world is very im- perfectly known, yet Malaysia or the India Archipelago contains the richest tin mines in the world, and yields, although badly worked, a great quantity of gold and diamonds, Borneo and according to some Celebes being only the known regions, beside Hindostan, Brazil, and the Ural Mountains, that yield that gem. Diamonds. Borneo; Celebes. Gold. Borneo; Sumatra; Celebes; Philippines; Timor. Tin. Banca; Sumatra; Celebes; Copper. Sumatra; Philippines; Timor; Celebes; New Holland. Lead. Philippines ; New Holland. Iron. Billiton; Sumatra; Celebes; Borneo; Van Diemen's Land. Coal. New Holland ; Van Diemen's Land. Salt. Java ; Celebes ; Bali, &c. MINERAL SPRINGS. Mineral Waters. Almost all springs are impregnated with' some foreign ingredients, which render them more agreeable to the taste, and more nutritious than pure rain water. But it is only those waters which contain such a portion of foreign matter as gives them a sensible flavor and a specific action upon the animal economy, to which we give the name of mineral waters. Inbredients of Mineral Waters. The number of metals, earths, acids, and alkalies held in solution by different springs, comprehends almost all known substances ; but the most common and abundant are lime, iron, magnesia, silica, alumiue, soda, and the carbonic and sulphu- ric acids. Different Classes of Springs. Mineral, Springs are divided in respect of temperature into the cold and the thermal or warm springs. In regard to their ingredients they are commonly divided into four classes ; the acidulous or carbonated ; the saline ; the chalybeate or fer- ruginous ; and the sulphureous. Acidulous Waters. Those waters which contain carbonic acid in its free state, or in combination in excess with a base, are called acid- ulous or carbonated waters. They are distinguished by their slightly acid taste, and by their sparkling when they are poured from one vessel to another ; both of which properties they lose on exposure to the air. Beside carbonic acid they generally contain common salt, and some of the earthy carbonates. To this class of waters belong those of Vichi and Mont d'Or in France ; the famous Seltzer waters of Niederselters in Nassau ; the Carlsbad Springs in Bohemia ; the Sweet Springs of Munroe county, Virginia, &c. Sulphureous Waters. This class of mineral waters contain sulphu- retted hydrogen. They are distinguished by their odor, and by their causing a piece of silver immersed in them to turn black. Beside sul- ■ phuretted hydrogen they contain alkaline and earthy sulphates and muriates, and they may be subdivided into two kinds; those which have sulphuretted hydrogen in a free state, and those in which it is com- bined with an alkali or an earth. The general effects of these waters are stimulant, and they are more often used in the form of a bath than internally. They are service- able in gout and rheumatism, in sprains and bruises, in cutaneous dis- orders, &c. Among the sulphureous springs maybe mentioned those of Aixla Chapelle in Rhenish Prussia ; of Enghien in France ; of Harrowgate in England ; of Moffat in Scotland ; the White Sulphur Springs of Green- briar county, the Red Sulphur of Giles county, and the Salt Sulphur of Munroe county, Virginia ; the Olympian Springs and the Blue Licks in Kentucky, &c. Chalybeate Waters. These waters contain iron, and are known by their peculiar taste, and by their becoming black when mixed with an infusion of nutgalls. In some the iron is combined with sulphuric acid, in more with carbonic acid ; when this is in excess the waters pos- sess acid properties, and form acidulous chalybeate waters. Chalybeate waters are tonic and aperient, and are used with advantage in cases of debility and chronic diseases. Among the most noted springs of this class are those of Tunbridge and Brighton, in England ; of Spa in Belgium ; of Pyrmont in Waldeck ; the fourteen springs of Langen- schwalbach in Nassau ; the springs of Ballston ; Bedford, York, and Brandywine Springs in Pennsylvania ; the Yellow Spring in Ohio, &c. Saline Waters. Saline waters are those which contain the saline ingredients generally found in mineral waters, but which have very little or no iron or sulphuretted hydrogen, and have not carbonic acid in excess. These are subdivided into alkaline, containing alkali in a free state or combined with carbonic acid ; hard waters or those which con- tain carbonate or sulphate of lime ; salt waters, in which salt abounds ; and purgative waters, which contain chiefly sulphate of magnesia or Epsom salt. The most celebrated thermal saline waters are those of Bath, Buxton, and Bristol in England ; of Dunblane and Pitcaithley in Scotland ; Plom- bieresand Bourbon-Lancy in France ; Carlsbad and Teplitz in Germany ; Lucca and St. Julian in Italy ; and the Warm Springs of North Carolina. Among the cold saline springs are those of Saratoga in New York, and of Harodsburg and Grenville in Kentucky ; Epsom and Cheltenham, Leamington, Scarborough, and Malvern, in England ; and Sedhtz and Seidschutz in Bohemia. When there is a considerable quantity of carbonic acid they become more grateful to the taste, and when iron is present, as is sometimes the case, they acquire tonic and stimulant powere. Thermal Waters. This class in'cludes individual springs of all the classes ; a thermal spring being one which, whatever are its chemical properties, possesses a temperature more or less elevated above that of the region in which it is situated, and the changes of which do not coin- cide with those of the external atmosphere. principal thermal waters. Name. Country. San Pedro Dosal, Portugal, Chaves, " Vic, France, Plombieres, " Vichi, « Bourbon les Bains, " Bourbon I'ArchamJiaud, " Chaudes Aigues, " Tejilitz, Austria, Carlsbad, « Wisbaden, Nassau, Schlangenbad, " Aix la Chapelle, Prussia, Baden, Baden, Piscarelli, Naples, Geyser, Iceland, JYame. 154° Buxton, 142 Bristol, 212 Bath, 154 St. Michael, 115 Hot Springs, 156 Hot Springs, ]40 Wann Springs, 190 Sweet Springs, 113 Sans Souci, 165 Chichimaquillo, 158 St. Lucia, 86 Eaux Bouillantes, 136 Onoto, 154 Trincheras, 200 Cuenca, 212 Country. Temp. England, 82° « 74 « 117 Azores, 208 Arkansaw, 212 Virginia, 112 N. Carohna,104 Vu-ginia, 73 New York, 50 Mexico, 205 W.Indies, 203 Martinique, 131 Venezuela, 112 « 195 Equator, 162 TABLE or COMPOSITION OF SOME OF THE CELEBRATED MINERAL SPRINGS OF EUROPE. Name and Class of Springs. Acidulous. [ Seltzer Carlsbad ' Kilburn f Harrowgate . Sulphure- J MofFat, . . ous. ] Aix la Chapelle \_ Enghien . , Chalybeate. < Tunbridge Brighton Toplitz . Pyrmont Saline. fSedlitz . . Cheltenham Plombieres . Dunblane' . Pitcaithley . Bath . . . Buxton . . Bristol . . Grains of Water. 8,949 25,320 138,240 103,643 103,643 8,940 92,160 103,643 58,309 22,540 8,950 8,933 58,309 103,643 14,600 7,291 7,291 15,360 58,309 58,309 Cubic Inches of Gases. Oxy- gen. 43.5 1.4 Carb. Acid. 13.1 50 84 1 18.5 10.6 18 19.6 9.8 8 30.3 1 2.4 30.3 Sulph. Hydr. 36 19 10 13.1 7 Nitro- gen. 12 Carbonates of Soda. Grains. 5.2 38.5 13.5 1.9 36 Lime. Grains. 78.3 12.5 2.4 18.5 15.3 21.4 16.5 4.3 1.9 6.7 0.4 0.5 0.5 1.6 10.5 13.5 Magn. Grains. 6.3 1.3 5.5 5.9 1.3 9.8 4.4 21 12.5 Iron. Grains. 0.1 0.3 32.5 0.7 0.7 5 0.2 .004 Soda. Lime. Grains. Grains. 66.8 18.2 48 1 3.7 0.9 3 11.2 Sulphates of Magn. Grains. 13 33.3 1.3 32.7 8.4 41.1 40 18 2.5 11.7 91 0.5 5.8 5.4 1444 Iron. Grains 11.2 Muriates of Soda. Lime. iVlagn. Grains. Grains. Grains. 13.7 38.5 6 615.5 3.6 6.2 2.4 0.5 12.2 61.3 1.7 0.2 5 2 21 12.7 6.6 1.5 4 0.6 28.5 20.8 20.2 2.8 9.1 2.3 6 36.5 12.5 7.3 ^ • ^ .5 1 3; ^ <• ? f5 ts; 1 2 ,l 1 ^ S ^ ■S 1 •<1 i U o o o o O o o . > • . =^ -i s * ^ O O o 1^ I ^ :^ 1 ?;■ '1 t; 3 1 ^ G a I O O G O s O O 1 ^ i ^1- ^ ■^ i ■^ ^ J ^ '^i !^ ^ o o p 5i .5 CONTINENTS, OCEANS, SEAS, LAKES, AND ISLANDS. CONTINENTS. Ortelius and Mercator in the 16lh century conceived the idea of dividing all known lands into three great divisions; the Old World, comprising Europe, Asia, and Africa; the New World or America; and the Terra Australis or Magellanica, Austral or Southern World ; to wJiich .Varenibs added the Arctic World. At a later period^,when the: knowledge, of the Pacific became mgre extensive, but the notion of a Southern or Antarctip cbntinent still' prevailed, l)e Bros3,es proposed tlie names of Australia for' the island of New Hdlland and the surrounding -groups ; Polyfiesia, foi: the groups scattered over the Pacific ; and Magellania, for the supposed- Sout-herrf Continent. Finallygeographers have agreed to consider the' Island World of the Pacific Ocean as' a third continent; under-the name of Oceani^n^ Adopting this classification, Walckenaer divides the land area of the globe into three great continents called worlds, which are completely separated from each other by the circumfluent ocean: Old World, subdivided into Europe, Asia, and Africa. New World, subdivided into North America and South America. Maritime World or Oceania, subdivided into Malaysia, Australia, and Polynesia. The whole land area of the globe has been differently estimated ; the most recent and accurate calculations make it 50,200,000 square miles, distributed as follows: Divisions, '" Square Miles. Old World or Ea'stern Continent, - - 31,230,000 : ' Europe, - - 3,724,000 Asia, ----- 16,152,000 Af^ca, - - - 11,354,000 New World, America, or Western Continent, -, - - North America, - - 8,000,000 South America, - 6,800,000 Maritime World or Oceania, - - - - THE OCEAN. 14,800,000 4,132,000 Although the ocean presents jthe appearance of a barren waste, and in the infancy of human art seems to interpose an impassable barrier to the intercourse of nations ■whom it separates,,yet in the eye of philosophy it is the great reservoir of the vapors which^feed the rivers and fertilize the earth; and to civilized man it becomes a high- way (S5nnecting the most; distant parts of the globe. Its bosom contains an inex- haustible suj)ply of^ food,;and its comparatively equable temperature, renders it a source of refreshing coolness in the Jjurningrdimates of the tropics, atid of kindly warm^ in the more inclement tregionsj. remote from the equator. " ^ Theu>cean', with' all itsiinland bays and seas, covers an area of nearly ,147,800,000 squaremile^ or about three fourths of .the surface of .the globe. Laplace has calcu- lated fi-om the influence oT the sun and moon ujjon our planet, "that the ^eplh of the sea cannot exceed 26,500'feet. "" If we^uppose its mean depth to be about two miles, its cubic contents will be nearly 300,000,000 cubic miles. The ocean forms in fact a single mass of fluid surrounding the land, and penetrat- ing the continents with numerous indentures. But geographers generally divide it into five great basins: The Pacific Ocean, 11,000 miles in length from east to west, and 8,000 in breadth, covers an area of 50,000,000 square miles: The Atlantic, 8,600 miles in length from north to south, and from 1,800 to 5,400 in breadth, covers about 25,000,000 square miles: The Indian Ocean, lying between 40 degrees S. and 25 degrees N. Lat., is about 4,500 miles in length and as many in breadth, covering a surface of 17,000,000 square miles: The Antarctic Ocean, lying round the South Pole, and joining the Indian Ocean in the latitude of 40 degrees S., and the Pacific in 50 degrees, embraces an ai"ea of about 30,000,000 square miles: The Arctic Ocean surrounds the North Pole, lying to the north of Asia and America, and having a circuit of about 8,400 miles. See the Tables Pacific Ocean, Atlantic Ocean, and Northern and Southern Hemispheres. The terras sea, bay, and gulf,, are applied with. little discrimination to inland branches of the universal ocean, whether like the Baltic and the Mediterranean they fienetrate the land by a narrow passage and then spi'ead out into a broad expanse, or ike North Sea and the Gulf of Mexico open into the ocean by several mouths, or like the bay of Biscay and the Sea of Bengal present a_wide front, imperceptibly mingling their waters with the main sea, from which they are separated by no dis- tinct natural line. Bodies of water completely surrounded by land, like the Caspian Sea, are improperly so called. Those inland seas which open to the west are not influenced by the general oceanic tides, but they have commonly local tides, varying from one to three feet. The most considerable European Seas are the Mediterranean, which is about 2,000 miles in length, and varies in breadth from 100 to 650 miles; its area, including the Adriatic and Archipelago, but exclusive of the Black Sea, is not far from 1,000,000 square miles; river domain about 1,500,000: The Black Sea, of which the Sea of Azoph is merely a bay, receives tlie waters of a surface of about 950,000 square miles; its waters are tlierefore quite fresh, and have a constant efllux through the Dardanelles: ,The North Sea or German Ocean, is quite open on the north, and also communi- cates witli the ocean on the south ; it is traversed by immense sand-banks ; area about 160,000 square miles: The Baltic Sea, like the Black Sea, has an efliux current, and receives the drain of a surface of about 800,000 square miles ; the tides are perceptible only as far as the Sound, and the Great, and Little Belt, and the waters are nearly fresh; the area of the Bsdtic, inclusive of the Skagerac, Cattegat, and its interior gulfs, is not less than 175,000 square miles; though the surface covered by the Baltic in a narrower sense is somewhat less than 100,000 square miles : The Great Mediterranean of the American continent is an open sea, having nu- merous entrances from the east between the West In,dia Islands, anH the main land; it is formed' by the coasts of the continent- sweeping round in a circular form from the Capes of Florida to tHe Gulf of Paria'in South America, and^has been appro- pria,tely styled the Columbian Sea; the peninsula of Yucatan divid^into two great branches, the Caribbean Sea, and the Gulf of Mexico, which together cover a sur- face'of about 1,400,000 square mijes. It.is probably destined to bfijlhe theatreof a more active and ex tensive .commerce, the seat of freer communitiesj-and, let us-JHope, of a higher and more perfejit civilization, than even tlie Mediterranean of the pastern continent. ' ■ -^ ' ':_, C" LAKES. .\ ''- A lake is an inland body of water not connected with the ocean or any'of its branches. In regard to the position of their beds, there are twojclasses of Jakes; those formed in -deep hollows -among the mountains, and fed by springs or torrents; and those formed in level countries by the surplus water of rivers ^^n consequjsnce of the want of a general declivity in the ground- Thus there is a system "of the for- mer class in the-great Alpine girdle of the, old continent, including4he lakes;of the Pyrenees, the Alps, the Apennines, and those of the Taurus, Caucasus, and^Altaic chains; to the north of this great mountain band are the numerous, lakes of the vast nocthern plain of Europe and^sia, belonging to the latter class, and "comprising the numerous lakes of Prussia, Sweden, Kus5ia,'and Siberia; to the south of the moun- tainous zone, in Africa for instance, the lakes are few. '- >T" There is a similar disposition in the New World; a chain of mountain Jakes accompanies the Andes through their whole course, including Titicaca, Nicaragua, Chapala, the small lakes of the Mexican Valley, Timpanogos, &c., and while the great eastern plains of South America are nearly destitute of them!, the regions around the Hudson contain an astonishing number of lakes, corresponding innum- ber, character, and geographical situation to those which skirt the shores of the Baltic and the Frozen Ocean. Another division of lakes is founded upon the manner in which Hhey receive or discharge their waters, and in this point of view they form four elates: 1. Those which receive streams of water and have an outlet to the ocean areihe most numer- ous and extensive: 2. Those which receive rivers, without having atiy visible outlet, such as the '.Caspian Sea, Lake Tchad, in the interior of Africa, &c. : 3. Those which receive no running water, but have an outlet; these are fed by springs: 4. Those which neither receive running water, nor have an outlet: these are small. Lakes are .also distinguished>ccording tothe qualityof their water into saline and fresh; those Lwhich have no outlet, and those situated in a region, whose soil is im- pregnated with salt, are of the latter class. * EUROPEAN LAKES. Square Miles. -_ Sipmre Miles Ladoga (Russia), Onega (Russia), Wener (Sweden), Saima (Finland), Peipus (Russia), Wetter (Sweden), Mieler, " 6,350 3,300 2,150 1,610 850 850 760 Lake of Geneva, ' Constance, Ilmen, Garda, Maggiore, Neufchatel, Lucerne, 340 290 275 180 150 115 100 ASIATro LAKES. Aral, Baikhal, Palkati, 9,930 1 7,540 1 3,696 Van, Urmiah, Dead Sea, 1,960 760 500 AFRICAN LAKES. Lake Tchad, Maravi, 1 Dembea, 1 Dibbie, AMERICAN LAEE9. -1 Superior, Huron, Great Bear Lake, Winnipeg, Slave Lake, Michigan, 35,000 20,000 1 10,000 12,000 16,000 Athabasca, Erie, Ontario, Titicaca^ Nicaragua, 6,000 . 10,000 7,200 6,500 5,000 : ISL ANDS. - The Eastern and Western continents, and New Holland, are, strictly speaking, three great islands, washed on all sides by the ocean ; but setting these aside under the name of continents, we generally restrict the application of the term islands to smaller masses of land lying in the midst of seas or lakes. Islands are sometimes detached, oftener collected into groups or archipelagos; in some cases they are little more than low sand-banks, ledges of rocks, or coral reefs, and in others rising to a considerable elevation above the surface of the water, and spreading to a considerable extent, they present in miniature all the features of the continents, hills, valleys, plains, lakes, streams, &c. They are often the summits of submarine mountainous-chains, and as such are in- timately connected with each other, and with the neighboring continent; and in general they are considered as appendages to the nearest msciu-land. Many of them are evidently tlie production of submarine volcanoes, which heave them up from the bosom of the waters, and fertilize their surface by the matter ejected from their bowels. The largest islands of tlie globe are Borneo, New Guinea or Fapuasia, Greenland C?), Sumatra, Madagascar, Niphon, Cuba, Great Britain, &c. MOUNTAINS. Uses op Mountains. In the benevolent purposed bf Providence these great elevations of the earth's surface are made subservient to the well being of the animal creation. Ris- ing into regions of perpetual ice, they serve in hot climates to cool the burning air, and to fan the panting inhabitants with refreshing breezes j they are the reservoirs of rivers, sup- plying their shrinking streams in the dry seasons of the lower countries with copious tor- rents'firom the melting snows ; they are the storehouses of the richest minerals ; they increase the surface of the earth, and give diversity and richness to its vegetable products ; and how often have they not served to st»y the march of the conqueror, and to shelter in thei; fastnesses the last champions of freedom ! Distribution ojf Mountains. Single detached elevations of great height are ralfe ; but mountains are generally found in elevated bands, consisting either of one central chain,' with branches running off at right angles, or of several chains or ridges running parallel to each other; and in both cases often accompanied by subordinate chains, of a smaljei;, elevation. A group of mountains is a collection of several chains; a system of mountains is a collection of groups. The most general view of mountain systems shows us a vast mountalilous zone almost completely surrounding the basin of the Great Faciiic Ocean ; rising from the southern extremity of South America, the lofty rampart of the Andes extends along the western coast of the American continent at no great distance from the sea,' through a length of 9,000 miles, and sweeping round in a semicircle through'Asia, a continuation of the same great barrier, under the various names of the Altai, Himalaya, and Taurus, crowns the summit of the declivity down which the great Asiatic rivers descend into the ocean. The Caucasus, the Carpathian, and Alpine chains are a pro- longation through.Europe of this colossal girdle. MouNTAiNa OF America. All the mountains of the New World maybe classed in seven systems, three of which are in South America, two in North America, and two in the great Archipelagos', which belong to this continent. South America consists of one vast expanse of little elevation, bounded on the west by the long chains of the Andes which stretch uninterruptedly from Cap^ Horn to the Gulf of Paria,. and contain some summits little inferior in height to the loftiest colossuses of the Himalaya Mountains. These mountains are remarkable for the number, height,. and terri- ble activity of their volcanic vents. In Bolivia and Peru the Andes extend in 'two prin- cipal chains, but to the north of Popayan they divide into tbree chains of which the eastern and principal curves round the. northern coast of Venezuela:, forming the Sierra of Merida or Ca5-accas ; the central chain or duindiu Mountains separate the valleys of the Cauca and the Magdalena, and the western chain or Choco Mountains sink down in the northwestern corner of New Grenada. The principal summits of the Andes are — v Pichincha V. Illiniza Mount Sarmiento (Terra del Puego) ft.6,400 Patagoiiian Andes — Corcovado 12,600 Chilian ^ndea — Descabezado 31,100 Maypo v. 6,600 Peruvian Andes — Nevado de Sorata 25,400 Nevado d^ lUimani 34,350 Chuquibamba 33,000 Gualatiere'V. 23,000 Bahama V. ^2,000 Anlisana V. 19,305 Cotopaxi V. 18,900 ft. 16,000 18,650 21,440 18,370 16,740 16,080 Chimborazo . Arequipa V. Tunguragua V. Cerro de Potosi ColomMan Andes'— VoXcbho of Purace 15,400 Volcano of Merida 15,056 Pico de Horquita 19,234 Silla de Caraccas 8,640 Peak of-Tolima 15,950 The Parima Mountains are a transverse ridge, which separates Guiana from the basin of the Amazon. Parts of it are known under the local names of Sierra of Parima, Sierra of Pacaraina, and Sierra' of Tumucumaque. The highest known summit is the Peak of Duida, 8,330 feet high. The Brazilian Mountains are another series of low ridges extending over a great por- tion of Brazil. The Serra do Mar runs along the coast from Cape St. Roque neatly to the Banda Oriental. The Sert'a do Espinhaco stretches from the San Francisco, Lat. 10", to the Uruguay, Lat. 38°. The Serra dos Veftentes separates the valleys of the San Francisco and the Tocantin, and winding round to the west divides the confluents of the Amazon from those of the Parana, The highestaummit, Itacolumi, is only 6,000 feet high. North America is traversed by one g^-eat mountainous system which may be consid- ered a prolongation of the Andes. Rising in the Isthmus of Panama, through which it extends under the name of the Cordillera of Veragua, it runs through- Central Amer- ica, where.it is called the Cordillera of Guatemala, and is distinguished by the great number of its volcanoes, into Mexico. -Jlere it is called the Mexican Cordillera, Sierra Madre, Sierra de los Mimbres, &c., and passes into the United States under the name of Rocky Mountains, a designation, wlu'ch the principal chain retains till it sinks down and. disappears in about Lat. 62°.' A more westerly ridge, which may be called the Mari- time Chain, extends through California,' Oregon District, and Russian America. The Ozark or Massetne Mountains of Arkansaw are a spur of this great mountain system. IstaccihuatI ft. 15,700 Nevadoof Tolnca 15,156 Coffer of Perote 13,514 Cordillera of Veraguor—SiUa. of Veragua; 9,000 Cordillera df Ouatemala—Agaa. V. 14,900 Fuego V. 14,700 Soconusco V. ? Cordillera o/JIfiKtico— Popocatepetl V. 17,735 ■ Orizava V. 17,388 ■ Tuxtla V. JorulloV. 2,500 .Colima V. ? Rocky Mountains— 'Bpaniah Peak 11,000 James's Peak 11,320 Long's Peak 13,575 Maritinie Chain — Mount Fairweather 14,750 Mount St. Elias V 17,870 Ozark Mountains— Wigheat Peak 2,500 The Alleohant or Appalachian System traverses the eastern part of the United States from Alabama to the St. Lawrence in several parallel chains, of which the Blue Ridge and the Alleghany Ridge are the principal. In Vermont and New Hampshire tiuey bear the name of the Green Mountains and the White Hills. Blue Ridge~?ea.ka of Otter (Va.) ft. 4,260 Mt. Washiflgton (White Hills, N: H.) ■ 6,498 The Arctic System embraces the mounta Greenland Mountains- Cattskill (N. Y.) Cumberlatid Mountains — Summit AUeghawy Ridge^Green Briar ns of Greenland,'lceland, &.c. Stag's Horns 8,300 ft. 3,800 3,000 3,775 Iceland Mountains — Jtekull 6,656, Hecla V. 5,550 SvaTBM OF THE ANTILLES including the mountaius of the Wcst India Islauds. Cuba— Mount Potrillo 8,960 ftet. Jamaica— Bine Mountains 7,284 Hayti— Grand Serrania 8,950 EUROPEAN MOUNTAINS. The Hesperian System includes the mountains of the Spanish peninsula, comprehend- ing three groups j the Southern, comprising the three ranges of the Sierra Nevada, the Sierra Morena and the Sierra de Toledo; the Central, formed of two chains, extending from Cape St. Martin to-the Rock of Lisbon, and the Northern or the Pyrenees. Southern Group— Cerro de Mulhaceri (summit of Sierra Nevada) ft. 11,660 Sagra (Sierra Morena) 5,883 Central GroKp— Sierra Credos - - 10,559 Penalara - - 8,992 Pi/renees— Mai adetta - ft. 11,494 Mont Perdu 11,168 *ic Posets 11,977 Canigou - ■ - - 9,141 The Alpine System is the main trunk from which proceed the various chains that stretch over part of France under the names of the Cevennes, the Jura and the Vosges, over Switzerland under the name of the Alps, into Germany under the names of the Alps, the Sudetic Mountains, &c., through Italy, where they take the name of Appenines, and over Hungary, under the designation of the Carpathian Mountains, and through Turkey and Greece under that of the Balkan (Hamus), Despoto Dag (Mount Rhodope), and PIndua. C&oennes—Mcml Mezenc ft. 5,^0 Puy de Sancy 6,224 Puy deDome 4,840 Plomb de Gantal 6,100 Vosges — Ballon de Guebwiler 4,695 Jttra— Reculet 6,639 Dole 6,515 Alps — Maritime Alps — Longet - 10,345 Pelvo 9,958 CottianAlps—VeXwoxix de Vallonise 13,443 Olan Trois Ell ions Monte Viso Qraian Alps — Iseran Cenis Little St. Bernard Pennine Alps — Mont BJanc , Cervin or Mat- te rh or n Monte Rosa Le Geant Combin Helvetian or Lepontine Alps — Finsteraarhorn 14,111 Jungfrau 13,718 Schreckhorn 13,386 Siniplon St. Gothard ^AetMm -fl^ps—Ortlerspitz , Zebru or Kcenigspiitz 13,971 Dreyherronspitz -; 10,130 Monlie Grlstallp JiToric Alps — Gross Glockner '^ Camic .-9/ps— Marmolata ' Julian Alps — Terglou Apennines — J^ortkei-n Apennines — Mont Cimone - Amiata Central Apennines — Monte Corno or Cavallo Velino, 13,819 13,737 19,586 13,373 11,460 9,600 15,732 14,837 15,152 13,800 14,125 11,649 10,950 13,862 12,961 12,776 11,^10 10,863 - 6,975 5,794 SouSwm ^amiTtes— M^jella ft. 9,131 ^ VeauviuB V. 3,452 -ffitnaV. 10,871 V StromboIiV. . 2,687 Balkan (jasmus)— MountScardns 10,000 Athos , 6,778; Despoto Dao (Rhodope) - , Menikion (Cercine) - 6,395 Pouhar Dag (Pang^us)- 5,800 PiNDUB — Mezzovo' V -9,000 ' Sperchius - 7,673 , Chimera (Acrocerauniin) 5,fl00 Liakura' (Parnassus) 6J750 Zagora (Helifcon) = - .-4,500 Cithffiron / '*' 4,000 Lacha (Olympus) 7,000 ^ Kissova (Ossa) 5,750 Pelion 6,115 , CEta 6,110 Pentelicus 3,500 ' Trelovouno (Hymettua) 3,000 TaygetiiB 5,115 Cyllene 7,600 Psilorite (Ida) 7,674 CARPATHiiis Mts- Ruska Poyana 9,913 Tatra 8,524 , Sudetic Mtb. — Schneeberg 4,"784*' Schneekoppe 5,394 Eeilberg (Erzgebirge) 4,160 SECffNDART CHiLINS — '' ;^ ' ^FVcAteZg-eJirfffr— Schneeberg > 3,461 .£(BATnerwaZ»— Haydelberg 4,616 Bauhe Alpe — Hohenberg 3,370 , Schwartzwald — Feldberg -^675 Odenwald—Katzeiihacitel ' ' 'S!;000 ThvHngertoald^-Qcliaeekopf 3,075 fiiirtz— Brocken ' 3,658 SpessaT-tr—OrherreiBig , '3,130 iJAflsn^-fiftir^fi— Kreutzberg 3,035 VogeUgeMrge — Oberwald 2,430 Taunu3gebirg&-^ross Feldberg 2^775 ^esterwa2t£— Saltzburgerkopf, 2,776 - 9,531 8,183 St. Oro'ste (Soracte) 2,140 The Sardo-Cok3ican systeui extends through the islands of Saiulinia and Corsica. CorsicanMts. — Mont RotondD 9,069 feet. Swrdinian Mts. — Genargentu 6,004 The ScANDiHAYiAN System stretchcs from Gape Lindesnoes in Nprway to North Cape. VoJHne Jlft^.— Skagstoltind 8,400 feet. Sneehaettan 8,300 Thulian '.Affs.- Sognefeld 7,187 The Bbitannic System comprises the mountains of the British Archipelago. Ctrampian SMls — Ben Nevis Schehallien Central C^aiT^— Skiddaw Crossfell Helvellyn Welsh Mountains — Snowden Cad6r Idria Cheviot Mils PeuMand Hills ft. 5,557 3,550' 2,657 . 1,878 - ft. 4,380 3,514 3.038 3,383 3,313 Asiatic Mountains. We are less accurately acquainted' with the courses, connections, and heights of the mountainous chains jof Asia, but with oUr present knowledge of them, we may compre- hend them all in fpui'Ep'iBcipal systems. These are the great Eastern System, comprising the Himalaya, Altaic^ Teenshan, and^Kvyanlun grqups, and the mountains of Japanj •the Uralian Mountains ; the Tauro-Caucasian System, and the Hindoo System. , The Group of. the Altai surrounds the sources of Xhe Irtish and y^nissei, and extending into the east under the. names of the Sayanian, Upper K^ntai, Daourian, and Jablon- noikhrebet Mountains, advances along the Sea of Okotsk. •' The Teenshan Ofoup is ln:about 42^ N. Lat.' Its western prolongation is^he Mustag. A transverse chain, called the Beloor Tag, running from north to south, connects tl^is group with the Kwanlun; this tatter chain runs parallel-to the Teenshan in Lat. 35, into the Chinese province of Shehsi. The Hindoo hho is its western prolongation. . I The Bxmala/ga ^Mountains separate the valleys*of Cashmere and Nepaul, from Bootan and Thibet, and contain the moat lofty summits in the known world. \ ft. 28,100 r TeenaAaTi— Bokhda-Ovla (Bogdo ' ' 98,000 .' MtsO ft. 19,200 ? ■ 10,630 Mustag 16,000 ? 10j240?. Beloor Tag 19,000.? 6,500 Kwanlun — ^Highest summits 16,000 i . The Tauro-Cadcasian System covers western Asia with its numerous branches — BMalayad—^ln^mm\s.ti Dhawalaghiri Altaic Group— Tyikioo (Siberia) Tagtau (Soongaria) Avatcha V. Ararat— Mt. Ararat ft. 17,280 Demavend V. 13,800 Tamils Mountains— 'QogvX Tag . 15,360 Anti-Taurus— AxAls (Argffius) 15,800 . Olympus ^ 8,960 Ida 4,950 lAbamis — Lebanon Anti Libanus Carmel Tabor Sinai Caucasus — Elboorz ft. 10,880, 15:800^ 9,230 9,000 7,940 V- 17.990' The Hindoo System Includes the heights of Central and Southern India. West^^ Gliauts 9,600 feet. jsTilghemj ifiiZs- Murshurti Bet 8,800 Eastern Qhauts 3,900 . Ural Mountains - . 6,380 ApnrcAN Mountains. The orography of Africa offers little but doubts and conjectures. There are doubtless lofiy ranges in the interior, but little is known of them. We shall only give, some eleva- tions in the Atlas Mountains, the Mountains of the Cape Colony, and in some of the islands. Cape Mts. — Nieuweld Compass Mountain Atlas JKte.— Highest summit in Morocco ft. 13,800 Waneseris (Algiers) 8,960 Tauon (Tunis) 4,480 Ahjssiman Mts.^ A.mh^ Geshen 14,720 ? Isle of Bourbon—V'itow des Neiges 12,500 Mountains of Oceania, Maylaysian System. Sumatra Jlfte.- Gounong Kosumbra ft.l5,|2.5 .Mount Ophir, 13,862 Java JWte.— Prab oil 12,800 Passavan 12,800 Cede or Tagal V. 10,329 Australian Systi;: Canary. Mts. —Peak Of Teneiifib Cape Verd Mts:— Fogo V. ■ Madagascar Mts. — Ambostimene Maurtdus — Peter Botte, ft." 10,900. 10,000 ' 11,890 7j890 11,500 3,764 Timor Mts. ft. 6,400 Bomean Jlfte.— Criatal Mountains 8,000 ^ Philippine Mts.— Mayon V. (Luzon) 10,540 Celebes Mts. — Lampo Batau -7,680 > Mountains qfJlfoZiicciM-^Peak of Ceram 8,664 , 6,500 feet 10,000 Polynesian System— Peak of Mariannes ,V. 6,40fl feet. MaunaBoa (Hawaii) 15,990 Mauna Eoah do.. ' 13,950 Oroena (Tahiti) ^ 10,910 —Blue mountain ^N. S.' Wales) Swan River Peak , fX PLAINS, DESERTS, STEPPES, PRAIRIES, VALLEYS. Plains. We give the name of plains to extensive tracts, whose sur- face is in the main level or but slightly broken by gently swelling and subsiding eminences, or by inconsiderable and almost imperceptible de- pressions. They are found at all degrees of elevation above the sea and of every stage of fertility, from the inexhaustible fecundity of the Egyptian Delta to the irreclaimable sterility of the sandy deserts. America contains several vast plains. One of these, which Balbi pro- poses to call the Mississippi-Mackenzie, extends from the shores of the Arctic Sea to those of the gulf of Mexico, and from the Rocky Mountains to the AUeghanies ; it embraces the valleys of the Mississippi, the St. Lawrence, the Nelson, the Churchill, and most of those of the Missouri, the Mackenzie, and the Coppermine, including an area of 3,240,000 square miles. Another great plain comprises the central part of South America, extending over an area of 3,000,000 square miles, including more thao half of Brazil, the southern part of New Grenada, the eastern part of the Equator and Peru, and the northern part of Bolivia ; its moist and warm climate, clothes it with a pomp and vigor of vegetation nowhere equalled. The plain of the Plata extending from the mountains of Bra- zil to the Strait of Magellan, comprehends the whole of the southern part of South America east of the Andes, with an area of 1,620,000 square miles. The plain of the Orinoco, including the region extending from the Caquetato the mouths of the Orinoco, has an area of 350,000 square mUes. These two are distinguished from the great plain of the Amazons by the absence of trees and the wide grassy tracts which cover their surface. The most extensive plain on the surfece of the globe is the vast tract stretching from the shores of the North Sea to the Pacific Ocean, and broken only by the Ural Mountains. It has an average breadth of 1400 miles, and a length of 6,000, comprehending an area of 6,500,000 square miles. It comprises large heaths, sandy deserts, and steppes, or open pastures, but has few considerable forests. Table Lands. Table-lands or Plateaux are elevated plains, forming in some instances the nucleus of the great masses of land, above the gen- eral surface of which they rise. They often contain chains of mountains, plains, and valleys, and their declivities present to the inhabitants of the low countries at their feet the appearance of a long chain of mountains. The whole of Central Africa is supposed to be a vast table-land descend- ing by successive terraces towards the coasts on all sides. The interior of Asia is composed of a succession of these lofty plains, among which the following are the most remarkable : the Persian table- land comprises nearly all the country south of the Caspian and Black seas, from Asia Minor to the Indus, including Armenia, Georgia, Curdistan, Persia, Afghanistan, &c. ; this region is from 2,500 to 6,000 feet above the sea: Zungaria and the adjacent region is from 2,000 to 2,500 high ; Mongolia lies at an elevation of from 8,000 to 12,000 feet, and Thibet is still more elevated. There are some masses of this kind in Europe but of less extent ; the central part of Spain is a lofty plain of about 2,200 feet in height, and be- tween the Alps and the Jura is the Swiss table-land about 3,500 feet high. One of the most remarkable of these masses is the Mexican table-land not less remarkable for its extent than its elevation. On the eastern and western coasts are low countries, from which on journeying into the inte- rior you immediately Ijegin to ascend, climbing to all appearance a suc- cession of lofty mountains. But the whole interior is in fact thus raised into the air from 4,000 to 8,000 feet. This conformation of the country has most important moral and physical results ; for while it gives to the table-land, on which the population is chiefly concentrated, a mild, tem- perate, and healthy climate, unknown in the burning and deadly tracts of low country into which a day's journey may carry the traveller, it also shuts out the former from an easy communication with the sea, and thus deprives it of ready access to a market for its agricultural productions. Carriages pass without difficulty on the summit of the table-land for hun- dreds of miles from Mexico to Santa Fe, but can descend to the eastern and western coasts only at a few points. A large part of New Grenada and the Equator is situated at an eleva- tion of from 5,000 to 9,000 feet, and contains populous cities, such as Quito, Bogota, &c., 8,000 or 10,000 feet above the level of the sea. Another of these table-lands includes an extensive tract in Peru, Boli- via, and the States of the Plata, stretching from 6° to 26*^ S. Lat. and raised above the sea to the height of from 4,000 to 10,000, and even 12,000 feet. These three great plateaux were each the centre of a native American civilization at the time of the discovery of the continent. Deserts. Deserts are tracts of greater or less extent utterly sterile, and incapable of supporting vegetable or animal life. — These frightful solitudes, destitute of water or verdure, present plains of sand or shingle. interspersed with not less barren and arid heights, and exhibiting no in- dications of animated beings. In some parched by a scorching sun, burning winds, charged with poisonous exhalations, and columns of moving sands add to the horrors of the scene. Even these desert regions are, however, generally interspersed here and there with little fertile tracts rising like green islands out of the sandy ocean, well-watered and well- wooded, and affording shade and refreshment to the exhausted traveller; these spots are called oases or wadies. The most extensive of these desert tracts, is the great sandy zone which stretches from the Atlantic Ocean across Africa and Central Asia nearly to the Pacific Ocean, or to 120 E. Lon. It includes nearly one fourth of the two conthients, through which it passes, covering an area of 6,500,000 square miles. Sahara or the Great Desert of Africa, Arabia, and the Pla- teaux of Persia and Thibet, present the most continued surface of sand. America is chai-acterised by an almost entire absence of deserts, and it has been estimated that, although its surface is less than half of that of the Old World in extent, it contains at least an equal quantity of useful soil. The only true sandy deserts are that of Atacama, a belt of sand extending with considerable interruptions from the northern part of Peru to Copiapo in Chili, a distance of about 1700 miles, with a width of fi-om 10 to 50 ; and the desert of Pernambuco which is also an arid waste of sand ; but other tracts to which this name has been applied are, though incapable of culture, yet not destitute of vegetation. Steppes, Pampas, Karroos, &c. The surface of the earth contains several extensive tracts, which, although possessing a productive soil, are yet in their natural state entirely destitute of trees, and in general spread out into wide unbroken plains. Such are the extensive open pastures of the great plain of northern Europe and Asia, called steppes, the jun- gles of India, the karroos of Southern Africa, the prairies of North Amer- ica, the llanos and pampas of South America, and the heaths of Eui'ope. While the whole Atlantic slope of North America south of the St. Lawrence, and the region west of the Rocky Mountains were naturally covered with a dense forest, the great plain before described formed what Darby calls the grassy or prairie section, consisting chiefly of un- wooded, but fertile plains, covered with a rich herbage and affording immense natural pastures, though occasionally degenerating into bare and arid wastes. An extensive tract of several hundred miles in width on the east of the Rocky Mountains approaches to the character of a desert, and much of the northern part of the continent exhibits the same features. In Venezuela the wide plains called llanos are for half the year cov- ered with a luxuriant verdure, but during the dry season become parched and burned so as to resemble sterile wildernesses. The pampas, which occupy a large part of the plain of the Plata, are dotted here and there with palm groves, and in some places overgrown with thistles or incrusted with salt; but for the most part are covered with rich herbage, feeding countless herds of cattle. Some of the steppes of Asia are merely sandy plains, bearing a few stunted shrubs and exhibiting only occasional spots of verdure; others are covered with herbage, and afford good pasturage for the numerous herds of the pastoral tribes that roam through them ; others bear saline and succulent plants, or are coated with saline incrustations. The karroos of Southern Africa are tracts of arid clay-land, bearing some succulent plants, but the meagre vegetation which clothes them with green and adorns them with flowers during the i-ainy season, disap- pears during the heats of summer, giving the countiy the aspect of a parched and ban-en plain. The jungles of India are tracts covered with dense and impenetrable masses of vegetation crowded and twined together, consisting of thorny and prickly shrubs of every size and shape, canes, which in a few months shoot up to the height of sixty feet, and creeping plants and bushes, and forming impassable barriers even to an army. Valleys. Valleys are the spaces lying between opposite ridges of mountains or hills, and their lowest part is commonly the bed of some torrent or river, which has its sources in the higher grounds. Those between high mountains are in general nanow and long, resembling large clefts or fissui'es. Some valleys lying between opposite mountainous chains are of great extent, comprising whole provinces or countries. Such are the great val- leys of the Ganges in Asia, and of the Mississippi in North America. Somfe are situated far above the level of the Ocean, although sunk deep below that of the adjoining country. — Such are thatof Chota near Quito which is 5,000 feet deep, and that of Rio Catacu in Peru, which is 4,000. Boo- tan, Thibet, and Nepaul, are deep valleys of Asia. Those of the Po, of Savoy, the Tyrol, &c. in Europe, are of less extent. TABULAR VIEWS, ILLUSTRATING THE CHARACTER, FORMATION, HEIGHT, &c. OP CATARACTS. When a river bed suddenly changes its level, so that the stream is plunged down a considerable distance, a cataract, cascade, or fall is formed ; vphen the change of the level is less abrupt, and the inclination is yet such as to render the current violent and broken, we give it the name of rapids. Falls are generally formed by the descent of rivers or streams from primitive mountains to secondary countries ; compact, durable rocks are requisite for producing a permanent effect of this kind ; such are the cataracts of the Nile, the Ganges, and other rivers. Some cataracts, like those of Tunguska in Siberia, have gradually lost their elevation by the wearing away of the rocks over which they are precipitated, and have become merely rapids, and the same effect is pro- duced in others by the gradual filling up of the gulf into which they plunge. " Cataracts," says Lamouroux, " must have been both more numerous and more lofty in the ancient world than they are at present. They are daily diminished both in number and height by the action of the universal leveller, time, and perhaps in some future age the cataracts of the Nile and the Ganges, the Falls of Niagara, and the cascades of Tequendama will be looked upon as a fiction of poetry." The Falls of Niagara have been found to be gradually receding fi-om lake Ontario ; this great body of water is hurled over a ledge of hard limestone, below which is a layer of sofl; shale, which decays and crum- bles away, so that the superincumbent limestone is left without a foun- dation, and falls fi'om time to time in large masses. The bed of the river below the falls is strewed over with the huge fragments, that have been thus detached and plunged into the abyss. Within the last forty years the fells have receded nearly fifty yards, and there is little doubt that they were once at Queenstown, about seven miles below their actual site. Should they continue to recede at the rate above stated or a little more than one yard annually, it will be 30,000 years before they reach Lake Erie. Some of the most beautiful cataracts have been created, at least in part,, by human labor. The celebrated cascata del marmoi-e at Terni, "which," says Byron, " is worth all the cascades and torrents of Switz- erlatid put together," is attributed to a work of Curius Dentatus (270 B. C), who caused the rock to be cut through for the purpose of draining the marshes, and making an outlet for the Velino. Some cataracts owe their celebrity to the vast volume of water, which is poured in an unbroken sheet over a great descent, as with Niagara ; others are remarkable only for the vast height from which they fall, whe- ther they plunge down the abyss at a single leap, or dash themselves successively from shelf to shelf till they reach the bottom of the preci- pice ; some falling in a small riband-like current over the edge of the rock, are dispersed before they reach the ground into thin spray, forming glittering showers of brilliants, or gaudy rainbows : others driven for- ward by the force of the current, fall over in a continuous arch, between which and the bottom of the ledge from which they have fallen, the vis- iter may pass; and yet others are visited and admired chiefly for the pic- turesque beauties of the glen, the grandeur of the precipices, or the gloomy horrors of the deep chasms which sun-ound them. "If it be difficult," says Humboldt {Vues des CordUUres), "to describe the beauties of cataracts, it is still more difficult to make them felt by the aid, "Napo,* Xingu, ^Negro, .. - , ■. 'Mis^ippi,* - Missouri,* to mouth of Mississippi, Oregon or Columbia, St. Lawrence, - Mackenzie, Nelson and Winnipeg, , Ottawas, Arkansaw, Red River, Ohio, ■ North America. ^ Colorado, - Bravo del Norte, Susquehannah, Tennessee, Cumberland, - Potomac, r , Hudson, Mobile or Alabama, Delaware, Illinois, Connecticut, .- ^James, rVolga, Danube, Dnieper, Don, - Rhine, Northern Dv^ina, Vistula, Loire, - Elbe, Rhone, - Dwina, Europe. < Dniester, Tagus, Mouse, Seine, Oder, Douro, Ebro, - Po, Thames, Shannon, ' Severn, [Tiber, \ Length. Miles. , riVile, Niger, -_ , '- Congo or Zaire, ' Africa. ^ Senegal, - Gambia, (■■ ' Orange, I I^Zambese, ♦including the minuter, windings^ the Jength o^thd of Mexico) ia,4,5O0 xnilea ; of tlie- Amazon, 4)000 miles ' '■' y- 1= '■ ' 1 Jlrea of Basin. ■ Square Miles. 2,500,000 1,250,000 300,000 3,200 2,130 1,150 820 1,500 1,275 1,800" 1,000 800-t Branches of Amazon. 1,080 , 1,400 j ,- 2,300 3,500 1,200 2,000 1,500 1,000 1,250,000 600,000 300,000 250,000 200,000 .?ob,6oo' 30,000 ti,fe5)0 18,000 13,000 40,000 12,000 24,000 10,500 640,000 310,000 200,000 205,000 70,000 125,000 70,000 48,000 50,000 28,760 26,200 43,926 35,000 27,000 5,000 500,000 450,000? Area of Basin. J Sq.' Miles. ' 'li200,000 600,000 1,300,000 960,000 400,000 900,000 600,000 I 230,000 400,000 1 Bivers. Length. ■ . ^ _ - ■" Miles. (Tenissei, - 2,900 .Yangtsekiang, - 2,700 Obi, 2,800 Lena, - 2,500 Indus, - 1,700 Cambodia (Mecon), - 1,700 Amour, - 2,240 Ganges an^ Brahmapootra, 1,350 Asia. "I Irawaddy, - ,- 1,100 Euphrates, - > 1,360 Hoangho, - • 2,400 Jihon (Oxus), - , 1,300 Sihon (Jaxartes), - 1,200 Ural, - 1,050 Maykiang, - 1,700 Takiang, ' - 1,050 .Meinam (Siam), - 850 SNOW -LINE AND LIMITS OF VEGETATION. Infldence of Eletation upon Temperature. As climate is chiefly influenced by distauce from ^ the equator, and elevation above the sea, in ascending .high mountains we pass through diflierent zones of vegetation, answering to tlie dif- ^ ferent climates of the successive elevations reached, until we arrive at the snow-line or zone of perpetual snow, the frigid zone of the mountain. The following table of the ratio of decreasing temperature at difierent altitudes, in the equatorial zone between degrees and. 10 degrees Lat., and in the temperate zone between 45 degrees' and 47 degrees, shows that the mean decrease is about 1 degree for 340 feet. , In the first thousand yards it is 1 degree for 310 feet; in the second 1 degree fdr 524 feet, but in the 'third'and fourth stages of ascent tlie fall of temper- ature is more rapid. ' > ' Height. Equatorial Zone. Temperate Zone. feet, 81.5 mean temp.' • '53.6 mean temp.' 3,195 71.2 41.0 6,392 65.1 31.6 9,587 57.7 23.4 12,762 44.6 15,965 34.7 Snow-Line. The elevation at which constant frost takes place is called the Snow-Line or line of perpetual congelation. The limit of perpetual snow does not exactly coiraide with the height at which the temperature is equal to 32 degrees of FahrehlieitL ' In ,tlte/torrid zone perpetualr snow commences at an elevation where *the mean temperatiire'is'q/little above the freezing point, the snow maintaining its situatiombecause it falls asffest as it melts f" but ip the temperate zone, where the quantity of aqueous vapor is lesSj'knd the days of summer much longer, it commences only at an elevation, at which the mean temperature is five degrees below the freezing Lat\ iiv^e. Height of Snow-Line 5,207 in feet. 5 15,095 10 14,764 15 14,220 20 13,278 25 12,557 30 11,484 35 10,287 40 9,001 45 7,671 Latitude. IMghi of SnovPLine. 60 6,334 in feet. 55 5,034 60 3,818 - 65 2,722 , 70 1,778 :- -'- 75 1,016 80 457 85 117 90 Misaoiiri (from its source to the Gulf j ^f the Mississippi, 3,160 miles. toe MissiS! Vegetation. The greatest variety of vegetation in a given space is displayed in ascending a lofty mountain of the torrid zone.- Under the burning sun of the regions at its fo^t, ananas and plantains grow profusely; oranges and limes occur a little higher up ; then succeed fields of maize and luxuriant wheat, and still higher com- mences4he series of plants found in the temperate zone. On the summits of temperate regions the variety is rather less, but the change is not less-striking. We may begin the ascent of the Alps, for instance, in the midst of warm vineyards, and pass through a succession of oaks, sweet chestnuts, and beeches, till we gain the elevation of the more hardy pines and stunted birches, and tread oil pastures, fringed by borders of perpetual snow. At ths elevation of 1,950 feet the vine disappears, and at 1,000 feet high the sweet chestnuts cease to thrive ; 1,000 feet farther, and the oak is unable to maintain'itself;,. the birch ceases to grow at an elevation of 4,680,; and the spruce fir at the height of ' 5,900 'feet, beyond which no tree appears. 'Thfe rhddodendron ferrugineuin , then covers immense tracts to the height of 7,800 feetj and'the herbaceous willow creeps ; two or_three hundred feet higher, accompanied by a few saxifrages, gentians, and ' grasses, while the lichens and mosses struggle- up to the imperishable barrier of eter- nal snow. , > I onad Temperate Zone. Frigid Zone. Inferior Limit of Perpetual Snow. Upper Limit of Trees. Distance between > Trees and Snow. J Distance between ) Sno«^ apd Corn. J Andes, ivits. of Mexico. 0° Lat. ^\ 15,20(^' feet. 10,800 4,400 6,200 20° Lat. 13,478 ! 12,000 1,478 ; Caucasus. 42°^3d'' 9,906 ! V 6,0{)0 0i)C 3,900 3,7! irenees 43» Alps. 46° Lapland. 67°— 70° 8,400 8,220 3,300 7,020 6,000 1,500 1,380 2,220 . 1,800 4,200 2,7il)0 7f CLASSIFICATION AND GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF ANIMALS. The Animal Kingdom, arranged according to the System of Cuvier in Four Divisions, Nineteen Classes, and Seventy-seven Orders. I. Mauualia II. Ate3 (Birds) OKDER. EXAMPLES. ' 1. Himana. 9. Quadrumana. ■ 3. Carnivora. 4. Rodentia. 5. Edentata. 6. Faciiydermata. 7. Kuminantia. , 8. Cetacea. Man. Cliimpanzee. ,, . Hyffipa. Eat. '-.Armadillo. :Hog. - Cow. Whale. 1. Rapaces. 2. Fasseres. 3. Scansores. 4. Gallins. S.Grailffi. . 6. Palmipedes. Hawk. Swallow. Woodpecker Cock. Heron. Duck. III. Reftilia IV. Fi9CE9 (Fishes). - I. Cefhalofosa II. PTEKOFODA . Ist Series Osseous, Sd Series Cartilagi; nous. III. Gasteropoda IV. ACEPHALA l.^Chelonia. 2. Sauria. 3. Ophidia. 4. Batracbia. 1. Acanthopterygil. % Abdominales. 3. Subbracbiati. 4. Apodes. 5. Lophobranchii. . 6. Flectognathi. 7. Sturiones. 8. Selacbii. 9. CycloBtomi. (one) Cephalopoda. (one) Fterupoda. 1. Pulmonia. S. Nudibranchia. 3. Inferobrancbia. 4. Tectlbranchia. 5. Heteropoda. 6. Pectin ibranchia. 7. Tubulibranchia. 8. Scuti branch ia". 9. Cyclobranchia. 1. Testacea. S. Acephala (one) Brachiopoda. (one) Cirrhopoda. 1. Tubicola. 2. Dorsibranchia. 3. Abrancbia. 1. Decapoda. S. Stomapoda. 3. Amphipoda. 4. Lsmodipoda. 5. Isopoda. 6. Branchiopoda. 7. Pcecilopoda. 1. Pulmonata. 2. Trachearia. 1. Myriapoda. 2. Thysanoura. 3. Parasita. 4. Suctoria. 5. Coleoptera. 6. Orthoptera. 7. Hemiptera. 8. Neuroptera. 9. Hymenoptera 10. Lepidoptera. 11. Rbipiptera. 12. Diptera. TO ( 1- Pedicellata. I. EcHiNODEEMA j g, Echiuoderma. ^T _ (1. Cavitaria. II. INTEBTINA j g. Parenchyma. . _.__ . t 1. Acalepba. III. AcALEPHA j 3 Hydrostatica. V. Bbachiopoda . VI. Cirrhopoda . I. Annelida . . II. Crdstacea Section 1. Malacostra- Sec. 2. En- tomostracia. III. Arachnida IV. Iwsecta . IV. Polypi . . V. Infusoria. 1. Actinea. 2. Gelatinosa. 3. Corallina. 1. Rotifera. S. Homogenea. Tortoise. Lizard. Snake. JFrog. Sword Fish. Salmon. Whiting. Eel. Hippocampus. Sun Fish. Sturgeon. Ray. Lamprey. Nautilus. Clio Australis. Snail. GlaucUs. Linguella Bursatella. Carinaria. Whelk. Vermetus. Sea Ear. Chiton. Oyster. Ascidia. Lingula Anatina. Barnacle. Amphitrita. AmphinoQia!. Leech. Gebia Stellata. Fhyllosoma. Gammarus. Whale Louse. Anilocra. Branchipus. Dichelestium. Spider. Phalangium. Centipede. Velvet Spring Tail. Louse. Flea. Beetle. Grasshopper. Aphis. Ant Lion. Ichneumon Fly. Moth. Xenos. Gnat. Star Fish. Sipunculus. Cerebratula. Flanaria Cornuta. Medusa. Diphyes. Green Actinea. Cristatella. Coral. Wheel Animalcule- Globe Animalcule. GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF ANIMALS. The limitation of groups of distinct species of animals to regions separated from the rest of the globe by certain natural barriers, has long been recognised by naturalists as a general law in the geographical distribution of organic The discovery of America revealed a race of indigenous quadrupeds, all dissimilar from those previously known in the Old A/votld ; the elephant, the rhinoceros, the hippopotamus, the camelopard, the camel, the drome- dary, the buffalo, the horse, the ass, the lion, the tiger, the apes, the baboons, and numerous other species' of mammalia, were nowhere met with on the rvQw continent; while in the old, the American species of th'e same great class — ihe tapir, the'^ama^rthe pecari, the jaguar, the coufeuar, the agouti, the paca, the feoati, and the sloth — had never been seen. t Nataralists have accordingly divided the ^aj^ iiito eleven zoological re- gions, or provinces, each of which is the resiqwice of af distinct set of quad- rupeds : 1. The first of these provinces is the Arctic region, which contains the white bear, the rein deer, the Arctic fox, and other tribea common to both of the great continents. The communication established between the shores of the Old and New World by means of ice, renders the passage from one to the other practicable to such animals as are fitted to endure l^e intense cold of this region: . ' ^ -_ 2. The temperate regi(^ns of the ea&tern continent form-a second distinct zoological -province, over which the same tribes of animals are spread from the Atlantic to the Pacific : 3. But the quadrupeds which inhabit the temperate zone of North America, the bison, the musk ox, the moose, &c., are peculiar tribes : 4. The intertropical parts of Asia are inhabited by the tiger, the Asiatic elephant, the camel, the wild ass, the djiggatai, the grunting^ ox, the musk, &c. : ' J 5. While the torrid zone of Africa is characterised by the libn, the African elephant, the rhinoceros, the hippopotamus, &c. : 6. And that of America is inhabited by the lama, the vicugna, the jaguar, the whole family of sloths, *Scc. : 7. Malaysia or the Indian Archipelago approximates in regard to ite native quadrupeds nearer to Africa than to Asia, containing the hippopotamus, which does not exist in the Asiatic rivers,-^the rhinoceros, -uie tapir, &c. : 8. The southern extremity of Africa, separated from the northern temperate zone by the intervention of the tropical regions, presents an animal creation of a peculiar character, comprising the camelopard, the Cape buffalo, the gnu, a distinct species of rhinoceros, the quagga, zebra, &c. : 9. In like manner, and for the same reason, the corresponding part of the American continent forms a separate zoological provinfce : ; ■ 10. New Holland possesses several entire genera of quadrupeds, which have been discovered in no other part of the world, and more than forty species of the marsupial tribe, which is exceedingly rare elsewhere^ 11. And lastly, the great Islands to the north and east of New Holland form an extensive zoological province almost wholly destitute of native warm- blooded quadrupeds. ' This law of limitation to particular localities might be shown to prevail not less rigidly in respect to other classes of animals, even to those of fishes, and birds, which seem at first glance to be almost unconfined in their range of sea and air. Thus it is well known that the whales which are met wiUi in the South Seas are distinct from those of the north ; the same dissimilarity has been found in all other marine animals of the same class so far as they have been examined ; and it has been asserted by naturalists, who had spent years in collecting many thousand species of ^marine animals in the southern hemisphere, ' that there is not a single animal of the southern regions, from the sponges and the meduss, to the cetacea, which is not distinguished by essential characters from the analogous species in the northern seas.' ORGANIC REMAINS. In examining the crust of the earth, it has been found to be full of different organic substances, animal and vegetable, which have remained as the memo- rials of the revolutions that have taken place on its surface, and the only monuments of races of beings long passed away . Naturalists have studied and classified these interesting relics, and have shown that while many belong to extinct species of still existing genera, many others belong to distinct genera of which no type now survives. Their relative positions in the dif- ferent formations recognised by geologists, have also enabled scientific inquirers to determine the relative periods, at which they^acted their part upon the changing stage we now occupy, — hereafter, perhaps, to be trod by an indefinite succession of new creations. Among these remains there are some which are remarkable for their gigantip dimensions ; such are the mammoth or fossil elephant, an extinct species of elephant found in Asia and. North America ; the mastodon, an extinct genus of the pachydermatous order, found in the United States, and attaining the enormous size of eighteen feet in length, by twelve in height ; the gigantic elk, an extinct species of deer, discovered in Europe, measurmg nine and a half feet in height to the tip of the horns ; the megatherium, an extinct genus of the sloth, of wluch remains have been obtained in this country, and in South America, and which was about the size of the rhinoceros; the megalosaurus, a colossal monster of the lizard family, about seventy feet in length ; the plesiosaurus, characterised by the immense length of its slender neck, and hardly less monstrous in size than the megalosaurus ; the ichthyo- saurus, of which several species have been discovered, attaining the length of about twenty feet, &c. ' Celebes Alfourous ^ Dayaks or Haraforas (Borneo) Tagals 1 Mindanaos J Carolinians New Zealanders Feejeeans Sandwich Islanders Society Islanders .Friendly Islanders, &c. CLIMATOLOGY. The climate of a country compnses whatever relatea to the degree of heat and cold to which it is subject, the dryness and moisture of the air, its health- fulness or insalubrity. The causes which affect and determine the climate of a place are nine; 1. the action of the sun upon the atmosphere ; 2. the inter- nal heat of the globe ; 3. the height of the place above the level of the sea ; 4. the general exposure of, the region ; 5. the position of its mountains rela- tively to the cardinal points ; 6. the neighborhood of the sea and its relative position; 7. the geological character of^the soil; 8. the degree of cultivation which it has received and the density of the population collected upon it ; and 9. the prevalent winds. These causes acting together or separately determine the character of a cli- mate as moist and warm, dry and warm, mild and moist, mild and dry, cold and moist, cold and dry, &c. The torrid zone haa but two seasons ; the wet and the dry. The latter is considered as the summer,, and the former as the winter of the regions within this zone, but they are in direct opposition to the astronomical seasons, as the rains follow the sun. In some districts there are two rainy and two dry sea- sons .every year. The temperature is uniform to the distance of 10 or 15 degrees from the equator, but in the neighborhood of the tropics there is a great difference between the temperature when the sun is in the zenith, and when he is in the opposite solstice of any place. The climate of the equatorial zone is more temperate than that of the tropical regions, in which extreme heats prevail during the presence of the sun. In the temperate zones only is the year divided into the four seasons, exhib- iting the grateful vicissitude of heat and cold, the varied charms of spring and autumn, the tempered fires of summer, and the healthful rigors of winter. This regular succession of the annual changes can, however, hardly be considered to extend further than from 35° to 60° of latitude. In the frigid zones two seasons only are known ; a long and severe winter is abruptly followed by the insupportable heats of a short but burning summer; this harsh transition and strong contrast is occasioned by the great length of the summer days, and the total absence of the sun in winter. The decrease of heat as we recede from the equator follows different laws in the two hemispheres, being greater in the southern than in the northern, and is also affected by the longi- tude. On the west of Europe, the cold increases less with the latitude than in any other quarter. Under meridians which are 90° either east or west>of London, the increase of cold, as we go northward,.is more japid than in England, According to Humboldt, continents and large islands are warmer on their western sides than on the eastern. Isothermal lines have been considered as measuring the heat and cold of the earth. The climate of Eastern Asia comes nearer to that of Ea.<;tem America than of Western Europe. Thus the latitudes of Naples, Pekin, and Philadelphia are respectively 41°, 40°, and 40°, whilst their mean temperatures are 63.3°, 54.8°, and 53.4°. Such differences are rendered more sensible when we connect the places having the same mean temperature by lines which Humboldt denominates iso- thermal lines. Thus, the isothermal line of 59° F. traverses the latitude of 43° in Europe, but descends to lat. 36° in Amer- ica ; the isothermal line of 41° F. passes from lat. 60° in Eu- rope to lat. 48° in America : but since the western coast of North America is warmer than the eastern, the isothermal lines, being traced round the northern hemisphere, would have con- cave summits at the east side of both worlds, and convex at the west. The difference between the mean temperature of summer and winter is nothing at the equator, and increases continually with the latitude. But the extreme difference of the seasons is comparatively small in Western Europe, and great where the mean annual temperature is low, as on the east coasts of Asia and America. If we draw a line in a northeast direction from Bordeaux to Warsaw, and continue it to the Wolga, in lat. 55°, then all places under this line, at the same elevation, will have nearly the same summer temperature of 69° or 70° F. The lines of equal winter temperature decline in an opposite direction. Thus a straight line drawn from Edinburgh to MUan almost at right angles to the former line, would pass over places which, if equafly elevated, would have nearly the same winter temperature of 37° or 38° F. The extremes of temperature are experienced chiefly in large inland tracts, and little felt in small islands' remote from continents. In the United States intense cold is felt when the wind blows from the frozen regions round Hud- son's Bay. From snow-clad mountains, gusts of cold wind, called smrw winds, rush down and cool the adjacent plains. The heat accumulates to an aston- ishing degree when the wind passes over extensive deserts of burning sand, which are said, in some instances in Africa, to be heated to the boiling point. This fine sand, or rather dust, sometimes rises in the air and obscures it like a fog, communicating to it an intolerable heat. In Arctic countries the tem- perature is very much regulated by the freezing of the water and the melting of the ice ; by the freezing of the water great quantities of heat are given out which moderate the severity of the winter's cold, and thus save from destruc- tion the Arctic land animals, and plants ; while in summer, the intensity of the heat, produced by the long continuance of the snn above the horizon, is moderated by the abstraction of a considerable portion of that heat by the water during the melting of the ice. Had the Arctic regions been entirely of land, neither plants nor animals could have existed in them: for during sum- mer, owing to the sun remaining above the horizon for months, an elevation of atmospheric temperature would have been produced fatal to animals and plants ; and in winter, the long darkness and intense cold would have proved equally fatal to animated beings. The cold of the icy regions of the north has been alleged to reach, by currents of air, southern latitudes, and thus to lower their temperature. Baron Humboldt has added more to our knowledge of the distribution of tern-- perature over the globe than any other who has labored in the same boundless field of research. The following is his general summary, to which is added Melville Island. The temperatures have been reduced to Fahrenheit's scale, and the longitudes are reckoned from Greenwich. hi Names of FlaceB. Position. Mean Tempera- ture of the Year. Mean Temperature of Mean Temp, of Lat. Long. Hght. Winter. Spring. Summer. Autumn. Warmest Month. Coldest Month. o MelTllle TilKTid . . Nain Enontekies . . . . Hospice de SI. Go- ) thard . . . . j North Cape . . . niel ...... Umea ... St. Peteraburg . . Drontheim . . . . Moscow . . . . Abo ...... . o / 57 8 68 30 46 30 71 65 3 6350 5956 63 24 55 45 60 27 o / no 48 W. 61 20 W. 20 47E. 823E, 25 50E. 25 26E. 20 16 E. 30 19 £. 10 22E. 37 32E. 2218E. Feet. 1356 6390 970 — 2.00 -1-26.42 26.96 30.38 32.00 35.08 33.26 38.84 39.92 40.10 40.28 -31.35 — 0.60 0.68 18.32 23.72 11.84 12.92 17.06 23.72 10.78 20.84 — 6.80 23.90 24.98 26.42 29.66 27.14 33.80 38.12 35.24 44.06 38.30 o 33.78 48.38 54.86 44.96 43.34 57.74 54.86 62.06 61.24 67.10 61.88 — 3.84 33.44 27.32 31.82 32.08 35.96 33.44 88.66 40.10 38.30 40.64 39.08 51.80 59.54 46.22 46.58 61.52 62.60 65.88 64.94 70.92 -3552 -11.20 — 0.58 -H5.0S 22.10 7.70 11.48 8.60 19.58 6.08 i a e Dpsal Stockholm . . . . aoebec Christiania . . . . Convent of Peys- > senberg ... J Kendal Malouin Islands . . Prague Gottingen , . . . Zurich . . . ■ . Edinburgh . . . . Warsaw . . . . Coire Dublin . . . . . Berne Geneva Manheira . . . . Vienna 59 51 59 20 46 47 59 55 47 47 55 41 54 17 5125 SO 5 5132 47 22 55 57 5214 46 50 S3 21 46 5 46 12 4929 48 12 17 38E. 18 3E. 71 10 W. 10 48 E. 10 34E. 12 35B. 246 W. 5959W. 1424E. 9 53E. 8 32E. 3 low. 21 2E. 9 30E. 6 19W. 726 E. 6 8E. 8 28B. 1622E. 3066 456 1350 150 1876 1650 1080 432 420 42.08 42.26 41.74 42.80 42.9S 45.68 46.22 46.94 49.46 46.94 47.84 47.84 ■ 48.56 48.92 49.10 49.28 49.28 50.18 50.54 24.98 25.52 14.18 28.78 28.58 30.74 30.86 39.56 31.46 30.38 29.66 38.66 28.76 32.36 39.20 32.00 34.70 38.80 32.72 39.38 38.30 38.84 39.02 42.08 41.18 45.14 46.58 47.66 4454 48.20 46.40 47.48 50.00 47.30 48.92 47.66 49.64 51.26 61.88 68.00 62.60 58.46 62.60 58.84 53.06 63.90 64.76 64.04 S8.28 69.08 63.32 69.54 68.56 64.94 67.10 69.26 42.80 43.16 46.04 41.18 42.98 48.38 4652 48.46 50.18 48.74 48.92 mm 49.46 50.36 50.00 49.82 50.00 49.82 50.54 62.42 64.01 73.40 66.74 59.36 65.66 58.10 65.76 eelk 65.66 59.36 70.34 64.58 61.16 67.28 66.56 68.72 70,52 22.46 22.82 13.81 28.41 30.20 27.14 34.88 37.40 29.66 26.78 38.30 27.14 29.48 35.42 30.56 34.16 33.44 26.60 h h c Clermont . . . . Buda Cambridge, U.S. . Paris London . . . . Dunltirk . . . Amsterdam . . . Brussels Franeker . . . . Philadelphia . . . New York .... Cincinnati .... St. Malo .... Nantes Pekin Milan Bordeaux . . . . 45 46 4729 42 25 43 50 5130 51 2 52 22 50 50 52 36 39 58 40 40 39 6 48 39 47 13 39 54 45 28 44 50 3 5E. 19 IE. 71 3W. 220E. 5W. 222 E. 450E. 422 E. 6 22E. 75 16 W. 735aw. 82 40W. 2 IW. 132W. 116 27 E. 9 he; 34W. 1260 494 222 610 390 50.00 51.08 50.36 51.08 50.36 50.54 51.62 51.80 51.80 93.42 53.78 63.78 54.14 54.68 54 .86 55.76 56.48 34.52 33.98 33.98 38.66 39.56 38.48 36.86 36.68 36.68 32.18 29.84 32.90 42.26 40 46 26.42 3S.32 42.08 50.54 51.08 47.66 49.28 48.56 48.56 51.62 53.24 51.08 51.44 ' 51.26 54.14 52.16 54.50 56.30 56.12 56.48 64.40 70.52 70.70 '64.58 63.14 64.04 65.84 66.20 67.28 73.94 79.16 72.86 66.02 68.64 82.68 73.04 70.88 51.26 52.34 49.82 51.44 50.18 50.90 51.62 51.08 54.32 56.48 54.50 54.86 55.76 65.58 54.32 56.84 56.30 66.20 71.60 72.86 65.30 64.40 64.76 66.92 67.28 69.08 77.00 80.70 74.30 66.92 70.52 84.38 74.66 73.04 28.04 27.78 29.84 36.14 37.76 37.76 35.42 35.60 32.90 32.7S 25.34 3050 41.74 39.02 24.62 36.14 41.00 II ■3° Marseilles .... Montpellier . . . Toulon '.'.'.','. Nangaaaki .... Nalrliez 43 17 43 36 4153 43 7 32 45 3128 622 E, 3 52E. 12 27B. 5 50E. 129 55 E. 90 SOW. ISO 59.00 59.36 60.44 62.06 60.80 64.76 45.50 44.06 45,86 48.38 39.38 48.56 57.56 56.66 sr.74 60.80 57.56 65.48 72.50 75.74 75.20 75.02 82.94 79.16 60.03 60.98 62.73 64.40 64.22 6S.(^ 74.66 78.08 77.00 77.00 86.90 79.70 44.42 42.08 42.26 46.40 sr.io 48.94 68° to 77°. Funchal Algiers 32 37 36 48 16 56 W. 3 IE. 68.54 69.98 64.40 61.52 65.84 65.68 72.50 80.24 72.32 72.50 75.56 82.76 64.04 60.08 Is?.- Cairo Vera Cruz .... lavanua .... Cumana 30 2 1911 23 lU 10 27 30 18 E, 96 IW. 8213W. 65 15 W. 72.32 77.72 78.08 81.86 58.46 71.96 7124 80.24 73.58 77.90 78.98 83.66 85.10 81.50 83.30 82.04 71.42 78.62 78.98 80.24 85.82 81.86 83.84 84.38 S6.12 71.06 69.98 79.16 Cf'jfqytuativ,: size ortlieTlaiuts ■_■■', Satitm mersc}ielY ■ jTjOOG'O'O o ^ jUitfitroti^m^p*^ '^P^'^^or^^^jr-^ ibmpaixatvB distance of tlic.Tlcme(s Ih'in Hip Skpi mMercLoy ®The Earth, and Moon. mMars mJuBC Jupiier with its 4 Moons Saturn, with its 7 Moons l/erscheZ irith r> Mim. Phases of the Moon^ ^«fiiiJ|s.!lj,,^ The Moon, as seen, in a Telescope Sat^jcm. as seen in. a Telescope Jupiter as seen. in. a Xelesccpe mm Mars as seen in a Trlrscfj^i ASTRONOMICAL ILLUSTRATIONS. Figure op the Earth. To a person placed in an elevated situation in an open country, where the view is unconfined on all sides, the earth appears an extended plane, vnth the heavens resting upon it ; but this appearance is altogether illusory ; the earth is a round body, and is iso- lated in space, as is proved by observation and experience ; for not only the fact of its being constantly circumnavigated, and the figure of its shadow on the moon's disc in a lunar eclipse, show this to be the case, but the convexity of its surface is a matter of daily experience to every one: , For to a spectator stationed upon an extensive level, only the higher parts of the most distant objects of vision appear; lower portions of those less remote become visible ; and the whole mass of still nearer bodies is apparent. This is particularly strikirig at sea ; as the ship recedes from the shore, low objects first disappear ; then those more elevated ; and at last the highest points of the land sink in the horizon, on account of the direct visual ray being intercepted by the intervening curved sur- face of the ocean. So when two ships come in sight, the spectators in each see at first the upper part of the rigging of the other vessel, and not till the distance of the vessels becomes less do their hulls become visible. This phenomenon is explained by the^pherical figure of the earth's surface, as illustrated in the annexed figure," which not only shows why the hull of the most distant vessel is not seen as well as her masts, but likevyise why a distant object which could not be seen by a person on a certain level becomes visible to him merely by his,ascending to a higher position, without approaching hny nearer to the object ; for it is evident that the spectator in the figure could not be seen from the deck of the most remote vessel, but that he might be discerned from the mast-head. Solar System. When we turn our eyes towards the heavens in a clear night we see thousafcds of stai-s scattered all over what seems to be a blue vault, and if we continue our observation during the whole night we find that new groups are constantly rising into view above the horizon. Out of this immense host astronomers have become acquainted with the 'dimensions, motions, relative distances, and physical properties of those few only which constitute the solar system ; these are the sun, the centi'e around which the others revolve, and the source of light and heat, 11 primary planets, 18 secondary planets or satellites, and an unknown but considerable number of comets. The other luminous bodies visible in the heavens, always retaining the same position in respect to each other, are for this reason called fixed stars, and are probably light-giving centres of other systems of worlds. The eleven planets enumerated in the orderof their distances from the sun, are Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Vesta, Juno, Ceres, Pallas, Jupiter, Saturn, and Uranus or Hersohel. The planets are opaque bodie%jof a spherical figure, turning on their own axes, and revolving, the primary planets round the sun, and the secondary round their respective primary planets, in elliptical orbits. The earth is attended by one satellite, the moon ; its rotation on its axis, completed in 23 hours, 56 minutes, and 4 seconds, causes the appa- rently'daily revolution of the heavenSaround us, and produces the alter- nation of day and night ; its revolution round the sun, completed in 365 days 5 hours, 48 minutes, and 45 seconds, gives rise to the apparent annual motion of the sun, which causes the succession of the seasons. The .sun, whicn far surpasses i^-Svolume and mass the aggregate of the volume and mass of all the other bodies of the solar system taken to- gether, is the sole luminous body of the system, the planets shining only with reflected light. Five of the planets are visible to the naked eye, and have been known by name from the remotest antiquity ; these are Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn. The other five are visible only by the aid of the telescope, and have been discovered in modern times ; these are Uranus or Herschel, discov- ered by Hei'schel in 1781 ; Ceres, by Piazzi in 1801 ; Pallas, by Olbers in 1802 ; Juno, by Jlarding in 1804 ; and Vesta, by Olbers in 180^ the four last are alad called asteroids. ' The 18 smalter spheres, which revolve around four of the larger plan- ets, and are therefore called satellites or secondary planets, have all, with the single exception of the moon, been discovered in modem times^by the aid of the telescope. Of these bodies one belongs to the earth, four to Jupiter, seven to, Saturn, and six to Herschel. Tabular Vi&jj of the Distances from the Sun, Dimensions, Rotation, Reoolution of the Primary Planets. Mepcniy, Venus, Earth, Mars, Vesta, Jano, Ceres, Fallas, Jupiter, Saturn, Herschel, Diameters in miles, 3,900 7,800 7,9la A,m 350 1,420. 1,620 2,140 87,000 79,1)00' 3S,000 Mean Distance from Sun — miles. 36,000,000 ' fgKooo.ooo. 138,000,000' 230,000,000 23fc000,000 S6ti,oaQ,apv 960',000,00a 490,000,000 ' 900,000,000 1,800,000,000 sidereal Rotation. h. m. s. 24 5 28 21 39 24 7 21 9 10 SO 17 Sidereal Period. d. 87.97 224.7 365.25 686.98 1,335.74 ■ 1,592.66 1,631.4 1,086.54 4,332.58,, 10,759.22 The diameter of the sun is 882,000 miles ; that of the moon 2,160 miles; its mean distance from the earth 237,000 miles. The sun turns on its own axis in 25 days and 10 hours ; the moon completes her rota- tion in 27 days 8 hours. < The third class of opaque bodies belonging to the solar system are the comets, which were long objects of supei-stitious fears, as the supposed precursors of wars, pestilence, famine, and^other great calamities. Science has disarmed them of their terrors, by showing that their motions are regulated by the .same laws as other celestial phenomena. They revolve round the sun in regular periods, but in orbits so elliptical that in parts of their course they approach nearer to the sun than any of the planets, and in others recede so far into the regions of space, as to be entirely beyond the reach of our most powerful telescopes. Their actual number is sup- posed to be at least several thousands ; but we are acquainted with the periods of but few of this great host. One of these, called Halley's comet, from the astronomer who first as- certained its period, reappears at intervals of about 76 years; Encke's comet completes its revolution in about 3i yeare,and Biela's comet in 6| years. The peculiar characteristic of the comet, and that from which it de- rives its name is a long luminous train, proceeding fi-om it in a direction opposite the sun, and called its hair or tail ; the tail of the great comet of 1680 was found to be not less than 41,000,000 leagues in length, and that of the comet of 1811, was 36,000,000. Some comets, however, have been seen entirely without tails ; and some have been known to be fur- nished with several. Moon's Phases. The moon is, next to the sun, the most interesting to us of all the heavenly bodies. Her phases, or that series of changes in her figure and illumination which she undergoes in the course of about a month, are one of the most striking of the celestial phenomena ; and present a division of time so remarkable that it has been the first in use among all nations. The phases of the moon depend on her position with regard to the sun. The moon being an opaque body like the earth, is visible only in consequence of her reflecting the light of the sun. When, therefore, she comes to the meridian at the same time with the sun, as at M, she must be invisible on account of her unenlightened side being turned towards us. It is then said to be JVew Moon ; and in refei-ence to her position in regard to the sun, the moon is said to be in Conjunction. When she comes to the meridian at midnight, as at m, she is said to be in Opposition, and her whole enlightened side being then turned towards the earth, she presents an entire circular disc. It is then said to be Full Moon. On the seventh night from the time of the new moon, having com- pleted one fourth of her revolution, and being 90° from the sun, she is in her first Quadrature, when she exhibits the appearance of a Half Moon, and at the same distance of time from full moon, she is in her second quadrature, and exhibits the same appearance, only half of her enlight- ened side being visible. Between the quadratures and the full moon, she becomes Gihhous, and between the quadratures and the new moon, appears as a mere crescent. Telescopic Glimpses. The telescope has enabled astronomei'S to lay down pretty accurate maps of the moon's surface, by an attentive examination of the spots on her disc. The spots are permanent, but of different degrees of brightness, and the inequalities of illumination, are, indeed, visible to the naked eye. These lights and shades are shown by the telescope to be iiTegularities of the lunar surface, the bright spots being the tops of lofty mountains, the heights of many of which have been calculated ; the highest summit is about 1| mile in perpendicular altitude. Spots ;iilso appear on the discs of Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn, when they are viewed through a telescope. Mercury is too much im- mersed in the solar rays ; Vesta, Ceres, Juno, and Pallas, ai'e too small ; and Uranus is too distant to allow points of unequal brilliancy to be ob- served on theu- surface. In Mars we are able to discern distinctly the outlines of continents and seas, the parts occupied by the foi-mer being distinguished by a ruddy color, those covered by the latter greenish. Jupiter has his disc marked with several parallel belts or dark bands, which are subject to considerable variations with regard to number, breadth, and relative situation. The telescope also reveals to us his four moons. Saturn appears through the telescope to be attended by seven satellites and surrounded by two, broad, flat, thin rings, concentric with the planet and with each other. These rings are discovered to be solid opaque bodies by their throwing a shadow on the planet. The disc of Saturn is also striped with dark belts similar to those of Jupiter. MAINE. la of Maine is variously ekimated a| from 83,000 to 3; it is of an irregular form, lying between 66^50' and Area. The area 35,000 squai-e miles, „ „ , ^. „ 71° W. Lon., and between 43° and 48° N. Lat. Tkqjlorthern boilndarj; line proposed by Great Britain, extends from Mai-s Hill, Lat. 46° 30', to\ a point on the western frontier, in (Lat. 46° W, drawn so as to separate the waters of the St. John from tho^ of the Penobscot. Rivers. The St. John rises in nifmerous br^ches in the western and northern parts of the state and passes into New,Brunswicfc The St. Croix or Schoodic empltie^ itself into Passamaquoddy bay, after a course of 100 miles ; it is naligi&le to ,Calai^. - ^ The Penobscot is the principal riiper; its western branch rises in the western frontier to the north of Bald Mountap-Ridge, and*^ portage pf two miles connects its navigable watprs with mose of me St. 'John. After flowing through Chesuncook and sbme^crther lakes, itTreceives the^East Penobscot from the north and the Mktjsfwamkeag from the east, and take^ a southwesterly direction to Penobecot bay. It 'is navigable for large vessels to Bangor,jit the head of tid^, 52 miles. • , The Kennebec rises on the western borders of the state to the south of the Bald Mountain Ridge, anfl parsing through Moosehead lake, takes a southerly course into the ocean. lit 1^ navigable for ships to Bath, 12 miles, for sloops 45 miles, to A/ugliiayat head of tide, an^l for boats to Waterville. Its principal tfibiitary) is the-Atidroscoggin, which flows through Umbagog.,lake into New Hampshire, and returning, into Maine, empties itself into the Kennebec a^ Menymeeting bay ,'18 miles from the ocean. ] , The Saco, Sheepscut, Damqriscotta and Machias are among the other principal rivers. \ ' .' Bats. The coast of Maine-fe much indented with fine bays forming many excellent harbors. / ~ ' ' ' is pmci; pally in New Brimswick;; it is deep and Passamaquoddy bay never frozen over. , , . Penobscot bay, betweeii Waldoi and Hancock counties, contains several considerable islands, as Loilg island, Deer islapd. Isle au Haut or Isle of Holt, the Fox iatands, &c.!and alFords many good harbors. ■ Machias b^^T^tthe^outh of the river Maehias ; Frenchman's bay, het/weeSHSi^esert island and Schobdic point ; and Casco bay, between Cjfpes Elizabeth and Small Point, are "among the most important bays. ■^ Lakes. Chesuncook, Moosehead, Umbagog, Sebago, and Schoodic lakes, are the principal. | , • . Mot7NTAms. A range of highlands extends from the northeast comer of New Hampshire to the gulf of St. Lawrence, dividing the waters of the St. Lawrence basin, fi'oin those 'Of the Atlantic/streapasr' The heights in some parts attain an elevation of about 4,000 feet, j In the western and central parts of .the state there are numerous detached ridges, among which are Saddlet^ack Mountairi,''Bald Mountain Ridge, Katahdin Mountain; &c. The last named reaches the elevation of about^,350 feei ' ' \ ' - Climate and Soil. The soil on the coast is various and of but mod- erate fertility. In the iSterior it is generally more productive, much of it is very fertile^aind.well adapted to agriculture and grazing. The cli- piate is subject to ^eat extremes of heat and cold, but the air in all parts, is pure and healthy. The winters are long and severe, ai^ the ^sum- mers short but agreeable. •, .. > v ■ - Islands. Grand MenaQ qne .of the principal islands on the coast of Maine,, belongs to New Brunswick... JMt. Desert island, and Deer islands are the Bther most considerable islatids. The Islesof Shears ate eight smaD 'islands belonging mostly ttf Maine, but partly to New Hampshire. They- are-^fampus for their dun iish; and are inhabited 'by about 100 fishermen. ' . ... ' \.- CDunty.Towns. Popu'lhtion. Portland 12,501 ' Castine, '1,155 Augusta 3,980 f Wiscasset 2,443 •?Topsham 1,564 (Warren ,' 2,030 Paris ■ , 2,-337 Bangor 2,868 Norridgewock 1,71?- Belfast 3,077 JMaetos l,02l ' ' 5 York 3,485' I Alfred 1,453 Towns. Augusta is the capital of the state. There are two cities, Portland and Bangor ; %e Tatter Vas ,at jg^^nt, 1833, a population of above 6,000. t_ _ Counties. Population. Cumberland Hancock Kennebec ' 60,113 24,347 52,491 Lincoln 57,181 Oxford Penobscot Somerset Waldo Washington 35,217 31,530 35,788 29,780 York 51,710 ! pl^n^al t^wns not mentioned above are Saco, 3,219 inh. situate^ falM or^aco •river, the descent of which is about 50 feet, affording The at the fallaor^aco^^ver, , numerous'mifeeats'; Bath, 3,773, on the Kennebec, 12 miles from thi ^ sea ; Hallo well, S',961 ^Brunswick, 3,747, tlie seat of Bowdoin college, ott 'vthe /^jdroscoggin' j Thomaston, 4,221, containing valuable limestone ^astrrie^ and the stat^, prison; and Eastport, 2,450, on Moose island iit Passamaquoddy bay. • ■ 1 • PppuiAa'ioN. In 1765, 9ib,788; in 1790,96,540; in 1800, 15^719; in 1810, 22^,705; in 1820, '898,335; in 1830, 399,955, including 1,190 blacks. \ 1 I Canal. Tlie Cumberland and, Oxford canal unites Sebago pond' with, Portland harboi*'; length of excavation 20J miles, affording a navigatioif natural and artifidi^l of 50 miles; Commerce. Thfe^ inhabitants are "?argejy engaged in navigation ani thetfisheries. The valuje of imports fgr^he yeajj832 was $1,1^,326 ; 01 exp6rts,,^81, 443. The'^ipping owrifed in this^te. artipunts to 145, 000 tons ; the 'principal articlel\of exportatlacLare liiinher, salted provisions, dried fish, lim^ pot and pearl>ashes, &c. ~"~^^ — \, ^ '■ I > Education."^ There are tw^ colleges, Bowdoifi" college, with Whichl is connected ''a medical school, ^ Brunswick, and Watervflle college, a^ Waterville on the Kennebec. The Wesleyan seminary at Readfield vol Kenhebec county, k chiefly desigaed for the education; of" MethodisI ministers, and is in part a manual-lali^or school. The Baingor Theologi- cal institution was founded for the education of congregMional ministers, There is a great number'of acadeiAies in the state, and by law teach towii is required to raise annually for/the supj/orf^of free schools, a! sum equa;l at least to forty cents for ea<;h inhabit^iit; and to distribute this sum among the schools or dist^ts, in proportion to the number of scholars in each. Beside the amount thus raised; certain sums are dis- tributed by the state among th^' towns, Religious Sects. The Baptists have 220 churches, and 165 ministers: the Orthodox Congregationalijts ITS churches and 112 ministers; the Methodists ',104 preachers anq 14,350 cqmmunicants;--the Friends orJ Quakers 30 societies'; the Unitarians 12, Episcopalians 5, and there] are some Rqman Catholics, Sw^denborgiahs and Universalists. I j C9NSTITUT10N. The right o£ suffi'age belongs to every male cifizen of 21 years qf age, who has had^scesjdence in the state for'the term of three months next preceding the electio^. The executive power is vested in a Governor,, vrith an executive council, anil. the. legislature in.,a Seriate and House of Representatives. The executive couricil'is chosen by the legislature ; the governor' and legislature by the people. , ,^.The judiciaTy-is appointed by the governor with consent of council 5 the tenure of ofiice^i^ during good behavior, bvlt noj, beyond -the age of 70 years. ' • ' ' HrsTQRY. The shores of Maine were visited jand examined by Martm Pring, in I6O3; | 1607. The Plymouth company attempted to fomj settlen:tents at the mouth of the Kennebec, but without success. 1 , ' F 1622. The corapeby granted the tejiitc^iVbetwedithe Merrimaoland ! .Kennebec' to Gories and Masop, and. among otljer-iiatents one I was gi-anted in 16^0 of a tract on Penaquid Bay, wltere aeptdement had been, formed in 1625." '('"-" i >- ■ 'V-^-. }f " ^ !< 1652. Massachusetts took possession, of the^c'olopies in the western! pari of Maine,^S belpngigg to for jurisdictidn.'^'^ J^\ ' L '1664. The' country.Mtween Penaquid and the St. Croix, jvhich had formed a part of.the^Frfench colony of sA(krdia, or was at lesBt claimed by the French) was granted by.Chari/aS^II. to the Dukd of York, utider the name of the^ounty of OoriivyalL ^^ \ J / 1692. The whole of this' 4rritory was inqluded|in the limits of, the ■Massaehus'etfs'.' ^' ' ^_ , -^T — ' { 1820. The'Distnct of Maine, as it was'lhen called, was erected into an independent state. . - ' v Northeastj:rn Boundary. By the treaty withjEngland in 1783, the bI boundary was thus defined: ' fromM;he northjwegt angle of Nova Scotia, viz. that aiJgle .whicli is forpaed by a line drawn duemorth from the source „ of the St. Cro/Jt'to the Highlands, along Sa^l Hi|tilknds which divide Ij those ifivers that empty themselves into the St. La-wrence, -from tiosei Which fall intP the Atlantic ocean to the noi^ihwe|ternmost head of theff Connecticut.! The Americans assert that^tiefellighlands are the divid- ing ridge which separates -the waters of, the St. Jfihn from those of the St. Lawrence. The British 'find^.them in tfe heights which divide the tributaries of the St. John from the head streams of the Penobscot. The decision of the controversy w'as xe^reditP the King of the Netherlands, who proposed a boundary line,f6rined by following up the course oFthe St. John, and the St. Francis,£i'jiroposition agi'eeable to neither party, and the controversy still remsiins open. \J I. Oil B Itu de JLas t J from vVastiinaion ' I Area. Ni between 70' milies. B.IVERS, shire and Vel The Mereii waters t^IAl made navigiW the principal "!! Union canal. The Piscatai chstged five s: Portsmouth. Lakes. irrejgular fori long, and vi in some parts the sea is 470 ftet. scenery, sj I „ Mountains. ' are the highest! Thp principal NEW HA MPSHIRE. Halnps and iire^Hes between 43° 40' and 45° & Ur-^ii^<^ 30*'.'..-. ..^ ^auuuL ^u^uuH, 4U1U uy large HibaiijuuaL»,iuuiiiiig XI uiu vv iiiLciioii, i-v.. ^. lu s properljr arfarm Of tjie sea, into which are jSisr St. John's, Canada ; for several months in the.^'ear it is frozattsover, so streams; it is deep, aiid/aflrdrds the fine harbgi^of^ iseogee is a 'iSt^g^lJody-^f jrater of a very , a gi-gat number of/Sslauds ; it is 23 "mile^ one to tefi in brfeadth-;- it is of .great depth^jnd begn fatiomed,; the hei^ of th^ surfacfe abofer ■-' lake is muiqh -aiiniifred^or the beauly of its The Whijte'MoilniSin^iSLtlie northern part of the state, .._ in-the United Stat0, east of 'tbfe MiesisslpOp- jai-e fciunt.Washin^on 6,430 ftet high, arj^ M(^nt Adams 5,9QQJeM; Tlie tops are coVi^d with snoW\for nine pr tenlmoutlis in tlie year,'aiad vegetation ceasies'tefare reaching the highest sui^mits. The3S'otch istenarrowpas^several mileg in Ifength, thrcuigk which flows th&Saco, ana which is the Qjfly'practicabte_^assagethi'0«gh thetmountains between Fifenconia and Adkms. "" . - ^^ Between theMelcEhiiaQJi'aiid the Connecticut there are seiWaJ consid- Ov- erawe emineii!i^j"-arhbng ' which are Moosehillock, in Cov^try,-4,6§6^> feet, and monafffitek, in Dublin, 3,150. -" ,— -^.^^ ^ Cou&ty Towns. Portsmouth -■ Exeter Dover. , Gilma^ton : , Gilford ■= (^Roche^ter^ ^ Coiicord "'■.;► Amherst ; Keene "!' Newport Havft-hill , V, Plymouth Lancasterl^ ■^owNs. Coijcord is the capital of the ^tate, Portsmouth, the prin- cipal town, has .tone'of^e best harboi-s in, the country, and contains a navy-yard. ~';""^.. .^ ■ „ ' l The village of Great >Falls in the, tovnishipj ftf Somersworth, on the Salmon Falls riyer, contains four cdttori miUs, witil_il,000 spindles, and one'woollen mil} for tlfe manufacttrfft-dwoadcloth and carpeting. • Nashua village, in Ihte^'towns^iff of Dunstable, onj^thefi'river Nashua, hi^ also large nJarfufactoj^ies. ■ ■ ■ . ^ '\> 7 "js the Weaji of Dartmoutn college. _The ' Rockinghatn Strafford.. \ Merriiaacl Hillsbc(roU: Cheshire Sullivan Grafton Coos 44,452 58,916 34,6i9 37,762 27,01^ 19,687 p8,691 8,390* 'Population. • g;a82 2,759-i 5,449' 3,&16 . ■l,-872 3,727. l,657r-' 2,374 1,913 2,153 1,175 ' 1,187 bilefl' above. 00^; ia^l775jap,000gn^79p, 1*1^85; i^ Hanover on the Coni other principaPltowns affe, PopnnATioif" In .1730, 11 , ..,.---,-- 180P, I83,858,f in 1,810, 214,^0;; in l&^O, 244,161; iri-H830,- 269,533, Manofactores. Thra;e are in NewHampshire^O cotton factories, and; 32 wooll^^ctories 'lyMp grist mills,- 952 saw mills, 234. fulling millte, 236 carcmg-mills, J.5"{)aper mills, and 19 oil niills. ' I^DDCATioNi, Coipmon schools are established by-law, and supported chiefly by a t^ oifthe inhabitants, with J;he aid of the.vulcome of the literary fund. .The wholaoumber of fi-ee schools isabout 1600. There are 35 acad'Smie^ and one college, Dartmouth college at Hanaver, in the state! ^/^ /' ' L rJ^ ,\. V > Co«^3(iTtjTibN. vThe legislature is styled the General .pourt ; suffi-ag§ IS uniyersalj^nd the governor, executive q^ncil, and legislatvSe are chosenLa^wiSJy by the people. ■'_,-!'' -' ~ 1 "-x CJouqilkcE. Th^valu^f the imports for .the year 1832, was $H5,171 ; of emba-ts^Jl^joSS ; shipping owned in the state 15,000 tons. / \X" ' isTOjfiy. N'eV Hampshire foianed part of the "gr^lr to Mason, aliS". igJblr^si/ " -* - piiaPo^t_. - ,. , .\ 164t;-, .^TJi© Nejv Hampshire settlements, "were- united with'.Ma^: cBjisfetts. \ ' "■""-"; > -'-J ' ' ~ i lg79, ' •.Thef-wei^'agala'forMed iiito a .< Iffi9; . Again united-^witR' Magsachusgi eept^o^f a gh.orH5ejiod.t9 foj^ni part of tl 1741J. Neyt^HampshW became a se; constitution,was xidopted, -^^Hich vya? amr" -■^--kiX /, ■ ..>V^ ■3-AJlE VEliMUiVT. . , „., , &e area *f^^ont is about 9,000 square miles, otaccording : lies between 42° 44, a^iNSilf.'Lat. and and is 157 miles in length^Dyn-oiii-^S to , to some eatimates«10,000. It lies between 42° 44, aniNiSilf.'Lat. and 71°36^ana73°26''W. Lon. - — hard>6^to be assed by land carnages. - , --^v- 'iake'Memphremagog, is pattly-in Lower Canada ; it is about 40 mites " longJjy 2.or 3 Avide, and discharges' its water? into the St. Lawrenfee. *"* Mountains. The Green Mountains iravei-se the statafem soi,th fo north ; the highest sumrai&>..are KillingCBn,£gakr»^i67s refct ; Camels' Jlump, 4,188 feet; and Mansfi^eld1M;^ajam-'4^0 feethigh. Counties. Population^ >•■ 24,940, -i Addison r » ■ ■• ''BenningtOTi ,-17,470' V Caledonia.^" 20,967- Chitfenden 21,775 £.ssex-, 3,981- Franklin- 24,525' ■ Grand Isle .. -3,696 ,"G(raIige ) 27,285i Orleans • 13,989- - Rutland. S 91,295. -- Washington 21,394 ; Windham 28,758 Windsor 40,623 CMSf Towns. Middlebm-y K Beimingt9n - \ ManchesteF--' Danville Burlington Guildhall ■<, St. Altgins-*! Ngjth Hero '^lielsea- Irasburgh Rutland , "Mbntpelier 1 Newfane J Windsor J Woodstock r Fopulatioil. ^68' .^ - , — J-5^/ ■ .2,631 L, 3,526 i*- .638 , 1,958 860 2,753 1,193 -' 1,441 / - 3,134 3,044 < %' i lonjwas eparate province. ,■ s, and continued'with the ex- tJfB^iBite till 174f. ^" ii5^ province ; in 1784, the- (ided ifta792.'. ~r _ Towns. Montpelier is the capilfil of the state, whicii eontains large toSyns. Beside, the towns mentioned in the above list, ^j^i^e^o- rough, 2,14-1 inh. is the most important. ' ' * Population: In 1796, 85,539 ; in 1800, 154,465; in 1810, 2! in 1820^.235,-764 ; in 1830, 279;771, including 881 blacks. ' ' y' ---( -Education. There are in this state, dlle uiiiversit^sty}6a-tlie Univer- sity of Vermont, at Burlington ; one college, at Middlebury/; and, about 30 countygrammar schools and academies. Each tovraship, is 'flivided. iiito'SchooJ districts, eacliiof vvhich is requiredito support a school^ partly ^y ditect taxation and partly .by sums distributed by the state fi-om a literary fund. '— v."" ■"> ' "' CANALS.i-'t'RADE. There is in thisL^taJe' a series of short cuts construc- ted for irtjproving the Navigation of the river Connecticut. The Belkuvs Fall canaljhalf a mile fn length, overcomfes afall of 50 feel, by nineHocksi The Whitft- River c^al, and the Waterqueechy canal in' Hartlani, are similar works. By-'the aid of these canals. Lake- Champlain, sj^HaS' Champlain caflai; VenTjomrti^ access Jo the markets of Hartford," Al^tiy, and-.Mentreal7to wiich are exported wool, cattle, provisions, &c. -.. \ _ / Constitution. '' The legislative-'power is vested in a single- houge'^ called the General Assembly^ elected annually by-tbe 'people. The'exe-' cutive power is e^ti-usted to a Governor, and Executive Council,. alSb chosen annually by the people. Suffrage is universal. ' ' - ■, Beside the r^uldr .governmental bodies, there is a council of censors, chosen every seven%€aitSj to inquire if "the constitution has been kept inviolate, the laws (yfly exewlfed; and Republic taxes regularly laid. ' History. 17S4. Fort DugjmeF^bailt^y Massachusetts, and the first settlementsTaade wifhin -flie limits. ""*-.,-•' ' : The uncertainty of the -boundary- lines, gaVe rise to conflicting claim^ between NewljampShij'eJaiid N^w York, upon this territory.,; extensive grants werejmade by tftfiTofraeivwhence the country was styled theNevy Hampshire Grants. , ' . ~ 17641 -g^he king having decided in favor of New York, this colony de- clared the grahts^mudetl^/New,Hampshire void, and required the settler^ * to take out nevT' deeds, and f-e-pilrchase their Jaads, This claim was resisted by the Green Mountain "Boys, undfer Ethan Allen afld others. .• ■■••1775.. The Green Mountain Boyp,^tB«prised and..took the" ftirts 'of. Tic6nderoga and.CroWffPoint. — ' ~'^" 1777. In July, the inhabftants of theJVewHampshire Grants declared themselves att independent state, ulidei' the name of Vermont. August J6th, General Stark, at^^e-head of a Body of Vermont, New Hampshir^, aiid"Massachusetts militibi defeatd-Jw6"jJetachme^dli»'fi-om Burgoyne's. aTftfay, consisting of Germah troops and -Indians, undeir Colonels Baum, andBreymann. ' . V.< , -'• " 1790. A coflagromise terrmnatgd the dispute with New York. 1791. Vermont was admitfed' into the Union. ^ • 1793. The ,8onstitiition, fonped in 1777, and revfepd in 1786, amended. --i-^-^'- 1—^^ i_ ^_ : T •^astsa^masaa MASSACHUSETTS. 'i Area. Massachusetts, lying between 41° 15' and 43° 52' N. Lat., and 70° and 73° 20' W. Lon., has an area of £>bout 7,800 square miles. Rivers. The Connecticut passes through the state into Connecticut. The Merrimack enters Massachusetts from New Hampshire, and passing by Lowell, Haverhill and Newburyport, enters the sea ; it is navigable by vessels of 200 tons to Haverhill. ^ Charles river is a small stream which empties itself; into the sea at Boston harbor. Miller's, Chickapee, Deerfield, and Westfield rivers are the principal tributaj-ies of the Connecticut in the state. ^ Bats. Massachusetts Bay lieS; between Cape Annon the north, and Cape Cod on the south. Buzzard's Bay is on the south of the C&peC!od isthmus. . , ; '- : Mountains. Branches of the Green Mountains traverse the western pai't of the state ; Saddle Mountain, in Williamsfown, about 4,000 feet high, and the Taconic on the western border, neai-ly 3,000 feet high, are the highest elevations. Mount Tom and Mount Holyoke ai-e summits divid'ed by the Connecticut ; the former 1200 feet, the latter 910 feet high. ^ Wa- chuset in Princeton, is the highest land east of the Connecticut. '^'. Counties. Population. Shiro Towns, . . VPopulation. Suffolk 62,162' Boston- '-61,392 C Salem 13,886 Essex 82,887 * j Newburypolt J6;388 ( Ipswich ; 3,951 Middlesex 77,968 J Cambridge I Concord 6;D7l - 2,017 Plymouth 42,993 Plymouth ' 4,751 Norfolk 41,901 Dedham 3,057 Bristol 49,474 < New Bedford - I Taunton 7,593 6,045 Barnstable 28,525 -Barnstable 3,975 Nantucket . 7,202 Nantucket 7,202 Dukes ; 3,518 Edgartown 1,509 Worcester ^84,365 Worcester 4,172 Hampshire 30,210 Northampton 3,613 Hampden 31,640 ' Springfield 6,784 Franklin 29,344 Greenfield 1,540 Berkshu-e 37,835 Lenox 1,355 Towns. Boston is the capital of the state, and the only city. The population of New Bedford, as above given, is by. the census of 1830; it has now about 10,000 inhabitants. Other principaltowns are Lowell 12,000 ; Charlestown 8,787 ; Glouces- ter 7,513 ; Lynn 6,138 ; Marblehead 5jl50 ; Middleboro 5,008 ; Roxbury 5249 ; Pittsfield 3,570 ; and Andover 4,540. Fall River vijlage in the township of Troy, is the seat of several large manufactories. PopuiATioN. In 1700, 70,000 ; in 1740, 164,000; in 1765, 228,000 ; in 1776, 348,000 ; in 1790, 378,787 ; Jn 1800,' 422,845 ; in 1810, 472,040 ; in 1820, 523,387 ; in 1830, 610,408, including 7,048 colored persons. ' Railroads and Canals. Middlesex canal reaches fromihe Merrimack at Chelmsford to Boston ; length 36 miles. Blackstojie canal extends from , Worcester to Providence, 45 miles, Hampshire and Hampden canal is the continuation of the Fai-mington canal, from Southwick to Northampton, 30 miles. Pawtucket canal at Lowell, Montague canal at; Montague, and South Hadley canal, are short cuts, passing rouifd falls in the Merrimack and Connecticut. ■ Quiocy raih'oad extends merely from a granite quarry to Neporiset river, 3 miles. The Boston and Lowell railway 35 miles; Boston and Worcester railroad 43 miles, and Boston and Providence railroad, 43 miles, are in active progress. The latter is to be extended to Stoningtou in Con- necticut. - Commerce. The value of imports into the state in the year 1833 was $18,118,900 ; of exports $11,993,768. Amount of shipping 340,000 tons. The fisheries are also actively prosecuted by the inhabitants ; the seal and whale fisheries in the southern seas, the cod fishey one the New- foundland banks, and the herring and mackerel fisheries on the coast. Tonnage entered m 1831, 172,906 ; departed 153,300, of which 5,176 was foreign. About 100,000 tons of shipping are engaged in the whale fishery, occupying about 7,000 men. They bring home about 100,000 ban-els of sperm oil, 110,000 barrels of vvhale or black oil, and 120,000 pounds of whale bone. MANCFACTtiRES. The manufactures of this state are extensive, com- prising woollen and cotton goods of various description, hats, shoes, cabinet work, salt from sea- water, ship-building, glass, &c. Lowell, Taunton, Troy, Waltham, Chickapee village in Springfield, Ware, Lynn, &c., are the chief manufacturing towns. > There are in the state upwards of 17,500,000 feet of salt works; in Lowell, are 21 cotton mills, with 100,000 spindles, and 3,550 power looms, employing 5,000 operatives, and producing annually 32,000,000 yards of cloth ; and three woollen mills, manufacturing broadcloths, cassimeres, carpets, &c. In Taunton there are .7 cotton mills, , a calico printing In Troy are 13 cottMi satinet factory, &p. Hi pstablishment, Britannia ware factory, &e. mills, running 31,000 spindles, iron works, „, SpringfielA^re 3 cotton mills with 13,800 spindles, 3 papermills, &c. -Three ^atfon mills at Waltham, running above 8,000 spindles, inanu- facture 3,000,000 yards of cloth annually. At Lynn more than a ijiillioii and a4ialf pair of shoes ai-e made yearly. i Education. There are three colleges in the state ; Harvard Universify at Cambridge, comprising theological, law and medical schools ; Amherst college; and Williams college at'Williamstown, with which is connectefl a medical school at Pittsfield. - .There are atheological seminary at Andover, founded by the orthodox con^egationalist ; a theological institution at Nekton near Boston, founded byjthe Baptists, and an institution for the education of the|BUnd, in Boston. There are 66 academies in the state, and each town bontaining 50 fami- lies S required by law to support a school, equivalent! to six months in.'a year; containing 100 families, 12 months ; 150 famili&, 18 months. j RELioions Denominations. There are in the stajte of Massachusetts 491, Congregationalist. churches, and!433 ministers,| of whom 118 ae Unitarians ; 181 Baptist churches,' ajnd 160 ministers ; 71 Method: 3t preachers ; 46 Universalist societies ; -31 Episcopalian ministers ; 8 Sw s- denborgian societies, with some Presbyterians, Roman Cathehes ai Id Shakers. . ' i - ' ^ I CoNSTixnTioN. The Legislature is styled the General Court oif Ma 3- sachusetts, and consists of two houses, the Senate and House of Represe 1- tatives, both chosen annually by the'ppople. ■ - 1 The Governor and Lieutenant Governor, likewise !chosen annually >y the people, with an Executive Counoil^ichosen by the ISe^eralpourt, fo) m the executive depai'tment. ' , . r History. The fii-st settlement within the limits of Massachusetts w as made at Plymouth in 1630, and this pait of the counti-y cjantinuedfto form a separate colony until 1692. ■ .1638. The colony of Massachusetts Bay founded by the settlemendat Salem of a number of Puritans who had obtained |a charter from Plymouth company in England. '1635. Free- schools instituted in Boston; 1636 Harvard coll^ founded. 1637. The Pequod war, which terminated in the almost total desti tion of the hostile Indians. j 1643. New Plymouth, Massachusetts, Connecticut and New Haiten form a confederation, under the title of the United Cqlonies of New Eng- land, which lasted till the seizure of the chaiters by James II. | 1675.' .Wai- with Metacom, commonly called king.Philip. I ; . 1684. The charter of Massachusetts declared to be forfeited. I ■; 1686. Sir Edmund Andros appointed governor-general of New Eng- land, with instructions to suffer no printing press in his juristlictidn ; 1689 he was seized, deposed, and sent home by the Bostonians. | S ■ 1692. Nineteen persons were executed, and one person was preffied to death m Salem and its vicinity for being guilty of the crime of witch- craft. . \ 1692. A new charter was granted including the colony of New IJly- Mouth in the jurisdiction of /Massachusetts, and vesting the appointn^nt of the governor,; and other principal officers of the province, in crown. . / I ' 1745.^ Capture of Louisburg by the New England troops, chiefly 1 Massachusetts, in what is familiarly called the Old French warj 174 1748. -■■ ^ ' I 1755 — 1763. >■ The Seven Years' war, commonly called in the coloi ies, the French war. .: 17655- • The Bfitish parliament attempts to ^ise a revenue in the !ol- onies, but a colonial congress having assembled at New York to ren on- strate against the measure, the obnoxious acts were in part repealed the following year. ; 1770. The British troops in Boston, insulted by the citiz^^ : red upon the crowd, and killed four men ; this is What is called the Bq ton Massacre. ; 1773. The tea which had been sent out from England, for the mr- pose of reducing^ the colonists to the payment of the duties impose! by parliament, thrown overboard in Boston haibor by the Bostonians. ^ 1775. April 19th, British troops sent from Boston to seize proviBcial stores at Concord, resisted and driven back by the militia at Lexir ^on and Concord. June 17, battle of Bunker's Hill. 1776. The British compelled to evacuate Boston, May 17j by Washington. j 1780. Constitution adopted ; amended in 1830. | 1786. Shays's Rebellion, occasioned by the interruption of iindAtry, and the depreciated state of the currency ; the object of the insur ents was to prevent the collection of debts by their creditors. ZK i RHODE ISLAND. 5A. Rhode Island is the smallest state in tlie union, having an of only 1,535 square miles; it comprises the islands of Rhode 3lan&, Prudenc ! and Conanicut, in Jfarraganset Bay, and Block Island th| ocean, Bws and Ri^iers le mill seats. Narraganset bay is'^out 30 miles long, by 15 broad, aA receives th( Providence 2thd Tabnton rivers ; it sets up from the ja betjiveen Po nt Judith on^Jje wfes{ and Seaconet point on the east, [id contains se^ eral exoellent-^arbcn-^ among which is that of Newport. Prb^d^cfe |Jewport r Washingtpi t Kent ^ ■ Bristplf" The riv^ are^mall, but they afford many valua- Fairiield _ '" Hardord ■ = Litchfi'll^lif/ Bliddldsex jA'i N^Haven, ^.^" N^I^oK^ [ is a thriving, com- j)s of Warwick and Smithfield and partly ftiosetow« PopulaEloh. ^ ("r County Towns. Population. 47,01^ r ^.- Providence 16,833 16,534 i"'"' Newport 8,010 15,4«- ;ji South Kingston 3,663 12,7SJ '-i East Greenwfich 1,591; 5,4^ "Z- Bristol 3,05* PopuiATMN. In 1700,10^0; ifel748, 34,128; in 1774, 790,68,8aa; iii 1800, 69,122 ; in 18*10, 76,931 ; in 1820, 83,059j 7,199, includin ; 3,578 colored persons, TawNs. Tim Gfeneral Assembly meets alteriiately at ^ 'rovidence, andj South Kingston. Providence, incorporated aS^aysify'^; 83llhas now,l833, above 20,000 inhabitants. Scituafe, 6,853 inhabitants^- Varwick, 5,529!, and Smithfield, 3,994, are considerable towns. Paw- ick^t village is a manufacturing place, partly in th^wnship of Seekonk, lasffi, and partly in North Providence. Pawti lercial and matiufactuiing village, in the tovrtisi -ranston. Woonsocket Falls village, is partly/in 1 Cumberland. T C Commerce and Manufactures. Rhode^Island is -one of the most oinrnercial and manufacturing districts inj^he cofintiy. The value of n'poks for the year 1832, was $657,969/? otSexports 534,459. The ^ _ lanilfactures are chiefly of cotton, but Jpere ate'al^^ojjagy of woollen, i -^ I&i;b4ads and ordfc, &c. Shipping 33,000 tons. ^|^^ ':. ^— /) Connectieut,-!^"" Injthe village of Woonsocket FalK there Sj^tlout twentynnanufac- "- c-= t;:- -- iring establishments, running 20,000 spindly, aird pi-oducin£; two and half million yards of cotton stftfe' annuaBy^ In^ {"awti^oket village, artly in Rhode Island and partly^ Massachusetts; are/18 m^nufactollls, unning 43,000 spindles, and coiitaiiiing about ?^dloani^.)fei -Providence re four cotton factories with II ,26o spiniHes) and'^454cSpiris, weaving earllf one and a half milliqiijyArds; two Weache^^^ftmp bleaching and inisffing 13,000,000 yards a/e&rL/ four ^e hoflseS; eigflt kon and brass bimderies ; eight machine sWops, &c. I . C f CJnals and Railroads.// Boston ai\d Proigdence railroad t^minates tijms state; Providence iflnd I Stonin^Mi-^i^-oad, from the city of 'rbvidence to Stonington /hartipr, in -Connffitiicut, is a continuation of hat work. Blackstone cahal, extending' from/Providence to Worcester, 3 partly in this state andfpaitly in Maa&chuseitts. i KiJncATioN. There/is a college iniProvidence, styled Brown Univer- itj, and there are sevwafiic^demie/ in thefstate. Provisipn has lately, peenfmade for generaT education, the legi^ture having voted $10,00i " )rjsmg „ , , . „ , — ind a House of Representatives- chosen ^mi -annually ; the judiciar ippointed annually by the legislatui'ef j;Phe ofiicial style of the sta{e ihpde Island and ^rovi(}enceiPlantat'tpjip. ■'^ Hi story. Pr6yidencfe founded hy RJiger Williams, who wag, d ft )m Massachiisetts m his religioul-apinions, in-1636. 1644. Williams obtataed a xiharter, ^eluding also the pL Riioie Island, which h^ been maie O :e possessicp of Rhode Island. Cf^' [ulliW takes pdsid*!, August 9, on B&deJSl, _ A^ggust 28, the Aroencan linesaban- '"^ ■ ■ ■ \^ \ CjONNEC^ICUT. f.^_ Area. This stat4 has^an tea of nearly 4j8C(0^iiare rtriJesj it lies )etween 41° and 42° N. Lat, and^etWeen 71S IflSs^ 73° 48' WrLon. Rivers. The rivdr Qpnnecticu^ rises in Low6r>Canada,_jeparates 'feW' Hampshire airfl Vermont, and passing throUghCMasiachusetts, snters Long Island "^uuirJj'^ft e r«' 'course of 400-Haaeapi^-The4ide flows up to Enfield Falls ; the river is navigable for vessels dravring eight feet to Hartford, 50 miles ftom its mouth, and, by the aid of canals, for small steamboats 220 miles ftirthep^ The valley of the Connecticut is remarka- ble for the variety and) beauty of its scenery, and is adorned with many pretty towns. • f j The river Housa^*9^.tis5s.ia-M-assaehusetts, and flows into Long Island Sound at Sti'atford, after a.eo0sfc aP]50 miles ; it is navigable by small sea- vessels, Igwojifei. >' ? ^^"^'^ The Thames is ri|vJ^|^^^^^pSQtffoi;wich, 16 miles. Mountains. Se^afrjS^gjjypg^^GSeen Mountain 'chain traverse the state, but are'ofSticonsidfii'able ^vajS@1 two-of thein terminate at New Haven, iaV] tr 51,149" 42,855 24,845 43,848 42^5 18^71)0 Population. * 4,325 ,246 4,458 6,892~. 3,PS5 10^78 4,356 1,698 1,413 irRock aiaJ^^Wissst Rod*. '~ -'• " vPojyilafiBo. ^^^~ fetfunty Towjlfe!- " ^ Hartford k . itchfield V idflletown Haddam iNewJHaven 1,_ tNew London ": -'^ ^Norwich J ?■" Tolland , ;^rooklyn or^'iand^New ifiiven are; the two capitals of the state ; Middletown, New iaondon and Norvraeh,- are-incoi-po- pruSl^rtow'ns ai^ W-etKei5fie!ia,'2,862'inh. : Greenwich, 3,800 r S^iiuek, 4,9801; Eyn^, 4|)98; Stdiiin|tbii, 3,40L;.and Groton_, 4,750. ■ j^PjIWlation. In 17OO,:3O;0OO ;/17#,aeejD00 ;-a775, 197-,S56 ;: 1790, ' gp7,SU^4-l'8O0r25r,0P3 ; .18]^J36J^?*3V^S^275,aai-; 18^X^7,675, includins 8,077 blati^s. -- /Z-i"^^ I "HV^ v^A rfr^ • : "^ " " ' ' id fn&ld galte-in the - — ^y-,v.==^->-~,~^ -v— - -^-o-y- -, v-^- -^ -ay^jatt^a^-iorimills. Farmingtoh cana3;;^frpm Nfew HaywrTo SoijthgiTcKT^a^achusetts, 56 mile^;HTa4beto'e0ntinuedjpf'Nortl™||pton ^jSffie Hatppden andjlamp-;-. shu|e;g«^fe'VhofelisjanGe 78 iHileSrHErofviSeiiee^fli Stoiriug»n rail- rc»935s;p3^y-4nJ;lnle4ate|'whole-dis.talace, 46 rhjles. ' \ t ?. ; 'HMERCEr&cTThe Value of lya^fL-K^Jox 1832, ^as $4a7;7J5; of pojrts <;480,466-pr-'' act&ries, '':,''|2B3Di9tifeies; ■ .^-g^as^eks'fflid Watcties, |5,196 Ric[iliigX!ai-riages,: " K 183 Fisfeeises, :-,oi- 1,572 EiJetcation, »^Iarf&i'd,~foui^ed' Middleto%vn,;are hfield, and Sn Asy_ ._-^ ahfora.tf A Thteologican^epartment \.,* iu":>i. ge~~aWNew EjLscofjalieiiiBEiBS A ..K ".in4ri%^Tti«ri iticn qf. a'^LaW Si juarries( &r — ^ -i- \« i^isToTiJ^ J 635. Settl^ii^Pts orfSSiunectiCUt ^ver, made by emigrants ^I'om MassaCTHjsetts. ^,>. — r~- - ~ — ^-^~- ^-^ -1638. y iChe g5ftlfly^!!N|s(f-ljOT6n~^f&imded? by emigrants fi'o^ Eng- 16J3A<3onnpct»«t^SgjypSS^i^New PlytnQuttgSfflfW^as^Chetsetts, forirned-s»TWn3fle3^^^(^^he_ si^e? of the'*TJnited Colonies rf; New Englan^v rbr nftitual proie^ion ag®lfe_tbe French, Dutc^an^ Inaians. :>Y 16^. jThe colonies ofrConi&ecti^lr^wi New Haven uniteijj^idiarter, ^nted.tp^the rormfir, .--..- ^- ■^-•- -_ * ' " "■* ■ • ■ '■"-" 1687. Andros, as president of New England, demands the surrender of the charter of the assembly ; the charter being finally produced, the lights w;ere blovni out, and the documentiwas cauaied off, and hid in a large hollow oak tree. 1781. Expedition of Arnold against New London; the garrison of FortiGMSwoldoB^ssacred and the tosiLri,burnt. ,__„.. , . NEW YORK. Area. The area of this state is about 46,000 square miles ; it extends fi-om 40° 30- to 45° N. Lat, and from 72° to 79° 50' W. Lon. Rivers. The principal river is the Hudson, which nses in the hjlls west of Lake Champlain, and flows into New York harbor, afler a course of 325 miles. It is navigable for ships to Hudson, 120 miles, and for sloops to Troy, head of tide, 166 miles ; the navigation is sometimes impeded by the Overslaugh, a bar a few miles below Albany. ^The Mohawk rises in Lewis county, and runs into the Hudson'at Waterford, afler a course of 150 miles ; it is much broken by falls ; three miles from its mouth are Cahoos Falls, where the river descends in an unbroken sheet, 70 feet. The Genesee, which runs into lakfe Ontario, the Onondaga, which forms the outlet of Cayuga lake, and the Black river, are the other prin- cipal streams within the state. ' The Niagara forms the outlet of Lake Erie, dischai-gjng its waters in-;, to Lake Ontario. The former is 330 feet higher than the latter; and the' descent of the river from the higher to the lower level*forms the cele- brated Falls of Niagara ; the river is here precipitated down a ledge of roclis, 164 feet. The Alleghany, Susquehanna and Delaware, rise within its litjiits, and the St. Lawrence washes its northwestern border. ' ■ ^ Lakes. Lake George is a long and narrowjiody of water, about 33 miles long, by two wide, discharging its waters into Lake Champlain at Ticonderoga ; it is celebrated for its beauty. Oneida lake is 24 mileslong, by four wide ; the Oswego or Onondaga is the common outlet of the Oneida, .Skaneateles, Owasco, Cayuga, Seneca, Crooked and Canandai- gua lakes. Cayuga and Seneca are about 36 miles by from 2 to 4 wide ; the latter is very deep and never freezes. . . . - Mountains. Several ridges of the AUeghanies pass into thfe state;- among these are the Highlands, which cross the Hudson at West Point, and the Catskill mountains, which rise to about 3,800 feet. Population. In 1700,^30,000 ; 1730, 50,-395 ; 1770, .163,338 ; 1790, 340,120; 1800, 586,050, of whom 20,613 were slaves; 1810,- 959,049 ; 1820, 1,372,812; 1830, 1,913,608, including 44,870 free colored persons. Towns. There are eight cities in the state ; Ne>v-York 203,007 inh. ;, Albany, the capital, 24,238; Troy 41,405; S^ienectady <4',958 ; Hudson 5,395 ; Utica 8,328 ; Brooklyn, 15,396, and Rochester 12^00 inh. Buffafo 12,000 ; FishkiU 8,292 ; foughkeepsie 7,325 ; Nfwburg 6,424 ; and Catskill 4,861, on the Hudson ; Plattsburgh 4,913 oh Lake Champlain ;^ Johnstovra 7,700 ; Canandaigua 5,162; Ithaca 5,270; Schoharie 5,146; Bethlehem 6,092 ; Rome 4,360 ; Onondaga 5,668 ; Manlius 7,375 ; Salina,. 6,929 ; Seneca 6,161 ; and Henjpstead on Long Island,^ are the other most considerable towns. • . , . At Auburn, on the outlet of lake Dwascp, and at the village of Sing' Sing, in the township of Mount Pleasant,' above New York city, are State-Prison^.- - - Saratoga, BaUston^ and Lebanon are much resorted toon account of their mineral waters; Ticonderoga and Crown Point on Lake Champlain, StiU water, near- Sar?itoga, White Plains, 30 miles north of New York; Fort Lee, Stoney Ppint and West Point on the Hudson, and Lewistown, on the Niagara, are places of historic- interest ; at Trenton, on West Can- ada creek, are fine falls, and Glenn's Falls, in Jiie Hudson, at Qaeensburg, are also muchiadmu'ed. IsLisNDS and Bats. Long Island extends from New York bay, at Ae Narrows, to Montauk point, 140 miles ; medium breadth about 10 or 12 miles. Long Island Sound isajpng and narrow bay lyifig between- the island and Connecticut, from 3 to 25 miles broad;; it communicates with New York bay by a strait called East River, one mile in width and 25 in length, in which is a swift and broken pass called Ilorl Gatt orHell Gate. Stafen Island is separated from Long Island^ by New York- bay and its entrance called the Narrows, and from New -Jersey by the Kills. Canals. Erie Canal extends from Buffalo on Lake Erie to Albany on the Hudson, 363 jniles ; rise and fall 698 feet, locks 84 ; Charnplain canal extends from Whitehall to Albany, 72 miles ; Oswego canal extends from Salina, on the Erie canal, to Oswego on lake Ontario, 38 miles ; Cayuga and Seneca canal extends from Geneva on Seneca lake to Mon- tezuma on the Erie canal, 20 miles; Crooked Lake canal connects that lake with Seneca lake, 7 mUes ; Chemung canal extends from Elmira, on the river Chemung or Tioga, to Seneca lake, 18 miles, with a navigable feeder from Painted Post, 13 miles ; Chenango canal extends from UtiEa on the Erie canal, to the Susquehanna at the mouth of the river Chenan- go, 93 miles ; Black River canal extends from Rome on the Erie canal, to Carthage on Black River, 76 miles ; these canals have all been construct- ed by tlie state, making a total of 700 miles. A survey for a sloop canal from the Hudson to Lake Ontario has been ordered by the legislature. The Hudson and Delaware canal extends from the Hudson, near Kings- ton, to the mouth of the Lackawaxen, 83 miles, whence it is continued up the Lackawaxen in Pennsylvania, 25 miles, to Honesdale. Railroads. The Ithaca and Owego railroad extends from Owego on the Susquehanna to Ithaca on Cayuga lake, 29 miles. The Hudson and Mohawk r.r. extends fi-om Albany to Schenectady, 16 miles. The Saratoga and Schenectady r.r. is a continuation of the preceding to Saratoga,'20 miles. It is proposed to continue it to Lake George. , The Catskill and- Canajoharie r.r., 70 mUes, is in part completed. The Hajlaem r.r., from Harlaem river across New York island, 6 miles, and the Keesville andtPort Kent r.r,, from the former place to LakeChamplain, 4~miles, are respectively considered as beginnings of roads from New York to Albany, and fi-om /Lake Champlain to Ogdensburg on the St. Lawrence. Ifc is proposed to consti-uct a raihoad from the Hudson to ; Lake Erie through the southern part of the state. j CojmiERCE. Yalue of the - imports, in 1832, $53,214,402, or more than, one half oifthe total imports into the United States 5 of exports $ 26,000,945.'? Shipping belonging to the state, 300,000 tons.- " Tnere are betvwen eighty, and ninety steam-bpats plying on the Tvaters of this state,; some of which exceed 500 tons burden. ' ; , Manufactures.' Alanual value of woollenThanufactures!|$-2,500,000, 'cotton $ 3,520,000 ; iron 1 4,000,000 ; leather $ 3jte,650 ; hatsjf 3,500-000 ; boots and shoes $ 3,000,000, &c. -— / : . - - There are in this statfe 200 woollen manufectories; 112 cotton mills,' manufacturing 21,1)00,000 yards annually ; 200 iron works ; :50 paper- mills ; 121 oil mills • 2,300 grist-mills, &c. ThB annual amount of salt ;mSide from salt springs' is about 1,500,000 bjishels. Nearly l,00p,000 barrels of flour,- apd' 500,000 bushels of wheat^ have been inspected in |feWf>York city in one year, -beside above 1,000,000 bushels of Indian corn, and the same quantity of oats. ^Education. " There :are in the state 780, towns, comprisuig 9,600 S(ffiaol. districts"; the proceeds of the school fund and of a state tax, are distributed amSng these districts, on condition that each district builds xi hPuse, and applies 'for: payment of teachers a sum equal to that which! it receives frdmfthe state. The income of the fimd is $100,000 ; the state \ taxfl$8,3g4; thesutn-raisedbythe people in the districts $358,320,mak- ing,with some local fiinds, the total expenditure for teacher's wages, 1832, $668;9Q2,. TThereare.in the state 64 academies; one University, called the University of :the city of-J^TvTTork ; Columbia College in New York ; Union. CefllQge in^gchenectady ; Hamilton College in Clinton; Geneva! College in'Geneva ; Brockport College atBrockport ; a Baptist Theological ' and Literary Seminary at Hamilton ; an Episcopal Theological Seminary in New York ; a Presbyterian Theological Semiaai-y at Auburn ; and a LutheranTheological Seminai-y at Hartwick. There are medical schools j in New York; and at Faii-field. , ; The military academy at West Point is supported by the United States ;^ number- of cadets limited to 250. ■»-■>'" '^i . - r,r:Aibany~' Alleghany ~ ■ Broome "Cattaraugus - Cayuga- Chatauqiie ? \^Chenango • Clinton Columbia Cortland Delawaje '~~ ^ ^ Duchess ■:^ Erin ; ? ;Essex Constitution. The GovBi-nor is chosen by the -people every two years ; the Lieut Governor, chosen in the same manner, is President of the Senate. The Legislature iconsists tif two houses-; a Senate of 32 membcK^, chosen by eight Senaiterial districts, fPrvthe term of four years, and th%-Assemb,ly of 128 members, ctosfcn by coimties annually. History. .1609. Hudson, an English navigaW in the service of the Dutch East liidia- Company, ascends the iiver which beai-s his name. 1613. The Dutch foi-m settlements here, and call the country New- Netherlands, and their chief town New Amsterdam, now New-York. 1664. Charles- II. grants this region to his brother, the Duke of York. ^ '-^-- . 1755. The French under Dieskau defeated by General Johnson near, Lake George. - : 1776. The British land on Long Island, Aug. 22 ; defeat the Ameri- can troops, 27 ; take possession of New York, Sept; 15; battle of White Plains, Oct. 28 ; Fort Washington taken by the Brijlsh, Noy. 16. 1777. Bjirgoyne repels the American forces at Stillwater, Sept. 19 ;! second action at Stillwater, Oct. 1\ Burgoyrie surrenders, 16. j 1779. Cj,pture of Stoney Point by the Americans, July 16. 1783. Nevy York evacuated by the British, Nov. 25. 1813. The British repulsed in an attack upon Sacket's Harbor. 1814. The British fleet captured off Plattsbm-g by Com. Macdon- ough. • __ COUNTIES. Franklin Oneida Schenectady Genesee Onondaga Schoharie Greene Ontario Seneca Hamilton Orange Steuben Herkimer Orleans Suffolk Jefferson Oswego Sullivan Kings Otsego Tioga Lewis Putnam Tomkins Livingston Queens Ulster Madisdii Renssalaer Warren Mom-oe - Richmond Washington Montgomery Rockland Wayne New; York Saratoga West Chester Niagara, St. Lawi-ence Yates iSIBII - NE W JER SEY. Aria. New Jersey lies between 39°, and 41° 21' ]%,Lat. tween 74° and 75° SCV W. Lon., haviijg an area of .7,400 squai-eimiles.,^ Rivers. The Delaware separates Tthe state fromNPaniiSyljffl|tiv and is gradually eitShdipg itgelt on^lP/.riort^)4^withii^ the-cspePis fealjlly Hook Bay, which is^sorrletiiB^es useful ^il-':storais.' . Cape May, %£ Ifbril]- ern cape of D^av<^iS,il^^^is t^fevi^outhOTn'pbint of tlie state, TV V MouNTAiNS.5: ^^tafi i;jdgps ofThc-^lleglJianies travei«e thSnoj'^-. western pait oC.tne iSt-^'S-pne of -these'is Ruovvn by^tfieJocalJnahMf'fff Schooley's rnouiitM.Bf'^lCeyes/Jfe=;Or Navbsmk hil6,''to'^^.^cffli ^f Sandy Ho(^, are of slight mgiatiA^ not 300 fe'etj lH^:ai% .rmp^rMjlaa being the fijst land see» ifflSpprpacKng t>few York. Tlj&Eaifeadoes &-e. a remarkabjp wall of-roekj'foj-njir^&e^Jersey ^hpre'of' ^e-^udson. \ ' __tTowNs. CTrenton^;thJe capiW|^^^,iuha&aiitj, ii\a)rt}S^itse^pf sloopJ. navi|sfcidir^thejjjelaware, whEfi ji^ig aflb^dsme^n^JTBeS^.-Nfewark, ; in 1833, 15,000 inhabitantB,Jis^aflcmnsMn^hanu^t^ng!to ' Paterson, 7,731 inhabitants,"Tias al^e^ensive' manvJfactS Brunswick, 7,831; Elizabethtown>3;i|51fRahwaXi^Q6 ; Pi-p* dentown and Burlingfon'are/theipther'75I;i3cipal'to^ifeiw,^^ > . ^ Population. In 1700, 15,000 ; 1750,' 6d;00(i^47aD, I84J^9, ing 11,423 slaves; 1800, 211,149; 1810,.24&,56S; l-820i^7'?,575; 320,823, including 18,303 free blacks, and 2,2S4^avbs.s.Ki,i Railroads. The Amboy and Camden r.r. extendfe acr^ifthe state'^ti Bordentown and down along the Delaware-td- Camden^Emiles ; the' part of the road between Bor^ntown and Camdeij.^jibt,^et-Corppleted. The Paterson and Hudson River r.r. extends^»lnPatersoff to the Hud- son opposite New York, 14 miles. The N^j^rsey r.r. e^iids from New Brunswick through Newark to the Hudsoiija\2»i;sOTi*it^r30 miles. - Canals. The Morris canal extends from JevSe^Jcli^m ffie .Hudson by Newai-k and Paterson to the Tfelaware at ghn^^B^rg^OO miles;. the principal elevations are passed by inclined 'AlaneS-^, Tnel^pelaware . and Raritan Canal Ls adapted for small sea-ves^ls, andj-eaetids from. New Brunswick on the Raritan through Trenton to BonJentoo&onJhC" Delaware, 42 miles, with a navigable feeder fr|3n B^^ifla^q>^^e!, Delaware to the main canal at Trentonf 23 mile^j, i r z- - < m Education. No provision has been made bjfia^'§( g^B^l e^aSa Ition. The ioUege of New Jersey or Nassau ifial% j|^*^noeto£, ^^n^ -N^g in cm mo, iiany i^he most westerly of the great chains,it terminates at the Western ^•ajK^ SsariBald Efegle.jC^k; beyond this are Chesnut and Laurel TSd^e^ of no great ^g^tion or extent. ' T(S^>vws.,JS^^SjS2j,31] inhabitants, is the capital. Philadelphia is Jih'e^puncipff tfi^^^fffl^jon of the city 80,458, with suburbs 167,811. 'Pitt|bui;g5jJ2,542,:q^i irtf ohant manufacturing city ; including thesub- girKL the paptllatfiiy^Sp(t°^Q,000. Other principal towns are Reading, 5,8|if JL|baifpfl;'||S5;(L*toaster, 7,704; York, 4,216; Germantown, 4,62ai ;mikesbaiS2,g^K*#")».^ 2,523 ; and Bethlehem, belonging .toltbaMDta^Ians, w9h*4'30 mhlfeants. -^ rli^ltiLATiciN. : Ph 170t)?2p|ir; "1757/200,000 ; 1790, 434,.37.3, includ- mgJpB^fiye^ BlT800,"|S2,545 jJBlO, 800,091 ; 1820, 1,049,313; in i«30U^48,23^.ip3j^^|j?;;93^rsOte|ks, and 403 slaves. ' '™ e ife)aps^rf5ni^,-egnal ideludes a series of canals and ^*- -' ^-^- tlje^statej fliejDglawai-e division, extend along ^ta-BriBtoV^I^es ; the Main Trunk, from tbp d:efe6*v i Private ^^prk^al■e itl:^ Lgdkawaxen canal, extei5fei| up tlJ waxeii'to Ho£e»dale,sft-fil1te^r^n 1738. Fornjad into a separatefe&vernment. \ '.'^—>/^ i ^- j- 1776- Captijte of a Hessian foicg at Trenton, Oecemlia(^"-i - ^^ t "■■' '--^'1y^ashiirKtonatTrenton,>Bn.3T>i»c|>*JaeSat'.Prinoe'lon53> ' ittfi comtfiouse at Freehold\Jane 2S..^,j^v-- ,. — y^ 1777.' British repulsed t]y4Vasftiijgton at Trentonjlfan. 3 ; 1778.' Battle of Monmoiilil coijrt'liouse at Freehold\Ji ^lJEHIfSYLVA I AriJa. y nasylvanpsha^^ ai-ea of om 36° 43' o |2° 16''Ni Lat.4and from Rivers. 1 IThe DelaWe i^es in the Cal and, seg^atin^Pennsytgrniirlipm New Je th^ bky-Aat etirs its n^ose. jXength of its for'liS-geShif i to PhilajftJphra^llO miles, ""- ff Me/'fil5 ijliles, andjS* b(jals 100 miles leift, iindMCest-"J€r.8e^' mjles^aending' H-iiibuntains iii New Yorl^ ' ji-adiially fe j^ds int^ r385 miles ; jiavigabll^ _ ps»to Trenton, aj. head her; i Between C^^ W^Jy pro- and !md-DelawareScaiiahT™e Irefiigh canal, fro^i the _ . ^ _ aware, u'g thejLefcghl 46i rnriies ; thejSchuylkill cah4l,frbm -';RiaaJ to Port (Qa^al^i ■"watar^ LSlS^miK^s-to :^ tp tl^|@t^que;h ■^'^, ; . , * RaJcStoads., TJie public vvtfrk4 £ r.r.. Similes, andihe Alleghan.^feoftai ,the HiieajaifaVbyfive iiiQlined p; ^ri^ate^^rlss are tl|^hilad< ^delpkia and N:Pni^wii,.^. |i-ora(tli^t glacfe |a thfe Columbia r.r. lacka- udson the Del- ,. „, , -i-^ - ;., --"• .r Jidelphia p[niles;_the Ufton cadal connfict^ the-Sghuylkill 'Avith the|]S^nsyWanla canaj atlt£e mou^of the ^Wiji^i pa'^able; feeder dovvn the Swatar-a\of 24 :a^i»«»l^fl^ni'ULaB)cast^ to the m6uth of thej^ijesto- irus caii)at extends from York down the ieii^~of canals, in- Bennsylijapia j 900 |conti^«atic«»'^ the^Lacki thg>Mai«5 CJl/i^c r.r., of 5 mil^, exteiiling i r.r.7gxt^diQg Trom-- ^ ScEpyl^ill r.f.'lTep^^l'amai a^ n^Sy sirailafpSad^'in Colunibia'"atfd Pljljidelphia r.r., from J ohnStown to Jlolidays- at the^sight of l,400ifefct above yga^/side.^ The other|;principalr- and Tfraiton r.r., 30 miles'; the Phil- tlie West Chester r.r. extending les ; the Hoijesdale and Carbon- axen_.canal to the coal mines, 16 jied' plane 9 miles ^n length, with aTmines to Lemgh canal ; Schuyl- oiEprLCij-bon, 10 miles, and Port' Clinton ^^iles ; there " e CMllVal r.r^^1q extend ;5l •< branch to^unbrfry 54,^less;sjthe Ox- ! Columbja I'j., 4B,miles''wee|f!bf'»Phil- ;k and Vir- d Cape Helilopen thffbay ^8 miles wi^e, anda|6Ve ifeis 30,m3es|--al fie latter capb a breakwater hits been erected by tfarJJnit&t §tatei^ irhd* J Lehigh and the^ Schuylkill a^e its principal tributaraas: -^T^e SipqueJiaD- na is formed Ipy the junction of two main branclils at T^rthumberfend, whence it floKs south into Chesapeake Bay. Thj N^them o% Eastern, branch rises fli©tsego county. New "York, and th^'-Western in Indiana i S)unty, Pennsylvania. Length of its course to tiigJigi^ of JDhesapealfeJ Hay, 4&0 mil^. The Juniatta is its principal tributary. \ Ttue Alleghai^y ' Aid'Monongffliela flowing into Pennsylvania froip New ginia, unite in this state to form the Ohio. ; ^ i _ Mountains. The centra] part of-the state is traversed frQi9 north by numerous ndges of the Alleghany mouD[tain§| the3l«(e Josses the Susquehanna below Harrisburg, the gchu^lkillji E^afJ^iij^, 4id the Delaware below the mouth of the Lehigh ;-^rpovi«h^e.*uc!h es^/ =cfeeds 1,000 feet in height; the Blue Mountain or Kitlatinny i*,rterced|)y^ "the Susquehanna a few miles above Harrisburg, by tihe^(diu3flkjll_ab(W^ Hamburg, and by the Delaware at what is called the Watef Bapj-yjcgfe^ Columbia; it rises in some places to the height of 1,500" feet;--the-A^i^^ ffoig^ott/vijle tg^Dartville, ior:dJii: is aprogesed j(ad| ^t^iTplja, to B^fiofe,5J'?Wl8S. i T ^ , "4,', s£j)I1catk))A No pi-^SiOn is ma(% by few fo^^onsm^ edlicqfon, a5tipn'^^3 there we^'€^4p00 children in'flie state wi^&out insfructon. ^ Tfie-uti^ersity orP^ijnsylvania in Phiiadplphia, v^th a ipiedicalicho^ ; : ^e'\Vestem university at ijttsbairg; E^cldhson college at Carlisle ; ^t- rson colleges at\3anQnsb^g, witli'a^gdical schoPl iji' Philadeljdiia ; 'Washington CBllege at|Si''ashihgtoii; Alleghany coll^^^ Mgadville ; vfay.ette jollege at E^|on ; Pennsyl jthia ebllege at Gwrtysbfirg ; 55 temiesf angSev^rall^heological Seminaries/^^at tSelJyBburai York, Al^^aay'Tow^ £n|3.ilf^tts%fi"g,-t^arelhe chief educaiioiiaJ-itilOTntions. ;. !^^crACjusI;|.. SentisjSlvania'isrtlie prinSipal manotaetBririg state fe i^UmioiK sSdp'hilkflelrfhia th^Brst mai}ufacturing''ci%^. -There are fX!^ttjS9^naffljjf^wiftsfei'tlie''sta1|6i with a w^j^ii-aff 4,000,000, produ- 'f^f ^ing;anwi^lRHl7(»lj09u|^ cff' cloth, s vdjissmihOT^LaMT thew^fem'gjbf the ir . ^eatainodOMttcapital ; kon MWlsDexteiisj J afe'^in-^P^pm-g ^ steaBi engines (5[^, " lur, srIr andic(5ttoji rfiills, ftiEfchiae' ann His 175?.- 3717= 1778. ■***■ •ijfi;or'e and coal^re. widely 'i'and- coal Snines^^raploys a eJy,waM3glft and cast. There orse pcwgr/carrying rolling,- is, &c. THq: annual vaiue of Imported, ^00,000 -tons per ii.t 1681.- fennsylvani^ranted, by Cha^gJ, ffi^^QJIiam FenQ. paddock' de'feateB ne^a^ Duguesne^Pittsb^^^^^ > ?, ""• 27^i.Ke"Briti?hiOTCuDy,.£hTkdslpmaj OcC 4>'ba£l^af.G^iiiantowB. * jomijig/% Tonefend Indians.^ 1^ ' . ^m*ufectu'feS/» $-70,0(|),QpO. T- •f DELAWARE. Area. ]|jelawMB'Ea§'a33r^^r!^W§^ua?fe'riiiie^f~'^"" JBQECIM.TION..J1LI79O, 59 .094. in cluding 8,887 slaves jin 1800. 64,273 ; 1810,72,674; 1820,72,749; 1830,76,748, comprising 3,292' slaves, ana' 15,855 free blacks. Countiea. Kent Newcastle Sussex -^^ Population. ^j 19,911 '/.' 29,710 , 1 -' County Towns. Dover 5 Newcastle I Wilmington - j-Qegrgetown Population. 4,316 2,463 6,628 ^-j 27,118 j Dover is the seat^goSimment. -I Canai and RAiL~Ro.«Bi The Chesapeake and Delaware canal i-UeS chiefly in DelawarS^ it js^SJ milesah length, and navigable to slocT ' Being 10 feet deep,Saftd dfrteet broad^ The Newcastle and- Frenchto r,r., I64 miles in lefigl^jfi^ds communication between Chesape; id Delaware bay^^ - '^^ ^\ -■ ; O - r^ , Constitution. '3'he'^nsl|tutB)n was amended in 18Sliyfi!S'^h%emy. or is chosen for t^teny of 4 J^ears; the General AssfjJSi' " ^ of a Senate of 9 ra^b^ chbsen g)r!4 years, and a Hou^e sentatives chosen fw.^ yew. The i^l^t.^ suffrage Ls confiflfed t© . . > History. 1627.^he^edfes formed here the cblgayTrfNlw Sw^,^ Mrhich in 1655 was conquered liy the Dutch. an(f«iiS'exfed5toMewvNetl erlands. etw«eij- that ra nge' and the Ohio, abd comprising the VaJ^ey, between t|d Blue Ridge and Alleglrany ' mountam and Eastern Virginia, betwesftijtejBlue Ridge, and tto sea. ,; Mountains. The Apjjalachian syst^ iTa-e exhibits the saine appeai'- ance as in Pennsylvania, stretching -thtoi^ghr the state in numerQvrs 'pa- rallel chains ; tlw Blue Ridge travej^es^Vir^ififrom south-wesLtO north- east,' a distance of 260 miles, but iSfi^ieKosd^K^ James Riverj'and by the Potomac at Harper's Feny ; tli^ Pfeaks oF Ottfej, its hig^st summits, have an elevation of 4,200 feet ; th&^lleghahjr^'jin^in extends Yrom Mon- roe county into PennsylvaniaJ^OO'mitesf'Atti^in its whote course the 'ge of the Uhio andAtlahti5'stre^ni|.lv " ^he Potoinax; rises hi theyall^ a^di flows ii^to Chesapeake .ookout^ aftel' a cour^of SODjiniles'^ it^ navigable by ship^'^f ;lje lin^ WaSlyogton, Iffl^iWfromiits modrij, and by smal- ;e^e).s tpJSeorgetpwn aVbead ofctid^^t^rec miKs fiirflier. Its prin- '^^ \s,the ^epandoah, which/Bowf through the VaUey, and has ahOntfiOOi miles. Th^ RappShSiriock ris'es on the eastern Blue ^dge, arid is.jpa3|igahle for^najl sea vessels to Frede- ^, 140~"milles. \Thff' jEgn^sRJTjS- rtse*tn the Valley, and enters !;.ghesapeake atjpid pointCpn^rt^ just aM)ve its mouth it forms the s'wjr.cdled HqJmptdn Jloads ; St^ts mflmhi is the Rip Raps, a shoal fn which an artiftciaJ-lsJaiJa lias been n]iuie',;and fortifications erected ; ^.James^ls navigefb!^ jM''Ri^niond, jthea^/bf tide, 150 mUes, for small ^.'vesselsrand 220 miles f^her fqr^ijpats. \The Appomattox, its prin- leapal teibutary, Is navigabl#l2 mil^t Jo Pe'^raburg. The Roanoke pas- p in*5l>fiDrth Carolina. Tlie prijicijial rv*r; west of the mountains is :e Great^enawha, which has a: !•■; ;> ., p n ] jT ; . ' Rail Roads andLGkif^. ■■ TM WinEhesJ* and Potomac r.r. extends from Winch^steiafb t^-^toi^aeat-HarpeiiJfe Ferry, 30 mUes, where it mggt3J,th^;B|iltii»rejmid!Qhio ly^ The matchester r.r. is 13 miles in IengtK^frbmWanch^sterjsbpqsit§'Rii5l|«Dna^pcoalji»ines. The Peters- Jiurg and ■■Roanoke r.e extMi^ to W -a cpritiBuatiori througli Richmond tai -in Contemplation. i^Tlfe Pojjsinbi^h ^Suffolk, 17 miles." DiSmal SwaiKp;<;i -neets-the waters of,the Ohes^eSl^'e ' The James River canal extends froi Tilue Ridge canal, 7 miles ifl 161?^ igatjoh of James River Uitothe -V tioii is a ser?es of ctits, locks and sluices, w. Defpofiit^oJPhil^delphia,- 118 tvalue of jniports into ^ttpOiOOO. The manufactures fer,Tand-4i'0H ; flour is the f-floiu' markets in the flrsf-l ed. Oxford r.r., fi-om Baltimore miles, has been commenced. ' Commerce and Manufacture!! Maryland is about $ 4,600,000 ; of e: ?tre extensive, comprismg wooUeUj^i staple of Maryland, and Baltimore is^on^ ejPl world. - '-^U^ ^ - .^ ' < Education. The state has a iEfi^of sSbpst :il50,00i0, whichj with the proceeds of some taxes, is approftei^^toaid^n suppgrting the primary schools, academies and colleges. ^. JohB',^ college^ at Annapolis ; tfie University of Maryland at Baltimore, of vfhich only~th"e law and medi- tal departments are m operation; St. Ma^r'jjl^^tholtc) college, m.sjgiltin more, and Mount St. Mary's college^i^'Fi^edep^Qbuntyjai-etliem&i^p^ institutions for education. . t) Va|- ': "^ '"' '_ - • i;^ ^'*.^.; ; Constitution. The General A^seiably c'ohsists of a SenateTchoseiS for the term of five years, by electorsichosen byithe people^ «nd a Hot^e- of Delegates, chosen,annually by t^e'gef/pIS^^^h^ Gfo^MBo^TsliQsda. annually by the Houses, and thefejMiantjg^miTC-cquMi ele|£ed_in*ffie same manner. The right of suffra^ is^feS-icted' to wH6s. ^ij^ ^,^^^ History. 1632. Maryland granted, to Lord Baltimore. '43^- \_'V 12th. Battle of Bladensburg, A4^.^&^-ba|ffi:n.earJ!9,^li ■t^ North Carolina, 60 mUes, cksburg to the Potomac, is oJBoke^r. is completed to , ,ly in Wbrth Carolina, cpn- ' Mbermarle sound, 22^ miles. moiid, 30 J miles ; with this, the Hn^ other short cuts, the nav- Tected. The Roanoke naviga- in(lerins*the river na-vigable from Weldon in NiJith Ca^bMna to Salem^fii\he Valley, 244 miles, Educa^^owj ProvisionigmsSieiByl^lfjft- the appointment of school commissijinerp in tjie several coiintfes'aHd-^-vvns, who are authorised to creaffe,sclioDl-vijfetricts.| to each diSfcictrtfiM builds'^ school house and suppprts a ipachef, assistance is giverl'by thajstate. There are about 55 academies in^^^e State.- The higheif- educational institutions are the Uni- versity oPVirginai£l1rCha!dx)ttesVille;'Ae|C((llege agWilliam and Mary at"WMiainsburgf jjWashiiJgtoa college m Lexington, Bockbridge county ; Harnpd^B-Sidr^^coUege in PrLace Edvy^d county ; Randplph-Macon college at Bpydtpn,l\Iecklentiurg countyi-Mie-Union theological Semina- ry, in Priiice Ed"^ra county; Ihfe Episcopal Theological Seminary, near Alexandiia,and the \tii-gioia, Baptist Senlii\aiy near Richmond. Constitution. The-coristitution, as rejTsed in 1830, vests the legis- lative authority in the$}eneral. Asseriij51y,~icomposedof A Senate, chosen for four years, and a House of Delegates'chosen annually; the Governor . and Council are chosgn by the Xxeij^al Assembly for the term pf three ^years. In electicipsvpfi^tae given Wa^Pce)«nH--the right ef suffrage is r^Bstricted to wJftes.(r*;'-^>Vjv , ..'i? .History. •1607,'tli|'fct|Mfcient Engli^'seljflement made at Jamestown. ., 1620. First slaves brbugnt inrd^li^ countFy'by a '"Dutch vessel. -, -1622. - M-Hssaore of the colonists by the Indians, followed- by a long war. >.11624.' Th^^halfe^ of the Virginia company yacated, and Virginia becomes a , ro5^1 coIbiA,"!',";': i _i63§.5 The Virginians seize the r(^al^Qvernor and send him home. :lD76r^!Bacop's rebellion. . ^V''' ''*'v ■' --^ '1754; Virginia troops sent againAifli^P«&^li;on the Ohio, under CoL Wash- ington-. 1781. Corn^Ilfs^ DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA. Akea. The district of Columbia consists of a tract 10 miles square, l^ng on both 'sides of the Potomac, and ceded by the States of Virginia a d Maryland, to the Federal Government ; surface lOOTfequare miles. Ii became tjie seat of government, in 1800, and is under the immediate g ivemment of (i)ngress. The capitol at Washington is in Lat. 38? 53', a id Lon. 77° 1' 48" west \ I •- Population/ In 1800, 14,093; 1810, 24,023; 1820, 33,039; '1830, 3^,834, iilcludirig^ 6,152 free blacks, and 6,119 slaves. i ' , Towns. The district contains 2 counties, Alexandria and Washing- t|n, and -3 towns, Washington, vyith 1^827 inhabitants, Georgcitown, i441, and Alexandria, 8,263. \ Washirigttin, on the left bank of the Potomac, vyhich is here navigable ships ot t^e line, is regularly laid out over a large extent of ground, tliough but a small part of it has yet been built upon. Streets running lorth and go|ith are crossed by others running east and west, and aven- ' s, called^'^ora'" the states of the union, traverse these rectangular jivisions diagonally ; the principal avenues and streets are fr6m 120 to "0 feet wide,' aik^ the others from 70 to 110. Washingtoi) is th^residence of the President of the United States, of e chief exectitive\oiBcers, and of tjie foreign diplomatic corps. The 'ederal Congr^s mei^ts^here annually on tlie first Monday of December, d the Supreme Court ojP the United States on the 2d Monday of Januaiy. On the east of the city'is ,the Anacostia or Eastern Branch, on which the Navy yard ; Rock cVeek separates it fi'om Gedrgetown and the otomac, vthich is crossed ISy-a bridge of more than k mile in length, rom Alexapdii^ ■. ■! The capitol, built of free stone, painted white, and of the Corinthian rder, consists of a centre and' two wings, being 350 feet loilg, and 120 jet high, to I the top^of .the central dome ; the depth of the wings is 121 eet, height^O feet ', ' '.'-, \ Under theCcentraldome is the "rotunda, 90 feet in diameter, and as nany in height; it is ornamented ^ith four_reIievos, representing the~ anding at Plymouth, the treaty between Penn^nd ^he Indians, the prfe- lervation of S^ith by.Ppfcahdntas, and the adventure-ofBoon^ with twfo hdians, and 4^paintings executed by Trumbull, represent^r^Th^ declara- on of Independence, the s^rrgnder of Burgoynq, the surrender of lomwallis, and Washington's resignation 9f his qommisf^ion as command- r in chief. Here js tg,be-5laced' the colossal -Statue of \Vaahington now process pf.execution by Greenough. '• ' - ' ' ^ ■ - • . Adjoining the Rotunda on th^ west is the library of Congress, obnsist-J ingoYflbout 16,000 volumes, in ahall 92 feetio~i!(gj..34 wide, and 36 hjgh. (On the Tiorth, in the north wing is the Senatfe cba^'be^, a semicirple 74 ; leet in length, by 42 in height, containing Peale'siportraij.of Washington ; peoeath the^Senate chamber is the hall of thejSupreme Court ; in the - louth wii^ is' the Representatives chamber,-* liiagnificenft-semiciicular hall, 95 feet long, and.60-high, the dome of which is supported -by 26 columns and^lJilasfers of pohshed breccia. ' v. v • ^ .- Opposite the east "front is capitol square, eontainiBg^2'acre's, and in the area on the west front is. a naval monument erected to the liiemoi-y of the naval officers who fell at "Tripoli in 1804. ' "The President's House, stands about 14 mile west of the capitol, from which'^ennsylvania Avenue leads directly to it ; it is 2 stories high, with a basement, 180 feet long and 85 wide, and is built of freestone, painted white. In the vicinity are 4 brick buildings containing the offices of the prin- ■^i;ipa^.e!l^cuHve departments. \^ ^ V Distances from Washington. S. Fredericksburg Philadelphia New York ^ New Haven I 77 Bo^n I 132 209 Borj^ajid | H8 25Q 327 N, Baltimore 99 189 266 398 516 Halifax Quebec Montreal Detroit Cincinnati Lexington 90 167 299 ^17 Richmond Petersburg 142 { Raleigh 407 265 I Charleston 512 370 105 I Savannah Louisville Nashville St. Louis Natchez New Orleans Mobile Natchitoches 617 727 856 1268 1260 1086 1448 Executive Departments. Department or State. This department was created in 1789, P^CT-iously to which it belonged to the department of foreign aflfairs. The SeSnetary of State, conducts negotiations with foreign powers, corres- pond> with the ministefs at foreign courts, and with foreign ministers to thelteed States, and, also performs the duties of the Home Department, has the Charge of the/ seal of the United States, is entrusted with thte pub- lication of the laws, and tijeaties, has control of thfe Patent Office, &c. 2. Treasury Department^ The office of Seciretary of the Treasury was qreated in 1789 ; it Is divided into the offices of the secretary, 2 con- trollei-^^auditorsi a register, a treasurer and" a solicitor, each with the re-i quisite number of clerks. The General Land Office is a subordinate branch; of the treasury department. 3^WAb.^epartment. The office of a'Secretary at War was created in 1781, andTt|ie department was org&nized under the present constitution in 1789, and;at f])"8t indluded the superintendence qf naval affairs. At- tached ,to the war departcqent are a requisition bureau, a bounty land bureaVi,^j)ensign bureau, an office of Indian affairs, an engineer Office, a topogAphica^; office, an ordila'nce office, and offices foir thesubsistence de- partment, the pay department, medical departmeMtJ and clothmg depart- ' ftient, which, with the hedd-quarters of the general in chief, and the offices of the Eidjj^utant genial, and quarter master general, are at Washington. ~4._-THE,NAVTrDEPARTME'NT"W£(s created 1798; the Secretary of the Navy issues all orders, to the navy of the United States, and controls thff concerns of the naval establishment in general. ^ '*w- r" 5.. The GENEkAL Post Office is imder the -superintendence of the - Postmaster Genei/al, who has the appoititment of all postmasters through- out the country, &c. The length of the-postjoads in the United States is 120,00OTni]es; annual amount of transportation5f4he mail 20,000,000 miles; amount of postage received $ 2,500,0001 humberof post offices 10,000. '.• . ,' ^ V.^ SUCCESSIVE ADMINISTRATIONS. ! '^ Presidents. Secretaries of State. Washington. -1-789—1797. Jefferson '89-94 J. Adams. 1797-1801. Jefferson. 1801-1809. jenerson oif-ttt v.™ pi„i.p_;__ E. Randolph '94-95 n^M^hSl 1800 ^^'^'^°'» J. Pickerinff '95-97 < •'• ™^>^nai» ^«"" Secretaries of the Treasury. I Secretaries at War. J Secretaries I of the Navy. Vice Presi- dents. Attorneys J Generd. J ( J. Pickermg '95-97 < Hamilton 1789-55 } O. Wolcott '95-97 C Knox '89^95 ^ T.Pickering '95-96 ( Mc Henry '96-97 Madison. ! 1809-1817. I ;.R. Smith 1809-11 • J. Monroe 1811-17 Monroe./ 1817-1825. J. Q. Adams. 1825-1829. J. Q^Aflams H. Clay S. Dexter Gallatin 1802-09 ; Mc Henry 97-1800 < S. Dexter 1800-01 -{I. Dearborn ' R. Griswold 1801 J. Adams i- \ •- ' Randolph Bradford B. Stoddert 1798-1801 Jefferson Lee \, B. Stoddert 1801-2 R. Smith 1802-09 A. Burr G. Clinton '■ [ Lincoln [ Breckenridge ' Rodney C Gallatin 1814 ■? Campbell 1814 ( Dallas 1814-17 rW.Eustis 1809-13 J J. Armstrong '13-14 ] J. Monroe '14-15 tW.H. Crawford '15-17 ( Hamilton 1809-13 ( < Jones '13-14 J ( Crowninshield '14-17 ( J G. Clinton I E. Gerry C Rodney < Pinkney (Rush Crawford J. C. Calhoun Rush Barbour '25-28 Porter Jackson. 'VanBuren ^Livingston Mc Lane Forsyth ' Ingham Mc Lane Duane Taney Woodbury Eaidri'-' •■■' Cass Crowninshield Thompson '1^23 Southard Southard '23-25 Tompkins Calhoun i Rush • Wirt JUDICIARY. Jay, 1789-1795. Chief Justices of the Supreme Court of the United States. Gushing, 1796. Elsworth, 1796-1800. Wirt Marshal), 1801. C' Branch •? Woodbury ( Dickerson S Calhoun' I Van Bmen f Berrien < Taney C Butler Ma iii NORTJI OARGtINA. , Area. North Carolina, exteii(fing from 33° 50;,to)36° SC N. ITat. haST an area of 50,000 square miles, of whiclT nearly one half is an alIuY|al plain. ■ : ■ ' , ,i r : - s ^ /; ,' PoPDLATioN. In 1700, 5,000; 1750, 4^,000 ;1790, 393,95r, dMnpris- ing 100,571 slaves; 1800, 478;i03 ; iajO|*555,500; 1820,'638,839|pi830,. 737,987, including 19,543free black^ and 243,^01 slaves.;, , ,^^^1 Rivers and Bays. The whole coast of North Carolina is bordered by'ai ^ seriesof low, narrow sand banks, which towards the south are pierced by, numerous ihlets, but towards the north,are up^roken'.' Currituck banks, formerly Currituck island, about 30 miles in leiigth, the inler of "£he same name being now closed ; Hatteras banks, 65 miles, between New and ' Ocracoke Inlets, and the salifnt point of which, forms the windyxape Hatteras ; Core island, 20 miles in leugtiij of iwhich Cape Lookout is the southern point, and Smith's island, ofj which Cape Fear is the southern point, are the princip&l. These batiks ejtelose a number of shallow giilfe,- such as Currituck Sound, 50 mileg-iu.fen^h by ten in breadth ; Albeinai'Ie Sound, 60 miles by S-ininean breadth, aiid Pamlico Sound, 70 miles 4ii\ length by from 8 to 30 in breadth, into which the broad egtuaries of the sluggish rivers expariS._ ^he Roanoke, with a cours^. of about 400 miles ; the Tar orTamlifco ;"the Neuse, which has a course of ^50 mile's^'and is -navigable fqr sea vessels, 12 rniles a^Sve Newbern, and')3ie Cape Fear " River are.the principal streams, . Jav^,i ,- -^ ;,, - Towns. ■ Raleigh," the capital, has a population "of XTM.i Tje prin- cipal towns are Newborn,' 3,776' inhabitants; J^&yettfeViBVSjSeS'; Wil" mington^ 3,000 ; TJdftiStbn, and Salisbpry^v. Beaufort Tis~&liesQ£'the best* harbors in the state, being deep and safe. -^. C : -^ Canals. The, Dismal 'Bwarap canal is pamysin-tlMS state;;aad in Virginia ; the~ northwest canal, 6 mijes in lengfi). is a bi-anc&o'^his work. Weldon-GanajTpasBeg round j^Us in the;-Roan^{e, 12 niiles. 1 Proddctio.ns.^ The most .,in!ipoi*{ant tninekd opductioh is go. , which is f&]ind fro^ the^Pq^mac to}Alabarna,^«»ig the east of the ..Blue Ridge ;' in the counties of Bilrke and, R^thenbrilt is obtained ijorg. washings ; in^Mecklenburg, ftpwan)pavid^n,and CabaiTus,are tfiemost important mines. • Thp' ampunt received>-at-fliig_mint fi|om NortK.Cajaa- lina,,Hfrom It^ to 1832.iilclusive^ was .$1,199,000, and it^ supposed tH^jt.. about one half of the actual produce is otherwise 'msppspd- of. Amomjilx received at^the mintjiiJ18£l8,.$475,'00p. . ' v^-,! .The eastern sec,tioi^pf-ilje\atale-ia. covered with vast'ifbreats of pitch pine orlongsleaved pine (pious palustris) ; which extend from the Chesa- • ^ake through the Cai:olittas, 'Georgia andTldri^. They affortl valuable ship-tjniberytfir, pitch and-furpenftlie, constituting^oub?ne-liJtlf 'i{ivalue of the eifftirts of this state^ "".;.. ^""V. .^ - ■ CoNSTiTOTioJif.., The '^vernor is .chosen annually by the legislature.' ,/The Geiiet'al A^serti^lyconsists of a Senate,and House of Cpminons chi -rsen annually by-tiie pJopterlThei-ight cj suffrage isrestricfedvto Whitei -and for senat®rgfirewolders-only can vote. , ■ . ■ ^ '^ j His^TORY. r 1585. - TBofirst'lEtrglisfrecfeiiy i^ America, planted'hy 1650. The flret-perriian^nt settleihents abdut this time,'twhen this tr^ct formed part wfEarolinE^.-" _ ,[ '' ^w->v. S ^v 1727. North Carolina becomes a distinct colony!' -»A, r- SOUTH CAR.aLINA. .^--^ Area. This state, eytehdjifg ftom_32°:to,35° 1 0'-N. Lapi^'and- from 78° 45' to 83° 20' W. Lon., liasin area of teOOO square rnUfl^, '■■ Rivers. The principatrivers are i^^IuIdw tojvards their mouths, and the sea coast contains no deep harbor, aramnting the larg&t ships. The Great Pedee, called the Yadkin in North Cafcwia, flows jolo Winyaw Bay. The Santee is formed by >the junction of fKfe Qongaree and the Wateree, in the upper part of its course called the Catawba.' Divisions and Tqwi^s. South Carplinais subdivided into 29 districts, answering to the counties of the ojher States. ^. . The capital is Columbia, 3,310>inhabitants. Charleston, the principal tovm, has 30,289 inhabitants. Georgetown on Winyaw Bay, and Camden on the Wateiieej are places of considerable, trade. Population. In 1700,7,000; in 1790, 249,073 including 107,094 slaves ; 1800, 345,591 ; 1810, 415,ll5 ; 1820, 581,458 ; 1830, 315,401 .slaves, 257,863 free whites, and 7,921 free blacks, in all 581,185. ' Canals and Railroads.' The Santee Canal, 22 miles in length, con- nects the Santee with'the Cooper's River, which enters the sea at Charles- ton harbor. The 'Wiiiyaw canal connects the Santee with Winyaw Bay, 10 mUgsl' Cdlumbia, Camden, and-other canals, have been constructed round the falls of the Saluda, Wateree, Pedee and^Broad Rivers. The Charleston and Hamburg r.KV completed in 1833, terminates at the river Savannah, opposite Augusta; 135J miles in length. CoMMERcjE. .-The valucjof imp'orfe into Soutiti Carolina, for 1832, was 11,213,725 ;- of expbrts, $ 7,752,781. The annual cotton crop of this state Rice also furnishes an important article of n is about 200,000 bales. export. ^ .EpucjjTidw,^The-state,hasprovided;.^ estffblishnt^nt and siip- porij of ffee schp^.;-^ lg^(lliMfiJf^bkv3f^cg3ois'^es8 with 8,390 scholars. Thei^evaj:e]4P'^sSjii^^ \^ , 1695!' IlicefintrbdjiSfidiftto,C!aro]ind» -^1719. The peopjS^ffi^TOjjff tiiS p> iKoHigglyes uhder.^the protectign4>C,tlie crowi^. .1776. ySu- Peter "ParkOT repiil^d in an.Stfaclj; upon Sullivan's, island, 6'iniles b^dwiJChafleston,-^^.\ -.; ^■. \ '"^-^--'^^^4^^-^---'— ' 1778. Tnie^ril&tobligffl'tD retto from.before-Chariestsn. L ^80.'' Ctelest'oilSxaptur^i by/SitH. 6iinltonj AugustlMJ^ gattle of ptemde^ ; Oe^obei(?^bWttfe-oi3tKihg^ MouhteW iri.NJprth Cai-olina. IVm. feattle ,df G«(w{5gnlsJ[d/uary; 17 .^MJuildftrdjiMarch 15 ; of Camdea,^i'il';25Aof'05tt»W..gM?S%""'^^ 1788. C^ttDn'inwaducfeclmta^qautn^ EEA.; (Geo'rj W.T jfERsJj The^ ' 2_ smal 150 miles ,Ala!tamaha, fo'rmet ^jifeet of vvater on' its l^acon! ~' lies-betvvfei i<3r^CKiHd 35° N..:^at.,'afa ' - na of 'e^DQO sg'asire'ihilfo. ^ ij. i navj|;&6?^for WgeLWS90K'TO'Sa''^an- to ; Augasta,r2§0 milesJ'juicl'ibrVboats r^^pburse of about 20Qmifes.' The >cli^ wUie Oconee' and^citfulge'e, ^as 14 ,)nd'to Mill^gevillej;312rmiles, and to , The^C^attahoc^ee flbtij Flint^ unite in Flpridaf to -Ibrm the cMc^iJ the £iHa:ieSr|iS navigable: for steamboats fc Qolumbus, .'ipilesi '"^ >o'pnLArii)lt.'S^rmed by/jhe imiSnof the Coosa,-r^ing in Tennessee, and tlie T&lafe)sa rising in Georgia, and receives th4£l»liaj(fc„ ba. The Tombeckhse^r^reijAigbee rises in Mississippi, and rec^v^s the Tuscaloosa or BJafik WM■rior^S^he^Tpmbec^^i€e'is navigated fejfste^- boats Jo Col!;iBibus^iji-Mississippi ; tRe^ Black Warrior to, Tuscaloosa the-Coo5a~isTiavigable to-Jliei&rtr^-JSOtmKs from the, mouth of" theT^li ba^S^^Smyi'Bea-vessels^ ascend to Glaibome on the Alabama, reastermboundaiy-^f Ali^aiBfiy TlTe Conecuh passes' into Flbja^a under the narA^ of Escambia;', -: ' r The TiMmessee rttBS.,jMfh a cii'oular srfeep thj^i^h-^the northern; 'part of the st!tte. — its-ja,awatie)H-ig.iiiteiTurt^ar^y^the STuscle Slioalsj^ ' where the river spreads MltJ&om' one to .>ffl'ree mifes'inr width, with a % the^fi^s; "rocky bottom, and is so shallofflfptha^St cafl^be passed- By boats only dur^ > ling the floods. ^„_^^J^_>-/C>' > ^-J.-T~' ''"' Bay. jMobil^iBay , jEe estuaoy of the riv^r of the gamedaaaie, is stjaout 30 miles long, by fromiS'^tiAo wide, and' the bai- tft the qiiin entrance,, has from 16 to 20 feet ivater. It,--60mmuflicates/thr&ugii Heron Tass^ with Piiscagoula Soupd, affordin^anfinteri<5i?-;Watter cOroiminicaiioti ft>l- '■&amboats. and~smaM sea-vessels; vrith New gleans, ^yihe Kig^vs, - LakeT'ontcharti'ain, and Bayou St. John's. Anchorage in'tiSid, sand^id, ■ ^ells, can be found any where in this chkm of lagoons a!pi&trwte^¥^/ ^ Soil and Surface. The northern half of the state^fr^^^'^hiEy;' and down ,the southern slope descend tKe<;opffluent sBeams'Jof^'e.Mo- bile' basin "inta .die low, level, sapdy distncts oif the sc>uifi,^YhicK-^^ covered with pme and cypress. The nojthempaft, includiiigtlie Ten- nessee valley, is thMnost fertile, pleasingly, diviet-siiiecl andpopulous. _ '• PR0Duc.Ti^SS?il&ip; Cotton is'the staple 'prot&ctj and is ra4se'dJ in great quantities, the anBuSi crop'^aiiiouivting tb''abdnt_20(>,tD00J bijgs. Sugar-cane is cultivated jh the- soutli^H->djstricf^rand a^feat ijeal^f maize ispfoduced. The products ofjthe' n&Jtlten pariy^spmble tB^e 'of'Teijnesse&. The Ipiig-moss .i-egWEnDegiriSa'litfleb^oV 33^ thenjijss, which isjBuCh used for inaloiig'mattresse^, han^«t long .fest^ns from iBi(Si^s,3giving;the Jjrestsa som6rejlppesi'anc.e^^Pi^an^udAfalue ofv, \the,exi)orts is^about'S 2,800,000. - - ^•'•'n^tp-^ '-•-?■'- ^ iKtcPraATioN.' In 1810;~:nearly •'1 Pascagoula'Soujaalhiis a dSptiff of.fifOm jd>^[g feet, but its entrances, ;^allad. Passe% frouij^the FrenchftPas^.a sftait'amrSjJoJji.sfe feet of water. 3t is "separates fi;oijj the Gplf|of Mexic0 %y a..e^'%V)Jj,^IoW, narJow Islapcfe of sand,'1iiiitl,"c^muBi^ing with Mobile 'Bay ,P!(JP^s Heion, Smd With'I:j^k^.BorgneDV--5assndrPR6DucTio«Sr^^'^6hinJ?^e's(^4S^thinK^4^'iliJpto T5ut there i?a great.deal^rfS^Je^f^. s-lV? acom^on' fruits &f^^ npeach and the fig ; cotton is the'hiogt'iifl^Jy^n^'sfei^caltuial .proa^ Jtedi^and tolifcCp "alStlte^^^butt^g^fi^itioft^^ein ial^^^ to. i^s^the frosts'are more or -Jess-5^^^the.,8ugaiyctoe"an(l. orange tto^""Silyjuithe exti^eiHe south. ^f-Jj^eSh^gsit^s in gwiial Bealtlftl but HswoDs com{^afetsia;e,^omtooiialong tKfe'waterlJ^jjfB^si^ -'ii<^w'*l. JPffptDCoyrl&.i; The popul^ioirpf Mi^is^i^iJTj'errira^^Bi^'iBau- vh^dld-3»i|^jfeseit:stfttoiofl^la%inaWd^^^ in ISOOi^we^E^'''! '" ^ief40,352|;in]820, of Mississippi iy:dn4^-j:§^,^8iin 183^^,621, incfiiding 65,659..slaves, ajid 519 free ofefskar^T^^j'^^p-^v^^ .5' \. '""oT\0fs. Thec^pital % Jackson, a sji%ll tewiron P«ar£R«jdv The al town ui"t& stat^B^^tchez ;(iJ,T^£^5b~po|ri^ionioL2^-^) a^d seat of .■BCMisid^aple'feoparterciaJ op^ationa.",. HatsJieacJrasmade ■if,gjlWy)n ^i4.1r-W^^ille25QPH»*^«afii^idi^,rict cotton w^^^^o,^SV3X^SiS^S:»A'^l'^^lig''hfe ^^all Jjut thriying Ns;' The whofe jiifii : &ippViii 1830, was aboft't ""' ■ an4rthe remainder ChjofejijaXys. , Tfiey are JUadCj Bome,jM}\aij65sr In -3ixi.U2iaticm< partici treS^^jisa^jnade -with the^Ciioctays,^,^^^! e Jiaijts^^VIissis- ^MerfefJBnoctaws. Have Si'eR;a^^e^tsS'-*en|ove to tfietracjJietweeiilithe'Canadian^^a Sfe^l^rivers,"bealng'ttheir' lands 'eJsfsill^ljeMississjppi to the United-g|^t^^;>Q§^fSfe^5^000k>f,^em re- 18g$:xJt^fe^; their^iejMyal'Vo the to rejc^isMhe) /vVpcfle ^3*dand m By ttoyed, ^d the remainder foUqwed al£i beett^^YnSde with the ChickSi nle.regibr^; by this trea^ the ^•j^aeeds of |he sale of tHeii' lan^gj thbUjnited''S^tes. -cr^'^~^> ItijRbADs' agd Canal s; The 'Wg&dyille r-rr-KStSends from that town lUf^t. Fipji^cisvUle. in Louisiana, 2^^tm[es. Ariofflfer railroad has been *-^^6ted.oeteen Vi8ksburg'6n^^Mifisi|sipprS^ Clintoiv ; iN^TiTDTioN,, By the constitution, fas itjwas amended in 1832 t^e feinot' is chosen by the people forthe term of two years, and the leg- ^tive Body, styled the Legislature of Mississippi, consists of a SenaJ* and a Ho'use of Representatives. The latter is;chosen for the term^f tvPQffea*?, the former for foui-'years^'TWj^J^eial officers are also eleb- tedfEylj^^people for terms of yepl-s, varying^om two to six, ancB fbe ■cwHSfitjuiOn provides, that no pffiee sTt^l be-hdfl for life, or during good ''bghfivibrS The ridit .of" suffrage 4 restiictea|it4^vhites. T ^IisTORT. In J7l^ the Fi;enc , J^ country of the Natchez, Ba£,jjie nativesj m 1729, mas- vvioih they treated wjth.so ihueh ci-uSq sacred the French colony. ^'^'"^~y< /' ^d763. This counti^ was cededj&-England^ part of Florida. iSbO. The western pait of Georgia was fotaied into a separate ter- -1816. Tho^wSwffln-j^artjjfJMi^issippi Territiory erected into an inde- p^dept state, and admitted iiu9-tee.-->^ I - ' .-LOUXSIANA^. -- -i -- i Area. This state extends from 29° to 33° N. Lat., and from 89° to, 94° 25' W. Lon., having a length of about 260 mi1es,.,an a'rea of 48,Ef20 square miles, and a coast of about 400 miles on the gujf of Mexico. Surface. No part of Louisiana has any considerable elevation above the sea ; the northern part is somevyhat hilly, and is in a great measure > covered with pine forests, with some oak, elm, locust,, and cypress, on th^ wtater courses. ! The southern part, West of the Mississippi, is almost wholly composed of marshes flooded by the sea, and of prairies. The Atchafalaya being the highest mouth of the Mississippi, the whole country between the former river on the west and the Amite, lake Maurepas, and lake" Pontchartrain on the east, about 220 miles in length, varying tfom 10 to 1 100 in breadth, and having an area of about 12,000 square miles, may be_ considered as the Delta of the Mississippi, of which the greater portfen^ isjdaily flooded by the tides, or annually by the rivers. ^y rRivERs. The Mississippi forms the boundary in part betweeaXouis- iana and Mississippi, but has a course of about 335 miles wholly inHhis state ; it begins to rise in this part of its course in the beginning of March, and continues to rise till the end of June, when its waters subsidy ; at Baton Rouge the medium rise is 30 feet, at New Orleans 12. Below Red River it gives out, at certain seasons, portions of its waters by ^the Afchafalaya, Lafourche, and Plaquemine on the western side, and by the Iberville on the eastern. The Red River is its principal tributary in Louisiana ; rising in the mountains of Mexico, this great stream forms for some distance ^the ' boundary between the United States and the Mexican States, and pass- ing through Arkansaw Territory into Louisiana, entera the Mississippi, after a course of about 1,800 miles ; above Natchitoches, about 200 miles from its mouth, its navigation is obstructed by what is called the Raft, consisting of an immense accumulation of drifl: wood, which quite dams up the river channel; steamboats have lately been employed by the federal government in removing this obstruction, and 75 miles of the bed have already been cleared ; about 60 miles of the raft are still to be re-_ moved. The WacHita! a largej stream^iSnters Jled River from Arkansaw." jThe river Sabine, wniclThere forms the boundary between the United States and the Me:^£ua States, the,-palcnsi^, the Mei-mentou, and. the Vermillion, expand ibefore-reatmiig-the-s^a into shallow lagoons. The Atchafalaya also expands in the same manner, but its estuary has~a ■grpater depth. jLagoons. Along the coast are a number of shallow sheets of water, improperly called bays or lakes ; such are lakes Borgne, Pontchartrain, arid Maurepas; Pass Christian irpni Pascagoula Bay, and Pass Marian from the Gulf of 'Mex ico, are'theenu-ances into the_first-mentioned, whence tKeTRigolets and Chef Menteur lead into lake Pontchartrain ; they have from 16 to 18 feet of water, but are shallow along shore. The series of lakes and bays between the Mississippi and the Sabine, are of a similar character. 1 PopOLATioN. ■ In 1763 the French colony of Louisiana had a population of about 12,000 souls ; the territory of Orleans in . 1810, 76,556; the state of Louisiana in 1820, 153,407 ;',in 1830, 215,739," including 109,588 slaves, and 16,710.freej3j9cks^ '' Divisions and Towns. The subdivisions of Louisiana, coiTCspond- ing to the counties of the other states,^e cfll)^d.p/i?ishes. - The capital and principal cityj^lNew Orleans, on the eastern bank of" the Mississippi, 105 miles from3» mouth ; population 46,300i The other towns are smallr'BatoDTlouge and St.Francisville, on the east of the Mississippi, and Dnnal^'sonville and Iberville, on the western bank; Alexandria and Natch)toch^,'Qn ;the Red River, and Jackfeon, Covington, and.0p"elousas, are the principal. ' " 'v' ' Canals and'RAiLROAos.; JTheAVest Feliciana rr. extMds_jrojnJi!e Miksissippi near St. Frahcisyille to Woodville in Mississippi,- 28 milesj. Lake Pontchartrain rr. extends from New Orleans to lake^ontchartrain, 44 miles. Carondelet canal is a short cut; admitting. smair,sea vessels from lake.'Pontchartrain into ahasin.inthe rear of New Orleans. The New Orleans and Teche. canal;; from" ^that city to' the'- Atchafalaya, near" the mouth of the Teche, is about" 100 miles in-length. ■ '"'-^' ^ Productions and Commerce. Sugar and^ 'rice are fhe staples of the ' southern portionof the state. , NCgtton, maize, tobacco, .and'indigo thrive in every, part ; the, peach, flg, and m-ahge ai^e th^-.most "common fruits-t'' New Orleans is the great mart of (thcL western states.'"^ -The value of the exports from- Louisiana on ^32, was, |.1.6,530,930,'of which |fl4jl05,l]8 was in ddmestio prqdiLce-; imports, 48,871,6S3:i- The sugar crop in 1828 was 18,878 hogsheads of 1,000 pqunds each. The yearly inspe'ction oi^ flour at New Oifleans is a^out 360,000 barrels ; export of cotton, 360,000 to 400,000 bales. ' - -; : ' . j. Government. The General Assembly consists of Jwi^holises, the Senate, chosen for the term of four years, and the House of Representa- Jtives for-twa.- The.govemor is chosen by the-peoptefor-the'term of four-" years. The right of suffrage is restricted to whites. /' History. Louisiana was so called by the French, who gave the name to a vast and ind^nite, extent of pountry, and; settled colonies here in 1699. r^ ' ' ," In 1763 it waspeded to Spain, but restored to France in 1800, and in 1803 it was piirc^se^ by the . United States-for th.e sum of 60 million francs. / : ^-' . -. ,. In 1804 the Louisiana- purchase was divided into .the. Territory of Mississippi north of Lat. 31-°, arid the_Tpgitpry .o£ OrJ^AS, south of the same. ~,^ ': '■ ' , » '' ' ' ' ' 1812. Theaatter Territory adfriitted into.the Union under the name of the^ate df/liijfiisiana. - .^ :1815. January '8th,^ the British defeated in an attack upon, New QiJbans., ; j ,j ;i /. t ' -' ARKANSAW "^ETllllT OR Y../' ^ . .1 / 1 1 -. >.' ; " ,, Area. Arkansawhies. between 33° and 36° 30' N. Lat, and between 89° 44''and 94° 30' W. Lon., having an area of 54,860 sgtfare miles.-^-Qn the west it is bounded ;by the Indian District, ormact to wjiich the Indian trijDes have been reinov,ed frprii VE^ribus sectiqn^ipf the Uhi^d States. Rivers. The Arkarisaw isahe great river of this Territory ; it rises in the Rocky Mountaius, and has a coursfe rff &bout 2,300 irules, mostly through tin wooded pjairis, of which a considerable portion^ tlj^Boil is saridy and sterile.. The White. Riyer and St. Francis Riveiv'flowing-into the Mississippi, and the Red River, which passes jgto Louisi^a, are the other principal streams. Mi^ch-of.jbe eastern "part of the T|rritoi-y is liable to inundations,, and those of the Arkansaw s sometinjesj produce great devastations, by dei^ositipg sand upon, the;inundated tracts, i ' Soil and Productions. Some of ihesoil of Arkansaw/Territory is unproductive, partaking o'f the character of the great sandy tract, which lies between the Rocky Mountains and the Mississippi ; but there are large districts of extremely fertile soil, potton can be cultivated ■ to advantage in the sou^h, but the climate of the northerii and" western parts is adapted to^thel cereal' grains. { " _ , Population and Divisions. Arkaijsaw Vasj'erected into, a separate Territory in 1819, and in ISSO-contained 1^0,388 inhaljitants, of whom 4,576 were slaves. , It is divide'd into'^ c^tintieSj^nii 'contains no consf derable tovra. - (' ^ " -' ' r^F- \^ " ^^ counties. Ai^ansaw, Clarke, Cop way, ■ Chjcot, Crawford, Grittenden, ;Hemps^d, Jlotspring, Independence, Izard, ' Jackson, JeffeTson, Lafayette, Lavreence,^ Miller; Monroe, ■-■<■ Phillips,' ^' Pope,i J PulasEi-,;^ Sevier, - St. Francis, Union,/ Washington -/" ToTVNs. Little Rock, a smalL village on the right baiik of the Arkan- saw, 300 mij[es frdn its mouth, is the capital. \ ■■ - The Post'of. Arkansaw, "or -Arkansaw, oji the riyer of thesafime name, contains about 600 inhabitants, chiefly of French origin. '' , . Helena, arid Chicot or.yillemont, are little villages' on the M^sissippi. —In general the settlements are along the White' JRiver, thq Amansaw, and'the'head streams of the' Wachita. • '' > , ■ • i. - tj ,^ Face, of thj; ,Countrt. The eastgm part of Arkansawis for the most part level, anj liable to inundations; the central portion, jjontaimngiex- - tensive, prairies, isfeiord' broken and hilly, and the western section may fie called''inountainousi The Masserne or Ozark Mountains, a branch fofthe,great Rocky Mpuntain'chain, traf^rse the Territory from south to north, entering it from the Mexican territory, and losing, themselves in ^the state of Missouri. Th^y are but imperfectly knov^n, and do not probably rise above the, height of 3,000 feet. . ' Minerals. This Ten-itory abounds in salt, with which, in many places, the soil is so much impregnated as to render the water brackish, and to form incrustations upon the surface. There are also numerous indications of iron and lead, and coal probably exists in abundance. About 50 miles southwest of Little Rock are the Hot Springs, which are much resorted to by invalids. They are about the temperature of boiling water. There are also sulphur springs in this part of the Territory. TENNESSEE. Area. Extending from 35° to 36° 40' N. Lat., an rapid currents and rocky feeds, but afford facilities for navigation,; large steamboats ascend the Kentucky to Frankfort. The northern andrwestern boundaries are forme4by the Ohio and Mis- sissippi. - " Soil and Surface. ' The soil ig in general, in a high degree fertile, and the traqtValled the Barrens is covered with oak, elm and chestnut. The western partis quite level, but the surface becomes uneven towards thejceiitre, and in the eastern part mountainous. The whole state below thepiountains rests on a bed of limestone, which is, generally about eight faetbelpw the surfece of the earth. Mineral Springs. The Olympian Springs, 47 ihiles east of Lexing- nSUla^ijijgUJckB^about 40 miles jnortheaakof-fea^ place, are sul- phjureous. Tro- IJarrodsburg Springs b^loru*. to tlie saline elass, being itfi|>i«gpRted with gntphates' afmagn^ia 'anrf^soda, and caitwmates of piagriesia and^iron. The;Big,Bini®^3l;ii'Sf(nngs, about 20 miles below Cincinnati, are much, resoftedjto. _ ' " , ' ; ( •ifiAivES.-- TSjutucky, like othpr limestone jregions> atounis in cayes of gr^1:'exjent, iffxpany of wbicttjfhe earth is strongly impregnated with nitre.' Iji many/places thelwatejrs of cdnsidterable streams entireh' dis- appeai- for som|S time, in these ajjertures.- Mammoti^ Cave, near 'Sfeen Biver,Ts-lnVjfeS remarkable for its extent, thfin for beauty; some of its passagesffiave Been explored to a distance of eight or ten miles. ntAjtitpXDS and. Canals. The Louisville and Portland canal, pas^g the faUs jtn ,the Ohip^low Louisville, is above two miles^ in-tet^h, and 200 fept wide -at top^, it overcomes a. fall of 24 feet, and adnlits steam- "jvesaelS of the largest^ size. The Lexington and Ohio r.r., extending ."thrcaigh, Frankfort to the Ohio at Shippingport, about 70 miles, is in part cotripleted. ■ • , • , I'opuLATioN. In 1?90, 73,677, including 12,430^' slaves; in IBOO; 220,959 ; in 1810, 40^11 ; iri,1820, 564,317 ; in 1830, 667,917, comi^is- ing 165,213 slaves, and 4,917 free blacks. - ^ Towns. Frankfort," on the Kentucky, with 1,682 inhabitants, is die seat of government. The principal town is Louisville, a thriving place, both as respects trade and manuifectures, with 10,350 inhabitants. Lex- ington, has 6,087^. inhabitants,, with' numerous cotton, wooyen,.and linen manufactories, paper-mills, rope-works, iron-woife; &c. Maysville, on the Ohio, 2,040 inhabitants, Bardstoyvn, 1,625, ^d Georgetown, l,344j are the other principal towns. ^/'-^j Trade. This state carfies-on an" active trade with the towns on the upper Ohio, with New Orleans, and over, land with thE Atlantic states. The Ohio, Erie, and Pennsylva^iia canals, furnish it with new outlets to thelakes, and to tlie great markets of New York and Philadelphia. Distances from Louisville : to New Orleans, 1,450 iinles ; - • ^o Philadelphia, 9815, mjles ; > , - ^ ' io JNeiv rY ork^, 1,095 mil^s. ^ PROiiu,0TioNS and MANUTAcmiffis. The staMB prftduction of Ken- tucky is com,.butol)erap told ^ax are proSuced m excellent quality^ and cotton is cultivated iiCthe soi^Hijvesteni part ; 'salt, tobacco, spirits, galted provisions aiid live stock are also\sent out of the state in great quaif(ities. '' The manufactures are chiefly c6J€ag&, Jinen, iron, &c. -About 150,000 bushels of. salt are made annually from the "Salt springs. ; y^ f^ EiTucATiON. No provision has been made by the state for the estab- lishment Or suppqrt_of common schools, and a great proportion of the children ore Uneducated. The higher educational institutions are Tran- sylvania University at Lexington, Centre college at Danville, St. Jos^ptfs , college, (Roman Catholic,) at Bardstown, Augusta college, founded fey the Methodists, Cumberland, college,' arPiinceton, founded by the Cuhiber- land Presbyterians, and Georgetown college, at 'G,eorgetown,institiit4d by the Baptists. ^ ' "f^ Constitution. The General Assenibly of the Commonwealjfli of Kentucky consists of a Spndte chosen for the term of four years, and a House of RepresenMives ^hoaen annually. The Governor is chosen by the people for the' term of four years/ and is ineligible for the sevenlyears succeeding the'expiration'^of his term. The right of suffrage is restpcted to whites. ' f. ' HisTORr. ,M 1775, Boone, who had previously lived in this region for several years, made the first permanent settlement in Kentucky, which' then formed'a part of 'Virginia. j 1790. Kentucky was separated from Virginia, and in 1792 wals ad- mitted into the Union as an independent state. 1799. The icohstitution, which was formed on the admission of the state into thie Union, was new modelled. ( Mal^EFMI^ & miS>mBlfiKl ^^'g^o^Jg. r.U'ZBinvU^^n A tcSc. 60 ILLINOIS. Area.^ Extending from 37° to 42° 30' N. Lat., aiid from 87° to 91° 30', WiLon., this state has sin area of ^?,480 square miles, or according to some estimates of neai-ly 60,000 square riiiles ; length 382 miles : si-eatest breadth, 206. ' '," ' ■ ,. ■ r r- , .r'~-_ , . Rivers Washed by the Mississippi on the wesf for the d'i'stance of 550 miles,^by the Ohio on the south for 130 miles, the Wabash on'thft east for 120 miles, having lake Michigan on its northeastern border, and traversed by several noble rivers, no 6ountiy in the vcorld has greater natural facilities of navigation. ' -' , ' -;n'~ ■ vi; ,' ^ ^ The principal river within the state is the Illinois, whose head branch- es rise in Michigan ten-itory and Indiana.'' Theifei.aie ijapids near thfe mouth 6f Vermilfion River, 220 miles fto'mtl^e- mouth of the Illinois, but at seasons of high water, .the river is navigable to within 12 miles of Chicago, on lake Michigan. The Rock River, an^ the Kaskasluas, are the other principal streams. ^X " Soil and Surface. The soil of the whole'^st^e-jg, with very trifling exceptions, productive, and highly fertile. ^ The fase of tlfe country i^ht- tle broken, and the prairies, or unper, lead^salt, and coa], abburtd,; but the leadTsjjuies constitute the triost valuable Source of mineral wealth. Theyoccu^"in the tract stretching from Fever RWer,' in -the npjthjjf -Indiana, to th6\ Wisconsin in Huron district, a space of about 75 niiles l)y 50 ; tjie ore is easily worke^d, aiid, yields 75 per cent, of pure lead. , The quantity of lead made smce 1831, at these mines, is 58,694;488 pounds ; the annual product during the lasf five years' has fluctuated from fourto above thh-i- teen million pounds. The'mines are owned by the United States, but; are woi*ked by' individtials, who p&yto' government a certain proportion of- the produce. "" ' • :, '- Population. Population of Illinois in 1810, 12,382; in 1820, 55,211; inl830, 157,445, eomprising'2,384blapkB. - " , ■: Towns, i Vandalia, the capital, has about 500 inhabitants. Shawnee- 'l?' --^ - '^ ■ .. . ■ Indians. The Indiatf title has recentlyTaeefi, whcSlly extinguished in this state, and the Indian' tribes removed beyond-^ the Mississippi. ' The Sacs and Foxes^ (Ottogamis,) ^d the-WiiinebagcteSj withwhom, .unflpr Black Hawk, there- was some fighting in 1832, were the last aboriginal tenants of Illinois ;Ohe,'Kaskaskias, Sha*iiees, Ottawas, arfd Pbttawa- tamies, having previofisly removed. • " ^ - Constitution: The G^nerM Assembly consists of a Senate, 'cho'sen for the terra of fouri years, and- of a House of Representatives,' chosen for two years. The Governor is elected by the people for the tenn of four years. •f- , -, . ~ • . j ■ ' y ' . >- ■HisTORT. Lasal]e,'a French traveller, visited this epuhtry towaSds the end of the 17tli century; and some JFrencR settlements were made- at C'ahokia, Kaskaskia, &<^ , '-, , ,,.■,, By the peace of 1763, the country east of the Mississippi was ceded to Great Britain/ , '. ' ■ ■ r .. . In 1789, the Western Territq^ was oreanized, including all the coun- try north of the Ohio and- east^of the^ississippi. ; In 1809, the Territoiy of Illinois was constituted. , In 1818, the State of UlinoiS'admitted int(X the Union as an indepen^,' dent state. ' '' , ■ MISSOURI. Area. The state of Missouri extends from 36° to 40° 35' N. Lat., and- frpm 89° 15' to 94° 30' W. Lon. It, has an area of about 64,000 square. r4iles, being the largest state in the Union afl;er Virginia. ' Rivers. The Mississippi forms its eastern border^ through a distance of 450 miles. The Missouri flows through the centre of the state\vith a course of 370 miles within its limits. Rising m the Rocky Mountains, and receiving numerous large tributaries, it reaches the Mississippi after a course of somewhat more than 3,200 miles, and the sea after a course of 4,600. Though much the largest river, it loses its name after the con- fluence, in that of the Mississippi, the latter having been earliest known. The Osage, its principal tributary within the state, is a fine navigable rjver, flowing through a fertile country ; it has a course of about 800 miles. The Grand River, Chariton, and Gasconade, are the other most considerable tributaries of the Missouri; and the Maramec and Salt River, of the Mississippi. Face of the Country and Soil! The Ozark mountains stretch across the southern pait of the state in a southwesterly du-ection ; none of their summits reach ah ejetEjtip^ of 2,Q0Q^^, JVIbst of th? ,soil is productive, and much of itTijghly lertne.*" ATTonsiderable portion of the" gtate is .prairie land. Bft^ERALs. Lead and iron ai-e abundant, particularly in what is called the mineral tract in Madison, Washington, and St. Francis counties. The 4ead nim|es are highly productiv e ; previou s to 1825, the a nnual pro duct varied from 900,000 foT^3tJ0;tro0^p5liraff¥nd iThHr§5metiiSfmoUntrd~ to 3,000,000 pounds. Population. In 1810, {he population of Missouri was 19,833 ; in 1820, 66,586 ; in 1830, 1 40,455; by a state-census taken m 1833, 176,286, com- prising'.32,184 slaves. o To-ivNs, The capifal is\JefFerson City. The principal town is St Louis, whigh, situated in the -heart of the Mississippi valley, near the confluence of the Mississippi, Missouri, and Ohio, is, doubtless, destined to become a gi-eat city; population in 1830,6,694. Saint Charles and Sfiiijit Genevi'ejfe) with about r,200 inhabitants each, are the other prin- cipal towns. - ,\ t I Constitution.! The constitution was adopted in 1820; it establishes a^General Assembly, composed of two Houses, a Senate, chosen for the term of four yearsjand a House.of Representatives, chosen for two years. The Governor is chosen for tlie term of four years. ■^ HisTOR?.'; French settlements were fonn«i4.at St. Louis and .St^^Ge- mevieve, inthe'mUdle of thf Jast centuiy. , "" After the cession'of Louisiana, in 1803, the -whole country north of .31°, vt'as form^ into a separateteiTitory, fjy the name of the territory of ^Lt)uisi4na,^^miich wgs afterwards'.changed into that of Missouri. In L 1831,"the(territ6ry Within, the linjits-ah-eady desijribed, vv^ formed into a jst^t^iaa^ admitted -into the llpion, after a long and stprmy debate upon ,'thE'queStien, of'the-exolugiori-pf slavgry from the new state. The sub- iecti vt'as finally settled! by the:iadmis^on"of slavey under- restriction?. / ' ^^TEAM BOATS. IN THE 'WE;ST. ..< Ah official list, of ^team boajs on thp westei-n waters, on the first of Janizary, 1834,^es tile whole number at 234, whose aggregate amount .of tonnage- is «equal to- SSjOOQ-, to^s; - they have cost 'three rnillions of dollars.. The total yearly eixpense«f running them is four miijion and a hE^fi- 66 b.cjats went out of service during 1831, 1832, and 1833"; of these 15l-\yere ab.apdoned as nnfit for ^ei-vice; 7 were lost by ice; 15 were -biariit; 24 snagged; and five destroyed- by^being struck by other boats ; .thus 51 were lost by accidents; ^ - The whole^number of boats built inthc-wast is about 500 ; (he largest jslass consists of boats jof about 450 or 500 tons; the medium sizg^m- .braces those of 300 tons ; those calculated for sballow-^water are from 100 to 200 tons. The following table of dis&nees -will give an idea' of the immense facilities of intercommunication in the Valley of the, Mississippi and , between places in the Valley and on the Atlantic shores. St. Principal Steam Boat Routes. Louis to Tort Leavenworth, on the Missouri, 400 miles ; to 4mericsn Fur Company's ,establisjiment, mouth of Yellow Stone, 1,800 miles ; - to St. Anthony's Falls, up the Mississippi, 900 miles , to Pittsburg, 1,150 miles ; to New Orleans, 1,250 miles. Pittsburg to New Orleans, 2,030 miles ; •Little Rook, A-rkansaw, to Pittsburg, 1,500 miles. Bt ^team Boats and Canals. From New Orleans to New York, by Ohio and Erie canals, 2,540 miles • to Philadelphia, by Pennsylvania canal and rail road! 2,430 miles. " pteam boats have ascended the Missouri 2,100 miles from the Missis- J^ippij'or nearly 3,500 miles from the Gulf of Mexico. ' .^J -OHIO. sloping dbwn to lake" therefore small, and' brq Indiana, js a considerabli The rest of ^^e stated tance of about 258 mile AsEA. Ohio extg'nd^rom'38'^,30' tol42° N. Lat., and from 80° 30^ to 84° 48^-,W: Lon., having mi area of 44,000 sc^uare miles, with a lake coast of 150 miles, and a VoutB|rh'rive^tedef "of 450'rmleg". - - - - • ^j - --,--. Rivers. There is a^^arrow strip of from 30 to 75; mile9M^.xWidth i-ie ; ani^ the .rivers flovifing iM). thpt-lafi ken by rapids. The MaariieS^kovfi&vii; frofn .! sti'eani. j< - f has a vfeiy gradual southern ^■eclivity over a dis- i^; down this de^nd the Muskingum, whiCh is' navigable for boats, Ijy the aid of a short cutU"ouhdjEt'6! falls at Zanesville, to Co^^octon, lOO^mile^^^ the SciqtS»-J^''''^^jte?K.^ ™P^'^ curfBnl, but is{ navigdlSe fer boats 13,6 miles"; and me iSfiaiiij!^ which afSotds a, boat' na'vigation'Bf 75 milesno Dayton.-^;T^^^ - w; •' j '; / ' ~^ , The Ohio, formpd-^ythe junction of lh?AIJtehany and MbnoDgaBSlaat 'Httsburg, ni^and PRODucTioNSt.'At'fgast thijpS^urthHrf"the so|l*df-tKis state; are fe§:ileBan, ■ - ^ Canals and RAitit^Aps:c;^The OhiB-^anaf extends frofii, Portsmputh up the Sciotd a little below Columbus, thence tlirough Ne^vark to^e^ Muskingiim at -Ooishocton, 'up that 'river and dq\yn the Cuyahoga ''to'" Cleavelatid, 310 "Sniles ; with navigable 'feeders to ColQmbus, 11 miles,; and Granville, 6"miles, ;&c., and a lateral canal of 9 miles to Lancaster ; total length ■S'll^inileB. The Miami carial extends4rom Cincinnati tolhe Miami near "flamilton, up the.valley of the Miami to Dayton, 66 'miles. It is to be continued to the Maumee at Defiance, and down that river Jje- low the rupids. '' *■■•'' -^ '*=' ' : " The '^abash and Maumee canal will, terminate in this state. It is probable-that the Ohio and Pennsylvania fcanals will be umted by a. carnal extending from Akron On the forpaei:,to the BeavCT division of the latter, a distance of about 110 mjles. The Mad River, r^ is projected, from Dayton tp Sandusky, 175 miles. ^. -^^ ^ V- _ ,7-, Population. The population of Ohio in 1790, was,about 3)Qp0; jn 1800, 43,365 ; in 1810, 230,760 ;;^n 1820, -581,434 ; in ISSO, 93'7,ffl)3j^ini- cluding_9,5f^ free blaeks. - - ~ '_ 1/ ~~ ~~- ' ;~ : Towns. Ohio is divide3 into counties, which are subdivided into tovvnsKips. ■-JPie.capital is Columbus, 2,437 inhabitants. The principal town is Cincinnati, of which in 1810, the pbp\ilation was 2,540 ; in 1830, 24,831,,'alid in 1833, nearly 30,000. '-'"';, In the north-are Saudlasky and Cleaveland, at preSent small'towns, but thriviiig witfi a wonderful rapidity with tbe^ gro^lhg commerce of the lakes, and the business gf the canal. _ Chillicothe, bn the Scioto, 2,84? inliabitants ; Zanesville, on the Muskingum, -3,094; Dayton, 6,828, which has the advantage of great water power; Steirtjenvillej 2,937'; Marietta, 1,200; and Portsmouthj 1,063, at the mouth of- the Ohio canal, are all thriving towns. n ._-" , V- ' ManufactuIies. Ohio is the principal manufacturing state vvest of the AUeghanies, and Cincinnati as the only, rival of Pittsburg, in the Mississippi valley. ^ Salt is.njade in great quantities bn the Muskingum and in other places^ Iron is extensively wrought and. .manufactured, and the manufacture- of glass,;hats, cabinet work, &c., employs much capital and'induslry. '■^ - . ^^ . , ^ 1 ' There are in Cincinnati nearly. 50 steam engines, carrying rdflin^;- . flour,- and cotton mills, i and miUs for the manufacture of machinery. 150 steamboats have "been Jtdiilt here jvithin the l?ist 17 years. Zanes■^, - viUe, Steuben ville, and CKillieothe, are the other princ^iahnanStouring to-wns. — ^ '- \ . ■^: Education. A sghool fund, consistiiiy«fl4ifi^oceedSjbf a tajxB.f one mill on a dollar lujrin&fttJiiB^texable property Jti the statej-With 'the -pro- ceeds of Jthe lajj^G^apiri'C^HatejHby^CfSifig^essTor purposes of edtrcation, I is enmjoysitiifthe supp(S-t^f common , .: . | Govi^NMENTTvChe General 'A,ssem1jl3\cona9tSjOf a'S^'nate chosen - for the tei:m.ofrtwo^a?Bj^d a.Hbti^e'of ftepr^entat^ee%hosen annu- ally. The Governor 'Isichosen'by the peo^^fS^ the terrii of 'two years. The right of suffrage's limited to whiteSi- i^^ ^,j- ' / 1' ■ J HisTORi.: Tife fij-st settlement's»\>«re ma(K5n Obip'from Nfw Eng- land in 178Si'Snd-tlje countrynoftlwistest of thbyhio, was]sobn£ffler con- stituted ayterritoEjV. '' i802« >C^iiio was adtnitted-iiitSIthe Union as an:jfldepend§nt^s'eite. A^BA.v Indjapa extends from 2^° 501 to 41° SCN. LSt^ gnAfi-pm 84°" 50'^tffT8^*^W^:^p^a»d^ti^'anaFe^ 0^36^500 sqiiare^mUeilj RivebST TH^Cprincj^T . riv^r_ of th^ state-is ^a^abash, which is -na-^^ble throU^i ife^y its whole len^, apd'-efi^j the Omo after[a pom-se of aJjoWt 500 ipiles, tifrough one of the jnos^'^rtile regions in the .world. The 'White" Rivervisjts'principal-confltient.' The St. Joseph's ^of Michigan, and^the-Maume'e, ii^eMnthis slatfei, at a little^distance from the sources of\heS'Wabash, and a^Otji-xeiy easy natural commimications between the lakes Erie and Michigan, and the Ohio river. - .FActoOF THE CouwTRf ani^oiL.' In general the surfece of this state isjES^I, or gently undulating, although fliere are some tracts which may be called liilly. There are sfeme prairifes, but they"^re not very extensive, . andAisonsi^rablejiaft-bf tBe cpmjtSy is covered with noble forests. _ iTher'els'Hyei-y Jarge^AeportiOn of highly-.fertile land in Indiana, welli -wooded,- and- WjJJVsrt^"eQ^aHd£ftl^bil is inexhaustibly rich. ^ ; The cKEaa,te isTOfld,,pieasant, and healthful. ' 1 _§ PB.pDDCTiio,E«^£iMaiize aindthe cereal grains are the staple productions;-" Jiemp kid tpfeteco ai-e:^l Avatedito a considerable extent, and large quaii-^ ■Ttities of-gillsiHgkasfcBjaiared. All the culinary vegetables and fruits of ■ ,fl^tempe^te climates]¥hrive well. Great numbers of live stock are sent ^5»FV7^rth^state.?^" \^-, r'\ . - \i^i Divisions. Michigan' is divided into cotintiesj^ which are subdivided into townships: of tfee counties,, Chippeway, Brown,: Crawford, and loway, are in theiegioh lying north and west" of lake Michigan. -, PopuLATion. The population, by the census of 1830, vras 31,639, pxclusiye of Indians. Sat since that period Michigain has been^the' re- cipient of a strpn'gi^tide of emigration from Canada! and the-United States,; and the populaticDn at present is more thahrdouble.vthat amount. \ Towns. Detroit, the- capital, whichin 18^0 had a population of 2,220, ■has at present about 6;000 fiibabijahts.' About 100 vessels trade to this jport, 50 of whielibelong^^to 'Detroit. Steamboats runTegularly between ^ !this place and Buffalo,' and between Detroit and Green Bay and Chicago. Prairie du Chien'is a thriving town in the Huron District. < ' Indians. The number of Indians within the peninsula, were in 1831 about 8,000, consisting of the kindred tribes of 'Chippewas, Pottawata-' Imies, and Qttawas. These have all ceded theirlands to the 'United States, and removed from the peninsula. '' The same tribes and the Sacs, and Foxes, and Winnebagoes,)have also' ceded their territories 'south of the Wisconsin and Foy rivers, in the Huron District, and retired from the same. Along the southern shpreofXakelSuperior are the Ojibways. In the Sioux -District, the S\q\ix or Dahpetahs are the mpst iiumei'pugan<^ :ppwerful nation. The _Sacs and Fo3^*also. occupy a part:of this district. ! The number of, Indians withj&T'the limits of die -Territory!"' in i-tihe^ '.widest sense, is Winhebagoesj- 4,590 ; Chippewas, • Pottawatamies, and Ottawas, 20,000; Sioux, 27,500, &c. \j^ i MiiaTA'RT_PosTS. 'PBe tJnited^States "have several -military posts in/ these'territories, in which are statipned garrisons tp-kegpJhe Indians^ef the fi'pntier in check. They are Fort WinnetiagOjaf theportage between," Ithe Pox and.Wisconsin rivers; Fnrt Brady,. ats^ult Sfe. J^arievFort 'Mackinaw, on an island in^he^/Strajtsof MichiRmaickinac ; Fort Gratiot, at the outlet of Lake Huroa;. Fort Howard, "at the- rriouth.of Fox river,-, head pf Green Bay, in the Eastern ■5)epartkient^ and Eoit Crawford, at Prairie du^^^Chien; Fort Snelling, at- the mouth' of the' St. Peters, and' jFort Arnjstrong, (pJ8,qct^ Island irtrthe-Mississippi,atthe mouth of Rock .River, in theWestem De|)artmllit. Fott (Dearborn, near Chic^o, is iii; the statei of Illinpis. ■'-..^'-, . - i, - r _ < HisxoBT. This regipn was first,--settleq, tojfard the end pf the 17th century,'by the French, who formedvsm^'al settlements along the east- ern qaast, where their descendants are'StiUfound. - -JKJ1763, it was^eded to England,_aad-by the "peace .of_1783, was con- firmed to the United States. In 1805, the Territpry of Michigan was constituted. In 1812, it was overrun by British trppps. GREAT LAKES. _ The American cpntinent between the latitudes of 42° and 67° N., is remarkable for the vast number and great size of its lakes and marshes, which constitute one of the great geographicalWfeatures of North America. Of these the five situated in the basin of the St Lawrence and discharg- ing their waters by a cpmmpii putlet, are sdraiBtinffis called by gepgra- phers the Canadian pr Fresh "W^ater sea. Thi^ cpy.er an area of about 90,000 squai'e miles, considerjibly less than',that 'of the Euxine, but affording a much gr6atei'.«xtent. of coast, and/ a greater number of har- bors, aiid therefpre affprding access tp a large|cltract of ccuntry. A remarkable fact connecteij -with the basins of thgse lakes is the cir- cumstance that, alffi^ij^gh the Surface of theinwate^-is elevated several hundred feet above theievel of the ocean, tlielr beds have a depression much below thafjevel, as ajtpears by the following table of their depths, and of the elevation of their surfaces : <" ; !' ' , ( . , Eleuation. ; t '" ! 623 feet, ■ :~ 580 600 Depth. 900 feet. 900 900 120 500 Sault 23 feet. 9 feet. Sainte Lake Erie, 560 Lake Ontario, 225 Deseent from Lake Superior to Lake Huron by Mary's, \- - -.. -!. ?By Rapids, ------ By course of River St. Mary's, 50 miles in length (exclusive of falls anil ^pids), - • 12 feet. Descent ' frohi /Lake Huron to St. Clair, by river (exclusive of - - - - 6 feet. - - -' - - - - 3 feet. St. Clair to Lake Erie by river Detroit, 25 mil?s, - ' %"■■"- - - - 'r -: 6 feet. Descent-from E^jd^ !^e to Lake Ontario by River Niagara (exclusive prfsLlsvSe miles, -''kSS -; - ' - --- IfiO-feet. :>^ % Falls,- ->"• - -■■.-' 175 feet. La^ ^liperipr alohe constitutes the.ilargest bedylpf fresh water on the face of\ the •globe,-Tiaying. an area of about 35,000 square miles; it is navigable for large" steamboats and sea "Vessel?. -^pme of its Yributary rivers'flowjfrom lakes, which have also outlets' discharging their waters into the- Mississippi. Lake Huron has a superficial area of about 28,000 square miles, and 'receives th6 -waters pf-Superipr and3Iichi|ah>-, It'^n|ains spme fine harbprs, and is navigated bjf large steambeats) The' straits pf Michili- mackinac connect it with J^gike Michigan. •' ^"^ Lake Mic^iigan cpvers an 'area pf abput 16,000 square miles ; it can be easily cennected with the navigable tributaries of the Mississippi", by ar- tificial channels, thus affprding a nprthem and "eastern outlet to'tibte im- portant cpuntrjes Pn the, jjpper Mississippi. . .Lake Erie, althpugh pf much less extent than the preceding, arid cpm- paratively shallow, yet- being surrpunded by a pppulous and. fertile country, is the theatre" of^ an active trade. The Ohio canal pours'the rich productions of that luxjiiisfii country into its harbors, and the Upper Lakes are rendered tribuiary-trf^tfe commerce by means ofnumerous steambpats. . CleaVeland and'Buffalp are its most impoi^tant harbors, and the Erie canal -affords it a commujuicatioh with the ocean. ^. Lake Ontario is a- much 'deeper body of water than 'Lake Erie, although situated on a»lpwerlevffl,.being about 500 feet in, depth, 335 -fee,t-below^the level ofl'Lake Erie, and 230 feet above that of the sea ; 'owing to its great depth it is never frozen over. , -s ,_ "The- navigation of the"river Niagara, between the two lakes, is inter- rupted by the falls and rapids ;- and that of the St Lawrence, below lake ■ Ontario, is impeded by rapids; bu([.'ship canals have been constructed by the British from one- lake to the other, and round -the^ falls of the St. Lawrence ;,and"'the Rideau' caheil connects Lake Ontario viitH the river Ottawas. * '" , , T.W0 projects in regard to theOake navigation, of the highest impor- tancejip this cpunt!y,.'are now pn foot, but the necessary surveys are not yet completed. One of these isthe construction of a"ship canal'between the Mohawk, and. Lake Ontarigyxrendering the .river navigable for lake ve^els, arid uiiiting Lakep-Eri'e" and Ontario by a similar canal on the American sidfep thus affordin^..irigresa;into the Upper Lafees from the ocean.in sea -eiessels. The offier contemplate^' a junctiof of the upper branches of the ,Susquehannah with' the lakes^and the construction of the /necessary -works to render that' river navigable by sail vessels, thus connecting wa.Che^peake and the southern waters with, Green Bay and Fond du Lac. 'PRTNCIPAL CITIES OF AMERICA, A F R IC A,TsTTr'^N D O'C E AN I A. AMERICA. BRITISH PROVINCES. 1 Montreal, (Quebec, Halifax, St. John's (N. B.), St. John's (Newf.), Tor<)hto (York), UNITED 40,000/' 40,001 16,001 12,(100 > ISjOOOf STATES. ' " ' New York, Fhiladelphia, Baltimore. Boston, I i'n'nr, > New Orleans, ' > @WifeBton, Cincinnati (1833), "Albany, Providenpe (1833), Washington, Pittsburg, , V , Richmond, Brooklyn, Newark (1833), ■ Salem, - . Portland, ■-,'-[ r It.^QRell (J:83»), , Buffalis, , ' ■ Rochester, .Tfoy, LouisviHe, Norfolk (V<),' • Hartford;,', New Bedford- (1832),' Cfiarlestowa (Mass.) 203,007 167,811 - , 80,625 '46,310 30,289 30,000 ■ 24,238 20,0Q0 ■ 18,8'27 , 17^000 iffjpeo 15,3£(6 , 13,g|6"' 1?,«Q1-. ,, i3,po(ps; ■ 12,ti00"' »• 12,000, 11^05'' 9,816 9,789 9,000 8,787 Guanazuato, ■ _4O,OO0i '•Xalapa, • ' ' 30,000 dhthuahua, ' ^0,Odl() , Valladohd, ! 25,qD0' Zacitecas, 23,000 Durango, < ' Sa^OO"- .Sanguis, . - 20,000 Lo^Eto, '■■'■(■ \ -■ 20,'eOO Aguae Calieit^4 - '20»000 SombreftJte, ' ' ia,t)(JO Etesnillo, [ 18;O06 Cholula, ; IQJOOO , Salamanca, ' IbjOOO Zelaya, ' ' 15,000' Monterey, 1^,000 Irapuato, 15,000 ts^os, ISiPOO CENTRAL AMERICA. New^natemala, San (Salvador, Lecin, ,,,Chiquimula, ,Carta^o, * San Jose .Old .__,^__ Comayagua, ^ - NEW .GRENADA. 50,000 39,000, 38,a00k». 37,000 26,000 80,000, isjeor 18,000 38,000 18,000 a2,000 - GeorgetoV?n (D. C), 8,441" : Petersburg (Va.), 8,322 lltiqa, (N. T.), 8,323 FishliilKN. Y.), 8,292 Alexandria (D. C), 8,263 ■ --^ftstofarth (N. H.), 8,082 'Newpoi^,(R. I,), 8,010 New Brunswick (Sjnt^i2,S31 J'aterson-(N. J.), 7,731 Lancaster (Pa.)ii _ 7,704 JohnstowiE!|>l.iM;,t 7,700 GlouceSt6r'(Mfc#.), - 7,513 - Martlig^jgWi^a^l Savannah (Geo.), , .v. Jt,oU3 Poughkeepsie (N. Y.), 7,222 ~N"aitacket.(Mass.), 7,202 Salina (N. "Y.Jr 6,929 •g^iddletowu (Ct.), 6,892 Soitua(le-('B. I.)) ' 6,853 . Dayton (Ohio), 6,82a Springfield (Mass,)," 6,784 ; Augusta .(geoj), '6,69&! Wilmingt<*F{Dei:)7 --6,6§a St^ Louis (Mo.), 6,694 Newbui(^(-N-.'-¥.) , \ 6,4Sli Ne*buryport (Mass.) ,6,388 Hempstead (N. Y.), '6,215 Seneca (N. Y.), Lyi^..(Mass^, LesiJHgton (Ky.) ) Bethlehem (-NT Y.), Cambridge ffllas^), Taunton (Mass.),. Bangor-fMe.— 183a), 5,000 Detroit-(1834), ^••' 6,000 MEXICAN STATES. Bogota, " ';• J, Carthagena, r 1 1 PilStOj I [ ■'•^ ^Medellin, j f. Ujm. VENEZOEjLA. Caraccas, ..-^ i\ '28,000 Maracaibi*^,^ i -20,000 Wlenoia,' , 15,000 ECUADOR. Quito, Guayaquil, Cuenca, Riobamba, Latacunga, ' Otavalb, . 70,000.,^ -22,000 20,000 20;000 17,000 16,000 6,161 6jl38 6,104 6,092 6,071 6,045 Mfexico, Guadalaxara, Puebla, Oazaca, Queietaio, 180,000 65,000 50,000 40,000 40,000- JA-.J. -J^R^^ Lima, Cuzco, Arequipa, Huamanca,- Puno, Jauia, ' ©eopa, -Huancavelica, 7«5BO0- 50,000 ssjontii 16'000 I'S^OflO 15,000 -12,000 12,000 . - BOLIVIA. La Paz, I Cochaba^b% ; Charcas, . Potosi, _ TEEi ' ' _ CHILL Valparaiso, Cequimbo, Conception, 60,000 20,QOO '02,000 12jOOO STATES OP THE PLATA. Buenos Ayres, San Juan, Mendctza, Cordova, URUGUAY. Mopte Video, 10,000 , ^PA^AGUAY. 12,O()0 BRAZIL. V Assumfition, Rio Janeiro, Seui Salvador, or Bahia, . Pernambuco, jyiaranham,' Para, San Paulo, , Caxoeira, Alagpas, Portalegre, Villa Vreosa, 150,000 120,600 70,0Q0 28,000 20,000 , 18,000 16,000 14,000 ,12,000 12;000 GUIANA. Paramaribo, Georgetown, 20,000 io,ggo; WES-j: INDIES. Havana, _<•.. Puerfo Principe ") (Cuba), 5 Kingston (Janu)ij"' Porto Rigo,' _ ?SiStiagJu(C5Ba5! ''•■ St. Piepip (Mart.), 112,023 50,000' 34,000 30.000' ISjOOO Johnsto*n (Antigua)J'Cj52P Matanza»,(Cuba), TLSjODO Pprt Royal (Jam.), '15,060 Port au Prince 15,000 ■TMidad (Cuba), ,13,060 . „ Poiiite k Pitre (Guad.) JS^O Bfu^sa, Tokat," Erzeroum, ' •Karahis^ar, Diirbetir, Mijsul, Bassora, ' B0I4 ■ . H^mah, KutaieJi''" Trebizond, Orfa, Maiiissaj • AiMjral Ko^eh, 'Jerusalem, '. ZT^uzelKTssiii, '. Scuteji, sus, PRmCIPAL : CITIES - .^.K AFRICA. OF ABYSSINIA. Gondar, 'y ' »-,,i;gypt. iQaaio, rj " AleZjandria, Damietta, Siut, Bulaq, Mehallet el Kebyr, •Rosetta, 50,000 ■=^35,000 251)00 "20,1)00 180fl4 .HS&0.0- 15,000.; BARBARY. Tunis, 100,000* Fez, 80,000 Morocco, ^, 75,QP0 Algiers, " ' 60,000 40,000 Mequinez, 60,000^ 30,000 Con^amiiia;'' 5O,0OO~ 12,000 Cairwan, --" ■■ .50,000 12,000.. .i|lpffadfflk_.::_JIl®,QflD„ Rabath, 1^00 Trem,ecen, 80,000- camh * ' §0,000 NIGRITIA.' Sackatoo, 80,000 Zariya, 50,000 '"^no, '' 40,000 Angornoo, .3D)O0»< 18,000-;. Timbuotoo, . ^ 30,000 16,000 Sego, • •■• , 30,0019; 16,000 Kiama, ., 30,000 12,000 Abomey, ' 20,000 Cp(}mas3ie, Tabra, Koolfa, Bonny, 30,000 ,.,8Q,QO0 20,000 20,000 ICAPE GOLONY. ; Cape Toyvii,', 20,000 PRINCIPAL ASIATIC. ;i CITIES. , TURKISH ASIA.' Aleppo, Damascus, Smyrna, 200,000 l^OjOOO , >^,0C!0. looipoo lOoSoo 100,0% Tobolsk, ' 25,000 HINDOSTAN. Ta: ..Hifif/jPOft 50,000 j • ^0,000., ■. 50,ao/B, / 50,000,, 4O,t)0O: ' -'' 35;eoa' 3Q,0OO, ' 30,000 yjT''Wffl0O 30,000 ■ 20,000 ARABIA. Mecca; Makcat, Jidda, PERSIA. '60,090 50,000 40,000 200,000 *■ 130,009 -100,800 ,100,000 .go,eoo 60,000 Cai CAUBUL. jahar, Buchi (0' ,4.0,000. 40,000 ■ 30,000 r30;O00 30,000 30,000 aoo,'00o 60,000. Caijbul, TURKJSTAN. Spa, Kbokhan,*. ■ Sam^can&,V Nald^heba ' '*" KhSMaJ-'-- Kuil(Ju2r; KarWilrv'- Maraalan, - 50,000 - -46^0ft i --40,050-' '-" "-^0,000- 00 ■|,USSIAN'ASLA.--|^ 1 30,000 „ "iSOiOba;. 30,OW ^ 26,060 Calcutta, Benares, Madras^ Luidmow, . ,Patna, I Bombay, Mirzapore, Hyderabad, Dacca, Moorshedabad, Surat, Cashmere, Poonah, Nagpore, Ahmedabad, Lahore, Baroda, Ooiein, Ihdpre, Gwalior,' Trichinopoli, MaBu%atam, F;irruckabad, Peshawer, BWeilly,' .. AiarUng^MB^ "■'' BuiigafiSfe,. J ., Burdwaii, .^, Colombo, . 600,000 640,000 460,000 300,000 300,000 300,000 200,000 200,000 200,000 200,000 160,000 160,000 150.000 115,000 115,000 100,000 100,000 100,000 100,000 90,000 80,000 80,000 75,000 70,000 ' 70,000 66,000 '^ 60,000 . : 60,000 , 'i.55,b00 !i-i 50,000 50,000 50,000 FWRTHER INDIA. Hue, Saigon, j^esho, Bankok, -Ava, • Araqan^ •■*■ tJmmetapOoia, ."' CHINA. .|]!00,00O 100,000 100,000 90,000 50,000 40,000 30,000 iutcnuj faifliiinVt, ■» . ingtechin, ^ Wutchang,, - . Khaifung, i Filtchu, .Yotchu, Stfentchu, Huantchu, (Thibet), . 1,500,000 , 1,000,000 '— fiOO,bOO T""6OO;O0O , 500,000 400,000 406,000 300,000 300,000 300,000 200V0OO 200,000 200,000 ,80,000 JAPAN. Yeddo, Meaco, Osaka, .rSTarigSjK," 1,500,000 500,000 200,000 ^moo ? 50,000 t Matsmai, Cities. OF oceajvia. Manilla, Suiacarta, Jocjocafta, Batavia, Achetniiyi Palembang, ' Ceram, 30,, 140,000 - 105,000 ^-^0,000 1-80,000 ,.;j60,OO0 '^■40,000 ! '-30,000 ' SSjOOO ? CANALS AND RAILROADS. t HTED Statbs; The first canal constrifcted in this country wa^the Middlesex canal, con )leted in 1808 ; butit was not untiLahdut ten.'^yeacs later JJiat.the example. beganJ,aJaiB. gen rally^followed. During the last 15 years, however, not far from 3,000 miles of canal hav ' been constructed) and no country in the world now presents such an extensive system of ] iternfil navigation, natural and artificial, as the United States. anais. Length. Ms. Lockage, /^ Course, Cost^ Sfc. Bla kstowe, 45 -- From A'fejjcesterfTo Providence (R. I.). Summit level i ^ ; 450 feet ; dost $ 700 Jflft ; 48 locks. Bla|k Eiyer, 76.^ 1078 From RB|pe to falHof Black River ; 36 miles excavation, 40 im^ro^^ment ofiff^er navigation, navigable feed^, 9 miles; esfeiotated cdsU$ 600,000. ' Ga3|iga, 30^ From Cfen£va:=^tofl(p)ntezuma on Erie canal; with a t branc}i torCayaga Ja!^e: opens a lake navigation of 100 . . miles J coital 236,8(jff!- Descent 73^ feet. Oh^nplam, : ^3 - 188 From Lake ChimplSin to Erie canal 9 miles from Albanyj 21 locks : cost $.1,160-000. Summit level 134 feet. 516 ]Prom_S6neca Lal(^ to Elmira on the Tioga or Chemung, with ^^n£fvigable feeder to Fainted Post 13^ miles ;^^ ! locks^ 76Widges; cost $342,133. 96 1 W09 Krom Lftiija on ?ri6 canal to Binghampton on" the Sus- auehdnnahj estim^d cost $ 1,800,000. '^ 355 f The tot|nength pf the projected route from Georgetown , to Pittsbiirg* ja 340fjM3le3, of which 110 have been com-- |)lete4 to [alcove WiUiamsport, with 4C lift locks, and 5- ■ aqueduct^ i cost $ 3,*eJfD,000. ; % 14 - ' , Summib-level ISrfi^t; 2 lift locks and S tide locks; 66: 2 T feet widei-ld deep.)— ^ -, - t - From listen to i^jriHol. ■', ■r. I, From tljiB-Hudaon'SO miles above Ne^ York to Hones^. dale ; fronOhe Delaware to Honesdale, 36 miles, it beEys the name of Lackawaxen canal. From the Raritan at New-Brunswick tO the Deljiware at, Bordentown ; 7 feet deep ; 75 wide ; summit level 56. From Joyce's Creek to the Fasmiotank. 363 698 From Lake Erie to Hudson ; Si Iqcks ; 40 feet wide, 4 deep ; cost $ 9,097i500. ,t ^ - ^ ? 78 518 From New Haven to Northampton. ' :_ ' 46s ^^^ From termination of Morris canal at Easton to Maiich Chunk railmad, at Stoddardsville ; cost $ 1,568,000 i_4r^ift locks ; 7 gu^rd |bcks. - ; 27 136 From Boston lib the Mejrimack ; 20 locks ; cost $528,000. 66 From Daytonjto Cincinnati ; c.6st'$ 746,852? 97 1650 oFrom Jersey City olTposite Ne ; * - Thisrcuns^ts of a "Series ofxa^alfi^-aad railrofidijrom PhiladMphia to Pittsbueg," and tffxanals 0^ the I^imand West Branches of the ^squejia^nah: "canals fri^Go- lumbia to Holi^ayabprg 172 iniiea.^nd Jtj^nstpwn Xf> Eitta- .■ liurg 10ff,;With ffie Columbit^^njJ Alleghany railroads, fo6n ■- i^-Ti' the. Hnfejft-om Philadelphia forPittaburg; the section from" 1 mouth of-^the Jiiniatta to Ihe^ackaw^nock is 114 milds ;' /_j-tM, and ^j.iKit:^rom N^rthumberrarfd up Vfeat Branch to Bald ' ~ Sagle'^GFeek, 72 Aiiles ; Beaver divi^ofl, from th£ ©hio up the Braver, 25 miles, .y.'. ^ 5."" ^^^ Saftee, ■> 92 "103 From the Santee to Coq^r'^ River .f . / Sc ayJkill 110 ^0 - FromJPhila,delphia to Port Carbon ;J36 locks.J' 31 dams;, t,unnel of .4S(tfBet ; cost $ 2,336,380. - .- .- , 80 From Middlefovra on Siisqu^annah, to iReading on / Schuylkill canal jyiyi feeder of ^ miles ; tuo^tl 730 feet; Wfcastf^and 92 locks-; 2 summit reservoirs, covering 35 acrea^.*^,' ^ie, ' ' 200 1 ' //From theWahashtoJheyviauraee. -, ■■*.' nmgOon, dlesex. GlotffiBBWf, Grand Junction, Grand Trunk or Trent and Mersey, Grand Union, Grand Western, Grantham, Hereford and Gloucester, Huddersfield, Kennet and Avon, Kingston & Leqinuister, Lancaster, Leeds and Liverpool, Leicester, Leicester and Northamp- ton Union, Monmouth, Montgomeryshire, Norwich and Lowestoff Navigation, Oxford, ._ . -, , "^ Peak Forest, Rochdale, ' ■; ,, i.Royal Irish, ' '*■•'- Shrewsbury," ShropsTiire, '^ 'r ', Stafford and Worcester,- Stratford, " f . Thames and Severn, tJnion Can'al, *i ^ Warwick & Birmingham;. Wilis anf^Berks,'- ; ::Worctster* an^ Birnxingr ham; - i i Wyrley^and EssingtoUj France. -Until recently France was fatbehind England in ihis gy^at branch of internal navigation, hut during -late years she has executed a great numberjdf important wdrks, and ther,e are at, presenrno less than 86 canals, with" an aggregate length. of SF,350 miles, com- pleted or ii£ an advanced stage of progress, the whole cost'of ^hich -vfill amount to $200,000,000., Beside these, several great wotVlb afe^'prttj^iftedljn a;magnificent scale, of which-^the pHhcipal.are, 1. A ship canal from Paris-to thefsea, admitting largb ships to the capjtal ; estimated cost 150 million francs ; of harbor at -^rirf, 15 n&illions : .2. 'A'canal frpin ; Paris to Slrasburgj length 300 miles ; estimat6ac0st'75 million, francs:- 3. The Canal of the' Pyrenees froiii. Toulouse to Bayohne; length 210; estimated cbfet'COiaillians. .> - ,,-^— ... - ? . i Qrniala, — Lengt^.Ms. ^ =;£ Course, Lockage, l^c. ^Briart^ -. 34 ^Propi,Briai* tin' tBe Loire to Montargis on the Loing, a ' ^ -Igiibutaryof tfae S6ine ; 40 locks j.;,costy$ 3,650^000. , J -From J^antes to Brest- '-' - t 197 r~ From thWiiter to the Loire. E ,k ' ' Fro4i Rocfte .t&i the Yonne t^Losne on the Saone, ^roffi Chalon^to Digoin ; SOi^lock^; .cost $2,000,000. I ANADA. -"In Canada the p/inclpal works are the Welland canal, from Lake Erie to Lal^e Or ario, 41 miles, 56'feetwi5e, 8J deep ; summit leve('330 feet ;2and the Ride^u canalfrogi Ki gston to Hull on the Ottawa j^actual excavation 20 miles ; n^igation dpe^ed 160 miles; Jot :age 437 feet. ^ ' -■ - L '^ ' •RBAT Sritaiw. The first lateral- navigable canal was begun-in ^gland 80 yea:rs ago, sii :e which time £30,000,000 have been expended, and upwards of S3^700 miles of canaliSa- ti( I, exclusive of man-y of the smaller works, have been completed, in the cdnayAiction of w ich 48 tunnels, ojf fne total length of 40 miles, have been cut through rockS qpd hilts. A srdeenshjre, ■*' A dover, A iby de la Zouch, ', Ai itQn and Oldham, Bi lingsioke, B\ mln^am, Bi piinghamand Fa^ely. B: jcknQck, *^ Bldgev^ate^- G iedonian, Lengt7uMs, 19 Course, Locks, Ai^educts,Jfc. ■•,/ ester, Q esterfield, C leitlryj y':^ imforJ, ■•',''- D dle^j V E esmere and Chester, ' ~ Ely ^ ' ■''^ - JKMBd Clyde or : rreatdaiial, ,' G isgow&Qd Saltcoats, 6 imox|tansIiJre, r 1& Aberdeenftp Inverary ; 17 lucks j 170 reet.lochage. - SoiithampWn to ABdoVer ; lockage 17.7 feet. ' Co+entry^anal at MarstomtBridge to Ti&knall j 9 ttfn- nels, 700 yatdi ; 2 aqueducts ; lockage ^4 feet. £ 167,500. ^ Rochdale^canal at A&nclieste^.to Huddersfield; 3 aque- ducts; lockaige 152 feet £198,550. - ■ Wi^to^Basingstokel 73 bridges ; 99.1ocks; 195 feet. 13 46 27'' 18'? 65J 13 lost II 37- vPazely canal ; lockage 904 feet. . — iFroni/MBpmouthshire canal to Brecon; tuilnel of 660 fedt j-Sstiuedacts. ■• ' - "*■ i' Runcorn Gap on theJUersey to Manchester, and Iieigh. ■ From Moray Frith to Atlantic; whole distaniJB 59 ftii/es; 37 'fiWpKnff'Iake ; 27 locks, 160 feet long by 40 wide, summit level 96 feet ; cost £975,000; lockage 191 feet: » ; ' Chester to Nantwicht - *, ' ' f Stockwith on the Tjent to Chesterfield;! 65Jlocl£S; 2 tunHfels,%,55afeet. ' ■ " . Part of liite between London arid Liverpool. , Lan^l'ey to GroilJford ; 2 aqoeducff bVel' the Derwent, 200 yards each. ' ^J-^-' ' i i Dublin to Shjmnon neaV Moy ; (branches -38 ^iles. Worcester an^ Birminghan^ canal to Dildley ;'61 locks ; 3 tunnels of e.fciyardS,^' - : --".,. a,969 yatiis'iif,tunneiliifgf; co4lj£ 47S,S0,0 ; lockage 755,ft. Joining &rand Trunk with CoMlffy canal.' From junction of t'ortn'and Carron to Glasgow ; 39 locks, ea«h 75 feet long by ,90 wide ; 15 aqUjjlucts ; cost £250,000. ' 'From Glasgow to'Saltcoats; lofiage 168 ffet.-,i )( * From Uardlffi on the §eveHi to'SlerUiyr.. Lmgth.Ms. Clmrse, Locks, Aqueducts, ic. 20 "" I " '' A ship csmalmlong Severn from Gloucester to-Aeriieley. From Brentford to Oxford canal; with 101 Jocks; Sktun- nels 5,125 yards ; 7 branches of 53 miles. » Connects the Trent with the Mer^y ; 75 locks ; Sjtun- nels. Branch of 37 miles; lockage 642 feet. ■« From Grand Junction at Dajentry-to Grano,Trunk. From Topsham to Taunton* ^ , From Grantham to the Trenft/.i-w'^"' ' From Gloucester to HereffltdTS tunmelsy 3,?52 yards*. From Huddersfield to Mairsdpi fen Asliton and Oldham canal-; lockage 770 feetj?/^ ';; • ' From Bath to Newbury : lodkage S63 feet. . From Kingston to the Se«epi neS): Stourporf ; 2 tunnels of 5,100 yards ; lockagS:54* feet. . v ■ . - sr From Kendal to ^pu^hton. ^ - - j- From Liverpool tal.eedg?^ 2 tunnels ; lockage 841*feett .,,^ From Loughborougff'to Leicester. ■' ,'» ; ■ - Leicester to HarborSUgh ; 4 tunnels 3,SlS^ards ; lockage 407 feet. " ^ ' *■-... From Newpon to Brecknockshire canal ; lockage 1,057 ft : Frot|vNewton^to.^ll§Bmere cana£ * ■• - - : Render^ If are navigable for sea vessels to Norwich. ''« ■ ' ' '. t .- , ;' ; " 93 36 20 ^57 45 75 129 35 44 9H v21 ^^ 68; irj. 17 30i' 30 = 30 . From Coventry canal to^OxfBrdjvlocfeage 270 feet; 43 loeks ; 250 Bridges j cost £31(^50- ^.g ^ V - ' '^ " From Ashton and Oldham c^al to Csapel Milton, r From Manchester to Haliftx^; lockage 613 feet, * "; Ff^m Dublin to Tasmonbarry ; Idekj^ge 614 ft. :^411ock3. Fruin^ Shrewsbury to the Shropshire canal ; half Uie ascent byirfiJUned planes., ^*'^ ■ ^, ' From Gbafpo|tlo the ShrewsbU^ canal ;3iiiclined planes." I, From Stourporton Severn to the Grand Trunk fS^fockB. "■ Fr,Qm Strafford to the'Birjhin^am and Worcesterrcanal. Frbin Stroudwater.toXecblade.on the Thaines. ;• * From Ef|,lkirk o^ the' Fortlu a&d Clyd^canal to Edin- burgh j-coat £400;000; 1 tuTyief ; ^aqueduct^ ; ;no loc^ge.' From Warwick % the Birmingham canal. - From Abingdon to the ]^enn|t a& Avon canal. From Worcester tdtthe Birmingham and' Fazely canal. .- F^'om Faaiely canal atHud^lesford to Wolverhampton. ^ Britai^y, /Berry* Burgundy, .-' Censral, Upp^r an4 Lower Deule, Hie and Ranee, Loirigi > "...^ Lajiguedoc, Royal, or Du JVIidi, JNivemais, \ " Orleans, '", purcq, ^•' ' Monsieur or Rhine and- Rhone, Somihe,-.- St. Uiientin, 5^ : UO 35 ■iSo From Roch^ Sgrnard to St. Malo, joining the rivers . Rancfrandi'TUainei ^ . -^ ■ From Montjrgiff on ftie,Loib^to-St. Mamer& on the Sei|ie; a continuatiton ca the Briare canal. * ^ Frdpi Toulouse qn thejGarbnneto Cetteoh the Med^l^r- , ranep.n J sumhiit level 6p0 feet; 62 locks; 72 bridges ; 55 aqueducts; opened 1681 5 cost $ 6,000,000. -- From the Loire to the Yonnp. <■* From Combleux oh theLoire' to Buges on the Loing caiial. ' Joins the,!&hine and Rhone, by the Saone and the Doubs. r^om St. Valery to the canal off St. .Cluentin. _ ^ From Canibray to Chaunyon the CHse; tuhnels 4^ jniJes., )' fiussiK. RussiaTiasthe Inost extensive ^stem of canalisation of any country in Europe, embracing lines of communication betweenthe Baltic and the Caspian ; the ^^ite Sea and , th% Baltic ;the Baltic and aha Black S^; the Black Sea and the Caspian ; and the GasniaTi and the White Sea : — '' '. i ; ~ -^ -.,-,,. , ' . '^ ■ : The V^shni-Volotchok, 3 muba long.4inite3 the Y^a-^nd the N-evtff by means'of J.48 14 23 76 S,S54 ,' -403 ■ -4,5U»'ri0a|594 >425jl53 L1^4B9,757 - 258!47| 1491,364 «-\ STATES. .Maine, , . New Hampshire, . Vermont, , . . . Massacliuseits, f Rhode Island, . , Connecticut, . , New York, , tjuly^nia, . . . Delaware, -^v _. . . Maryland. . t T . Virginia, ' . . . . North Carolina, . . Soutli Carolina, . , Georgia, , ■ . . , , Alabama,^ ' . ."^ ' • Louisiana,' . . ,'t-. O)iio, ....... Florida Territory, Michigan Territory, ' Total,. IMPORTS. 1833. 115,171 214,672 18,118,900 657,«69 437,715 53,214,402 / 70,460 10y678,358 8,87] V ''12;392^ •■'. 107,'Z87 ' -S22S18 ,^6 EXPORTS. Domestic. ■ ■ "ilUU. 907,986 115,582 349,820 4,656,635 377,656 430,466 15,057,250 53,991 2,008,991 16,242 3,015,873 f4,493,916 ■^338,246 7,685{833 5,514^681 2,733,554 14,105,118 i^ 56^94 Foreig ■ " f l 'l lI B ™-74,167,. 7,337,133 156,803 10,943,695 7,803 1,507,075 1,484,045 16,734 3,795 66,898 1,202 2,833 ■ 3,425,812 / 3,080 "^B3;w470_ Mjg39^ TOTAL EXPORTS. -^ -9^1,441 145,58! ms,sst 11,993,761 534,45! 430,461 26,000,941 61,79 3,516,061 16,2* 4,499,91 4,510,65 ^2,04 7,752,73 5,5aSB8 2,756;38 16,530,39 58,39 85,71 87,176,943i 2,009,000 The annual-ysjliie of the .ijiSpopts from 1822 'to 1830, varied from- ffi;71,000,tf0j%o J 96,000„QOO ; of expSfts, from f 72,000,000 to In 1831, vafueoftlie'5mports, $103,191,124; of-expbrts, $81,310,583; $99,500,000. ^, , in 1832, importsjf 1^,029,266; of exports^ $ 87;i76,943, of which, $ 63,187,470 ; was of domestic"T)rodyce, as folloT^ J ■ y' Derived from the sea (fisheries), $'3,5p8,'S38 Cotton, - forest Ylumber, . , .- ■ -Tobacco,' naval stores,'furs, &c.), •4:-347,794 Other agricuUural produce. Product of animals, ^ 3,179,8^. Manufactures, Vegetable food, i ^^^ 8,3(^2,494 Articles^Tnot enumerated, , Exports for 1833, $9^jCT3,403} of jwliich $70,642,^0- were ofjomqstic produce; imports, $1O9,OOO;0(C of *hiafc$-34,00!),000 were free of duty. , .. Tonnage in 1§29, i;2e0;798>ns ; m 1830,.X,J91,776rin 1832, 1,267,^. ^^^^ $ 31,724,682 5,999,709 159,716 6,461,764 353,181 einl§2 Revenue. The revenue of the^nited SftitBSvisiderivedfrom duties on importi, the sale of the public lands,' the post p'iiice, bank stock, lead' HijpesV&c. The revenuie for 1832, i^asTrom custom's, $28,46X237 ; pift)lic lands, $2,623^ ; bank dividend!, $490,000/ incidental, $286,942vtotal, $3l|865,561. Exppliditures for 1832, ci^jl list, foreign intercourse, &c., S47^7,141 ; military, including pensions, fortificationp, and India* affairs, $7,982,877; naval, $3,356,370 ; paym^t ordebt, $17,840,309'; total, $34',356;697. Public debt, January Ist, 1834, ?J4,760,000. Balance Jh treasury, JaWry 1st, 1834, $7,983,790. PoELic Lands. These domains consist of tracts ceded to the United States individual states, and of tracts acquired by treaty or purchase. 5 There have bei paid on the Louisiana purchase, $23,514,225; on the Florida purchase, $6,251,01( on tii^_G_eocgia^ndJi>^zoo contracts, contracts with Indian tribes, expenses bf sui- veying/and manageraent>about $20,000,000, in all about $50,000,000; amount re- ceived from sales, to 1834)-5tbout-*43,000,000. Upwards of 150,000,000 acr s have been surveyed, and about 40,000^00 have been sold and granted for puipos s of education, public improvements, &a The whole amount belonging to the Upitf i States, isjestimated at about 1,090 nillion acres, of which 340,870,000 are with i the limitsyf the states and territorias. Salt springs and lead mines are reserved 1 (f lgov«i^nmei)(t, and onb thirty-sixth panris reserved for the support of common schoc s (in the stat6^or te?d4>ry where the land>iaw 1 \ Army and NamA The army of the United States is fixed by law at 6,442 me , domprisiug f^ur regiments of'.^r^tillery^l^ven «Nijfantry, and one of dragoons. ,T1 3 humlier of ofD^rsisgt^cient f9r,,a force three timest^as large, and the niimber f^t] 3 army.can thereiore be e^BJbfinc^aBed. The commanais-M^^^Vt|yor;.^eneralj s|yli 1 th,e,General Sn Chief, andiftvo BrJg^ier Generals, one-cqSnmandiDg the easte^n^ai i the odier theWdstelSn depm=feient j -ti)*vwe®f5J§)l)St!&t^rit of the army comprise? tl ; . tertitqry wesl^o^ a line drawn-irom the sojitlj^^j point of Florida to the north\^eE - ^ly emremity.pf' La^fe^upgrior'TVand thejeastern department the rest of the cquptr . Tih^naVy-c^nsiSt^ of 12 shigjof theThie^o frigates, 17 sloops of war, and 7 ^n6o - ^eisft, i|)(3luding_th(:)se on the Ist^fts^.. therff^e also on^iand live oak frames for 4 j^i 3 ^)f tlie'jW,"10-ftj^tes, 3 steani vd6SBlsf?nd 7 sloops. The .-Tlie Ujiilg^^lgU&ga^^ionsists of'a confedtracy of democr^tiBr ■ public^^ith,a_federal^*er:np'efflt;"dniO)ased on republican 'p^nciple^. The poWe } of' the fe^ral\ 'gpvernmeVt, [.sEnd., its r^Sation's to ine indepei^nt members of; tl i coAffedfiram; SrjsBieiW^Xvritten'^^umfent called the conltitBtion. adbpted|by tl s peopleWitM' slates in]^29?. Tte hfia^'of the executive d^artmelat is styled tl ; Ei^sidBiit dfVS}®' ■'^^'tti^fld'StaT^SMjf Ain^tica, and isTelected iou^ term of four'yeai , by elecloraC»lleg§ilr,cWasen by iKS^^ple or the Ugislature£bv the different state! ; eaeh'elgptoral college is nompds'^cE th^same number of moaaders, as 'the represe ■ of the respective" states- (nNQ i The Chaudiere and Mojjtmorency are remarkable for their falls, the latter descending over a precipifte ^20 feet in height, into the St. Law-- reqce. .- ' , . "^ ■ " '' - - - i Divisions. Lower Canada is divided into the five-judicial districts of-ljaspe, St. F;rancis,./iuebec, MoBtreal, and Three Rivers._In 1828, it wd divided into 40 counties, vvhich are subdivided into 208 seigneuries and fiefs, and 160 townships. feuebec, the capital, coiisists of two distinct parts, the Lowej Town, lyitog along the river, the theatre of business and commerce, and the IJfflier Town, situated oiTa lofty promontory about ,350 feet above the ir, upon the edge of whichi,on Cape Diamond is the citadel. ., Aft and ire have combined to render this American Gibraltar impregnable, ulation 40,000. ' , . ■ , ' ' ': ~ ontreal-, situated on anisland in the St. Lawrence, just below the th of the Uttawa,'.is the centre of an active trade. Including its suf urbs it is'inore extensive anji somewhat more populous than Qtlebec. There is no other considerable town ; Three Rivei-s, with 2,000 inhab- itants, is the pvincipal. .' ' Government. The office of Governor General of Canada is at once ci™ and militaty, and "fie i^Captain General of all British America. ^ Tn hi4absence the government is administered by the Lieutenant 'Governor. TUere'are also Eiirecutive and Legislative councils appointed by the king for life, and a-House of Assenibly chosen by the qualified 'Voters. The Legislative Council and House of Assembly "constitute^ the two ho|ises of the Provincial Peirliament; bills, passed By the two' houses mifst receive the assent of the governor, before they become acts ; some rndst receive the royal sanction, and yet others are required to be sub- mfted to the Imperial Parliament. Population and Ejmigration: The population of Lower Canada acjording tofhe; ijios't probajile estimates is about 600,000, nearly'four- fiffis of whom are-Cana,dian French. The peasantry are known by the nafce of 'habitants.- The French Canadians, togethei;>with many Irish igrants, are Roman Catholics, and the Presl)yterians form a large pro- poftion of the rest of the populatibn.j The number of emigrants into Quebec in;1827, was 16,826 ; in 1830, 28,000; 1831,50,254; 1832,51,746; 1833,26,060; besides which, many arrive by way of New York and, Philadelphia. The whole number within the last ten years'{1824-1834), does not fall fax- short of 300,000, most of whom settle in Upper Canada^many pass into the United States,i and comparatively few remain in Lower Canada. Commerce. Exports, flour, lumber," pot and pe^l ashes, furs and skins, fish oil, &c., employing shippiig of about 270,000 tons; annual, value about £2,000i000; annual valuej of imports about £ 1,800,000. 'UPPER CANADA. Boundaries and,;Extent. Upper Canada is bounded east by Lower Canada, and' south'by the Lakes, and stretches to an indefinite extent norths and west.' If we consider it to extend from 74° 30 to 117° "W. Lon., and from -42° to 49° N. Lat., the region included within those limits will have an area of about 150,000 square miles.^ Butof this vastJiountigL. only about 33,000 square miles, on the southern border, between Lakes Huron; and Erie and Ontario, along the St., Lawrence, and a short dis- tance up the Ottawa, have been settled, laid out, or granted. . Face, OP the Country, Climate,' &c. The chmate.is much milder than' that of Lower, Canada, as might be expected from its more south- ern latitude; the duration. of winter is about two months shorter, and the atmosphere is clear' and healthy. The surface is generally level or slightly broken, but some distance back fi-om the lakes , and rivers, it ascends by successive abrupt elevations, called steps or ramps, to the high table-landof the-interior. The soil is unsurpassed in richness and variety, being adapted to every agricultural purpose; the ground is well wooded and the earth yields gypsum and salt.. ,,, < RivEgs. The Thames and the Ouse are the principal rivers of thi southwestern peninsula, which is nearly encircled' by lakes Huron, St ClairJErie, and Ontario, and the rivers>,St. Clair, Detroit, and Niagara^;^ which connect them. In the isthmus betvveen the Georgian or -^Mani-' toullil Bay of Lake Huron, and Lake Ontario, is Lake Simcoe, 40,^ile^ long, affording an'easy communication with the aid of portages, across- the country. The Rideau and the Madawaska are the rprincipal tr|buta4 • riesof the Ottawa. , ': . {. Divisions. Upper Cartada is divided into 26 counties, which are-.sub^ . divided into 280 townships. There are also 11 judicial districts. ;- Counties. ' Cpuntvis. \ Addington, Lanark, Brockville, Leeds, (L^ ';- Carleton, Lennox, Dundas, Lincoln, Durham, Middlesex, Essex, Northumberland, ,- Frpntenac, Prescott, Glengary, , Prince Edward, Grenville, Russell, Haldimand, Simcoe, Halton, Stormont, Hastings, Wentworth, ,'•*' . Kent, York. Towns. The capital, Toronto, lately York, .stands on a shallow bay near the vifestern end of Lake Ontaiio. , Population, 8,730. Kingston,'at the bottom of Lake Ontario, has a fine harbor, and a dock- yard ; population about 4,500. Prescott and Brockville are flourishing villagBiyonrthe St. Eavfrence ;' , Queenstowti and Chippewa, on the Detroit ; Amherstburg; on the Detroit ; Goderich on Lake Huron, and Hull on the Uttawa. Canals. " Thq Welland Canal forths a communication by lake vessels of 120 tons between lakes Erie and Ontario. It is 41 miles in length, 56 feet wide, and 8i feet deep ; supimit level 330 feet. The Rideau Canal extends I in a circuitous course from Lake Ontario at Kingston, down.the Rideau to. Hull; the excavation is 20 miles, but the whole . navigation 160 ; lockage 437 feet ; 47 locks. , Population. The population of Upper Canada is £f00,000, and is rapidly increasing by emigration. It is composed chiefly of Scotch and . Irish emigrants, with some Americans, Canadian French, and English. Government. The form of government is like that 'of the other British Provinces ; the Lieutenant Governor, with the Executive Coun- cil, administers, the Executive Department, and there is, a Provincial Parliament composed of two houses, the Legislative Council, and the House of Assembly ; the latter consists of fifly members, chosen by the qualified votetB. BRITISH AMERICAj^. ^ ^, Extent. The British possessions in North America, exclusive of the West India colonies, are Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Prince E^wird's Island, Newfoundland, Upper Canada, Lower Canjida,_ and "the vas| regions lying to the north of the latter. * ■ . ' . -- The last mentioned tract is inhabited only , by 'Indians, if^e except several Moravian missionary stations on the raist offtabrador^nd is in a great nifea'sure, condemned Jo Jjerpetual stmlfty by thetigfite of the; climate and the paJcerty-gf-tiie soil. It is hOn^SiTYtdjjSiBr^for the great number of fui-^fearing animals it affjrds. ' ■ -^ v ' There are 300 EnglishTye^els, manned by 20,CipO men, empfeyeS in the Labrador fishery, whichNtake425,t)O0-(Jcfintals or.fish'annuall^^and 500 American vesaels, carrying I^OOQSmen, aiid taking l;000,00#^q(iintals. - The (iolanies are each g6vemed by a gQi>«rnor andlcouncil- ^pbinted by the king, and=^a colonial ^seflibly clibsMT^by theBqualifieS^ectors among the colonists. c " - ''f A, "^ ,^ C: ■ ^'' '^ *^ si-/?' ~^^" '^^■^'^NEWFOUjNDLANTD Extent, Population, &c. This island ias-a ruafeeU and moun^in- ous surfflce, with few trees ; the climate is not|severe,T|u#on the southern' and eastern coast is humid and disagreeable? in. the inteHo'Fand Western part the air is clear and hSalthy. The interis^Hs imperfectly known, the coast hiia many exc'ellent harbors. Poiialatidn ab6ut 80,(8)0. i Towns. St. John's, the capital, has ahmjt 12,000 inhabitants f-Harbor' Grace, 5,000. NExports; codfish, sealskins, salmon,vfurs, cod and s^alioil, &c., to the animal value of about £496)000 ; impdrtsj •fehi^fly^gro-^Mqns and British 4nanufactures, £55O,0OO. ^ ' '' ^ v- , ^ ''' PRINCE EDW-ARD'S ISLAND t This island is 140 miles in length, by 34 in breadth^Wiih an areaHof 2,200 square miles. The coast is so much indented by'drms of the sei that no part is more than 8 miles fjc6m tide-»waters, - The soil is fettili and the climate is dry, mild and healthy. : 1 "C."' . >, \ ^ ,„~ > The ^"opulation is stated by Bouchette to be ■^S0,00^>^:^Macgi-egory- 35,000; the latter is probably^near the truth. The." capital ^ C^aflotf^ town, with 3,500 ihhabitants. . --<~;^' / NOVA, SCOTIA. Extent and Population. The province of N0va;,Scotia Comprises the island of Cape Bretonr- The peninsula of Nova Seotia has an area o^ 15,500 square miles, and is connected with the main land by-a narifiw. isthmus. The Gut of Canso separates it fi-om Caje Breton;. On the' . northwest is the Bay of Fundy, remarkable for its high tides, whiclj in [ some places rise to the height of 70 feet. The ?popiilation of this province is about 160,000, of which 30,000 are on Csipe Breton. , ., The Isle of Sable, the scene of numerous shipwrecks, is 85 miles S'okl: Cape Canseau, the neai-est point of Nova Scotia. ^ '_ . .; SoiiL, jfcc. Much of the soil is thin and rocky^ 'yet there i^, a good proportion of productive land ; the climate is humid, and Variable, but" healtlfy:; the fogs on the Atlantic and Bay of Fundy, are frequent ^nd' dense. Coal, gypsura, and dried and pickled fish,' are the principal- articles of exportation. Annual value of exports, £ 600,000,"^of im- ports, £ 1,000,000. ■ ^■ Towns. The^capital is Halifax, 16,000 ijihabitants, which has one of the best and na^tjcap^cious harbors of North America, and contains a dock-yard. Pic'toCt, ^^00, Liverpool, lj500, Lunenburgh,_ 1,200,^ Windsor, 1,000,' ahd Digby, 800, are the prihci]Jal towns on jtHe.maiii-" land. Arichat, 2,000' iniabitants, is on a small island on the 'coast,„of ; Cape Breton; Sydney has' ■about 600 inhabitants; Louisburg, once a strong fortress, and twice captured ' from ^^? French, is now nearly deserted. 3 " ' - NEW BRUNSWICK. r^. - '' ' - ~i '^^' ^ Extent and Population. This province lies between "the Bay/of Fundy and the Restigouche, which separates it from Lower Canftda,(4g°, N. Lat.) and is 200 miles in length, by about 120 in breadth','having an area of about 24,000 square miles. The population, chiefly confine^ to the banks of the St. John's, the Miramichi, and the coasts, is ll'0,t)00. ' / Son, CflOpriEKOiE, '&c.> The soil is fertile, and the clunate is healthy j on the Bajf of Fundy sea-fogs are ;fi:£quent. The great extent of coastj apAof navigable rivers, among whicbare the St. John's, St. Croix, and; Miraniichi, give this province ^reat commercial facilities. The annual) value of thfe exporljs, consisting chiefly of fish, lumber, and gypsum, isj about £ 860,000 ; of iipportg. about £ 450,000. ; - Towns: PrederieH:ton,^a '^malt 'village -on the St. John's, is the seaia of governilaent. ..'?Cbe^pi-incipal towiifis the city of St. John's, with aj noputation of l,3,00p. St. An^ws, 6n the St. Croix, has 3,000 inhabi ' "^ants. ',v- f^ */ l^a^j^L- uili "° — ^is'diyiaed:from Upper Canada by the river llrS'WER 'CANADA. Extents This provi Ot^wa,and'a lin^ ^rawn di^iiorthjfrdm lake Tomiscaming to Hudaon's ■Bay ;^itseagtern boundary isla'line'irom Anse du Sablon to the parallel of 525 N. Lat.J^jni^fits nortfi^ 'that' parallel ; the space included within these limits is equfil to about ,k60,Q00 square miles ; of this vast region about §5,000 square -JHiles jh^^been granted to individuals, compan- i^, &t., but the country^ under actual cultivation, does not exceed 6,000. { \ ' Divisions an^ jJVpi^ation.^ Lower Canada is divided into 40 cdun- Sfes, whifth are -'sub(Jjvided into seigneuries,^efs, and townships. The seigneuriea are li^fe^r?i(its o/land, granted by the French, under a feudal tenuife, to proprffetqB calle'd seigneurs; tlig seigneurs in turn making grants ^o tenants .(habitaris), who pay a certaui rent with certain pr- vices* ■'■ ' > ,-iT^-^^ < i^.Xfts populaiipnjs eslifiat^d at about ^0,000, of whom about four fifths are Fi'encli Oafiadipns.' . ' ' ^ ■ ^ Towns. The seat of -government is Quebec, an impregnable fortress on the'St. Lawrence; the pomijatibi'of the city and suburbs is about 40,000, offmneh inore thali't'wo thirds are French Canadians. Montreal has abotilthe same number of inhabitants as Quebec. j The finnual value of the exports is about £2,000,000 sterling ; oflthe impM?tfe>bout £1770,000. rri UPPER r 3'' I ADA. -i Extent^ and- Populajtion. ^ ^his province, althOTgh more receijtly settled, has of .^te yeai^ incased in populationrafad resources with a rapidityJ^^qUailed' only bv;s5m&i)ortions of our ccJuntry. ■i Its limits to the north ■and)ifest ar-pit^efified. Bordering on 4hie great flakes, and 'well watered by.. numerous Jiyers, with a mild and hejjthy clir late, anji a ^fertife_ soil, it has e;^ry :^van1age for easy compSlinicatioi i, and has 4'ecently |)e^ome ,tb'fe^vorili^resort of British em}giants. ' ?he po^u- ^latioti in 1^9, was ^SjOOljat pr^ent {1§33) it excels 300,(100. ,,, Uppjfer CSuiada is; suJtfdivldEdurt&i counties andlSidings; the whole ."c'ouiiSi^ laid'mit or afranted, ai%il^ag to about 33,000 square miles, , 'Canals. — TKei^f^re ^o c&tials'in this provincgriHhe Rideau c exfeil9gmni(fete (^^^of^^ '"''-— ^-'- " ''- "^'^ - •' "■• the^hole-dtkSnce isi ;20. " " ^ ~ ] c^al Kingston, down the Ri^i^au to the Otta\^a ; les, but the actual excavatibn does not exceed '^n - . Towfrs."^or^^f Toronto, the capital of Upper Canada, has 8,730 inhabiftints. ^i&gSton/ with 4^500 inhabitants, a dock-yard, and !an excellent harlior, i^ ^l^efflther principal town. Among the new villages whichfMv^sprupg;Up withinthe last few years are Hull, on the Ottawa, &d GfTdefich, otvLske Huron". History.'^ (CanacJa was disco*«red by Cartier, a French navigator, in 1534, %nd settBmenfs were sooii ailer formed on the St. Lawrence by that nation.; ' _" ^ ' ■ They likewise planted colonies in Acadie in the beginning of the 17th century, which were- afterwards destroyed by the English, who gave the country the name of Nova Scotia. After having been restoredjto France, Nova Scotia was finally ceded to Great Britain by the peajce o^Ut^echt, m 1713. ] . Cape Breton was also settled by the French in 1714 ; they built a strong fo^tfess at Louisburg, which was captured by the New England troops in 1745. The island was restored to France by the peace of Aix-la- Ch&pelle, but was taken possession of by the British in 1758, and by tfie peace of 1763 confii-med to Great Britain. ] ^^anada, after having been several times ceded to Great Britain, whs finally giv^n up to that power in 1763. It= UNITED MEXICAN ?SITATES. Area. Tlie territory of;this republic^ of: which the official style is Estados Unidos Me;xicanos,textet*ds from 15° to 42° N'.'Jjat.j and from 86° to 125° W. Lon., havfng an area of ^,690,000 sqliare miles. Divisions. The Mexican; Gbijfederacy is compose,d of .19 states, the federal district of Mexico, ai;^4s>Territories, as follows ;^^ M^xi^p, - MerlUa,f TabE&co, Oawt^ca, J-alapa, PUebla, States S{ Territories. Federal District, Yucatan, Chiapas, -^ Tabasco, ■ Oaxaca, Vera Cruz, Putibla, _ Mexico, — Q,ueretaro, Mechoacan, Guanaxuato, Xalisco, San Luis-Potosi, Zacatecas, New Leoa^ Tamaulipa^, DurangD, Cohahuila'^and ) Texas, j Chihuahua, - ■^ Sonera & Sinaloa, New Mexico Ter. Upper California, Lower California Area. 79,534 18,750 : 14,676: 32,69r 27,660 18,441 30,182- 13,482- 24,166. 6,255 72,389 19,0*7 17-,580 21,200 500,000 I 100,600 C ,85j000 T 600,900 C 233™ J ,,800 0001 ..-^-_, 1,000,000 TJalJiSan, Tlascala, { \ Colima, { 5^0 1&3,600 ''J07,584 .95i4,705 214,800 3^a360 57^00 Pope 500,000 45t),00p i ^SOO^OMi SOOsOUO ^,000 35,131-' 175,000 ' '" 200,000 130,000 125,000 200,000 150J100 S9JD00 SOjDOO 200,PQ0 9,ueretaro, "" ^^alladolld, tiuanaxuato, Guadalaxaxa, ^ San Luis, Zacatecas, Monterey, Agiiayo, Durango, Monclova, Chihuahua, Villa del Fuerte, Sante Pei^ Montereyy Loreto^ i Pop. 180,000 6,000 3,000 5,000 40,000 30,000 50,000 5,000 40,000 25,000 40,000 85,000 20,000 25,000 15,000 6,00Q 25,000 fi,000 ■^ 30,000 4,000 5,000 - 2.600 20,000 Productions. Dye woods,r&c. fndigo, &c. WiteatandrTobacco. Wljeat-, Mlaiz^e, &c. VVheat and ^opacco. Gold, Silver,.Corn. Galj and Silver. ; Gold, Silver; a^d Sugar, ■' Gold and-SUwr. r ^:' Conl,Cochvbeal, Maize,&c. Goldian'dSflver.^i " "< a' ,. ' ^ol4^and SilVer; (jqjd and-Silver. Gcyd, Silver, Pearls, &&. Gold, Sillier, Iton, &c. Cdirn, Wi4e, Pearls. consisting merely of those cities, -with theic vicinity. Phtsical Features: A wide chain of mbimtains cdled the Cordil- leras, stretches thrbugh, th& 'jcentre of the country, upon the back of"^ which spread out vast table^stods, which; gradually sink down toward the temperate ■ zone,; but in ithe torrid .zone' have an elevation of from 7,000 to 8,000 feet-. ■- Upon; rinstlofty tract is concentred most of the pop- ulation of the-?!buntry;^-.AbovB it rise intd the regions of perpetual show, scattered peaks, of which; the. most- elevated 'rare 'PopBcatepetl, 17,880 feet high; Orizava or Gitlfiltepetl, ] 7,375 feet ; IstaccilJuat], 15,710 feet ; and the Nevado of Tolifca^ 15,170 feet high. On the east and west the surface rapidly descends: to the sea, and continuaKheati prevailin' the low countries. '. -''.-"--' In the equinoctial region, the climates fire thusdisposed, as it were, in layers one above another, and'the traveller'may'; ascend from tlie coast to the centre, or descend from the cefltral_ plateau to the coast, through re- gions exhibiting the vegetaticfti of the frigid, temperate, and torrid zones. Much of the table-land is arid and destitute of vegetation, but the tierra caliente or hot country, is remarkable for the- luxuriance^ splendor, and variety of its vegetable productions..^ ; ' "i- Between 15° and 22° N. Lat., the inean temperature of the coast, which is humid; and unhealthy for strangers, is from 77° to 80°, while that of the table-land in the same latitude, which is7 celebrated, for the salubrity of its climate, is from 60° to 62°. ' -_ •- ' The most populous part of the country is d^titiite of navigable jjvers, but in the north there are many large streams. Of these' the Bfasds, Colorado, and Bravo or Del Norte, are the principal in the.- eastern part, and the Colorado of the West, Gila, Yaqui, Buenaventni-a, and Tirapa- nogos, in the westei-n. . The eastern coast has no good harbors, and the mouths of the rivers, which discharge themselves into the Gulf of Mexico, are obstructed by sand-bars. On the western coast are the fine harbore o^San-FranciscOj Guaymas on the Gulf of California, Mazatlan, San Bias, and Aca-- pulcO. ''-■-- -. Agricultural Productions. The banana, manioc, maize^the cereal grains, and the potato, constitute the basis of the food of the' inhabitants. The maguey, which furnishes pulque, a refreshing drink, and by distilla-^ tion mescal, an intoxicating liquor, may be considered as the Mexican* vine. The sugar-cane, cotton, cocoa, indigo, vanilla, tobacco, cochineal, wax, (Ssc, form part of the vegetable wealth of the country. Vast herds of horses, mules, and horned cattle, cover the plains of the 'northern states. Mineral Productions. Gold, silver, mercury, iron, copper, and lead, abound. The annual product of the gold mines has been 4,239 lbs., of the silver mines, 1,439,832 lbs.; total value 23,000,000 dollars, or nearly one half of the annual value of the precious metals produced by all the mines of America. The mint of Mexico has issued, up to 1800, about 2,028,000,000 dollars, or nearly two fifths of all the gold and silver brought into circulation by the New World. Towns. Beside the towns mentioned in the above table, are Tampico de Tamaulipas, 4,000 inhabitants; Vera Cruz, 10,000; Aguas Calientes, 20,000, and Sombrerete, 15,000, in Zacatecas ; Salamanca and Zelaya in Guanaxuato, about 15,000 each ; Leon, 14,000 ; Lagos, 10,000, and Topic, 8,000, in Xalisco ; Culiacan, 11,000; Alamos, 6,000, and Arispe, 5,000, in Sonora and Sinaloa, &c. Chplula and Tlascala, once seats of rival states, are now insignificant villages ; and Acapulco, so famous for its magnificent harbor, is a mere Icojlection of huts. Population. The population of the Confederacy is not far fi-om 8,000,000, of which abjut 4,000,000 are Indians, 1,500,000 Creoles (descendants of Eurojieans), ';ahd the remainder mixed breeds: the mixed races are mulatitSes, descendants of a white and a black ; mesti- zoes, of a white and auMdianljzambos, of blacks and Indians, &c. The inhabitants are all RomSn Catholics ; slavery has been abolished. Government. Thejjepul^lic is a Confederacy of Republics, each m;dnaging its own internal affairs ; the head of the federal executive is a president, chosen =% the* statdegislatures for the term of four yeai'S. The congress cqnsists of^a senate, chosen for the same term by the same bodies, two senators fr^tg eacJTstate ; and a House of Representatives, elected by the people fofthe tpi-m of two years. ; History. Cortez dfeooveredlthe country in 1519, and overthrew the Aztec empire. ; The cDuntiy Was then formed into the Spanish vice- royalty of New Spain. '^~- "^ . ' , , • Iij.1810, an insurrection broke out, and in 1813 'Mexiccfedeclared itself inde^ndent . - v' V 'In-1822, Iturbide assumed th^ title of emperor of Mexico, feuthe was soon after obliged to abdicate, and in 1824 the presenj republican consti- tution' was adopted. The country has since been constantly torn by civil wars, •= : . '. CONFEDERACY OF CENTRAL" AMERICA. Arka. This republic, RepuWica' Federale de Centro America, lies betwe.eq 8° and 17°-N. Lat, and between 83° and,95° W. 1/on., having an area of l-86j000 Square miles. ■ <- Di\^sion3. "rhe^ confederacy, ^corresponding pearlv to the Spanish Captain-generalship of Guatemala, consists of a federaP district and five states, which are subdivided into partidos. j_ New Guatemalit,' 'PffpjXaXiffn. Federal District, ":- 4 50,000 Guatemala, 3^ .-f: 850,000 Old GuaJpajSlaf .-. San Salvador, ?^ "350,000 ^fL«afvador, , Honduras, ^" ■-;^OOieOO-tlComayagua, Nicaragua, '■250,000 Efeon, Costa Rica, ' ' 202,000 San Jose, Popviation. 50,000 18,000 39,000 . JBiOOO- " 38,000 20,000 Towns. Th,e principal towns of Central America, beside ^bose above mentioned, are'j!hiquimula, 37,000 iuhaljit'ants ; Omoa and Truxillo, on the eastern coast, important on account of .their harbors,T)Ut unhealthy ; Nicaragua, 10,000 inhabitants, and Graiiadfe, 8^0&0j on Lake Nicaragua ; Realejo,. 1,000 inhabitants,. on the Pacific, with one of the'fine'st haz'bors in. the woj-ldj §nd Cartago, in, Costa RicarWit}i'-26,000 inhabitants. The" English have a factory on the Belize, for ci(tting logwood" and mahog- any. .... -•^Phtsi.cal Features. "Central America is traversed by the Afldes, ^which in'some pfeces sink down to a moderate elevation. The volcanoes of Fuego, Soconusco,sAgua, Pacaya, St. Salvador, Granada, ^and Telica, are found in this part ofth'6 chain. The riveVs'have short courses, but ' several'of fliem afford important advantages for internal na1;igation; Lake Nicaragua is 123 rhiles iri'lengtiiyand 40 in breadth ; it is- con- nected with the Atlantio'-by a najagable outlgtj and with Lake Leon, which is 35 miles long, by 15 broad, and"only l2leagues from the Pacific, - by a stream "much broken by falls. The cljmate and pro;ductions of this region resemble those of Southern Mexico, and the towns-on the coast are equally unhegilthy. Popujkation, &c. The ^population of the Confederacy is nearly 2,000,000, of which about one half are Indians, many of .whom are en- tirely independe'ht ; one quarter mixed breeds (mestizoes, mulattoes, zamboes,' &c.) ; one sixth whites (Spanish Creoles), and the remainder negroes. - . Government. The government Is formed,on the model of that of the United States. ■ ' , HiSTORT. Alvarado invaded the empii-e of. the Quichos, the most powerful and civilized nation of this region, in 1523, and reduced it to a Spanish province. - - ' It was governed by a captain-general, as a dependence of the vice- royalty of New Spain, imtil, in 1824, the Guatefiitdc'ans proclaimed their independence. r' The country has since continued to be distracted by civU disseDsions. W'EST iTiJ'DlES. Extent and Divisions. This noble afchipelago extends from 10° to 28° N. Lat., and from 61° to 85° W. Lon., having a land area of about 93,300 square miles. ;.. It is commonly dirided by geographers into several groups ; viz. : the Bahamas or Lucayas, consisting of J4 principal islands, and about 650 islets ; the Great Antilles, compiasiiigi'the 4 laige islands of Cuba, Hayti, Jamaica, and Porto Rico, witK^nuiiierous small isles on their coasts ; the.Caribbean Islands, comprising thejhree gioupsof the Virgin Islands, lying between the Virgin and Sombrero passage, the Leeward Islands, extending from the latter pasg to the channel between Dominica and Martinique, and the Wind war'd- Isles, extending south of the former to the South American coast ; and the Little Antilles, comprising the islands lying along the coast. By the French, S|)aniards, and other Cpntinental Europeans, the name of Antilles is^more "frequently applied to the whole "archipelago, which they divide-into the G'seater 'and Less AntHles. '- The following table 'exhibits the comparative area of the larger island?, and the two general divisiona, ;, . Islands. GubE^ Hayti, Jamaica, Porto Rico, Great Antilles, Lesser Antilles, TotaV Area. 43,350 29,430 5,52Q 3,et65 82,165 11,130 93,295 Population. 704,487 800,00{> 414,500 , 323,840 2,242,830 . 700,000 2,942,830 Climate. Lyilig' almost entirely within the tropic^, these islands know no winter ; the year is divided into the wet or rainy and dry sea- sons. The former bceSUrs during the presence of the sun north of Ihe equator, and the climate is then unheaUhy. But during the idry season . nothing can exceed the softness of the air, the brillfatiGy of ttie heavens, and the splendor of the vegetsrtion. Hurricanes often.do great damage in some of the islands. ■' Inhabitants. The native tribes have long-since become extinct ; the southern isla,pds were inhabited, at the tjme; of- their discovery, by the fierce and warlike Caribs, and the northern, including the Bahamas emd the Great Antilles, by the Arrowauks, a iftore mild and gentle race. At present the great mass of the population is of African pri^, and the remainder consists of Spaniards, French, English, Dutch, Danes, and individuals of other European nations. ■ ,- , . _ , The number of inhabitants is veiy nearly 3Jt)00j000,of whom 40 per cent, are slaves, 43 per cent, free blacks and raulattoes, and 17:^er cent, wliites. Ishmds. to ( ■g I Cuba, a. I Porto Rico, 02 I, Hayti, 'Antigua, Anguilla, Barbadoes, Dominica, Grenada, &c. a 3 ft -02 -V MontseH'at. Nevis, ~ St. Kitts, St. Lucia, St. Vincent, Tobago, Tortola,_&c. r , Trinidad, j Bahamas,- Bermudas, Martinique, GuadetonpejWith Mariegalante, Desivade, Saintes, &c. ^St Eustatius, with Saba, Curacao, , St. Martin, (in part to France), Santa Cruz or St. Croix, St. Thomas, t St John, St Bartholomew, 311,051, 133,100 1,980 365 14,959 840 801 37,000 330 TOO 1,612 972 1,301 322 477 4,201 4,240 3,905 10,000 12,800 ? ? ? 2,500 800 150 ~ Slaves^ . 286,942 31,874 29,839 2,388 81,902 15,392 24,145 322,421 6,262 9,259 19,310 13,348 23,000 12,000 5,399 24,006 9,268 4,370 81,143 ■ 88,000 12,000 6,500 4,000 29,500 5,500 2,600 6,000 . Total'. ., " • 704,487 ■ -■323,83§ 800,000 35,714 3,080 102,007 19,838 28,753 ■ 414,421 7,406 li,959 23,922 18,051 27,114 14,042 7,172 44,163' 16,4M . 9,2i); 101,865- 111,000 18,000 11,000 6,000 34,000 7,000 3,000 12,000- Cuba is one of the richest colonies in. the world ;, it ovres its political; and commercial importance to the fertility of its soil, its ge^aphioal position, stretching from Florida to Yucatan, and it^'numerous ^BC-har- bors ; and since the. close of the last century^ ,^©-ceMi9V«l lOf the restric-f tions upon its trade, and the increase ofjfs population, owing to thej! revolution in Hayti and in the Spanish -oentiniental possg«ipns,Jjave|| given a wonderful impulse to its prosperity. ^During the last 30 years; the population has. more than doubled, ai^ the exportation of sugar has! increased from 1 10,000 to 250,000 boxes, and that pif cofte from 1,250,000 ' pounds to 30,000,000 pounds. The'revenuje;, pf the. /island is aboutj $7,500,000. _ . . -. f Havana, the capital, with one of the finest hartioi'sliij the world, is one oYthe first commercial cities in America ; population lKj023.'^1Vlatanzas, 15,000 inhabitants ; Puerto PrincipCj 50,000 ; Santiago^ 9S',060 ; Bayamo ' or St Salvador, 8,050; Trinidad, 13,000; and Manzaiiiillo,,3jOOO, are the other principal towns. . ii . : Porto Rico has also shared in the .prosperity of Cuba. The population, ; .which is principally-free, has more than doubledsince'1800. The capi-* tal, Porto Rico, has^O,000 inhabitantef Guay&ma; Mayaguez, and Ptmce, j are active ti-ading places. ' -- - Productions. The West Indies prodnoe all the varieties of tropical) vegetation. Coffee, sugar, rum, molasses, wai^. tobacco, hides, cotton,^ indigo, tropical fruits, fec^ are among the mbSt important articles of ex- portation ; and maize, wheat, plantain, banana, yams, cocoa, manioc, &c. furnish valuable ^articles of food* . The forests yield mahogany, iron, wood, lignumv^i cedar, and other wood Useful in the artsi HAYTI.- : This fine island, formerly called Hispaniola or St Domingo, belonged-' partly to Spain and partly to France until 1791, when a Servile insurrec-> tion broke out, whichT-^ulted in the expulsion of the whites after a pro- j longed and bloody sjruggle. Several states were formed by the blacksf and mulattoes, but m 1822 the whole island was united into one state, with a republican form of government Previous to the insurrection, the annual export of coffee amounted to, 68 million pp6ndSj_and that of sugar to 163 millions ; at ]jresent about 40' million pounds of-cofiee are exported annually, and the qualntity of sugar exported is inconsiderable;: ■ | ' The capital is Port Republican, formerly Port au Prince, with 15,000 j inhabitants. ■ Cape, Haytian, formerly Cape FraDgais, anS St Doniingo,' sach with 16,000 inhabitants, Les Cayes or Aux Cayes, Jerenue, andf Jacmel, are among the other principal towns. ^ ' ■; ' * SPANISH ISLANDS. ENGLISH ISLANDS. j : The whole population of the English Islands ,fe not fer fi-om 700,000, 1 of which upwards'offive sixths are colored. In 1833 an act was passed J by the British parliament, prospectively abolishing davery in the Bi-itish J colonies. The act provides that all children, bonj after the passing of the ( same, or who are aFfliat time of six years of age and under, shall be free, or bound as apprentices tolheir masters, 'the males to the age of 24, and the females to that of 20 yeara. The adults are to become free after an 'apprenticeship of 6 vears, beginning August 1, 1834, during which period * one fourth of their time is to be their own, and thecivil disabilities, under I which they have lain as slaves, are to cease. ' The most important of the English islands is Jartsaica, of which the jchief towns are Spanish Town, the capital, wilih 5,000 inhabitants ; Kingston, the principal commercial place in the En^ish colonies, 34,000 ' inhabitants ; Port Royal,, 15,000, arid Mbntegp Bay, 4,500 inhabitants. t FRENCH, DANISH, DUTCH, &c. ISLAND^. The principal towns cf the French West. Indies,; are St, Pierre, 18,000 inhabitants, and-Fort ^.o^al, 8,000,'on Martinique, and Basse Terre 6,000, and Pointe k Pitre, 10,000 inhsibitfmts, on Guadeloupe. The principal towns of the Danish colonies, are Christi?«nstadt, on Santa Cruz, with 5,000 inhabitants, and St Thomas, on the island of the same name, with 3,000. In the Dutch Islands_are Willelmstadt on Curagao, 8,000 inhabitants, anSSt Eiistatius, oh the island 'of the "same naine, w5!h 6,000: — -Gustavia. jthe.capitaLof .St Bartbplome\^, Jias 10,000 inh|^itants. M®M.^M AMMIH'OA 1Q7 Xpno'. IV'est iroui 9 7 Greeuwich. N-OfirTH AMERICA. iiXTteNT. Noi fr( n Lancaster soul las $n area of nds, of 7,600, Ps lama, is 8,500. to ica extends, exclusive of its in'sul^ir portions, 74° N.,to Lat.fe°, and froihJLon.56° tb 168° W. 1,000 square nitles ; (il'J'includin'g/.the Weet^India'" Tlie extent" of coast" 'ftonf Hudson's sfiaiity''to . ; from the'1stf\qyj^g^(J|"Paijama, on tte-Pac&fe(feide, Jehiing's stiais, about 10,500 miles. ^'^,;' ?_ ji,i'"''" opt LATioip The population qf^rth America is abojjt 27jQiJ3lf infludiug 3,(M000 in th^'\Y( ' " - - - ....j<-, -i- 5,( )0,000 In&s or .^bpri^)ggj|Pei[j;O00' .bj^cks, Sigyprfemai«8ei _ miilattoes, mes^SeSj, zEtn^lJa§, oHfAer mixed iJi'Sftte > "^'^ , / oLiTicAt gfivisioNs.''' ,;^^^ive. df 'th^^w^ Indies, tl;e whole^ cojtine^t is dhimed by fi^Kjj^ers, althougtopTarge portion y the lof Rivers. No country is more bountifully supplied witl. ^.^^ , North America 5 tio extensive region upon its surface is indeed inapees 'SiblB"by water. j ^v) The Mississippi, reckoning from the source oP the Missouri^ its Jtieaa).tias a course of 4,300 miles, for 3,900 ofjwhich, it is navigable^. febajts. It, has h^n estimated that the basin of this river has an area of pwafds.of 1-,3ffi,00d soji^e miles, and thatfthe whole, amdimt^pf boat Iftn^affordedjjy'uie river-gystem ofcAVhich ft is the nlain>trunk, is tnearK,4Q,Qp(rmUegr (\ V" ,, J> .. ''■ . . »<•«"■" t^Xfeft,^t. Lawrence, estimalii^5tehi^^e'q%^ie The north^^|)art belafigs i»^re! gr^ It lakes to the Frozen Ocean, ovePsdi Br tish America comprises vast tracts, efil colntrjL "'"■■tL.-'^P-' Tl^e United States, washedg^rit&i.Bacifiij^^dj, the Atlaritio, La tes and the Mexican gu^^jsBKpveifSsurfais»-M,'3,20Q,0OOj*' mi es, in the central part q^p&coi^tLn6iit3r^ _,' ^ ^Jj ^^'i.i^/ - . The IJjift^d ^tate^^si^^ieo, wj^lJbne foftt-^^p6Sl the Pacifl»>l«nd th J other upbtt ttee ApBc, cpVer »-^pace of i,650,0(I) square friflea,! w Upon ' the soulfietn extr6n% of North Araer^Jhe infJepentft rei ilblic of the United States of Ceno'alJhBjerica^y^^nds over aT^^Bj of 186,000'^squar^niiJes in exteift:,,,,' p^' V »■ '■'i'lcal^Jated lififilie same.manneiv is 2,2Q0 mjles. »v..j.S^, 'Plid"- rttVioT Kl^jwi.ALna4^'.i'ii70i%3 ava IVra^tfin'/ip'' ilaimed by K^ssia. Russian-^ *;Th'e*- other ^ipwpetl-Tivej-s are IVfackenzie's river,' tlje.'Oolu5(ibiaj,tir esCf:*.-, /«. •^■'■...„/i ., , X)reeon, and the Del Norte?■" Brifii Unitei Mexicati . GenfrafA: 24,000,0001 ■3,QQQ,QQpr, ^ 5o;6e§fi *'i,eoQj|j@o. J ]3,OOQ,OQ0!^-^ '-^"U^jOQfpO [ ^,00(j|^. ^>. ' Sf StCAIf Divi ,^, gn it.pnysical regions V ■ , The tableland of Ml en and western shores : ! , The plateau lying Oc lan, k country ^ith a „j 55i 1 parallel, biit inhospitable , The great central Valley oftl he east side ; bare, but notuo) 90,000 500,000 2,800,000' 2,200,1 " l,65f,...,. 186,000 D!fcally diyid^^MHtO' r<--: ;hs of lakes, . ontiy on 1I ^Vp^'RoijkfMjundi^s al|athe Psteifii Jufeid atm^^eyilji as ftlr aortli as barren beyondthis boundary: ^-s..— Mississippi, rich .and, well VTOod^d ^ (i&^'iti'Vjl>lca£o iff'the hig test suMimit in Nortk.AiQerica. -...,. ,,j^:^-"^rr^^aH|;.,4 tSrj^ '^d«]^ords 4,000 ^iles of bo^atmai%ition. The .Ipngth of its course, Lakes. North »Am^rifiajfe*QtainS( the largest masses of fresli wafer in the world ; Lak^jStl^eri^^^Se exceeds in dimensions aft other fresli- . lakes upon the ,^yje, taken Togethekl The whole region., "bet wefen 42° and 675JSf. La{i.,>isf'so i!g^y250 Broad ; supodcA^ea 20,000 (a»e-ffl)iles^ ftiieditfm f(|^^00 toiiOOO feet: »■ Tfci3.T^(t,^.« - ' 4.'vX^^Biie>is"S3P^ilesfe broadv; are^fmPg^uarp, miles; levanon of ilg^sm-feceW^S feet above \the ^c^mj^but its. bed is . !b?)ljiaratively ^Hallow, its mean depth being biit abcJuOSO feptl ' 5:TEi^e.jyntario is 200 miles. long, by 40 broa^^^lM^"SJ300 square miles ; ji^-lp-yel '^"330 feet below that of Lake Erie, yeraaiHisfUi depth is ^AuVSpO |(et;" ' .^-"^"^ ! C(&er principal lakes ai-e Athabasca, Winnij^g,Jffieat Slave Lake, BMI^LakeJ and Nicaragua, in Central America.' , 6i^5S«',OJp- "Discovert. Iceland waS3i»fMted in-the 9th century by ^lansj, who, in the 11th, 12th,.ariid<13)iliiviienluries, appear ta en weUfab^hribted with the nort^eiE^ljgpi coksts of the continent 1492; OTOber^th, Christopher ColuHlbus, a ^noes& discovers St. S^dor^ ^L^_. .„/A ,. , / '/' ' y ■%- 4§A June 24th,-\Jbha Cabot, aJl'■enetia^5^B'llle servfceof Heniy ffi^ EjnjlaM7 re-discovered ,the>>Aift(5ncan continent. r 1498. i-Seb^ian Cabot discov^^^erofoundland. 1500. ',_JtlQni^^f«APortugi}ese:n&igator, discovers Labrador. 1512. Ponce!4aJtieon visite FloriHa. • „.> »" »^*|. '•' Seb^anCabot enters HucgaK's B£(iE,,'- •** '.^•■^*^ , 1518. Mexico discovered ljjs.l!h§1§^aniardte.j,„.,;;']'«^ '" 1535. Cartieiv^T^rfHeii navigmor, sails up the-StTL^Wrence. ,7 1539. T^i^^^f bf j6alifomia.j5^ted by the SBaniarfs. ^^'' enters the straft which bears his ent in Acadia, now 1587. ^^e^EnglishWvigator,JDi nanie...-"---^;,'; y(>.»«'i, ' -v.^, 1604.::,''DCMp(iilts foupds the first Frendlx^ settl ]StjfeScotia.">i '■■•'''••'' ^"7^" '-'. ! 1607 -The first pei-manent Ejlglish setflement in North America, tljs ^de^t^amestoivn. V J , , ; ^^' 'f*'i8]a4)5^H»daofi enters tlie bay which bears his name. -~ K f Ifi^'kfeSiw peneft4tes the arm of the se.', bow called Baffin's Bay. 5" i,17S^''E^Bring,a. Dane, in the Russian service, passes up the strait .iwhi^tefe his name. nSv -■ ^ ,f' .■MT^ Heame reaches the noithe^^oasf on the Arctic Ocean from ■fl'udsotjg,Biy< \ ^ f/v. ■.', 1793. Mackenzie reaches the Af ptifc^g ean by an overland journey. 1804g,eW*fand Clarke ascend the Mppuri, cross tbp- Rocky Moun- tains, a^tclBs6endA§ytiver CoiSmbia to its mouth in the Pacific Ocean. \'.1819if^arry sair^through fflacaste^ ^ound into the Polar sea. 1820i;3KlkijhliaieE«}hes tlw^ore^ of the Arctic Ocean by an overland journey l^^Ganada, and^^traaies the coast to the east of Coppermine River. 1825. FJ^kKn;i^3ul.'^d^iid ovei^la^d' expedition, examines the coast ,west of MSSKm(^'s Riv^tb 150° W. Lon., while another detachment explores jithe iH^gntry^Jfetween the Mackenzie and the Coppermine Rivers. \ir. — ^^' 1830. RWjf^|iches the head of Prince Regent's Inlet,and discovers that it has Bocommunication with the sea to the east COLOMBIA. The northern part of Spanish America was divided under Spain into the viceroyalty of New Grenada, comprising the audiencia of Quito, and the captain -generalship of Venezuela. It was subsequently united into a republic styled the republic of Colombia, which has recently been again separated into three republics, the territories of which correspond with the former divisions. MoDNTAiNs. The Anfles,- entering the former republic of Colombia from Peru, divide near Popayan into three great chains, of which the eastern, passing to the east tif Bogota, Merida, and Truxillo, to the north of Valencia, and Caracas, aad to the south of Cumana, and terminating at Cape Paria, maybe considered as the continuation of the principal chain. The central chain oi? Mountains of Quindiu, separates the valleys of Jhfe Magdalena and the Cauca ; the western or Mountains of Choco, extends into the isthmus of Panama^ and abounds in goldi and - platina. . The highest summits of flie principal chain, are Chimborazo,^lj600 feet high, the volcanic summits PicWncha, Cotopaxi, and Anlis'ana,Sand some of the peaks near Merida, wiiicE'are a{iDut20,0jD0feet^high. • , *' >; '-'• Rivers. The' great riv$r,Amazon flows through the dbpartment of Assuay, and reteiyes nufeierous'lar^e streams $vhic^jrise in Golombia ; among them" the Isaior Yutomayo, the Caquetaor Yapura, and the Negro, are the principal. ' , i i . ' , , ^ _• ... The Orinoco, 'one of the grear'riveVs~ of South; America, iS.'Tvholly within the limits of. Colombia, and jrecelves ''several- large tributary streams, among v#iich are the .Meta, the Apuf-e, &c. The Cassiquiare is a branch of the Orin'ocOj-floVving into the Negro.v ; The Magdalena is a large river navigable to Honda, which afber. receiving the waters of the Cauca, enters the Caribbean Sea by several mouths. . ', , S / '^'. ' ' - ' ■> ; '• " '- Productions.' The low regions of this- country, lying within the tropics and having^ a fertile sc4l, yield in prpfu^on,' all the /vegetable wealthr of tropical climates^ cocoa, indigo,HCoflr^e, tobacco; sugEfr,i pepper, &c. The regions in the^Ahdes, placed ajjoye this influence of the trop- ical cKmate by their great- elevation, enJ9yi a perpetual spring, and' pro- duce the cere^ gja&oS) and- other prbdijfetions 6f tenaperate climates, r" - TV . .' ;-:' ]^ :) /.y r-- ■NEW G-IIE;].,^,^ o , ' <^ Population. ^9,000 ' 18,000 7,000 38,000 10,000 ■ ,- . ' ■,; ■ J V ■ - Towns. Bogota'-is theteapitafof the republic. Other principal towns, beside those above-mentioned, ate Medqlin, 11,000 inhabitanl^, Santa Martha, 6,000, Mompoij 10^000, Honda, 5,000, and Pasto) destroyed by^ an earthquake in I§34. Porto Bello, celebrated foi" its fiae haubpi7 is^ unhealthy as to be almost desei^ted. ": i ; ; Revenue, Commerce, &,c. The country has been for several years in so dbtracted a state, that it is not easy to give any thing certain- in regard to its finances, commerce, &c. Thelreveiiue for the yeai'^ 18S3 "was $2,385,000. The annual produce of '•the gold mines and-wasHings of Choco,^at the beginning of the century, was 20,500 marks, of tfte Value' of $ 2;990,000. Canal. Several points have been propdsed m sui'talslg fpr coljstntct- ing a ship canal from the Atlantic to the Pacific 'Ocean. The" most feasible of these are the isthmus of Tehuantepeo in Meiico, that of Nicaragua in Central America, and those of Panama, Darienj, and Qupica in New Grenada. In general, there is no seri'pus obstacle to a junction of the two oceans, the Andes here sinking down fa a' moderate height or entirely disappearing. The distance from iBqston~oi~N6w York to Nootka Sound by Cape Horn, is about 19,000 miles ; by a canal between North and South America, it would be but 7,350 miles ; fi-om the same points to Canton, by the Cape of Good Hope,- it is 15,750 iniles, hjf the canal 14,700 miles, with the advantage of running from Mexico tb'China with the trades. In the isthmus of Tehuantepec>(16°— 18°.N. Lat), the distance from the navigable waters of the Guasacualco to those of the Chimalapa, the former running into the Grulf of Mexico, the latter into the Pacific, is 20 miles ; height of the dividing ridge,' 1,375 feet. In the isthmus of Nicaragua,- the distance from the lake to lie gulf of Papagayo DBpartmfints. - -■ PoptHation^ Capitals. Isthmus, ' 'I Magdalena, Cauca, / ! . 1 Cundinamarca, Boyaca, 105,000/ .• 180,000/ 150,OOQf ■ ,'40fl,00( U « -,420,000- > Panama, CAithagtena, Popayan, ' Bogota, - Timja, is 16 miles, to the gulf of Nicoya 60 miles, and from Leon to Real^jo 36 miles ; all these routes are over a level country. In the isthm.us of Panama (Lat. 9°^-9° 46'), which is about 50 iniles wide, the most favor- able jjoints are from. Chagres or Navy -Bay to Panama or Chorrera. Tl^ isthmus of Darien between the Gulf ofSan Bias and that of San Miguel is 30 miles across, but has not -been accurately exatnined. In the islihmu^ of Choco or Cupica (7° 10'), the distance from the port of Cupica on the Pacific to themavigable waters of the Naipa, which emjpties itself intb the AtratoV,is about'22 miles,,aver;a levelcoiintry. . I VEN-EZUELA. ' ' ' - >: \ I Extent and Population. The republic of Venezuela extends fi-om 2° S. to 11* 30' N. Lat,; and fron) 5&° to 73° W. Lon., having an area of 450(000 square miles, iid a -population of about 800,000 inhabitants, chiefly Indians and "misedrafeesl^,^ (" Divlsio5JS. Tfig, rejmWic is are subdivided into; provinces : ed into four departments. JDeparbptents. '^ 2ulia,'u,- Venezuelai Maturin, 1 ',Oriho(io, ' J'^i^tion. \-J 60,000 -3S0,000-\. loaODO i7a5eoo ToT^NS. Caracas^ istJhe ck id I C Capitals. '~ Maracaibo Caracas, Cumana, Angostura, Population^ 20,000 i • 28,000 I 10,000 ' 3,000 Barcelona, 5,000, Cariaco, with a ^goo.d harbor, and conaiHerabla^ommerce, Valencia, 15,000 inhabitants, "■JVIerida, ^00, f^^tp Cabelld/ important oh'''account of its fine harbor, and Lagu£yra, 4,000, 'are among the principal towns, besides those abWe mentipned. ^ „ ^ r , -- ' ' Islands. 'The jfelatide of Mhg^iia, and Cubagua belong to the re- public. . The latter, now desprtedy Was once famous for its pearl fishery, and in the l6tB- century, containedthe rich and flourishing city of New -Cadi^, whicih on the deblin'e of thff fishery was entirely abandoned. r-jL- REPUBDIC-OF.THE EQUATOR. Extent ^nd PopuLiiaoN. The republic of the Equator comprises ,the soutmvfstem part£f the-^olTOer republic of Colombia, and lies ,between>6°;3p' S. angfl° KXat., and-between 65° and 81° W^-Lon^ having an We? of 32SjOO^f[uare miles, and a population of about 600,00(^ ^-v. DivisioS ■■>-, ''■- ^ Depa'i Giuayai Eqiiati Assuay. fhe jic is 4iyided into three departments, vi^: nts. uil, ToT^NS. \Quito Is the caj ,Ri(\bainba, 20,ClDC( inbab^ants. Capitals. ^-Guayaquil, '' "^ Quito, Cuenca, Population. 22,000 70,000 ' 20,000 I The other princijml towns are .valo, 15,000, ad Ibarra 10,000. } NGLIif&H'''GUIANA. .English Guiana compris6s4he colonies of IMtperara and Essequiboj arid Jferbirie. The former his a population fff 78,733 souls, includinJ ^,OOQ- whites, and 69,467 slavea The capital is tjeorgetown or Stabtockf ■/witii 10,000 inhabitants. The atter Contains 23,032 inhabitants, of wjhotri \552 are whites, and 21,319 sl ive^.j TV ew Amsterdam, a small tovln; ia (.tW capital of this colony. 1/ /^ .1 I S'DU-TCH GUIANA. ' , Dutch Guiana or Surinam/lies between 6° and 3° N. Lat., and has a population of about 60,000'/; Paramaribo, the c£^ tal, has 20,000 inhabit tants. Beside numerouYftiflependent native tribe s, Dutch Guiana [con- tains three independent ifepublics of Maroon ne^oes, or runaway slavesi recognised by the colonw as independent states.^';] | ,1 A ^ \ ;(PRENCH GUIANA. French Guiana ot Cayenne, has an area of 25,000 square miles, apd a* population of 23,0^0 inhabitants, of which 19,173 are slaves. The cap- ■ ital is Cayenne, op fi small island on the coast, with 3,000 inhabitantsi Sinamari is a small town, noted as the place to which many distinguishecK French politicians were transported during the revolution. j ! BRAZIL. , ., , , , V. V' h ' Extent. The empire of Brazil lies between 4° N. and 33°'S. Lat., and between 35° and 73° W. Lon., and l\as to area of 3,000,OOQ, square miles, the greater part of which is unioKa,bited or partially occilpied by Independent tribes of Indians.^ ' ;" c ■< -^ ! T''/^/- PoprLATioN. The popidatMm of this vast eI^pirkjwMSh is fo^r^fiiths as large as Europe, does nijt much excee ^ _j ^~^~-<;:£:^ J In 1831 an insurrection broke out, whioh"leito the afadicationsof Pe3xa I, in favor of4iis infant son. . ^ ^ ^W 'i '^'^"S^'i y^ t BOLIVIA." Extent and Divisions. This republic lies between 1L° and,24° S^ Lat., and ^between 58° and 70° W.=-Lon., and hag an iarea of 4i2jP00 square miles ; it is divided into six departments, v«hich^-are:Bubdivided into provinces : — ;■ ^'?^ , ^ " \ '; }; jyt^artments^ "''^ — - Capitals. 1 1 ^ Population. '7 ' 4 CKuquisaca, -* Gharcas or Chiiquisaca, 12,000 ''?^i La Paz, ^ ' La Paz, < ^40,000 ^i" Oruro, - I ■ Oi-uro, 5,000 '^■■ Potosi, - ,-/ Potosi, 10,000' ■-. Cochabaraba, I - Cochabaraba, 30,000 _., ' - Santa Cruz, , Santa Cruz, 10,000 PopuiATiON. JThe population may be estimated at about 1,200,000, chiefly Indians and jrfijxed races. The extensive regions called the countries of the Mojwi and Chiquitos, belongiiig nominally to the de- partment of Santa- Cri»z, are occupied by savage tribes, or by the 23 missions of the JesuitsJ founded by that order before- their expulsion from the country m 1750. , '' ', Face or the CouNTRr. Nearly! the whole of this territory consists ' of [an elcT^ated table-land from 8,0(lb to 12,000 feet high, and one third ! of its population lives in regions elevated aliove the limits of vegetation I in the same parallel of latitude in North America. Above this lofty plateau rise the highest summits of the New World, the peaks of Sorata and lUimani, reaching elevations of 25,400, and 24,250 feet above the sea. ; i' ^ . '- MineHals. Gold and silver are found within the limits of the republic, The c^ejirated silver mines of Potosi ai-e in the. Cerro de Potosi, which is.-pierced in everyMireCtion, no less than 5,(J00 ppenings having been made in the inoiintaj'n.'^Some of these have been made at elevations qf about 16,000 fe^.j/FrG(n the discoveiy of these mines, in 154510 1789, they had yieldedi^7,7^,294 marks 6f silver of 'the value ofcabaut 918 million -dollars" ;fSinc^ the cjose of tKe^^last century the annital producj has been froip-gpO^QP to 40Cf,«p,0 marks. •= Towns. "GHuquisaca, Chai:^.aa, or JjETPlata, is.the capital ; it is 9,250 feet abjure the Wvel of thfe ^ea : population 12,000. La Paz, the princi- paJ-town, at in elevation p£tlQJQGO.feet,,haS-40(000 inhabitants. Potosij once a po\)ulous city, with 150,000 .inhabitants,-as nSw deduced to a pofi^ ulation of 10,000 ; its sitejs i'3,000 feet'higli. - " -._Hi9T0n,r. ;Th^ tei-ritoiy of Upper PSru was detached' from the Spanish vicerojSilty of. Peru in 1778, and annexed.to tUat of the Plata. "^ By (he_yiptory pf Ayafeucho ih 1824, it wassd^liveredjfrom tlie Spanish y^e^and in I825T^G^g)'ess, assembled from^tte; different 'pi*ovinceSj -declared it an iodependeli^public under the nanje.of.^olivia. '^viy - FE'] '/ -Jx3JEN-T?jaid-mvisi0NS. The reptlblic of Peru li^ between .3° and 2g.°,S--La^an1d b|tween 67° and 82° W. Lon., having aifarea'of 500,000 square miles. It is divided into seven^- departments,- corresponding nearly with tBe fornver inteiidancies of- tlje^Smnjgli-vicerdyalty of Peru. It is;also called Lower Pe*u, to disting&Jsh it from. Bolivia or Upper Peru". ' '" "' "■ r>- / Departmental -' Lima, Areqtiipa, - , Puno, ■ --Cuzco," ■' ^j.a i?yacuchb -*^^.--\^Junin, - ^ : '• -_""3eiBi5rtad,- Capitals. Arequipa, Puno,-_ ' Cuzco, Hua"!] ~^: est lake _P0uJa..AiMnca, has no l5utl4f§s the I>es£jguadero, Lakes. Sftike Titicaca, the communication with ;the sea," ^which loses itself in saljne plainfe'ii^ the^=e((Hbli(^qjfB61ivia ; thejake is remarkable for'"t^e,OTeat'-,d.exation~^_jts;/ja^a,u<(r^ich is_abput 12,700 "iKbt above the sSa, 'ii5d t6''the,'(east)TJ^t rise tl^o'ftiest summits of -America. ---,., \./i- ^ Minerals^ ¥ei'\i yielfl?|go]3^«i!ifer} afld irretf6ury."^-Tbe silver mines" of Liauricocba b^Taa(||j?aft^ni«ng^he richest-ijithe-vWldjTfiirni^ing ^t the'B^ginnin^'.of the pVe^ent century 3QO^0Orrfarks ^Snslly. T^he J^aiiijtetl ^-bduce of the Peruvian njinjes aLtMjpeginmngof the 19th __^u^Jwas 3,400 miai^s of gold,:a;nd 611^00CHnarks of a^t^rjof the ^aliie^erf 6,240,000: ' -There are 680 silver mipMj 70 gold' nriuBT-and I, and 4 quicksilver miiles inPiei-u. opHLATioN.' Peru -has about 1,800,000 inhafiitants, mostly Indians." andiiiixed breeds, with" few whites; :. N \ "— ._l..i-" ~ -^ Towns. The capital is'Lima, delightfully situateainear the mouth of the Rimac, with 70,000 inhabitants ;X!allaojs-its port. \ Arequ3pa,-with 3p,000'iinhabitants ; Cuzco, having-ra population, Hfabojit 50,000 souls; . -"Huffraanca,. 9S;0GG ; HuajicaveKca, famous ^- its minefe of qiiic^ilyer, ^^which ft'om 1570, to l789>ie]Sed l,000,Ot|0' quinfafe of rr^ercury ; Aya- cuch'pjaijij Junin,'"tIlB'^scenes of the triumphs qfjhe republican arms in 1824 ;"Tlfuxillo, 13,000 inhabitants, jan* Caxaftiarca, are places of most' note. > " - -', - -^ / \ MocNjAiNs.L The highest summit of the Aiides within the Peruvian terajtory, is Chuqftibamba, 22,000 feet high, f \ » '_TO^ cott^es, at the source of the Ancoma^ca, ^e the highest inhabit- ed spoisonithe globe, being situated at an elevation of 15,720 feet. The site of thejvijlage of Tacora is 14,375 feet high. The 'A^des h€re, as in'other^patts of_their course, contain several volcanic .su'nimitSj whose violent eruptions or shocks often produce devastations-in the-citigs of P.eru. HisTORi. In 1582 Pizarro redi;iced the empire of the Incas to the Spanish dominion, and the -country was subsequently erected into a Spanish yfceroyalty. , , . ; In 1780 the natives, exasperated by cruel\ treatment, rose in rebellion under Tupac Amaru, i-* ^ In 1821 the Peruvians declared tKemselves independent of Spain, and in 1822 adopted a constitution; Ifesed on. republican principles. I ] gentine Republic. The [^ , disputes, Jand'-'the? bouwtrjF I Aytea being the leading^ k considered abroad as that (VRivers. The Rio de la Rata ttp-Rivfel- of Sil ' ' or^^te course in thi^ territoi trc)i^,200 miles ; at itsiHouth it is J50 miles broad ; and at Bueiioj 30- mileg, with a depdi of channel o: howeyett difficult onNaccount of sh port on 1^10 riv^r,^pearfei~-1 F-- "ARGTTNTIITE -•!WW?W-r; ••'•— IP y,B L I C OR S TAT E S F T Hi: ; P LAT Af ~ The vast country lying between 20° and 41° SJLat^ and betweerv'§7° and 70° W. Lon., formerly part of the Spanish/ viceroyalty ofc Ayres, having proclaimed itself independent in 1811, formed'a confede-'' ration under.the name ofUhe Unitq(}„^t^€s1of jh^Hiver Plata (Estados Unidos del Rib de la PlataVwKich afterw&d tboK the name of the Ar- acy has-since lieen di|solveft"bt' feivilC - -in this- divideji-^corfdAtign. '"feuenos^ iijljr jnaritimeptate, fts acts' are often' has' the lowto ,paf ' itiver to AssuShp- fcnio, / ..-.,itis ^gatioh i^j TE»e js tio -"good ' Ayres, and the 0, vRhioh are anchoragferf^rouiict^at that city is S.le^ues from shore.' The btheijprincipal rivers are thevColoi;adq and the > imperfectly Smjwu. Pampas.' AlipAst the whfJe count:^: ^^Wst plainpftjSsred in mafiy places with swaa^s and saline lakfe^ ,^^ tite sputhwE^f jfle Plainf, the name of Pampas is^ven to exte^ive levehviracts^V*hL|i resenjWte*' -'- the prairies to the^H^OCThB^MississippT. In th^ainy sfeasbn tej r~ covert with a rich VMdute of grasses,. i^hich 7em_;comill4i herds _ cattle, but in the^,4i9r,jeBpgh, they ofienrpresent jhe'^^fflafence, ofra.; desert. Ithas been calculsMTthat. 13,000,000 horneSeattle, Md.3;000,(!g0 horses, beside great MufflDfeffl'bfi^eef^aiiiin these -^st natiSal pastures- Extent and Divisions." Tfe whote-flBufedgratlon hadVn ffi-ea of, To ww^ Montevideo, the capita), has 10,000 inhabitants ; its harbor is "the :best,.on5the Plata, but is exposed to the violent west winds, called '»{)amper0ft(^/T'Ee other towns are s^all. ^ICTATORAT-E QF PARAGUAY. ISQgj^lhi^state formed oriel of the provinces of the viceroyalty epos Ayrfes ; the troubles, whi^h broke out at that period, were a|t- ^113^'turned'lo'dd\>antage by.'Dr, FrAncia, a native lawyer, who, in 1814, ""SaOsfid himself to be declared djclajpr of the new state; ' Idjes-bet^ia 20° and 28° SAM> hajmig'an area'of 9P;000 square mil TaevcSpTtaliis AstrnQioriJ er Assr" mHaBitants. ., P-^-njJ • r Ri;t^^^^Tlie rto, is'ithe ^rariBi)SSfe"!PaS'ana^^1fiio)i ri^es i 9ip,000 square miles, and wa Buenos Ayres, Entre-!^ios, " Corrientes, Santa Fe, Cordova, Santiago, y Tucuman, posed o] ^^t%; ■■■■ "'^YujUy, ,j^~Cal/; — '" B,ibja,^ :J''SanJaa%- SanLuik Mendoza, ' with capitals of the sanie name, excepting Entre-Ribs^.pCv which the . capital is Baxado. ^'i'* • J PopniiATiON and Towns. /The population of the confederacy js-sDqput I 700,000, chiefly Indians and mixed races. Buenos Ayres, ft'^jt^-'ofThe 1 st?^^e of the same name, is the most populous; commercial, and WtfeUJiy city of the confederacy ; population 80,000. TJive.«theE,principal-tt^5vns i are, Corrientes, 3,000 inhabitants; Cordova, 11,000; TucumaB/i^,000 ; 1 S^ Juan, 16,000, and Mendoza, 16,000. " Commerce. Buenos Ayres carries on an active inland trade 'with ] Peru and Chile, supplying them with gresit quantities of matte or Para- ' guay tea, which is very extensively used in these countries, with cattle, ( mules, and foreign manufactures. The exports to Europe and the United' ! Stateg, are hides, tallow, precious metals, wax, &c. Annual value' of I imports from the United States $ 925,000 ; of exports to the same, ; $,1,500,000. History. 1516. Solis discovers and enters the great river now called the Plata, and is killed by the natives. 152(?. SebastianCabot ascends the river, and give^ it its name. . .1504..^ .j^endozg, ,saijs fyom. Spain,^Tyi^ a,,bQdy of soldiers to conquer th^<4Hint^^aQd founds me titjilXif JBuenoi-AVres. 1778.. The government of Buenos Ayres, which had hitherto been a dependencyjof 'Peril, is„vpsted',inlq. Ivlc^riDyil whose jurisdiction includ- ed the present states of Bolivia, Paraguay, Uruguay, and the Argentine Republic. yf ,1806. The ..^English attach; Buenps Ayrep, but are repulsed by the colonists. " ~ ~ "' 1811. Buenos Ayres declares its independence. REPUBLIC OF THE URUGUAY. Extent and Population. This state lies between Brazil and the States of the Plata, from which latter, it is separated by the Uruguay ; it extends from 30° to 35° S. Lat., and from 53° to 59° W. Lon., over an area of 80,000 square miles, and has a population of 70,000 souls; /i .u ■; Divisions. The republic of the Uruguay, formerly a ijart of the "Vjcbt royalty oif Buenos Ayres under the name of BandaiOj-iental; and ^kh- sequently annexed to Brazil under the title of Provili'cia C5splatina,'was declared independent in 1828, and divided into nine departmenlH,-1vhich take the names of their respective capitals, viz. : ~ "• '■'' Montevideo, Soriano, Maldonado, Paisanda, Canelones, Duragno, San Jose, and ^ ■« Colonia, Cerro-Largo. 1 ■and between 54° and 59° W. Lon., i, and a population of 250,000 soujs. |tio'n,on the Paraguay, with 12,060 iver of this region ; the principal Brazil, and receives ihe Paraguay, cpnjid^ from BoHvia ; ',the Pijcoriiay^j and Vermejo, tributaries of the lat^n aJjp^algo ''large st^earps. >>Afte^te«fOhction with the Uruguay, the Wtak6s the name ipf the iHafa, ' '' , i '-• 1. n 1' ■ ' - \ «.^,'©;H«] 'iiNT. Thfer^public extends^rof^ 25° to 44° S. Lat, and from 70° .^ '5° W. Lotl. -It lies between t}ie~'?Arides and the Pacific Ocean, and Jias-andi^eaof ItejOW'iquafemilesrsJ "' -' ) .Divisions and PoptJLATyoN. CRite-fifts-a-popUlation of about l,400,OCio, including the independent' Indians. The territory of the Araucsniaiis, a powerful jn^pp^^^iftfit patiorOjf-about 80,000 souls, separates the pds- sessipns of Qhi^ intb*twO|'disti|ictj)arts. The republic is dfvided intolS J .."j^Spitisgo, I y Felipe, . uimbo or La Serena, ■gnes; ' ' ^ ,-. ^ Sari'Oa^os. , j is thfe capifal, i^th a population of -about 60,000i LA . cagjjaj' \ Coquiinbp, \ Cofchagua, j^_J' ^ Cqnceptibijv"' '' iM(^viI ' <^7Chiloe,i.S TojrSs. Santii,^ ^~,..f-.., ^.^ ^ ^..j, „_,„_„ soi^. \^pajai^a^ouri^ii;|gtownrhds;29,000 inhabitants. Coquimljo, J^Q0ffip€ohcqpt5p4iia:'Q,600/ahd Y^diyiarBjOOO, are among the most im- jportant,toart|s;> ^, ,,, -I, ':• -' L^ "Cf^fli', ' _ i ]VtoEiliLSj^1>hiie-i$ rich in aoldJ^^JWer, and copper. - The annukl ^rocJAce (Oflip gbl^M at the be^ningof the' ^pi^ent^iaebtUry, was la^Tfmarks of goMand 29,700 marks of silver ; total-valjue 2,060,000 'dpkk. . [ ^ f^ I j, ,i^,Oi^WEB,gE. ,^Ghilei carries^ consMl^Kle ti-ade with Peru, and acr(^ the mountain^ with^uenps A^es ; ^3r|he fqreign commerce with the and ,thel East Indies, is pretty extensive. , and CQj)^en,v,vicugna wool, agricultural producejj^c. Annual v^-of impoir, » i The principal tribes of these region's are the Pecherais on the islan^; the Tehuelhets or Patagonians,-r-ejaarkableTor their stature ; the ChuncHi ; the Puelches or Pampas'lndians, who comtnif, .great ravages in the prov- inces of the Plata, &fe. ■"■ Captain King, of the British , navy, surveyed these shores in 1826— 1830, and found that the co^t Qjfdie painland was bordered by numer- ous large islands,v^hich had teeii'before supposed to be a part of the continent. He alsb fi^tgave an accurate account of the islands and channels of the Ma^Dariic Archipelago. J^^ EicTENT. South AnlpticEl exteHds frqm 12° N. to 54° S. Lat., and from Lon^ 35° to 81° W. Its greatest length from north to south js 4,550 mires ; its gf-eatest breadth 3,200, and it has an area of 6,500,000 square miles, ibout three fourths of which lie between the tropics. ■ . ,, ' '^ Population. The;, population is probably not farfi'om J4,000,000, of whiAh about iJOOOj'OOO Aiay he whites,>4000^,000 indian's,,8,e00,000i blacks, and the remainder mixed races. ''\^ / ■ i i;, ' Pt)LiTicAi, Divisions. South America at present obtains the follow- ing states and colonies, beside an indefinite, tract iijUhe south called Patagonia, inhabited" toy uiijep^hdeht Indians, and npt claimed by any siaiil ized power : ^^ 1.^..'.; <^ , L_ SOUTH AMERICA. I. The republic of Venezuela, ' 2.1 The republic of New^Grenada, 3. The republic of the EquStoj,?,: 4.; The empire of Jkazi"— ' — ■*" — 5.' Thte repuhhcloTBplitia, s 6., The ^pfbli^ of P^ru, 7.i Thej|{ic^torshro of Paraj miles. Y '^',' y^, ,', 8.; The Aigeptiiie republic, or^iE[nited States^eS" superficial area"of 910,000 squa!re(mUes: 9., The republic of Cfiili, wifli an Sea'^jf 1^2,000 }(\. Tlife Oriental Rppublic of tke Uruguay, witi square mil^.>^ — ^ ^"^^-^ ' II. French ^ui^na, or Cayi^nne ; Englisl Demarara; an^^[utch^(jruiaiia,Vi' Surifl&i " 5olo|iiffiaj, coverin g/ IvWC^bflMJis&rg^nijl /an ^S&rg^jtijles. 'j^u arl^a of 3,OO0,OOOYsquaret niiles/ ittfan^reaof 400,K1D squai'e milfe. ,n(are?i (if 500,000square 6iiles.\ covei-ing a siy;^e of 90,000 "sqiii re Plata, covering a n Guiana! iquai-e miles, an area of 80,000^* ibo.arid Countries. South America, 'Venezuela, New Grenada, Equator, Bolivia, Peru, Chili, Paraguay,, Uruguay, AreaJeqaare miles, ".>6,300,000^ 4?0,000 ^ 375,000 \ 325,000 400,009 50Q,000 172,000 -° ^0,009 80,000 ,,6r Esseqiiel ;n ' ^ i4,oqo,oooi' •^ 90JD,000 _,1,5CI0,OOO. . 650,000, -.M .ri;30o,ooo -^^ 1/'""" "^1 ( States of the Plata, Y^sSlO.OOO BrazU, ' y^MpXl Cayenne, •) ::?-.-iS5L':,.; Surinam, I I^sequebo, [ Bemerara, J Patagonia, 150,000 375,000 Physical Divisions. South America may be^divided into five ^eat physical regions : „ C " ' • ' Ij The low country skirting the shores of the Pacififc 'Ocean, fr6in-50 to 150 miles in breadth, and 4,000 in length. The two ej^tremfties of,; this ^territory are fertile, the middle a sandy desert: V',^ - y^ - i 2. The basin of the Orinoco, surrounded by the Andes, and conii^ting of extensive plains called Llanos, either destitute of wood' ,or" merely, dotted with trees, but covered with a high herbage. Duritig 3»e tlry season the parched soil opens into long fissures^ in which s^i'pb^i alligators lie in a torpid state : 3. The basin of the Amazon, avast plain embracing a surfacg of more than 2,000,000 of square miles, possessing a rich soil and a humid climate*^ almost entirely covered with dense forests : '• ^ 4. The great Valley of the Plata, occupied chiefly by open plains call- ed jiampas, in some parts barren, but in general covered with vreeds and tall grass, feeding prodigious herds of horses and cattle : 5j The high country of Brazil, eastward of the Parana and Araguay, presenting alternate ridges and valleys, covered with wood toward the Atlantic, but opening into steppes in the interior. ' Mountains. Two mountainous systems traverse South America: 1^ The Andes, in several parallel chains, extend fi*om the Straits of Magellan to the Cai;jbbe|in;-pfea,"i]^;mariy- placp^'sprsading out over a breadth of several hundred" miles, embfacihgloffy ©ble-lands and con- taining mountain lakes. At Popayan, fhe main chain divides into three ridges, one of whichshooting_Qff_tD_tlienorthwest,_pasaes. into the isth- mus of Panama, a second separates the valleys of the Cauca and the Magdalena, and a third passes oflT to the northeast, separates the valley, of 3ie Magdalena from the plains of the Meta, and terminates at Cape de la Vela. The highest summits of the Andes are between 15° and 17° S. Lat., where Sorata reaches the elevation of 25,250, and Illimaui, that of 24,300 feet. Several transverse chains proceed firom the Andes, of which the principal 'irfile--Ma(jfeieC,drdiIlera, wJbich extrind^ along the coast of Venezuela from^- laket^^ateybo to the gulPT)f Paria. ' The Sienw of Merida, iiLjthis chain, is 15!'O0O^feei-high.';*Tlie chain/of the Andes contains thwty active volcanoes:-'- ,, :« i s 2. The Brazilian'Andes, like the AUfeghanies, occupy a great breadth, but are of moderate height, noWhere reaching an elevatioti of 6,000 feet. They extend from^belPrita to the-Amaz^, over a space tof 2,000 miles. ' . - \, ,- ^ — ^ • _ - ^ Rivers. South Americads not tess remarka^e than the northern part of the continent for'fhe ^a^itadfr and number'of its rivers :^' -. ■ • ■> ' 1. Thp A rpn^nrij, tha l argesTnf riv e»a 'spreads its hundred giant-armS over a basin 'pC-mOre- than 2,OOO,O06''square miles in exteftu ^^It has a course of 4JH00 miles, and' with itsHM-anchesafibrds a boathsvigatioB of ■ •■ -^"' ^ ^- -'■ \ '■ -• '■ ■ ufs£of'3;'4S0 mjl'es; ifl basin has an^areaof lfetigtkr-v^ — '^'""S^' ■ 'V a coU{^^,800 miles itf length, and drains a r^ion iiiextent ; the waters bi this basin aiTordfa navi^tion ^ ' \ ; i V r ^ r es of these great nversysurpass in. size tbe largest rivers/rf Eu*^ ; the" Magdalena and the Tgcantih are the other princi- pal stteam^'of'^eirtiKAmerica. , ,^' ' ' / ' Lak^sT 1. jiLake uPiticaica, v^hich ha/^no'^outlet to the-sea, is situated upon a tableland JwOO feet (high j^r&Vbout 240 miles in circuit, cov- ering an £u-ea of §4^0 square milgs, and i^^jnany plap^fi-om 450 to 500 feet deep: "f I '• .^ r^ _r ', ,' ...,/' 2. I^ake M-aracaybp is, properly speaking, a lagoop, or inland gulf of Lthe C^tnbbfean-s^a. '').'>'' ' 'Minerals: The equatorial regions of the Am^can continent may be called the coilntry of gold and s&v^, andJthe-eHormous quantities of the latter metalj.'twhi.elv they have^WSIjEid JwiHe circulatmg medium,- have produced a revolution in the commerce and industry of the western nations ; the mines' of Tascb aildrPotosi have no rivals but thqse of Guanaxuato, cktorce'and Zacatec^, in amount of produce. Mineral PRODncTioj»s or ■ Sjouth America. Diamonds. Brazil (Minas^Gieraesj S^e^ A " :_ 1 R^cious stones. Brazil, New Grenada, Chili, Peru. / i . ,. ,, v ^ Silver.,- -Pei'orfLauricocha or ftsco), Bolivia (Potosi), Chili, States of the Plat^ (Mendoza), &c. Tin-and'Xiuicksilver. 'Peru. 5ogppr, Iron, Lead, Coal,/ &c. TlsToarT August ]st, 1498, Christopher Columbus discovered South jmerica-, which he judged to be 'a continent fi:om the volume.of water b'kqught'to the sea by |he£)rinocb.\ y4p9.| Amerigo Vespucci-accompanies Ojeda on a voyage to the coast of feouth America, yijhichih'ad alrSady been visited by Columbus ; having published an account of his voyage, his name was unjustly given to the NevtWorld; .-J ■' ' \i''-'' \ ^ -| 1^9.' Pihzonj a Spanish navigator, crosses the equator and discovers ^j-fBrrfzil. -,^- :.,^iA.- i d'J^ 1500^ The coast^ of Brazil visited by Cabral, a Portuguese "naviga- 1513. Palboa .crosses the isthintis of Panama, and discovers the South Sea or pacific japganiT ---.J^;"' - 1515. Eew disooySred by Perez de la Rua. 1516. ^jTtoe. River De la Plata djscovered by Dias de Solis. Il520r Mag^haeng, a Portuguese, sails through the strait that bears his narne.~ I, , >^ " ■!-- 153].c^PiKirro invades and confauers Peru. 1537^ / Chili discovered by Diego de AJmagro, one of the conquerors of Peru. . ' I , ^1541. Orellana sails down the Araazoii to the Atlantic. 1541 — 1545. Philip Von Hiitten examines the-Vast regions of the Orinoco, in search of the ElAor&do, or fabulous land of inexhaustible wealth. This search was subsequently renewed by successive adventur- ers, among whom were Su- "TOilt^r Raleigh in 1696, and Santos so late as 1780. _< ■- . ■ • ■ ■ 1616. Lematte, a Diitch navigator, sails from-Hoom, and discovers the cape, to which he gives the name of that port. ' ll794l The Falkland islands discovered by the English navigator Ijla%kms. - V ^ 1799 — 1802. Haraboldt and Bonpland ascend the Orinoco, and the Magdalena;" andcexj^lore the Cordilleras of Venezuela, New Grenada, and Qiiito; ^ ^ ■^' , ' ' T'TNT' IU ' UltEA W . and the Ca^ and.] of the ] The f north of the, equator, abounds jlland, the West India Islai^ds, l)the AzorffiflCape Verd, Canaries, beljon^iBBtp. Africa and Europe; 1 eagh side, penetrating far into "WedifefHMiean on the eastern, ■"^Ije^^jlf of St. Lawrence, f'ljgye rendered it the seat Extent. The Atlantic Ocean extends JB-om about 70? N. Lat on the eastern and 74° on the western side, to 2^° S. Lat.' on the former, and 55? on the latter, or from a line drawn frpiij the Cape of Good Hope to Cape Horn on the south, to a line drawn ^om North Cape to Lancaster Sound on the north. Within tlrfesHimitSjjjs length is about 8,500 jnilegjf. its oi-eadth in 52° Lat. 1,800 itaii^Opeai" the equator '2,100,, and JiJ^thfr' hortflorn tropic 5,400 ; and its^je%^,000,(lD0 square miles. ' , *"^- ^ TliiiNorth Atlantic, op that p^rlying' north of the,equator, abounds i$|j large islands, among which are and Iceland belonging to AtsW Madeira Isles, Irel^md and Great I and in deep and numerous inland' both contineilB, such as the Baltic ean Sea, the Gu|f i Bay on thjj^stem c6ast,, insive^eomiaierce ya ,thi ;,{5pn tjj^^Btter littii^ contains no deep inlet of any j^fe^^siMalri^|afi(^Vi,^(5ension, St. Helena, the andjStaten fele. \^~U'"- fa,ll^ffli5^jdJ^n^3B^W(J?§5nr?iD^'the eastern side, if we n 4te,|^t^feiwrence, the Mississippi, _ . .^ _ ktajpdu^n their mass of watM'S. Cbrkents. XjCto-gefiefal tendency^sifrthf equaWHal waters to move ' from east to -v^stfS^djhe direction of prevalent wiridsj^oltabined with I the particular configuration of the shores, give rise to a number of oceanic '■currents, of which the following^are the most ieniavkable,: - — 1. The Lagullas current sets roCind the CapeW^Gteod-^Hope into the j Atlantic, and flows northwardly to the gulf of Guinea, where meeting a " currentirom the north, and being turned' by the dffection of the coast, it 1 sets west>vard3y. -^-T •• ..i , , ') 2. The equatorial current sets across the Atlantic from the Gulf of Guinea towards Cape St. Roque^ where it is turned'to thc^northwest by j the land, and reaches the Caribbean Sea aftev a c^rae of about 4,500 miles; off Cape St. Roqu^ itjgives off a branch^tojlhe sou/lfjvwhich is 1 perceptible all along the easteiji ..^coast of Sau&.Am§ricft to Cape J Horn. ,x - -r' . 'L ' ' ^ 3. A third ^remarkable current is the Gulf Str^m, which setting out I of theGulf of Mexjpo through itfie Florida chanfl^ aloiig the coast of the j United States, is turned off by the banki 6f Nantucket, and reaches the parallel of 44° 30' Ns»in lpBgTtnde-43°"W./'whence it curves round in a j soiitbeasterly dirocMn till it is lost near the . Azores, after a course of ! about 3,000 miles ,Ton-4ssuirig from "the Florida channfil.itg.iirel0city is about 120 «iiles a (%y,iindits temperature 86°; after flowing 1,100 miles its velocity is redu^d about one half; audits temperature tO-^l° ; off the, Azores, its' rate df motion is about 30 miles a day, and its "temperature 76° to 79V At Cape Hatteras it is 75 miles in breadth; between tfie Bermudas and ,Halijas;.it vai-ies at different times from 150 to 300 miles. The weather jsjnret, squally, and unsettled within its course, and the sea heavy and irre^lar. .... 4. The North Atlantic cun-ent sets eastwardly across the ocean be- tween Newfoundland and Labrajior p^he one side, and France and the British isles on thp other; its motion is slow and it appears to be owing to the great prevatence of westerly winds ; its existence is pjwed^by the fact, that bottles, Rethrown into the sea to.the north of Ifl^'reacli'sOme point between thb Orkneys and Cape Finisterre,. while those thrown in further SQUth reaphHhe West Indies. • ,.,. „,>,i >..,., mt; 5. The North Afi-ican current sets southwardly along the African coast till it-meeta the feguUas current, and appeai-s to-be caused by the accu- mulation of wawrs produced by the North Atlantic current, the Gulf Stream, andjurfoflux from the Arctic Ocean. f Winds. jWiffiin the pai-allels of 30° of N. qnd S. latitude the trade I'' win4|ii)kiw'w'ilJ^re^t regularity ; on the north-side of the equator they blow frpiM'theiindWieast, and. on the south from the southeast. Beyond " S'^^eral'tendeiicy of the winds is frCpi the west, or from the ^©jith west in- the northern tempei-ate zone, and frpm'the northwest in the southern. This prevalence of westerly winds is illustrated by the following facts which are of practical interest. During a period of 10 years, 188 voyages between New York and Liverpool gave these ■) Wi;edt. at the ship, of se' these founded _ s^rit parts of the sea, -afij^Iittle to thi ' " iss known ate In""their voyage;acrdsslhe Atlantic the sailors of th4 first vessel which fever passed the ocean, were terrified vast beds of^seawe^, wmch retarded the motion of the m^dows. From a comparison shown that there are twpw 1 are not, however, to b^ con!- ' weed often met with in differ- Jne oiyhes^- fi^Ms occurs .between 25° and 36° : of th^^nferid^ of the Azores |.the other, whiclf extensivfe^sluetween 22? «nd ^° Lat., about 80 lembled exte arjne jou the " to Porftigal ; the prin- Angra, theicapital, on , on San MigHel, is _tbe le number ofpinhabi- , 7-^' j d-of th§J samew'pame. and several small isl^dsf^fttey bglong.to thg.,iJESoifttiguesK and are con- _:si^'..'-j<'__ ^.;.._.:_- 1-U .r A'fl.te=i=S.Tia*™:„„iS:3u'.«4k^ jg Fuifehal, Passages averaged 24 days ; 38 « 11 from iSfew York, " from Liverpool, Shortest passage from New York, (December) 16 ," >/ i " fi-om Liverpool, (iSLpril a,nd February) 22 " *■ Longest " 71 « « _from N.ew^3'ork,^(I>ecemhBJ:) 37 « -■ On the borders of the Trades, between 4° and 10° N. Lat., "is what is called the Region of Calms, or the Rainy Sea. Here the navigator en- counters long calms, inteiTupted only by furious squalls, or light, baflling winds, and lies rolling upon the sluggish and stagnant surface, unde^r ^ [burning sky and exposed to deluges of rain, accompanied'bjr frequent' 'and terrible bursts of thunder and lightning. leagues east of rii^ Bahama Islands. Th^A26res or Western cipal are Terci Terceira^ Has l'6jGiK(JalQ^^^i :tod ."p'ves it^-name to the group ; principal town PaImaB,'9,'O0O inhabitants.; Palifla) Gomeraj!-Ferro and-Forteventura, are the other principal islands. <- v^ -^ ' St. Helena has ibecome ,famous' from its ha^ng been tbfe, Rj^gBLOf Napoleon, and frAm its^coiitaip^^iig,ji«ft^> I'fijs algodrnipo^gt " o^ account of its forti^cationsfatidj^wraatfon o^ythei^roii^frjois^Europe to India. It is aboui 28 mil(s»'mci];giut;[jmd/is^s,froiH^ ocean like a vast wkll of rqckL to theneMfruf from 600, to 1,000 fee The tomb o'rWapblfe'&i is near LongwoqTwhjch was)so loiig his resi- dence, and contaiH^iijo^iViscription. -'^ ^-^^^^^ :- ^ Tihe;,FaMand^^I^ids or Malouines, situated on tKQ;roW to the Paciflcj, form agj^pof^^ifge an(J.^boul.^QisM^ef isMids. \- 7; Tfrey W)ntain s^(^^-g8l)rf^4<£b^^^nd-th&'Sfrbres arelthronged by j^ais and: pengiiif ns. c , The jEngfislluj;qpS^'^6i3§^sgoErQf thrae islands in rl766, but' were expePedV^£the fepajiiaras-in 1770(; niorevifecBntly the government it Buidhos' Ayres^^aitenipted/to/iorm^a cjilonyii'ere in 1829, but the establishment was broken up by/a United States nalpal force, and tEe^British have siibsequently revived tfieir claiin^ tfrthe^islands. The other nrftjst in^portant islqijds,.3S'ewfpuBdKn^, Greenland, Iceland), the West India Islands, Great Bfrt^ii,Jrejqnd,,^&c., a^ described else;- where. ' , BAtfKS. Submarine elevatidns of drift saad-T&fe estiraatedjo occup; one fifth of .the wh^le areajof tlid OeriBan>0cean : the largest of thes banks is the D6gger)Bank, /wjuch^extends from north to south upwards of 350-}^^ , - \ (/ ■Thfe'Banl^of Newf^tundTand extend frote. 40° ta45° N. Lat., forming. as it were, a bisir, at the mwuth of the greaf Oce&nic Rivej, known under the, name of the Gulf Stjepm,. The-'debth of the water here varies from 15 to 60 fath^nis, the wind^u'porijjiem are nioderat^^ind the watet^ smooth, but they ,^e 'covotot -by ajnibsti perpetual fogsl In July, and again in September;^ the eod fish arrive in vast humbersjipon the banksl constituting a irip^iiffliife-foi''the^ardy ajjid industrious fishermen of New England: " - "^f ■■ ^ " ' ' The Great Bahana^ankj^ emending from 22° to:g6° N. Lat., is about 450 miles in length by lSQ4p-breadth j it is separated from Cuba by the Old. Bahama Channel,, ajid jfrom Florida by IheFlorida channel ;' the depth of the water is from l.^to 7 fathoms. The Little Bahama Bank is 180 miles in length by\50 in breadth ; depth of water from 3 to 12 fathoms. These banks are partly of coralline'roniiation. Progress of Discovert. Thpancients probably never ventured fei; from the coasts of Europe, and Africa on their vpyages into the Atlantic Ocean. 1417. The IVI^deiras discovered by the Portuguese. ,f 1433. The Portuguese first doubled Cape Bpyador, which had previif ously been the extreme point of the European navigators, and gradually pushing their discoveries to the south, reached the Cape^of Good Hope 53 years later. > j 1432. The Azores discovered by Portuguese navigators. j 1450. The Cape Verd islands discovered by the same. 1492. Columbus crossed the ocean. — (See America.) '.ID SI1 ro 60 .in 40 30 20 lo 10 20 ?^ BRITISH ISLANDS. Extent. This archipelago comprises the islands of Great Britain, including England, Scotland, anli Wales, Ireland, the Hebrides or West- ern Islands, the Orkneys,' the Shetland Isles, the Scilly Isles, Isle of Man, Anglesey, and Isle of Wight. It extends from 50° to 61° N. Lat., and has an area of 121,000 square miles, viz. : England'; 50,530 ; Scotland, 30;842 ; Wales, 7,425 ; Ireland, 30,387 ; The Isles, 1,750. The Norman Islands (Jeraey,' Guernsey, Alderney and Sark, on the coast of France), and Heligoland in the North Sea, belong to the British empire. Population.', The population' of the British Islands by the census r of ,1831, was 24,04^,917, viz. : England, includin^'Man, and the Scilly ^; Isles, 13,089;338;, Wales, 805,336; Scotland, including the Orkney and Shetland Isles,'2,365,807 ; Ireland, 7,784,536. The whole population of I the British empire, including-tlje East India Company's territories, is I about 157 millions. j. Towns. The capital is London, lying in Middlesex .and Surrey, on ! both sides the Thames, the commercial metropolis of the world, with 1,464,668 inhabitants ; this enumeration includes the cities of London and Westminster, the Tower Hamlets, Mary lebone' and TinsBury Districts, on the north of the Thames; and "the borough of Southwark and Lam- fbeth district on , the south. Liverpool, on the Mersey, has 165,175 in- habitants. Manchester, 187,002 " inhabitants ; Birmingham, 146,986 ; I Leeds, 123,393 ; and SheiB6id,''91,692 inhabitants, are the chief manu- facturing towns, of England." After London and Liverpool, the chief commercial places are the' city of Bristol, 117,016 inhabitants ; Kingston- upon-Hull, generally called Hull, 54,110; Newcastle-upon-Tyne, 53,613; Sunderland, 40,735 ; Plymouth, including Devonport, 75,534 ; and Ports- mouth, 50,38p inhabitants. There are 25 .cities, that is, towns which are or have .been episcopal sees, in England, viz. : London ; Westminster ; Bristol ; Canterbury, 15,314; Rochester, 12,791; Chichester, 8,270; Winchester, ■ 9,212 ; Salisbury, 9,876 ; Bath, 50,802 ; Wells, 6,649 ; Exeter, 28,201 ; Glouces- !ter, 11,933; Oxford,. 20,434 ; Norwich, 61,110 ; Ely, 6,189 ; Peterborough, 5,553; Coventry; 27,070; Worcester, 1 8,610 ; Hereford, 10,280; Litch- Ifield, 6,499; Chester, 21,363; Lincoln, 12,634; York, 25,359 ; Cariisle, ",20,006 ; Durham, 10,125 inhabitants. I The principal naval stations, are Deptford ; Woolwich (with Green- ,wich, which is celebrated for its observatory and naval hospital), 64,336 inhabitants ; Chatham, 24,670 ; Sheerness, 7,983 ; Portsmouth ; Plymouth, and Yarmouth, 21,115 inhabitants. I The principal towns in Scotland are Edinburgh (including Leith), h62,156 ; Glasgow, 202,426 ; Aberdeen, 58,019 ; Dundee, 45,355 ; Paisley, |57,466, and Greenock, 27,571 inhabitants. I In Ireland, the chief places are Dublin, 265,316 ; Cork, 107,041 ; Limerick, 65,092; Belfast, 53,287; Galway, 33,120, and Waterford, 28,821 inhabitants. Canals. No country in the world has so many and finely constructed canals ; those of England afford several lines of communication between the eastern and western coasts, and between the northern and southern '.parts of the island. The Leeds and Liverpool canal, 130 miles, the Kennet and Avon, 57 miles, and the Thames and Severn, 30 miles, are among the principal works connecting the opposite seas. A series of canals from London to Liverpool includes the Grand Junction from Brentford to the Oxford canal; 93 miles; the Oxford canal to Coventry, 91; the Coventry canal,26 miles; the Fazeley ll,to the Grand Trunk or Trent and Mersey canal, by which it is 93 miles to Liverpool. The Wilts and Berks canal extends from the Avon and Kennet to Abingdon on the Thames, 52 miles; . 'The EUesmere canal, '109 miles ; the Bridge- water; the Hiiddtofield with the Ashton arid Oldham, 4Pjmiles, uniting, the Calder and Mersey,; the Lancaster, 76 miles, &c. deserve mention, i In Scotland the principal work is the Caledonia!n canal, 22 miles, uniting the Murray Frith with the Atlantic^ it is 20 feet in depth, and 40 in breadth at bottom, and has 27 locks. The Forth and Clyde canal, from the Forth to Glasgow, is 37 miles in length. ■■■_ In Ireland are the, Royal Irish fi-om Dublin to Bannagher on the Shatmon, 68 miles ; and the Dublin and Shannon from Dublin to the [Shannon near Moy,654 miles ; the former has a branch to Athy on the •Barrow, and the. latter to the Boyne. Thq Newry canal extenjls from Newry to Lough Nea^ whence the-Lagan canal extends to Belfast. i Railroads. There is a vast number of short railways leading from isoUieries, mines, quanies, &c. to great markets or navigable waters ; in. Jhe vicinity of Newcastle there are more than 100 miles of railway, and in Glamorgalishife (Wales), there is about the same quantity. "We can only mention some of the longer roads. The Liverpool and Manches- ter rr. 32 miles ; the Leeds anji Manchester, 58 nfiiles ; the Leeds and Selby.; the Manchester and Sheffield ; the Peak Forest rr., over the peak in Derbyshire, 33 miles, form a connected series of roads. The London and -Birmingham rr., 112 miles, is now in progress, and will be connepted with the Liverpool and Manchester rr. The Western rr. is a projected work-Tirom London to Bristol. Revenue, Debt, &c. The revenue of the British empire for 1832, was £46,988,755; of which the customs yielded 16,794,992; excise, 16,611,036 ; stamps, .6,938,316 ; taxes, 4,943,887. The expenditure for the same period, was £ 46,373,996, viz. : charge of the funded debt, 27,664,886; interest on exchequer bills, 659,165; civil. list, 510,000; pensions, 477,376 ; couMSi of ju^tlcp; 324^.?'; ""army, 7^129j873 ; navy, 4,882,835; ordnance, 1,792,.317. " The funded debt of the United King- dom in January 1833, was £ 754,100,549 ; exchequer bills, outstanding, £ 27,278,000. At the revolution (1689) thetiational debt was £ 664,263 ; at the'beginning of theA™eripaa revolution (1775^, 128,583,635 ; at the beginning, of the wars of the French revolution (1793), 239,350,148 ; in 1817,.848,283',477. Armt and Navy. In the beginning of 1833, the British navy consist- ed of 557 vessels viz. ; 14 ships of 120 guns; 8 of 110 ; 22 of 84; 107 of 74 ; 104 frigates ; 22 steam vessels, &c. Army, 109,198 men, exclu- sive of the native Indian army of 290,000 men. Commerce. History records "nothing that can compare with the commerce of this cotintiy; in the vast amount of its transactions and the wide extent of its' relations. Her foreign trade, drawing from every corner of the globe the materials for her innumerable workshops, and distributing in every land the productions of her industry, is equaled only"by an internal commerce unparalleled in activity and importance. The value of the. imports during the'yeai- 1832, was £ 44,586,241 ; of ex- ports, £76^071 ,572 ; of which 65,026,702 were articles of domestic produce and .manufacture. The number of ships' entered was 17,918, tonnage 2,825,959. The number of vessels belonging to the British empire at the close of 1832 vas 24,435, of 2,618,068 tons, and employing 161,364 sailors. MANnrliCTURES.- Almost every article of luxury or use is produced in the highest perfection in Great Britain, which may be considered the most manufacturing country in the world. Two thirds of the inhabitants are engaged in commerce and manufactures ; and it has been ■ calculated that the whole animate and inanimate force (men, cattle, mills, steam engines, &c.) employed in these branches of industiy, is equivalent to the power of 28 million men. Cotton, woollen, hnen, and Silk goods, and metallic wares, of every description, porcelain, pottery, &c., are among the productions of British skill and itidustry, and rich mines of irofa, tin, copper, and lead, are worked to a very great extent. History. The Romans invaded' Britain, then inhabited by Celtic tribes, under Julius Ceesar, about the middle of the first century before the Christian era, and after a long struggle reduced the southern part of the island, in the beginning of the second century after Christ. In the beginning of the 5th century, pressed on all sides by the invasion of the barbarians, they abandoned the island. About the middle of the 5th century, several German tribes, the Saxons, Angles, Jutes, and Frisians, began to establish themselves in the southeastern part of the island. After a contest of a century they re- duced nearly the whole Islahd south of the Frith of Forth, the Britons who remained, maintaining their independence in the fastnesses of Corn- wall and Wales. The numerous small kingdoms formed by the invad- ere, were finally united in the beginningi of the 10th century into one state, when Edward the Elder took the title of king of the English. The northern part of the island, inhabited by the Scots and Picts, was united into one state in 843, and took the name of Scotland. In the year 1066, William, Duke of Normandy, landed at Hastings, and soon reduced the whole of England. The Norman dynasty vvas succeeded by the Plantagenet, which as- cended to the English throne in the person of Henry II, in 1154. 1215. The Great Charter extorted frorfi John by the Barons. 1285. Wales conquered by Edward I, in whose reign the Parliament assumed its present character by the admission of the commons. 1399. The House of Lancaster ascends the throne in the person of HemylV. 1453-85. The civil war between the houses of York and Lancaster, called the War of the Roses ; it was terminated by the accession of Henry 'VII, the first king of the Tudor family. -1534. The quarrel of Henry 'VIII with- the pope begins, which leads gradually to 'the separation of England from the Roman Catholic Church. 1603. James I, king of Scotland, of the house, of Stuart, ascends the throne of England. 1640. The revolution begins, which terminates in the decapitation of the king Charles I, the abohtion of royalty, and the establishment of a republic. 1.561. The house of Stuart restored. 1688. James II dethroned, and the crown transferred to William of Orange. 1707. The legislative union of Scotland and England takes place. 1714. -The house of Brunswick or Hanover ascends the throne. 1800. The legislative union of Ireland with Great Britain. 1832. The Reform Act restores the principle of popular representation. FRANCE . ^,.. ^■xr^j^-.ti^'- ~i- ?»*.— tf)tJ«i»« Extent and Population, The kingdom of France lies between 4° b(y W. and 8° 15' E. Lon.>and between 42^ SCy and 51° 5' N. Lat, having an area of 200,000 square miles, and a population of 32,500,000. Divisions. Before the revolution France was divided into 33 gov- ernments or provinces, of unequal extent, and having a great diversity of privileges. In^l789 it was divided iiiito delpartments, each of which is governed by- a prefect, arid sdb^iiviaed into arrondissements. The following table Exhibits tlie presept aBd ancient, divisions : Ancient Provinces. Flaadera, Artois, ' Picardy, -t. NormandJE, . IsIe-of-France, Gbampagne Louraine, Q];leanaifi, Touiaine, Berry, Nivemais, Boucbonnais, Ma,rche, Limousin, Auyergne, Maine, Anjou, Britteliy, Poitou;* Aunia, ' Saintohge and Angou- 'mo^, NORTHERN PART. Departijents. - Pop. J832. Capitals. Pop. 1827. North,' ; ■ - ^98%9ti8 • Lille, 69,086 Pas-de-CalajB, '655;245 -Arras,', ^,173 Lower Seine^ 543rro4 -.Amiens; 42,0^ : 693,683 c-Rdii^n, ' ": ; .90,OtJO Eure, , ^Mi Evietix, ; ; '-9,729 Calvados, -^ 'iSi,-m "Caen, '-^ -~- 38,161 ,Mancbe, -^ - -59fc28tf ■«aint Lo, - ■ n ; •8,5(J& 'Ojrne, •:,444-,881 •A-lengon, - - '; 14,074 SBine, J, k' 935,108 • VersiillM, -. ', ' > 890,431 Sfflffe and Oise, '^ ;-.448jl8f). » ,Se1ne and Marne.v- 323,893 Melbri, ; ' i Oise; Aisrfe, ; \^^^ -Beauvais, - \ « ' Laon, ' . J , ■■-- W4 'Ard«nnep. ■ '^ ■B89S22- Mezieres," ^ H ■ - ^^S9 'Marne, ^- • ^ - 337,<(7b- Chalons-sui-Jtartie, '- i'"^' Aube; • a46,361N Troyes, " ' s ' t,m Ujje,r Mamo', ', 249,827? Chaumont, MeDsd, ---\ ' ' . 314,688 Bar-le-Duc, ^«,276 Moselle," "417,003' '415,S68-. Metz, Meurthff, Nancy, ,29^122, LVos'ges,^ .397-;987; Epinal, \ ■■- i?,9Sli rliOiret, -- \ Eure and Loir, ( Loir.andaCher,- i][ndFe and' Loire, Indre, ■ Cher, INievre,-". Allter, Creiise, J tTpper Vienne, \ Cdrreze,- t PuyTde-pSmej \ C^ntali^ -. — CENTRAL PART. 305,276 278,820 ^35,750 297,0lS 245,289 256,059 282,521 298.257 265 J84 285,130 294;834 '' 573,100 258,594. ■Orleans, Chartres, 'Blnis, Tours, Chateauroux, Bourges, Nevers, Moulins, Gupret, Limoges, TlillB, Clermont, >, AurillEic, .. ■WESTERJf PART. it SarQie^ (-"May^nne, ' ~ -(- Mame and Loire, Hie and Vilaine, ■eSjes-du-Nord, Pittisterre, ■- ^ 'Morbihan, ; 7 ^ LowerXoire, J -^' /Vienne, . 1 ' ) Two'Sevres, < Vendee, . , :; ■ ? Lower Charente, - I CJia^ent^, , .'••' 456^372 352,686 467;874 547,862 . 698,872 5&4-,396 , 433,522 ', 470j093 ,:*a82,731- 294,840 ■ 330,350 ^445,249 '362,539 I AngoulSline, Le Mansj ; \^ Laval, i Angers, Rennes, ^int.Brieuc, Q.uimper, Vannes, Nantes, '. Pditiers, ^ Niort, - Bourbon, Vendee, Rochelle, Colonies. The colonial possessions of France are in America, Cayenne in Guiana, Martinique, and Guadeloupe, with their depenr dencies in the West Indies, and the little islands of St. Pierre and Miqiielon, near Newfoundland ; in Africa, Algiers, St. Louis, and Goree, with some forts and factories on the western coast, and the Isle of Bour- bon in the Indian Ocean ; and in Asia, Pondicherry, Carical, Chander- nagore, Mahe, and some factories. Population of thexolonies, S^00,000. Commerce and Manufactures, The products of French industry are very various,.and are distinguished for beauty and excellent work- manship. The manufactures have multiplied astonishingly within the last 30 years, and^comprise cotton and woollen goods of every descrip- tion, porcelain, clocks and watched, cashmere shawls|\damasks, and silks oC great beauty, gloves, &c. The following table exhibits the annual amount of the different branches of industry ; - . Products of the mineral kingdom, Corn, Wine, - - - * Natural meadows, . - . Fruits and Vegetables, - — • Wood,. - - -,^-;- ■- Flax-and Hemp, i -- ' ; " potngstic Animals, -~ .1 - Manufactures, - - Total, - - r -J - - , 97,000,000 1,900,000,000 ^^x- .800i)00,000 :.''\7oo,ooo,ooo >r 562,000,000 "ii4,o'oo,ooo -A 50:000,000 ; 65g!S00,Q00 - l,400,gOO,dQtt 6,«oe,ooo,ooo eastern part. Alsape, Franche-Comt6, Buigundyj^ Lyonnais,. Languedoc, ::\ { U^per Rhine, . ( Lower Rhine,^ Upper Sadne, " Doubs, ^Jura, hYonne, I Cote-de-Or, f Sadne and Loire, Uin, \ Jlhone, \ Loire, SOUTHERN f Upper 'Loi|te, Areteche, 4S4,2M (. 548,213 ■ 338,MD 265,535 ^2,504 I Lozerd, I GSid, ■] Her'ault, Tarn-, Auda;- > r' '^ -ralpper-pironne,- ~ Roussillon^ . A B4_st Bxreneej, ^ County of Poix, Anfege,. ; CDoraoghe, ; Qrironde, , ; 'Lot and Garonne, Guyenne and Gas-' J T°rk and Garonne, eoWk, 1 Aveyron ' . ^ Landed, . Gers, 1) ' (.Upper Pyrenees, Beam, \ |!l,ower Pjjrenees, -■ I Isere, :.r- Dauphiny, ~ .3j)r8nie, (Upper Alps, County of Venaissin, | Vaucluse, S Lower Alps, Mouths of Rhone, Var, Corsica, | Corsica, ^mmam 523,970 346,030 434,429 391,216 PART. 2S§;078 -340,734' 140,374 357,385 346,207 336,844 270a20 427:856 T87;052 253-121 482,7S0 'J,iASS& -346,885 283,-S27 242,109 359;!l56 ■281,50? •312,160 233,031 428,404 550,258 299,556 129,102 239,113 155,896 309,473 317,591 195,407 Colmar^ Strasburg, Vesoul, Besangon, Lons-le-Saulnier, • Aujcerre, Dijon, Macon, Bourg, Lyons, Mbrilbrison, C«Puy, ■'• Privas, ' ,Mend^ , NimeSj. ; ' \ :Montp@lliec, ' a: Albs,-- V •' Carcassonne, .' Toulouse^ - ' Per^ignan, Foi», ' Ferigjieux, , Bordeaux,. Agen, Cahors, IVlontauban, "Rhodez, Mont-de-JMarsan, Auch, Tarbes, ' Pau, Grenoble, Valence, Gap, Avignon, Digne, IVlarseilles, Draguignan, Ajaccio,. 32,560,934 i40;S40 ■ 13,703 11,337 20,9-S • 11,010' 19,500 IS'782,. 14,525 3,448: 25,612 8,479- .30,0i0i 8,5765 1^477 15,840 , 29,9?8- 29,a77 9,963 ,10J)32 11,280 71,937 21,563 15,799: 3,129- 11,173-' 15.30&: - 15,495; 49,708, 5,252- 28,795. ^ 7,864- ; ]2,a4K 23,845' ]0;963: 8,42$' U5,6'te' 5,158 ■'. .*'-' 14,998 4,199 - 5rf4|: 39|i)e§ ■ ''35^42 ^0,993 ,.:-17,756 '-55,319 15,357 4,958 8,588 93,349 11,971 12,413 25,466 7,747 3,088 10,844 8:712 11,761 22iI49 10,283 ^^015 31,180 3,955 15,^41 8,-035 7j656 ~ The shipping amounts Xo abqiit 700,000 tons, compriiailig 15,000 vessels ; tlie exports are wines, Jra'ndy, ribands, lace,Iineii,,-w>Mlen,'and cotton clothSj.'jewehy, porgelalii,' perfumery, clocks and watches, &Cj Comparative statement of the ihdustrJEd -forces of Prussia, England, and France, esfimated in horse power. ' ^' - -. ■ ■ Prussia. Horse Power. Human Force, 370,000 Aninjal Force, .1 400,000 Water Power, 100,000 ' Wind applied to Mills, 16,000 ' « to Navigation, 24,000 ', Steam Power, . 4j485 / " FraTtce. Horaer Power. England. ItorseTower. 860,000 510>000 600,000 ; ,530,000 150,000 - 400,060 12,000 11,5(10 140,000-- , : ^-0,000, 23,000 300,600 Totals, 914,985 1,785,000 2,^1,500 Military Force, Revenue, &c. Previous to the -revolution oflSSO," the revenue was about 1,000. million- femes; and the public debtjyas, 3,900 milliorisi At present the budget- exhibits- an expenditure Of nearly-. 1,M0 millions, and a debt of 4,988 millions. The staiiding army, atH:h~6- former period, was 279,957 men, and the navy consisted of 110 ships of ' the line and frigates, and 213 smaller -vessels; but :gince that time a force of aboutiialf a million of men has beeurmaintaiiied.^ -Beside ftiis regular force, there iaia body pCnational guards or militiai - ^ -- " • Government. The government is a limited or constitutional mon- archy, the power^of the king being-- limited ;by a _WTitten constitution, styled the.Ch^i'tiiJf. The legislative body consists of two houses; the members of the upper house or chamber of peers, are appointed by the kii^ for life ; those of the lower house or:chamb.OT'"o£ deputies are. elected for the. term of five years hyj^eliectDiilcolJgges of the departK malts," chosen .by the ^electors, Tlie^rigli^of ^ufiiage' is restricted to 'pprsoBS payinga direct tax-of 2Q0 francs, fS)d beuig ^ yfesffs of age 5-the whote number :of voters is not more than 220,000 out of a population of !33 millions.^ _ .^f -- ■■ ' '■, . " '■- - HisTORr." The Merovingian dynasty of prinees from 486 to 752. - _The Carlpvingian ' ~ ,^ ' from 752 to 987. ; The'Capetiah ascend's ihe^throne ir^jHe person of 'Hugh Capet 987. Robert, H«nry I, Philip I, -J Louis VI (The'Grosi Louis VII, .. „| Philip II Augustus, Louis Vin, 1 Louis IX (Saint], Philip III (Bold), Philip IV (Fqff),l Louis X, ~ r^' Philip V, Charles IV, ) Philip VI, John, { Charles V, Charles VI, Charles VII, rJ 997 Louis XI, _ 1461 1031 Charles VIUj W83 1060 -Louis XH, '1498 1108 Francis I, - 1515 1137 Henry II, 1547 1180 Francis 11, 1559 1223 Charles IX, „.^ 1560 1226 Henrylll, "^ 1574 1270 Henry-IV, 1589 1285 Louis XIII, 1610 1314 Louis XIV, 1643 1316 -Louis XV, 1715 1322 Louis,XVl^ 1774 Beheaded. 1328 Republic ' 1792 1350 :Napole6n (emperor), 1804 1364 Louis XVIll, 1814 1380 Charles X, 1824DcfliH)ne& 1422 Louis Philip, 1830 ^y 2& SPAIN. I- •''e^'?&irWle'f!'Sm^lfm.'''f^^mm& df-Spnfflifes betvfeen 36° and 44° N. fcat., andbetween 3° W E. and 10° W. Lon., havinjg an area of 182,000 square miles, with" a population 003,900,000 souls. Face of the Country. Spain forms a vast table-land of great elevation, above wlfich rise the crests of several chains of mountains.- Thfe height ofjhe taptt-land is 3,200 feet ; the highest peak of the south- ern group of mou*gHns, comprising the Sierra Nevada, the Sierra Morena, and the SieBa de Toledo, is the Cerro de Mulhacen, in the first- narned chainl -H,668i^et high ; the highest point of the Pyrenees is La Maladetta, 11^30 fe^ Prom these elevated regions descend the great rivers of the peninsute, the Ebro into the Mediterranean, and the Guad- alqfiivir, Gu^diana, jTagus or Tajo, and Duero- or Douro, into the Atlantic. ,U. CC Divisions. ' For ei*il purposes Spain is divided into 33 intendancies, of which six, those VEfSaragossa, Barcelona, Valencia, Murcia,;Cju-tha- genla, and PEifnia (t^6 Balearic isles), form what is officially styled the Countries of the Crojvn of Aragon, and the remainder, the Countries I of the Crowd of CagtiJe. The military division, which is the one often I given in maps, is iutct.13 captain-generalships, viz : I Qp;gmTb-6mBr^alships. \ ; Intendancies, New Castile^ Old Castileland Lflfti, - ' - r Astuiias, Galjcis, Estremadura, Andalusia, '' / Grenada, •■> Valencia and Murcia, Catalonia, ■-•-Atiagon, -Navarre, • ^ Guipuzcoa (Biscay), t; Majorca, - Madrid, Guadalaxara, Toledo, Cuenca, La Matjeha. ' ■ Burgos, Santander, Soria,* Segovia, Avila, Leon, Palencia, Valladolid, Salamanca, . \Zamora. Oviedo. - » Santiago. ' Badajos. » - •-- < l Seville, -Xeres, Cordova,- Jaen, Colpt^ifes of '-v Sierra Morena. ~" , •. - Gr&aSaf Malaga; J-l - ; * : Valencia, Murcia,^arthagena^ Barcelona : V'^-'^i - -^^ '^ 1 > -^' r Pampdoija.- ( = . ' 7^\^~ / i a Vitoria. ' M ? ;'■ .''' - • ) .' - 1 - ^^^-Palhjae^, ^iV' lyj -.i\; . \^,;; Towns. Madrid, the capital, Standi upo'nfflie -Maiizanares, in the midst of a sandy ana. bWEBB plain,^uH'Qujided"by_nio"untains'; itssitlis-' aboht 2,000 feet above tfo^seEf; popinla^ron 20I,(!00. In/ the. vicinity, are Escunal, femous for ils~ma^ifi<;ent anpnaalffl^, 'in the .vaults c^ which are deposited "the BemaJms df ?tbfi~Spanish mon£y:c|^and Spi Ildefonso, remarkaj)le;i^rits superbJpayal-palaee^ - ;■ r Among the, principE^jtowns are:Wllad«Kd,^l,p0OjphabitaBts^ Burgbs, 12,000 ; Santand'er, 20/JOO f Salapaanoay^^ous ifbr4l^ufliversity ; Santi- agoj 28,000 ; Corunpa,'23,000| Seville, 9a,epO,;iGjdi4 53,000; Cordova, 57i000 rErcija, 35,000:f&ce^ada, 52,0% Valencia, 66,000 ; (ijihuela, 26,000; Alicant, 25,060'^ Murei^ ^1^,000 ; Tiorca,- :40;366 ; "CarAagena, 37,000 ; Barcelona,. 12g,000^ iSara;|bsp5,: 4^jOjOfl| .Bilbpd, t$MOi, and ';Palma,-^,000 inhabit?int9, on^theisldnd ofMajiiriia. . On^Miiiorca is |Port Mahon, with, a She harbor, miioh-visifeT^b^ tlje btfujse^'in the ;:MediteiTanean. '" X t. ''\ V' ^" J^- : ^' ' -\ '-^ -" I Colonies. Sii^ce ;th6, loss of ^eir ^niagnificent Americaisf"empiip, iSpaiin retains in Amerfca only thfe isfends^of JQkba 'a^d^Portd/E,icq; in rAftica, the (&riarie^i I GovERNMENT,.&e. ,The goveirfifti^f is, an absolutij^imonarchy ; tllg^ Cortes or estates-of the realni, haveT^en occasionally jasfembled,/ but (their influence is sUght. /The, religibn of the inhabtoits^ . Romair Catholic, and, the: exercise t)f no":othiffins tolerated,? (Tii6revehi3,ei ia" '$35,000,080 nbe clfB't f 86qi00Q;0O0,-^"tbe army consists W-90>000mbn jT? jthe navy of 26shipS;of the'3ihe,^aind fiigates, and 30 smajfoKjessels. LHisTORT. -Thevorownsof CastileiMid Aragon ^ei4 .iinited by jhi arriage of Ferdinand ;ani Isabella, on theiacjj^onijlMie foMapf ti the throne of" Aragbri in 1479^ and-,dtifing Ihe,' same bniJiSit reigri,^e( Moorish kingdom of Grena.da "B'as: reduced, and a ney^'empire fcunded by the discovery of America by Colunlbus. Tjiei'toarriage of Phili6_ with Joanna, daughter of Ferfl|tajad.|ind IsabgUa^pJapedthe'^^Ausftiair dynasty upon the throne. ' • - A ' ''-~^ ^ ^'r- ) . "i Bourbon Vynasti^'. !AuBtTian Dynasty. . 1516 Charles LfcSrr^'^™*"^ 1 1™ PhilipV, ElSSe Philip IL ' : ' '"^' 1=^"-^^"- |1598 Philip III. ,1621 PhiUp IV. |;1665 Charles IL K 1751- Ferdinahfl VL 1759 Chai-les IIL' 1788 Charles l¥.^' ' 1808 Perdinafld^II. 1808-1813 Josfeph' Napoleon.' 1833 Maria Isabella:' REPUBLIC OF ANDORRA. ' This^iftle' state is'atuateS'oh tlTe^southern'^eclivity of the Pyrenees, between Foix in France and Urgel in SpainTand ia-under-^the protection of the king of France and the Bishop of Urgel. It has an area of 190 square miles, and a population of 15,000 souls. The prineipaj town is Andorra, with 2,000 inhabitants. - t j. / PORTUGAL. '^ , Extent and Population.^ The" kingdbm- of Portugal extisinds from 36° 58' tp 42° N. Lat., and from 6? 25' to 9? 30',.W.Lon., hiring an area of 38,6i)0 square miles. Population 3,530,000. ,' . r ' Divisions. The six divisions commonly exhibited in^jhaps, viz.; Estremadura, Alemtejo, Beira, Entre Douro e Minho,Tras Os Montes, and Algarve, are mere'geograpKidal divisions. ... Politically Portugal is divided into 12 provinces,- which are sjibdivided into 26 comarcas, viz.V Promnces* "^ }- ~ Alto Minho, . Baixo Minho, ~ t- - ~ 'Cras.'Os Montes, Alta;^6ira, - Beira Oriental, Beira Maritima, ,^Alta Estremadura, Baij^a Estremadura, Alto AleinteJQ, Bafeo AleiQlejoj .]A)garve," " - MMelra; : - V Viana, !^raga.^' .• ■ _^ ' Guiipa^rfies, P-e^fiel, Porto. , Br^^anza, Villa Real. \, _ Samego, Viseu: : ; Guarda, -Cfastello Braneo. .AvBiiro, Coiaibrai Leiria;'Thomar, ' Alemquer, Lisboa, Angra, Ponte Delgada, Horta. : /i , - ' Portalegre, E,vora. Setubal,' ~ Faro., , :~Kiincial. -,^ The frequent changes of gpvernment ahdJUe lojig civil war, render it, .however, impossible tP.det^ijnine wha,t .^ubdivisipns of the state are at. present ;pfficiaHy; acknowfedged.. The kingdoms of , Portugal .and Algarve, ai^ the Azpres form'khe great geograpfiical -divisions; -Towns. ";The capital is Lisbon, with 260;OOO inhabitants^ The other principal tpwnS'are Cpimbra, 15,000-; SetubaLorSt. UbeS, 15,000j Porto or Oporto, /J%000 ; Braga, 14,500, and Santareni, 8,000 iiihabitaMs. Angya is the capital of the Azores ; Ponta Delgada is the Oljier princi- pal to wn ;" they have each .a population of about 16,000. y CoLoriiES. Since the loss of- Brazil', Portugal 'retains no possessions in Agi^rica^, - In j\sia, tJieL Portuguese possess Goa, Damaun; and Diu, with soihe-i^djaeglit territory, and Macao in China, 40P)000 *jnbal)itants ; in -Africa, ll^ Bfedeiras and Gape da Verd-7islands,.vv'ith the islands of St^ThoB3aff|ind"Prrn(ape>, Mid large, but vaguely defined regions oh the w^s^rn coast, coniprised >in the'go-vemmeftt of Angola,: and on the east- era.j'^n that of Mozambique,, vvith a population of 1^400,000 ; and in Oceania ihe northeSStypai't .of ihes islafld of Timor, vvith some small isla4d?i.437,000 ihhabitanfe : - - : . ' ^g^EK-jTMEKf, &c. ' T-be.jovemraent is, nominally at leasl^'.a consti- tjjtipnal^jnonarBhy, Pedro hayjng granted-a eonsFitution in 1826, previous to abdicatingin favor of his daughter Maria II. The revenue before Jlhprl'ate troubles, amounted to $ 10;00.0,000, 'and the debt to about [$30,000,000. - The army^^nsisted'of 51,510 men, and the' nayy of ten iTihips of the hne and ftigatej, and 3/ smaller Vessels. ^ - - - HrsTORT. In -1139 Portugal, previously a feudal dependence of >e'*istilej':became an indepeijiejit kingdoin under Alphonso," count of /JJufing'the last yearsbi" the 15th century the. Portuguese,7 under thie patronage of John Ij-jol^n ?Ij_Emm3nuel, and other prints, made the brilliant, disco-veiyjof a pa^sggeTto India, round the Capie of Good Hope, and founded.jheir-yEStrCDKhiaJ empu-e. y,' " -^■''• lo 1580?by the extoictiijiB.- T?f the reigning dynasty, Portugal fell to Philip Ii: of Spain, •6n^t;qnt^n^ed to- belong to fte BpaiiisK crown tiU ,1640, whea the Portuguese, under the Duke ot^Braganza, revolted and recovered their independepte;" - \y\ 1807 the royal family fljed frpm the victorious arms of the French, arid.;{ool^ refiige in Brazil, whence thereigning king returned to Portu- gaT-inlS^Q. ' ., ■" . _ ,ltf l826f Pedro, Emperor of Brazil and King of Portugal, resigned the crown of the latter in faivj*' ofiiis iiifaht daughter Maria, but his brother Miguel soon, after assumed the throne, from which in 1833, he was ex- pelled by the foWner. t . '.'' ■ ' , ,- . ■--'^W^fv "■'A- i«.aM.-v^ -aaiw.- Italy. Extent and Population. This peninsula, including Sicily, extends i from 37° to 47° N. Lat., and from 6° 20' to 18° SC E. Lon., having an ■■ ■ "lOO^tJUlS. ;|It ■ 126,000 square miles, and a populatio^of 2^|^00,p( I political, but a physical division, and contains the foil areaof_-_, , . , ^, j,_ ,,__ is not a political, but a physical division, and contains the follovyjiig states and territories: The Lombardo- Venetian kingdom of the Augtaian Empire, the kingdom of Sardinia, the Duchies of Parma, Modena, and ■Xjjicc^ the Q'aqd.Ihichy of Tuscany, the principality oOfbnaco, the ^ep yiqlic/b^S y Mfc-ino, the States of the Church, and tjfe ki^doro.pf ,■ tlie T-(vd SfcUi'es. ' \'' ^ '\_^j ; The inhabitants of the peninsula all belougt'Vith som^iBoab^iidigi'a^e exceptions, to the Italian branch of the Romanic •HSlSomfepeakiuglySe-VilKr. 5 veral di^jje^ dialects of the Italian language. Thef'jf)Me^it^iIt( Catholic religioD,.rt Ther« are some Germans, GfeeK§,*iP€S^s, J_4_^ LOMBARDO -VENETIAl )**. TA*VM fiesefitheA;q)iipfi 'N'G'i The Italian provinces of Austria ct^m^^^Jfce^r^it of Venice, and Austrian LombW<^,*b5/^e^'^sm?,^&:^/f^if^'B'I'''*®i*3'*' Mantua. They have an areaof S'^^Gp'^sijiifffe mUesJ'and a populati of 5,000,000. n,-(^ ^ "'""'"J^ The capital is Milan, a^ supferb^ity beautifully sitilated, with JS^wOi inhabitants^. Venice, onge \he ^een of the seaa^ 104,000 inbai^itmits' Bresci% 3i,000; Cremona, 26,000; Mantua, 25,000; PadtfaLlpebraMI! as a seat of letters an^rscienpe, 50,000 ; Vicenzg^O,0(JOj^^^^i^jgy^,000; Payia, 21,000; a^(^u^^^Sp„35J,OQ0 inhabitants, we,'''" ^^^ of this highly popflJosS' and fertile region. ^ "-KJN^DttlVi Ot SARDINIA lie's. . are-^exlRna^e, c'diiprising silks^^pofqelSin^^encjjgi^s&aw '■vfeoUfeB ■capis;*)r"thfe.L'evant, &c. ;knd PlgrSticei^" '"' ~ jBriffjip^lj-eqortof larti^ 'frdhi'Vdi parts of the world. '"'S^ijinijg^lig^iiding the aireient Duchies of Sawy, Aosta, Moij^tferw^ anff part of-tBat of Milan, with the principaljtj^f^f Piedmont, theVepublic- of Genoa, the island of Sardistia^ &c., has an area, of 38,000 Square milesj and a population of 4,i900)00a '" y ' •'<■ " , ■' , ' , The capital i& T*wJO„wJ!^"l'i4jOQ0^3^Mbitantsi' The othei' pi*incipal towns are;-Genova or'!Gre!M)a3C^,00Q,i^iabhanis, delightfully, sjjtpated, and called by the Italjans.Tlie-Siilfterb-j'iDiln^p^dr'CtfriiJ'lS.OOO ; Alessapdijia, 35,000; Nizza, 2i5;ODff';"'C!liaMbejcrjiAlKOCiO; Asti, '22,000 ; MondoVijv 16,000; Novara, 15,000; ariS;'C^W}„37,000,"ana Sassari,'Yitli' 19,000 inhabitants, on. the. island of Sardipia? ,..-,.,<•. i.,.,ir^( „,,>,•(''" The.kijigdoni'of Sardinia was nohMt(4(eSvin.l72P,/'Tb,e ■government is absolute, but.there are estates vraioh.aiie asseiSH.ed"dnnufflly to'AiSfee ,^ertain gi-auts to the croVvn. O-" "''.•. ' 'K'^'- ''--".. i.i.n,.,„.,ft / Re>vBnueoflhe^late-$13,Q0Q|,q00';"debt^$a%00D;000. The military force consist3CQf^,aEmyiO*'4,6,850'i^.t8n^ a n^vy,.pf.,two ships of the line, three'friga^J^iBe,ven'sm^er^^^eli«>''.'''-., ■ ' ■■>>-. i'~.'sr v.^'"" •' ■• ;*„':X,i , pujCfLX OF p a^rma. fui, • ' T V. I '/..'( I.I ;> Parma-^Jylng^et^een Sardinia and Modena, has an ai-ea of 2,200 square lOTes, ancCi^,OW"inhabitants. It comprises the duchies of Parte^''™cenza, and"''®ttasWIa. The capital is' Parma, with 30,000 inhabitanll."?rhei«ther; principal townaare Piacenz:a, 28,000 and Guas- talla, 'ff,Winhabltants.y„,„„, , V * '», <.n..,i;i ( ,,, "' * ii-vtiiiTnV ,1.^ y/ .v..\,.i " '..uw^v i)irjcj«'r"dJi!!iMOD,|j:ff'i.' This little state, c|nl^bsB>p»^ra!i)i#>es'of,^^|Iod6n«i,,R^ dola, and Jlassa^Caf^ri^j^liiM an ay^^,^,00& ^^ar,e•Hliles5 wij^h 380,600^ , inhabitants." •Tbet*apita^-'Modena,<.w»lhi'27,0ro';in>ialjil3Jjt^., Silvio . has 18,000; Carrar^*'&fiioi}g,folr'ifs g^tHflry iriarbW4,51)(V«a!id(.MifiiSa;' 7,000 inhabitants. '" ""'^^ ^^^ „.;;',;;' '\ „ -x ■/;>->'"" Lucca lies between Modena an^,Tu|C|^y ;''if contains 143,000 inha- bitants on 416 square milt:S!,«.,3?N; .capi^*o,f thfej^ame name has ^,000 Ductrtt)! inhabitants. V\ PRINCIPALITY OF..MONACO. Monaco is surrounded by the Sardmian' territories, lying between the intendencies of Nice and Genoa ; it has ad area of 50 square ^n;41p.s,.aild" a population of 6,500, and is under the protection of Sardmia. The capital is Monaco, wiflil',000"iiihabitants; haSaOOO' iniiabitant^ ^ ■ ' . V '''- "<- / , the principal town Ment me. ;» REPUBXIC OP SAN MA'RmO. Ss(n Marino is ^ujrrounded bj5,flieStates of • the, C^ji)5;ch,.anais u; der the pKofeetion of the'Pope.^ The 'tewhoryJJc.Qijgjste'pftheNto^fl.^f ■'»'> Marino,4\vith 5,0001 ipjtiabii^fe^d four fetofig^s vill^e^>^aviji)| area of^ sdiiarefmiles, a^^^^ inhabitgiij:^^ t;%' A ,,\.\ \.. ,f-J^ ; T.-,\ cgSiy^ t^between'tHe'.Sti fSiQ,AJpQfcs' i:^\ a -_-.. -.7 vx,i- pinrrn-^l'°'''l^"°g JJO P' -ma BHiWfS^OO-flqkare miles, and cont^s a . top- the7.(^ita^.i^ a beautiml'i city,)>d^sfrtfii%^ituated on i^tioni 76^qg0. A PJsa,-/20,009 1 ipif^ii^dfej: ,^ Sj^nna^ ] 8; TBe mam fac- ials, :er Roine|;t :^'C-, ^an an fch Ithe 30; *:fiaiA T E ^*iOE" THE CHURCH. lal terrilorifes,ijlyingj'be^vjrf!^,,Jj^aples on the south jane ,the ,_ — i^i^dnetian^ kiM*C)Ita■JoiJ'4l^Q,'^<^ have an area of 1\ 000 .sqGare^nille^>.andtvc^hS|n^ ^i^^^n pf 2,590,000 souls. Then jare diBtached dis'ti'ic'ts lyjjngi^ithin't^e^eapblitan territory, including^B sne- %ento, and Pome Cprco.-;-',,,,,,.^^^''''' \ 'R9m6,the capital, st^^ji^^r^mteC banks of the Tiber; thejnao lem jis a little to^ the nort'h^^^me' fijE'bif ' ahcient Rome, and in great part occupies 'the'* ancient Car^^^JarSSs."* Population 155,000. S ^me contains 364 chur(;h6|,''4^^^esjiaDd a great|number of superblpal |ces, beautiful fountains, and interesting reh#s'4f]aj\tjjjuity. Other principal tB»asSi*'Vip*o,lpbOirihaJitants; Perugia! SO'lOO ; Anconn, 30;oOO';"Rimiiii; ISJqOGr; ,'|laye^na) .16)000 ; Bologna, 72 00 ; Ferrara, 24,000 jPVfeaaa, 14^^00', iSt.c:,,, .'v > l The papal ^dve'rnroeot is an electiye-].E|bSi6Tuy monarchy; tae Aope, who is the spiritual and tetnpbra] h'eaS-bf l£||e^spte, being elected b [the college of cardinala<'>.a'he'pap£ifrevehue*js about $9,000,000; the lebt is $70,000,000. /. T 7. I , W.p, S I C I L tE S .,\,.-ml.lf _v!;- '' The kingdom of the*te>;SiBmes ihfejiidesithfi -isl^of SiciManfthe kingdom of Naplesf>i»l»^&jf5jfer, is .dividSdrintd'.six 'provinces, aad 1 ^ing separated from"thS1!ifflt}n^ IgPasirkit^called the Faro, constifiitei I the Dominjal di la del Faro j^btetmiop^beyopd the Faro), and the lattei into 21 provinces, forming ttie Doni^'i'^tis tiiis*-.^de^the Faro. The," ar^ i of the state, is 41,000 square mitea^j*population 7,420,000. f j The capital is Naples, delightfully sjjuated on a beautiful (lay, lear Mount Vesuvius, with 364,000 inhabitants. In the neighborhooi ; are .PtBHjteii and Herculaneum, overwhelmed by an eruption of VesuvJ is in thfi=>year 79. i ' Castellamare, 15,000 inhabitants; Aversa, 16,000; Capua', 8 )00; Salerno, 3,000; Foggia, 3l,000;"Bafi, 19,000; Barletta, 18,000; L jcce, 14,000; Tarento, """""-' "**■ -"""" "* .. .nr. , towns on the coni ..,.,'On the< island an extensi^>e CQmmi ■apani, 24,000 ;'^yrS»ise^ ^,009; Mateala, % 000,' Q^■geIlOs -'-'^ Cl-Wut/oew ^ ^/ 28- -.Pti- ^SUfnumiufini (}m-a}5m.A B; R -dy ?&r D Ef N" B ITT vFCVGy-^ V-TTl^^* \ 29 Luiaenstan tev ?,— C- Stt,iiM°f i\ pSep™-!'' (-- JBr^,^xX *T \ SLliioiTj- Graft am^^; jT^lutmn^^ <^o6cri 31 Bmss Ubenslan 'Jo _ _.^ ..-GERMAN.Y. 'ExTEWT. Germany, or the Gterman Confederation, extends from 45° SO' to 55° N. Lat, and from 4° 50' to 18° 20' E.,L(»n.„haFiBg an area of : 340,000 square miles, and a population of 34,000,000. ' This estimate includes the German provinces of Luxemburg, belonging'to the Nethei;« la^ds or^^^giJl^J^pd of Holstein and Lauenburg, belonging to Denmark, hilt notitlaeJwiiJrQerman territories of Austria and Prussia. I>ivl8i»i»&.' I The old German Empire, -Which was dissolved in 1806,' was divided intcrnit^e' circles ; Austria, Bavaria, and Swaljia in the south ; Ftanconia, the Upper ^Rhine, and the L(yiver'Khine in the centre ; and- Westphalia, Upg(^jf„'§4?con^)r3nd Lower Saxony in the north. ,, ,. • , lit comprised- 'aoaut:>30&-TnHependent states, secular and'eccles,iasticali h4lding immedidtelj^ of the erdperqr. 1 ....;, The GBunanto'tblttfedterafon waS^fbrmed in 1815, and consists at present of flie,fiillb.wing states :■ ' -^ . ., • " "'' '■"«'';A.ii8tria* , '< Prussia t 7,-; IjCingdom.pf B?^v^ria 'f " c—i. Wurtemberg " ,^„ ';Hailoy^r { " ..tt'*i> v.i'^ax'oiff - x-L^ vtt,., v.> Hesse-- .:.:.!t:.:\ "'.sa^WeitnaT-, i0j6oo,ooa' " 9.30(3,006 ' IffToM, "1,5'20,0{)0' l,5S8,ftQ0. >•' 1,400,000 li,])3»,«00 mooo • • Mecklenburg ^bhwerin:-~43]f,0( " ,.,„.:;.-';, 'irs^ ., ,streiitz 7^,000- "_ ^' ^ ■ - Holstein Oldeiiburg Elecf&al' He'sae..^ , Duchy of Nas^iu " .Biriiiis-wicfc , " " Meminggn « O . « iSfenJ^i^: Anhalt^De^^j^rj /. « I Be^' ' ^m eitz Schleitz .,-■. . i- •a>'' " "LbbBilsteiB Schwartzburg-Rfidolstadt Principality of Reuss I -_ a » • r , 3, 145iQO0 jspoo '" ipTlobol' 56,000' ■ ...^'34,000 -' ^,000 ' 30(000 ■37,,500 57,000 Sohd6rsKausen 48,000' Lippe Detmbld'; ' , , /i:6,000' ". Schauenhurg ■ 26,000 " ■Waldeck ' ,54^000 HohenzoUern Siginaringeh'38,000 " . . Hechingen ISjOOO " ' Lichteng^gjij,' Landgraviate of Hesse Bonjburg RepubU(;,or Free C)ity of Frankfort' " ' " ", \ Premen , ' « '• «' V 'Lubeck ' 4" .. ," ' Qamburg . rds!hip of Kniphauseilr' 6^0 ' -21,000.. ,'< ,60,0067 mOOQ ife'ooo 2,859 Vienna vl, Berjini— .jMuriibh' Stuttgard Hapoyei^ . Dresde^ i-Garlsruhe , Darmstadt Wpimar ihwerioj PajmlaUon-' 300,000 sao,ooo 8o,oa6; 32,000' 2^600' ■70,000' 17,000 ■20;OaO lOiOQO 1:^600 ^ewStrelitztifeOfiO Jldenburg ,^0>h&Chvigitz WisBaden Brunswick ^■Gflttra- - Meinfngen Altenburg i^ Dessau Bernburg Cothfn , " GreitiL , ■ > ..^phlfeitz . Lob^p^tein Rudplstadt ) J2,000: /10,000 /- 5,000 = 7,0(») ' >5i000 ■3,000 4,000 . St)ndershausen 3,300 -tetnibld ■ Buckeb'urg dprbach Sigmaringen Hechingen Liohtenstein .HcSiflburg jf'ranfcfort Bcemeh . -mbeck '■ 2,800 2,100 ' 2,000 1,400 3,000 600 3,500 54,000 40,000 22,000 Bfeimburg 125,000 Kniphausen /T-'SO itgowH govBrhm.ent affe'hical; thoktr^T^ GovERNMBSTT. Each sta^ of thi and laws. The fo^m^ of goj^triment are\_ ^ , , .Padeh^Bavaiaaij!tt'««e(5]^ei^&(}., are ,lirpited bjj tonstttutional chepks^, "but many areJiitheriBptij^ly absolute'or but paiSiall^ limited. / ^ The ajtos df--fn&'q6nfederati&il' are managed by a federal diefj'.whicli acts hrt^OTorn^wTien 'the fundamental articles' of- the jCpii|!ederation. are under consideration, or other.^ measures of .geh^-alr. inteiisst are to be 8ettle3j|the dipt fopiis itself into a plenum or genehil, assPmbly, in which ' each state has at leadt pne vote, except tlie iPrdship of Krirphaus"en,.a[nd' the tflzd principalities of Reuss Scbleil^and 'Re)iss tp^gnstein, the two laitter, i^ving^ hut one vote collectively, and several, pf ,tbe largecj states have 3j»r 4,votes,_ ' .,\.,, • ' ,n j z.-V-5^ ' In Ibe- ordirrary'diet, only the^^^er-states^ve j vote e^li, the ^rtiaUer voting collectively. _,- ' ;^^j^!i -■ , „7?^J ^,-^^.\, 1 MiLiTAjiY ForceV- Thfe/iipnISSferacy possesses the federal fortresses of LuxeraTmrg, Mayefice^L'andau iri' 'Bay|aria;''Gefhi6rsheim, Ulm, and> Hombnrgi which are garrisoned by the, federalltroops".', "The army of the-, cpnfederacyScpBSists of 362,815 me'tij comnianded,b^ a general ajDpoint e^ by^^Jie^di^and compoSM'of 'cmitijggjeBts furnished by each state. I the^taliaji, P^Msh, and Hungarian pfovinceatof the Austrian ■^his.doeg noL.comprisc empire, *Mcli d& not bejprtg'to SerSafly'. 'The whole p'opiilation of'the empire is 32,008^00. ■; ,,,,/.,_. - r ■. , , t ^craSiVe.ot'ttmpi^^QSfiS of Fosen and |*russia, which do- not bejbng to Germany. The population ofthe JftuBSiaiVtf onarchy is 13,000 Jjljp.- ,. ;, , I -^-■.-^ ' r<- ;'••:'■■■ '^ '''' > ,' , .. .., ,, ,,..S WITZERLAND. Extent and PokriATioN. Switzerland lies between 45° 50* and 47° ■ 50' N. Lat., and, between 6° and 10° 25' E. Lon., having an area of 14,800 square miles, alid ft population o04)8p,00p. ^ , . ^-, o • tA , INHABITANE.S. The Smss are in pE^oJ fietdaatVirigiil^aaaJftang ' the northern, eakei-n, and. central cantons, and forming seven tenths of the vs^qle population, and' in part French and Italiait; fhP French Swiss compose two tenths of the:population. and arje fouq(J.initHp.vvest6meBd northwestern, cantons. -, s, >-vl- i l_^--. l . ' ■ ' . 41^-' — s-.:-.^*^ - vAboijt twelve twentieths of the population are Calvinists ; the remain- der'^ire Roman Catholics. ' ■' - "' DivfSTONS. Previous to 1798 the S-wiss-Cottfederacy consisted-of 13 cantons, and'icertain districts stylfed, the/subjects, and others called the allies of th,e' cantons. 'rAiler sesKMal changes, it was divided in 1815, into 22 cantons:; .. :- / '^'" ' ' r ., '.J, CatUffns. ^ ' ' ' - jrisons'or Gra,u Bundten pferne h- - Tipvlhtion. ,>35p,'O0O ■ Valais-or.WaUis ' - ; - ■• -78,000 , ftiysdeVaudorWaadtland 170^000- Tesisino ■ st.;Gaii>---- Zurmir V Ly^f&ne Aargau or Argovia Glarisj Ne'DftrhateJ or Neuenfcurg Thlirgau " Unterwald ,Soleu/e or-fSolqthurri 1 Bale or Basel A^enzell. ^ -r-. Sehkffhausen_ Geneva •',-,., 102,QOO 144,000 iieftoi _ —-f 84000, , 13)0,06 ■ ".--32,080-' " "sScso^ J5pOO < 24,000 -^4,000 45,5,OO0- ao,ooo'' . -^52,560 , :.,14,500' Poptdation. 3,000 18,000 3,000' 10,000 --4s35a . lOjOOO 11,000 .6,600 3,000 . 7^000 " • 2i«O0 5,000 ... 4,000 : .5,000 i_ 8,600 .T&COO ;' 4,000 , 16,0fi0 •\ 3,000 ' ■'. Sp,006i 3^000 ■-J^ ' Capitals. , Coire or Chur Berne .' • J Sion or Sitten . Lausanne - :i Lngano or-Lauis Zurich ^. ■;■ /Luqiemei,, ;,. . Aarau, _ Friburg Altorf f ■Schweitz ''Gfafis. .V , Neufchitel i-Eiauenfeldi ..-Samen tSoleure-- Bale- ■Appenzell ' Schaifhausen Geh^vji, •', •' ,'zug.:- ,^:,. - ■„! _ ^^^. -....-.■ y . „ >-A ^ ' GfoyBRNMEWT. S^itz^land .ig, ai confederacy mFj arfetocratical- and democratic republics, with one^monarcblpal canto|»fNeu|chatel, of which the king of Prussia is the sovereign, rT,l}e; ;22je^j^ns(forrn in-fict 26 states,^Appenzell, Unterwalden," Bale, and^^chwyit^^ing ea^h compos- ed of two distibct-parts ; teach stat^ ma&ageajtj^ owiiyn^ernal_ concerns. The federal gPvernt^ient ^16h6ist| of.anEliet ^.tagsatzui*^ , or;, congress, composed of 22 members, one ffom each. canton; it meeffl^ljernately at Zurich, Lucerne, and Berne, and the president of the' diet, ^yled lan- damman, is considered the chi^ magistrate of the confederjicj^ ■ Revenue. The ordinary fed,eral :r,e\>enue is but little mSre than $ 1^0,000 a year ;' hut the total annual r.eS*enu.e of the 22 cantons cannot be less than $ 2,500,000. ,.,. .- .Tv, "'- "^ ' Mi-EiTAKT FoK.cE. Theuconfederacy doeajiot keep on foot aijy per- maneht-jiiilitary^force, but each canton isjregiwed in case of necessity to ^.furKijsh its contingent towards a fedOTal army, which is fl386), ancb.the^ accession of several other" cantons tq tlie confederacy sec6red fljeir inde^ pendence, whicjj, they success%lly defended by the TjjJlfta;^ victories of ,St. Jacob's, at .Bale, over 4lre'5rench,.and of Morat 'or' Murten (1476), ,9nd Nancy (1477); 'over eharlesithe'Iifold,, dukje ofcBurgundy. . After new and sev,?re gopflicts n-ith the ^mpife, and important addi- tions of-.territoryJpy' conquest or voluntary accessions, their.. cbnipleta' •iSeparatibr^ from the Gfeiman empire r was fihally ^ai^in^ledged. tin 1€48. ^ :! ' '' ... .V .. , . . ^. ,.t V Ip 1806, N^ppleOn, after having ■detached'several portions of the Swiss territory, assilthed tfie title of Mediator of SwitzeMandj but in 1815 the Swiss annulled ihe, act of mediation, and again became an independent power, with -spine tnodifications pfyithpir old territorial airangemeiit, 'which increi^d the nuftiW of cantons To 2?. , ■^' ■ •■ ^ ■ ■ -■"'•■ -—-"■> mi tm a.B,j;ErrF, Extent and Population. The kingdom of ©reece^extends from 36° Sfy to 39° IC N. Lat., and from 20°TO' to 24° E: ton., exclusive'of the insular portions., Inclusiye of Jbie latter, the sate 1ms an area of ]8;500 square miles, and a populatio}i of 750,000 soiSs. ^^ Divisions. Jn 1833, the kingdoriij which liad preSousIy been divided into 13 tmemata,; received a new territorial "organisation, Demg divided into 10 npmoi, andsubdividied into 4^ epai'chiBs-; - ^ I HVoiaai. Argolis (Corinth, Hydraj \ Spetzia, and Poros), * ^ Achaia and Elis, : ; Messenia, Arcadisi, Laconia, Acamania and ^tolia, Phocis and Lo.cris, v- Attica (BoBotia, and ^Egina), • EubcBa,;(Northei>n Sporades), Cyclades, Napoli di Romania or Naaplia, >•' ,^Patras, '. . _ . ' . Cyparissa or_A*cadia,, ■ - ; Tripolitza, ' Misti'ds or Misitra,. Vi-achori,' — ,'■ Salofla or Ampffissa; . . Athens, , ' ; , r Negropont or EgripoS, ~^' ~ , ' Syra, Rivers. The rivers are.all small, -but some of them are of ^historical interest. -Such -'are the Iris, anciently the Eurotas, and-the-Rj^fia; an- cientlyi^the Alphelis^'in-the Morea; andUhe Aspro Pptamos, arlcientfy the Achebi^s^ilhe Hellada, anciently ^the Sperchius,' and the Mauro' Potafaos or^aticilnt Cephissus.*- ^ -.. -■ T - '• , Mountains. Several mountain spurs traverse Greece,^the;s6rface of whieh. is mi^h broken. The highest sumniits are in the- MpreaJ Where the PentaSactelob (Tkj5getus),':and' MountjCyllfene, reach ^flie .'height of 8,000^eet. Oh the mainland are Trfeloyount) f^ymeflfus), and Axia '(Cythferon), in Afti^,' Zagora (Heliqob), Liakura {farnassus), an^-CEta, between which ani the Cfulf of Zeitun is the fawious defile of Ther- mopylsB, : ' - , . - 1 .< IsKands. The islandsjsf Greece ate EuboBES; the Northern- Sporades (Skyathus, Scopelos, .Skyros,^ CeljdDriia or Selidronii, ^Sarsflcihos, and PipeSs) ;*ihe Nortjj.eri' CyMafe.|=Syra, Thermia, Zia or CeoSj Aiidros, Tenosj Myco^ios and Belos);«the Southern Cyclades (Nfixos, PaVos, Sai^arin or Th^ra, M^lc^s,'Seriphos, and Siphnos or Siphantos),iand tfee Western Sporades fHydra, -Spetzia, Poros, -jiEgina, and Colduri or Salamis):- ; '• , , .^ GuxFS. On the western ' coast are the gulfs- of Arta (Ambradiaji Gulf),_pf ,Patras,and of Lepanto'(Corinthian Gulf). On the south are the .gulfs of Gbron (Messsnian)," and Colqkythia {Laeo|iian). On the east- are the^gulfs of Napoli (-Argolio), J^gina (Sarohio), and Void (Pelasgic). The gulfs of tepanto and jEgina, penetrating far inland, form the well known peninsula of the Morea or Peloponnesus, which is conniecled with the mainlan(),by theisthmus of Corinth. The strait of Euhcea (Euripus) separates the isla&d of Euboea or Negropont from the con'traent. -« ' ' Towns. The. capital is Athens, built on the site of the ancient city ; by the events of the late revolution, it was reduced'to a heap of ruins j population) about 10,000? • JfeupiliS or Napoli, which was for some time the capital of the nevy state, carries on an active commerce ; population 12,000. In the vicirril^, is Argos, 6,(j0ff inhabitaiiS, reduced to ruins ,in the-late wan The ruins of ■thd^'^arieieht MycoBse, Tyrinthus, Epidaurus,'aind?rroBzene, are in this section of the-cojuntry. ' ' y ■ The population of Tripolitza was reduced by (he disasters of tli3 revolution from .15,000 to 3,000, and that of IVfisitras from' 18^000 to.1.,500. In" the vicinity of the latter are the ruins of Spai-ta fin the mountains of this section dwell the 'fierce and warlike Mainotes. - ■ ' Arcadia or Cyparissa, before the revolution a place of 4,O0Winhabitants, is now 4ujte reduced ; near it are the ruins of Phigaleia, whence" were taken the celebrated s,culptures, known as the Phigaleian marbles. Navarino^(Pylus), in the harbor of which the Turco-Egyptian fleet was destrojfed by the 'combined fleets of England, Russia, and France, Coron and~Modon, derive importance from their fortifications and ports. Patras, which was entirely destroyed in the war of the revolution, has recovered froiii its losses and has 8,000 inhabitants ; in this nomos ai-e found some vestiges of the ancient Olympia, celebrated for its magnifi- cent temple of Olympian Jupiter, and for its games. Corinth, situated on a narrow isthmus between two seas, and strongly, fortified, is beginning to rise from its rains, having been entfa'ely destroy- ed diiring the revolution. Salpna, on the northern side of the gulf, near Liakura or Parnassus, occupies the site of the ancient Amphissa, and the little village of Castri, that of Delphi, falnous for its oracle. Livadia, destroyed during the revolution, and Thebes or Thiva, have' 6 or 8,000 inhabitants. Negropont, the ancient Chalcj s, 16,Qfl!l jahabitanis ; Psara or Jpsara, on the isle of die same name, destroyed by the Turks ; Syra, 12,000 inhabitants ; Naxia on Naxos, and Hydra, with 20,000 inhabitants, on the island of the same name, are among the principal towns on the islands. Government. The government is a limited hereditary monarchy ; but there is yet no wiitten constitution adopted. Each nomos and! eparchy has a p;-esiding authority, composed of elders or chiefs, elected , by the inhabitants, and in each 'i'illage there is a demogeront ajgo chosen by popularl vote. - 'J ,. ThOi press is free, and civil and criminal codes and courts, of justice tiave been -established. ,-f , - -j ^Reu'oion and Education. The inhabitants are attaclipdi to the Gree'fe church, and the government of the national church has-been ren- dered independent of the patriarch of Constantinople. The mg^jipolit^ | dioceses, have been ^.reduced from 40 to 10. The king is-aJRoman" Catholic.:,^. ^ - , - . ■") - A number of schools 'for ^primary 'instruction have recBnfly been festablishedj and theT people 'Jia«e shown great eagerness for inst^ction; they have also seized every faSorable opportunity to establish "lyeeums or "higher sdKbolg; for btffeseies. • " HrsTORT. ; Civilisation appelirs to have Beeiif introduced into Greece 13,or 14 centuries before theiE%istian era,lby J*hoenician and Egyptian colonies. During-lfhe fpUoyran'g i^ges -the ..country 'was divided into numerous petty states, with -iponaicfiical "forms of government, which, however, were successively ;displacei'6y arjstbcratical and democratical constitutions. ' ' • - ^^ >'" ^ The successful resistance to the Persian invasions B„ C. 491 and 480, raised Greece to aliigtfstate of prosperity, and wpaWh, and -the states of _Ath6n^ Sparta^ ^u4;Thebes successively, became predominant powers. But the country was distracted by civil war^, and the battle of Chawonea (338) reduced Greece to the Macedonian ^way, and in 146 it became "a Roman province.-}. , i .- .- > ' Greece 'theii shared'the fete of the Eastern Empire, and fell u'nd&r the '^(fniMon'W the Turks, againsrwhom the inhabitants rose in 1830. - A < devaitatidg. war now followed, Jwhich was concluded by the ackifowl- Jjgdgrrienfr.of Grecian independencein 1827, and in 1832,t.Otho^ a Bava- rian prince, waschosen king of Greece. ' ^ . During the minority of the. pi-ince, jvJio was born in June .1815,",the'; government ilsjdministered by a regency, which arrived in th"e country" with the king in" January l'e33. , , Sin.oe the afeival of 'the reMncfy, commerce hag, revived,' the revenue' has- doubled, amounting in Isa^-^to # 800,000, numerous emigrants Jhave * settled^in Greece, a new coinage has be€n introdi^ed, roads have' been laid out, and, .although the .pilblic tranquill3;y has been interrupted by.i some conspiracies, there is- in general an^ appearance of order and improvement^ \^ '. . ■' '., REPUBLIC OP THE IONIAN ISLES. ' Extent gnd^PoTULATiON. The Ionian' roiublic consists of 7 princi--, pal.and some ^P^Her islands, lying, with' the exception of Cerigo, in the Ionian Sea.C They have an area of 1,000 square ^niles, and contain 808,'000 inhabitantsTs The 7pria(iipal islands, forming eafch a separate province,- are as follows : ' > 4.' ' . f i Corfu (Corcyra), j ? Corfu, ' Paxps, "■. V ■ ' ' ' Porto Gai, \ , ; Satta Maura (Leucadia), ^ -. Amaxichi, V _ Theaki (Ithaca), j "Vathi, -Cephalohia, ; . Argostoli, ;, . ^ Zante (Zacynthus), Zante, \ Cerigo (Cythera), ! • ,• ,«> CapsalL Towns. Corfu, the capital, is, a place of considerable commerce, with 14,'000 inhabitant. Zante, the principal town'Jof the state, has 20,000 inliabitants. Amaxichi 6,000, and Argostoli, 5,000, are the other most important towns. " \> , Government. Thgse islands were conquered from the -Venetians by the Russians and Turks in 1799, and ''declared a state under the protec- tion of Turkey, by the title of liie 'Republic of the Seven Islands. In 1815 they were put under the protection of Great Britain. The government is aris'tocratical^ the British lord high-commissioner is at the head of afiairs. The senate consists of five members, chosen for the term of five years, by the 40 deputies of the difierent islands, assembled for that purpose, and of a president, named by the British commissioner. The latter likewise appp^ts the governors of the islands, and commands the forces. The revenue is about $ 700,000. ' (ik OTTOMAN EMPIRE. Extent and Population. ,■ The Ottoman Empire in Europe extends from 39° to 45° N. Lat.,^and from 15° SC to 29°,B. L'on., having an area of 148,000 square miles', and containing a pqpulatibn of 7,000,000. Mountains. Turkey is traversed by branches. of; the Dinaric Alps, one of which under the name of the, Chain of Mount Pindus passes into GrejEce; 3nd.>finother extends easterly* to^ardthe Black Sea, under the name of pEemus of" the Balkan, and southeasterly' to. the Archipelago, under the name of the Rhodope or Despoto Dag. The highest summits of the Balkan reacK anjelevatioiiof 10,000 feet ; those of the Despoto Dag ' of nearly 'fe,400 ''feet, and those of Pindus 7,675 feet. Mount Chirnaera (Acroceraunian Mountains), Pelion, Ossa, CEta, &c., belong to the [last-mentioned chain. ' . v Rivers.^ .. The Danube flows through the northern part of the empu-e. The Maritza, Karasou or Marmara, the Vardar', Salambria, and Drino, are'.amon^ the principal streams. -^ Divisions. The.diyis^onsadppljed. by European geographers are uii- knqwn to tH^Turks, vifho also in their adrniriistrative divisions'confound theiAsiatie and European parts of the^ empire. They divide the vvhole empire into two beglerbegshipsj.tiie one comprising the' European and parts of the ifeiaticdpminionSj-'whose capital is Sophia; the other in- citing the rest'of the empire. ^,~ In the brilliant period of the^-Ottoman empire it was fiirther dii?ided int^44 eyalets or principalities, which were subdivided into sarigiacs or liv^ (banners); the former under the government, of viziers or pachas of thrpe tails, and the lattet under mirmirans or pachas of two tails. The divisions of Turkey, in Europe are at present as follows : Sophia. Eyalets. ^ a:^--: ' ' i- Capitals. Ruraeli (oomprisirig-.the Thessaly, Macedonia,' Albania, Y Thrace, &c., of Evlropfeani writers)," >• ' ' j Silistria (greater pjift'of, Bulgaria' and the eastern part ") ' Q-r t • ., of Macedonia), '' ,•.''.■ ' J, **"®*'^- Bosnia (comprisinff Turkish Croatia, Bosnia, Hertzego- ] ' Bosna- ■ vinp ahdth^ western' part of 'Bulgarfa'), / / ; ,- J ,: Serai. The Isles (comprisingnot only Chios; SamoSj Metelin or ") ' Lesbos, Rhodes, and other'islands; but the coasts of > Gallipolis. i Asia Minor);' ■ >•■""■,, >. ■ :- - ;' y^ ToTVNS, The capital is Constantinfipl'e (Byzantium), finely sitiiated at the entrance of the strait of the' same' name,' the" anqient Bosphofus. Po'pulation 600,000. Other principal towns-are .Adriahoplej 100,000; Philippbpoh, 30,000 ; Gallipolis, 80,000 ;"Salon~iki or-Thessalohica, 70,000 ; Larissa, 30,000; Sophia, 50,000 ; Shiimla, ' 30,000 ; Silistria, 20j000 ; Rutshuk, 3p,000;'"Widclin','25,0tf0;.Yaniha-or7J6annina, now nearly de- serted;' Scutari or' Isliahderiap'20,00&; and Bosna-Serai, 70,000 inhab- itants. ' '' ' . Inhabitants. The; Turks, an Asiatic horde of semi-barbarians, are thp rulurg peoplei of this fine region. The Osmanlees are the principal ofl the Turkish nations; The' Greeks are numerous, particularly in Thessaly,' Macedonia, Thrace, and' Albania. The'Albanians, called also Arnaouts and Skipetars, form the bulk of the population in Albania, and are 'found in the different provinces of. Rumeli. The Servians and Bosnians belong to the Sclavonic stock, and there are also Armenians, Jdws, &C. ' ^' / ■The Turks and many of the Bosnians; Bulgarians, and Albanians are Mahometans. The Greeks,' Servians, and some of the Bosnians, belong td; the Greek church, and some of the Albanians, Bosnians, Greeks, and Armenians, are Roman Catholics.' ., " ? Gfo vERNMENT,' The goyernment- is absolute, the sovereign (padishah, sultan. Grand Seignior) b^iog at once the "temporal" and spiritual-head of the empire. The court is. called the Ottoman Porte or Sublime Porte. '■ ' - . The Koran, or sacred book of the Mahometans, is at once the civil, political, and religious code of the state. At the head of spiritual' affairs, under the sultan, is the mufti, iinder whom are 'the ulemas or doctors. The grand vizier is the civil and military chief of the empire. The capitan-pacha is the commander in* chief of the navy. The divan or great council of the empire, is composed of the grand vizier, mufti, capitan-pacha, and the principal adrriiiiistrative officers of state. ■ t ■ . - HisTOKr. In the eighth century, the Turks issued from the central regions of Asia, and gradually conquered the provinces of Western Asia. In the 13th century, one of the Turcoman- hordes, called from, their leader Ottoman Turks, became conspicuous, and after overrunning Asia Minor, passed into Europe, m the 15th century. ,. i,.,- . .'. The capture of Constantinople (1453) ^completed the subjugation of the Eastern or Greek empire. During the latter half of the 16th and in the 17th centuries, the Turk- ish empire was extended beyond the Danube, comprising the countries between Persia and the Mefliterfanean in Asia, and'^ast regions bordering on the Mediterranean in Africa. , h > But since the end of the ^ 17th century, Hungary, the Crimea, Bess- arabia, Seryiaj'WaJarihia, 'Moldavia, Greece,.Candia, and the Caucasian provinces, Syria, Egypt, &c.; have been .severed from the~ Ottoman empire, and its power seems now entirely, broken,,- . -. HUNGARY.' -■ Extent and PorijiATioN. The , kingdom of Hungary forms a part of the Austrian empire ; it'lies'betwelen 16°and!26° E;L6n.,.and between 44° 15' and 49° 30" N. Lat^, having an' area of 88,600 square. ingles, and a population of .10,471,000 souls'. In. this estimate, we^ have not irjcluded Transylvania, vvhich contains 2,000i000^. inhabitants' on 23,500' square ■ miles. ,,''.': ' .. "^ , - The iuhabits^nts of Hungary are chiefly Magyafs'.of the-Einnic stock ; in Transylvania there.'are'riiahy Germans, and Walachians ;' the Scla-.' voniatis and Croatians of Sclavohia^ 'and Croatia belong to. the^great Sclavonic family of nations. ' ''■•'. ,. ^ Towns. Buda or Ofenisthe caipjtal.of "Hungary '; hi.cluding Pesth, wlych.is on the oppositeyae"ofth& 'Danube, and is cdnnegtedf with Buda, by a bridge of' boats, the population is 96;000. Presburg,, 41,000, has been at several perfo'ds. the capital. Debretzin, 45,000 ; Theresienstadt, 40,000 ; Shemnitz, ^,000 ; Szegedin, 32,0P0, and Olausenhiirg, 20,000;'' Hermannstad|, 18,000, and Gronstadt, 25,000 inhabitants in . Transyl- ,' ya'nia ; Eszek, 10,000, in,Sclavonia ; and Agram, 17,000 in Croatia, are the othei'' principar;tovnis. , • ■ . , ' ,« , HiSTORi. The Magyai's, an Asiatic'people, entered this region in the , 9th century, and extended theirrconquestfe over a great part of , Germany ; in the 11th century they embraced Christianity, and began 'to abandon their tents for houses' and 'to dy\?ell in towns. • In the 14th century the country was distracted with the celebrated schisrri.of Huss. . ■ " " , . Iiri526,''H'ungary'was conquered by the Turks, and for IBOyears continued to form a Turkish province. ' ' " ' By the death of the last "of the Hungarian princes in the battle of Mohacs (1526), the ri^ht to the crown was claimed byFerdinandl; of Austria, the iusb'and of his sister, and "in the' last year of the 17th century, the Turks were expelled'from' the kingdom. PRINCIPALITY OF SERVIA. . The. principality of Servia is tributary to the Porte, but has an inde- {)endent administration. In 1830 the government became a hereditary constitutional monarchy, by the election of a hereditary prince. Area of the state 12,000 square mUes ; population 380,000. Semendria, on the Danube, with 12,000 inhabitsints, is the capital. Belgi-ade, the principal city, remarkable for its vast and strong military works, isthe principal town ; population 30,000. The Servians belong to the Sclavonic stock ; in the 13th and 14th centuries Servia formed, an independent kingdom, which was conquered by the Turks in the middle of the 15th centai-y. '• In 1801, the Servians, under Czerny George, revolted, but were reduced to submissi6n_in 1813. -After some new. attempts to recover their freedom, their demands were finally granted -in 4820, aiid they became a separate state, paying, However, an anhual'tribute, and receiving a Turkish garrison in Bel^ade. PRINCIPALITY OF WALACHIA. ■ ' Walachia is tributary to the Porte ; it has an area of 28,000 square miles, and. a, population of 970,000 souls. The prince or hospodar,*is appointed for life. .' JBucharest, the capital, is a large city with 80,000 inhabitants. Tergo- vist, formerly an important town, has much declined, and at present' hais but 5,000 inhabitants. The Walachians, or more correctly the Rumoonis, are of the Greco- Latin^ stock, and form the population,qf Walachia, Moldavia, and of many of the inferior provinces of the Ottoinait empire. ". ' .^ PRINCIPALITY OF MOLDAVIA. Moldavia, as well as Walachia and Servia, is tributary to the Porte ; it has a population of 450,000 souls on an area of 15,000 square miles. The capital is Jassy, with 40,000 inhabitants. m SWEDEN Extent and Population." AND NORWAY. 'TBe'SweHMrraonafcKy)* comprising the kingdoms of Sweden and Norway, extends from N. Lat. 55° to 71°, and from 6° to 31° E. Lon., having an area of 295,000 square miles, and a population of 4,00|Q,QOO souls, includirig about 2,000 Finns, and 120,000 Laplanders. Sweden contains 2,9flO;000 inhaibitaints, on an area of 168,000 square miles. ' 'X^ i ■ Islands. The islands belongrng'-ito the Sjvedish raonarphy, are Gothland and CEland in the Baltic Sea, and the Bergen,',Drontheim,' and Loffoden isles in: the' Atlai|tic Ocean. Between two islands of the last named group is the famous Maelstrom or whirlpool, which, during the prevalence of c4rtain winds and tides, rages so violently 'as to engulf sm^llJL vessels and large' sea -animals. ' '/" Mountains. The Dofrind or Dofrefield Mountains stretch from Cape Liudesnes, the southern point of Worway, to North Cape, a distance pf 380 leagues. The highest part of the range is near the western shore^ and the course of the principal rivers is consequently southward and eastward into the Cattegat and the Baltic. The principal heights are Skagstlostind, 8,400 feet high, and Sneehsettan, 8,128 ^et. Rivers and Lakes. The principal rivers are the Tornea, forming in part the boundary between Russia and Sweden ; th^ Umea^ the Motale or outlet of lake Wetter ; the Gptha or outlet of lake Wenner, which forms at Trolhatta the falls of that name ; and the Glommer.- A vast number 'bf lakes cover the smface of the peninsula, among which the principal are lakes Wenner and Wetter. These lakes are con- nected bythe Gotha canal, which, thus-unites the Cattegat at Gothenburg with the Baltic at Soderkopmg. The canal; is 10 feet deep, 25 wide, and 145 miles long, in which distance there afe 7|t) miles of" excavation. Divisions. Sweden is divided into 24:lEens or governments, which are subdivided into fcEgderier or districts. Norway is' divided into 17 Amt or bailiwics. The great geographical divisions of the two countries are as follows : . , ' ' '■'' 3 Regi&Tis. ' Oovemments and Baitiyncs. Sweden Proper ■ or Svbaland — Stockholm, Upsal, Westerses, Nykoping, (Erebro, Carlstad,'Stora-Kopparberg, and Gfefleborg. Gothland or GffiTHALiND— Linkoping, Calinar, Joenkoeping, Kro- noberg, Blekinge, Skarabbrg, Elfsborg, Goetheborg and Bohus, Halmstad, Christianstad, Malmoehuus, and Gbttland. - , i.. ■ NoRRLAND — Norbotten, Westerbotten, Westef-Norrland, and Jsemt- land. ' , , . SoNDENFiELDS — Aggorshuus, Smaalchuene, Hedemtirken, Christian, Buskerud, Br^er^heyg,.IJedenes, Mandal, Stavanger, Jarlsberg, „ , and Laurvig..:_L_Li_-' J.J ! 1 . J. X' NoRDENFiELDs — Sondre Bergenhuus,Nordre Bergenhuus,Romsdal, Sondre,Trondheim7sandNordre:T['rondheim. , , NoRDLANDENS — -Nordland and Finihark. TovTNS. The capital is Stockholm ; it is built upon several islands and peninsulas atJhe junction ofJake.Maler with the Baltic. It has a large and safe harbor, and 80,000 inhabitants. Gottenburg or Goethen- borg, with 28,000 inhabitants, is the second city in industry, commerce, and population. Upsal, celebrated for its university, 4,000 inhabitants ; Carlscrona, 12,000, for its docks, hewn out,of the rock ; Norkoping, 10,000, a commercial and manufacturing town ; Calmar, 5,000 ; and '' j Flensborg in Jutland, 16,000 inhabitants; Sleswiok, 8,000,-, and Kiel, 9,000, noted for its university, are the other p^fiucipal towns. — I Seas and Straits. On the west is the Germah Qcean, .which is con- nected with the Baltic^ by a canal uniting rthe Eider -with the gulf,ofiikiel. On the north is the Skagerac, and on the northeast the Cattggat, from which-the three straits, called the Sound or CEresound, the Great Belt, and the Little Belt, lead into the Baltic. ■■^ ■ t Revenue, Military Force, &c. The revenue of Denmark is apout $ 7,000,000 ,; the debt $ 50;000,000. The naVy' consists of 4 ships of the line, 7 frigates, and 14 smaller vessels. The standing army amounts to 30,838 men. , '; Government. The government is an absolute monarchy, the nation itself having rendered the.,crown absolute lin ]660j'fbr the purpose of putting an end^to the ipfluence of the nobles. As duke of Holstein -and Lauenburg, the king of Denmark is (a member of the German Coiifed- eracy. , ' , ''-,,.. . : ,. I History. In the 9th and 10th centuries the Northmen or Normans (inhabitants of Denmark, Norway, and Sweden) rendered themselves the terror of maritime Europe by their piracies. In 920 the foundation of the Danish monarchy was laid by the union of several petty states. ' In the' 11th century the Danes became, masters of England and Noryay, which however they soon lost. ; In 1397, Margaret united the crowns of JVorway and Sweden to ithat of Denmark. - i _ i In .1814, Denmark was -obhged to cede Norway to Sweden, receiving Lauenburg and a pecuniary compensation in return. ■ | HOLLAND OR NETH^RI^AJNTDS.' Extent and PoptrtAiioN. The Kingdogi of the Netherlands or The Low Countries, often als<>.callecl SoMri5^frOm the name of the ^ncipal province, h.as an area jof ] IfiOf) square rijfles,*and,a population of 2,444,550 inhabitants. O^ these the greater^p^i'tion are Dutch, and about 150,000 e JTrison^. • . ( . /j ^ _ Colonies. Since the loss of the colony of the Cape of Good Hope, the Dutch possessions in Africa consist only of some "forts oh the Guinea feast. • In Oceania the isle of Java, the greater part- of Sumatra, Celebes,..Bor- heo, and the Moluccas, with a part of Papooasia or N,ew Guinea, and some other islands, belong to the Dutch. ', J. In America they possess the islands of Eustatia and; Curagao, and 'Paramaribo or Surinam in Guiana. i The population of their Oceanic possessions, is 9,360,000^ comprising jout 60,000 whites, and 20,000 slaves ; of the African lojOOO, of whom- 100 are whites, and the remainder slaves ; and of the AmeSrican 114,000, eluding about 80,000 slaves. ^ c Canals and Dikes. The country is: intersected with. limunasrable lals in every direction, which supply the placaofrbaids in other couij- ies ; they are generally supplied with watei- by.the rise of' the tides. . ~"; The North canal from Amsterdam to the Helder, at the north ipoint of orth Holland, is one of the greatest works of the kindln the world ; it- 50 miles in length, 20 feet 9 inches deep, and 124 feet wide ; it obviates tte necessity of lightening large ships before they can enter the Zuyder ,ee, and avoids the delay of the long passage up that sea. The Leeuwarden canal from the Ems to Harlingen, on the .Zuyder ee, and the Haarlem and Leyden caiial, passing from Amsterdam by 'aarlem and Leyden to the Meuse,EU'e' among the principal works of is kipd. Not less remarkable and characteristic of the country are the vast kes constructed and preseiTed at an enormous expense, for the ■dteetion of Zeeland, Friesland, Groningen, . and part of Holland, ■hose surface is considerably below the level of the sea, against the fury o'f the German Ocean and the Zuyder Zee ; the rain water which falls ia these places, and the water accumulated by the lealjage of the etobankments is pumped out, as from a leaky ship, by great numbers of pumps worked by windmills. ,■ 1 Government. The government is a limited monarchy ; the legisla- ture, called the States General, consists of two houses ; the upper house is composed of members appointed by the king for liJFe, and the lower of members chosen by the provinces. Each province has its provincial estates or assembly, composed of three orders ; .that of the nobles, of the cities-,. gndof. the country. HisTORT. In 1548, the 17 provinces of the Low Countries were united under the dominion of Spain, but the cruel bigotry of that gov- ernment «oon drove the people to rebellion, and in 1579 five of the northern provinces, which were soon after joined by the other two, formed the celebrated Union of Utrecht and declared themselves inde- pendent. After'a succession of long and bloody struggles, their, independence was finally -SgRhowledged by Spain in 1648, and the Dutch republic became the .chief iharitime power of Europe. In 1815, the Belgic and Dutch provinces, with the German Duchy of LuxemlJul-^, were united to form the kingdom of the Netherlands ; but this connexionivas dissolveiin 1830.by,the revolt of -the Belgiciprov--" inces. . biU -._ t.:..U. c„ -.^ v , „-.i_.^-^ -■-- BELGIUM. Extent and Population. _-The kingdom of Belgium, composed-of - the former jV!ustrian Netherlands or the Walloon Provinces, has, includ- „ing>the duchy of Lvixemburg, an area of 13,000 square miles, and a 'pbpulation of 3,773,160 souls. There are about 10,000 Dutch, and .250,000 Germans, "^but the bulk of the population are Belgians, that is, ^Valloon's and Flemings, belonging to the Greco-Latin stock, and speak- ■ ing a Frenohdialect. •; Divisions. 'Belgium-is divided into 8 provinces, exclusive of the grand duchy- of, Luxemburg, which is in dispute between this country "and the Netherlands : ' SouS~Bl-aJianti -Antwerp "^ .Jiast-'Flaaiiders , West Flanders -Hainault • : Nahiur - Liege "Limburg ' Luxemburg Population. S, 506,930' 343,214 ■ ''-N„71^657 580,597 574,750 , 197,615' 352,230' 198,113 302,654 CapitaU. Brussels •Antwerp Ghent Bruges Mofi^^or Bergen ■ Naiftur ■ Liege^r Luttich Mapstri^t - Luxemburg, i. Poprtlation. 106,000 66,144 82,147 35,000 20,350 19,169 54,000 21,000 10,000 Towns. The capital is Brussels.' The'Bther pi-incipal towns, not already mentioned, are Tournay or Doornick, 33,000 inhabitants ; Lou- vain or Loewen, 25,400 ; Malines or Mechlin, 18,060; Courtray, 16,000, and Ostend, 13,000. ~~ .„ :,, .1" ■ - -. Belgium has been for. centuries the great battlefield-of Europe, and'dt is ^covered with' places remarkable in history, as the scenes of great vic-i- tories' and defeats.; among- ^hgse is Waterklp near Brussels, with the adjacent villages of Qiiatre Bras, La Belle Alliance, and Mont St. Jean,: Cana.ls and Rai-i.b,oads... ThV-canals are not less numerous' than those of Holland ; we can only mention' the gr^at Ndrtherii^£!anal, which stretches from Neuss on the Rhine (in Prus^a), by iVenloo on^the Meuse, to Antwerp on., the Scheldt, and with which coSimunicate, by means of-the Scheldt, the Lievre and Bruges canals, between Glaentand -Bruges; the, Ostend and Dunkirk.„cauajs, reaching the sea at different points ; jhe, Brussels canal ;„the Lou vaiii "canal, and 'many others. The governments of Belgium and Prussia have united in constructing a rail- road -from Antwerp to Cologne, thus rendering the fohner the great depot for the extensive central regions, which communicate with the Jlhine. ' Government. The government ,is a constitution.al monarchy ; the legislati^ tody consists of two hpuses, a^enate,. chosen by the qualified voters fdr the terrriof^ght years,iand a House of Representatives, .chosen for the t§fm of four yeai's. ' ^ ' History. The Belgic provinces, which were united with the Dutch provinces .under the Spanish' dominions in 1548, continued, after the revolt of the formef, to belong to Spain until 1717, when they were ceded to Austria, and vvere thence usually termed the Austrian Nether- lands. At the close of the last century they were incorporated with France, but in 1815 they were separated from that kingdom, and united with the Dutch proyinces to form the kingdom of the Netherlands. The Belgians are connected with the French by a community of lan- guage and religion, but then- interests as a manufacturing people did not always coincide with those of the commercial provinces of the nortlj, from whom a difference of religion and language also tended to alienate them. In 1830 the Belgians seceded from the Netherlandish monarchy, de- clared themselves an independent state, and' in 1831 elected a king for themselves. TABLE OF THE POPULATION OF THE PRINCIPAL CITIES OF EUROPE. ENGLAND AND WALES. London^ MancheBter, Liverpool, Birmingham, Leeds, Bristol, . Sheffield, Wolverhampton, Greenwich,' Norwich, kingston, or Hull, N««veistl6, Stoke, - . Salford,- - Bath,' Nottingham, Oldham, s* JPortamoutb, Bolton, • ' Devonpprt, firadtond, ' 4SochB&le, ' Birsud,-. 4 , ' Sunderland, .. Ijeieester^ .. Hatifazt i , * Preston, AshtqiL, bhelsea, Plymoutb, Stqskpgrt, Exeter, Cdrontry; Blackburn, York, Chatham, Derby, , Tynemoutb, Macfclesfield, Gheltenham, Merthyr Tydville (Wales), Chester; Shrewsbury, Yarmouth, Cambridge, Carlisle,. Gateshead, Wjpan, Oxford, Ipswich, - Kidderminster, Huddersfield, Southampton, WoKcesier, ' Colchester, Whitehaven, Reading, Canterbury, Nortbajnpton, 1,465,268 187,000 165,165 146,986 123,393 117,016 91,692 ,.67,514 64,336 61,JU) • 64,110 '53,813' 52,090 . .50,810 60,8(K' ■ 56,680 . 58,513 5'9,389 . 44,454 43,537 41,308 41,719 40,735 39,433 34,437 33,871 33,597 32,371 • 31,080 29,456 28,201- 27,070 - 27,091 25,359 ^■ 34,670' 23,607 S3,206 23,129 ^,942 c ^i0S3 21,363 21i237 21,115 20,917 20,006 • 20,601 . 20,774 20,434 20,454 . 20,665 19,635 19,324 18,610 16,167 15,716 15,595 r 15,314 15,351 SCOTLAND. Sfasgow, Edinburgh, Aberdeen, Paisley, Dundee, ^hvenoiw-, — iejlh- Perth, Kilmarnock, Dunfermline, 202,426 136,30r- 58,((19 67,466 45,355 27,571 ._ 25,855 StrJDB — 18,093 1,7,068 IKEL^U^. Dublin, Cork, . , Limerick,' Belfast^ Galwasf, ■ Wsterford, Kilkenny, (Ldtiffondeny, Drflg^gdj, Golerame, 265,316 107,041 - 65,092 , 63,2«7 ' 33,120 ■ 28,821 23,741 19,620 17,365 15 265 NETHERLANDS. Amsterdam, Rotterdam, Hague, V ".^ Utrecht, «^ Leyden, Groningen, Harlem, Dordrecht, Leeuwarden, BDis,le:Dnc, Nimeguen, Zwoll, 201,000 66,000 60-,000 36.000 30,000 25,000 21,000 20,000 20,000 17,000 15,000 15,000 BELGIUM. Itrussels, Ghent,.-. ^, Antwerp, Liege,- , Bruges, ^Tou'rnay, Lou vain, Maestri'cnt, ' Mons'or.Bergen, Namuc, Mechlin, . Courtray, Ypres, 106,000 ,'82,000 65,000 54,000 36,000 33,000 .. 25,bOO 21,000' 20,000 20,000 18,000 16,000 15,000 FRANCE. Paris, Lyons, . IV^ardeilies, Bordeaux, Rouen, ' ' Nantes, * - Lille, Tou)quse, . Strasburg, Amiens, ' Metz, .'Nimes, ■ Orleans, Caen, . Rheims,„„ii ,.. ■ Montpeltier^ ~ _Sl»J!iJ611»Je,__ . ,Brest, ^ — . Besangon, ' _ Nancy, Angers, 'Versailles, 'Rennes, v '^Aivi(jhon, C .-i!$ontaub£^, . ^^TOermont/ 'Dunkirk, , Trjyes, ,, - 'Toulon, Grenoble,- .•- - Limoges, Arras, " Tours, TJPoitiers, Aix, .' .< Bdiilbgne, Aries, Mans,',. St. Omer, Abbeville, 'Valenciennes, Douay, Cherburg, Lorient, Bourges, St. Qiientin, Ferplgnan, •' Dieppe, ' Niort, . _^ Ujalr— -"- Angouleme, Colmar, ""Setsetsr 774,338 133,715 121,272 100,2^ 88,086 77,«92 69,073 .60,000 50,000 •45,000 44,500 40,000 40,000 40,000 36,P00 --34,tiatt_ 33,000 Caircassoner , 29sO0O~' '■29,000 29,000 28,500 ' 27.500 , 26,000 25,460 ' 25,000 25,000 25,000 24,000 24,000 24,000 23,800 ■ . 23,400 23,^0 23,130 22,500 20,850 20,000 19,600 19,350 19,160 18,950 '18;M 18,400 15,400 17,100 17JO0 16^70 "^16,000 15,800 15,800 15,200 15,150 -15,OO0l_ 16,000.. SWITZERLAND. Geneva, Berne, ' Baje, 26,000 18,000 16,000 PORTUGAL. Lisbon, 260,000 Oporto, 70,000 Angra (Azores), 16,000 Ponta Delgada, " 16,000 Coimbia, 15,000 SPAIN. Madrid, Barcelona, Seville, Grenada, Valencia, Cordova, Cadiz, Malaga, Lbrca, Carthagena, Murcia, Ecija, 200,000 120,000 ■ 91,000 80,000 66,000 57-,000 ;■ 53,000 r 52,000'^ 43^000 40,000 97,000 '36,000 36,000 Pal ma, t ; Xeres, ' ' Santiago, Orihuela, ■ I ^Alicant, Reus", 1 I Gorunn'a, \ ' Valladolid,! ; Santander, Antequera, Jaen, ' Elche, Almeria, San Fernando, or 1 Isia de Leon, { Alcoy, j j . Puerto StaJ Itlaria, Rorida, , I ' San Lucar, Tortosa, Ossuna, [ ' , San Felipe, I - Castellon 4e^l^ Plana, Bilbao, , ' Pampelona, TWO .'SICILIES. 34,000 34,000 28,000 26,000 26,000 24,000 23,000 21,000 20,000 29,000 1,9,000 19,000 19,000 18,00b 18,000 18,000 18,000 17,000 16,000 15i000 }5,000 15,000 J5,000 15,000 ! I . Naples, Palermo, Catania, Messina, Trapani, . Marsala,_ F'oggia, "Caltagirone, Modica, '. Cava, Bari, Barletta, Reggib, Aversa, t , Altamura, . San Severo, Ottajano,' Castellam^e, I ' 364,000 163,0d0 47,000 40,000 24,000 21,000 -2fc«00- 2fl,flaO„ . 20,000 ' 19,000 19,000 1^,000 17,000 16,000 16,000 ■ IgjOOO 15,dOO 15,000 STAirJES OF THE CHURCH. Rome, I I Bologna,] j Ancona,! J Perugia, i Ferrars, Forli, - 1 I Raveniia, ; Rimini, I j 155,000 71,000 ,, 30,000 ; 30,000 25,000 16,000 16,000 15,000 15,000 TUSCANY. Florenc^,!* Leghorn, j Pisa, 1 ; Sienna,! | 80,000 66,000 20,000 ; Ifi^OOO SMABjLER ITALIAN • STATES. Parma ,) PiSBBBZai — Modeaa, Lucca, ' Reggib Turin,: Genoa^ Alessandria, Ca'^liaf' '' NtzzaJ Asti, Cdni, , Mondovi, Casale, \ Novara,' , Savigl$ano, Vercelli, '114,000 80,000 36,000 •27,000 ■ 26,000 22,000 19,000 18,000 16,000 16,000 15,000 15jOeO 15,-000 I BAVARIA. Munich , ^ Nureml urg, -i Augsliulg, RatisQO 1, Wurtzt urg, fiamUevg, Anspach, Fnrtl/, Baiieti ' 80,000 38,000 34,000 26,000 22,000 32,0001 IVjOOO 17,000 15,000 WURTEMBURG. Stuttgard, SAXONY Dresden, Leipsic^ Chemnitz, 31,000 70,000 40,000 ,16,000 HANOVER. Hanover, 28,000 SMALLER GERMAN STATES. Brunswick, Mentz, ' Cassel, Barmst^dt,, Manheira, Carlsruhe, . Rostock, 37,000 30,000 26,000 • 22,000 22,000 1'6,000- SD,000 AUSTRIA. Oernum Provinces. Vienna, 300,000 Prague, 121,000 Trieste, 50,000 Graetz, 40,0()0 Briinn, 38,000 Lintz, 20,000 _Tient,__ 15,000 Iglau, "' IS^OOfr • ■ SaltibuTg! ^^15,000 _ Petersburg, ' ]Wdscovfr,v - - ,.Warsaw, .Wilna, . Ka^an, Odessa, Riga,- Astiakhan," ' Tula,.,. Sjo^tov, QfS.-' ., Kiev,; ,i ..'. , Kaluga, ' Provinces. 169,000 104,0^0-' - — '56,000 . 55,000 31,000 , 30,000 , 26,000 26,000 ' 24,000' 21,000 29,000 18,000 17,000 16,000 Polish Provinces. - - ' Lemberg, 62,000 Brody, •,, . • 82,000 Hungarian Provinois. Pesth, D^retzin, Pre'sburg, - Buda, ! Szegedin, - . Cronstadt, Clausenburg, . Schemnitz, . Miscolz, Stuhl Weissenburg, Zoqibor, Eriau, ^ Helrmanirstadt^ -' ' - -Agtam, ;:; . __Neus atz, ^ KaaF, ; ~~ Grosswardein, 60,000 42,000 40,000 33,000 32,000 27,900 «^000 22,000 21,000 19,000 .18,500, . -18,09f 18,001 17,000 16^80— 16,000 y. —^-PRUSSIA. Berlin, * Breslau, Colore, KcqiVigsbergk' . .Turgau, Danlzic, Magdeburg, Aix-la^CJiapelle, Stettin, ' Elberfeld, Dus^eldQrf, Coblentz, , ^ Posen, Halle, Potsdam, Erfurt, Elbinl,"" Muiidter, FrankSfoit, Crefield, Cleves, Stralsund, Treves, Brandenburg, Halberstadt, 88,000 , 71,000 70,000 70,000 65.000 42,000 37,000 30,000 29,000 28,000 28,000 25,000 25,000 24,000 22,000 ,20,000 20,000 •issopo 17,090 16,000 16,000 16,000 J 15,00''0 - 15,900 FREE CITIES. Hamburg, Frankfort,. Bremen, Lubeek: 125,000 54,000 40,000 26,000 DENMARK. Copenhagen, Altona, Flensborg, 106,000 25,000 16,000 SWEDISH MONARCHY. ' Stockholm,, Gottenburg,' Bergen, Christiania, 80,000 26,000 22,000 21,000 RUSSIA. 450,t)00 257,700 136J600 56,400 47,700 40,000 41,600 39,500 38(850 Tver,'. MohUef, fi^cbinef, Berditchef, '^-Ar.changel, Riaisan,.^ Voroneje,"""- ^, Revel,' Tambof, ' Vitep^, ' Jeletz, ' Nishni Novgorod, Minsk, 30,300 J 261021 f ,25,650 ,j 83,860 I 22,900 21,700 V 21,000 ■ 30,000 '! I!f,866 19,260 , 18,860 ' 18,600 ■! . 16,000 .1 15,700 i 15,500. I 15,160 .15,000 -i 15,000 CRACOW. "Cracow, 28,000 ' EUROPEAN TURKEY. Constantinople, 600,000 Adrianople, 100,000 'i Gallipolis, I ' Salonilu, Bosna Serai, . ' '' Sophia, ^^^ Fhilippopoli, Rodosto, --.Lariasa Seres, Shiimla, Rustschuk, Widdin, , Sistova, Scutarij Selimnia, — Silistria, — ■ — — — — - — .'Varna, Demotica, ' SERVIA. Belgrade, 30,001$ ' -I . WALACHIA. ; ' Bucharest, "-.^^ 80,000 Tbrgovist, 30,000 Brailow, ^ 30,00D MOLDA'VIA. , Jassy, 40,00e Syra, Hydf^'. so,oop 20,0Gj IONIAN ISLES. Zante, 20,01] Zante, CoA'u, 15;oil CANDIA. j Candia, 15,0 9 fn K 2!) :,r rr ;i3 sir 'w n Ji '-^V„l-.l,„„lorf^ J. SOUTHERN EUROPE. I Face of the Country. This part of Europe presents a striking contrast, in regard to the nature of the , surface, to northern Europe. ^Tjhile die foi^er exhibits the appearance of W'great apd ahnost level >in, the latter is much broken by numerous mountain ranges, some of hich reach a great elevation, and-ia.furrowed by 4eep valleys. Tlie |ps, the Apenjninesj the Carpathian Mountamsjthe Pyrendes, the Spari^ and Turjsish chains stretch over a great portion of this division^of iirope, running in various directions, but with a prevailing tendehcy St and west. Many of these mountains rise several thousand feet above aijy of the summits of Northern Europe,'' < jSeas. The great inland sea of Spufhem B^urope, the Mediterranean; Sea, niuch exceeds in dimensions thatpf the North, the Baltic ; like thaf," however, it opens toward the west, and is almost wholly unaffected .fey tile ocean tides. Lying in a deep valley encllccled by the Atlas, .Taurus, Caucasus, and the European chains of mountains, it occupies,- with its nimerous branches, an area of rather more than 1,000^00 square .^miles ; tMB length of the main sea is about 2,400 rijileg, with a breadtih/varying frpm 100 to 650 miles, and depth, which thoi((gh generally beyond sound-: ints, sometimes diminishes to 100 fathoms between Sicily and-Malta, and toj30 between Malta and Africa. '■ -<^ jOf these the Sclavonians are the leapt distinguished for their intellectual pjjgrefes ; the Teutonic tribes appear to be characterilzed by greater energy oH thought, depth of feeling, firmness of purpose^^d the predorriinance OB reaibn over fancy ; — The southern Europeans have more brilliancy aod vivacity of imagination, more fiery, but less sustained passions, and a keenjer sense of the beautiftil in nature and art ; ibut though ardently atiached to freedom, they have been less successful than the Teutonic nation^ in establishing well ordered systems of political liberty-- ^ ^ ■ ttn their religious faith the southern Europeans are almost entirely aclher^ts of the Greek and Roman Catholic churches, and in this respect arfe also strikingly contrasted with the inhabitants of the north, to whom thje severe and simple genius of Protestafilism proves more congenial. iComparative Population. On cpmparing the relative population oc districts in Northern and Southern Europe, the latter appears to b^ more dense tlian the former. In the northern and central parts of Western Europe the population is 848 to the square league ; iu the sdithem 1,615 : in the north and centre of Eastern Europe there are 2K, and in the south, 350 individuals to the square league. 'The following table illustrates this fact : WESTERN EUROPE. . JVortHem Part. Sweden,,'' '-.- \ Denmark,^ Great-Britain, Central\Part. Prussia, ~> ^ Netherlands, ' ■ Belgjum, ; '.' . France, • - Hanover, '^ \ xl. Saxony, ~ 1-^ ~;-v' Bavaria^ \ ■ /YKirt^mberg, (' ^Smaller German States, \ y Four Free pities, - \' - Switzierland, ' ^ '' Ah^Ma,- V ' -• - ^SoiUhem Pari. Andorra, ' r , ■Sjaip, Portugal, Lombai-do-Venetian, " .' ;~ , , Sardinia, - Two Sicflies, -- : - Slates of -the Church,^ " ' ^ Tuscany, San Marino, . Small Italian States, EASTERN EUROPE. J^orthem Part: Jlussia,'' "; — iTPoland, - . : \ f Cracow,' : J ~ • Southern' Part. Turkey and Greece, ^ X'^i'i'i" Isles, I 509 1070 Pop. to sq. League. 100^ 504 i 1,418 J 892^ 1,550 1,910 1,196 802 1,856 1,030 1,530 1,113 5,000 1,018 947 600 582 697 ],790|J-: 1^3531]'^ lil47 1,161 2,333 1,559 202,'\ • 612;>212 1,^5^; l,342i<'^''" fitri ,1615 MiLiTAlRT Force and Revenue. The whole number ofkroops in the pay of the European governments is kbout 2,500,000, or nearly She hun- dredth of the whole population, and in iftost states absorbing twp fifths of tiie public revenue. Ithasbeenestimafed that the European states can on an average maintain one soldier for every 92 inhabitants vrithout overburdening themselves. It appears that some of the northern states much exceed this proportion. There is one soldier, in Denmark, Prussia, Sweden and Norway, >- Austria, ? France, - Great Britain, The Two Sicilies, Spain, States of'the Church, - ;:-\^ to, 51- inhabitants. ^57 ^6 •■'85 118 . M30 . -.229 247 '■' 278 431 ■If we divide Europe' into two.paits by the Rhiiietand the Alps, we shall find the soldiei-s of^the ' '* . , Northern Eind EasternjDivisioh^ ■ Southern and Westeri), ' 16-1,900,000 6-700,000: But the same-line of di^isioufgives a very diflferent ratio in_ regard to revenue. The "~ . " ■ 1 ' ' l , . Northern and Eastern Divisjon pays Southern And -Western, $280,000,000 560,000^000. Who can fell whefb.er the power of gold or the power of' steel will prevail ? ' , ~ ■ Volcanoes. The great volcanic region which extends jrom the Caspian Sea to the Azores, over an extent of 4,500 miles, includes within its limits the peninsulas and islands of the Mediterranean. The Grecian Archipelago, Southern Italy, Sicily, and the Lipari Isles, present the most recent traces of volcanic agency. Santorin in the Grecian Archipelago, Etna in Sicily, Volcano, Strom- bpli, and Vulcanelloin the Lipari Isles, Vesuvius in Naples, and Pico in the Azores, are all upon the same volcanic line ; the only European vol- cano, not in this zone, is Sarytcheff, on Nova Zembla. NORTHERN EUROPE. Seas. This part of Europe comprises three large seas, one opening to the north, another to the west, and the third to the north and south. The White Sea penetrates the continent to the depth of 300 or 400 miles; it is navigable- only from the middle of May to the end of September, being closed by ice the rest of the year ; it receives 30 rivers. The North Se$. or German Ocean, between Norway, Denmark, the Netherlands, and Great Britain, is entirely open on the nOrth, and com- municates lyith the Channel by the straits of Dover on the south ; its en- croachments' on the coasts of the Netherlands have formed the two large gulfs of DoUart and Zuyder Zee (South Sea) ; an arm between Dentpark and Norvvay, is called the Skagefak, and a second between Denmark and Sweden, the Cattegat. The North Sea is 200,000 .square miles in extent ; greatest depth 190 fathoms ; mean depth 31 ; vast sand-banks, under the name of the DQgger Banks, stretch through the sea. The navigation is boisterous, and the winds violent and variable. The Baltic ^ea or East Sea, extends from the Danish islands about 1,000 miles ; it is from 100 to 150 in breadth, and has an area of about 150,000' S(}uare miles. Its principal bays are the gulf of Bothnia, the gulf of !Fjnland, and the gulf of Livonia or Riga ; it receives 40 rivers, and has-an efflux current, the tides advancing no further than the three entrances ; its waters ai-e therefore much less salt than those of the sea, and are partially or entirely frozen over in the southern part for three or four months in the year, and in the northern for five or six. It communicates with the Cattegat by three channels ;_the Sound be- tween Zeeland and Sweden, the Great Belt between Zeeland and Punen, and the liittle Belt, between the latter and the continent. FACir OF THE Country. Northern Europe presents a vast plain extending from the Seine, on the south and east of the Baltic and White Seas, to the Volga and the foot of the Ural mountains ; this great plain is nowhere broken by any considerable elevations of surface, and in many parts consists of barren heaths and open pastures, or steppes.. From this projects a large peninsula, comprising' Norway, Sweden, and Lapland, of which the surface, is much broken by different cha,ins of the Doffrine mountains, some of the summits rising above 8,000 feet ; the isthmus, which connects the peninsula with the mainland; is only 200 miles in breadth between the White Sea and the gulf of Bothnia. Lakes. The largest lakes of Europe ai-e found' in this division. They are lakes Ladoga, the largest in Europe, Onega, and Peipus or Tchudsko, in Russia, and lakes Wignner, Wetter; and Maler, in Sweden. Productions; The olive hardly grows ' beyond 45° Lat. in Europe, and the vine, Jthough it grows as fai- north as 50°, cannot be profitably cultivated beyond 48°; hence in Northern Europe, we find butter and beer replacing the oil and wine of the South. Maize thrives to aboiit 52°, and the cerealia succeedin a latitude of 60°— 62°, and in some places several degrees further. The oak ceases to grow at 63° in Norway, and at 60° in Finland ; the larch, pine, birch, arid mountain ash, disappear at about 66° or-68°, and stunted ■willow and birch bushes, a little further. Beyond this the whole of the vegetation shrinks to a few mosses and stunted shrubs. RUSSIA. Area and Population. Russia in Europe, lies, between 40° and 70° N. Lat., and between 18° and 64° E. Lon., having an area, inclusive of Poland, of about 3,050,000 square miles, and a population of about 61,000,000 souls. The, whole Russian' Empire has an area of about 7,750,000 square milesjbeing considerably more than one half the surface of the moon, or than one seventh of' the land area of our globe. The populat.i,on,of the whole empire is about 65,000,000. Inhabitants. "About 51,000;000 inhabitants belong to the Sclavonic race, which cdmprises'43,000,000 Russians, 6,000,000 Poles, and 1,300,000 Lithuanians ; nearly 3,000,000 are of Finnish origin, including Pinland- ers, Permiacs, Ostiaks, Laplanders, &ci ; 2,260,000. are of the Turkish family, comprising- Turks, often called Tartars, Nogays, Kirghises, Bu- chanans, Turcomans, &c. Individuals of the Caucasian nations, com- prising 380,000 Armenians, 360,000 Georgians; 230,000 Lesghians, 305,000 Circassians, &c., amounf to 1,350,000 ; 500,000 Germans, 210,000 Mon- gols, 50,000 Tungooses, with Samoyedes, Kamtchadales, Esquimaux, Jews, Greeks, Walachians,' Persians, Hindoos, &c., compose the restof the population. Religion. About 45,000,000 individuals belong to the Orthodox Greek Church. The Roman Catholics, including the United Greeks and Armenians, are about 7,000,000 ; there are 2,000,000 Lutherans,. 2,500,000 Mahometans, 800,000 .Jews, 350,000 Roskolnil^ or Greek Dissidents, 800,000 Fetichists, and 300,000 worshippers of the Dalai Lama. Towns. St. Petersburg, the capital, has 460,000 inhabitants ; Moscow, the second city in the empire, 360,000 ; Warsaw, the capital of Poland, contains a population of 136,500. The other principal towns in the Baltic provinces are Cronstadt, 10,000! inhabitants; ^Abo, 13,000; Revel, 16,000; Helsingfors, 9,400; RigaA 41,600 ; Dorpat; 8,570 ; and Mittau, 14,000. i In Great Russia, are Archangel, 19,260; Smolensk, 11,155; Tver! 21,700; Vologda; 12,550; Jaroslavl, 23,860; Kostroma, ip,058; Nishni Novgorod, 14,500; Tambof, 15,71 8 ; Riasan, 18,860 ; '-Tula, 38,850 Kaluga, 35,660 ;Orel, 30,300 ; Kursk, 3%900 ; a»d "Vorodege, 1&,500. ; In Little Russia, Kiev, 36,000, and Pultawa', 8^50, are'^the principal places. In the southern provinces are Cherson, '12;4p(}, and Odessa, 40,000; and in the eastern, Kazan, 47,700 ; Permj 10,600 r- Astrakhan! ,40,000, and Saratof, 35,250. In Western Russia; the chief tovras are Wilna, 56,380 ; Vitepsk, 15,500 ; Mohilef, 21,000 ; Minsk, 14,600 ; Poddlski,.13,000; andBerditchef 20,000. . • Canals. A great system of canalisation extends to nearly all the con- siderable rivers and lakes of "Russia, uniting the Black jnd^ Baltic Seat by means of the Dnieper and Dniester, the Baltic" and Caspian by thf Neva and the Volga,, the Baltic and White Seas by the. Neva and Dwina. and the White and: Caspian Seas by- the Dwina and Volga. Beside these great lines' there are.- numerous branches, connecting different- rivers, and bays or, gjilfs. — . • ; • ' t Commerce. The' forei^rcommerce of Russia has more than doubledl. during.the last 30tyeaj:s';'ihe annual, valueof imports is about 240,000,000 rubles, of exports 220,000,000. . - 1 Exports^ . '. Wheatj. flour, and other grains, Plax and 'hemp, -. Flaxseed, linseed oilj &c.. Duck, Iron and Copper," Hides, ' , TaUow, Value in Tntbles, 33,000,'000 37,000,000'. 14,OOO,O0O 4,600,000 15,000,000 10,000,000- 40,000,000 &c. Revenue and ^ Debt, The actual amount of -the revenue is not known with any degree of accuracy ; the product of .such branches as can be ascertained, -is about 100 million dollars ; of which, the capitation tax yields 13 millions, the customs 14 millions, the-crowh lands 13 millions, the. monopoly of salt and brandy 30 millions, stamps- 3,500,000; mines 3 millions, '&c. Expenditures, for army 36 millions;-, navy 16. mihions ; public debt 10 millions ; civil administration 4 millions.,; crowij . 3 jnillions, &c. The public debt amounts to about 160 milliou dol-j lars. . ! Military Force. The land force, according to the levies decreed in 1827, 1828, and 1830, would amountto above 1,000,000 troops; 'but the wars witji Turkey, Persia, and Poland, and" the usual mortality, may b6 estimated to reduce this number to an effective force of about:680,00Ql men. Thejnavy consists of 40 ships of'the line, 35 fi-igates, 28 bri^ and corvettes, and 297 smaller vessels, and great efforts are madejby thej reigning emperor to increase its efficiency ; the personnel is stated at 44,000'men. -^^•' Government. The i government of Russia is ati absoftite, hereditai-y monarchy, of which the sovereign is at once the -headi'of church and state. The Emperor is styled samoderjetz or autocrat of all the Russias. . , ; History. Rune, the Norman, founded the Russian moharcby id the middle of the 9th centuiy, and his ,successora,'who bore the title o| grand duke, extended their conquests; to the^lack Sea, which, they infested with then- fleets. Wladimir the, GreSt; great gi'andson of Rurid married a sister of the Greek emperor, and; having emraac^dChristianitji in 987, introduced the Greek rite into Russia. .■! - ' '*-- , '■ ' In the beginning of the 13th century, thecountry^was conquered b^ the Mongols, from whose yoke it was finally/delivered by Ivan or Jphd the Great, in 1481, and from this time -Russia entered the cai-eer of aggrandisement and civilisation. ' . ; '. ..i, . « In 1613, the family of Ruric became extinct, and the Russians elected Michael, founder of the Romanoff 'dynasty, czar. p Peter I. the Great, the niost distinguished of the Romanoff, line, ascended the throne iu.l688, jpndered'Bussia the predominant power m the North of Europe by the victory of Pultawa, 1709, and assumed the title of emperor in 1721. ^ , House of Holstein-Gottorp from 1763 to the present time ; Peter III deposed 1762 ; Catherine IL the Great, 1762-1795 ; Paul 1. 1796-18014; Alexander, 1801-1825; Nicholas, 1835. [ 1830. ThePoleSf^having riselj against their Russian masters, sustainea a struggle of ten months, against a power ten times superior in numba: and' resources ; but after having gained several brilliant victories againit fearful odds, they were crushed'by an overwhelming for(;e. ! Warsaw again fell, September 8th, 1 831, into the hands of the Russians, and in 1833 the kingdom of Poland was incorporated with Russia. r V ' E la tm»'B^t^''J**'^ 100 EUROPE. Extent, fl^e continent of Europe lies between 34° and 71° N. Lat.,, anii- between ir(3.° W. and 64° E. Lon., and, including the islands, has an area of 3,725jpis less;elevated.-''The. Doffrefield Mountains of Scandinavia, : the Pral. Mountains^ andltha Pyrenees, are the other principalgroups. J ' * i Popdl'aiijion.- The total pqpulation^oi^Europe is about 230 biilliops, belonging, chiefly to- the following racesi; /The Greco-Latin, comprising the , Amaouts..6rHAIIj?inians, Greeks, Italians, Spaniai'ds, sPortugueSp, French, Savoyards, and I'Walacffians^; the TeutOfldc,' comprising the Germans, Dutch, Danes, ^Swedes;.N'oj:w^gians,andrBnglish; the Spla- vonic, -Comprising the , lUyriais (Servians,: Bosnians, Dalma,tians, and Bulgarians), Pol^g, Russians, Bohemians; Croatiaris, ^ends, and Eithua- nians ; the Finnic, or Uralian,> including the.- Finns, LaplaBdars,/Estho- nians, and Hungarians ; tha-Tiirkish, comprising the-lDsmanlis or Turks, and various tribes of ITurkey, and Russia,,, often called Tartars ;" the Basque or Escualdiihac, in France and Spain ;,and the GSltic, comprising the Scotch Hiighlanders, the. Welsh, the lyish, and the Bretans in France,' Straits. Th§ Strait of Gibraltar, between Spain and Morocco, coiv nects the MeRditerranean with, the Atlantic; : breadth •'15 miles. _Tlie, Dardanelles ^Hellespont) connects the Archipelago and the. Sea of Mar-* mora ;-the latter is connected by the ^traiit^ of Constantinople (Bpsphorus) with the BlackiSea, which has a^communiK^tion.vvith the Sea of Azoph by the iStrait, of Cafia or Yehicale. The ptrait oCDover or of Calais unites l;he North Sea with, the^-Bntish, Channel ; least width. 23 ifliles. The Sound, and the Great arid Little, Belts, are three straits forming communicatipiiS' between the Cattegat arid the Baltic. The , Strait ' of Waigatz separates Nova Zembla:; from the continent. IstANDS.--,.The group of Nova-Zembla, and that of Spitzbergen, vjith the Loffoden,''are the principal islands of the Arctic ^eas ; in the Atlaintic, are the Faro isles, the ..British islands, and the AiZores. - In the Baltic, Zealand, Funen, Laland, Falstar, &c.,; are the principal ;' m the Nprth Sea are Walcheren, South Beveland, &c., forrfling theDutch Archipelago, and in the Mediterranean are the Balearic isles, Corsica, Sardinia, Sicily, the Ionian Islands, Euboea, Candia, Cyprus, and the other Grecian Climate. Europe lies almost entirely in the, temperate, zone, but .three general causes mpdifyats climate; these are the cold caused by 'the vicinity of Northepi an'd Central Asia; in airthe;Countries expQ^adltQ the chilly winds^of its frozen mountains and elevated plains; the, heat caused by the vicinity of Africa, in those countries which by their posi- 'tion or inclinatioxi are'expo,sed to, its ..bui-jiing wmds, and . the .rapid changes to which jthose coUntrfes ai-e liable, which are exposed to -the" windt;,of the Atlantic. . These, causes produce three climates; the Oceanic climate, prevailing, in the country lying on a line drawn frorri Cape St. Vincent to Cape, North ; the Asiatic climate, prevailing along a line from Cape North to the Caspian Sea, and the Southern climate, whose^general direction may be indicated-'by aline passing from the Caspian Sea to Cape St. Vincent.' . Divisions. Europe is dividecl into 65 independent states, of whicih: 3 are empires/l ah elective ecclesiastical monarchy; l&*ingdoms;'7. grand-duchies ; 1 electorate; 11 duchies; 15 principalities; 1 land- graviatCyf 1 lordship, and ^ repubhcs, as follows; Slates. -: Square Miles, Population. ; France, • .-305,000 32,600,000 Great Brjfijn,; ^-^ Netferrauds;^-_„-y' 121,300' 24,105,000! y 12,100 2,450,000 • ,^„ Belgium', 13,00.0 3,816,000 ^Denmark, 22,0'00 , 2,00O,00O j Sweden and Noi;way, : 297,000 4,226,000' , Jlussia and Poland,^ \ ,• -Pru^ia,v; '-^j^^." ^ 3,-050,000 56,500,000 - 108,000 13,700,00i9 ; -Austria,;; : r-^-. 260;000 33;5aO,000 Cracow, ' >-i ^r- ^ ^ /- 500 - ' 140.000 -JBfavariajf"- : ^,500 4,240^00 -. ■ ,Wurtei!nberg, ■ , ~ 7,625 . -1,600,000 lltjnpyer, -^ f - ^ . . ^Mo 1,550,000 Saxony, •, i - • 1,430,000 Baden (G. Duehy), 5,97CL, lj330,000 , Hesse,.. u ' ■ 3,765 • 750,000 . .■ Electoral Hesse, '■ 4,462 652,000 Saxe-Weimar (G. Duchy), 1,400 232,000 Mecklenburg Schwerin, ■ "«' " : 4,775 - 441,000 T Strelitz, " v770 - .77,000.:. HolsteinlOldenburg, , .-■• " . 2,500 248,000 Nassau,.' (Duchy), 1,930 363,000. Brunkydck, ." t 1,500 250,000 , Saxe-Coburg, - " " 975 154,000 Meiningen, " - 920 137,000 ■ AJtenburg, " 530 .. 115,000 Anhalt-Dessau, " 350 61,000 337' . • 40,0Q0 : '- — jT— Cpthen,;, "f 320 36,O0O feeuss-Greitz (Principality), 145 '4 i 25,100-- - ""^rVAcit" " 808 • - . 240 31,000 28,500 1 Lobenstein, • '• Schwattzburg-Rudqlstadt, " 408 . 6?,000. . '. „' . Sondershausen, ,?' 360 - . ••52,000 Li^pe-Detmold, ? - ^' , 440 79,800 Schauenburg, " 2ia ' §6,000 .- ■Waldeck, - - - « 466 66,000 Hohenzollem-Sigmaringen, " 390 V 42,000 -^ — '■ Hechingeh, !' 110 21,000 Lichjensteiri, ^'" 54 6,000 - Hesse Homiburg (landgraviate), 167 23,000 Francfort (Free city)," 92 54,000 . . Bremen, : "'- 68 58,000 Hamburg, " ^ 152 148,000 . 'Lubeck, " 118 46,000 ICniphausen (lordShip), ' 18 2,859 . Switzerland, ' 14,900 2,000,000 - Sardinia, : ;, 28,000 4,300,000 Parma (Duchy),- - ~ -. 2,215 440,000 . : IVtbdepa, " :, > _ < ; 2,090 380,000 Lucca, ■ , " - . :.- < ■ i -416 143,000 , Monaco (Principality)^ , ^' - . • 50. 6,500 i; '- Sail Marino, , ' '; , . ^ ■: 23-, i 7,000 . - S'tates of the Church, 17^350 2,590,000 Ti^cany(G. Duchy),, ,, . 8,432 , .i!^7&,000 ■ Two SiciUes, i -■ 42,000 . 7,420,000 Sp'ain, ' , , '■ 183,200, < 13,900,000 Portugal, 38,860 3,530,000 , - Andorra, ,190 15,000 ' Ottomap Empire, 150,000 7,100,000 . Servia^ (Principality), 12,000 380,000 Walachia,,. ,« 28,800 .970,000 Moldavia, . ," 15,450 450,000 Greece, j 18,500 750,000 Ionian Isles, . 1,000 176,000 EGYPT. Extent and Population. This country, so powerful under the Pharaohs, so wealthy under the Ptolemies, and so richi in historical'^recol- " lections and monumeints, extends from 23° SCK to 31° SC N. Lat.. and from 24° to 34° E. Lon';,' having an area of nearly 200,000 square rniles, and a population of about 2,000,000. The teiTitories' of. the pacha of Egypt; include the greater part of Nubia, with Kordofan and'partjof Abyssinia, and Syria, Adana and Hejaz, in Asia, and Candia in Europe. The whole population of this new empire cannot be less than 5,000,000..- Physical Featdres. Egypt consists of a long narrow valley, lying between rocky hills on the east, aiid deserts of sand on the West. Through this valley i-uns the Nile, which receives no tributaries, hut below Cairo divides into several branches, by which its waters are dis- charged into the Mediterranean. The two principal branches are that of Rosetta on the west, and that of Damietta on the east,'enclosmg the celebrated Delta. The Nile valley and the Delta, which owe their fertility to. the over- flowings of the river, are, with the exception of sorng Oases in theidesert, the only inhabited part of the country, and here are the remnants tjf ancient Egyptian gfandeur.. The' floods, ;of the, Nile take, place in August, continuing to October, and as the country is never visited by rains, then- fifilure is attendedtwith the loss of the u^ual harvest. Lake Mareotis, anciently a fresh water lake, celebrated for its gardens and vineyards, has been rendered salt by the irruption of the sea, in 1801. Lake Mceris, long thought to be an artificial basin constructed' by human hands, has been shown by modem examinations to be a natural basin. The Natron Lakes yield carbonate of soda. ■•■ ' Divisions. Egypt isgenerally dividedinto Lower Egypt, comprising the Delta of the, N|ile, Middle Egypt, and Said or Upper Egypt, which comprise the long, narrow, and^fertile valley of the Nile, and is. political- ly subdivided into 24 provinces. On the east and west lie waste deserts, interspersed with Oases"; the eastern part of Egypt and Nubia is occupied by wandering tribes df Ai'abs. The Oases in the delert to the west are more or less populous, and contain numerous fine ruins attesting their ancient splendor ; the piinci- pal are the Great Oa|is or Oasis of El Kargeh,' thoSe of^Dakhel, ofJFara- fi'eh, the Little OasisoriSl Wah, and the Oasis of Siwah or Ammon. In Nubia, are Sehnaar, Shendy, Dongola, the land of the Shaykes, of the Barabras, &c. ' '.: / Towns. Cair.o, or-^El Kahira,the capital, stands on the Nile in a sandy plain ; population 350,000.. Buiaq, 18,000, Rosetta (Bolbitine), with 15,000 inhabitants, Damie,tdi, 25,000,-ahd Alexandria, 26,000 inhabitants, are the other principal towns in Ldwfe'r Egypt. ■ Medinet el Fayum' (Crocodilopolis or Arsinoe), with 12,000 inhabitants, Assyut or Siout (Lycopolis), with 20,000, Esneh (Latopolis), the rendez- vouz of caravans for Darfur and Sennaar, with 4,000 inhabitants, and Assuan or Syene, are the principal towns inUpper and Middle Egypt. Inhabitants and Language. ThS great mass of the inhabitants are Arabians, and the Arabic is the prevailing language of the country. Even the few thousand Copts, who are considered the destendants of the ancient inhabitants, have entirely forgotten the language of their fathei-s, and the Coptic is liow a dead language. There are" some Turks in the cities of Lower Egypt, and Turkish is the ofiicial language of the go- vernment. Government, &c. The government is an absolute despotism ; the present ruler has endeavored to introduce European arts, and civilisa-^ tion among his subjects, has established printing presses, instituted scien- tific and elementary schools, reforlned -the administratidn of justice, organised and disciplined his military forces on the European plan, en- couraged *the adoption of the European costume, and the' disu* of the beard, constructed canals, built steamboats, aiid fostered Commerce, manufactures and agriculture. Cotton of a fine quaUty has been substituted for the inferior article formerly raised in Egypt, and the annual crop has of late yeai-s amount- ed to 225,000 bales. The cotton manufactures of Damietta, Mahsurah, &c., have recently acquired importance. The cultivation -of silk, indigo, and cochineal has. also been revived. Commerce. Egypt was anciently the centre of an extensive com- merce between the East and the West, carried on by caravans fi-om dif- ferent ports on the Red Sea and those on the Mediterranean. Afl:er the discovery of the passage to India round the Cape of Good Hope, the EiiJU^eim transit trade was chiefly lost, but it has continued to be exten- sivb between Egypt and the Asiatic countries on the one side, and thd ndrthern and interior regions of Africa on the other. • It is carried on by means of caravans, and consists in the exchange of the salt, and oianufactured products of .Egypt for the fi:uits, gold, ivory, slaves,' &c. of Afiica, and the spices, manufactures, &c. of the east. | - Revenue and Military Force. The revenue of the pacha is about! •$20,000,000 ; he has a standing army of 70,000 men, with the necessary arsenals, founderies, &c., and an increasing navy, consisting of 6 ships of the line, 12 frigates, 27 corvettes and 'brigS, and numerous smWer RELIGION. The inhabitants are- Mahometans, with the exception of the 80,000 Copts. > ,■ . ^ Canals, Among, these the principal are.JosepWs cana],.abDtit llOl miles in length,' and fi-oin 50:to 300 feet in breadth, theBahr el Wsidi, 40| miles long, the Menuf canal, 30miles, the Abumeneggycanal, 100 inileBjl and the Mahinoudie canal, connecting the port of Alexandria with the.) Nile, 45 miles. , - I AifcisutT Monuments and Ruins. The soil of Egypt is covered with i the witoesses of its ancient splendor, massive monuments which reveal l the wealth, pow^,«kUl and science of ancient Egypt. ' ' The pyramids of Gizeh are funereal monuments, whose origin ascends' beyond therecords of history ; they are constructed of immense blcfcksf of stone ; thlelargest, called the pyramid of Cheops, is 430 feet high ; the ruins of Thebes are visible at Luxor, Carnac, and Medinet Abu; and those of Memphis at Memf and Bedreshein. ^ ^ Near Medinet el Fayum are the rehcs of the ancient labyrinth, vyith j its 3,000-chanlbCTsJdestined to receive the remains of the kings by wHom it was built, and'of thes^ipred crocodiles.' At Den^yia, "are the remains of -a magnificent teiiiple. AtMataryeh are the ruins. Of the'aficient On or Heliopolis, and near Fouah are those of Sais, the'a)icient:papital of ithe Delta. \ '' Cavern templBS, or temples hewn out of the solid rock, hypogees or funereal grottoes, obeijisks, colossal statues of sphinxes, &c., are found in j many places. In^theioasis of-Siwah, have been found the remains of the ■ oracle of Jupiter Amnion. ' *■ HiEROGLrpHlCs. The researches of modem scholars have half raised the veil, which has.so kmg shrouded the viTsdom of Egypt. The hiero- ' glyphical characters, which cover its monuments, have been, at least par- ! tially, read, andrtheir true, nature seems now to be understood. Theyj have been shown to be in part 'emblematic, that is, signs of 'objects, and, ! in part, phonetic, that is, like our alphabet, signs of sounds, and the value of some of the signs,literal and syllabic, has beeri'determined. Whether we can ever become sufiiciently acquainted -with the old' Egyptian language td interpret the papyrus rolls and inscriptions, which are written in' that tongue, is yet doubtful, but enough has; already been discovered to throw much fight upon Egyptian history. ' The notion that the hieroglyphics were merely a sacred character, ', known only to the priests and used by them to conceal their know- 1 ledge from the vulgar, is now proved to be erroneous, and probably' had its origm in the ignorance of Greek travellers, fi:om whom it isl derived. * History. Egypt, the mother of science and arts, at least for the west' em world, was tile teacher of wisdom to. the Hebrews and Greeks, from \ whoni, through the Romans,' the precious charge has been transmitted 'l to the nations of Modern Europe. Successively the prey to the Persito^ j the Greeks, and the Romans, the Arabs and the Turks, and stripped of | much of its ancient glory, its name -still kindles the imagination, and the i recolJeotiolHS of Thebes, Memphis, and Alexandria, the asj)ect or the • traditions of its pyramids and obelisks, its temples and labyrinths, recal I its ancient grandeur. ' i i • j The early periods of Egyptian history are envelo'pfed in obscurity; » according to commonly received accounts, Meiies was the first king oi Egypt, and reigned about 2,200 years B. C. ; During the reign of the Phai-aoh, Amos, the Israelites depart from Egypt for the Promised Land, B. C. 1490, under the conduct of Moses. Among his successors the most celebrated is Sesostris near the end of the 11th century before Christ, who conquered the neighboring regions J of Asia and Africa. Several centuries later we find the country divided among 12 kingd, whose dominions were finally united (650) by Psammetichus. In 525 the throne of the Pharaohs was overturned by the Persians, under Cambyses, and in 332 it was occupied by Alexander. After his death Egypt formed a.sepai;ate-king"dim iinder the Ptolemies (323-30 B. C), but was finally reduced to a Roman province. In 640, A. D. it became a prey to the ferocious Saracens, and by the victories of Selim over the Mamelulies, in 1516, it was reduced to the Turkish yoke. From 1798 to 1801, it was in part occupied by the French, but has since continued nominally to form an appendage to the Ottoman empire. The present sovereign, although still styled Pacha, is entirely indepen dent of the Porte, and has wrested large tracts in Asia from the feeble hands of his nominal lord. M'Sf ir^ NORTHERN AFRICA. MAGHREB. That part of Africa which lies to the west of Egypt, hetween 15° and 37° N. Lat.V and between 17* W. and^28° E. Lon:, is known to the Arabians under, the name.of Maahreb or the West. - It includes Barbary, or the fertile zone between the Atlas and the Meiditen-anean Sea, with the strip of Oases on the south of the mountains, called by the Arabs Beled el Jerid(Land of Dates), and the Great Desert of Sahara, This region is chiefly inhabited by Brebers, Arabs,.and the mixed race called Moors. ^ ' " ~ ' , TRli»OLI. The Tripolitan dominions comprise therCyreiiaica of the ancients, the Oasis of Ouj^lah, the province of Fezzan, and; the. Oasis of Gad'ames. The capital, TripoH, has about 25,000 inhabitants. Murzook, in Fezzan, is the great inland mart of Northern Africa, and the rendezvous of the caravans from Tripoli, Cairo, Tunis, Tombuctoo, and Boi-npo.. A^ea of- the state 270,000 square miles ; population, 660,000. ; TIJN1S. - ' Tunis is the smallest, but most populous and highly cultivated of the Barbary States'; area 52,000 square miles ; population, r^800,000. The capital, Tunis, contains about 100,000 inhabitants. In the neighborhood are .the ruins of Cm-thage. iln the interior is Cairwan, whose population is coihputed at about 50,000. ALGIERS. This state was conquered and occupied by the French in 1830, and novv forms a French colony. The capital, Algiers,-.has at.present aboiit 60,000 inhabitants.. Bugia was occupied by the French in 1833. In the interior are Constantina, 50,000 inhabitants; Tremecen,_;20,000, and Bhda, 15,000. -^ . ' ■ EMPIRE OF MOROCCO. This powerfiil- state is composed of the kingdoms of Fez, Morocco,- Tafileit, andj Sus^it has a jpopulation of 6,000,000 souls, on 175,P00 square miles. Morocco otMarocco, the capital, has about 75,000 inhab- itants; Fez, 80,0QP; M&(juinezi '60,000. .^ Tetuan, Sallee, Tafilet, and Mogadore, are the other principal to^vns. SAHARA AND^BJELED.EL JERID. The inhabitable portions of ihese*r6gions, which are not -included in the foregoing states,; are ocGupTeS bj'^a great nutnber of independent tribes and petty stSes." TThe Moorish tribes occupy the coast and western part ; the Tuaricks the Central partj'stretching from Algiers, TuniSj and Tripoli to Tombuctoo and B(fi-noo; and the Tibboos^'the more easterly portion. On, the coast of this part of Africa are the.Madeira.isles, belonging to Portugal ; the Canaries,4)elonging to Spain, and further south, the CSipe Verde Isles, belonging to Portugal, r _SENEGAMBIA, This name is sometimes given to an extensive tract south of the desert, lying on the Senegal and Gambia rivers. The French have several towns and factories on the coasts, and. along the course of the Senegal, of -which St. Louis, 6,000 inhabitants, and Goree, 3,000, are the most important. This region isjlivided between three principal nations, form-, ing a great number of petty states ; these afe the Jallofs, the Foolahs, and the Mandingoesr , ^ > GUINEA, I The vast region, called Guinea in maps; comprises a great number- of aates, among which the Ashantee empire, 130,000 square miles, 3,000,000 ilihabitants, is the most important, Coomassie, the capital, has about 20,000 mhabitants. The kingdom of Dahomey forms one of the princi- states of Guinea ; the capital, Abomey, has 20,000 inhabitants. SIERRA LEONE, The English have several settlements and factories, on the Guinea coast. Sierra Leone is a settlement founded in 1787, forthe purpose of colonising liberated negroes, Freetown, the principal town, has 4,500 inhabitants, Regentstown, with 2,000 inhabitants, Gloucester, and Wellington, large and thriving villages, are the other principal towns. About 20,000 recaptured negroes have been placed, here, with about 1,200 slaves taken from the United States during the revolutionary war, and several hundredMaroou negroes from.Nova Scotid: Notwithstand- ing the unhealthiness of the climate, which is fatal to whites, and the indolent and improvident habits of the recaptured negroes, the' colony is now in a prosperous condition. LIBERIA, "The colony of Liberia was fo;unded "bythe Anjerican Colonization Society; in 1821, in order to provide for the removal of free blacks and emancipated slaves from the tfnited States; the-number of blacks re- Tnpv'ed is 3,000;-the population , off the icolooy, including the natives re- -sidiog within its limits and under its.protecfion, is 25,000. It.carries on an active and lucrative commerce vyith the natives, and it has'-already instituted schopls for the general -education of the colonists. Several of the neighboring tribes have put themselves under the protec- tion of the coloay, and endeavor to imitate their customs, and learfl their arts. Chief towns, Monrovia, i,6o6 inhabitants ;' Caldwell, 800, and Millsburg. A new settlement has recently been commenced at Cape Palmas. , . ^ - ,^ • j - . "- : The natives in the immediate vicinity are chjefly Deys, Veys, and Bassas, who ai-e generally inoiFensive, ignorant, arid indolent, and behind the natives of the interior in civilisation.*, I- . The articles of trade to be obtained at Liberia are chiefly ivory, cam- -wood, gold, tortoise shell, hides, and coffee, and ships may be supplied with- provisions. „ CENTRAL-NIGRITIA. : . This extensive region is inhabited byvmunerous it^dugtrious and^popu- lous nations, forming several powerful '"empires, and a great number of smaller states. It has beep explored in.riipdern time^ by Park, Denhain. and Clapperton, Laing, Cailli^, and Liinder. , ^ .' ' The principal states are Upper Bambai-ra ; S6g6,;eapital, 30j000,inhab- itants,.and Bammakoo, chief towns : .Xower Bjmib'arra^ capital, Jenne, 15,000 inhabitants :. Tombuctoo, formerly a-poTverful empire, now tribu- tai-y to the Tuaricks, capital TomljuctpOj30,e00 : the'Borgrfo Confederacy, Bpussa, capital, 12,000, Kiama, chief town, 30,000 f Yaoori, with a cap(- ital of the same name: Niffe, chief townSjApital^Tabra, 20,000 and Koolfa, 20,00p : Yarriba, one of the. mos^ ptiw^rful . states of Nigritia, Eyeo or Katunga, capital ; the kingdo"ms4pf B,ads(§ry and Ardrah' in Guinea,-are tributaries of Yarriba : Benin or A'dou, capital, -Benin, 15,000 ; principal.tovvn Bonny, 20,000 : Kong : Fellatah empire, 100,000 square miles, 1,800,000 inhabitants; capital ,^Sackatoo, 80,000; principal ; towns, Zariya, 5.0,000, and Kano,- 40,000 : Bomoo, compiusing Kanem and Mandara; towns. New Bomoo or Birnie," 10,000, capital, and 'Angornoo, 30,000 : Begharmi, to the east'pf Lake Tchad; of whichlittle is known. ABYSSINIA. The long powerful empire of Abyssuiia has been for some thne split up into a nurflber of "smaller states. --^ ,- The most powerful of these is the' kingdom of Tigre, 200,000 square miles, 1-,80Q,060 ilihabitants ; capital, Antalo, 5,000 ; Axum, formerly capital of Abyssinia', 3,t)00 inhabitants, contains interesting ruins. The kingdo&l of Gondar or Amhara -comprises the central part of Abyssihia ; capital, Gondar, 40,060.- The kingdom' of Shoa, the wealthiest, most populous, and civilized ^portion of- Abyssinia, lies to the- south of Gondar. There are several other Abyssinian states, of which little is known. A considerable part of the'country has been overrun by the fierce and warlike Galla tribes, who appeat, to have' come from the south, but whose origin is unknown. There are likewise the remains of a once powerful nation of Jews, called Falashas, and in several districts there are negro tribes, known under the general name of Shangallas, SOUTHERN AFRICA. Almost the whole of southern Africa is yet unexplored and unknown to Europeans ; from the equator to 30° S. Lat., we know nothing of the •central portion, and our acquaintance with the maritime countries is for the most part imperfect. WESTERN AFRICA. The coast extending from the Quorra to about 15° S. Lat, is by some caUed Lower Guinea, or Southern Nigritia, and is divided among a great number of petty states and independent tribes, of whom little is known. The country of the Calbongos, and the coast of Gabon, are occupied by numerous small states, and furnish a great number of slaves. Naango or Georgetown, in this region, is one of the principal slave-marts on the coast. ^' ' — "The kifigdom of LgangOj extending from Cape Lopez to the south of the Congo or Zaire, is' composed of several tributary states, and contains someJSi-ge negro to wis, of which Loango, 15,000 inhabitants, Malemba, and Cabenda, are -the principal. The kingdom of Congo extends to an unknovni distance inland be- tween Angola and^oango, and appears to be the predominating power inf this part of Africa. -^. It- was once, through the influence of the missionaries, who had made many converts-here, und* the influence of the Portuguese, but, although still considered- by them as a vassal state, has long been entirely indepen- dent. ; ' - ■■ Banza Congo, the capital, called ^by Europeans St; Salvador, is described by old travellers as a large, populous, and handsome town with' about 25,000 inhabitants. ' . - The kingdoms of Angola and Bengji'ela, are in part occupied by- independent tribes, and in part under Portuguese influence! , Cimbebasia or the Land of the Cittibebas, extends from Cape Frio to the -country of the Hottentots; it is a dry and naked desert, almost entirely destitute of potabl& water, and is'eaid to be inhabited by the, Cimbebas, of whose existence, hovvever, much doubt is entertained. On the western co'ast the Portuguese have several forts and factories ;. their government of St. Thomas and Principe comprises the two- islands of those names, lying in the Gulf of Guinea, of which St. Thomas, the capital, has about 3,000 inhabitants. The government of Angola con- sists of a few forts and factories, scattei'ed about in countries entirely independent of the Portuguese, and in provinces really subject to them. - CAPE COLONY. The English colony of the Cape of Good Hope, extends south from the Koossie on the western coast, and the Keiskamma on the eastern, to the southern extremity of Africa. It has a population of about 300,000 souls, of whom about one third are whites, — Dutch and British. It was originally a Dutch colony, but was taken possession of by the English in 1806. Capetown or Kaapstadt is the capital, and is of the highest importance on account of its situation, being the point at which vessels on the voyage from America or Europe to the Indian Ocean touch. Population ^bout 30,000. Constantia, in the neighborhood, is noted for its wine.i In the eastern part of the colony is^the flourishing district of Albany, in which is Bathurst. . ■ =- ' - The Hottentots are numerous within the colonial limits, and occupy the country lying on the north of the colony. Many of then! have "been reduced to slavery by the colonists, and they have in general been shot, robbed, and treated with great harshness, but some attempts made by, missionaries to teach them the arts of civilized life, have shovt'h that kind treatment is successful in reclaiming them from their barbarous ; habits. ; > . CAF-FRARIA. > The counti7 to the north and east of the Hottentots is inhabited by a different race of people, who have received the.general name of CafFres, an appellation, as well as that of Hottentots applied to the former, quite unknown to the people themselves. Missionaries have penetrated to Lattakoo, 6,000 inhabitants, the capital of the Betjuana Caffres, and to Kurrechanee, a town of about 16,000- inhabitants. E'^STERN AFRICA. The eastern coast oC^frica^is even less known than the western. - It is traversed by several 3a|rge rivers, with whose sources and course vi& are but imperfectly acquainted. The Zambese,caUed also the Quiliman^ or Cuama, appears to-be one;i of the principal rivers of Africa ; aften flowing through unkiwwn re^ons in the upper part of its course, an* receiving several large i^ti^butaries in the lower, it passes by Znmbo, Chi-j cova, Tete, Sena, and Quilimane, and empties its waters by four moutha into the Mosambique Channeli; The QuUimanci, fiirther north, is stilB more imperfectly taiown. ; | The once powerful ejnpire of Mondmotapa is now divided among', several independent states, in which the Maravis, Gazembas, Boraros^.' and Meropuas, appear Jo be th^ most powerful nations. "T-be province of Manica, formerly so^amousTor its gold, belonged to this empire! ' } The kingdom of Zendero or (Jingiro, situated to the south of Abyssinia,' has not been visited since the'17th century, when the Portuguese inis-' sionaries gave their singular accounts of the horrid atrocity of its inhab-^ itants. ■ ' !' The coast of Zanguebar extends from Cape Delgado to the coast of Ajan, at Cape Bassas. It is very imperfectly known ; the principal states appear to be Quiloa, governed by a negro king, who is a vassal of , the Arabians of the isle of Zanzibar ; the capital is a small town of the same name : Mombaze, a petty state, governed by an Arab Sheikh, who resides at Mombaze, on the island of that name : Melinda, once subjecf to the Portuguese; the town of the same name is now in ruins: and' Magadoxo, of which the capital, of the same name, is a large and flour- ishing town. ' ■ - _ The once vast possessions of the Portuguese are now reduced to insignificant stations,- between the bay of Lagoa and Cape Delgado, on the coasts of Sofala -and Mosambique, and up flie valley of the Zam- besei - : "' Mosambique, the residence of the govemor-geiieral, -has about 10,000 inhabitants, of whom there are only a, few hutidred Portugiiese. : ' MADAGASCAR. This great island is^uhabited in part by Negroes and Cafires, on the western and soutKern^ coasts, and by jlVrabs on the northern; but the Madecassees or great mass of- the population are' a' people of the Malay race. . , ■"■ ' The most powerful state is the kipgdofii of Madagascar, founded in the beginning of the present century,<% Radanla, who' was' poisoned by his vyife in 1^. "This great chief, like Peter the' Great in Russia; Mohammed Ali in EgypJ, Tamafiamaha in the Sandwich Islands, and Finow in Tong*, endeavored to civilize his- jubjects, by instituting schools; and sending numbers of'his subjects to Mauritius and Europe. He established an army, provided v?ith fireai'ms and horses, and organ- ized on the JEluropean system ; his empire^ extended over an area of 160,000 square miles,, with a population of -2^00,000, but since his death has probably fallen toipieces." T ' ^'i [ ' ■ The Comoro Isles are' a small' gisotlp of islands situated at the, northern entrance of the TMosambique Channel, and comprising Grand Comoro, Johanna, Mayotta, &c. -They are divided among several chiefs, among whom^hat of "Ai^usp or Johanna, has the title of Sultan. These islands^once populous and'flourishing, have been terribly devastated by> pii-atjcal tribes Bf Madagascar. t BOURBON. This island, lying to the east of Madagascar, belongs to France St. Denis, the- principal town, has about 9,000 inhabitants. The island has no good harbor. Population 97,930, of which 70,285 are slaves. Im- ports $ 1,500,000 ; exports 8,000,000. MAURITIUS AND SEYCHELLES. Mauritius or the Isle of France, belongs to England ; the capital is Port Louis, with about 20,000 inhabitants. The Seychelles and Admi' rdlty. islands, are dependencies. The total population of these islands is lOljSOO, of whom 8,844 are whites. //^ 114 'AT'^RICA, ' Extent and Population. This continent extends from 38° N. to 35° S. Lat., and from 17° W. to 51° E. Lon., having an area of 11,350,000 square miles, and a population of about 60,000,000. Extreme breadth %om Cape Verd to Guai-dafui, 4,700 miles; greatest length 5,000 miles. RrvERS. Africa contains but few great rivers. The Nile, whose sources are supposed to be in the Mountains of the Moon in the Donga country, bears the name of the Bahr el Abiad until its junction with the Bahr el Azrek, which comes from Abyssinia, and, after forming several cataracts of no grea,t height, passes through Egypt and enters the Mediten'anean by several mouths ; the length of its course is probably about 2,000 or 2,500 miles, r, : The other principal African river is the, Niger, Quorra or Joliba, which rises in the mountains, in the eastern frontier of Senegarabia, and after passing by Sego, Jinne, and TombUctoo in a northeasterly direction, turns to the southwest and enters the Gulf of Guiilea, by several arms, of which the Benin and the Old Calabar of the 'maps are respectively the western and eastern, and- the Nun the central branch. Its whole length is about 2,200 or 2,400 miles. . The other principal rivers ar& the, Senegal, the, Gdngo or Zaire, the Orange, and the Zambezi. , Mountains, &c. Africa seems to be a land of terraces, the greater part of the surface, as far as is known, rising by successive steps from the coast into the interior, and spreading out into widely extended and ele- vated plains. The mountainous chains are, however, more remarkable for their extent than for their elevation. The Atlas mountains' reach, in some places, a height of 12,000 feet, and some of the Abyssinian summits rise to a yet greater elevation. There are also mountainous ranges in Nigritia, but they are imperfectly known to us. The gi-eat desert of Sahara stretches with little interruption from the Atlantic, to the Nile, whence it is continued quite across the Asiatic continent to the Pacific Ocean. It occasionally rises into rugged and sterile hills, and is here and there diversified with watered and fertile spots, called oases, but is chiefly composed of vast sandy plains, swept by hot winds and parched by a burning sun. The Karroos of southern Africa are covered during the rainy season with a rich- verdure, giving, support to numerous flocks and herds, but for a considerable part of the year present the di-eary aspect of arid deserts. ' ' Islands. The African .islands, not immediately bordering on the coast, consist of the following chief groups or single islands : 1. In the North Atlantic, The Madeiras — Archipelago of the Canaries — ^The ten Cape Verd islands — The islands in the Bight of Biafra, Fer- nando Po, Prince's Island, St. Thomas, Annobon, &c. 2. In the South Atlantic, St. Matthew — ^Ascension — St. Helena — The three small islands of Tristan da Cunha. 3. In the South Indian Ocean, Madagascar, which may be considered as the centre of an Archipelago of small islands, to which belong Mau- ritius and Bourbon, the Comoro Islands in the Mozambique Channel, the Seychelles, with the Amirantes ; and the Islands on the coast of Zanguebar (Zanzibar, Quiloa, Pemba), &c. 4. In the North Indian Ocean, the islands of Socotra off Guar- dafui. Lakes. Africa, as far as is known to us, is singularly destitute of in- terior basins. Lake Tchad, discovered by Denham and Clapperton, is a large sheet of water, containing numerous islands, but its dimensions have not been determined. Lake. Dembea in Abyssinia, lake Maravi, in Eastern Africa, which although unexplored, is often represented upon maps as of very great length, Birket el Keroun in Egypt, &c., are smaller bodies of water. Climate. By far the greater part of this extensive region lies within the tropics, and the influence of a tropical climate extends even to those portions which lie in the temperate zones. Africa is the hottest region of the globe, the Barhary States, sheltered by the Atlas mountains, and the Cape of Good Hope by a similar range of mountains, being almost the only extensive tracts which enjoy a milder climate. The climate of the country on the eastern and western coasts is fatal to Europeans, and in the interior is subject to such great and sudden changes, as to be dan- gerous for strangers. Divisions. This continent contains fewer great states than Asia and Europe, but is chiefly partitioned out among a great number of petty states, which it would neither be easy nor desirable to enumerate ; the following general view of the geographical divisions, combines an indi- cation of the principal political ones : •• 1. The Nile Valley or Nilotic Region, comprising Abyssinia (King- doms of Tigre, Amhai-a, Gondar, Ankober, &c.); Nubia (Sennaar, Dongola, Shendy, &c.) ; the regions on the Bahr el Abiad (Darfur, Kor- dofan. Donga, Country of the Shillooks, &c.), and Egypt : ' 2. Maghreb, called by the Europeans Barbary, comprising Tripoli (mcluding Barca), Tunis, Algiers, and Morocco : 3. The Sahara or Great Desert: 4. Nigritia, Soudan or Land of the" Blacks, comprising the vast Regions known to geographers by the names of Senegarabia (Jalofs,MandLngoes, &c.); Soudan or central Nigritia (Sangara, Bamban-a, Tombuctoo, Yarriba. Benin, Kpng, Fellatah, Bornoo, Bagermeh, &c.) ; Guinea (Ashantee empire, Dahomey, Badagry, Country of the Calbongos, king- doms of Sulinbani, Cape Mount, &c.) ; and Congo, of which even the coast is little known, but which is^generally described as divided into Loango, Congo, Angola and Benguela : 5. Southern Africa, vaguely divided into Cimbebasia,'or country of the Cimbebas, Hottentotia or land of the Hottentots, the Cape Colony, and Cafraria, or land of the Cafres, comprising Natal : 6. Eastern Africa, from Delagoa bay to Cape Guardafui, is but little known, comprising the former empire of Monomotapa, Sofala, Mozam- bique, Zanguebar (kingdoms of Quiloa, Mombaza, Melinda, Magadoxo), ' Ajan, and the Land of the Somaulis : 7. Vast unexplored and unknown regions of the interior stretching from 25° S. to 10° N.Lat. Minerals. The mineral treasures of this continent are very imper- fectly known. The following are the chief known to commerce, with an indication of the countries where they are most abundant : Gold. — Central Nigiitia, Guinea coast, Mozambique. Silver. — Mines up the Zambezi, and in Morocco. ' Copper. — Darfur, Atlas Mountains, Egypt, on the Zanibezi, Molooas, Nigritia. Iron. — Egypt, Darfur, Nigritia, Barbary States. Salt. — Egypt, Barbary States, Nigritia, Nubia, Cape Verd Isles, Canaries, Cape of Good Hope, Madagascar. Inhabitants. Africa is inhabited by numerous distinct races, differ- ing from each other in their physical features, language, religion, &c. In Southern Africa, we find the Hottentots (comprising the Bosjesmans), ,' occupying the valley of the Orange river, and the country to the south ; they are of dark brownish color, and hideously ugly ; and the Caffres ^ (Coosas, Tambookis, Marribookis, Betjuanas, &c.), who ai'e black, but .. have not the flat face and woolly hair of the. negroes. The Negro, eras it is sometimes called the Ethiopian race, is the most widely disseminated and numerous race in Africa, and appears to be ' spread over the whole region from the Senegal to the Zambezi, and to stretch eastwardiy to the valley of the Nile. It comprises a vast number of nations, with great varieties of language, and some physical diversi- | ties, yet in general possessing the same family features. , In the Atlas region, and scattered over the desert of Sahara, and along ! its southern border, are numerous tribes which belong in part to the , Berber or Breber family, and are in part mixed races. The latter are included under the general name of Moors. The Berbers appear to be the primitive inhabitants of thi§ region. The Tibboos, Tuaricks, Shel- luhs, and according to some the Nubians are of this family. The ruling race of the Abyssinian countries, commonly called Abys- sinians, is probably of Arabic origin. There are also many Arabs, a few Copts or Egj'ptians, some Turks,' and Malays (in Madagascar), "&c. in Africa. Progress of Discovert. The ancients appear to have been ac- quainted only with the country north of the Great Desert, and with the region of the Nile, although according to some accounts, Africa was cir- cumnavigated by the Phoenicians, and by Hanno, a Carthaginian. In the beginning of the 15th century, the Europeans were acquainted with the coast only as far as Cape Nun (28° 40! N.'Lat.), but at that time the Portuguese began to make their voyages of discovery, which finally led Diaz (1496) around the Cape of Good HofJe, and Da Gama (1497) to India. - In 1795, Mungo Park penetrated the hitherto" unknown regions of Central Nigritia, and determined the long vexed question as to the direction of the course of the Niger ; on a second journey, in 1805, he descended the river to Bdussa, where he was murdered' by the natives. In 1822, Major Denham and Lieutenant Clapperton, reached the country to the east of that visited by Park, by crossing the Desert from Tripoli, and the latter soon after set out from the coast of Guinea to reach the same country from that direction, but he died at Sackatoo. His servant. Lander, however, in 1830, started from the same coast and embai-king on the Niger at Yauri, descended to the sea, thus proving that the Nun was the mouth of that long mysterious stream. Major Laing also reached Tombuctoo from Tripoli in 1826, but was murdered on his return, and CaUli^ soon after visited the same city, starting from the coast of Guinea. Campbell penetrated from the Cape Colony as far as Kurrechanee (25° S. Lat.), in 1820, and CaiUiaud (1822) and Linant (1827) have as- cended the Bahr el Abiad much further than their predecessors. MEDITERRANEAN SEA. The sho^^bf the Mediterraneap Sea have been forages the seat of civilized states, powerful monarchiesj and interesting events. As ,the countries bordeuing upon it have been already-described, we propose Jjere to give a ohronological outline of the successton of the predominant powera^ithjn its basin. -' HEBREWS" From the lime of Abraham till their settlement in Palestine, the Hebrews were nomades or wandering shepherds (3000-1500) : Erop jtheir emigraflon from Egypt and~ their 'conquest of Palestine under Moses and Joshua (1500-llOp), they ■'formed a federal republic, upder their high priests and judgesj (Othnieli^cDebprah, Samson, and Samuel) : ~ ■ ' ' ■ .-/- , ' " ' ■ . 1095-975. The Hebrew »mbnarcli(y upder Saul, David, Solomon, and Rehoboam. "The state waa^t^eh _ atvided into two mon^u'chies, the^ kingdom of Israel (975-72!^,^ overthrown by Salraanassar, king' of Assyria, and the kmgdoiii o&^Judah (975^88.), desfrofed- by Nebuchad- PH(ENICIANS. f The Phoenicians were earlyaeoBimercial and weajthy people, hpt ■theirearly history is wSipt in obscurity.' ThWflqurishing per^Jwas from 1000 to 332 B.,C., during jv^plr they planted colonies all av^. the Mediteiranean.' They possessed at "In early period the:Grecian islfes,' and established colonies^in Spain (Tartessiis, (^des, Carteia), Sicily- I (Pan'ornMS,'Liiyb ' ^. f' J CAHTHAGE. / Carthagewas a Phoenician colony, foimSed-880 B.C., which, rendered powerfijl. by.-its comniCTce, extended its coh,ques{s over an extensive region in Africa, and Bectaie the mistress of the seas; Sardinia, the Balearic isles, part of Sicily and Sp^iii, j£e Canarie^J and Madeiras, ■with colonies and factories on the'westerii coast bf'Afiiea, acknow- ledged her di^inion. ,"" ', ^ ^ The first war with Rome (First regions beyond the Euphrates ; and Bagdad, the seat of me calipnate, became the seat of learning and aits. This vast monarchy^egan to crumble to pieces in the 9th, centuiy, and numerous minor statS^were successively: formed of its fi-agments, a great number of which were; afterwards swallowed up by the Turkisbi erapirei ^ — Hi,. ..-TURKEY IN ASIA. TENT and-J^opuLATioN. The Ottoman dominionsin Asia, com- ) risii^g the island STGyjirus, extend from- 30° to 42° N. Lat, and from ^°'t(!)r'49° E. Lon., HavHig|( a superficial ai-ea of 450,000 square miles, ld^ cojitaining a population of 10,29,0,£)00 souls. In this estimate are iichidfed. tlie.prdVjhce^i of SohajM or, Syria, and the district of Adana ^ Anatolia/^hich:have recently been ceded to the pacha of Egypt, but not the Arabian territories formerly .belonging to the Ottoman empire. ' IsLkNDS. The principal islands neai- the coasts of Asiatic Turkey are Gypru^j once Bourishing, populous, afid wealthy, now almost deserted, Aid covered with ruins, containing Nicosia, 15,000 inhabitants, and Eiarnaka,- 5jG00 ; Rhodes, equally changed from its ancient splendor ; Stanco, the ancient Cos ; Samos, rendered important by its population and fertihly,-and4nterpsting by its ruins; Scio (Chifls), until 1822, re- markable for the civilisation, industry, an(| wealth of its inhabitants, novv little more thai a heap of rubbish; Metftl-af, the'Leabos Of the ancients, ai fertile and fl6i»qgh:itig.i^ajid,&e. — - '■-- ' Rivers. The pfifecispaV~riverS of this regionr are the- Tigris «nd Eupteates; which, rking1n«different -chains of Mount Talirus, arid flow- itig through the fertile, plains^ of Mesopotamia, unite belovir Korna, take t le name of Shat el Arab, aiifi run into the .Persiath gulf. The other r lost important rivers are the- drohtes,^ passing by Antioch; Sarabat ( lermus); Meander ; jKizil Irmak (Halys)|iand the Klir,, flowing into" t ie Caspian Sea. - ' . Mo(7NTAiif3. Armenia, UppecXjreorgisi, Kurdistan, and-the interior of Asia Minor, form an elevated table-land, above which rise the' cre&tsof the \^ious chains of Mount Taurus. -; This -extensive sysleth of mountains comprises the Taurus and Anti Taurus ojf the peninsula; the Libanus or iebanon of Syria; the Amanic Mountains or Alma Dag, separating Syria and Asia Minor ; and the Mountains of Kurdistan, which pass into Rersia', and include the celebrated Ararat,' and the Niphates of the an- cients. Some of the summits in the peninsiila exceed 16,000 feet iti height. i Divisions. Asiatic Turkey is divided into 20 eyalets or governments, whichi are subdivided into livas or sangiacs. Many of the nomadic and^ mountam tribes included within its limits are entirely-independent, and others are merely tiibutaries and vassals. The great geographical divis-' iotis often retained in maps, are Asia Minor or Aneftolia, Armenia, Kur- distan, Mesopotamia or Algesira, with Irak Arabi, arid Syria or Scharii^ Eyalets 'or Pachalics. Anatolia ' -Adana (to Egypt) Caramania Marash Sivas -Trebizond Erzerum ViSn :VKais . ■ Sherzour Bagdad Diarbekir Rakka Mosul Aleppo 1 -y Damascus I . !?„„,. Acre ftoEOTt Tripoli j Asia Minor: Armenia Kurdistan? Mesopptamia Scham Syria- CapUab. ' Pvjmiali^. Kutaieh 50,000 Adana, 25,000 Kohieh (Iboniuni) 30,000 Marash 10,000 Sivas ^- 4,000 Trebizond (Tirapezus) 50,000: Erzerum . 100,000 Van 405600- Kars 5 Kerkouk ., 12,000 Bagdad ' - 100,000 Diarbekir (AmidaJ "' — 60,000 Rakka- : , - ? Mosul ■- — - = "60,000- Aleppo (Beroea) - — •' - • 206,000-' Damascus ' -■ 140,000 Acre (Ptolemais) -. 50,000. Tripoli (Tarabolus) 16,000 Tq-wns. There are numerous large towns beside thosie above men- tioned. Among them are Scutari, opposite Constantinople, 35,T)00 iri- itbitahts; Brussa or Bursa, 160,000; Smyrna, 130,00.0 ;' Sealanova, ^jOOO'; Gtifeelhissar, 30,000; Karahissar, 60,000 ; Tokat, 100,600 ; Kair. sitrieh, 25^00; Boli, 5^,000; Augbra, 40,000 ; Satalia or Adalia,,20,60Q ; Tai-sus^'30,,000 ; Erzingan in Armenia, 30,000 ; Orfa, 50,000 ; Bassgra, 60,000 ; Antioch, whose 700,00|inhabitants are now reduced to 1D,000 ; Alexartdretta or Scanderoon, the port of Aleppo ; Hamah, 50,000, and JerusaFem, 30,000. ' Inhabitants. This fine country, long the seat of civilized states and jjowerfnl empires, but for many ?iges a preyfo barbarian violence and misrule, contains a great diversity of inhabitants. Here the Turkman and the Osmanlis or Ottoman^ Turks, the Armenians or Haikans, the Kurds and Tadshiks of the Persian race, the Jews and Arabs of the Shemitic family, the Lazians, the Greeks, &c., aie crushed under a common despotism. Religion. The Turks, Arabs, Persians, Lazians, and a portion of the Kurds, are Mahometans, mostly Sunnites, The Greeks, Armenians, and some of the Kurds, are Christians. The Druses, Nosairians, and Isbmaelians, are Mahometan sectarians. Commerce. This region has always been the centre of an extensive commerce, and its central position, its fertile soil, and its manufacturing products, still render it the seat of a brisk trade in spite of the want of good roads, or navigable channels, or security of property. An active land commei'ce is carried on with Persia, Arabia, and Europe; by means of caravans ; the foreign commerce is prosecuted chiefly by Bassora, Smyrna, Trebizond, Aleppo, and Acre. Silk, cotton wool, leather, tobacco, camel's and goat's hair, opium, gall nuts, dried fruits, &c,, are the principal articles exported. Manufactures and metallic ware of alLkinds are imported. CAUCASIAN COUNTRIES. Extent and Population. These regions belong to Russia, and form a general gbvernment, of which the capital is Tiflis, and which is sub- divided, into 12 provinces; they also comprise several districts, which are independent of the Russian gbvernment. Th,ey are situated between the Caspian and Black Seas, the Ai'as, the Kuban, and the Kuma. The population of these provinces is about 2,600,000, on about 400,000 square iniles. ' ' - MoDNTAiNS. This isthmus is traversed by the Caucasus Mountains, which, extending quite ' across from the Black Sea to the Caspian, in a direction frojn no:^west to southeast, separate Europe fro,m-Asia. The loftiest summits of the group are comprised in the Elboors Mountains, which reach an elevation of 18,000 feet. Two passe's, celebrated in his- tory, afford a passage over the mountains ; the one called the Caucasian Gates, in the interior, and the other called the Albanian Gates, between the eastern declivity of the Caucasus and the shores of" the Caspian Sea. Rivers. Numerous streams descend from the declivities of the Cau- casus into , the two seas, which form the isthinus. The Rione (Phasis), flowing into the Black Sea, and the Kuu (Gyrus), which receives the Aras or Araxes,and empties itself into the Caspian Sea, are thi principal south of the-mountains. On the north are the Terek arid tfie !fto6iriaj ' flowing into the Caspian Sea, and the Kuban,- which 'aischarges'its waters into the Black Sea. -•-•,'■ Inhabitants. The inhabitants are Georgians, comprising the'Min- grelians, Suanians, Lazians, Georgians Proper, and Imeretians ; Circas- sians; Abassians ; .various wild tribes of different origin, -known under the genpral name of Lesghians; Armenians, &c. They are mostly Christians of the Grgek and Armenian churches, but many of the Les- ghian trioes are idolaters.™ CiRCAjsiA? Lying on the north of the principal chain of the Caucasus, CjrcagsiaTis within ^he .limits of Europe. It includes Great and Little Kabaydia, and Little, Abassia, and is inhabited by numerous distinct tribes of different origin, Circassians^ Eesghfans, Abassians, &c. . The^e people are in general independent, although nominally subject to" Russia, with whom they are often at war ; they are predatory in their llabits, plundering not only unprotected travellers in their oyvri limits, but maEng incursions into the neigTiboring provinces. The Circassian women are "famed . for their beauty. There are no considerable towns here.' - Daghestan. Daghestan bpiders on the Caspian Sea ; Derbend is the tmost important town of the-pfovince ; it is now much reduced and has only about 25,000 irihabitari|s. ; ^Caucasus. The province of Caucasus lies to the north of the Terek ; ainong the inhabitants are Cahnucks and Nogay Tartars. The capital is Stavroppl, 3,000 inhabitants; Kizliar, 9,000, and Mozdok, 4,000, are the most important towns. Georgia. Georgia lies to the south of the Caucasus ; the capital is Tiflis, on the Kiir, 30,000 inhabitants, the residence of the governor- general of the Caucasian provinces. Elisabethpol, 12,000 inhabitants, is the,most important town after Tiflis. In the part of Georgia recently acquired fi-om Turkey is AkaMie, on ' theKur,- with 25,000 inhabitants. , . , Shirvan. To the east of Georgia is Shirvan, of which the capital is Baku, one of the most important ports on the Caspian Sea. . Shamakhi, 30,006 inhabitants, is the principal town. * Akmenia. In the late war with Persia the Russians conquered a part of Persian Armenia, comprising the important fortress of Erivan, 12,000 inhabJtants,:and Nakshivan on the Aras, with about 5,000 inhabitants. Imeretia. Between the Caucasus and the Black Sea, is the province of Imeretia, comprising Abassia, Mingrelia, Imeretia Proper^and Guria. The capital is Kotatis, on the Rioni,in Imeretia Proper, 2,000.inhabitants. Sokumkaleh, in Abassia, is important as the chief rendezvous.. qf the Russian fleet, stationed here to check the depredations of the Abassian and Circassian pirates, by whom these waters are infested. The Imeretians belong to the Georgian stock. PERSIA. ■ ;i ^ ' ' " r"" Extent and Population. The kingdom of Persia or Iran, extends from 26° to 39° N. Lat., and from 44° to 61° E. Lon., having an area of 450,000 square miles'. Population 9,000,000: Inhabitants. The great mass of the inhabitants are Tadshiks, gen- erally known under the name ofPersians;'there are also Kurds, Loiiris," Bucharians, Turcomans, Aripenians, Parsees, &c. They are chiefly Mahometans of the shiite sect, but the Kurds and Turkish tribes, are . sunnites. ~.The Parsees are Guebres or Fire worshippers. Divisions. The kingdom is divided into 11 provinces, each of which is administered by a Jjeglerbgg, and .subdivided into smaller distiicts, governed by hakims. Some of the Kurds and Louris within the nominal limits of the state, ai-e entirely independent, and others are merely tributary. PromncRs. Capitals. < ^ ' Population. Irak-Ajemi, Teheran, 130,000 Kumis and Taberistan, Damavend, /Mazanderan, Sari, 30,000 Ghilan, Resht, , - " 60,000 Azerbijair, -• Tabreez"or Tauris, T- ' 100,000 Kurdistaii, Kermanshaw, ''" 40,000 Farsistan, . Shjraz, ,, "^ . ' 30,000 Khuzistan,. Shu'ster, - ' . ' 20,000- Kerraan, Serjan or Kerman, 30,000 Khuhistan, "Sheheristan, - ' Khorassan, Meshed, 32,000 Towns. Other principal towns besjde those above mentioned, are Ispahan, formerly the capital, 200,000 inha'Bitants;Cashan,- 30,000; Hamadan, 40,000, near which are the remains of Ecbatana, the splendid. Median capital; Casween, 60,000 ; Yezd, 60,000; and Balfroosh,'on the Caspian Sea,' 100,000. Bushere or Abushere is the most important port on the Persian gulf. Near Shiraz are the ruins of PeTrsepolis, and near Shust^ those of Susa, ancient capitals of Persia. Government. The government of Persia is the most absolute military despottehn, the countiy and the inhabitants being .considered as the prop- erty of the sovereign, whose only lav? is his own caprice. , History.'' Cyrus, 559^29*8. C. was the first pance who raised Persia fifein obscurity. His successors subjugated all Western,Asia and Bjypt. This empire was overthrown by Alexander, 334-331 B. C, after whose death Persia formed a part 'of the* empire of the Seleucidse, 323-256 B.C. ... The l*ajtthian empire under the Arsacides replaced the Greek domin- ion 256 B. C. to 226 A. D. "' The establishment of the-Sassanides (226-636) was a complete ;evolu- tion in the government. This dynasty^ was succeeded by the conquest of Persia by the Arabian caliphs, to whom the country was subject until 1220, when it was conquered by the Monguls. The Mongul dominion' was succeeded by that of the Turcomans (1405). The Sophis next ruled, until 1722, when the countiy was reduced by 'the Afghans. In 1736 Thamas Kuli Khan ascended the throne, and restored Persia to Her former importance; after his death, 1747, the empire was again divided^nto several small states, part of which have gu),ce been reunited under Feth Ali Shah, 1796, a Turcoman. AFGHANISTAN OR CABUL. Extent and Population. The kingdom of Cabul or Afghanistan, inclusive of Herat, extends fi-om 28° to 36° N. Lat, and from 59° to 72° E. Lon., having an area of 212,000 square miles, and a population of 5,700,000 souls. Within the limits above described are contained the province of Seistan or Segistan, the eastern part of Khorassan, and Afghanistan Proper. Towns. The capital is Cabul or Caubul, with ,50,000 or 60,000 m- habitants. Ghizni, once the splendid seat of a powerful empire, is- now sunk to an inconsiderable town of 1,500 houses. Candahar, the chief commercial and manufacturing place in the kingdom, has 100,000 in- habitants. Herat, now the capital of an independent state, is also im- portant on' account of its commerce and manufactures; population 100,000. Inhabitants. The Afghans belong to the great Persian family of nations ; then: own name for themselves is Pooshtauneh, whence by corruption is foi-med the term Patans, by which they are known in Hin- dostan. They consist of numerous tribes, some of whom live in villages and towns, while others lead the life of a wandering pastoral people. There ai-e also Turkmans and other races in the country. The inhabi- talits are mostly Mahometans of the Sunnite sect. ^ History. On the death of Nadu- Shah in 1747, Ahmed Abdalle^ succeeded in gaining an ascendency over the Afghan tribes, and extendedj his sway by conquest over the country between the Oxus and the seai apd from Kerman to the Indus. - ■ , ■ Since the year 1800 the kingdom has been rent into a number of petty] istates ; whUe some of the richest provinces have fallen into the hands ofj the Seikhs; the khans of Balkhand Beloochistan, and the chief of Herat, have rendered themselves independent. A ^ ,,. , -o-/ .- 7 ^ _ < ■ • , BBLOOCH,ISTA,N. Extent and Population. This region, which takes its name from the Beloochis, a^iranch of the Persian family, is occupied by a number of petty states, recognising the supremacy of flie khan of Kelat. It was severed fromjthe A%haii:empire at theheginning of thp^present century, Beloochistan extends from 25° to 30° N. Lat. and from 60° to 69° E, Lon., lying' between the Indian Ocean and the kingdom of Cabul, with an ai-ea^of 150,000 square miles, and a population of 2,000,000 souls. TowNfe. The chief town is Kelat, with about 20,000 inhabitants. Gundava, Zoori, a>id Kedje, are considerable towns. ^ : ARABIA. Extent and PopnLATioi>r. ' This great region extends from 12° to 34" N. Lat., and from 33° ^o 60° E. Lop. The .area is estimated to amount to about 1,000,000 square miles, :iiffd the popi;lation to 10,000,000. Physical FEATTfREs. Few re^ons of ^uch extent are so entirely destitute. of water as Arabia-; the oijly permanent streams are theMeidam and. Shabb, in Yemen ; the other stteains^e only temporary torrents oi wadies. • ^ - The" greater' portion of the country consists of ,]3are ^ and burning des erts of moving, sands, 'streXctring into boundless plains^ and sometimes intersected by barren mountains. These desol'ate regions are swept by hot and pestilential winds, ^nd'the air is dry and suffocating. • Smiling Oases are, however, scatte^d over these desert tracts, and in, some parti of the country; wse find terdant valleys, enjoying a, perpetual spring bordered by well wooded hills, and producing fruits of all kinds in great abundance. Divisions. The petiinsula is divided among a great number of petty states. The inaccurate division into Arabia Petrsea (the Stony), in th( northwest,FeBx (the Happy or.Fertile), embracing the region of incense along the Indian Ocean, and Deserta (Desert), comprisinglhe great cen- tral desert,: is unknown to the natives. The division into the districts of Hejaz, Yemen, Hadramout, Oman Lassa, and Nejed, is purely geographical, but is often given ,ip maps. Sheriffat op Mecca. Hejaz comprises the' northern and westeni part of the peninsula, and includes therefore the Sheriffat of Mecca, oi the Holy Land of the Mahometans, which now belongs politically to Egypt. . , - > -.- . The most it6portant towns are Mecca, 60^000 inhabitants, the birth- place of Mahomet; Jed^a,, its port, on .theiRed Sea, 40,600; ^[Medina, 8,000, which contains the prophet's, tomb, and Yambo, jtsjjort, 5,000. In the northern part of Hejaz are Mount Sinai'and Mount Horeb. ,,In the neighborhood of Mecca are the Rechabites, Jewislj (rTbes,living like their ancestora ai tents, and. possessing tjje Hebrew-sacred books. Imamat or Sanaa. The principal state of Y^men -is the -imamat of Sanaa or Yemen; area 52,000 square miles; 'population 2,500,000 Principal . town, Sanaa, the capital, 30,000 inhabitafils ; -Btocha, 5,00C inhabitants, is the principal commercial town of Arabia. ' Imamat op Mascat. Oman contains the imamaf of Maspat; capitaU Mascat, on the Indian Ocean, 60,Q00. inhabitants. The imam of MascaK ,also holds a tract of coast on the Persian Gulf, about 90 miles in extent,-, and containing the port of Gombroon, under the-Bpyereignty of Persia, and in Africa possesses the island_Of Zanzibar, and some places on the coast. The total area of his dominions is 52,000 square miles ; popula-' tion 1,600,000. .~^^- ' Wahabees. Nedjed contains-the country of the Wahabees, who, ir| the beginning of the present century, carried their victorious arms over; Hejaz, Lassa, and part of Yemen. The Wahabees are reUgious reform-j ers, who receive the preceptSvof the Koran as of divine authority, bu| refuse to pay religious honors to M?h6met, whom the^ consider as a- mere man, and to saints. They have been defeated and driven bacB into their original haunts by, the pacha of Egypt Derraya, their capital! with 15,000 inhabitants, was destroyed by the miles,; popujation 2,500,000.: Principal towns Buchara, the capital,-- an important commercial mart, 80,000; 'Samarcan'd, 50,000, andlKarghi or.Naksheb, 40,000. -KHO«AN. The khanat of Khokan is the third state in extent and' the second in pojiulalion ; area 77j000 square mileS.; population 1,000,000. .Principal to-^ns ""Khokan, the capital, on the Sii^-Daria, 60,000 inhabitants, and •Khodshehd, 50,000. ( " , ' Pjtiiis regioti are ainong, the. largest in. ' Government ofTobolsfe, - « Tomsk, / " ■ Yenisseisk, " Irkutsk, -^ Province of Omsk, « *■ ■ ' Yakoutsk, District of Okotsk; " , Kamschatka, Land of the Kirguises. « Tchuky, , Tobolsk, Tomsli', , v^Krasnoiarsk' ' ^frkulsk^ )' .bm|k, Y Yal5(utsk,N ^Okotsk P Peti^pql«[lovsl io,ooo V"<^4,000 y 16,-000- ^?;,"3r7,000"' .1 ' -3,000 1,000, X ' ■'~w^ ^ ConteinS no towmsjof ^ylittt^ <\ . bu^ is roamed^y^* by wan- ^j^ dferinghor^les. i,.' . < Iphabited by a few miserable I "tribes. y 'j '-' . J Trade and Productions. The most imgortajrtr^roductie^s of Siberia are furs, wahusjusks, iron, gold, silven, pfetiaajv&c. On the eastern declivity of^he UralJ, are gold,"7silvBj5' arid/platiifa>Tniries; l^g silver mines of feolyvan yield annnaUy upwards ;of49,8iS pounds Troy ; the mines of the Altai-'produee annually . -45,900 p.0uri^ of silver, and' 1,246 of gold.. .-= . : ., V . ' -p'^"^-- -^ ' j An extensive inland.. tra"de -iaiCarried on -with European''" Russia,\ Turkey, Persia, . Tu«kistan, and! tEev.Gfa^ege empire. Tobolsk is the^ centre of the trade with the European p?gyinces ; Kiachta and Irk;utgkf of that with Ghilia, in which fgrs are exchange^ for. teas, porcelain", -^Ifc.wL &c. ;• Orenburg; of that with TurkisRip, whence are imported silk ana^ : i-i cotton stuffs; Astrachan, TefliSj^and ErivaiQ af-that^tn Persia, which consists in the exchange of the. naphtha-of Siberiaffor silk ;?and Teflis and Akaltsikhe of that with Turkiey. ^ V'- i^ Inhabitants. ,> This, vast region is thinly inhabited' by people of dif-. ferent races. Fl-o^' the' Yehissey to the- Pacific, .the Tohgooses are spread over one third of its ^surface; the TuraliWfs, belonging to the Turkish family, are' numerous in- the ^Qvernnlents of Tomsk, Tobols|:}^ and Yenisseisk, and the Kirghises and^Yakutesj^e'-qf thd.gtime'ikmihjit of nations ; the Mongols, Samoyedes, Qstiaks,^KiB-ilians, Kamsqhadales} &c., are the other principaLrkc'es. l''-^ --^^ \? ' ^ i ~ There are j also* i^any Buchariasi tr'aders, German and Rus6iail( doiio^ nists, exiles froiri^Russi?_a(id Poland of. differfe^t nations, &o. • ~, RELieio^. The Turkish tribes Eire • mostly JMahometans, but the Yakutes are idolaters, as are also .the Tungooses, Samoyedes, 'Kuril;ans, &c. ; • the Mongols are Buddhists,- and there are Jews, arnT' Cfreek,' Armenian, Lutheran, and Roman Christians. The khanat of KJjiva is-the largest state ipi point of sijperficial extent, but the gi^eatest pari of its surfece is occupied by-'^ieseris?; area 146,000 ; populiati(ynp00,00b ; \ipital, Khiva, 3,000 inhabitants? "7 , The^ oth^'^rincipat, states are the- Khanats-of Hissar {(capital Hissar, ';3j000)^;' ■Badaksjt>an'j--Shersebs; ' Khulm; and Balkh, papital Balkh, • IpjOOft; once one of the moSt-wealthy andrpopulbys.citie^of Asia. ■ The 'land of the Kirghises, anld^ that of "the Turkmans, are occupied -by innutri^rable'^ietty tribes of nomades. ' -' ■ -^ " ' ' ■ Industry. ; The .^inhabitents^qf the khanat o)^ Buchara^ «re distin- guishedTfor their meichariical industry, arid Ibr their skill in the manu&c- ,ture of silk and-iCOtt^n stuff8;feaps,pap6^,,&c.'- In-general th'e^inhabi- tants of the large .tcfyvns are -^extensively leq^^ejjii.'mariiifactures, and the rural popiilation- display muirh agricultiirai^feMII,and-indtigt^.-'JI!l(Iaay districts are in a high statcof cultlvationj'ahilarnficial'imgatibh'coyers many tracts, which 'are sometimes' describeJ "as deseitsj^ witfa-rich har- ' vests. The'Wand^ring tribes subsist by pill^'-and the produce of their largbherds of cattle. ,' .r :■'■'■" l. "' . Commerce. The Buch^an merchants are enterprisine,j^ug£tl,and inteljjgenf; ihey tAverse almost the' whole .continent, and nave formed considerable colonies in China, Russia, and the' other neighboring- coun- tries. - ■ ':■ Their ,.ch!fef marts are-Orenburg for the trade with Russia, Ca^gar for that"wit£ China, Balkh ffir that with~Afghanistan, and Cashme"re for that with, Hindostap., - The Kirghises, and several Turkman '^tribes,, are actively engagednn fhfe slave .tradje. - ^ •- " f Cotton, silEi and cciton and -silk stuffs, horses, ;precious stones, skins,: fruits, and gold dustj'aj-e the princqial "jErficles of -export;; tea, porcelain, ihd^go,shawls,-^c., are imported. :" ..' '" .vJhhabitan'ts. The Bucharians, who form thp mass of the population Iri Great Buchari^, and are dispersed over thf' whole countiy for the. <^e of tcafBc, are, of the Persian family orations. . The Usbecks, who are now the ruling" people in. a, great part of Tui-kistan, the Turcomans, 1 f'fnd the KirghiseSj''are'Turki§fr races.- There are also Tadshiks'ttr Per- ^ans,-" Afghans, Kalmucks, ^&c. Mahometanisni. is the' prevailing re-" TURKISTAN OR TARTARY. Extent. This region extends frora\-36° to 51°'N. Lat., andjTfrqm 49° to 82° E. Lon. It is sometiraes'idescribed as divided iht»-Bucharia ;6r 'Usbekistain, iii the southeast ; Turiomania, or the^Iand o}" the Turkmans, in the -south'vvest;-the-land'of the Kirghizes in. the north, and Turkistan Proper 'in the 'east. But these are merelyigeographicaf divisions: the,, country is politically occupied by a great number of petty states or khanats, and by independent wandering tribes. . CHIIfESE TARTARY. ' 'E-sitjfi andtjDivKiONS. This vast r^gion.qf steppes and salt d^serte, extending ^g(W£Mfy fi-Oin Tui'kistan to the Ocean, is improperly called Tartary, as. It is i^ot inhabited' by "Tartar tribes. It is divided by the ,'phihese into 'the land of the Manchoos or Man- rchoor|S''onf tlie ocean^; Mongolia^ ortHe land of the Mongols; Thian- ~ch^ialfelQOj;Qomp.rising_.Zungaria, ahd'^the land of the Kirghises; the AJiirof th^ Klaajkas ;, and Thianchannanloo, or the Little Bucharia of Europfean geographers. ^^RIVERS. ■ The ^niour or Saghalien rises in the centi-al part of this regioji, and -pSSse^ through Manchooria into the Sea of Okotsk, after a ^course of 2,250 mil^^ --Many of the rivers of this; region do not find their way\to the sea. But terminate in, the salt lakes, which are scattered over its surface, ^di are the Yareand, flowing into Lake Lop, the Hi, running into Lake Palcati, &c.. . — . — To-frNs. The, principal to-wrns are Yarkand, -12,000. inhabitants, and Cashgai°,40,000| in, Little Bueli^ia, and Guldja, 60,000, in Zungaria. Kai-akorflm, in the land of the Khalkas, was "celebrated in the middle ages, as the capital of the great Mongol empire-,'-the seat of ther posterity of Genghis Khan. ' _l , Inhabitants. The Bucharians are numerous in Little Bucharia. - The Manchoos, who are the ruling people of the Chinese empire ; the Mon'gols, comprising the Kalmuck^ of Zungaria, the Khalkas, and the Moiigqis Proper ; and the Kirghises of the Turkishlfamily are the other Srincipal nations. The Mongols, and most of the Manchoos are Budd- ists; the Bucharians and Kirghises are Mabomedans, and there are many idolatrous tribes. ; f^ CHINA. ! Extent and Population. The Chinese empire extends from 18° to 51° N. Lat, and from 71° to 143° E. Lon., having an area of 5^50,000 square miles, anc^ a population of about 200,000,000. In this estimate are cotniprised China Proper, Manchooria or the coun- try of the Manchoos, Thianchanpelou or Zungaria, Thianchannanloo or Little Bucharia, Mongolia, which is only tributary, and the kingdoms of Corea and Loo Choo.Jthe vast region of Tibet, and Debraja, called by Europeans Bootau, which are vassal or protected countries. Divisions. China Proper is divided into 18 provinces ; viz. : ! Proviftces. r Chyle, Northern |h,--. 1. Katisu, Western 5 Sucbuen, western ^ yua„a„^ Southern 5 {^"^""Sf^- I Kwan^ong, (Fukien, Chekeang, Keangsu, Shantun, f Honan, Anway, Eastern Interior IHoopi, Keangse, Hoonan, Kweitcheou, Capitals. Peking. Tayuen. Singan. Lancheou. Tchingtu. Yunnan, Kwiling. Canton. Futcheou. Hangtcheou. Nankin. Tsenan. Kaifung. Ankhing, Wootchang. Nantchang. Tchangtcha. Kweiyang. Towns. Peking, the capital, is estimated to contain 1,300,000 inhabi- tants. Among the other principal tovras are Canton or"Quantcheou, which, comprising the boat-tovra, has * population of about 600,000 souls; Singan, 350,000; Futcheou, in F^k^fen; Haugteheou, 600,0001. Nankin or Kiangning, 500,000 ; Sutcheou, 6OD,0OO;: Wootchang, 400,000> Nantchang, in Keangse, 300,000; KingteohinJ femous for its ■porcelain, 500,000 ; Yotcheou, in Hoonan, 200,000, and Kaifung, 20QiOOO inhabit tantSi • •' ' - '' Inhabitants. The Manchoos have been the dominant race in China, since their conquest of the country in 1644 ; theyvhkve a j-ich literature, and their language is that of the imperial court..- The Chinese or natives, form the great bulk of the population. • ' . ,' - Religion. The doctrine of Confucius Is the religion of^the empire, the emperor himself being the patriarch, and the'magistrates performing the fuiictions of priests. The great mass of~the'irihabitantSi however, profess Buddhism or the religion of Fo. Government. The government is a limited monarchy, the power of the emperor being checked by those of certain of the higher officers, and by the necessity he is under of naming the magistrates according to prescribed rules. ., Canals. The Yaho or Imperial canal/is the longest work of the kind in the world, being 700 miles in length,'!ndependently of the rivers which it connects. It opens a vrater communication from Peking ^to Canton, with numerous branches to the principal'oities of the empire. In the Chinese canals, boats arte 'passed from one level to another 1^ means of inclined planes. ^ : The Gkeat Wali,, perhaps the greatest work ever executtedby man, has been built about~2,000, years ; it extends from the western extremity of Shense to the gulf of Pecheli, a distance of 1,500 miles,- passing over- lofty mountains-and traversing deep valleys. It is composed of two par- allel brick walls 12 feet apart, the interval between vvhich is fiUedup" vnth earth ; its height is 24 feel^ with towers at intervals of 300 or 400 feet. Commerce. '_ The interior commerce of this vast empire is more im- portant than its foreign trade, and consists in the mutual exchange of the natural and manu&ctured produce of its distant provinces, ti-anspOited upon the numerous rivers -and canals which furrow its surface. The foreign commerce is also very extensive, both by land and by sea. The maritime commerce is carried on chiefly«by Chinese, English, and Americans. The Chinese junks trade to Further India, and the islands of the Pacific. Some of these clumsy vessels- are from 600 to 800 tons btn-den. Foreigners are admitted only to the port of Gaiiton ; in this as in other ports' there iS a body of merchants called the H'oag or Security Mer- chants, who are mutually bound for the payment of each other's obliga- tions. The Manilla Spaniards have the right of trading to Tchangteheou. The foreign inland commerce is carried on with Siberia by Maimat- chm near Kiachta ; with Turkistan by Yarkand ; with Hindostan by Leh and Lassa, and with Annam and the Birman Empire. Exports are tea, rhubarb, musk, ginger, cotton goods, porcelain, silk, and numerous other manufactured articles j imports, furs, woollen cloths, gold and silver thread, opium, birds' nests, tripang, sandal wood, gfass, lead, &c. Value of exports to the United States, in 1832, $ 5,344,(8)0 ; of imports from the same $ 1,260,000. '.' ^ Manufactures, Arts. The Chinese are distinguished for their "me- chanical industry and skill, and the origin of many of the arts ascends, among tliem, beyond historical record. They have from time immemo- rial been acquainted with the arts of preparing and manufacturing silk, working metals, cutting and polishing precious stones, &c., and their vivid and durable coloring, their firm but thin paper, their ink, and sev- eral other articles of industry, yet defy European rivalry. The manufacture of porcelain has long reached a perfection, at which Europeans have but recently arrived after long and painful exertions ; their cotton stuffs, their artificial flowers, their carvings in ivory, &;c., have long been famous. Engraving in wood and stereotype printing were in use in China in the middle of the 9th century. JAPAN. Extent and Population. The empire of Japan extends from 29° to 47° N. Lat., and from 128° to 150° E. Lon., having an area of 240,000 square miles, and a population of 25,000,000 souls. It includes the islands of Niphon, Yesso or Matsmai, Kiusiu or Ximo, and Sicoff"or Sicoco, and partof Tarakai or Saghalien, andofthe Kurile isles. Towns. Yedo, the capital, is one of the largest cities in the world, having a population of about 1,400,000 souls; Kio or Meaco, for a long time the capital and still the residence of the dairi, or spiritual head of the empire, has about 500,000 inhabitants. Nara, 200,000 ; Osaka, 150,000 ; Nangasaki, in the island of Kiusiu, the only place into which foreign vessels are admitted, and Matsmai, 50,000, on this island of Yesso, are the other principal towns. Government. The dairi or emperor, who is considered a descendant of the gods, is at present only the spiritual head of the empire, the whole civilpower having been usurped by the kubo or scogun (commander in chiefof the forces), in 1585, who leaves to the dairi merely the name and honors of emperor. The government is an absolute monarchy ; under the scogun, the authority is possessed by a great number of damios or hereditary princes, who are nearly sovereign within their own territories, but are obliged to 'keep hostages in the hands of the sovereign. " 'Relioion. The religion of the majority of the nation is Buddhism ; but the reUgion' of Sinto, which is the primitive religion of the country, and which consists in the worship of Genii or Sins, has many followers. There are likewise many followers of Confucius. Manufactures, Arts, &c. The Japanese excel in many kinds of manu&ctures, and have been acquainted with the art of printing for 600 yearis. They adopt with great eagerness the Eiu-opean arts and sciences, but the jealousy of the government forbids any subject from leaving the empire, and interdicts all access to foreignerGt, admitting only the Chinese, CoMans, and Dutch, to the single port of Nangasaki. They work in copper, iron, and steel, with great skill, and their silks, cotton stuffs, porcelain, mulberry-paper, lackered ware, glass, &c., are remarkable for excellence and beauty of workmanship.. Agriculture is carried to a high degree of perfection in Japan. - Science, Literature, &c. The use of paper, made from the bark of the mulberry-tree, and other -plants, was introduced in the 7th century, and the art of printing in the beginning of the 13th, when the books of Buddha were printed from wooden blocks. The Japanese liave several treatises on botany and other subjects of natural science, well printed with well executed plates, and they have adopted the European methods of projection, in their maps. The principal men are acquainted with the Dutch language, and keep themselves informed of what is passing in the West, through the medium of the Dutch journals. Women are well educated, and enjoy nearly the same liberty as in European countries. Commerce. The Japanese had, formerly, a large military and com- mercial navy, and navigated all the eastern seas, -but since 1637, they have been forbidden to visit foreign countries, and the only foreign Ves- sels permitted to enter the country are a limited number of Chinese, Coreans, and Dutch. The coasting and internal trade is, however, extensive, and is facilitated by great fairs and good roads. The exports are copper, camphor, silks, sttid lackered ware. Tea, sugar, iron, lead; miercuiy, whale oil, spices, tin, cofifee, &c., are imported. ! I FURTHER INDIA OR CHIN-INDIA. Extent. Further India or India beyond the Ganges, called by Matte' Brun Chin-India, extends from 1° to 27° N. Lat., and from 90° to 109° ,E. Loi., comprising the extensive region lying southeast of Hindostan and southwest of China. ' Islands. - In'tbe sea of BengaHie two groups of islands, the Andam- an fslands, cbiitainjpg some good harbors, and well wooded, but inhabited ' by savage tiibes of blacks ; and the =Nicobar isles, inhabited by a gentle race of pepplii'of a darfcyellow'complexion, of whom Linnseus, Buffon, and; lord Blonbbddo , gave credit to the absurd story, that they had tails. The Danes once had settlements in the latter group, but they have aban- doned th&l. . ' i . - o. ■ Rivers. Sdrrie pf'the principal risers of Asia flow through this pen- insula, but in general tk'eir courses are but imperfectly known. The Brahmapootra or Burfalfipooter rises'in the mountains which lie on the north of'the Bh-man empire, and entities itself into the Ganges below Luckipore. ' - , ,. The Iravitaddy, which is one of thelargest rivers of Asia, is thought to rise in Thibet7_U traverses the Chinese-province of Yunnan,'and thi3 Birman empire, flgtering the- sea by . 14. mouths. The Saluen also probably rises in the moiintainsi)firhibet,and passing, through Mai-taban reaches the sea below AmhersW"N~~r>l,^- - The Menam or River of Sia^i rises in Yunnan, and passes through Siam into the Chinese Sea.- The Mecon, Mpnamkong, or River of Cambodia rises in -Thibet, traverses Yunnan7and flows through Cam- bodia into the sea. - - ~ - Divisions. Further India is divided into the English temtories, the -iBirman empire,,lie kingdom of Siam, empire of Annam, the'indepen- dent states of the peninsula of Malacca, and numerous "independent savage or half civilised tribes of the interior. Inhabitants. The inhabitants belong : to several distinct races, among whom are the Myammas or Birmese, the Moans or Peguans, the Taineh, called bythe Europeans Siamese, the Annaraites, including the Jonquinese and Cdchinehinese, the Malays, &c. Many of the tribes of this peninsula are blacks. Religion. Buddhism is professed by the Birmans, Peguans, Siamese, Laosians, Cambodians, and the lower classes in the empire of Annara ; many of the higher classes in the latter are disciples of Confucius. The inhabitants of ASsam, Munnipore, Tippera, Catchar, &c., are attached to Brahmanism. The Malays are Mahometans, and some of the Tonquinese, Cochin- chinese, and Cambodians are Roman Catholics. Most of the barbarous tribes of the interior districts are Fetichists. Commerce and MANnFACTtrRBs. The inhabitants of the peninsula have not made the same progress in the arts of life as the Hindoos, the Chinese, and the Japanese, and their manufactures are comparatively few ■ and rude. The commercial relations of the EnglislT with the states of . this regidn.have rapidly increased within the lasS 20 years, and the: Chinese have, since the end of the- last century got possession of the foreign trade of- Siam. . The emperor of Annam has within the last few years added a number of ships, riggedin the European style, to his com- mercial navy. There is also an^active inland trade carried jon between the English and Birmans,the Chinese and Bu'mans, and the Tonquinese and Chinese. , Exports are cotton, silk,, tin, eagle, teak, and sandal wood, gums, sugar, ivory, precious stones, &ci; impoi3s manufactureid goods, opium, tea, &c. 7 Government. The govemmentrof these states is a pure despotism. In the Birman and Siamese territories, the name of the sovereign cannot be pronounced during his life t;mel)y^any subject under penalty of death, and in tljese states and the empire of Annam, each male inhabitant above the -age of 20 years, the priests and public ofiicei-s only excepted, is obliged to, devote every third year to 'the service of the state as a soldier or laborer. Emigration is considered as an act of treason against the state, justice, however, is administered with impartiality and firmness, and crimes against persons and property are not frequent. BIRMAN EMPIRE. Extent and Population. The Birman empire extends, between the Saluen and the Sea of Bengal, from 16° to 27° N. Lat., having an area of 200,,QOO square miles, with a population of 3,700,000 souls. It com- prises Birma or Ava, Pegu, Martaban, a part of Laos, &o. Towns. Ava, the capital has 50,000 inhabitants ; Ummera,poqra, the former capital, 30,000. Pegu and Martaban, formerly capitals of inde- pendent states, are now almost deserted. Rangoon, on a branch of the Irawaddy, is the principal commercial place in the empire ; population 25,000. The Birman empire was founded in the middle of the last century,,and previous to the late war with the English (1824-26) comprised neariy the whole of the western part of the peninsula ; but by the treaty of peace, it was obUged to cede Assam, Astracan, and several other provinces to the latter. KINGDOM OF SIAM. Extent and Population. This state, which was delivered from the JJu-mese yoke in 1768, extends from China on the north to the gulf of ? Siam, and comprises several extensive provinces in the peninsula of' Malacca. It is estimated to have an area of 200,000 square mile^,with a' population of '3,600,000 souls. Divisions. It comprises Siam Proper, part of Laos and Cambodia,! and the kingdoms of Ligor, Bondelon, Patani, 'Oalantan, Tiingano, tindj Kedah, and the island of Jiiukseylon, in the peninsula of Malacca. ' ''Towns. Bankok, thef capital, on the Meinam, is a place of about* 90,000 inhabitEoits-; Siam, formerlythe capita], and a splendid and popu-,* lous feity/ is now in ruins. ' , '- ] , ^_' /:• : . , \ EMPIR1E OF ANNAm/oR VIETJJAM. ■ Extent and -Bopijiation. This empire, fouojdjed in the beginning of. the present centiiry,;comprises thelcingddnjsof Cophinchina, Jonquin,' Chiampa, Cambpdia,-,and Bao or Bpatan, and part of Laos; Its area is, estimktedat about 280,000 square miles'; populglionj.2,000j000. Towns. Hue, the capital, is remarkable for its vast fortifications, capable of receiving i garrison of 40,000 men; population 100,000.' Kesho (40,000) in Tonquin ; Saigan (100,000), the chief commercial town in the empire and Cambodia, in Cambodia; and Turon, in Cochinchina,' are the principal towns. . „ , Army and Navt. The emperor has established a fine dock yard- at Saigan. He has a powerful navy consisting of 11 large vessels, lOQ great galleys of from 50 to 70 oars, 500 Bmall galleys, and 280 war boats' armed with cannon, beside several frigates on the European model. Hi^ army has a]so been org.anized in the European manner,:fottifi,cations have been constructed on the.principles of modern military science, and ai-m- ories and arsenals erected. ; , ' ENGLISH TERRITORIES. , 1^ - ^ Divisions. The English Dominions in FuMher India conjprise thi kingdoms- of Assam and Aracan, and the provinces^ of -Catchar an( Gassay or Munypore, Witha part of Tippera in the north ; theprovince of Martaban, Ye, Tavay, and Tenasserim, to the south of the Birmai , empire ; the isleof Pulo Pinang or Prince of Wales Island, and Sincapore on the coast of Malacca. " . . Towns. Aracan, formerly a populous, city,ihas now about 30,000. in- habitants. -Amherstown, founded by the English in 1826, near the mouth of the Saluen, has already about 15,000 inhabitants. Georgetown, o|i Prince of Wales island, > has a population of 20^000 souls, Sincapor0, founded in 1819, has. about 20,000 inhabitants; - i INDEPENDENT M ALA.C C A: ST ATES. The peninsula of JJIalacca, which towards the end of the 18th and the beginning of the 19th century had succeeded in throwing off the Siamese yoke, is now again mostly reduced to the dominion of foreign- ers ; but it comprises a great number of %^ependent tribes, and several petty kingdomS^viz. ; Perac, Salengore,' Jbhor, Pahang, andRumbo. states, ' ^ Capitals, 4'c., ^ I Perac. Perac is nominally the capital; Calangisthe usual residence of the sultan. Salengore. Kalang is the present , capital ; Salengore is now nearly deserted. This state was founded by a colony of Bugis from Celebes, who are noted as pirates. Johor. Johor, the capital, is a petty village. This kingdoin, formeriy veiy powerful,.}? nowa feeble state. , Pahang. Capital, Pahang ;.Tringoram has a fine harbor. A fertile and populous country. Rumbo. A powerful state, formerly subject to Jhie empire/^f Menangkaboo, in Sumatra. NORTHERN ASIA. \\f n the southern slope of Central Asia into the Chinese Sea and the Indian Ocean. Of- these the Kiang or Yangtsekiang is the principal stream, having a course of about 3,000 miles. Volcanoes. The continental part of Southern Asia contains but few known volcanoes. But a volcanic region commences on the west of the Caspian Sea and on the south of the Caucasus, which exhibits numerous traces of volcanic action, and has always been subject totearth- quakes. The volcanic peaks of Demavend in iPersia and Seiban in Armenia are in this region. | But the islands exhibit the most terrible examples of volcanie phe- nomena ; the Japanese Islands are remarkable for the great number and activity of their volcanoes, and an extension of the volcanic chain can be traced through the Loo Choo Islands. Bairen Island in the Bay of Bengal contains an active volcano. See the Table on the Eastern, Hemisphere for a general view of the volcanic regions to which these districts nelong. ' Climate. Of the five sections into which Asia is divided in respect of climate, two ai-e entirely and one partially^ in the southern half The southern part of the eastern section comprises China and jCorea, the climate of which resembles that of the eastern coast of North Amer- ica, being much colder than the corresponding latitudes of Western Asia and -Europe. . ', The southern section, comprising the two Indies, sheltered fi-om the icy winds of the north by the lofly rampart of the Himalaya Mountains, having a southern exposure, and stretchirig far south of the tropic,'knows no winter, and is not generally speaking subject to the excessive Keats of the western section ;^watered by numerous large rivers, these magnificent countries present the richest scenes of luxuriant, vegetation. They have two seasons, the wet and the dry. ; The western section forms a vast peninsiula almost detached fi'om the main- body of the eastern continent by the Arabian, Caspian, -Black, Mediterranean, and Red seas.' The arid and sandy character of jts soil, and its proximity to Africa, that great heater of the Old World, ^ve it a more elevated temperature than that of even the southern sectii^. Its dry, and serene atmosphere, is strongly contrasted with the humid and stprmy skies of the eastern section; - .,^ Inhabitants. The moral' features of Southern -Asia are not less different than its physical chai'acter from those of the north. J In the former the inhabitants are crowded together in large .cities and ^tliickly peopled states, and organized into extensive comriiunities. The' desert plains of Syria and Arabia, however, present the roving tribes and pastoral habits of the northern steppes. But the shores of the Mediterrau|an, the table-lands tff Persia, the rich valleys,of India and China, and thejislands of the Pacific are occupied by an industrious commercial, agri^iltural, and manufacturing population. Tabidar View of the N'aiions. Arabians : belonging to the Semitic family. Armenians: called by themselves Haikans. Persian Family: Tadshiks or Persians; Belooches; Afghans; Bu- chanans ; Kurds ; Luris. ' '? Turkish Familt: Ottoman Turks, the ruling race of the Qttoman empire ; Turcomans, the ruling people of Persia. J, Hindoo Family : Seikhs; Mahrattas; Bengalese; Cingalese, ,&c. Tibetans : people of Tibet. — Tais : called by the Europeans Siamese. Chinese : mass of the population of China.— Japanese : people of Japan. CoREANs: people of Corea. — ^Myammas: dominant race of pJirman empire. « Annamites : Tonquinese and Cochinchineae. — ^Moans : or Peguans. lit \ ASIA, Extent.' -Asia is separated ^from Europe and Africa by the Ural Mbuntains and River, the Caucasus, Black Sea, Mediterranean, and Red Sea,> and on the pther sides is washed by the ocean. The straits of Malacca, the Chinese .Sea, and Behring's Straits divide it from Oceania aud America. Within these limits Asia has an area of 16,100,000 square miles. Mountains. Asia is travelled by several gj-eat mountainous chains, seine of which r^ach a height above any other part of the earth's sur- f^e, and all of -whreh, except the Oral Mountains, have a general direction east aiid west : ' ^ Jl, The Caucasus extends from the Black to the Caspian seas, separat- ing Europe from Asia; the Elboorz, the highest summit, is 18,500 feet i2. The Taurus extends in several chains over Asia- Minor, Armenia, and Persia ; Mount Ararat, in this group, is 18,000 feet in height. . '3. The Ural Mountains, stretching from the basin of the Caspian to the Aj-ctic ocean, are principally" remarkable fpr their rich mines of gojd and platina;nhey nowhere reach an elevation of 3,000 feet.; - _ j4. The Altai Mountains extend from the vicinity of the Uraliap "chain,, along the southern edge of Siberia to Jhe neighborhood of the! ocean,' w|iere, taking a northeasterly- direction, they line "the coast as' far as Behring'sStraits ; this ranger is, khoTvn under the name of the -SSyanian/ ]V|ountains, near lake Bail^al, and of the Daourian Mountains, ^tanovoi,, Jablonnoikhrebet, &c.,_further east ;, near Kolyvan it is rich in gold and sijver mines, producing annually 46,000 pounds of. the latt.ec, and 1,250 of the former ; highest summits 11,500-feet. f ■ 5. The Teenshan or Bogdo -Mountains run parallel with the AltaL chain, extending from- the borders of Turlcestan to the shores of the Jipanese sea ; in the western part they also bear the name of Mustag; s4me of the summits are volcanic, and" reach to the height of 19,200 f^t. - ,- . ,- -J, " . , j6. Still further south, and parallel with the- preceding, is the Kwanlun chain, stretching along to the north pf Thibet, aud covering' the southern piovinces of China, and the countries of Further Iiidia, with itsjnumer- ofis ranges; it reaches, in some places theJieight of ,11^00 fe^t. |7. A transverse chain^ extends frgm north to south, cUnaecting these taree chains with each other and wjjh the Himalaya Mountains, separat- iag Turkestan from China, and dividing, tlie sources of the Sihon and .Aftnou from the waters of the great central platform of Asia ; it is known utider the name of the Beloor'a'ag, and' rises to the elevation of 19,000 |8. TJhe last and "loftiest of the great Asiatic chains is the Himalaya Blountains, wJiich, separating Thibet from Nepaul, Bootan, and Assam, t^minate in the valley of- the Brahmapootra ; on the borders of Bootati the lofty Summit of Chamoulari-is estimated to be-28,150 feet high ; that of Dhwalagiri on the .frontiers of Nepaul,' is 28,076 feet, and ^there are others of little less elevaticin. IRivERS. Although Asia is the largest ofthe'four quarters-^of the Mobe, ;its rivers, are inferior in size to- the great^^streartis of -America. Efescending-^i'om the central mountains through the desgrt pladn&'of Siberia, the-Ob,'ftie Yenissey and'the Lena, pour their waters into the jWcticiOcean ; the Yenissey, considering tlae Selinga as its head stream, ia the longest river of the'- Old Wprld, having a course of about 3,000 miles. I The Ijena is 2,500 miles in length. ^ • '_ JDpvvn the eastern declivity of the elevated central regions of Asia, descend into the Pacific the Amour or Saghalien, the Hoahgho, and trie Kjang; the latter has a course'of about 2,400, milesf-,the others a|e smaller. --, ' ' . , r The' rivers which flow down., the southern declivity are less coa- si lerable, but derive interest from their historical importance, and the r ;hhess of the regions they traverse. The soiirces of the'Meikong or C iihboge, the Menara or Siam, and, the Irawaddy or Ava, the three- g eat streams of Further India, have not beeii explored. The sacred Qanges, the Indus, and the Euphrates, long the seats of mightiest nionarchies, are the other great rivers of the southern slopfe of Asia. JIwHABiTANTS. The population of Asia is not far. from 400iOOO,Opp, clmposed of a great number of races, of .which the principal-, are as ftillows: the Chinese, the most numerous people on the gldbe^forming tKe great bulk of the population of China; theTungoo, comprising tae Manchoos, since 1644 the ruling race in China ; the Japanese ;, the Ainamite, including the Cochin-Chinese and Tonquinese; the Mongol,' tg which belong- the Kalmucks; the M^arrima, or ruling race of the lErman Emphe ; the Siamese ; the Malay of Malacca ; the Hindoo ; t^e Persian, comprising the Bucharians, Afghans, Parsees ;0r Guebres, Kurds, Belooches, and Persians or Tadshiks ; the Turkish, including the Qsmanlis, Turcomans, Usbecks, Yakoots, Kirguises, &c, ; the Semitic, including- Arabians -and Jews; the-Gfeorgian, Armenian, Samoyede, Hamschadale, Uralian or Tchudic, &c. .Lakes. The Caspian Sea is the largest lake in the known world, having an area of 150,000 square miles ; its general depth is from 350 to 400 feet, but in some parts, no bottom has been found with a line of 380 fathoms. Its waters are salt, and abound in seal, sturgeon, &c. It has no outlet, but receives several large rivers. It is remarkable that the surface of this lake is about 320 feet below the surface of the ocean. Lake Aral is the next in point of size ; it has an area of about 15,000 square . miles. , Lakes Baikal, Balkakhi, Kokoiior, Van, &c., are the ■ other principal bodies of water in this division of the world. Minerals. Diamonds. — India' {Nizam, Balaghaut, ' Ceylon, &c.), Riissian Asia. . Gold. — Japan, China, Thibet, Russian Asia, Ava, Cochinchina, Ton- quin,'Siam, &c. Silver. — China, Russian Asia, Japan, Annenia, &c. Tin.— Birman Ethpire, Siam, Malacca, China, &c. Mercury. — China, Thiliet, Japan, Ceylon. Copper.-^Japan, Russian j. Asia, Armenia, China, Thibet, Persia, Hin- dostan, Annam. Iron. — Siberia , Persia; Japaii, &c. ' Lead, coal, salt, and-various other useful minerals, and precious stones also abound. •' Naturai, Divisions. The great natul-al divisions are as follows : Re^bn of Caucasus (Georgia, Circassia, Caucasus, &c.). " " Region of Asia Minor.- , Region of the Euphrates and Tigris" (Armenia, Mesopotamia, Kurdis- tan, &C;). .' _ "" Region of Mount Lebanon (Syria). Aralwa. -' Persia (Iran, Herat^ Cabul, Beloochistan). Region of Lake Aral (Turkestan). •". Central Table-land {Mongolia);-^- ' -> Region of the Obi and Yenissey, ? 55.. . Region of the Northeast, " S ®"'^™- •--.., Region of the Amour.^Mancho6ria,'Corea).' '■ ' Insular Region (Kurile and Japanese Isles, Saghalien). China. ' "^ Thibet.- , ; - Hindostan. Further India (Birman Empire, Annam, Siam, &c.).' . Political Divisions. The foUtiwing table exhibits a general view of the political divisions of Asia, with their population and extent : PopvlaHon, 175,000,000 25,000,000 12,000,000 3,600,000' 3,700,000 4,000,00a 2,500,000 8,000,000 1,000,000 4,200,000 2,000,000 1,500,000 9,000,000 2,500,000 800,000 1,000,000 2,500,000 1,500,000 130,500,000 89:500,000 40,000,000 1,000,000 8,000,000 3,000,000 4,100,000 500,000 209,000 60,000 states and Territories. - SqiLareMUes Chinese Empire, 5,500,000 Japanese Empire, -^ 240,000 Empire of Annam, 280,000 Kingdom of Siam, 200;000 Birman Empire, 200,000 Kingdom of Sihdia, '■ 37,000 of Nepaul, " - 53,000 Seikh Confederacy, 175,000 Principality of Sindh, 52,000 Kingdom of Cabul, 148,000 - Beloochi Confedei-acy,^. 148,000 Kingdom of Herat, 67,000 '■ — '■ : of Iran'or Persia, 450,000 Khanat ofBuchara. 80,000 —T' — of Khiva, 148,000 78,000 Imamat of Yemen, - 53,000 '— of Mascat, 48,000 FOREIGN POWERS. English Possessions, ■1t148,500 Immediate Possessions, 518,900 Allied or Subject States, 614,600 Ceylon,' 20,800 Qttoman Asia, 500,000 Egyptian Asia, 200,000 Russian Asia, 5,300,000 Portuguese Asia, 5,000 French Asia, 525 Danish Asia, 90 1 f OCEANIA. Extent. The great island-world in the Pacific Sea, which was. first explored in the last century, has been considered - by geographers as forming a third division of the world. Induing the vast space lying between 93° E. and 103° W. Lon., and betweeij 35°-N. and 56? S.' Lat., it is estimated to have a land area of 4,000,000 square miles, and a popvi- lation (jf about 20,000,000 souls.; Divisions. Oceania is divided by recent writers into three great divisions ; Malaysia or Northwestern Oceania, comprehending the islands lying to the west of 130° E. Lon., between the paralleb.of 12° S. and 20° N. Lat. ; this division, sometimes called the Asiatic or Indian Archipelago, and comprising the^Sunda Isles, Moluccas pr Spice Islands, Celebesj Borneo, and Philippines, is separated from Asia'by the strait of Malacca, and the Chinese Sea ;, Australia or Southern Oceania,, com- prises the islands lying between the equator and 45° S. Lat, to the, west of- 170° E. Lon., excepting those belonging to Malaysia, and -New Zea- land ; Polynesia comprises the remaming islands of Oceania, between 35° N. and 45° S. Lat. MALAYSIA. Malaysia comprises the most populous and wealthy part of Oceanb ; it produces the rarest and most valuable spices, cotton, coffee, indigo, rice, maizei &c., and contains the richest tin mines (in Banca) in the world ; Borneo contains valuable diamond mines, and rich gold mines are found in Borneo, Sumatra, Celebes, and the Philippines. Sumatra belongs in part to the Dutch, and is in part occupied by native states (Siak, Achera, the country of the Battas, &c.) j it has an area of 160,000 square miles, and a population of 7,000,000. Padang and Ben- coolen, the principal Dutch towns, have about 10,000 inhabitants. Java belongs entirely to the Dutch, and has a population of 5,000,000, chiefly natives. Batavia, the capital of the Dutch possessions in Ocea- nia, and the principal commercial ■ city in this part of the world, has 53,860 inhabitants, comprising 28,100 Javanese, 14,700 Chinese, 3,000 Europeans, &c. Bantam, forrherly a populous city, and the seat of a wealthy native court, is now almosj totally abandoned. Samarang, 38,000 inhabitants, and Ceram, are important towns., Borneo, the Celebes, the Moluccas or. Spice. Islands (comprismg Ain- boyna, Banda, Ceram, Gilolo, Ternate, Tidore, &c.), also belong to the Dutch, but are chiefly inhabited by native races, many of whom are entirely independent. , • . . , , The Philippines, comprising Luzon, Mindoro, Mindanao, &c., belong to Spain, but are in part occupied by several powerful independent native states. The capital of the Spanish possessions is Manilla, a great oonamercial mart, with about 150,000 inhabitants. The population of the whole group is estimated at about 2,500,00i), of whgm about 120,000 are Spaniards, Chinese and Mestizoes, and the remainder natives.' AUSTRALIA. This division includes the great islands of New Holland, Van Dieman's Land, New Guinea or Papuasia, Louisiade, New Britain, New Ireland, New Caledonia, Solomon's Islands, Egmont or Santa Cruz, Queen Charlotte's Islands, Norfolk Inlands, New Hebrides or Espu-itu Santo, with numerouspthers, which are all inhabited by black races. These people, who are in the lowest state of barbarism, have been called by some ethnographers, Melanesians or Black Islanders, in con- tradistinction to the negroes or blacks of Africa, to whom they bear no resemblance. ; New Holland. has an area of 3,000,000 square miles, and but c_pnjpa- ratively a narrovv strip of its coast is yet known to us; the English claim the whole of this vast continent. The English, colony of New South Wales on the southeastern coast, is a penal colony ; the' p'opulation consists of nearly 80,000, of whom about one third ai-e transphrted convicts, and two thirds free emigrants. Sydney, the capital, has 15,000 inhabitants ; at Paramattei, there is an astronomical observatory. Swan River settlement, fotmded in 1829, on the southwestern coast, is a flourishing fi'ee colony, with about 1,200 inhabitants. Perth is the principal town. Van Dieman's Land, which has also been occupied by the English, is a penal colony ; the number of convicts is about 10,000, of free settlers, 12,000. Hobarttown, tiie capital, has 5,000 inhabitants. The other islands of this division are not occupied by Europeans. New Guinea or Papuasia, the longest and one of the largest islands in the world, is chiefly inhabited by Papuas or Black Oceanians, but there are some Malay tribes on the coasts. The island is 1,200 miles in length by 350 in breadth. POLYNESIA. Polynesia comprises a great number of groups of small islands, and coral isles and reefs, scattered over a vast space, but inhabited by kindred races. We may distinguish the following groups : Magellan's Group, comprising a great number of groups and small islands, in Lat. 20°-30°'N., and Lon. 14b°-150° E. Some of these are inhabited by Japanese colonies : - The Marianne or Ladrone Isles, belong. to Spain ; Agana, the capital, has 3,000 mhabitants : The Pelew or Palaos Isles, are governed by several independent chiefs: Mulgrave's Group or Central Archipelago, embraces a great number of small low islets, including the Gilbert's and Marshall's groups of some writers: ' The Carolinas, consisting of a series of groups of small isles, form a k>ng chain lyiag between the two last mentioned; the natives are re- markable for their knowledge of the heavens, aud their skill in the con- struction and navigation of canoes:- The Feejee or;Fidji Isles are inhabited by cannibals: New Zealand or Tasmania, comprising two large, and numerous smaller islandfe, inhabited by fierce and warlike, but inteUigent and half- civilised tribes of cannibals; the principah islancfe are Eaheinomauwe, and'Tavaipuriammu ; and scattered j-ound are BroughtOn's, Campbell's, Auckland's, Macquarie's, and other groups : The Friendly Islands consist of the three islands of Tonga, Vavaoo, Eoiia, and a great number of low coral' islands : ' • Navigators Islands, or Hamoa, as the group is called by the natives, comprise seven principal islands : - Society Islanc^, comprising Tahiti (Otaheite), Eimeo, Huahine, and a great number of small islands; since 1815, the inhabitants have era- braced Christianity, and the arts of civilisation, with schools and the priiiting press, have been introduced'^ ' - Cook's Archipelago, is a group lying to the southwest of the last ; the inhabitants resemble those of Society Islands, and have embraced Christianity: The Low Archipelago consists of a long chain of- low coral, isles and reefs, many of which are uninhabited ; it comprises the group called by the English George's Islands, &c. : Mendana's Archipelago comprises the Marquesas islands and the Washington isles, of which the principal is Nookahiva ; a missionary station has lately been estaMished here : ' The Sandwich Islands comprise Hawaii ■(OwHyhee), Maui, Oahu (Woahoo), Tauai (A tool), and several other islands ; the number of inha- bitants is about 150,000 ; since 1820 the Christian rehgion has been em- braced by a great poition .of the inhabitants, and the arts and usages of cultivated life have been introduced : Among the Sporades, are Easter Island or Vaihou, the most easterly inhabited point of Oceania, and Pitcairns Island, interesting from its little colony of descendants of mutineers of the Bounty. STATISTICAL TABLE OF THE PRINCIPAL POWERS OP OCEANIA. NATIVE POWERS. Kingdom of Siak (Sumatra) Kingdom of Acheen (Sumatra) Kingdom of Bbme6 (Borneo) Kingdom of Sooloo (Sooloo Isles, ? part of Borneo, &c.) I Kingdom of Mindanao (Isle of Mindanao) Kingdom of Havvaii (Sandwich Islands) Square Jtlilee. 26,000 23,000 40,000 11,500 16,000 7,000 Population. 600,000 500,000 400,000 200,000 360,000 130,000 FOREIGN POWERS. Dutch Possessions (Java, Sumatra, ? Borneo, Celebes, Timor, &c.) j Spanish Possessions (Philippines, Mariannes) English Possessions (New Holland, ^ Van Dieman's Land, &c.) Portuguese Possessions (Tunor, &c.] 270,000 9,360,000 ) 52,000 2,640,000 2,000,000 120,000 10,000 137,000 1 ,JJ,!|I III ,: ^ 1 i%e PACIFIC OCEAN. * The Ocean in General. There is, properly speaking, but one great mass of waters, which surrounds the different coiitinents and covers |bout three fourths of the whole surface of the globe. For convenience sake, however, different names have been given by geogi-aphers to differ- ent sections of this great body, and the name of Ocean has been applied to each of these sections. j Thus geographers "distinguish the Atlantic Ocean, which may be Considered as a wide channel lying between Europe and Africa on one |ide, and America on the other ; the Pacific Ocean, lying between the opposite side of the American continent and Asia and Australia ; the Indian Ocean, situated between Australia and Africa; the Antarctic Ocean, lying to the south of these three great divisions, round the south pole, and the Arctic Ocean, surrounding the north pole. The whole area of the globe is nearly 200,000,000 square miles, of which the Ocean occupies about 148,000,000. f Divisions. The following table exhibits a general view of the great masses of water on the surface of the globe. I. I Arctic Ocean, situated between Asia, Europe, and America, and extending fi:om the North Pole to the Arctic Circle; one- of its gulfe, however, stretches to the south of that circle. [I. Atlantic Ocean, situated between Europe and Africa, and America, and ex- tending from the Arctic Circle to a line drawn from the Cape of Good Hope to • Cape Horn. The North Atlantic lies be- tween the Arctic Circle and the tropic of " Cancer ; the Equinoctial Atlantic between the tropics; and the South Atlantic, be- tween the tropic of Capricorn and the latitude of Cape Horn. III. , The Indian Ocean, lying to the south of Asia, and between New Holland and- AAica. . IV. , Pacific Ocean, extending" from the Asctic to the Antarctic Circle, between Asia, Malaysia, and New Holland, and America ; beyond Cape Horn it surrounds the globe. It may be divided;^ like the ' Atlantic, into the Equatorial. Pacific be- tween the tropics, and the North and South Pacific on each 'Bide of those circles. v. Antarctic Ocean, extends from the f Antarctic Circle to the South pole. Seas and Oulfs. 1. White Sea. 2. Sea of Kora. 3. Gulf of Obi. 4. Gulf of Yenissey. 5. Poljar Sea. 6. Baffin's Bay. 7. Hudson's Bay. 1. Baltic Sea. 2. North Sea. 3. Irish Sea. 4. Bay of Biscay. 5. Mediterranean Sea. 6. Adriatic Gulf. 7., Archipelago. 8. Sea of Marmora. 9. Black Sea. 1 0. ■ Gulf of St. Lawrence. 11. Gulf of Mexico. 12. Caribbean Sea. 13. Gulf of Guinea. 1. Red Sea. 2. Persian Gulf 3. Arabian Sea. 4. Bay" of Bengal. 1. Behring's Sea. 2. Sea of Okotsk. 3. Sea of Japan. 4. Yellow Sea. 5. Blue Sea. . 6. Chinese Sea. 7. Sea of Sunda. 8. Sea of the Moluccas. 9. Sea of Celebes. 10. Sea of Mindoro. 11. Gulf of Carpentaria. 12. Coral Sea. 13. Gulf of California. 14. Bay of Panama. PACIFIC OCEAN. : The Pacific Ocean is 11,000 miles in length from east to west, and 8,000 miles in breadth, . covering an area of about 50,000,000 square tallies. From Cape Horn to the sea of Okotsk it is girt with- lofty Jnountains, which in general have only a strip of low coast too narrovv to be indented by large seas ; but from the sea of Okotsk southward the lAsiatic mountains retire farther from the sea, leaving extensive regions felopiiig towards the Pacific. i The Gulf of California, which lies north and south, is the principal indentation on the eastern side ; on the west are the seas of Okotsk and {Japan, the Yellow Sea, and the Chinese Sea. j Rivers. Although the Pacific basin forms rather more than one third iof the whole ocean surface, yet it does not receive more than one eighth of the whole river water of the globe; the Columbia or Oregon, the Hoang-ho,and the Kiang, its principal tributaries, bear no comparison in point, of size with the Amazon, the Mississippi, and the Plata. ■ Islands. On its western side and within the tropics its surface ' is (sprinkled over with innumerable small islands, and coral reefs, rising but a little above the level of the sea, which are constantly increasing in number and extent. They are the work of myriads of small animals, who seem to build upon submarine rocks, till they reach the surface, when accumulations of weed and other drift matter, form a soil, birds transport thither seeds, and the new land thus formed and clothed with vegetation is sometimes raised still Irigher by volcanic action. A further account of the islands of the Pacific Ocean, will be found in the Table ore Oceania. , , j Those not included under that designation . are the, Japanese islands and Saghalien, and the 'Kurile-islands,"on the Asiatic coast ; the large islands of King George, Queen Charlotte, and- Vancouver, on the coast of North America ; the Gallapagos, Juan Fernandez, and Chiloe, on or near the South American coast ; and the Aleutian or Fox islands, stretching across the mouth of Behring's Sea. Climate. On account of the wide expanse of its surface, the Pacific Ocean is remarkably exempt from storms, except near its mountainous shores, and hence its name.. Its small islands, in which the heat of the torrid zone is tempered by the presence of so vast a bodyof water, enjoy perhaps the most delightful climate in the world. .. Winds. Trade-winds or permanent easterly winds, ^prevail in the Pacific to about 30° eacfr side of the equator ; blowing over a greater expanse of sea, they are still more regular than in the Atlantic, and the voyage from Acapulco to the Philippine isles, is made with, great ease and rapidity ; but the same cause makes the return difficult. In some of its branches on the Asiatic coast, the regular • trade wind gives way to the monsoons, which are periodical winds, blowing half the year, from April to October, from the southwest, and the.pther half the year from the northeast. The change of the monsoons, called the break- ing up, is attended with violent storms ; in the Chinese Sea the furious storm of wind which accompanies the breaking up of a monsoon is called a typhon. Currents. A general cun-ent westward carries the waters, in the Pacific Ocean away fi-om the intertropical American coast. It is less perceptible on the west, till it enters the Indian Ocean, when, strengthen- ed by the northerly currents there, it flows along the eastern coast of Africa, and passes round the Cape of Good Hope in a rapid stream, 130 miles broad, and 7° or 8° warmer than the contiguous waters. ' This stream off the Cape is known under the name of the LaguUas current, and a portion of it makes its way round the Cape and Bank of Lagullas, into the South Atlantic, where, according to Rennell, it becomes the prime mover of the great Atlantic currents, described in the table on that ocean. The greater part of the Lagullas current, however, passes back into the Indian Ocean, merging into the great easterly current, which flows from the Atlantic into the Pacific to the southward of the Lagullas cur- rent. A Polar current sets along the west side of New Holland from the South Pole, into the Bay of Bengal, and there are other oceanic currents in this great body of waters, but their course and direction are as yet too imperfectly known, to be accurately described. Progress of Discovert. In 1513, Balboa discovered the' South Sea from the mountains of the isthmus of Darien. In 1521, Magellan sailed across the Pacific Ocean, from east to west. Mendaiia crossed the ocean twice (1568-1595), and discovered Solo- , mon's islands, Santa Cruz or Queen Charlotte's islands, &c. J Quiros, who had sailed with Mendaiia on his last voyage, sets out in search of a southern continent, and discovers the Society islands, Espiritu- ' Santo or New Hebrides, &c. The Dutch next occupied the field ; in 1606 they visited New Holland. Lemaire; sailed from Hoom in Holland, in 1615, and discovering Cape Horn, was the first to pass into the Pacific to the south of Terra del Puego. Tasman discovered the Friendly islands. New Zealand, &c. in 1642. The British Dampier, at the close of the..l7th, and Anson at the be- ginning of the 18th century, enlarged our knowledge of these seas. In 1728, Behring, a Dutch navigator, in the Russian service, discovered the strait which bears his name, and thus established the separation of Asia and America in this quarter. Cook, in 1768-1771, and 1772-1775, discovered many new islands in the southern seas, examined with care the groups and coasts which had previously been visited, and explored the southern ocean in search of a new. continent, and on his third voyage in 1776-78, discovered the Sand- wich islands. Vancouver (1790-95), . Laperouse (1786), Krusenstem, Kotzebue, D'Urville, Freycinfet,'Kihg, Beechey, &c., have since examined diflferent 'parts of the Pacific Ocean. See the TafcJe of Geographical Discoveries. WESTERN HEMISPHERE. Extent and Population. The continent of America extends from 74° N. to 54° S. Lat., and from 35° to 168° W. Lon. Its extreme length is 10,600 miles ; area, including the islands, 15,000,0Q0i square 'milfes;ipQp- ulation about 41,000,000, comprising^, 15,000,^00 whites, 10,000,000 Indians, 8,000,000 negroes, and the ssfne- "number of mixed breeds (mulattoes, mestizoes, zambos, &c.) 0f this population about 14,600,000 speali the English language ; 12,500,000 Sjianish ; 7,600,000 the^dian languages ; 4,600,000 Portuguese ; 1,400,000 FrencJuand'eOOJOOO Damsh, Dutch, and Swedish. .^,f^ Mountains. The name of Andes^rtl?^ be properly applied to the whole system of mountains, w^joJi^inder different names, extends from the Arctic Ocean to the Straits of Magellan, a distanceof 10,000 miles. It is remarkable for its gjieSttlejigth, its'niirieral treasures, and the number and elevation of its vjiiieanoes.* The mountains of America extend from north to south, wM^uie great chains of the eastern hemisphere nm from east to west Tfie^principal elevations are the following : Nevado^de Sflrata, Illinpani, 25,420 ~| 22,550 CJjimborazo, Ant;isana, * 21,435 19,136 !■ South America. /fcotopaxi, * ' ' 18,870 / nUniza, 18,300 Pichincha, * 16,500 .'Agua, 15,500 Central America. Popocatepetl,* 17,8001 Orizava, * 17,500'- IstaccihuatL Long's Peak, - 15,700 14,000 ■ North Alnerica. Mount St. Elias,- ' 17,860 Mount PdirvVeather, 14,?'36j Volcanoes. The Andes forms one of the gi-eat volcanic regions of the globe, containing volcanoes through their whole course from Chili to Rus- ' sian America. About 20 are known between 46° and 27° S. Lat. ; 2 in Peru; '5 in the Et[uator; 6 in New Grenada; 21 in Guatimala; 8 in Mexico, &c. There is also a volcano in South Shetland, several in the W^t Indies, one in Jan Mayen's Island, several in Iceland, &c. Bats and Straits. * Baffin's "Bay is. a large body of water of unknown extent, communicating with the Atlantic Ocean by Davis's Straits, and with the Arctic Ocean by Lancaster-Sound, Barrow's Straits, and Prince - Regent's Inlet. It pfabably separates Greenland from the continent. Hudson's Bay is a large sea penetrating far into the continent, and communicatinlg with the Atlantic Ocean by Ciimberland and Hudson's Straits. ,It is about 1,000 miles in leB'gth by 800 in breadth, 'having a sQrfabe of neaWy 300,000 square miles. The navigation is obstructed liy numerous reefe and sand-banks, and during a great part of the year by ice. The Gulf of St. Lawrence, between Newfoundland and the main- land, is about 200 miles in breadth by 260 in length, and communicates with the ocean by the straits of Belleisle on the north, the Gut of Canso between Cape Breton and Nova Scotia, and a broad channel between the , former and Newfoundland. The Gulf of Mexico extends north and south about 600 miles, and east and west about 700. The entrances are the Cuba Channel on the north, and the Yucatan Channel on the, south of Cuba. The Gulf Stream enters the latter, and, winding round the shores of the gulf, issues thi'ough the former. The ports in Mexico are mere roadsteads, but Pensacola and Havana are fine harbors. !'^he Caribbean Sea, or Sea of the Antilles, is a larger body of water shiSkin by the West India isles, which stretch in a circular form round its ncirthem and eastern shores, affording numerous passages into the ocean. S, The Stmit of Magellan separates the islands of Terra del Fuego from the mainland^ it is upwards of 300 miles long, tortuous, and difficult of navigation, -v , The Strait oNLemaire, between Staten land and Terra del Fuego, is the usual cba^id of conimunication between the Atlantic and Pacific, ^V Climate. The climai[fe,^^ In general, beyond 50° of north and sotKh latitude, America is unfit to produce the European grains ; the elevateoNffigions of the torrid zone, and the plains of the temperate zones prcduce*^ the cereals and fruits of 'Europe ; while the lower'districts of the fornietyield the most pre- cious prodiictions of the vegetable world vrith'an asfenishing profusion. Natives. Two distinct races of men have been l^und in America, the Esquimaux, and the American Indian, properfy>sq c^ed. The former comprises three principal branchesi thls^ Karalits or Greehlanders ; the eastern Esquimaux, who occupy* the' Wirtbeastem •coast of Labrador ; and the Weste'f-n Esquimaux, who roam» over the countries bordering on Mackenzie's and Copper Mine rivters, &f . The Esquimaux are essentially a maritime people, never presiding .at Ja great distance from the sea-coast, and dependent rather upon fishing tnmi the chase. The dog is their only domestic animal, and their mechaniCicLskiU is chiefly confined to the construction of their canoes. '\ The American Indians, comprising all the other native tribes 'k>f America, differ essentially from the Esquimaux, and although 'ex&ibiti^g. great diversities of physical ' character, and moral condition, they a'r^ commonly considered as of a kindred race. According to Balbi more than 438 languages, including upwards of 2,000 dialects, are spoketi by, '10,000,000 Indians of America. Our limits will not even pei-mit us to V enumerate their numberless tribes. i In general we may observe that the Araucanians, and the Quichuasior Peruvians of South America; the Mayas and Quiches of ..Central America ; the Zapotecas, Toltecs and Aztecs of Mexico, ^d the Natchez of the United States, had attained a high degree of civilization when they were discovered by the Europeans. Other nations had attained to some skill in the mechanic arts, ^and had established regular governments, while others living in the open air," without clotbing,'and subsiding by ' fishing, hunting, or on the spontaneous productions of the earth, were little raised above the brutes. Some tribes were fierce, warlike, and savage, slaves of the most degrading superstitiops and brutal customs, while others were friendly, gentle, and peaceable. Minerals. No region of the globe contains sucl^ rich mines of sijyier as the equinoctial parts of America ; the immense quantity afforded by those of Guanaxuato, Catorce, Zacatecas, Pasco, and Potosi, has produced j a revolution in the industry and commerce of the most civilized nations^ of the other hemisphere. The gold mines of Africa, Malaysia, China,' Japan, and the Ural, can alone be compared with those of the American continent. The total value of gold and silver extracted from the American mines during the three centuries afier the discbvery.(1499-18flS) has been estimated at 5,706 million dollars, comprising 3,625,000 marks of gold, and 512,700,000 marks of silver. Atthe beginning of the^9th century the annual produce of the American mines was 75,200 marks of , gold and 3,460,840 of silver ; total value $ 43,500,000, as appears^y the following table : ■ f Re^ons, Gold. Marks. Silver. Marha. Faille in Dotlw). Mexico, 7,000 Peru, 3,400 Chili, 12,212 Buenos Ayres, 2,200 New Grenada, 20,.505 Brazil, 29,900 2,338,220 611,090 29,700 481,830 ^,000,000 . / 6,240,000 2,060,000 4,850,000 '^ 2,990,000 4,360,000 75,217 43,500,000 But the unsettled state of the cfl(!ntry, and the emigration of the Spanish and Portuguese havejsiymuch diminished the produce since that time, and the mean^rrtial produce from 1824 to 1830 has been estimated not to ^geed'^,870 marks of gold, and 838,857 of silver. Brazil istb^only f^ion, except India, Boi'neo, and the Ural Mountains, i,jUih4elr"fffimishes, diamonds. AH the useful metals and minerals, lime, salt, coal, iron, lead, copper, &c., are also produced. See J^lorth and Soidh America. ^R ^^^m ^^Icl^^^ M. , ^a*»s®! ss«.3ipsgg^ m EASTERN HEMISPHERE. Extent and Population. The eastern hemisphere, containing the three great divisions of Europe, Asia, and Africa, with Australia; presents the largest mass of land on the face of the globe. Exclusive of the. islands it extends from 78° N. Lat. to 35° S. Lat., and from 17° W. Ldn. to 190° E. Lon., and has an area of about 31i000,000 square miles, with a population of 680,000,000. Including those parts of Oceania, which may be considered as belonging to the eastprn hemisphere, the land area may be estimated at about 34,500,000 square miles, and the populatj nearly 700,000,000, viz.: .,^— ~^ DivisUms. Asia, Africa, EuKOPE, Islands (Mala}r^i(E; Australia, &c.), y ,y j^^'-'Sg. Miles. ,^'16,150,000 11,350,000 3,724,000 I 3,500,000 ^ PopiUatioJi. 390,000,000 60,000,000 230,000,000 19,500,000 third, and a part even of that third is poor ; while of the 13,900,000 square' miles composing the American continent, 10,000,000 consist of useful soil. A great part of the American soil being in warm regions, _where if enjoys the, combined advantages of heat and moisture, is also much more prod ucfiye than the useful soil of the Old World. Vegetation. Th^" number of vegetable species at present known is, according to Humboldt, about 44,000, of which 6,000 ai-e cryptogamous, and 38.00 phanerogamous; according to the same philosopher, who has paicTTjiarticuJar attention to the geography of plants, the latter are dis- tributed as follows : ' Mountains. J The general direction of thejand in the eastern and western contiilents is entirely different; in thejatter if is from "'north toj south, but in'the former'from east to" west. The longest straight ^ine thatf can be drawn on the eastern continent is from, Cape Vefd^to BehringVy strait, 11,000 miles ; the longest linej drawn over the new coiitinerit ryus, from, the strait of Magellan to the Arctic Ocfean, 9,000, miles. The di- rection of the mountain chains, corresponds with the general dii-ection of the land ; those of-- America extending' north and .^outh, and those of the Old World , east and west. This is true of the Alps of Europe, the Himalaya, Cauc^sian,'"and other.chajns of Asia, and Seems 'tO" be the : case with those of .Cenh-al Africa. This remarkable parallelism of 4he great mountainous chains of the globe,'has led recent geologists to some important conclusions as to their, relative ages. The highest summits of .the eastern continent are as follows: • • - In Asia,^^ In Europe, > In Africa, , In Oceania; In America, 6,500 7,000 3,000 5,000 17,000 l&hamoulari (Bootan), ' Dhawalagiri (Himalaya), Elburz (Caucasus), 'Ararat, '"."_':• I, ,Mont Blanc, .Geesh (Abyssinia), Mount Rosa (Alps), ■ '; Maladetta (Pyrenees), ^tna,* ■ ••■. ■■ ■ ' V Ruska-Poyana (Carpathian^, ■ Kvar Kutch (Ural)* '" T " 28,200. 28,100 17,000 17,000 15,732 ■ 15,000 15,152 11,424 10,871 9,912 5,370 Great Plain. Commencing from the western shores of the- North Sea, the whole of the eastern continent to the north of the great moun- .tain girdle, exte'nds in one vast plain, unbroken by a single chain of mountains except the Urals, to the North Pacific Ocean. This plain, the largest on the ' globe, including generally the whole space between the 50& and 70th 'parallels; has; an average breadth of 1,400 miles, and a length of about 6,000, and comprehends an area of 6,500(000' square , miles, or nearly, one third of Europe and Asia. It embraces the northern 'part of France, Netherlands, Belgiiim', Northern Germany, Dentilark, Prussia, andithe Russias, and' consists in many places of extensive heaths, sandy deserts, and marshy tracts. There are within its limits large for- ests, but the surface is, for the greater .part, little wooded, presenting ex- , tensive open pastures, which are denominated steppes. ">: Seas. The'whole coast of the eastern continent, if we except Africa, is much broken by seas .>nd bays, while the western continent has no considerable opening on its western coast except the gulf of California^ Th\largest inland seas of thfi-Old World are on the western coast ; those of the Nev^ World are on'the eastern. The Indian ocean extends from 40° S.* Lat., or from a line, drawn from the Cape of Good Hope to Van Diemari'a Laiid, to 25° N. Lat., having a length of 4,500 miles, and an area of 17;000,000 square miles. Sandy Desert. A remarkable feature of the eastern continent is the great sandy zo'np, extending nearly across it in the direction of its greatest length, jncluding^Nortliern Africa, Arabia, Persia, Bucharia, Thibet, and part of Chinese Ta^twy, and enclosing an area of above 6,000,000 square miles. This tract cotoins indeed many mountains and some fertile valleys, but is charactCT^jd by vast desert plains of moving sand, by burning and pestilential wiflels. and an ^extraordinary absence of water. In this respect the American continent is-strongly contrasted with the eastern ; for though it contains some' sterile-tracts;-they are comparatively small, and well watered, and do not ther8fbre exercise a malignant in- fluence upon the neighboring regions. '^•^ Soil. It has been estimated that of 31,000,000 of sqtiare miles-vdiicll. compose the eastern continent, the productive soil constitutes hardly one * Volcano. .-It is also observable thafin'the.Old World large tracts are often wholly occupied by a single species of socialiplants, to the exclusion of all others, -but that a givea space in'the New World contains a gi-eater diversity of vegetable form's, ,, ,'',,,,:' \ Animals, Most pfnthe ahin\alsof the eastern continent 'sire peculiar to it, but several species, are common, to the northern 'parts'of the two continents, w.hich'annually have a commiinication with each <§ther by • ice. The.largest^nd strongest of animals seem to be peculiar, to the eastern, contiiient, or common to-;it vvith.the western ; as the elephant, the rhinoceros, the hippopotamus^ the.lion, the tiger, the polar bear, &c. 1 Yet the .jaguar of South. America, andjthe grisly bear orNorth America are excepitions; The nprthem temperate zone of the eastern continent is inhabtteil from the Atlantic to the Pacific by the same tribes, but the inr tertropical'parts^of Asia and Africaj have each a distinct animal kingdom,, while the sojithern part of , Africa is distinguished by peculiar races. , Volcanic Regions. There are certain vast regions over the whole of. .wliich, active vblcapia vents are distributed at intervals, and most commonly, arranged in a linear direction. Throughout the intermediate spaces, therotis abundant evidence that the subterranean fire is continu- ously at W4>rk ; for the ground is convulsed from' time to time by earth- quakes, the 'soil disengages gaseous^vapors, apd springs of a.^ high temperaturiB, and impregnated with the same m^ttpr, as that discharged by the eruptions of the volcanoes, frequently occur. .. .■ .. 1. The volcjinie region from the Aleutian Isles to the Moluccas, extends in a continuous line, first in an easterly direction for about IJOOO miles, and thep southwards, through a space of between 60° and -70° of latitude to the Moluccas, when it branches off in differept, directions, -to , the east and northwest. It.1:hus extends through-the Aleutian islands, Kam- tschatka, the Kurile, Japanese, and Philippine Isles, and is prolonged, through the northeastern extremity of.Celebes by Temate and Tidore to the Moluccas. Here a great transverse line runs from east to vvest ; on the west passing through,- the whole of Java, which contains 38 large volcanic mountains, and Sumatra ; on the east, stretching through Borneo, Celebes, Banda^ New Guinea, New Britain, and spreading out over a great part of Polynesia. - The whole of the equatorial Pacific is one vast theatre pjf volcanic action, and many of its archipelagos are composed of volcanic rocks, with active vents here, and there interposed 2. The other great volcanic region of the eastern hemisphere extends from the central regions of Asia on the east of the Caspian to the Azores, a distance of about 4,000 miles, firid.reaching from the 35th to the 45th de- gree of latitude. Its northern'boundaries are the Caucasus, the Carpathian and Alpine systems, the, CeYennSs,and the Pyrenees ; its southern limits comprisepart of the Arabian desert, and of Northern Africa. Through- out lie whole of this vast area, we may trace numerous points.of volcanic eruptions, hot springs, gaseous emanations, &c., and»fewtractstof any considei^able extent have been entirely exempt from earthquakes during the last 3,000 years. ' ^' 3. Beside these great continuous spaces of volcanoes, theye are in this hemisphere several discoimected volcanic groups, of wfiich the geo- graphical extent is yet very imperfectly known/' Thus the island of Bourbon belongs to a volcanic region of wlpch Bfedagascar probably forms a part ; near the entrance of the Arabian gdff is the volcano of Gabel Tor, and in the province of Cutch, and the adjoining districts of Hindostan, violent earthquakes, &c., are freoMtent. The whole number of volcanic vents jn'me world has been estimated at 518, many of which only eiiiit smoke^and many are quiescent. They are distributed as follows^ Europe,- Asia, Africa, America, Oceania, 14 100 31? 202 171 NORTHERN AND SOUTHERN HEMISPHERES. Polar Regions. The unequal distribution of land and water in the northern and southern hemispheres is remai-kable. While the whojgjof- Eui'ope and Asia, the bulk of Africa, the whole of North America, and part of South America, lie to the north of the equator, Aijstralia, a small part of Africa, and part of South America are the only extensive traotp on the south of it. This inequality is still more striking in the parts adja- cent to the poles. The eastern continent advanq^S with a biioad front to 78°, and the western to 74° N. Lat., if not much .-further. But no part of the eastern and only a comparatively narrow strip of the western continent projects beyond 45° S. Lat., and, beyond -55° there is little else but a wilderness of waters. Spitzbergfen extends beyond ,80°,. and Greenland may reach the pole. "^ ' • The following table shows the relative distribution of land and water in the different zones, as nearly as- cgdi be estimated with our present means of information : of 1,00(1 square miles, there are, / Land. Sea."^ In the Arctic zone, | ' 400 600 Northern Temperate, 559.^ 441 « Torrid, - 197 803 Southern « f 312 688 • " Temperate, ' 75 925 Antarctic, ;^' I 15? 985? ANTARCTIC REGIONS. ;-'•, % ' ~ Until the middle of the last century, geographers and naturalists, reasoning from this unequal distribCltion of land'in the two hemispheres, maintained the existence of a contitlfent round the south polofj^o which they gave the name of Southern- Continent, AiStralia or Magellanica, and which they conceived necessary, to counterbalance the mass of Arctic land. The voyages of Co6k and succeeding navigators, first dispelled this illusion, and subsequent explorers have found nothing but detached islands in this great world of waters. There is still a zone of about 500,000 square leagues in extent, Vhich has never been -visited by man. •, • ^ The Magellanic Archipelago, or the islands of Terra delFuego, (about 55°) are the most southerly part of the globe inhabited by man ; the highest southern latitude reached by navigators is Lat, 74° 15' (by, Wed- d«l, in 1833), and the little isles of Peter and Alexander, about Lat. 70°, discovered by Bellinghausen in 1821, are the Ultima Tbule of the Ant- arctic seas. Other islands known here are New South Shetland (61° — 63° Lat,), discovered by Williams in 1819 ; South Georgia, inaccessible on account of ice for a great part of the year (54° 30' Lat.), discovered in 1675 ; Southern Orkneys, 50° W. Lon., 60° 45' S. Lat., discovered by Weddel in 1822, &c. These bleak regions are visited only by whalers and seal ships. Still more recent discoveries have made us acquainted with large tracts of land, the limits and extent of which are a^ y^t unknown ; Enderby's Land, discovered by Captain Biscoe in 1831, is in Lat. 67° S., Lon. 50° E., and Graham's Land is in about the same Lat, in the meridian of 60° —70° W. ARCTIC REGIONS. In the Arctic Ocean which is less (obstructed by ice, navigators have penetrated to 84° 30' N. Lat., and a Russian hunting station has been established on Spitzbergen, in Lat. 80°, which is the most northerly inhabited spot of the known world. ^ ■ Nova Zembla, discovered by Willoughby in 1553 ; Spitzbergen, dis- covered by the Dutch in 1596 ; GB-eenknd; probiably an island ; Iceland ; the North Georgian islands, lying on the north of Barrow's Straits, and numerous islands on the south on the .same strait, are the principal mass- es of land in these regions. Climate. These dreary regions', where no tree casts a shade, and of which mosses and some stunted ghrubs are the only vegeiation, are the abode of winter, the seat of fogs, frosts, and storms. It begins to snow as early as August, and duriidg Jhe month of September the whole groimd is covered, to the depqi of several feet ; from this time till toward June, every thing is bodnd'in fetters of ice. In May the snow begins to dissolve, and the ice breaks up, but the air is now darkened by dense fogs, until for a few weeks in July and August, the sun shines out with great povver. \ The sun does not appear above the'=liorizon for about four months, although even in the depth of winter thejight of day does not entirely abandon the miserable tenants of these regfons, and the fitful but bril- liant illumination of the Aurora Borealis (NWthern Morning), relieves the horrors of the scene. ^ The only animals which can resist the cold, and .procure subsistence in thjg.clmate. are the rein-deer, which advances as far north as 80°, but fni^rates to" the s'ontlijn October, the great white or polar bear, some species of wolves, and ibxes, &c. The seas are crowded with water- birds, during the warm months,Sand the whale, the seal, and the moose or walrus, attract fishermen in pursuit of thek fat, fur, or tusks. The right whale or Greenland whale (mystioetus), is chiefly pursued in the Arctic, and the cachalot or spermaceti vvh«|e, in the Antarctic seas. DANISH POSSESSIONS. GnEEjytAND. Greenland is now known not to be, connected with Asia, and it is-. highly probable that it i^alsp separated from the American continent. The eastern coast is little known to Europeans, but the western has been often visited, and the.' Danes to whom it belongs, have formed 21 settlements there, between 60°-:.and 70° N. Lat. Much interest has been excited by recent attempts to discover traces of an old Scandinavian colony supposed to have been established in the 10th century upon the eastern shores; but these atterapls have proved tllat the ScahdinavisSB settlements of that period were all pn the western side of Greenland. ; ' ' The natives are few ; they belong to the" Esquimaux race, and are called by the Scandinavians, Skrellings'. Iceland. -This island lies on the verge of the Arctic 2 me ; it has an area of about 40,000 square miles, and contains about 50,0 )0 inhabitants. It was settled by tlie. Scandinavians in the 9th and lOthlcenturies, and from the 11th to the 14th century, was the gtilden age of Icelandic liter- ature. It belongs to Denmark. It contains several volclnic mountains, of which Heefe. is the most active ; boiling springs issue from the ground in many places, among which the Geysers near mounf Hecla, are the most noted. - Progress or Disgovert. The eWiest navigators in the Arctic Regions were the Northmen or Norwegians, who /isited Iceland and Greenland, and perhaps also the American continem, in the 9th century. The Italian ^enq aptpears to have visited Greaflknd in the beginning of the 15th century. '• ' / In 1553, the English- first made an attempt to discover a northeast passage,' or to .reach China by passing to the^orth of Europe and Asia. W'illoughby and , Chancelor were despajffied on this expedition ; the former reached Nova Zembla, but witjpall his crew was frozen to death. Chanceloi- entered the White ,Sea,,«(nd thus opened a communication withi Russia. In 1594,' a Dutch exggditfon reached the gulf of Obi. Subsequent attempts made by the Elrfgli^ were wholly unsuccessfiil ; in 1778 Cook reached Icy Cape from the.p^oific, and in 1820 the Russians examined the northern coast of Asia, andNhus proved its separation from the American continent. x^ ilt was afterward suggested that a neato- way into the Pacific might be found by sailing directly over the pole, aiad in 1607, Hudson was sent out to make the attempt'; he reached the Dat. of 81°, but put back on account of tlie ice. ' \ In 1773, this experiment was renewed, by ah. expedition under the command of Captain Phipps, who^idvanced aboufas far as Hudson, and in 1818, a new attempt, with no better results," was njade by Buchan. In 1827, Parry was sent out to reach^the pole in bokts and sledges over the ice ; he reached about 82" 40', and was obligea to return by the southerly motion of the large fields of ice, :.^ \ A third project, that of a northwest passage, has also been entei-tained. This was eai-ly an object of attention before- it was knovm how far north the American Continent extended. Cortergal, a Portuguese, seenjs to have, reached the entrancejo Hudson's^ Bay in 1500, and!, soon after the English began to engage in this project.^ 1 ^robisher made three voyages (1576, 1577, 1578), to the| coast near the entrance of the same bay, and in 1585, 6, and 7, Davis penetrated farther north than hip predecessora. ^ - , In, 1610 Hudson discovered the sea which-bears his name, and in 1616 Baffin advanced into the great expanse since, called Baffin's Bay. In 1818 the English renewed the attempt to discover a northwest passage, by sending Captain, Ross, who parsed up Lancaster Sound. In 1819 Parry reached 110° W. Lo.h.,"-and in 1821-p examined the coast to the north of Hudson's Bay. In 1824 he entered Prince Regent's Inlet.; ., I ',- ./. In 1826 Captain Franklin was sent overland to egplore the northern coast of America, to ,the west off Mackenzie's Riverjimd at the same time Captain Beechey was' despatched to meet him in ipfehring's straits. The two expeditionsappr(jached each other towitfaiaa distance of 146 miles, but returned without meeting. / In 1839^-33, Captain, Ross sailed up Prino/Regent's- Inlet,, and deter- mined that there is no communication between the Ar«tic Oceaa and the Atlantic, south of Barrow's Straits. < MODES OF BUILDING. 1 . Each people has its peculiar ruISS, proportions, and taste in the construction of its houses or publie edifices ; different stages of civilization, diversity of climate, the geological character of the soil, the surface of the country, the social usages, the Religious notions, and other circumstances operate to pro- duce this effect. What a distance in, point of art from the rude moral of the Pacific islander to the simple grandeur of the Grecian temple or the gorgeous elegance of tfee Gothic cathedral. The inhabitant of the alluvial plains of f« MesopotailBa, virhfere no.rocks occur, constructed the palace of his sovereign or the temple of hi|lgod of clay dried in the sun, while the Egyptian, surrounded by sandji plains and rocky hills, quarried the indestructible granit^&p^e tombs of his kii^gstand his brute deities. In the wide ^teppes and d|^HEf Asia, movable houses become iiiecessary, for the pastoraj»hOTdes are coflfSld to change their residence in search of pasture for their cattle ; on the de- "^"'^~ ^iitttft f'jl^^^ii*-'''*'™^— *-^"^ freqiipnp.y of eutliquakesiieqiiiidli* lew great solidity, the lofty minarets and tapering spires of the Orientals could never have come into use ; the seclusion to which females were con- demned in ancient Greece, as in many eastern countries of the present day, gave a peculiar character to the domestic architecture of the Greeks, and it is probaljiljr to the transportation of civilization to the north of the Alps, that we oi^§Ey|^]u2Uj-y of chimneys and windows, unknown to the milder climates ^Gr^eaejand Italy, the seats of ancient civilization. \iPVfei^^ says Malte-Brun (Precis de la Geographic), " divide the hu- r^n raOT. i3fa).four classes in respect of their four sorts of dwellings, which 'f a^ .1. Caves in the rooks and under ground ; 2. Mud huts, cabins made of I Manches of trees, hovels of stone or other raw material ; 3. Tents, these move- ^le dwellings are, in the eyes of wandering tribes, preferable to our most iptuous palaces ; 4. Houses, which are in fact, but improved cabins, for the -r-, J' superb colonnade is only an imitation of the rude beams that supported 4B||ltravi;-thatched shed of the Savage." lOfejoo Architecture. If we confine our view chiefly to the public id^ees, i,Hi|ndostan presents the most remarkabKT structures among the AsllMilo GS^jtetajjaSI*?,.'^^®^*;^"'^ most.astonis^ng of4hese monuments fie" tHfe'tfiktcave-tempTes, whose colossal dimensions and magnificent sculptures have excited the wonder and admiration of European travellers. According toHeeren there are two classes of cave-temples ; the one, comprising the most ancient, are subterranean excavations cut into the interior of mountains, and the' other consist of lofty rocks above ground or whole hillsj hewn into col- umns, temples,, images, dwellings of the priests, tanks, &c. ; forming in fact an excavated city. Of the first sort are the excavatioaSjOf Elephanta, Salsette, Carli, &c.; of the second are those of EUqra, IW^aSMipoor near Madras, &c. The origin of these singular structures is lost in ^e obscurity of ante-historic ages. The pagodas ,^^ pyramidal temples of a later era wjiich are numerous in Southern Indian many of these edifices are remarkable for their dimensions, and their cos^. ornaments; such are those of Juggernaut, Tanjore, Ramisse- ram, Seringharf &c.; they consist of a series of enclosures, sometimes sev- eral miles in'^cuit, embracing numerous towers, and buildings of various kinds, with, colossal statues and images, and sculptured ornaments of different descriptions 'f^^i^S^^Mm^ieZ't^S^^^- ^■''^^ '^ tian architecture is characterised by its indestructible solidity, the large masses in which it delighted, and the vast size of the blacks employed. The pyramids are .probably the oldest monuments of Egypt, and they rank among the state- liest strnctures of human art. It is now settled that they are the tombs of the Egyptian kings. The largest is near Memphis; .its base is 770 feet square, and its height is 460 feet. Those which have been opened have been found to contain numerous galleries and chambers, in the principal of which has been found a sarcophagus, in which the mummy was deposited. The Egyptian temple consisted of a cell or square building, which formed the sanctuary containing.. the sacred animal, surrounded by Qourts, porticoes, and. long avenues of ob^isks, columns, and colossal imagesi * The Egyptian column is remarkably heavy, but the proportions differ, aud;like all other por^ tions of the building is covered with sculptures and inscriptions ; it has no base, but the capital is often finished with a wonderful ele^noe and jninuteness. A short description of one of the great tewiples of Thebes will serve to give a.notion of an Egyptian temple. An avenue upwards of a mile in length, bordered on each side by 600 colossal sphinxes and 58 equally colossal rams, leads to the triunmhaFarch, which forms the entrance into the enclosure coq- , g^Jeeping c ham bers, <&C| taining the teiBpW^ At the distance of 150 feet from the arch, stajids the prin- " "^~ '" cipal gateway of the temple, which is approached through another avenue of gigantic images, and which leads into an open court, surrounded by a double row of columns. To the court succeeds a halL 80 feet by 50, also adorned with columns, from which three doors lead into numerous other '^^artments con- nected\with the tempte. All the walls and columng are.c^ivetea^with a.profu- sion of ^Iginted sculptures. '" ■ ,j. ':-';' The cfeelisk is of Egyptian origin, but was sonieljlne^ injitated by the Greeks aid Romans, ailer thejr became masters of^E^^pt; The Egyptian obelisk islgenerally of red granite, and consists of j a ^iugle stone, of four aides, slightly tapering from the base towards the topjiiad^ placed upon a square pS%staI, father wider than the base of the obelisk ; sorn^ of these blocks are r— 3 on *, jQQ fggj jjj length, and weigh from 200 to 250 tons. The obelisks ;ed to commemorate some important event, and wfere covered with 'c inscriptions containing the name and: deeds oflthe princes by were raised. &c. * . ^ froaS 80 wereVrei hierof^p whom UK G^cu: monuments of Grecian architecture, and although they did not equal those of Egypt in dimensions, yet they have never been surpassed in elegant simplicity ofdesign and exquisite beauty of execution. The Grecian temple consists of an oblong square cell, with a row of columns at each end, or completely surround- ing it ; the row of columns at each end was always composed of an even num- J^, 4, 6, 8, or 10, and those of the sides of an uneven number, so that for 4 cmimns on the fronts there were 9 on the sides, for 6 on the fronts 13 on the sloes and so on. The cell was often surrounded by an enclosure which was > situated within a still more extensive court, lined with long colonnades. In some of the more splendid temples the columns round the cell were two and even three deep. The smaller temples were occasionally in a circular form, sometimes consisting merely of a circular colonnade, and sometimes of a cir- cular cell gnrrnmtirioS hynnfamwa ., J2be 1^ ""'"■^'jHfllf ™'"' ^ "Opy, with SOme ;, ModifioairtOTisf of th^*St<^Sm!^^^BBa''' ~ -^JKaimt't .*«- ' The five orders of classical architecture are distinguished by the different ornaments and proportions of the columns and their appurtenances. Three of them, the Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian are of Greek origin, and the other two, the Tuscan and the Composite or Roman, of Italic. The Uoric is simple and mas- sive in its charapter, having a plain capital and no base, and being only Irom four to six inferior diameters in height ; the frieze is characterised by the tri- glyphs. The Ionic order has more ornament than Ibe Doric, but retains the character of severe beauty ; the column is lighter, being from 8 to 9 and some- times even 10 diameters in height ; it has a base and its capital is characterised by the volute ; the frieze is unbi;oken. The Corinthian is the most elegant of the Grecian orders ; the shaft is of a.bout the same dimensions as the lighter Ionic specimens, but the. capital is more lofty, and more highly deco- ' rated ; itis distinguished by the acanthus leaves — The Tuscan order somewhat resembled the Doric, but vvanted the triglyphs ; there are no specimens of this order extant. The Composite order of the Ro- mans, was merely a slight modificatioi^f the Coiinthklk from which it dif- fered>lilf in the addiapn.,^^e laBMMMWte&tefe "' gi ii toiflfc f ihe.t^eau^Di 11 TJfi ''iiiiiiiiiriii «itiiiiiiiiihioliiiminmviil- '1- 1 ii people dramatic spectacles were in high, favor, and were conducted with great pomp and magnificence. The theatre was a semi-circular building,, with the stage at the base of the semicircle, and the seats in front, rising in successive steps ; the side of a hill was often chosen for the erection of a theatre, the natural rise of the ground facilitating the construction. Among the Greeks, females were not allowed to show themselves in public, and were kept secluded at home. A Grecian house was therefore constructed so as to form two distinct apartments. The Andronitis or man's apartment was on the street, and comprised the picture gallery, library, dining-rooma, and other halls used when the master entertained his friends. To these the women were not admitted. The Gynecium or woman's apartment was back of the man's apartment, and comprised the thalamus or sleeping chamber the master and mistress of the house, the drawing room in which the latter received her female friends, of the dining-room where the husband dined with his wife and children, when he had no company to entertain, the hall where the mistress of the house superintendeit the tasks of her slaves, the chambers of the children and servants, &c. The house was generally lighted from above. > £0M4,if A^MsQ^CTDRE. Although the Romans v^^^^noat. respects '^reWMaPW the"'-@ree^'1«*trete'WSl H 'j' y 6l' *W the circus, and the triumphal arch are of Roman origin. The amphitheatre was in fact a double theatre, in the centre of which, called the arena, gladiato- rial fights and combats of wild beasts were exhibited for the amusement of the spectators, who were seated on the circular rows of seats, rising succes- sively, as in the theatre ; some of these buildings were of vast dimensions, accommodating from 50,000 to 80,000 persons. - The coliseum in Rome is a remarkable example. The circus, used for races, boxing and wrestling matches, gladitorial game0,' mock-fights, &p., was an oblong building, the end of which, opposite the entrance, terminated iri a s^micir^e; seats were disposed round a central enclosure, called the area, whiph, was divided in the direction of its length by a wall called' the spine^ The circuses were even of more vast dimensions than the amphitheatres, hut like the latten they were often built of wood, and destitute of roofs. The Roman women not being condemned to the seclusion, to which the Greek women were obliged to submit, a different disposition, of the house was a necessary consequence. Upon entering-,' the visiter first passed into the atrium or great hall, on both sides of whtcn were arranged numemus rooms,. - - -». hers, &C||f ^ere w^Jte Dt.t jie anbes ti;jil^M^esmlthe|family,. the memorials oF me honors enjoyed ana the deeds achieved by, the master of the house, and here the mistress wrought at spinning and weaving; sur- rounded by her maid servants. The Roman houses were built to the height of several stories, and laws were necessary to limit them in this respect. They had h^j^Bt chimnbys nor glass- windows. The villa or country seat of a rich were raised, &c. Akchitectube. The ten ',;. • ' ISKSt:.'-, '''1 Jea were generally the moat beautiful Romanrwas the ,f)Ccasion of the greatest display of wealth and luxury; mosaics, statu^^n^ainting, precious vases, and a profusion of other costly ornaments were l^isbed upon it with unsparing, prodig'ality. Gothic Ar^Kcture. The Gothic hj^become in a great measure the .ecclesiastical arcn|ecture of modern Europe ; i it . is strongly distinguished from the classiCjS^les, by its bold, richly decorated, and pointed arches, its slender but clustered columns, its lofty spjies, its ya^lted loofs, &0. The minsters or cst-^w-ls of Europe are richtoecimens of Gothic . architecture ; they are com^wily in the form of th^ii^ss, the longer bar, containing the choir and, navej'lyMg east and wesUand the shorlpr or transverse bar, called the tranlfept, lyindporth and south JTOver tjie, point of interaection of the two arms, and ofl^n also in other parts, rise towers or ^teeples. v . t. L2}W33.MSf©s ®iF DEi'ifsisasra ©©'iiisri'mingc ;^ "lENT OF THE _ir;VNnAS rKroi.\s's SNOW snrT or thu esouul^ux KVTAGONIANS. ABJiB TEKT.jVFHICA. inriiOOYAUiCE.. HIiSDOO H0T7SE , CHINE SK HOUSES. JAF.\S£5E HutrSJ.S TARTAR TENT a. KAMTSCBATKA HODSf-S JAVASESE HOTTSL XFW ZKAL-ysDHOirsy, v«/\ l5o WW.«MM>W tcmalm TABLES SHOWING THE DIMENSIONS OF SOME OF THE MOST REMARKABLE STRUCTURES ON THE GLOBE. HIGHEST BUILDINGS IN EUROPE. BvOdings. , pcd. Cross of St. Peter's (Rome) 540 Antwerp Cathedral 470 Strasburg Minster 465 Vienna Cathedral 45O Steepleof St. Martin's (Landshut) . . . 445 Steeple ofSt. Michael's (Hamburg) . . . 420 Salisbury Cathedral 410 Spire of Metz Cathedral ..... 400 Steeple of St. Peter's 395 Cathedral of Chartres 385 Freyburg Cathedral 380 Cross of St. Paul's (London) 360 Giralda or Tower of Seville 350 Cathedi-al at Ulm 356 Cathedral at Milan 355 Pantheon (Paris) ., 355 St. Peter's and Paul's (Petersburg) . . . 350 Tower Degli Asinelli (Bologna) . . . 350- Dome of the Invalides (Paris) .... 342 Magdeburg Cathedral 330 Norwich Cathedral 315 Lincoln Cathedral 300 Cathedral of the Annunciation (Moscow) . . 275 Cathedral of Bale ' 266 York Minster 230 Campanile Torto or Leaning Tower of Pisa . 210 Monument, London 202 . Column of the Place Vendome (Paris) . . . 140 Trajans Pillar, (Rome) 140 Antonine Column " 140 HEIGHT OF SOME OF THE PRINCIPAL EDIFICES OF ASIA, AFRICA, &o. BvMdifigs, Pyramid of Cheops (Gizeh) Pyramid of Cephrenes " . Temple of Shoodagon (Rangoon) Temple of Shoomadoo (Pegu) Temple of the Dalai Lama near Lassa Cuttub Minar or Mausoleum of Cuttub (Delhi) Pagoda of Trinomaly .... Bunker Hill Monument Mosque of Kububia (Morocco) Teocalli or House of the Sun (Otumba) House of the Moon " Pagoda of Tanjore Minaret of Jeypore Temple of Budda (Bangkok) Porcelain Tower (Nankin) . Teocalli of Cholula . of Tenochtitlan Column of Chamkhor (Georgia, Asia) Washington Monument, Baltimore Pompey's Pillar, Alexandria Feet. 460 440 338 330 : 320 242 222 220 220 220 190 290 200 200 200 180 180 180 165 120 DIMENSIONS OF SOME REMARKABLE MONOLITHS. Several Egyptian obelisks 100 feet high ; base 9 to 10 feet square. Obelisk at Thebes 82 feet high ; base 8 feet square ; estimated to weigh 250 tons. , Obelisk in the Piazza of St. Peter's, Rome ; 84 feet high.* * This was transported to Rome by Caligula, and was set up in its present place in 1586 by pope Sixtus V, under the direction of Fontana, at an expense of nearly $50,000 ; 46 cranesj 600 men, and 140 horses were employed in the operation, and so much interest was excited by the undertaking, that it was ordered that no person should speak during the elevation of theobelisk under pain of death ; one of the spectators, observing the ropes about to give away from the great friction, violated the order by crying out " wet the ropes," and was rewarded by the pope. Shaft of Pompey's Pillar— 90 feet long; 9 in diameter. Shafts of the columns of the Temple of Olympian Jupiter, Athens ; 60 feet long ; 6i feet diameter. Columns of the Palace of Thebes (Egypt), 75 feet high ; II4 in diam- eter. One of the blocks of the ancient building called the treasury of Atreus or the tomb of Agamemnon, among the ruins of Mycenae, is 27 feet long, 17 broad, and 44 feet thick. Blocks of the Druidical structure at Stonehenge 30 feet long, by 7 to 8 broad, and 8 thick. Columns of the St. Isaac's church! (Petersburg), 56 feet high ; diameter 5 feet 10 inches. There was anciently a monolithic chapel at Sais in Egypt, which was 30 feet long, by 20 wide, and 12 high ; it was transported from Ele- phantine, a distance of 650 miles^by Amasis, king of Egypt, employing 2,000 men 3 years in the task. '- The granite block on which the equestrian statue of Peter the Great stands is 50 long, 20 broad, and as many high, and weighs 150Q tons. It is remarkable that the largest masses appear to have been moved by nations who flourished at a very early period ; such are the enormous blocks of many of the ancient Egyptian buildings ; those of the con- structions found in Greece and Italy, known under the name of Cyclo- pian walls, and which are of uncertain origin ; the old Celtic monuments such as those at Stonehenge in England, and Carnac in France, also of a remote antiquity, &c. The Ancient Aztecs and Toltecs of Mexico, and the Peruvian also made use of blocks of stone of great size. REMARKABLE COLOSSAL STATUES. Colossal statue of Apollo at Rhodes said to be upwards of 3 00 feet high ; it was of bronze, and was thrown down by an earthquake. Chryselephantine or Gold and Ivory statue of the Olvmpian Juniter (sitting), 60 feet high. ^ Chryselephantine statue of Minerva at Athens, 40 feet. Bronze Statue of San Carlo Borromeo, at Arona (Sardinia), 66 feet, with a pedestal 46 feet in height. Sphinx near the pyramid of Cephrenes 143 feet long; it is now nearly buried in sand, but the head and neck have been uncovered and are found to be 30 feet high. Statue of Memnon at Thebes (seated) 65 feet high. There are many statues and images of Egypt and India of dimensions little inferior to the works already mentioned. Equestrian Statue of Peter the Great (St. Petersburg) of bronze, 11 feet high, the horse being 17 feet; weight 36,640 lbs. Equestrian, Statue- of George III, at Windsor, of bronze, 26 feet high. Equestrian Statue of Louis XIV in Paris, of bronze, destroyed in 1792 was 22 feet high, weighing 56,000 lbs. ' DIMENSIONS OF AQUEDUCTS, PIERS, &o. Plymouth Breakwater, 5,000 feet' in length; 2,000,000 tons of stone' deposited ; cost $ 5,000,000. ' Cherburg Breakwater (unfinished), 12,000 feet long, 250 thick at base 90 at top ; 9,000,000 tons of stone deposited, but the work is abandoned Delaware Breakwater, 3,600 feet in length with an Ice-breaker 1.500 feet long ; 105 feet thick at base, 22 at top, 40 feet hfgh ; nearly 2,000 000 tons of stone. Estimated cost $1,250,000. .^ ' Great WalLbf China, 1500 miles in length, 25 feet high, 14 thick. Great Road of the Incas from' Cuzco to Quito, 1,200 miles long. Cloaca Maxima at Rome, built of enormous blocks, without cement in three concentric rows, and has stood more than 2,000 years; 12 feet high, and as many wide on the inside. Aqueduct near Nimes, called the Pont du Gard, consisting of three rows of arches one above another, the first tier containing 6, the second 11 the third 35 arches ; whole height 182 feet ; the channel for the water 13 feet deep. Aqueduct of Segovia, 160 arches, in one place 100 feet high. Aqueduct of Bemfica (Portugal), a modern work, is about seven miles long, m one place 210 feet high, and carries the water over the valley of Alcantara by 35 arches. ' STATES, GOVERNMENTS, CONSTITUTIONS. POLITICAL INSTITUTIONS. The political constitution under which a community subsiats, TormS aii important element in its social condition. Being usually established within certain local boundaries, and accompanied by a similarity of manners, religion, language, and other charactetistio, circumstances, it is the leading^agent in constituting a country, or state. In distributing, therefore, the five great divisions of the globei into their smaller portions, the geographer uses chiefly political subdivisions. A state may be defined to be an independent community or body politic existing within certain local t^undaries ; the body or bodies which exercise the collected authority of the nation, or to which the nation has delegiteti A portion of the supreme power, constitute the government of the state ; and the manner in which the supreme power or thedelegated portion of it is organized and distributed, determines the form of government or constitution of the state. A monarchy is thiit fyrufi of government in which the supreme power is in the hands of a single pe'rabh ; in some cases the power of the ' monarch is wholly unlimited ; such a government is called an abs!i)lute'nl9parchy ; but in a majority of instances the power of the .sovereigi\is more or less controlled by, the rights of certain privileged classes, or of the body of the people, whose sanction is necessary in legislation, taxation, &c. ; these are called limited or corisfitutiohal monarchies! ' •" . , ,' A republic is a state in which the supreme authority resides in the hands of the nation, or in those of a privileged class of nobles or principal citizens ; in the former case the government is a demoCrtLcy, whether the people exer- cises the authority of government directly in popular assemblies, or indirectly by its representatives : in the latter it is an aristocracy,' whether the authority is hereditary or the_sovereign body supplies its own vacancies by election. A monarchical state is styled an empire, kingdom, duchy, principality-,, county, landgraviate, imamat, khanat, sherifat, (fee, in reference to the tiUe of its chief, and not in respect to the extent of his dominions or thenature pf his authority. ^ Some political writers take the following view of the progressive stages of political societies : 1. The stale of unsettled and roving tribes of hunters and shepherds, in which landed property is unknown. 3. The patriarchal state, in which the authority of the father of a family, the magistrate, and the priest is united in one person. 3. The theooratical state in which the authority of the father is separated from that of the magistrate, but the priests form a sepa- rate caste, and are the rulers uniting the civil and religious character in themselves. 4. The sta.te of castes, in which the'dfetinctions of family and, state, of priest and magistrate exist, but the whole popiilation is divided into distinct hereditary classes. 5. The state of privileged orders, in which a part of the pflpulation has certain hereditary privileges, and the body of the people is divided into classes distinguished by their wealt^, oc6upation,'&c. 6. That state of political society in which all the members have equal rights and priv- ileges and are subject to equal burdens. . EUROPEAN STATES. X. Autocracies or Absolute Monarchies. Of these there are sixteen : Ottoman Empire; Eussia,n Empire; Denmark; Austrian Empire, with the exception of Hungary and Transylvania ; Sardinia ; Papal State ; Two Sici- lies ; the Grand Duchies of Tuscany and Oldenburg ; Kurhesseu or the Elec- torate of Hesse ; the Duchies of Parma and Modena in Italy ; the Principality of Schwartzburg-Sondershausen in Germany, and that of Monaco in Italy ; the Landgraviate of Hesse Homburg^ and the Lordship of Kniphausen. 2. Limited or Constitutional irfpNARCHiES. -The Uhited Kingdom or British Monarchy ; Trance ; Netherlands ; Belgium ; Swedish Monarchy ; Bavaria? Wurtemberg ; the Grand Duchie^ of Bad^n and Hesse ; the Duchy, of Nassau ; the ^principalities of Hohenzollern-H.echingen, and .Hohenzollern- Sigraaringen, and that of Neufchatel belonging to the Swiss confederacy ; Greece ; Spain ; Portugal. The following states have but a partial and imperfect national representa- tion, and are but partially limited : Prussia ; Saxony j Hanover ; the Grand Duchy of Saxe-Weimar ; the Duchies of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, Saxe-Meinin- geu, Saxe-Altenburg, and Brunswick; the Principalities of Waldeck, Lippe- Detmold, SchaU^rfEurgfLippe, Schwartzburg-RudolstadtJ. and Lichtenstein ; the -Dftohy of Lucca ; the two Grand Duchies of MeTiklenburg-Schwerin and Mecklenburg-Strelitz ; the three Duchies of Anhdt-Dessau, Anhalt-Bern- bnrg, and Anhalt-G(Ethen;'the three Principalities of Renss-Greitz, Reuss- Schleitz, and ReuiSs-Lobenstein-Ebersdorf; and those of Moldavia, Walachia, and Servia. 3. Repcblicsc • Of these there are twenty-nine in Europe; viz: twenty- one Swiss cantons, Neufchatel being monarchical ; the Ionian Isles, Andorra, San Marino, Craeow, Frankfort, Hamburg, Lubeck, and Bremen. ASIATIC STATES. Asia is' often styled the classic land* of despotism, but it is nevertheless true that in some of the states which are uiuUly considered to be absolute monarchies, the power of the sovereign is practicallyyjjinited by old usages, and. long established customs and privfleges. Travellers'have often mistaken the'-forms of servitude for the resdity ,. jmd have supposed that that monarch must be an absolute despot who is styled the son of heaven, and that those nations must be slaves who can approach their ruler only in a servile attitude. In India the' prince cannot subject a bramin to taxation, nor make a merchant of a laborer,' nor infringe in the slightest matter the politico-religious code, which is esteemed a divine revelation, and which directs civil as well as rehgious aflairs. And in China the august son of heaven, whose name can- not be pronounced under pain of death, cannot appoint even the inferior agents of authority except in conformity with the regular lists of candidates prepared by the Learned, who owe their own appointment net to bis favor but to their own merit. The governments of Persia, Birmah, Siam, and Annam are absolute ; the Japanese, the Mahrattas, the Afghans, the Beloochis, the Mongols, the Kal- mucks, .the Manchoos, several of tlfe Turkish people, ani several pations of the Caucasian region nave constitutions resembling the feudal system. The Bedouin Arabs, the ' Curds, the Seikhs, and some other nations have republican forms, and many Arab tribes and the .wandering hordes in general retain the patriarchal government. Thibet and Bootan under the lamas, and the imamats of Sana and Mascat and the sherifate of Mecca in Arabia, are theocraciefs: AMERICAN GOVERNMENTS. In America there are two distinct classes of states; Ihbse formed by the native races, and those established by European colonists. Theformer exhibit little variety of .political forms, .being generally under patriarchal govern- ments, in some of which the dignity of chief is Tiereditaiy / hi others efective ; public affairs are in these tribes subjected to'the deliberations, of the counsel of the chiefs, elders, or of the whole nation. The Araucamians have consti- tuted an aristocratical republican confederacy. At the time of the discovery of America, however, very difierent forms of government were found prevailing in the powerful and civilized states then existing in this continent. That of the Natchez was a theocracy ; that of the jyie^ican empire was a feudal monarchy ; Cholula, Tlascala, and Huetxocingo within the limits of the modern Mexico were republics ; thcf Muyscas of Cundinamarca, and the Peruvians had established theocratical governments. All of the independent European states that havelieen founded in America, with the single exception of Brazil, are republics. In North America the principle of confederation has prevailed ; and the United States, the Mexican States, and the United States of Central America are fedetal republics. In South America, New Grenada, Venezuela, Ecuador, Bolivia, Peru, Chili, and Uruguay are republics; the federal republic of the United States of the Plata has fallen to pieces ; the empire of Brazil is a constitutional mon- archy ; and the dictatorate of Paraguay is an absolute despotism. Several republics have also been established by .revolted African slaves ; viz : Hayti and the three petty states of Auka, Sarameca, and Cottica in Guiana. GOVERNMENTS OF AFRICA. It would be uninteresting to enumerate all the governments of this quar- ter of the globe, which is chiefly occupied by rude and savage nations, dis- tributed into petty states or living in disconnected tribes. Yet almost every varib'Cy of form exists in diff^eht fcountries. The Moorish states of Nbrthern Africa, and mafty of the negro kingdoms of the interior and the west, are, with Egypt and the Abyssinian states, abso- lute monarchies. In most of the negro states, however, in which Mahome- tanism has become the prevalent religion, theooraeies have been established. Among the Caffre tribes limited monarchies are more common. There are also some republican states, and some feudal aristocracies among the negro nations. GOVERNMENTS OF OCEANIA. In Oceania the feudal element prevails in almost every state, in some cases Vith a hereditary, but more generally^ an elective sovereign; this is particu- • larly the case in the powerful states of the greiat islands of Malaysia. Many oflhese feudal states are pure aristocracies. The petty states of the smaller islands of Polynesia are in part absolute monarchies, and in part aristocracies with a distinctclass of hereditary nobles, the body of the people being little better than slaves. The black tribes of Austraha. live in disconnected villages or families, often without any general head. III ^0^-^^. Sq.M. 7. 800.000 f^%. 5,500.000 Top.ej.OOO.OPO 1 \ IMWOO.OOO G-ov.Al)s.MoT^. Ttel. Greek au ASIA fa^amsm Civ. t Semi Ow. \ / Cwilvcedy /S^ ^^ ^ \p ^jOOO.OOO 1S.00P.000 'RefiubUa Fi'otBstxmt ^ ^ 1000.000 , 22.000.000 ItuV Chiefs IdhJioni&tcui Semi Civ. S 00.000 600.000 ( ASIA 1 S^'Gu^s Smi-uy CXvilized, Idolatry -Semi, Cw PRo l<-00000 8.000000 I N" AMERICA I ihimbUc CaJJwUc (XvUixed- ^ — ^. '? i,200jao0' I \ i.ooaooo p.AMERI&!J Ilepulilix: CoJJwlu: Gvdixeit ^^^AZll 2.000.000 JS^^> 100.000 \<1 -'"' ''00.000 -lbs. Mm Mahoinetarv Sani Oi'Ui'zcd. -gER^ 500. VL'O j.soaooo GjUiwlio Cioilix^dj ^-giE-^:* .5oao«w ^SliN JO.OOO.OOO AbsMoiv MohnniMcav Senii,- GviUscedj r { j r Vtceroii vix h^~y..\ ~%EB5^ y Ccuawtic S:Bvi. Cwiitxecl \Nt leo.i'po ''0 ZiM'V.OOO Hepublic Cat/wlic CwOixM. 110.000 j.5oo,0Mru H^pul'l.lo Cwilixed^ ^*^ot .^ Ats. J.'' '?' Hi ^4icao,)o ( ) LuH.ir,t ^ Urokslant ^0^ CtrHixrA CaOioUc ^^^^^s, 700000 ^ '•^ Jl, 300.000 (~^ Ab.t.Mnn. i^ J^rotesbjuU O"* Cwmocd. ^/—<' 2.000.000 b-PA^ u Malwrnatcax- i>lH^ -tSIJV no.ooo ■44.0OD.UO0 Abs.Moii. Jdohiitrif SanM Civi. o 42.000 T.oao.ooo Ahs. Moih. CuiUotic CivUisced. ISO. 000 IS. 000.000 CaJhoUc O^ 'V 3.500.000 Q ZuruMmh. Catholic ^O^^ GmJ2x£d. >. I'irf, f ' % :;Oi>ot) ■S^^^^ 4,5oaooo ^^ ^ e.000.000 % { ] '^.Ab.s.Mon. (* ^ ^ ~ M'alu'inrtnii ^^4, 11. i gS' "l^ J I'M 000 %o^ 21000 ^^^ ■!.,<„„ oon '^ O Abs.Mmi, '^^. ^' Fi-vte.Oaiil ■ft " Ointlirfirl ^A.SSfy SiO.000 w^ .3.000.000 Ab.!.Jllf '^000.000 ^ O g Rcpultlu: ^v .^ TrotcuhuU^St uoli ™0v riiiilinfjl, IS .000 ■^ 660.000 f^ Lini^Mcit. ^^Ec^ %iot^ Greek. Chw-di Civilixed ^VSH^^ )5lf MISCELLANEOUS STATISTICS. Satio of Deaths to the Population ; Annual MorteMtv and Arumal increase for each Million ; Period of doubling. Average Sweden and Norway, Denmark, Russia, British Isles, Netherlands, Germany, Prussia, Austria, France, Switzerland, Portugal, Spain, Italy, Turkey, 79,000 33,800 960,000 373,000 163,900 290,000 303,500 675,000 808,200 50,000 92,000 307,000 660,000 334,800 Ratio of Average. Iin47 lin45 lin44 lin55 lin38 lin45 lin39 lin40 lin39 1 in 40 lin40 lin40 lin30 lin30 Annual Mor- tality in each millioTi. 21,300 22,400 22,700 18,200 26,500 22,400 25,600 25,000 25,600 25,000 25,000 25,000 33,300 33,300 AnniuU Inn crease for each million. 10,527 16,667 12,372 27,027 10,114 6,536 11,111 66 42 56i 36 69 105 614 Total 5,256,300 1 in 40 25,900 Patio of Deaths in several European States at different periods, showing tJie eff'ect of increasing cultivation and civilization in diminishing Mortality, Countries. Sweden, Denmark, Germany, Prussia, England, France, Roman State. Citi^. Stockholm, Vienna, Amsterdam, Berlin, London, Paris, Rome, Year. 1760 1750 ,1788 1717 1690 1776 1767 1760 1750 1760 1755 1690 1650 1760 Ratio. Iin34 lin32 lin32 lin30 lin33 1 in 254 1 in 214 linl9 lin20 lin25 lin28 ] in24 1 in 25 lin21 Tear. 1825 1820 1825 1825 1821 1825 1829 1827 1829 1828 1827 1828 1829 1828 Ratio. 1 in 45 lin45 lin45 lin39 lin58 1 in 394 lin28 lin26 lin25 1 in 29 lin34 lin55 lin32 lin31 J^uniber of Births to a Marriage Average number ofBirtlis to each Marriage. 3.62 5.55 4.20 5.27 3.50 Country. France, Savoy, Portugal, Bohemia, Average number of Births to each Marriage, 4.21 5.65 5.14 5.27 Country. Sweden, Russia, Holland, Belgium, England, The ratio of births to marriages in a considerable extent of country rarely exceeds .5 or falls short of 3 ; that of births to deaths varies from 101 up to 150 to 100. Supposing the whole number of individuals of the human race to be 700 millions, the ratio of deaths to be 1 in 33, and of births 1 in 294 ^^ have the following results. Period of time. Births. Deaths. In one year, 23,728,813 21,212,121 In one day, 65,010 58,120 In one hour, 2,708 2,421 In one minute - 45 40 The number of males in a given number of births exceeds that of females m the ratio of 16 to 15, or 26 to 25 ; but the mortality is greater among male children in the ratio of 27 to 26, or even more, so that at the age of 15 or 16 the numbers of the two sexes in any country are nearly equal. Ages of Persons of both Sexes in Great Britain (1821), and the United States {Whites, 1830.) United States. Cheat Britain. Males. Females. Total. Males. Females. Total. Under 5 years 5 to 10 10 to 15 15 to 20 20 to 30 30 to 40 40 to 50 50 to 60 60 to 70 70 to 80 80 to 90 90 to 100 above 100 Totals, 5,355,133 5,171,115 10,526,248 6 The actual population of Great Britain in 1821 of many were not ieturned. 972,980 782,075 669,734 573,196 956,487 592,535 367,840 229,284 135,082 57,772 15,806 2,041 301 921,934 750,741 638,856 696,294 918,411 555,531 356,046 223,504 131,307 58,336 17,434 2,523 238 1,894,914 1,532,816 1,308,590 1,169,450 1,874,898 1,148,066 723,886 452,788 266,389 116,108 33,240 4,564 539 929,535 819,156 718,796 604,905 893,425 694,769 565,024 402,218 273,818 135,009 34,964 2,873 100 . 908,400 804,030 678,613 643,875 1,084,050 773,887 597,968 425,678 301,052 147,946 43,049 4,046 191 1,837,935 1,623,186 1,397,409 1,247,780 1,977,475 1,468,656 1,162,992 827,896 574,870 282,955 78,013 6,919 291 ,074,592 6,412,785 12,487,377 was 14,072,331, but the ages PROPORTION OP THE ARMY AND NAVY TO POPULATION. Country, Ratio of Soldiers to Inhab. One Fess. oflAne ^ Frig, to Denmark, Ito 51 180,000 inh. Russia, Ito 57 800,000 Switzerland, Ito 60 none. Prussia, Ito 76 none. Swedish State, Ito 85 180,000 Turkey, Ito 92 Bavaria, 1 to 113 none. Austria, 1 to 118 3,000,000 Netherlands, 1 to 119 135,000 France, 1 to 130 266,000 Portugal, 1 to 139 Smaller German States, 1 to 148 none. Sardinia, Ito 165 1,000,000 United Kingdom, Ito 225 100,000 Two Sicilies, Ito 247 406,000 Spain, Ito 278 534,000 Roman States, 1 to 413 United States (to free pop. )1 to 1970 360,000 le Shoioing the Relative Population, Increase of Population, Rem •esentative Population, and Kumber of Representatives of each State. Pim.to Rate of Increase Representative Repre- Si'rMih . perci.froml8W-30. Population. sentatives. Maine, 12 33.9 399,454 8 New Hampshire, 28.5 10.3 269,327 5 Vermont, 27.5 19 280,652 5 Massachusetts, 81.5 16.6 610,408 18 Rhode Island, 72.5 17 97,192 2 Connecticut, 62.5 8 297,665 6 New York, 41.6 39.4 1,918,578 40 New Jersey, 38.5 15.6 319,921 6 Pennsylvania, 30.6 28.5 1,348,072 28 ' Delaware, 36 ■5.5 75,431 1 Maryland, 33 9.8 405,842 8 Virginia, 19 13.7 1,023,502 SI North Carolina, 15.5 15.5 639,747 13 South Carolina, 81 15.6 455,025 9 Georgia, 8 51,6 429,811 9 Florida, 0.8 34.7 ,„ Alabama, 7 142 262,507 5 Mississippi, 3 81 110,357 2 Louisiana, 4.5 40.6 171,904 3 Tennessee, 17 62 625,263 13 Kentucky, 16 22 621,832 13 Ohio, 24 61 937,901 19 Indiana, 9 133 343,030 7 Illinois, 3 185 157,146 3 Michigan, 0.8 250 Missouri, 2.4 111 130,419 8 Arkansaw, 0.8 113 240 Rate of Increase of free population during ten years, from 1820 to 1830, 33.9 per cent. ; of slave population 30.6 per cent. ; of the total population 33.5 per cent. ; population doubles once in about 24 years. Table Showing the Occupation of the Inhai&ants of Several Countries. Europe contains a manufacturing population of about 16,000,000 individuals, and an agricultural population of 150,000,000. In general, about two-thirds of the inhabitants of Europe are occupied in agriculture, but the proportion varies in different countries. In Great Britain, France, and Germany alone there are about 12,000 professed authors. Emp. in Agric, 34-100 44-100 66-100 69-100 60-100 58-100 79-100 Countries. Town Population. Bmpl, in Arts Sf Trade, Great Britain, 50-100 45-100 France, 33-100 36-100 Prussia, 27-100 18-100 Austria, 23-100 9-100 Spain, 10-100 Denmark, 19-100 13-100 Russia, 12-100 6-100 Analysis of Occupations in Great Britain (1831). Persons. Agricultual occupiers, 1,500,000 Agricultural laborers, 4,800,000 Mming " 600,000 Millers, Bakers, Butchers, 900,000 Artificers, Builders, &c. 650,000 Manufacturers, 2,400,000 Tailors, Shoemakers, Hatters, Shopkeepers, Seamen and Soldiers, Clerical, legal, and medical, Disabled Paupers, Proprietors and Annuitants, Total, 1,080,000 2,100,000 831,000 450,000 110,000 1,116,198 16,537,398 COMMERCIAL CHART OF THE GLOBE, SHOWING THE EXPORTS AND IMPORTS OF THE PRINCIPAL COUNTRIES IN THE WORLD. CflteTitHcs Beloiuu. Denuare. Germany. Great Britain. Sbipping. Vess. I Ton. I Men. 24,435 I 2,.618,000 161,364 Ton.Ent.lS3a Tm. Clear. 8,835.9.60 I 2,880,490 Annual value of Imp: I Eoffp. £50,000,000 I 72-jOOO,000 France. Italt. Netherlands. Ionian IslanD9. P0RTUGI.L. Prussia ' Russia. Spain Sweden and Norway. Switzerland. Turkey. Arabia. ChinX Further India (Bifmali, Siam, Annam,&c.). HiNDOSTAN. Japan. Persia. Turkey. Malaysia or Indian Archipelago. Barbary or Maohrebv EOTFT. Guinea. African Islands British Provinces. United States. Annual value of Exp. 1 Imp. $90,000,000 I $100,000,000 Tm. E7rf.l832. Tan. Clear. 1,342,655 I 1,361,370 ^hipping. 1,267,^6 tons. Mexico And Guatiuala. West Indies (Hayti, Cuba, Jamaica, Porto Rico, &c.). Colombia (New Grenada, Venezuela, Equator). Peru. Chili. BUE N03 A YRE9 (With Paraguay and Uruguay). Brazil. OurAiTA. Exports. Mineral productions, raw and manufactured, linens, woollens, silk thread and stuifs, glass, grain, and wines 3 with musical and mathematical instru- ments, honey, wax, tar, gall nuts,, soap, paper, hats, &cc. Corn, seeds, linen, lace, flax, carpets, taliow, hides, books and prints, &c. Corn, butter, cheese, Cattle, horses, leather, wool, salted provisions, &c. Linen, wool, woollen goods, rags, corn, timber, iron, lead, tin, flax, hemp, wax, wine, horses, cattle, tallow, books, &c. To North of Europe, cottons, woollens, glass, hardware, pottery, lead, tin, coal, colonial productions, dye stufis, salt, refined sugar. To Central and Southern Europe, cottons, woollens, cutlery, dried and salt fish, pottery, glassware, colonial goods, and liner manufactures. To the Levant, cottons, woollens, colonial goods, lead, iron^ tin, metallic wares, clocks and watches, &c. To Anicrica, woollens, cottons, hardware, silks, linen, glaus, pottery, salt, coal, iron, and other manufabtured articles. To the East, woollens, iron, copper, lead, tin, gold and silver, hardware, and other manufactures. Wine, brandy, ribbands, lace, woollens, cottons, silks, linens, paper, paper hangings, corn, litiueurs, porcelain, articles of furniture, jewelry, fancy goods, books, prints, fruits, clocks and watches, mirrors, perfumes, &c. Corn, silk, oil, rice, salt, flax, fruit, preserves, wine, vinegar, essences, mar- ble, sulphur, coral, barilla, dye stuffs, drugs, soap, cheese, anchovies, sheep and goat skins, paintings, engravings, books^ mosaics, hats, rags, &;c. ' Linens, cheese,, butter, salted provisions, drugs and paints, tobacco, gin, corn, linseed, fish, paper, flowers, &c. Wine, brandy, olive oil, fruits, cotton, salt. Wine, fruits, salt, olive oil, cork, silk, wool. Corn, linens, woollens, zinc, articles' of iron, copper, and brass, porcelain, wood, Prussian blue, tobacco, wine, brandy, essences, wax, hams, watches, musical instruments, &c. Tallow, flax, hemp, flour, iron, copper, linseed, timber, boards, lard, hides, wax, leather,. duck, cordage, potash, tar, pitch, train oil, soap, isinglass, caviare, bristles, furs, ivory, &c. Wine, brandy, oil, wool, fresh and dried fruits, silk, salt, barilla, cork, soap, saffron, sumach, anchovies, lead, quicksilver, sulphur, woollens, silks, mirrors, merinos, horses, &c. Iron, steel, timber, dried and salt fish, pitch, tar, cordage, anchors, copper, cobalt, alum, glass, mirrors, potash, fish and seal oil, hides, fiax, furs. Cattle, cheese, butter, tallow, kirschwasser, dried fruits, timber, coal, linen, silks, velvets, shawls, lace, clocks and watches, jewelry, paper, gunpowder. Cattle, horses, hides, wool, wine, tobacco, cotton, fruits, oil, wax, drugs, dye stuns, alum, &c. Coffee, pearls, dates, hides, horses, senna-leaVes, indigo, gums, frankin- cense, myrrh, spices, &c. Tea, cottons, porcelain, rhubarb, musk, ginger, quicksilver, zinc, borax, silks, shawls, mother of pearl, cassia, chinaroot, and various kinds of fancy articles, filagree work, lackered ware, carved ivory, &:c. Cotton, silk, tin, teak wood,, eagle wood, sandal wood, gum lac, salt, oil, sugar, ivory, pepper, bird's nests, precious stones, iron, lackered ware, &c. Cottons, silks, shawls, carpets, and other manufactured goods, cotton, rice, opium, sugar, saltpetre, pepper, sapan wood^ sandal wood,, gum lac, indigo,, and other dye stuffs, cinnamon, cassia, silk, cochineal, diamonds, pearls, tiger skins, arrack, drugs, &c. Copper, camphor, lacker, lackered wares, silks, whale oil, dried fish, &:c. Pearls, silk, horses, camels, goat's and camel's hair, ammoniac, naphtha, amber, turquoises, copper, sulphur, rice, madder, gall nuts, saffron, drlbd fVuita, wirie, opium, shawls, morocco, carpets, essences, pipes, drugs, &c. Coffee, cotton, silk, opium, drugs, gums, camel's and goat's hair, dried fruits, tobacco, wine, copper, morocco, carpets, silks, cottons, shawls, camlets. Cloves from Amboyna, tin from Banca, nutmegs and mace from Banda Islands, pepper, rice, cotton, sugar, cofflee, indigo, betel, gold dust, camphor, tobacco, sandal wood, teak wood, i;attans, benzoin, sulphur, ivory, zinc, sago, ginger, areca nuts, &;c., from Java, Sumatra, Borneo, Moluccas, Celebes, &c. Oil, wax, wool, corn, gums, almonds, dates, ivory, morocco, hides, ostrich feathers, coral, drugs. 1 Cotton, rice, corn, myrrh, incense, opium, indigo, dates, ivory, hides, wax, coffee, gums, and drugs. Gold dust, hides, ivory, gums, drugs, rice, pepper, ostrich feathers, slaves. Orchil, wine, brandy, rose wood from the Canaries, wine, fruits from the Madeiras, orchil, cottons, fruits from Cape Verd, coffee, cloves, pepper, cotton, gums from Isle of Bourbon, coffee, indigo, cotton, sugar, nutmegs, cloves from Mauritius, cowries, betel nuts, ambergris, com, wax from Madagascar. Timber, boards, fee, furs and skins, fish, corn, pot and pearl ashes, ginseng, coal, iron,, provisions, salt fish, seal and fish oil, gypsum, &:c. Agricultural .products (cotton, tobacco, flour, rice, beer, tallow, hides, pork, bacon, hogs, horses, Indian corn, meal, rye meal, butter, cheesej biscuit, &c.)^ products of the forest (skins, furs, ginseng,lumber,tar, pitch, rosin, turpentine, pot and pearl ashes, &c.) ; products of the sea (Whale oil, cod, mackerel^, herring, fish and seal oil, seal skins, spermaceti, &c.) ; manufactures (rum, refined sugar, cottons, articles of iron and leather, hats, soap, candles, carriages, furniture, glass, wearing apparel, &c.)i foreign articles, wines, tea, coffee, silks, cottons, cocoa, sugar, &c. Gold, silver, cochineal, indigo, sugar, hides, sarsaparilla, vanilla,, jalap, Campeacby wood, fustic, other drugs and dye stuffs, pimento, &c. Coffee, sugar, rum, wax, ginger and other spices, tobacco, cocoa, indigo, molasses, mastich, aloes, vanilla, quassia, pimento, mahogany, dye woods, tortoise-shell, fruits and preserves. Coffee, indigo, sugar, cotton, cocoa, tobacco, hides, dried meat, tallow, cochineal, pearls, gold, platina, Peruvian bark, ipecacuanha, and other drugs, fustic, and other dye woods. Gold, silver, sugar, pimento, Peruvian bark, vicuna wool, wine, coarse woollens, &c. Gold, stiver, hides, dried meat, &c. Hides, tallow, horses, cattle, mules, dried meat, matte or Paraguay tea, silver, Indila rtibber, &c. Cotton, indigo, coffee, sUjgar, rice, tobacco, Peruvian bark and other drugs, hides, dried meat, tallow, gold, diamonds and other precious stones, gums, dye stuffs, mahogany, India rubber, &c. Sugar, rum, peppen, coffee, cocoa, eotton, cloves, annotta, molasses. Imports. Coffee, sugar, apices, and other colonial commodities, English and Turkish cotton yam, wool and cotton, hides raw and tanned, cattle, dye and cabinet woods, &c. Cotton, wine, hardware, colonial produce, &c. Wine, salt, coal, tar, southern fruits, colonial produce, metals and metallic ware, woollen, silk, cotton, and linen goods. Wines, brandy, cotton, dry and salt fish, hides, fish oil, silks, cottons, watches, copper, colonial produce, leather, &c. Cotton, sugar, silk, corn7 colonial produce, flax, wine, indigo, rum, wool, tallow, India stuffs (muslins, calicoes, silks, nankeens), whale oil, hemp, madder, hides, tobacco, timber, furs, pearl and pot ashes, hemp and flaxseed, bar iron, Campeachy wood, southern fruits, olive oil, sulphur, saltpetre, barilla, drugs, gums, fustic, mahogany, dye woods, butter, dheese, salt, tallow, borax, cork, gin, &c. Horses, cattle, raw silk, wax, tallow, furs, wool, tobacco, dye woods and dye stuffs, cotton, useful and precious metals, sulphur, coffee, sugar, spices, and various articles of the raw produce of all countries. Colonial productions, salt fish, silk, cotton, woollen, and linen stuffs, wine, iron,, hardware, and fancy goods. Corn, wood, coal, tallow, wax, rags, wine, lean cattle for fattening, &:c. Com, cattle, wood, manufactured articles. Com, stock fish, salt meat, butter, cheese, cattle, horses, mules, timber, tar, pitch, hemp, flax, cordage, duck, linen, cotton, woollens, silks, metals, &c. Gold, quicksilver, tin, sugar, coffee, tea, and other colonial articles, wine, silk, cotton, leaf tobacco, &c. Wine, cotton, silk, fine woollens, silks, cotton goods, colonial productions, fruits, brandy, lead, quicksilver, tin, 'machines, instruments, tobacco, drugs, porcelain, &c. Cocoa, sugar, coffee, and other colonial articles, com, dried and salt fish, woollens, linens, lace, cottons, silks, hardware, cutlery, fancy goods, flax, hemp, butter, cheese, timber, iron, copper, tin, glass ware, swine, and mules. Sugar, coffee, cotton, spices, silk, woollen, hemp, soap, salt, southern fruits, and various manufactured articles. Corn, rice, salted and pickled fish, wine, brandy, tobacco, silk, cotton, fine woollens, dye woods, sugar and other colonial produce, cutlery, &c. Linens, cottons, woollens, silks, caps, furs, mirrors, glkss, glass ware,watch- es and clocks, paper, colonial produce, and manufactured articles. Gum benzoin, frankincense, myrrh, sugar, woollens, iron, steel, lead, vari- ous manufactured articles, and Indian productions, firearms, &c. Woollens, furs, gold and silver wire, glass, mirrors, lead, coral, cochineal, ebony, pepper, sandal wood, opium, tobacco, gumd, bird's nests, sharks' fins, fish maws, tripang, ginseng, betel-nut, spices. Cotton, silk, and woollen goods, opium, velvet, porcelain, paper, tin, flax, hemp, and various manufactured articles. Woollen cloths, velvets, iron, lead, firearms, wine, brandy, lace, gold thread,, gold lace, coral, paper, dried and preserved fruits, clocks, mirrors, hardware, American produce, tea, coffee, teak wood, cloves, nutmegs, dates, &c. Sugar, tea, tin, dmgs, quicksilver, tortoise shells, lead, iron, sapan wood, glass, mirrors, spices, ivory, musk, saffron, borax, &c. Indigo, cochineal, coffee, sugar, furs, rhubarb, tin, lead, iron, porcelain, tea, diamonds, rubies and other precious stones, ivosy, eunuchs, fine woollens, ana various European manufactures. Silks, woollenSp needles, clocks and watches, hardware, glass, mirrors, paper, tin, porcelain, various manufactures, and colonial prodnctions. Opium, salt, linens, silks, tea, porcelain, copper, oil, wine, firearms, sabres, soap, and various other European manufactures. Ivory, gold dust, arms, glass, various European manufactures. Woollens^ cottons, firearms, swords, silks, hardware, fancy-goods, coffee, ivory, gold dust, slaves. Cottons, woollens, arms, gunpowder, glass, pottery, salt, cutlery, rum, &c. European and Indian manufactures and productions. British manufactures of all kinds, rum, sugar, wine, molasses, coffee, tobacco, salt, coal, &c. Wool and woollen fabrics, cottons, silks, hemp and flax, and manufactures of them, spirits, molasses, wine, tea, coffee, sugar, dye stuffs, drugs, gums, iron and steel, and manufactures of them, soiitkern fruits, dried fruits, fancy goods, jewelry, gold, silver, &c. Woollens, silks, cottons, linens, paper, china ware, spirits, quicksilver, iron, steel, wine, jewelry, watches and clocks, and various other manufactures. Manufactured articles of all descriptions, wine, flour, salted and dried fish, and salt meats, timber, boards, &c., slaves. Manufactured goods of all sorts, eottons, woollens, silks, soap, oil, cordage, paper, hardware, firearms, fitc. Flour, manufactured goods (silks, fine woollens, lace, muslins, linens, cotton goods), tea, indigo, matte or Paraguay tea, mules, &c. Coffee, sugar, flour, manufactured goods. Wooirens, cottons, cutlery, hardware, furniture, lumber, dried and salt fish, sugar, coffee, rum, &c. Iron, steel, copper, metallic wares of all sorts, salt, woollens, cottons,. hats, shoes, glass ware, furniture, trinkets, wine, flour, arms, &c. Manufactured articles of every description, iflouT, &c /&^ TABLE OP THE GOLD AND SILVER COINS OP DIPFEEENT COUNTRIES, THEIR NAMES, WEIGHT, AND VALUE IN FEDERAL MONEY. 1 Val.inFed. Velue, Feb COINS. DwtB. gni. D. CU. m. COINS. Dwt«. gra. eral Money D. ctB. in Adsteian Dominions Parma Gold — Sovereign Double Ducat 3 14 3 37 7 Gold — Quadruple Pistola 18 9 16 62 ; 4 12 4 58 9 Pistola or Doppia, 1796 4 14 4 13 f Hungarian Ducat 2 5i 2 29 6 of Maria Louisa . 4 34 3 86 1 Sillier — Crown or Rix Dollar 18 1 96 1 SiMr— Ducat of 1784 16 11 95 ( Half Rix Dollar or Florin, Conven- Piece of 3 Lire 2 8i 12 6 tion . . ■ . 9 04 48 5 Lire of Maria Louisa . 16 92 5: Kopfstuck or 20 Kreutzer piece 4 64 16 Prussia Batabia Goi Geneva GoW— Doubloons, 1772 17 84 16 02 8 Gold — Sequin 2 5i 2 30 2 Doubloons, since 1786 17 9 15 53 5 Hamburg) Pistole. 4 8i 3 88 4 Goid— Ducat 2 5| 2 27 9 Coronilla, Vintem, or Gold Dollar 1 3 98 3 SUver—l6 shilling, convention . 5 20 28 1 Silver — Piastre 17 8 1 00 6 Rix Dollar, specie 18 18 1 06 8 Peseta or Real of 2 . 3 18 20 4 MUAN Sweden Gold — Sequin ... 2 5| 229 Gold— Ducat 2 5 2 23 5 Doppia or Pistola 4 14 3 80 7 fia»er— Rix Dollar, 48 shillings 18 17 1 04 8 Silver — Crown 17 7i 96 1 Third of a Rix DoUar, 16 shillinfrs . 6 5| 34 9 Austrian Livre . 2 18? 16 SwrrZERLAND Naples Goid— Pistole 4 214 4 56 Gold — Sequin, 2 Ducat piece 120i 1 59 1 Ducat of Zurich 2 5) 2 26 7 Oncetta, 3 Ducat piece 2 10i 2 49 Ducat of Berne 1^ 1 98 6 , Silver — 12 Carlini . 17 15 95 6 Silver— Ciown of B41e 18 23 1 08 8 Ducat of 10 Carlini, 1818 . 14 18 78 1 Crown of Zurich 16 86 4 1 Carlino . 1 11 7 7 4 Franken piece 18 23 1 10 7 Netherlands Frank 4 17i 28 1 Gold — Lion, or 14 Florin piece 5 7i 5 04 8 Turkey Ryder 6 9 6 04 3 Gold — Sequin Fonducli of Constantinople, 1773 2 5i 1 86 8 10 Florin piece . 4 7| 4 01 8 Half Missier, 1818 18i 52 1 Ducat 2 5i- 2 27 5 Sequin Fonducli 2 5 1 83 10 Guilder piece 4 8 4 03 4 Yermeebeshblek 3 li 3 02 8 SiJj»e7-— Florin 6 22 39 8 sa»er— Piastre, 1818 20 Escalin . . 3 4i 13 9 Piastre of 40 paras 36 9 Ducatoon 20 22 1 26 a Tuscany ' Ducat or Rix Dollar 18 6 1 00 9 Gold — Sequin 2 5i 2 31 8 Portugal Ruspone 6 17i 6 93 8 GoZiit— Dobraon 34 12 32 70 6 Silver — Crown of 10 paoli . 17 134 1 03 4 Dobra 18 6 17 30 1 Paolo 1 15i 9 7 Johannes 18 17 06 4 Venice Moidore 6 22 6 55 7 Gold — Sequin 2 6 2 31 16TeBtonsorl600Reia . 2 6 2 12 1 Silver — ^Ducat 14 15J 77,0 Cruzada of 480 Reis . 16i 63 5 Ducatoon 18 1 09 saner— New Cruzada . 9 1 60 7 Talaro 18 13 98 3 Ozella . . . . 6 8 38 1 MANUFACTURES. Great Britain. Cotton (calicoes, cambric muslins, dimities, lace, gauze, velvets, shawls, &c.) consuming 280,000,000 lbs. per annum, an- nual value, $162,000,000, employing 800,000 people, and 80,000 power looms : woollen (cloth, kerseymeres, baize, worsted, flannels, blanketing, cai-peting, &c.), annual value about $96,000,000, employing 500,000 per- sons ; the annual import of raw wool is about 30,000,000 lbs : metallic ware, annual value of produce $80,000,000, persons employed 350,000 ; linen, annual value $30,000,000 (lace, lawn, cambric, shirtings, sheetings, sailcloth, &c.) ; hides tanned, &c. consuming 52,800,000 lbs. of which about 33,500,000 were imported, annual value produced $68,000,000, employing 300,000 persons : malt liquor, 9,500,000 bis., value $125,000,000; candles 118,000,000 lbs., value $16,000,000; soap 120,000,000 lbs., value $16,000,000 ; glass, paper, spirits, starch, &c. France. The annual value of the manufactures of France is esti- mated at about $300,000,000 ; silk $25,000,000 ; woollen, consuming 100,000,000 lbs., of which 10,000,000 are imported, value $46,000,000; linen (lawns, cambric, lace, plain cloths, sailcloth, &c.) $36,000,000 ; cot- ton, consuming 75,000,000 lbs. ; leather $30,000,000 ; trinkets, perfum- ery, jewelry,' furniture, &c., to the value of $20,000,000 per ann.; soap $6,600,000; starch and hair powders $10,000,000; crystal and glass 4,000,000 ; porcelain and pottery $5,000,000, &c.* PRtrssiA. Woollen, consuming 25,000,000 lbs. value produced inclu- sive ofraw material, $30,000,000; cotton $15,000,000; linen $9,500,000; silk (8,500 looms, 35,000 operatives), gross value $4,500,000 ; metallic ware, glass, porcelain, leather, trinkets, &c. Netherlands and Belgium. Woollen $15,500,000; cotton $9,800,000; linen $18,000,000 ; lace $5,000,000 ; refined sugar $2,700,000 ; spirits $7,600,000; beer $22,000,000 ; tobacco $5,350,000 ; oil $5,600,00; soap $2,000,000 ; leather $5,350,000 ; earthenware $800,000 ; books $3,000,000; paper 1,600,000, &c. ; in all $130,000,000. Switzerland. Watches, jewelry, mathematical and musical instru- ments, linens and thread, cotton, woollen, paper, leather, &c. The cot- ton manufactures have increased rapidly of late, employing 28,000 hands. Austria. None of the Austi-ian dominions can be, strictly speaking, called manufacturing countries, as the want of easy external communi- cation, and the mineral riches of the country have turned attention more to mining and agriculture ; yet the linens of Moravia, Bohemia, and Si- lesia, the lace of Bohemia and Venice, the glass of Bohemia, the silks of Vienna, Venice, Milan, &c., the fine woollens of Moravia and the Lombar- do- Venetian kingdom, the mirrors of Venice and Austria, the cutlery of Stiria, cotton, porcelain, jewelry, musical and philosophical instruments, &c. are important branches of industry. Denmark. The manufactures of Denmark consist chiefly in working up the flax and wool of the country in a coarse form for domestic use ; much of the wool is exported. Distilleries, sugar-refineries, &c. have been patronized by government, but they can hardly support foreign competition. Swedish Monakcht. The manufactures of Sweden are inconsider- able, and those of Norway are of even less importance, and although fostered by government they cannot sustain themselves against foreign competition ; pottery, glass, woollens, bar-iron, some silk and linen, ships, leather, paper, spirits, &c. are the prominent articles. " Even in the common trades the work is lazily and ill performed, and charged at a high rate ; and it is a curious fact that some great merchants in the western towns, send their linen to be washed in London." Russia. The manufactures of Russia, notwithstanding the eflhrts of government are in a rude state. The most national are coarse fabi-ics from hemp and flax,, sailcloth, duck, sheeting, sackcloth, all of which are suppUed of a better quality and at a cheaper rate by Russia, than they can be had elsewhere. The encouragement aflforded to the distil- lation of rum from grain, has succeeded to such a frightful degree as not only to exclude foreign spirits in a great measure from home consump- tion, but to enable from 25,000 to 28,000 persons to destroy themselves annually by intemperance ; the annual value produced is estimated at $60,000,000. The patronage of government has also attracted foreign manufacturers, who have established extensive manufactures of iron and arms, and some silk (16,000 looms) and cotton (70,000 looms) manufac- * Dupin makes the following estimate of the comparative commercial and manufacturing power of France and Great Britain. Animate Force Prance. 6,303,019 men power Inanimate ^ Force. , Mills and Hydraulic Engines 1,500,000 Windmills 253,333 Wind and Navigation 3,000,000 Steam Engines 480,000 Totals Cfredt Britain. 7,275,497 men power 1,200,000 240,000 12,000,000 6,400,000 11,536,352 Add Ireland 27,115,497 1,002,667 Total United Kingdom 28,118,164 Thug the total inanimate force applied to the arts in France, scarcely exceeds the fourth of that so applied in the United Kingdom ; and the whole animate and inanimate power of the latter applied to manufactures and commerce is nearly treble the amount of that of the former. tories ; but these do not supply the internal demand — coarse woollens, in great quantity, are made by the peasants for family use. Germany. The Germans have made great progress in manufactures since the middle of the last century, but the German states (exclusive of the Prussian and Austrian provinces, which constitute more than half of the territory of the empire), do not hold so prominent a place as former- ly in manufacturing industry. The Hanse towns formerly clothed the north of Europe, but Great Britain, France, and the Netherlands have for some time not only supplied their own consumption, but partially that of Germany. Even in the linen manufacture, the Irish have in a great measure supplanted the Germans. The linens of Lusatia and Brunswick, the cottons, lace, and woollens of Saxony, the wood-work toys of the Saxon duchies and Bavaria, the wax-candles of Hanover^ the beer of Bavaria and Brunswick, clocks, watches, mirrors, porcelain, mathematical and musical instruments, arms, oil, liqueurs, &c. are among the articles produced. Spain. Although the manufactures of Spain cannot sustain a com- parison with those of some of the European states, either in finish or ex- tent, yet they are by no means so insignificant as is sometimes suppos- ed. Fine cloths, but not enough to supply the home consumption, silks, though this branch of industty is decayed, porcelain and mirrors, linens and cottons, paper, arms, barilla, oil, leather, &c. are some of the pro- ducts of manufacturing industry. Portugal. The Portuguese artisans are ignorant and unskilful, but they excel in working in gold and silver ; cambrics are also well made in some places, but woollens are hardly made except in families for do- mestic use, the finer fabrics being imported. Some linen, silk, gold lace, leather, pottery, glass, paper, &c. are also produced. Italian States. The Italians, once so distinguished for the variety and elegance of their manufactures, are now much behind the French, Germans, and English ; this branch of industry is now every where on the decay in the peninsula, and presents only some specimens on a small scale of its former prosperity. The silk manufacture, formerly the great staple, particularly in the form of velvets and damasks, now exists only in some cities. The woollen manufactures of Florence were once ex- tensive, but they are at present few and coarse ; paper, leather, muslin,' essences, fine soap, artificial flowers, jewelry, straw hats, crystals, glass, mirrors, &c. with mosaics, cameos, casts, alabaster and marble orna- ments, &c. are produced in Italy". Ottoman Empire. Manufacturing industry is more advanced in the Asiatic portion of this empire than in the European ; the Turkey leather cannot be rivalled in other parts of Europe, and in the dyeing of silk, cotton, and woollen, the artisans of Turkey are not surpassed by any ; silks, cottons, linens, firearms, sword-blades, soap, glass, copper utensils, fine carpets and camlets, &c., are produced. Persia. The Persians have much mechanical ingenuity, and have carried some of the arts to a high degree of perfection. They excel par- ticularly in the fabrication of sword-blades, copper utensils, perfumery, jewelry, paper, leather, and pottery, and they produe fine silks, particu- larly brocade and embroidery, carpets, shawls, and calicoes. Hindostan. The cotton manufactures of India, although surpassed in some respects by the productions of the European loom, have yet a delicacy, softness, richness, and durability that make them preferred in the east. No less than 124 different kinds of cotton fabric are produced by the ingenious and industrious Hindoos. Their muslins, calicoes, ging- hams, chintzes, taffetas, brocades, and embroidered gauzes, the beauti- ful shawls of Cashmere and the carpets of Patna, their sword-blades and filigree work, &c. have a high reputation. Further India. The people of this peninsula have made little pro- gress in the arts of comfort and luxury, and cannot equal the cottons of Hindostan, the silks of China, and the porcelain of Japan. Yet they excel in gilding, in working in gold and silver, and in the fabrication of a sort of lackered ware, adorned with rich mosaics of mother of pearl. China. The industry and ingenuity of the Chinese in all that relates to the conveniences of life are remarkable ; the origin among them, of several arts of comparatively recent date in Europe, is lost in the night of time ; they have from time immemorial fabricated silks, porcelains, and cottons of great beauty and excellence, worked the precious metals, polished and cut precious stones, excelled in embroidery, dyeing, carv- ing ivory, and making musical instruments ; their filigree work, artificial flowers, paper hangings, paper, lackered ware, &c., are also remarkable. United States. Cotton, 795 mills, with l,aS46,503 spindles and 33,500 looms, producing annually 200,500,000 yards of the value of $26,000,000, consuming 77,758,000 pounds, employing 62,000 persons, 40,000,000 yards are printed ; woollen, annual value of manufacture $40,000,000 employing 50^000 persons ; glass, porcelain, &c., $3,000,000; paper, $7,000,000 ; chemical articles $1,000,000 ; hats and caps $11,000,000 employing 18,000 persons ; cabinet ware $10,000,000, leather, glass, can- dles, soap, cutlery, firearms, sheet-iron, hardware, &c. AGRICULTURAL STATISTICS. Agriculture, including the means of procuring every part of the pro- duce of the land, is the grand source of liuman subsistence ; hence chiefly are derived the materials used in the manufactures, and the objects in the exchange of which commerce consists. The modes in which sifpport is obtained from land, are hunting, pasturage, and tillage ; the last, being the only mode in which labor is employed directly upon the ground itself, is more especially considered as agriculture. Tillage is employed by all the more improved nations, as the most efficacious means of drawing subsistence from the earth. In proportion to the general improvement which any people have attained, is usually the skill and diligence with which this art is practised. The community which derives its chief subsistence from the culture of the soil, merits generally the character of civilized. The objects of culture vary exceedingly, and for the most part accord- ing to the varieties of soil and climate. Grain, the main staff of human subsistence, forms every where the most extensive and important object of tillage.- Climate chiefly determines the gram cultivated in any par- ticular region ; in the tropical countries it is rice ; in the best parts of the temperate zones, wheat and barley ; in the colder tracts, oats and rye. Of luxuries, wine and oil are in the most general demand ; they are almost exclusively confined to the warmer regions of the temperate zones. The delicate fruits, from which they are produced, do not flour- ish in the excessively luxuriant soil of the tropics. There, however, the fragi'ant aromatic plants, and those filled with rich and saccharine juices, produce valuable substances, that are eagerly sought after by the natives of less genial climates. ^57 AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTIONS OF EUROPEAN COUNTRIES. States. Sweden & Norway Russia . . . Denmark . . Great Britain . Netlierlands Prussia. . . Austria ... Bavaria ... Wuctemberg . Baden ... Hanover Saxony . . . Smaller German States France . . Spain . . Portugal Switzerland Italy .... Ionian Isles Totals Cultivated Lands. Acres. 128,500,000 346,000,000 12,400,000 62,450,000 7,600,000 56,350,000 134,100,000 15,250,000 3,599.000 2,750,000 3,780,000 2,520,000 12,028,000 94,000,000 73,899,000 6,300,000 3,600,000 26,145,000 252,000 990,990,000, Arable Lands. Acres. 2,950,000 125,000,000 10,300,000 42,600,000 3,350,000 30,000,000 58,650,000 6,180,000 1,590,000 1,296,000 2,319,000 1,587,000 6,146,600 46,720,000 14,490,000 4,400,0000 1,416,000 15,100,000 74,000 372,145,000 Meadows SfPastures Acres. 910,000 25;ooo,ooo 1,200,000 18,800,000 2,530,000 12,870,000 11,810,000 2,638,000 481,000 348,000 409,000 312,000 1,265,000 14,457,000 55,400,000 220,000 667,000 1,576,000 150,000,000 Vine- yards. Acres. 4,700 34,000 2,520,000 343,600 49,200 70,000 6,250 21,800 4,047,000 945,000 236,000 74,000 3,780,000 37,800 12,275,000 Woodland. Acres. 124,600,000 188,000,000 669,000 933,000 984,000 16,220,000 47,000,000 6,279,000 1,130,000 996,000 946,000 600,000 3,646,000 14,479,000 9,450,000 1,240,000 1,510.000 6,670,000 425,250,000 Grain. Bushels. 33,750,000 873,000,000 63,360,000 414,750,000 77,219,000 229,000,000 579,500,000 46,800,000 16,820,000 14,060,000 25,200,000 13,270,000 55,265,000 369,430,000 107,400,000 33,650,000 11,850,000 183,280,000 790,000 3,150,000,000 Wine. Gallons. 725,000 7,560,000 630,000,000 22,000,000 2,296,000 3,888,000 360,000 10,080,000 861,996,000 144,000,000 24,786,000 10,800,000 Horses ^ Cattle. Mules. 696,000 2,647,000 12,000,000 19,000,000 554,000 1,607,000 1,900,000 10,500,000 566,000 2,600,000 1,332,300 4,275,700 1,856,500 9,912,600 325,000 1,895,700 91,000 713,000 65,900 421,900 267,300 794,000 64,000 345,000 336,600 1,503,474 2,560,000 6,681,900 1,600,000 2,600,000 540,000 650,000 80,500 800,000 1,600,000 3,500,p00 26,417,600 70,270,974 Sheep. 2,239,000 36,000,000 1,300,000 44,100,000 1,200,000 9,066,100 12,000,000 1,238,100 682,000 189,000 1,631,000 1,000,000 3,492,420 35,200,000 13,000,000 1,200,000 500,000 6,600,000 Swine. 1,200,000 15,800,000 350,000 5,250,000 1,400,000 1,496,000 5,600,000 1,500,000 145,000 204,100 201,000 , 151,000 811,910 4,000,000 1,000.000 700,000 200,000 2,500,000 Goats. 84,000 162,800 850,000 100,000 31,000 23,100 8,000 8,000 176,325 870,000 2,600,000 600,000 250,000 750,000 PRODUCTION AND CONSUMPTION OF SUGAR. The West Indies, Brazil, Guiana, Java, Mauritius, Bengal, Siam, the Isle of Bourbon, and the Philippines are the principal sources whence the supplies of sugar for the European and American markets are derived. The average- quantities exported from these countries during the three yeare preceding 1833, were as follows ; Exports. Tons. British West Indies - - 190,000 Mauritius - - - 30,000 East Indies - - - 60,000 Cuba and Porto Rico - - 110,000 French, Dutch, and Danish W. Indies 95,000 Brazil - - - - 75,000 Total 560,000 Consumption of Europe about 500,000 tons per annum of which 180,000 in Great Britain, and 90,000 in France. Imports. France Trieste Genoa - Antwerp Rotterdam Amsterdam Hamburg Bremen Copenhagen Petersburg Tons. 82,000 22,000 10,500 8,780 11,600 22,380 37,930 12,500 5,850 23,100 Consumption of the United States 80,000 tons, of which about one half are produced in Louisiana. Average consumption of each individ- ual in France 6 lbs ; in the United States 15 lbs ; in Great Britain 16 lbs. PRODUCTION AND CONSUMPTION OF COFFEE. The following tables contain an estimate of the annual exports of cof- fee from the principal places where it is produced, and the annual con- sumption in those countries into which it is imported. Exports. Tons. Arabian Ports - - - 10,000 Java - - - 18,000 Sumatra and other parts of India - 8,000 Brazil and Spanish Main St. Domingo Cuba and Porto Rico British West Indies Dutch West Indies French Colonies Total Consumption. Great Britain Netherlands - Germany and Baltic Countries Southern Europe, Levant, &c. United States. Total 1 42,000 20,000 25,000 11,000 5,000 8,0 00 147,000 Tons. 10,500 40,500 32,000 35,000 20,500 138,500 Nearly one fourth of the whole consumed in the United States and Great Britain. In the latter the consumption is less than 1 lb. per head for the whole population : in the former it is upwards of 3 lbs. PRODUCTION AND CONSUMPTION OF COTTON. Annual cotton crop of the United States about 400,000,000 lbs., of which 320,000,000 lbs. are exported as follows: lbs. To Great Britain and Ireland 228,000,000 France - - 77,000,000 Hanse Towns - 4,000,000 Trieste, &c. - - 1,660,000 Netherlands - - 3,920,000 Other European ports. 4,500,000 Imports. lbs. Great Britain - - 290,000,090 France - - 80,000,000 Hanse Towns - 6,000,000 Trieste - - - 25,000,000 Netherlands - - - 10,500,000 Brazil, the East Indies, Egypt, &c., are after the IFnited States the countries that furnish the largest supplies of cotton. Of 288,000,000 lbs. imported into Great Britain in 1831, 219,330,000 were from the United States, 31,695,000 from Brazil, 21,805,000 from the East Indies, 7,714,000 from Egypt, 2,401,000 from the British West Indies, &c. MINERAL PRODUCTS. " Mining, or the extraction of valuable substances from beneath the surface of the earth, can be extensively practised only in a somewhat advanced state of human industry. Yet nature has lodged in her dark repositories objects the most essentially conducive to the use and com- fort of mankind, and others which afford his most brilliant ornaments. Here are found the bright and attractive metals of gold and silver; there the solidly useful ores of iron and copper ; here glitter the diamond, the juby, the ametliyst ; there extend vast beds of coal, lime, and free- stone. Gold, the most precious of the metals, is often the most easily accessible ; but we can scarcely give the name of mining to the operation by which the savage merely collects the grains in the sands of the rivers, or even extracts it by pounding, when mechanically combined with other substances. But metals in general when lodged in the bowels of the earth exist in the form of ore, intimately and even chemically united with other mate- rials, from whicli they can be separated only by smelting, refining, and other elaborate and even scientific processes. From the toilsome nature of these operations, and from the gloomy depths in which they are conducted, it is often diiBcult to procure a supply of workmen; hence slaves and individuals condemned for crimes, have been employed to a later period in this than in most other species of labor. Whatever skill may be employed in mining it is necessarily a local occupation, nature having irregularly and almost capriciously distributed its objects over the different regions of the globe. Even the experiments made to discover whether metals are lodged in any particular spot, are often attended with considerable cost and even fen\."—(Encyclop. of Geography.) ANNUAL MINERAL PRODUCTION OF EUROPE. states. Sweden Russia Great Britain . , . Dentnarlt Netherlands . . . Hanover Prussia Saxony Smaller German States Baden Wurtemberg . . . Bavaria Austria France Spain Portugal Switzerland . . , Italy Turkey Totals Other Minerals, Quicksilver, 7670 cwt. — Tin, 68,276 cwt.— Zinc, 56,487 cwt.— Arsenic, 8,739 cwt.— Vitriol, 142,135 cwt.— Sulphur, 25,950 cwt.— Calamine, 118,525 cwt.— Cobalt, 20,853 cwt.— Alum, 91,479 cwt. Saltpetre 67,295 cwt. Annual value of Mineral Products, $135,000,000. PRECIOUS METALS. During 311 years from 1492, to 1803, it has been estimated that America has yielded 3,625,000 marks of gold, and 512,700,000 marks of silver, of the value of $ 5,700,000,000. At the beginning 'of the present century the total annual produce of gold and silver, as far as could be known was as follows : Oold Marks. Silver Marks. 65,158 3.553,700 From America, 57,658 3,250,000 « Europe, 5,300 '215,000 « Asia, 3,200 88,700 But this estimate does not include the produce of Africa, of Central Asia, China, Malaysia and Japan, which are all known to contain rich gold mines. The produce of Africa has been estimated at 58,000 marks ; that of Malaysia 19,500 marks ; and while the annual produce of Brazil has fallen since that period from above 15,000 marks of gold to about 3,500, that of the Ural mines has increased to about 24,900. The annual produce of the gold mines of the United States is probably not far from 12,000 marks.* * " In that portion of the gold region of the United States situated within the chartered limits of Georgia, the richest mineral belt, if it may be so termed, is met with in talcose slate and granite formations, alternating with horn blend slate, gneiss and chloride slate, taking a direction nearly N. N. E. and S. S. W. between the Chestatee and Ghatahoocbee rivers, in Habersham county, near the Cherokee country, it passes the Etowah river, and pursues an unvarying course till we meet it again on the banks of the Coosa river, in the Creek nation in the State of Alabama. There are other mineral ' belts' of gold veins and mines running a parallel coarse at Gold Silver Lead. Copper. Marks. Marks. Cwt. Cwt. *h 2,081 595 28,160 19,330 100,032 18,181 73,692^ 300,000 120,000 h 34,238 57,698 1,400 20,000 59,238 15,000 ek 48,000 10,423 615 2 6,374 19,115 2,742 589 2,000 400 180 4,530 104,770 80,000 50,000 4,300 25,000 2,000 31,000 250 36 900 1,600 2,649 281 23,905^ 321,984 606,792 294,701 Iron. Coal. Salt. Cwt. Cwt. Cwt. 1,578,262 613,000 65,000 2,123,217 1,818,100 12,000,000 300,000,000 3,630,000 362,500 55,400,000 121,834 469,840 293,528 2,348,783 4,600,000 1,216,090 80,000 620,000 '30,000 491,105 322,000 472,785 20,000 250,000 85,000 300,000 300,000 120,000 555,500 1,130,260 2,260,000 5,469,951 4,055,000 20,600,000 5,000,000 175,000 5,800,000 4,500 8,000 2,650,000 75,000 15,000 68,100 101,800 4,648,000 3,400,000 25,018,701 385,014,640 35,719,781 Since the beginning of the troubles in the Spanish American colonies, the produce of the mines has much fallen off, and at present the whole amount of gold and silver furnished by all America, exclusive of the United States is about Marks. Marks. Gold, 30,000 SUver, 838,850 Annual average Proditd of some Semarkable Veins of Silver, at the begin- ning of the 19th century. Marks. Marks, Potosi, 400,000 Zacatec?s, 360,000 Guanaxuato, 551,000 Pasco or Lauricocha, 300,000 Catorce, 400,000 ' All Europe, 215,000 Potosi alone yielded from 1545 to 1789, 107,736,300 marks of Silver. MINERAL PRODUCE OF THE UNITED STATES. We have but very imperfect data in regard to the amount and value of the mineral productions of this country. Perhaps 150,000 tons of iron ; 5,000,000 bushels of salt ; 10,000,000 lbs. of lead ; 500,000 tons of anthracite coal are approximations to the annual amount produced of those articles. Bituminous coal is abundant, and is considerably worked to the west of the Alleghany ; copper, black lead, cobalt, bismuth, &c., Year. 1824 1825 1826 1827 1828 1829 1830 1831 1832 1833 175,220 664,530 95^,842 5,182,180 11,105,810 13,343,150 8,323,998 6,381,900 4,281,876 7,941,792 (he United States Lead Mines. Missouri. Total. lbs. lbs. 175,220 386,590 1,051,120 1,374,962 2,333,804 910,380 6,092,560 1,205,920 12,311,730 1,198,160 14,541,310 8,060 8,332,058 67,180 6,449,080 4,281,876 7,941,792 5,151552 63,510,610 Totals, 58,359,358 Amount of Gold received at the Mint from the Gold Region in the United States. Previously to 1828, gold had been received from this district only from North Carolina, from which it was first transmitted in 1804. Up to 1824 the annual average value did not exceed $2,500; in 1824, it was 5)000; 1825,17,000; 1826,20,000; 1837,21,000; 1828, 46,000, all from North Carolina ; since that period, it has been received from six states, as fol- lows : it is estimated that about twice the sum transmitted to the mint is produced, a considerable quantity being exported and consumed in the arts. Tear. Virginia. J^. Carolina. S.Carolina. Oeorgia. Tenn. Ala. Total. 1829 9,500 134,000 3,500 $140,000 1830 24,000 204,000 26,000 212,000 466,000 1831 26,000 294,000 22,000 176,000 1,000 1,000 520,000 1832 34,000 458,000 45,000 140,000 1,000 678,000 1833 ,104,000 475,000 66,000 216,000 7,00 868, 000 Totals. 190,500 1,565,000 162,500 744,000 9,000 TpO 2,672,000 stated intervals and distances from each other— generally from eight to ten miles— and to be met with low down towards Augusta, on the Savannah river. These latter cross the Chatahoochee below Columbus. They are terminated, in their nearer approach to the seaboard of the Atlantic, by the disappearance of the primitive formation, which occurs a short distance above Augusta. This same position of the rocks occurs a little above Fred- ericksburg, in Virginia, where the primitive formation also terminates towards the coast. The same geological features are presented as in the neighborhood of Augusta, Georgia. Following the course of the upper mineral belt of Georgia, which is at a distance of from twenty-five to thirty miles from the Blue Ridge chain of mountains, we meet it in compara- tively the same aspect, in South Carolina and North Carolina: where, however, the gold region enters Virginia, a sensible difference occurs in its position with relation to the Blue Ridge. The upper mineral belts cross the Blue Ridge, and pass on through the valley between the chain and the Alleghanies. It is only the lower mineral belts that are met with in Virginia, on this side of the Blue Ridge. The largest amount of gold has been obtained from a class of mines generally known by the name of ' branch mines,' or stream mines, situated in the beds of rivers and rivulets and ravines. The capital required to work such mines being small, and the profits almost immediate and daily, a few machines called ' rockers' for washing the gravel strata in which the gold is found, and some negroes, with the necessary digging tools, are the pre- parations for opening and profitably working a mine of this nature. Many hundred negroes are yearly employed in the difibrent States for this purpose, and in general very profitably. It is considered that a mine of ordinary importance will yield from one to five d wts. to the hand pei; day. It is not uncommon to obtain 10 dwts. to the hand, and instan- ces have occurred when as high as ISO dwts. to the hand per day have been obtained." COLLEGES AND LIBRARIES. iS? Belgium, Snrfmte. ToU. in Lib'!/ 70,000 1928 500 1361 1375 50,000 1348 1450 1365 1950 90,000 1465 1700 60,000 1764 1000 1815 350 1826 320 1456 160 40,000 1544 1694 1160 50,000 1702 1150 130,000 1810 1950 400,000 1818 1000 70,000 1403 583 1743 450 100,000 1810 1850 105,000 1409 1390 80,000 & 3,000 Mas. 1734 1200 295,00C 1477 880 60,000 1386 820 90,000 1457 630 100,000 1527 '360 100,000 1607 500 1419 130 80,00( 1548 600 100,00( 1575 655 40,00C 1614 290 1636 501 1816 400 1826 650 1816 SIO UNIVERSITIES OP EUROPE. Coantn/. Padua, Pavia, Prague, Austria J Vienna, 8 ] Pesth, Leinberg, Innspruck, iGrstz, 'Greifswalde, Konigaberg, Prussia J Halle, 6 I Breslau, Berlin, Bonn, i Munich, Saxony, Leipsic Hanover, Gcettingen, WuTtemberg, Tubingen, Baden { Heidelberg, 2 I Freiburg, Hesse-Gasael, Marburg, Hesse-Darmstadt, Giessen, Mecklenburg, Rostock, Saxe-Weimar, Jena, Netheriand., ^^t&,e. I Utrecht, ' Ghent, [ Louvain, I Liege, Paris, 1200 Toulouse, 1238 Montpellier, 1289 Lyons, 1300 Aix, 1409 Poitiers, 1431 Caen, 1433 Bordeaux, 1447 Amiens, Anglers, Strasburg, 1538 Besangon, 1564 Bourges, Cahors, Clermont, Dijon, 1722 Douai, Grenoble, Limoges, Metz, Nancy, Nimes, Orleans, Pan, Rennes 1801 Rouen, 1801 Bastia, {Cambridge, 1229 Oxford, 1S63 London University, 1825 King's College, 1829 rat. Andrews, 1412 t Glasgow, 1454 Scotland,^ King's College, 1506 Edinburgh, 1582 I Marischal, 1593 Ireland, Dublin, 1320 fDorpat, 1632 Moscow, 1803 Kazan, 1803 Charkor, 1804 Petersburg, lB19 Helsingfors, 1828 Wilna, 1578 ♦Warsaw 1818 ( Upsal, 1476 I Lund, France. 27 Russia, 7 Sweden, Norway, Cbristiania, Denmark, jg^P->'''8". ' Valladolid, Huesca, Salamanca, Valencia, Saragossa, Spain, I Alcala da Henares 11 1 Seville, Grenada, St. Jago de Compos- tella, 1531 Oviedo, 1580 Cervera, 1715 I Basle, 1460 Lausanne, } Geneva, ( Styled Berne, (Academies. Zurich, I 1811 1479 1665 1346 1354 1404 1404 1474 1490 1504 1531 1700 1400 450 180 600 235 200O 220 1250 370 820 118 340 50 340 976 1000 480 400 780 S80 1250 540 400 1560 1175 360 870 800 570 120 200 Two Sicilies 3 Portugal, Coimbra, Cracow, I Naples, } Palermo, ( Catania, c Turin, Sardinia. } Genoa, 4 1 Cagliari, ( Sassari, ' States [ Rome, of the } Bologna, Church. \ Perugia, 4 ( Urbinoj "T-r^'jlisaT' ( Florence, Parma, Modena, Lucca, Ionian Isles, Corfu, 1279 1400 1224 1394 1445 1405 1812 1720 1765 1295 1168 1307 1826 1330 1333 1438 36,000 ? 35,000 300 800 500 200 60,000 COLLEGES IN THE UNITED STATES. From the American Almanac for IE M. Methodist; C. 33. B. Baptist; E. EpiBcopalian ; Roman Catholic. Name and Place. | Bowdoin, Brunswick, Me. 1794 Waterville, (B.) Waterville, Me. 1820 Dartmouth, Hanover, N. H. 1770 University of Vermont, Burlington, 1791 Middlebury, Middlebury, Vt. 1800 Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass. 1638 Williams, Wiltiamstown, Mass. 1793 Amherst, Amherst, Mass. 1821 Brown University, (B.) Providence, R. I. 1764 Yale, New Haven, Ct. 1700 Washington, (E.) Hartford, Ct. 1824 Wesleyan Univer'ty, (M.) Midd]etown,Ct. 1831 Columbia, (E.^ New York, N. Y. 1754 ~ ^ 1795 1812 AUSTRIAN EMPIRE. Volumea. (Vienna), 300,000 30,000 45,000 Name. Imperial Tberesian Medical Academy's Lcewenberg, Emperor's Private Archduke Charlee' Kloster-Neuburg, Kremsmunster, Molk, Gretx Lyceum, Admont, Lintz Lyceum, Saltzburg Lyceum, St. Peter's (Saltzburg), Clementine College " Cathedral " Olmutz Lyceum, Kremeier, Debretzia, Maroa-Yaaarbely (TranB.), SaroB-Palak (Hungary), Brera (Milan), Ambroaiau " Nimea, Orleans, St, Mark's (Tenice), Nani " Benedictine (Padua,) Pavia, Belluno, Lyceum (Brescia), Lyceum (Bergamo), Vicenza, Mantua, 60,000 60,000 60,000 as.ooo 25,000 35,000 105,000 8,500 Mse. 20,000 22,000 20,000 3fi,0O0 30,000 45,000 34,000 30,000 25,000 60,000 20,000 140,000 76,000 15,000 Msa. 150,000 40,000 52,000 33,000 45,000 60,000 30,000 20,000 50,000 150,000 400,000 30,000 30,000 150,000 60,000 40,000 73,000 100,000 12,000 20,000 25,000 28,000 * The unirersity bai been luppreued, and tha libraiy truaported to Fe- tenborg. * Union, Schenectady, N. Y*^. Hamilton, Clinton, N. Y. Geneva, (E.) Geneva, N. Y, Univ'y of New York, New York, N. Y. 1831 226 New Jersey, Princeton, N. J. 1746 170 Rutgers', New Brunswick, N. J. 1770 85 University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, 1755 94 Dickinson, (M.) Carlisle, Pa. 1783 ? Jefferson, Canonsburg, Pa. 1802 175 Washington, Washington, Pa. 1820 47 Allegheny, (M.) Meadville, Pa. 1806 ? Western University, Pittsburg, Pa. 1815 50 Pennsylvania, Gettysburg, Pa. 1632 ? Newark, Newark, Del. 1833 ? University of Maryland, Baltimore, Md. 1812 ? St. John's, (E.) Annapolis, Md. 1784 32 St. Mary's (C.) Baltimore, 1799 193: Mount St. Mary's, (C.) Emmetsburg, Md. 1830 90 Columbian, (B.) Washington, D. C. 1821 25 Georgetown, (C.) Georgetown, D. C. 1799 134 : William,and Mary, Williamsburg, Va. 1693 15 Hampden-Sydney, Prince Edward Co. Va. 1774 75 Washington, Lexington, Va. 1812 46 Virginia University, Charlottesville, 1819 205 Randolpli-Macon, (M.) Boydton, Va. 1831 ? North Carolina Univ. Chapel Hill, N. C. 1791 Charleston, (E.) Charleston, S. C*. South Carolina, Columbia, S. C. Georgia University, Athens, Geo. Alabama University, Tuscaloosa, Ala. Jefferson, Washington, Miss. Louisiana, Jackson, La. Greenville., Greenville, Ten. Nashville Uninersity, Nashville, Ten. East Tennessee, Knoxville, Ten. Transylvania, Lexington, Ky. Centre, Danville, Ky. Augusta, (M.) Augusta, Ey. Cumberland, Princeton, Ky. St. Joseph's, (C.) Bardstown, Ky. Georgetown, (B.) Georgetown, Ky. Ohio University, Athens, O. Miami University, Oxford, O. Western Reserve, Hudson, O. Kenyon, (E.) Garobier, O. Franklin, New Athens, O. Indiana, Bloomington, Ind. South Hanover, S. Hanover, Ind. Illinois, Jacksonville, III. St. Louis University, (C.) St. Louis, Mo. St. Mary's (C.) Barrens, Mo. PRINCIPAL LIBRARIES. (Omiaing those above mentioned.) The total number of volumes in the public libraries of Europe is about 20,000,000, distributed as follows : Austrian Empire 2,220,000 ; Prussia, 910,000 ; other German States, 3,520,000 ; Ffance, 6,427,000 ,- Great Britain, 1,535,000 ; Rus- sia, 880,000 J Italy, exclusive of the Austrian Provinces, 2,139,000 ; in Germany, including the Austrian and Prus- sian Provinces, 5,735,000 j in all Italy, 3,000,000, Royal (Berlin), Gymnaaiiim (Daotzic), Orphan Asvlum (Halle), Vl^ernigeroae, Erfurt, Gymnaalum (Cologne), DuBseldorf, Munater, Treves, GERMANY. Royal (Munich), Augaburg, Ratisbon, Royal (Dreaden), City (Leipaic), Beygang " Royal (HanoYer), Cathedral (Hildeahelm) , Royal (Stuttgard), King's Private " Grand Ducal, (Carlsruhe), Mnnheim, Electoral (Cassel), Grand Ducal (Darmstadt) Senkenberg (GiesBen), City (Mentz), Ducal (Wolfenbattel), Ducal (Weimar), National (Gotha), Duke's Private " Meiningen, Cobure, Rostock, Rudolatadt, Arplseu, City (PranWort,) Lubec, City, (Hamburg), Merchanta' *' FRANCE. (Paris), 160,000 27,000 20,000 80,000 27,000 60,000 30,000 21,000 70,000 400,000 24,000 25,000 250,000 36,000 70,000 24,000 20,000 140,000 3500 Mb9: 30,000 4000 Mse. 70,000 25,000 90,900 , 110,000 25,000 80,000 210,000 112,000 60,000 20,000 24,000 25,000 30,000 30,000 30,000 80,000 30,000 80,000 25,000 30,000 35,000 24,000 70,000 30,000 60,000 23,800 50,000 30,000 40,000 30,000 70,000 80,000 40,000 110,000 25,000 Strasburg, Sain tea, Troyes, Toulouse, VersailleB, NETHERLANDS. Royal (Amsterdam), Royal (Hague), BELGIUM. Royal (Brussels), Louvain, Ghent, Liege, UNITED KINGDOM. British Muaeum (London), 250,000 20,000 Msi. Woodstock, 24,000 Advocates (Edinburgh), 70,000 Writers to the Signet " 12,000 Manchester, 20,000 Belfast, 20,000 Marsh (Dublita), ( Lord Spenser's (Althorp), 40,000 Duke of Marlborough's, 21,000 Tiord Holland's, 30,000 GymnaBium (Malta), 26,000 City " 80,000 RUSSIA. Imperial (Petersburg), 300,000 Academy of Science " 110,000 Hermitage " 40,000 Admiralty " 40,000 Academy of Arts " 26,000 Monastery of Alex. Newsky " 30,000 Grand Duke Constantlne " 30,000 Prince Jussup of (Moscow) , 25,000 Demidoff (Jaroslav), 80,000 Riga, 25,000 Czartorysky (Pulawy), 60,000 SWEDEN AND NORWAY. Royal (Stockholm), 40,000 Royal (Copenhagen), 260,000 Classen, " 25,000 SPAIN. Royal (Madrid), 200,000 San laidoro " 50,000 Escurial, 90,000 Seville, 20,000 Cathedral (Yalencia) , %,000 St. Catharine's (Barcelona), 30,000 PORTUGAL. Royal (Lisbon), Jesus " St. Francis " St. Vincent " Necesidades " Biahop's (Oporto), Tibaena, Evora, Royal (Ajada), Sta. Cruz (Coimbra), Royal St. Genevieve ' Mazarin " Institute Polytechnic School " City " Court of Casaation " Tribunal de premiere In- stance " Deputies " Medical " Invalides, College Louia-le-Qrand ' College Royal " Aix, Angera, Arrae, Avignon, Amieoa, Besangon, Bordeaux!, Bourges, St. Brieux, Chartres, Chaumont, Chalona, Cambray, Colmar, Carpentraa, Dijon, Doual, Grenoble, Le Mana, La Fleche, Lyona, Maraeillea, Montpellier, Metz, Mezieres, Nantei, ' Nancy, 5,000 Mss. 112,000 2000 Mas. 90,000 70,000 26,000 45,000 36,000 25,000 35,000 26,000 25,000 30,000 30,000 TO,600 22,000 34,000 30,000 40,000 53,000 105,000 30,000 23.000 28,000 24,000 34,000 27,000 30,000 60,000 35,000 27,000 42,000 41,000 22,000 120,000 95,000 42,000 69,000 21,000 22,000 60,000 85,000 32,000 20,000 22,000 28,000 32,000 25,000 20,000 20,000 36,000 SWITZERLAND. Geneva, Berne, ITALY. Vatican (Rome), Minerva " Angelica " Barberini " Corsini " Ghigi " Magnani (Bologna), Ferrara, Ravenna, Malatestina (Rimini), Museo Borbonico (Naples). Mt. Olivelo " Palermo, Catania, Parma, Piacenza, San Carlo (Genoa), Berio " Franzoniana " Alesaandria, Novara, Grand Ducal (Florence), Laurentian '■ Maurocellian " Maulebecchiaa " Ricardian " Modena, Reggio, 40,000 30,000 160,000 80,000 100,000 60,000 86,000 25,000 30,000 50,000 24,000 1^,000 80,000 20,000 40,000 35,000 110,000 30,000 30,000 20,000 30,000 27,000 20,000 80,000 120,000 60,000 90,000 20,000 80,000 30,000 UNITED STATES. Athensum (Boston), 28,500 Maes. Hiator. Society " 6,000 Boston " 8,600 American Academy " 3,000 AtheuEBum (Salem), 10,0(HI Theo'l Seminary (Andover) , 12,000 Antiq'an Soc. (Worcester), 11,000 Society (New York), 22,000 Hist. Society " 10,000 City (Philadelphia), 40,000 Aroer. Phil. Society *■ 10,000 Hospital « 6,000 Athenffium *' 6,800 Congress (Washingtoo), 16,000 Society (Charleiton), 14,000 TABULAR VIEW OF LANGUAGES. The whole number of known languages is about 3,000, of which in the pres- ent state of our knowledge we are able to classify somewhat less than half, comprising 5,000 dialects. Of this number of languages 153 belong to Asia ; 53 to Europe ; 115 to Africa ; 117 to Oceania ; and 438 to America. There are, however, 15 languages which tire spoken over a greater extent of country or by a greater number of individuals than the others, viz. : six Asiatic languages, the Chinese, Arabic, Turkish, Persian, Hebrew, and Sans- crit ; eight TEuropean languages, German, English, French, Spanish, Portu- guese, Russian, Greek, and Latin ; and one Oceanian, the Malay. I. EcRopEAzf Lahgdages. Thesc form six families, viz. : 1. Basque or Iberian Family. 2. Celtic Family : Gaelic (Irish, Highland-Scotch) ; Kymiic (Welsh, Low Breton). 3. Thraoo-Pelasgic or Greco-Latin Family, comprising four Branches : a. Albanese or Skipetar ; b. Etruscan ; c. Hellenic or Ancient Greek ; Romaic or Modern Greek ; d. Italic ; 1. Latin; 2. Roman (lingua rustica), of which Provencal, Catalonian, Romanic, &c. are modern dialects ; 3. Italian; 4. French; 5. Spanish; 6. Portuguese; 7. Walachian. 4. Germanic Family ; four Branches : a. Teutonic ; 1. Old High German ; 2. German (Deutsch). b. Saxon of Cimbric ; 1. Low German or Saxon ; 2. Frisian ; 3. Nether- landish (Dutch and Flemish). c. Scandinavian; 1. Moesogothic; 2. Norse; 3. Norwegian; 4. Swedish; 5. Danish. d. Anglo-British ; 1 . Anglo-Saxon ; 2. English. 5. Slavic Family; three Branches: a. Russo-IUyrian ; 1. Sclavonic, Servian, Illyrian ; 2. Russian ; 3. Croa- tian ; 4. Windish. b. Bohemo-Polish ; 1. Czech or Bohemian ; 2. Polish ; 3. Sorabian. c. Wendo-Lithuanian ; 1. Wend; 2. Lithuanian; 3. Lettish; 4. Pruczic. 6. Uralian or Finnic Family ; Five Branches : a. Germano-Finnic ; 1. Finnic Proper ; 2. Esthonian ; 3. Laplandish ; 4. Livonian. b. Volgaic. — 0. Permian; 1. Permiac; 2. Votiec. d. Hungarian; 1. Magyar or Hungarian ; 2. Wogul ; 3. Ostiac. e. Uncertain; 1. Hunnic; 2. Avar; 3. Bulgarian; 4. Chazar. II. Asiatic Languages. Semitic Family ; Five branches : . a. Hebraic; 1. Hebrew; 2. Phoenician; 3. Punic or Carthaginian. b. Syrian ; 1. Syriac ; 2. Chaldee. c. Median (Pehlvi). d. Arabic— e. Abyssinian; 1. Gheez; 2. Amharic. f. Persian; 1. Zend ; 2. Parsee or Ancient Persian; 3. Tadshikor Mod- ern Persian; 4. Kurd; 5. Ossetic; 6. Afghan or Pooshtoo ; 7. Beloochi. Languages of the Caucasian Region : a. Georgian Family ; 1. Georgian ; 2. Mingrelian ; 3. Lazian ; 4. Suanian. b. Armenian. c. Lesghian Languages ; 1. Avar; 2. Kura; 3. Akusha; 4. Kazikumuk. d. Other Languages ; I.Circassian; 2. Abassian; 3. Mizjeghi. Languages of mndostan. a. Sanscrit Family : 1. Sanscrit; 2. Pali or Bali (Dead Languages). 3. Pracrit or Living Languages, as Hindee or Hindustanee, Cashmerian, Caubul, Sindee, Zingaree or Gipsy, Kutch, Maldivian, Mahratta, Cin- galese, Taraul, Telinga, Bengalee, Assamese, &c. b. Particular Languages ; the Touppak ; Garow ; Choomeas ; Catty war ; Gond, &c. ■ Languages of the Transgangetic Region ; Five Branches : a. Tibetan ; 1. Tibetan ; 2. Unigas ; 3. Bhutias. b.' Indo-Chinese; 1. Birmo-Aracan ; 2. Moitai; 3. Peguan or Moan; 4. Lao-Siamese ; 5. Cambodian ; 6. Annamite (Written and Polished Lan- fuage,s) ; 7. Moi; 8. Nicobar; 9. Andaman; 10. Moys, &c. (Unwritten languages). c. Chinese ; 1. Chinese Family, (Kou Wen or Ancient Chinese, Kuan Kou or Modern Chinese, and Ching Cheu) ; Particular Languages (Miaossee, Lolos, Hainan). d. Sianpi or Corean. — e. Japanese ; 1. Japanese ; 2. Loo Choo. Group of Tartar Languages ; Three Families : a. Tungusian; 1. Manchoo; 2. Tungoo. b. Mongolian; 1. Mongol; 2. Calmuck ot Olet-, 3. Booriet. c. Turkish; I.Turkish (Osmanli,Kaptchak, Turcoman, Kirghis,&o.); 2. Takout ; 3. Tchuwatch. Languages of Siberia. a. Samoyede Family (Kassoro, Tawghi, Narym, Karass, Soyot, &o.). b. Yenisseio Family (Denka, Imbask, Arin, Pumpokolsk, &c.). c. Yukaghir. — d. Koryek. — e. Kamchadale Family, f. Kurilian Family (Kurile,Yes3o, andTarakai). III. African Languages : Five Groups, a. Languages of the Nilotic Region : 1. Egyptian Family (Ancient Egyptian ; Copt or Modern Egyptian). t 2. Nubian Family (Nubah; Kenoo or Berber). 3. Shillook; 4. Shangalla; 5. Agow; 6. Gurac, &c. 7. Troglodytic Family (Bicharian, Adareb, Ababde, &o.). b. Atlantic Family : 1 . Berber ; 2. Tuaric ; 3. Tibboo ; 4. Shelloo, &c. c. Languages of Nigritia : 1. Jalof; 2. Mandingo; 3.Fellatah or Foula; 4. Haoussa ; 5. Bomouese ; 6. Mandara ; 7. Ashantee ; 8. Congo, &o. d. Languages of Southern Africa : 1. Caffre ; 2. Hottentot. e. Languages of Eastern Africa: l.Monomotapa; 2. Galla; 3. Somauli; 4. Madecassee, &c. IV. Oceanian Languages : a. Malay Family ; 1. The Great Oceanian; 2. Javanese; 3. MaJ^ Prop- er ; 4. B^i ; 5. Achinese ; 6. Bissayo ; 7. Mindanao ; 8. New Zealand- ish; 9. Tonga; 10. Feejee; 11. Taitian (Otaheitan) ; 12.> Sandwich (Hawaian), &c. b.. Languages of the Melanesians or Black Oceanians; 1. Papua; 2. Al- fouroo ; 3. Birara (of New Britain) ; 4. Tombara, &c. V. Amekican Languages : Languages of the Southern Region : a. Chilian Family ; 1. Auca or Auracanian ; 2. Huilliche. b. Pecherai ; c. Patagonian ; d. Puelche ; e. Tehuelhet. Languages of the Peruvian Region : a. Abiponian; b. Mocoby; c. Peruvian or Quichua; d. Chiquitos; e. CarapuchoB, &c. Languages of the Brazilian Region : a. Guarani Family : 1 . Guarani , 2. Omagua ; 3. Brazilian. b. Botecudos ; c. Mundrucus ; d. Guayana ; e. Purys Family; 1. Purys; 2. Coroados; 3. Coropos. f. Payagua Family ; 1- Guaycurus; 2. P^agua; 3. Lenguas, &c. g. Camacan Family ; 1. Machacari; 2. Camacan; 3. Patachos; 4. Ma- conis, &c. h. Guanas; i. Bororos; j. Cayapos, &c. Languages of the Orinoco- Amazonian Region : a. Carib Family ; 1. Carib ; 2. Tamanaco ; 3. Chayma ; 4. Guarive ; 5. Arrowauk, &c. b. Guayca ; c. Guama; d. Ottomac; e. Guahiva; f. Maypure Family ; 1. Cavery ; 2. Maypure ; 3. Moxos ; 4. Guaypu- nabi, &c. ;. Saliva Family; 1. Saliva; 2. Ature;"3. Maco, &c. Oyampi; i. Monitivitano ; j. Marepizano; k. Manoos; 1. Goahiros ; m. Cunacunas ; n. Maynas, &c. Languages of the Guatemalcan Region : a. Changueno ; b. Towkas ; c. Mosquitos ; d. Poyajs ; e. Choi ; f. Quicno Family ; 1. Maya; 2. Q,uicho; 3. Haitian; 4. Jamaican, &c. g. Chapaneco, &c. Languages of the Mexican Region : a. Mixteco ; b. Zapoteco ; c. Totonaco ; d. Mexican Namily ; I.Aztec; 2. Toltec; 3. Meco. e. Othomi ; f. Tarasco, &c. Languages of the Central Region of North America : a. Tarhumara; b. Yaqui; c. Moqui; d. Apaches; e. Pawnee family; 1. Pawnee; 2. Arrapahays; 3. Tetanor Comanches; 4. Kaskaias ; 5. Rickaree ; 6. Kiaways, &c. f. Caddo ; g. Attakapas ; h. Pascagoulas ; i. Appalache, &c. Languages ofthe AUeghanian Region : a. Floridian Family ; 1. Natchez ; 2. Muskogee or Creek ; 4. Cherokee ; 5. Choctaw; 6. Chickasaw. b. Catawba; 1. Woccon; 2. Catawba. c. Lennape Family; 1. Shawnee and Kickapoo; 2. Ottogami (Sauks and Foxes) ; 3. Menomonie ; 4. Miami (Illinois, Piankeshaw, Pottawattami, Kas'kaskia, Peoria, &c.) ; 5. Lennape or Delaware , 6. Narraganset (Pequod and duinticook) ; 7. Natick; 8. Powhatttm; 9. Monegan (Abenaki, Penobscot, Canibas, &c.) ; 10. Micmac ; 11. Algonquin (Chippeway , Ottawa, Musoonong, RELIGIOUS CHART OF THE GLOBE. History has never made us acquainted with a human society, destitute of religious rites and doctrines; and in general, if not universally, the religion professed by any tribe or people is one of the most important features of their social condition. The inhabitants of the globe are often divided, in regard to religion, into three great classes, Christian, Mahometan, and Pagan, the last including all not belonging to the two first divisions. But a more philosophical view of the subject distributes the various religions pro- fessed by men, into two general divisions; the one including those superstitions which do not recognise a Supreme Deity, and the other, comprising those religious systems which acknowledge one God, tlie Creator, Ruler, and Preserver oi all things. The term Fetichism is applied to all that class of superstitions, which consist in the worship of the animate and inanimate objects of nature, the elements, trees, rivers, mountains, &c. These forms of the religious principle appear in the lowest and rudest states of human society, among the negroes of Africa, the savage tribes of America, the most barbarous and stupid of the Pacific Islanders, &c. A somewhat more elevated form of superstition is Sabeism or the worship of the heavenly bodies, the sun, moon, and stars, either singly or togetlier, as a common object of adoration. The principal religions comprised in the second class of religious systems, are Judaism, Christianity, IVIahometanism or Islamism, Magianism, Brahmanism, Budd- hism, Sintism, Nauekism, Mythological Naturalism or the Worship of Spirits, and Pantheism or the Doctrine of Confucius. Various attempts have been made to estimate the numbers of the adherents of these difi^erent systems ; but numerous causes render it impossible to reach any considerable degree of accuracy on this point. We give below the results of the calculations of several distinguished writers. Matte Brun. 1810 Christians, 228,000,000 Jews, 5,000,000 Mahometans, 110,000,000 Brahmanists, 60,000,000 Buddhists, 150,000,000 All Others, 100,000,000 Qrdbere, 1813 236,000,000 5,000,000 120,000,000 60,000,000 150,000,000 115,000,000 Hassel, 1827 252,000,000 3,930,000 120,105,000 111,353,000 315,977,000 134,490,000 Balbi. 1826 260,000,000 4,000,000 96,000,000 60,000,000 170,000,000 147,000,000 Totals, 653,000,000 636,000,000 937,855,000 737,000,000 The following tables of the distribution of the different religions in Europe and America can only be considered as approximations. EUROPE. Roman Catholics and United Greeks, 115,000,000") Greek Catholics, 53,500,000 „,„ .,„ „„ „, . .. Protestants, 50,700,000 ^219,450,000 Christians. Armenians, 250,OOoJ Mahometans, 5,700,000") Jews, 2,300,000 }■ 8,250,000 Non-Christians. Pagans, 250,000_J The Roman Catholic religion is professed by all the inhabitants of Portugal, Spain, the Italian States, and France, with the exception of 1,000,000 Calvinists, and a few Lutherans. It is also the religion of three fourths of tlie people of Ireland, and of the greater part of the subjects of the Austrian Empire, and of nearly one half of those of Prussia, Switzerland, and the smaller German powers. The Lutheran religion is professed by nearly all of the inhabitants of the Danish and Swedish monarchies, and by the bulk of those of Prussia, Hanover, Saxony, Wurtemberg, and some other German states. Calvinism is professed by the mass of the population in Scotland, England, and Holland, in the Swiss Cantons of Berne, Zurich, Bale, &c., in the German states of Nassau, Electoral Hesse, &c., and by 1,000,000 of the inhabitants of France. The doctrines of the Greek Church prevail in Russia, the Ionian Isles, Greece, Servia, Walachia, and Moldavia, and are professed by about one half the inhabitants of the Ottoman Empire, and by many Austrian subjects in Transylvania, Hungary, Croatia, Slavonia, and Dalmatia. In general it may be said that the Roman Catholic religion is the faith of the Romanic nations and of Southern Europe ; that Protestantism prevails, though with less universality, in Northern Europe, among the Teutonic people ; and that Eastern Europe, inhabited by the Sclavonic race, is attached to the Greek rites. Setting aside those states in which there is little diversity of religious faith, and the petty German powers, the following table exhibits the distribution of the population in those countries in which a considerable diversity of religion prevails. Oreek Cath. 45,350,000 3,000 Russia, Poland, Prussia, Austria, 2,900,000 Saxony, Bavaria, Rtm. Cath. Lutherans. Calvinists. Armen. 3,500,000 4,380,000 4,816,000 2,000,000 200,000 Evan 7,73: 54,000 100,000 :elical ,264 250,000 25,450,000 1,150,000 1,600,000 13,500 48,500 2,880,000 1,363,000 Evan 1,10( 'elical ,000 820,000 1,216,000 Morav. 10,000 Mennon. 6,000 15,655 Unitarians 40,000 Anabaptists 100 There are beside 500,000 Jews in Austria, 385,000 in Poland, 161,000 in Prussia, and 600,000 in Russia; and in the last named country 2,500,000 Mahometans, 300,000 Lamaists and 800,000 idolaters and Fetichists. Roman Catholics, 'A. Spanish American States, Whites, Indians, Mixed Races, AMERICA. b. Brazil, 0. United States, 3,000,000 - 7,800,000 6,200,000 17,000,000 17,000,000 5,000,000 - 800,000 25,200,000 d. Canadas, &c., - . . . - e. Haiti, - . . . - f. Spanish and French Colonies, Protestants, - - _ - - - a. United States, - - b. Canadas, -_.--- c. English, Dutch, and Danish West Indies, Pagan Indians, - - - UNITED STATE3. Sects. Communicants. " Methodists, 54S,5l - 400,000 800,000 1,200,000 12,060,000 800,000 1,200,000 14,060,000 800,000 Baptists, Presbyterians, - - - Congregationalists, Episcopalians, Roman Catliolics, Lutherans, - - - Universalists, Christians, - - - - Friends, _ . . - German and Dutch Reformed, Unitarians, Meunonites, - - - Moravians, - - - S wedenborgians, Tunkers, - - - Shakers, 482,540 245,500 155,000 59,787 51,213 30,000 Estimated JVo. of Hearers. - 3,000,000 4,300,000 - 2,175,000 1,400,000 600,000 800,000 540;000 600,000 300,000 - 220,000 450,000 - 180,000 120,000 6,745 - 5,000 30,000 - 6,000 In the British Provinces the great mass of tbe population is Roman Catholic and Presbyterian, and in the Spanish and Portuguese American States, and Spanish and French Colonies, it is Roman Catholic. Asia. Asia, tlie mother of fables and fantastic superstitions, the domain of absurd rites and revolting practices, affords a striking example of the mournful aberrations of human reason, wandering without tlie guide of divine revelation. And as if to exhibit the contrast in a stronger light, the birth-place of the Mosaic and Christian religions is also the home of the Sabean superstition, the follies of Buddhism, the degrading absurdities of the Brahmanic faith, the gross imposture of Mahomet, &c. The estimates which have been formed of the population of the Asiatic states by different writers, are extremely various, and often vague and hasty. Any statements concerning the religious distribution of the inhabitants, must of course partake of the same uncertainties, beside presenting peculiar difficulties of their own. Islamism or Mahometanism, is the most widely extended faith, although it does not count the freatest number of adherents. It is professed by the Arabs, Persians, Afghans, 'urks, Beloochis, Circassians, and other people of the Caucasian countries, the Moguls of Hindostao, the Malays of Malacca, &c. Brahmanism is the dominant faith in Hindostan; it recognises Bram or Para Brahma, as the supreme god, but delegates his powers to a crowd of inferior divinities. The Vedas or sacred books, teach the doctrine of metempsychosis, the immortality of the soul, and the efficacy of penances and abstinences in purifying it from sin, and impose numerous religious practices and ceremonies. The doctrines and ceremonies of this faith are, however, much corrupted, and many horrible rites and licentious usages prevail. Its followers are divided into four castes, Bramins or the priests and learned ; Shatriyas or war- riors; Vaishyas or husbandmen and merchants; and Soodras or artisans and labor- ers ; beside these are mixed castes or out castes, of whom the Pariahs are the most degraded and abhorred. The temples of the Hindoos are called Pagodas. Buddhism has the greatest number of adherents ; it prevails in Further India, Thibet, Mongolia, Manchooria, China, Corea, and Japan. Our limits will not allow us to enter into its metaphysical dogmas ; it teaches an eternal first cause, which continues in repose until necessity requires a new creation, when the Buddhas, or perfected and purified spirits, descend to earth in a human form. In its rites and hierarchy it bears a striking resemblance to the Roman Cathplic religion ; i^s superior priests assemble to elect a supreme pontiff, and in its convents for men and women, its prayers for the dead, its belief in the intercession of saints, the practices of fasting, auricular confusion, lustral water, &c., the Catliolic missionaries seemed to recognise their own worship. Nanekism, founded by'Nanek, in the 15th century, a compound of Brahmanism and Islamism, is professed by the Seiks: the Worship of Spirits and the Doctrine of Confucius are extensively spread in China, Japan, Corea, Tonquin, &c., and Sintoism has many followers in Japan. Hassel thus enumerates the religious sects of Asia: Buddhists, 295,000,000 | Shamans, 8.000,000 Sintoists, 1,000,000 ~ Nanekists, 4,500,000 Jews, 650,000 Worshippers of Spirits, 2,000,000 Guebres, 300,000 Sect of Confucius, 1,000,000 Africa. Mahometanism prevails in Egypt, Nubia, the Barbary States, and in many Negro States of Western and Central Nigritia (Bornoo, Darfiir, Beghermeh, Fellatah Empire, Tombuctoo, Lower Bambarra, among the Foolahs, Mandingoes,&c.) Christianity is the religion of the Abyssinians, and the 80,000 Copts of Egypt, of some of the negro tribes in the French and Portuguese territories, and of the various European colonies. Fetichism, under an infinite variety of forms, is professed by the bulk of the pop- ulation of Afirica. Our knowledge of the country is too imperfect to allow of any approximation to the number of the followers of the different religions. Oceania. Mahometanism is the faith of the majority of the inhabitants of Oceania, since it is professed by nearly all the Javanese, the Malays of Sumatra, Borneo, the MoluOcas, &c., the Acheenese, Siaks, Macassars, and Sooloos, by the bulk of the people of the Moluccas, Mindanao, &c. Brahmanism and Buddhism, formerly prevalent in Malaysia, have now few adherents. Christianity has been embraced by the Sandwich, and Society Islanders, and by som&of the inhabitants of the Friendly Islands, &c., and is professed bv many of the natives in the Marianne and Philippine Islands, in Timor, Flores, &c.' Various forms of polytheism and fetichism prevail in the rest of this division of the world. Brahmanists, 80,000,000 Mahometans, 70,000,000 Christians, 17,000,000 TABULAR VIEW OP MISSIONS, Orioiit and HiaTORT OF Missions. The Rom^n Catholics led the way in the attempt to Christianize the world. In 1534 in the subterranean chapel of the monastery of Mont- martre, Loyola, the celebrated founder of the Jesuits, bound several disciples by vows of poverty and chastity to dedicate themselves to the conversion of infidels, and in 1541, Xa- vier, the illustrious apostle of India, embarked for that scene of his labors and sufferings. In the beginning of the next century the congregatio de propaganda fide Was founded by the pope, with which a college for the education of missionaries was connected. China, Japan, the Indian peninsulas, and the islands of the Pacific heard the gospel preached by the Roman missionaries, and they followed in the bloody tracks of the conquerors of the Mew World, binding up the wounds which ambition and avarice inflicted upon its oflEen gentle and peaceful natives. The Dutch were the first Protestants who established missions in their settlements and colonies, founding churches and schools for the instruction and conversion of the natives, and they were followed by the Dailes ; the Royal Danish Missionary Society was insti- tuted in 1704, and still continues its labors at Tranquebar. The Society for the Propa- gation of the Gospel in Foreign Farts was founded in London, in 1701, but its exertioijs were chiefly confined to the British American colonies previous to the American revolu- tion. The Moravians in 1732, and the Ehglish Baptists were, however, the first to adopt more extensive plans, and to meditate the conversion of the world, and their example has been followed by nearly all other Protestant sects. I. CATHOLIC MISSIONS. The most active Catholic missionaries have been the Dominican^, the Franciscans, and the Jesuits, particularly the last. The missions were divided into four classes. Th£ Missions op the Levant, which comprised Constantinople, Greece, Syria, Arme- nia, Persia, the Crimea, iGthiopia and £gypt ; / The Missions of Amehica, beginning at Hifdson'a Bay, and extending through Cana- da, Louisiana^ California, the West Indies, New Grenada, Peru, and Guiana to the cele- brated Reductions of Paxaguay ; The Missitns-oF India, including those of Hindoostan, Further India, the PMlippinea, Carolines, and other islands of the Pacific ; And the Missions of China, comprising those of Tonquin, Cochin China, and Japan. From much of this vast field the Catholic missionaries have been driven by political revolutions and other causes. In 1637, they were banished from Japan, where their con- verts were numerous, and Christianity was extirpated in that empire by a bloody persecu- tion of about 50 years ; in China, where the number of Christians was diminished by the persecutions at the close of the last and the beginning of the present century, in Tonquin, Cochin, and Slam, in the Carolines, Philippines, Sunda isles, &c., there are still Christian churches and convents, with numerous native disciples. In the American missions, the Jesuits oAen established separate communities, of which they were the political and even military chiefs, and the converted Indians were the sub- jects. Thus was formenl the Christian Republic of Paraguay, since broken up by the sup- pression of the Jesuits and the subsequent political revolutions, and now constituting the dictatorate of Francia. Here the Indians were distributed into villages called Reductions, the inhabitants of which were armed, and often served with success under Jesuit officers. In Venezuela, New Grenada, Peru, Mexico, &c., those missions still exist, but the new states have generally taken them under their immediate care. IL PROTESTANT MISSIONS. Miaeionariea. ' 14 A statement given in the Missionary Herald of Protestant missionaries in different parts of PartB o/the World. Bop. Western Africa ? Southern Africa African Islands Countries on the , Mediterranean ' Ceylon^ Malaysia ) Australia { Western India ^ Southern India > Northern India > Siberia Birman Empire 4,200,000 60,000,000 1,000,000 20,000,000 140,000,000 3,500,000 4,000,000 for Januarj^, 1834, shows that the number the world is above 600, as follows : Porta o/the World. Pop. Mistionariea. Siam 3,600,000 4 Malacca ? 5 China 900,000,000 4 Southern Pacific ? 19 Northern Pacific 200,000, 24 Patagonia Guiana and West Indies North American Indians Labrador ' ? 17 Greenland ? 16 200,000, 3^500,000 2,000,000 129 There are 15 mission presses supported by the Missionary societies, viz : 3 in Southern India, 1 at Serampore, 1 at Sincapore, 2 in Ceylon, 1 at Canton, 1 in Madagascar, 1 in Birmah, 1 in the Sandwich Islands, 1 at Smyrna, 1 at Beyroot, 1 at Calcutta, 2 at Malta. Fourteen seminaries for the education of teachers and preachers have also been insti- tuted at Serampore, Calcutta, Malacca, in Ceylon, and the Sandwich Islands, Sec. Socieliei. MUt. ParU of World., StaUona. GREAT BRITAIN. For Propagating Gospel 5 5 Southern India Northern India Tanjore, Trichinopoly, Vepery Calcutta 1 Western Africa St. Mary's Island 9 Southern Africa Cape Town, Albany Distr., Wes- leyville, Morley, &c. » Ceylon Columbo, Negombo, Komegalle, Oaltura Matura, Jaffra, Trinco- Wesley. Methodist Miss. nialee, Batticaloa, &c. Sac. 4 Southern India Seringapatam, Negapatam, Ma- dras Calcutta 9 Northern India 4 Mediterranean Malta, Alexandria, Zante 5 Southern Pacific Tonga Islands, Ilabai, Vavou . 58 West Indies Antigua, Dominica, Montserrat, Nevis, St. Vincent, Trinidad, Ja- maica, St. Kitts, St. Eustatius, St. Bartholomews, St. Martins, Tortola, Anguilla, Barbadoes, Tobago, Demerara, Bahamas 'i Ceylon Columbo 1.') Northern India Calcutta, Howrah, Cutwa, Soory, Digah, Patna, Monghyr Baptist Miss. Soc. . A a Malaysia Sumatra, Java I 12 West Indies Jamaica Scottisli Misa. Soc. 2 Russian Asia Astrakhan, Karasch 5 Western India Bombay, Bankote, Poonah, Hurnee Church of Scotland . 1 Northern India Calcutta Glaaeovr Miss. Soc. ■ London Jews Soc. 4 Southern Africa Chumie, Lovedale 4 Mediterranean Smyrna, Jerusalem, Constantino- General Baptist Soc. 3 Northern India Cuttack, Pooree [pie, Algiers British & Foreign BiUe Soc. 3 Mediterranean Corfu, Smyrna Private 6 Mediterranean Aleppo, Bagdad, Asia (at large) London Miss. Soc.- Church Miss. Soc. CONTINENT OP EUROPE. United Brethren or Mora- ) vians. t Grerman Miss. Soc. Rhenish Miss. Soc. Netherlands Miss. Soc. French Protest. Miss. Soc. ASIA. Serampore Baptists UNITED STATES. American Board of Com- missioners fbr Foreign Missions W Baptist Board of Foreign ) Missions J Methodist Miss. Soc. Episcopal Miss. Soc. N. Haven Ladles' Greek Association . Western Foreign Miss. Soc. ■! 30 Porta of WotU. South Africa African Islands Southern India Western India Northern India Malacca Mediterranean Siberia ^ China Malaysia Southern Pacific West Indies Western Africa Ceylon Southern India Western India Northern India Meditenanean Australia North America South Africa West Indies South America North American Indians. Labrador Greenland Mediterranean & Russian Asia Southern Africa China South Africa Northern India Mediterranean Western Africa Ceylon with. 41 native assistants Western India Siam China Malaysia Sandwich Is's Patagonia North American Indians Birman Empire Siam North American Indians West Africa North American Indians Mediterranean North American Indians Mediterranean Western Africa Northern India S I North American Indians Bosjesmanfl, Bosjesfeld, Griqua- town, Lattakoo, Talbagh, Beth- elsdorp, Graaf Relnet, Flulippo- lis, Grahamstown, &;c. Mauritius, Tananarivo (Madagas- car) Belgaum, Bellaiy, Bangalore, Sa- lem, Coimbatore, Q,uilon, Nag- ercoil, Chittore, Madras,. Gudda- pah, Neyoor, Combacomum Surat Calcutta, Chinsura, Berhampore, Benares Singapore, Malacca, Pinang Malta, Corfu Selingisk, Khodon, Ona Canton Batavia Harvey, Society, and Georgian Is. Demerara, Berbice Freetown (Sierra Leone) Cotta, Kandy, Nellore, Badda- game Nilgherry Hills, Cochin, Cottay- am, Falamcotta, Madras, Maya- NasBUck [veram, Alepie Calcutta, Burdwaii,Benares,,Cha- nar, Gorruckpore Malta, Greece, Syra, Smyrna, Cairo, Abyssinia New South Wales, New Zealand, Red River Groenekloof, Elim, Enon, Shiloh Jamaica, Tobago, Barbadoes, St. Surinam [Kilts, Antigua Cherokees, New Fairfield (U. C.) Nain Hopedale, Hebron, Okkak New Hermhut, Lichtenfels, Lich- tenau, Fredericksthal Karasch, Madschar, Shusha Talbagh, New Wuppenthal, Stel- [lenbosch Lattakoo, Betchuanas Serampore, Akyab, BenaTes,Delhi, Allahabad, Goahatty, Burrishol, Cawnpore, Dinagepore,. Chitta- gong, Dacca Smyrna, Broosa, Constantinople,^ Athens, Beyroot, Jerusalem', Cape Palmas [Persia Tillipally, Batticotta, Oodooville, Panditeripo, Manepy Bombay, Alimednaggur Canton Sumatra, Java, Celebes, Sooloo, Moluccas, Borneo Hawaii (Kailua, Kaawaloa, Hilo, Waimea), Maui (Lahaina, Wa- iluku), Molokai (Kaluahu), Oahu (Honolulu, Waialui), Kauai (Waimea) Eastern Cherokees (Brainerd, Car- mel, Creek Path, Willstown, Hawe^s, Candy's Creek, New Echota); Arkansaw Cherokees (Dwight, Fairfield, Forks of Il- linois) ; ChickasawB (Monroe, Miss., Tipton, Ten.,) Choctaws Eastern (Mayhew, Yoknokcha- ya); Red River Choctaws (Beth- abara, Wheelock, Clear Creek); Creeks on Arkansaw j Osages (Union, Hopefield, Boudinot, Harmony) ; Stockbridg^ In- dians on Fox River, Huron Dis- trict; Mackinaw; Ojibwas in Huron District (La Pointe, Yel- low Lake, Sandy Lake, Leech Lake) ; Maumee, Ohio ; New York Indians (Tuscarora, Sen- eca, Cattaraugus, Alleghany). Maulmein, Tavoy rCreeks, Shawnees, Choctaws,, j Chippewas, Delaware!, Otoes, ] Cherokees, Omahas, Pottawat- l tomies, and Ottaweis Upper Canada, Wyandots, OjilJ- was, Cherokees, Oneidas, Choc- taws, Shawnees, K'ausas Athens Smyrna TABLES OF REVENUE, EXPENDITURE, DEBT, &c. ComparaUve Revenue and Debt of S&oeral States. States. Great Britain France . i Spain . Portugal . . Two Sicilies States of tlie Church Austria. Prussia . Bavaria , . Netherlands . Belgium . . Denmark Sweden Russia , Revenue. DoUe. 'ttr 300,000,000 n^ 200,000,000 33,250,000 mo 10,000,000 280 16,500,000 2 10 8,330,000 4 16 60,000,000 1 80 35,000,000 2 64 12,750,000 3 00 18,000,000 6 95 10,600,000 438 7,400,000 3 70 7,870000 100,000,000 1 63 Debt. DoUa. 3,600,000,000 1,000,000,000 740,000,000 30,000,000 93,560,000 66,000,000 ^,000,000 135,000,000 50,000,000 52,500,000 158,000,000 50,000,000 37,000,000 315,000,000 Pro.ofdhl. to cachinh. $150 00 ^3125 63 24 9 50 12 50 25 00 ' 9 55 - 9 78 11 92 23 00 41 58 25 00 8 75 4 " Table of Revenue, Expenditure^ and Public Debt of France. RECEIPTS, Direct Taxes, Land Tax Poll Tax FersoDal Estate „,-„,,._ Doora & Windows 32,340,000 Patents 29,816,500 Msceliaaeous 1,827,000 Total France, 244,873,409 29,400,000 35,665,000 Registration, Stamps, Do- mains Felling of Timber Customs ,___, Excise on Liq'a, Tobacco,&c. 171,'66o^6o0 373,923,909 193,225,000 24,000,000 154,300,000 Post Office Lotteries Gaming Houses Fines Sundry Proceeds Extraordinarr Resources Balance of 1^1 131,467,267 Sale of Wood 50,000,000 34,290,000 8,000,000 5,500,000 3,300,000 11,047,482 181,467,267 EXPENDITURE. Francs. Civil List 18,000,000 Funded Debt 215,768,242 Sinkinff Fund 43,093,621 Guarantees due by Treasury 9,000,000 Unfunded Debt 16,000,000 Life Annuities 6,200,000 Chamber of Peers 700,000 ■ Deputies 600,000 Legion of Honor 3,302,417 Pensions 58,389,654 Ministry of Justice 19,469,700 Foreign Affairs 7,502,000 Religion 34,804,600 PubUc Instruction 2,575,000 Ministry of the Interior 3,380,000 Commerce and Public Works 123,500,000 War 307,434,000 Navy 65,000,000 Finances 22,787,500 Administration and Collection ofRevenue 118,211,833 Repayments, ftc. 42,989,445 „ , „ Total 1,097,708,012 Total Receipts 1,160,053,658 i,«<",.wo,ui« ,..£**''~'^''® Public Debt was one of the leading causes of the revoluUon of 1789; yet the amount of taxes did not amount to 600,000,000 francs, and the nation was oppressed by the arbitrary mode of lev^ng the taxes rather than bj their actual amount. The debt is now expressed in the form of rentes or annui- tiea, which with the other liabilities of the goverment, represent a capital of about 6,200 miluon francs. Revenue^ Expenditure, and Debt of the United Kingdmi. RECEIPTS. £ Customs 26,005,955 Excise 9,674,653 Stamps -.~..."- Taaea Land 1,161,312 Houses 1,357,042 Windows 1,178,344 Servants, Carria- ges, &f. 1,526,020 Post Office MiscellaneooB '720,986 Total 1.50,990,315 6,222,718 The customs and excise form the two main branches in the collection of the revenue ; the former relates to goods im- ported, and the latter to those produced and manulactured within the country. EXPENDITURE. Administration and Collection of Revenue Debt Interest 24,682,996 Annuities 3,346,489 Management 273,296 Civil Government Civil List and Royal Family Parliament Peuaions JMiscellaneouB 423,275 355,756 1,641,244 986,748 Justice Diplomatic Army Navy Ordnance Bounties, Public Works, Stz. Miscellaneous I Total i. 52,575,308 Debt. — The debt of the United Kingdom is equal to about thirteen times the aonuai revenue. The following statement shows its progressive increase. 7,732,967 5,870,551 - 1,418,817 1,253,599 2,113,937 I. At Revolution, 1689, it wss 664,263 Accession of Anne, 1702 16,394,702 Accession of George I, 1714 54,145,363 Accession of George H, 1727 62,092^238 Peace of Paris, 1763 i Be^ning of American War, Close of Amer. War, 1783 249,851,628 Beginning of French War, 1793 239,350,148 In 1817 848,282,477 Funded Debt in 1833 754,100,'^9 Unfunded do. 27,278,000 Total 781,378,549!. Revenue and Expenditure of Spain ffor 5,000,000 dolla. V IB a is sS f. «i » a ■< ■■§g|« III" "n« » o »- °5 . 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S.S. 2_g gg oT ■-»" cf T-T Tp'oT trf 3_o og o 5 SS e ^iiiiPI: §S SS Q o a a o ^^^ §s g g=ggs= g ogooggSc hineae Empire . an ... . lam or Vietnam . m .... man Empire ' Kingdom of Slndla Nepaul . Seikh Confederacy or I Principality of Sinde Anglo-Indian Empire Territory of the E. Allied or Subject Sta . Ceylon (To Grown) lanistan or Cabnl Belooches Confederacy Kingdom of Herat Peraia or I u i & ■miB si ■s ■mq -Bjy s A-^'&Oi -mnBOopaiH -^g-Biaiaj iSo aB-«5 1\ u M Pi b <«1 % • ■SonI SgS. ■Sa go Hid ■iiBinnx) I Si S.g|Es ,3 d S a H lai So a m ^ a !WfS;noM5tSMtfW |||g-E-C E a fl « S § g.i'iiig M £-^ffl ftf CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF IMPORTANT TREATIES IN MODERN TIMES. 843. Treaty of Verdun , between the three sons of Charlemagne ; division of the Frankish empire into the three kingdoms of Italy, Germany, and France. 1122. Concordate of Worms, between the Emperor and the pope, in which the former yields to the latter the right of investing prelates with tlie ring and the cross ; rise of the papal power. 1183. Peace of Constance between the emperor of Grermany and the Italian republics j the sovereignty and independence of the latter acknowledged. 1341. Hanseatic League ; formed by the commercial cities of Northern Europe, for mutual protection against the robberies and piracies of the feudal nobles and princes ; in its most flourishing period, toward the close of the 14th century, the league comprised 80 cities, and was the mistress of the sea. 1360. Peace of Bretigni, between England and France, whereby the former is left in possession of a large part of the French territory. 1397. Union of Calmar, whereby the kingdoms of Norway, Sweden, and Denmark, are united under Q,ueen Margaret. 1420. Treaty of Troyes, between England, France, and Burgundy, stipulating that Henry V of England should be appointed Regent of France, and on the death of Charles should inherit the crown. 1439. The Pragmatic Sanction settled in France, regulating the election of bishops, and restraining the power of the popes. 1508. League of Cambray against the republic of Venice, comprising the pope, the Emperor, and the kings of France and Spain. 1510. The Holy League against Louis XII. of France, comprising the pope, the Emperor, the kings of Aragon and England, the Venetians, and the Swiss j Louis loses the fruits of his former successes. 1521. Edict of Worms, proscribing Luther and his adherents ; it is followed, in 1529, by the league of Smalcald between the protestant princes of Germany, and by the peace of religion concluded at Nuremberg, in 1530. 1544. Peace of Crepy between the king of France, and the king of England and emperor of Germany. 1548. The Interim granted by the emperor Charles V. to the protestants of Germany, allowing them provisional toleration. 1555. Religious peace of Augsburg, establishing the free exercise of the Protestant religion in Germany. 1559. Peace of Cateau Cambresis, between France, Spain, and England. 1561. Treaty of Wilna; Livonia, Courland, and Esthonia, ceded to Poland. 1570. Peace of Stettin, between Sweden and Denmark. 1576. The Catholic League formed in France, for the extirpation of Protestantism. 1579. The Treaty of the Union of Utrecht, the basis of the confederacy of the Dutch Provinces. 1581. Declaration of Independence by the Dutch Provinces. 1595. Peace of Teussin, between Russia and Sweden, which, with an interval of a seven year's truce, had been at war since 1572. 1598. Peace of Vervins, between France and Spain. 1643. Peace of Muhster, between the Dutch confederates ^nd Spain, whereby the inde- pendence of the former was acknowledged, October 94 : Peace of Westphalia, between France, the Emperor, and Sweden, putting an end to the Thirty Years' War ; Spain continuing the war against France. By this treaty, which formed the basis of the political system of Europe for two centuries, the principle of a balance of power in Europe was first recognised, the civil and political rights of the German states established, and the independence of the Swiss confederacy recog- nised by Germany. 1657. Alliance of Vienna, between Poland, Denmark, and the Emperor, against Sweden. 1659. Treaty of the Hague, between France, England, and Holland, to maintain the equilibrium of the North. ■ Peace of the Pyrenees concluded between France and Spain j Spain yielding Roussillon, Artois, and her claims to Alsace, and France ceding her conquests in Catalonia, Italy, &c. 1660. The Peace of Oliva, between Sweden, Poland, Prussia, and the emperor, and Peace of Copenhagen, between Sweden and Denmark. 1667. Peace of Breda, between France, England, Holland, and Denmark. 1668. Triple Alliance, between England, the States General of Holland, and Sweden, for the protection of the Spanish Netherlands against France. Peace of Lisbon between Spain and Portugal. Independence of the latter acknowl- edged by Spain. Peace of Aix la Chapelle between France and Spain, the former yielding Franche Comt6, but retaining her conquests in the Netherlands. 1678. Peace of Nimeguen between France and Holland, to which Spain, the Emperor, and Sweden, successively accede. 1686. League of Augsburg entered into by several European powers against Louis XIV. of France, for the maintenance of the treaties of Munster and Nimeguen. 1689. Tho Grand Alliance signed at Vienna between England, the Emperor, and the States General, to which Spain and Savoy afterward accede. 1697. Peace of Ryswick between France, Spain, England, Holland, and the Emperor. 1698. Treaty of Partition between France, England, and Holland, for the purpose of regu- lating the succession to the territories of the king of Spain. 1700. Second Treaty of Partition between Prance, England, and Holland. 1701. General Alliance of the European powers, against the pretensions of France to the Spanish territories ; war of the Spanish Succession. 1706. Peace of Altranstadt between Charles XII. of Sweden, and Augustus of Poland. 1713. Peace of Utrecht between the Allies and France and Spain, terminating the Spanish succession war. The most important stipulations were the security of the Protestant suc- cession in England, the disuniting of the French and Spanish crowns, and the full satis- faction of the claims of the allies. 1714. The Preliminaries of Rastadt, between France and the Emperor, followed by the definitive treaty of Baden. 1715. The Barrier Treaty between Holland and the Emperor, under the mediation and guaranty of England ; the Low Countries ceded to the Emperor, as a barrier against the ambitious views of France. 1717. The Trmle Alliance of the Hague between France, England, and Holland, to oppose the designs of Cardinal Alberoni, the Spanish minister. 1718. Quadruple Alliance of London, between France, England, Holland, and the Emperor, for settling the partition of the Spanish dominions: 1725. Treaty of Vienna between the Emperor and Spain, engaging themselves to aid in the recovery of Gibraltar, and to place the Pretender on the British throne. In opposition to these designs, the Hanover Treaty ia concluded between England, France, and Prussia. 1731. Treaty of Alliance of Vienna, between the Emperor, Great Britain, Holland, and Spain, by which the Emperor abandons the Ostend company, the disputes as to the Spanish Succession are terminated, and the Pragmatic Sanction, securing the succession in default of male i^sue to the Emperor's daughters, is guaranteed. 1738. Peace of Vienna between France and the Emperor, whereby Lorraine is ceded to France, and the latter guarantees the Pragmatic Sanction. ■ 1741. Alliance between Great Britain, Russia, and Poland, for the support of the Prag- matic Sanction and the pretensions of Maria Theresa ; counter-alliance between France, Spain, and Sardinia, in the interest of the Elector of Bavaria. 1743. Peace of Abo between Russia and Sweden. 1748. Peace of Aix la Chapelle between Great Britain, France, Holland, Spain, Sardinia, and the Empress, terminating the war of the Austrian Succession, and renewing and con- firming the treaties of Westphalia in 1648, of Nimeguen in 1678, of Ryswick in 1697, of Utrecht in 1713, of Baden in 1714, of the Triple Alliance in 1717, of the Q,uadruple Alliance in 1718, and of Vienna in 1738. 1763. Treaty of Paris between FrancCj Spain, Portugal, and Great Britain; cession of Canada by France, and of Florida by Spain, to Great Britain. Peace of Hubertsberg between Prussia, Austria, and Saxony j termination of the Seven Yfears' War. 1772. Treaty of Petersburg for the Partition of Poland, between Austria, Russia, and Prussia. 1776. July 9th, Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union between the North American States ratified by Congress. February 6th, Treaty of Peace, Alliance, and Commerce, signed at Paris, between the United States and France. 1779. Peace of Teschen betwieen Austria, Saxony, and Prussia, terminating the war of the Bavarian Succession. 1780. Conventions for the Armed Neutrality, between Russia, Denmark, Sweden, and Holland, to which Prussia and the Emperor accede the next year. 17^. September 24 : the Independence of the United States of America acknowledged by Great Britain, and November 30, preliminaries of peace signed at Paris between the British and American Commissioners. 1783. September 3, Treaty of Peace between the United States and Great Britain, signed at Paris, and between France, Spain, and Great Britain, signed at Versailles. 1791. Convention of Pilnitz between Austria, Prussia, and Saxony, in relation to the affairs of France. 17^. The first Coalition against France; Austria, Prussia, the Empire, Great Britain, Holland, Spain, Portugal, the Two Sicilies, the Pope, and Sardinia, become parties. 1793. The Second Partition of Poland between Prussia and Russia. 1795. The Third and Final Partition of Poland between Russia, Prussia, and Austria. — Treaties of Basle between France and Prussia, and between France and Spain. 1796. Treaty of Paris between France and Sardinia. 1797. Treaty of Tolentino between France and the Pope. Treaty of Campo Formio between France and Austria. 1799. Second Coalition against the French republic, by the Emperors of Germany and Russia, part of the Empire, Great Britain, Naples, Portugal, Turkey, and the Barbary States. 1800. Treaty of Amiiy and Commerce between the United States and France ; stipulated that the flag should protect the cargo. Treaty of Armed Neutrality between Russia, Denmark, and Sweden, to which Prussia afterward acceded, on the principle that neutral flags protect neutral bottoms. 1801. Peace of Luneville between the French republic and the Emperor of Germany, ' fixing the boundaries of the former at the Rhine to the Dutch Provinces, and recognizing the independence of the Batavian, Helvetic, Ligurian, and Cisalpine republics. Treaty of Madrid between France and Spain. Treaty of Florence between France and Naples. i Concordate of Paris between France and the Pope. Treaty of Madrid between France and Portugal. Treaty of Paris between France and Russia. 1809. Peace of Amiens between France, Spain, Holland, and Great Britain. 1805. Third Coalition against France, by Russia, Great Britain, Austria, Sweden, and Naples. Peace of Presburg between Austria and France, by which the former makes exten- sive cessions in Germany and Italy to the latter and her allies. 1806. Fourth Coalition formed against France, by Great Britain, Russia, Prussia, and Saxony. 1807. Peace of Tilsit between France and Russia, by which the latter recognized the Confederation of the Rhine under the protection of Napoleon, and the elevation of his three brothers to the thrones of Naples, Westphalia, and Holland. 1808. Treaty of Bayonne between Napoleon and the king of Spain, whereby the latter cedes the Spanish monarchy and its dependencies to the former. 1809. Fifth Coalition against France, by Great Britain and Austria, terminated by the peace of Vienna, between France and Austria, the same year, Austria ceding extensive tracts to France, and engaging to adhere to the continental system. 1810. Peace of Paris between France and Sweden, the latter engaging to adopt the con- tinental system. 1812. Treaty of Bucharest between Prussia and Turkey, by which it was stipulated that the Pruth should form the boundary of the two empires. 1812. The Sixth Coalition against France, between Great Britain and Russia, to which in the following year Spain, Prussia, Austria, Sweden, Naples, Denmark, Portugal, and most of the German princes accede. 1814. Treaty of Paris between Napoleon and the Allies, by which the former abdicates the throne of France. December 24 : Peace of Ghent between the United States and Great Britain. 1815. Treaty of Vienna between Great Britain, Prussia, Austria, and Russia, against Napoleon, on his return to Fiance from Elba. September 26 : The Holy Alliance formed between the Emperors of Russia and Austria, and the king of Prussia. November 20 : Treaty of Paris between France on the one part, and the Four Great Powers on the other. 1820. Treaty between the United States and Spain, the latter ceding Florida. 1826. Treaty of Ackermann between Russia and Turkey, placing the principalities of Servia, Walachia, and Moldavia, under the protection of Russia, and allowing that power liberty of commerce and navigation in all the States of the Porte. 1828. Treaty of Turkmanchay between Russia and Persia, the latter ceding Erivan and Nakhitchvan. 1829., Treaty of London between Russia, France, and Great Britain, for the settlement of the affairs of Greece. Treaty of Adrianople between Russia and Turkey, confirming the treaty of Acker- mann, allowing Russian garrisons inWalachia and Silistria, until the payment of the war- expenses by Turkey, granting the Christians of Bulgaria the right of representing their grievances to the Russian consuls, and yielding to Russia the exclusive possession of the northern coasts of the Black Sea, from the Danube to the Batumi /^ A CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE .OF THE PRINCIPAL GEOGRAPHICAL DISCOVERIES OF MODERN TIMES. 861, Feroe Mands—diacovered about this time by a Scandinavian vessel. 871. Icelajid — discovered by some Norwegian chiefs, who ,were compelled to leave their native country. According to some accounts it had been visited before tliis, by a Scandi- navian pirate, Naddodd. 960. Greeiiimid— discovered by the Icelanders about this period. The first colony estab- lished there was destroyed by a pestilence in the Kth century, and by the accumulation of ice which prevented all communication between Iceland and Greenland. 1001. Wmeniand — a part of the continent of America, is Supposed to have been discovered by the Icelanders. It was called Wineuland, or Vinland, from the abundance of a species of vine found there. 'I'he Icelandic chronicles are full and minute respecting this discov- ery. 1344. Madeira,— The discovery of this island attributed to an Englishman, Robert Ma- cham ; it was revisited in 1419 by Juan Gonzalez, and Tristan Vaz, Portuguese. 1345. Canary /s/cs— discovered by some Genoese and Spanish seamen, having been known to the ancients. 13B4. Guinea — the coast of, discovered by some seamen of Dieppe, about this period. 1418. Porto Santo — discovered by Vaz and Zarco, Portuguese. 1419. JKarfeiro^discovered by the same navigators. It was first called St. Lawrence, after the Saint's day on which it was seen : — and subsequently Madeira, on account of its woods. 1434. Cape Bojador or JVuji— doubled for the first time by the Portuguese. 1445 i ^^^S^^ Biucr— discovered by the Portuguese. 1446. Cape Verd — discovered by Denis Fernandez, a Portuguese. 1448. Azores Islands — discovered by Gonzallo Velio, a Portuguese. 1449. Cape Verd /sZaTwis— discovered by Antonio de Noli, a Genoese in the service of Portugal. 1471, Island of St. Thomas^ under the Equator, discovered. 1484. Congo — discovered by the Portuguese, under Diego Cam. 1486. Cape of Oaod ifopc— discovered by Bartholomew Diaz. It was originally called ' The Cape of Tempests,' and was also named ' The Lion of the Sea,' and ' The Head of Africa.' The appellation was changed by John II, King of Portugal, who augured favorably oftfuture discoveries from Diaz having reached the extremity of Africa. 1492. Lacayos (or Bahama) Islands, — These were the first points of discovery by Colum- bus. San Salvador, one of these Islands, was first seen by this great navigator, on the night of the 11th or 12th of October, in this year. m^iTdot'fofst. Domingo, \ discovered by Columbus in his first voyage. 1493. Jamaica ^ St. CArwtopAer's > discovered by Columbus in his second voyage, Dominica j 1497. Cape of Good Hope — doubled by Vasco di Gama, and the passage to India discov- ered. 1497. J^ewfoundland — discovered by John Cabot, who first called it Prima Vista and Baccalaos. The title of Prima Vista still belongs to one of its capes, and an adjacent island is still called Baccalao. 1498. Continent of Jiinerica — discovered by Columbus, Malabar, Coast o/~discovered by Vaaco di Gama. Mozambique, Island of— discovered by Vasco di Gama. 1499. America, Eastern Coasts o/— discovered by Ojede and Amerigo Vespucci. (It is contended by some that this preceded by a year the discovery of the American Continent by Columbus.) 1500. Brazil — discovered 24th April by Alvarez de Cabral, a Portuguese, who was driven on its coasts by a tempest. He called it the Land of the Holy Cross. It was subsequently called Brazil, on account of its red wood : and was carefully explored by Amerigo Vespucci, from 1500 to 1504. 1501. Labrador and River St. Lawrence — discovered by Cortereal, who sailed from Lisbon on a voyage of discovery for the Portuguese. 1509. (hilf of Mexico. — Some of the shores of this Gulf explored by Columbus on his last voyage. St. Helena, the Island o/— discovered by Jean de Nova, a Portuguese. 1506, Ceylon — discovered by the Portuguese. Ceylon was known to the Romans in the time of Claudius. 1506. Madagascar, Island o/— discovered by Tristan da Cunha, and revisited by the Por- tuguese navigator Fernandez Pereira, in 1508. This island was first called St. Lawjence, having been discovered on the day of that saint. 1508. Canada — visited by Thomas Aubert. Known before to fishermen who had been thrown there by a tempest. Ascension Isle — discovered by Tristan da Cunha. Sumatra, Island o/— discovered by Siqueyra, a Portuguese. 1511. Sumatra — more accurately examined by the Portuguese. Molucca Isles — discovered by the Portuguese. Sunda /.s/es— discovered by Abreu, a Portuguese. 1512. Maldives. — A Portuguese navigator, wrecked on these Islands, found them in occa- sional possession of the Arabians. Florida — discovered by Ponce de Leon, a Spanish navigator. 1513. Borneo and Java. — The Portuguese became acquainted with these Islands. 1513. South Sea. — The Great Ocean was discovered this year from the mountains of Sarien, by Nunez de Balboa, and subsequently navigated by Magellan. The supposition of the New World being part of India now ceased. 1515. PerM— discovered by Perez de la Rua. 1516. Rio Janeiro— discovered by Dias de Soils. 1516. Rio de la Plata — discovered by the same. 1517', CAimo— discovery of, by sea, by Fernand Perez d^Andrada. 1517. Bengal — discovered by some Portuguese thrown on the coast by a tempest. J518. JIferico— discovered by the Spaniards. Conquered by Cortea, in 1519. 1519. Magellan, Straits o/— passed by Magellan with a fleet of discovery, fitted out by the Emperor Charles V. The first voyage round the world was undertaken by this navigator; and his vessel performed the enterprise, although the commander perished 1520. Terra del J^es'o— discovered by Magellan. 1521. Ladrone /sitmas— discovered by Magellan. 1521. Philippines.— This archipelago discovered by Magellan, who lost his life here in a skirmish<. 1524, JV%w iiVancfi.— The first voyage of discovery made by the French under Francis the First, one of whose ships, after reaching Florida, coMted along as far as 50 degrees north latitude, and gave to this part the name of New France. 1524. J\rorth Americor—tiaveUed over from Florida to Newfoundland by Verazzani, a Florentine, in the service of France. 1595. JVew ^oZiflTMi— discovered by the Portuguese about this time : this immense tract was for sometime neglected by Europeans, but ^as visited by the Dutch, at various periods, from 1619 to 1644. This fine country is now colonized by the English, and every year adds something to our knowledge of its extent and its peculiarities. 1527. JVew GMinefl— discovered by Saavedra, a Spaniard, sent from Mexico, by Cortez. 1530. Gfuineo— the first voyage to, made by an English ship for elephants' teeth. 1534. Canada— visited by Cartier, of St. Malo ; a settlement having previously been made in 1523, by Verazzani, who took possession in the name of Francis I of France. 3535. California — discovered by Cortez. 1537. CAiZe— discovered by Diego de Almagro, one of the conquerors of Peru. 1541. Labrador — discovered by a French engineer, Alphonze. 1541 . India— the first English ship sailed to, for the purpose of attacking the Portuguese. 1542. Jopan^-discovered by the Portuguese, Antonio de Meta and Antonio de Peyxoto, who were cast by a tempest on its coasts. 1545. Potosi, Mines of— discovered by the Spaniards. 1552. Spitzbergen^ohseived by the English, but mistaken for part of Greenland. Visited by Barentz, a Dutch navigator, in search of a northeast passage, in 1596. 1553. White Sea.— This sea, which had not been visited since the time of Alfred, was now supposed to be discovered by Chancellor, the English navigator. JVova Zembla — discovered by Willoughby, an English seaman. 1575. Solomon's Mes — discovered by Mendana, a Spaniard, sent by the Governor of Peru. 1576. Probisher's Strait — discovered by the English navigator whose name it bears. Greenland — further explored by Frobisher, who also penetrated further between this country and Labrador. 1577. JVew Albion — discovered by Drake, who was the second to attempt a voyage round the world, which he performed in three years. 1580. Siberia — discovered by Yermak Timoph6i6vitch, Chief of Cossacks. 1587. Danisms Straii— discovered by the English navigator whose name it bears, in hia voyage for the discovery of a northwest passage. 1594. Falkland Islands— d\3cowexeA by the English navigator, Hawkins. 1595. Marquesas — discovered by Mendana, a Spaniard, on his voyage from Peru to found a colony in the Solomon Isles. Solitary Island — discovered by Mendana on the above-named voyage. 1606. Archipelago del Espiritu Santo — discovered by GLuiros, a Portuguese, sent from Peru. These islands are the Cyclades of Bougainville, and the New Hebrides of Cook. Otaheite — supposed to be discovered by Q,uiros, who named it Sagittaria. 1607. ) Hudson^s ficy— discovered by the celebrated English navigator, Hudson, on his 1610. ( third voyage. Venturing to pass the winter in this Bay on his fourth voyage, he was, with four others, thrown by his sailors into a boat, and left to perish. 1607. Chesapeake Bay — discovered by John Smith. 1615. Straits ofLe Jtfaire— discovered, with the island of Staten on the east, by Le'Maire, a nieri:l)ant of Amsterdam, and Schouten, a merchant of Horn. ♦ lbli\ Cape Hum — doubled by Le Maire and Schouten, Dutch navigators, who called it after the town of which Schouten was a native. These enterprising men performed a voyage round the world in about two years. Z616. Van Die.man's Land — discovered by the Dutch. 1616, Baffin's £ay— discovered by William Baffin, an Englishman. The nature and ex- tent of this discovery were much doubted, till the expeditions of Ross and Parry proved that Baffin was substantially accurate in his statement. 1636. Frozen Ocean. — In this year the Russians discovered that this ocean washed and bounded the north of Asia. The first Russian ship sailed down the Lena into this sea. 1642. J^ew Zealand — with the southern part of Van Dieman's Land, discovered by Tasman, a Dutch navigator. 1654. Bourbon, Isle of—occupied by the French. 1673. Louisiana — discovered by the French. This country received its name from La Salle, a Frenchman, who explored the Mississippi, in 1682. 1686. Easter Island — discovered by Roggewein, a Dutch, navigator. 1690. Ramschatka — the principal settlement of the Russians on the coast of Asia, discov- ered by a Cossack chief, Morosko. This country was taken possession of by the Russians in 1697. 1692. Japan. — Carefully visited by Kampfer, a German. 1699. JVcMJ Britain. — This island, and the straits which separate A% from New Guinea, discovered by Dam pier. This enterprising seaman made a voyage round the world at the period of this discovery. 1711. Kurile Isles — occupied by the Russians. The people of these islands, which are 21 in number, still pay tribute to Russia. They are principally volcanic. 1738. Behring^s Strait — explored and designated by a Danish navigator in the service of Russia, whose name it bears. Behring thus established that the continents of Asia and America are not united, but are distant from each other about 39 miles. 1798. Kamschatka — ascertained by Behring to be a peninsula. 1741. Aleutian Isles — on the coast of North America, discovered by Behring. A more accurate survey of these islands was made under the Russian Government, by Captains Billing and Sarytchef, from 1781 to 1798. 1765. Duke of YorWs Island — discovered by Byron. Isles of Danger — discovered by Byron. 1767. Of oAeite— discovered by Wallis. 1768. Cook^s S(rai(— discovered by Captain Cook on his first voyage round the World, which occupied from 1768 to 1771. 1770. JWw South Wales — discovered by Captain Cook. 1772. Island of Desolation — the first land south of India, discovered by.Kerguelen, and called by his name. Subsequently called the Island of Desolation by Captain Cook. 1774. JVew Caledonia — discovered by Cook in his second voyage, 1772—1775. 1778. Icy Cape — discovered by Captain Cook. 1778. Sandwich Islands — discovered by Cook in his third voyage, which commenced in 1776. He lost his life in 1779. 1797. Basses Straits.— Mr. Bass, Surgeon of H. B. M. S. Reliance, penetrated as far as Western Port, in a small open boat, from Port Jackson, and was of opinion that a Strait existed between New South Wales and Van Diemen's Land. In 1799, Lieut. Flinders circumnavigated Van Diemen's Land, and named the Strait after Mr, Baas. ]804,'5, 6, Missouri explored to its sources by Captains Lewis and Clarke, and the origin and source of the ^Columbia ascertained. 1819. BarroiD^s Sirait*- discovered by Lieut. Parry, who penetrated as far as Melville' Island, in lat. 74° 96' N., and'long. 113° 47' W, The Strait was entered on the 3d of August. The lowest state of the thermometer, was 55 degrees below zero of Fahrenheit. 1819. JVew South Shetlandr—discoyeied by Mr. Smith, of the brig William, bound to Valparaiso. 1819. ) J^Torth America — The northern limits of, determined by Captain Franklin, from 1829. } the mouth of the Coppermine River to Cape Turnagain. 1891. .^sto— The northern limits of, determined by Baron Wrangel. 1895-6. J^orth America — Franklin's second expedition, in which the coast between the mouths of the Coppermine and M'Kenzie's rivers, and the coast from the mouth of the latter to 149J W. Long, were discovered. 1827. JSTorth America.— In August of this year. Captain Beechey, in H. B. M. S. Blossom, discovered the coast from Icy Cape to Point Barrow, leaving about 140 miles of coast unexplored between this Point and Point Beechey. Point Barrow is in 156^ degrees West longitude. 1830. ^ica— Lander descends the duorra or Niger from Boussa, to the Gulf of Guinea, determining the long agitated question of the termination of that river. 1830-39. JV'orth America— Ca.ptB,\n Ross examines the northeastern coast, and proves that the continent reaches to Lancaster Sound. CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF REMARKABLE BATTLES, EARTHQUAKES, IMPORTANT INVENTIONS, DISCOVERIES, &c. Principal Eras. 1. Creation of the World. There have been no less than 140 opinions on the date of this event ; some malting it 3616 and others as much as 6484 .years, B. G. The moat commonly received opinion places it 4004, B. C. S. Era of the Olympiade. The first year of the first Olympiad begins 776, B. C, and each Olympiad consists of four years. 3. The Foundation of Rome. This eventis most commonly referred to 753, B. C. 4. The Hejira or Flight of Mahometj the era of the Mahometans, commences 6^, A. D. REMARKABLE BATTLES, SIEGES, &c. B. c. 1360 Argonautic Expedition. 1317 War of the Seven against Thebes. 1280-70 Siege, Capture, and Destruction of Troy by the Greeks. 742-72S First Messenian War. 883-688 Second Messenian War. 490 Battle of Marathon ; Persians defeated by the Greeks. 480 Battles of Thermopyle, Artemisium, Salamis, and Hi- mera 3 defeat of the Persians by the Greeks. 479 Naval victory gained by the Greeks at Mycale ; victory . of Plataese. 469 Battles of the Eurymedon by land and by sea, gained by Cimon. 465-455 Third Messenian War. 431-404 Peloponnesian war between Athens and her allies, and the Peloponnesian states ; 414, expedition of the Athenians against Syracuse ; 406, battle of iGgospotamos. 390 Battle of AUia ; Rome taken by the Gaula. 371-362 War between Thebes and Sparta j 371, battle of Leuc- tra ; 363, battle of Mantinea and death of Epaminondas. 357 Social War. Delphian Sacred War. 338 Amphissian Sacred War. Battle of Cheronaea j Mace- , donian ascendency. 334 Alexander invades the Persian empire ; battle of the Granicus ; 333, battle of Issus ; 331, battle of Arbela ; 323, death of Alexander and division of his empire. 365-341 First Punic war ; 360, Duilius gains a naval victory. 318-201 Second Punic war; Hannibal enters Italy; gains the battles of Ticinus and Trebia, 218 ; of Trasymene. 217 ; of OannEB, 216 ; defeated at Zama. S02. 301-197 First Macedonian war. 189 Battle of Magnesia ; Antlochus defeated bythe Romans. 17^168 Second Macedonian war ; battle of Pydna, 168. 149-146 Third Punic war ; Carthage destroyed, 146. 111-106 Jugurthine war. 101 Marius defeats a Cimbrian horde. 91 Marsic Social war ; 88-81 Mithridatic war. 73-71 Servile war conducted by Spartacus. 48 Battle of Pharsalia ; death of Pompey. 42 Battle of Philippi ; Brutus and Cassius defeated. 31 Naval Battle of Actlum ; Augustus conquers Antony. A. D, 70 Destruction of Jerusalem by Titus. 363 Irruption of Franks into Gaul. 306 Constant! ne embraces Christianity 395 Division of the Roman empire ; Honorius in the west ArcadiuB in the east. 401 Alaric, king of the Visigoths, devastates Italy ; 410, Captures Rome. 433-452 Devastations of Attila and the Huns ; 451, Defeat of Attila at Chalons. 476 The Roman empire of the west overturned. 1066 Battle of Hastings, gained by William the Conqueror. 1096 First Crusade ; 1099, Capture of Jerusalem. 1147 Second Crusade. 1189 Third Crusade under Philip II, of France, and Richard CflBur de Lion ; 1191, Capture of Ptolemais; 1193, Victory of Ascalon over Saladin. 1302 Fourth Crusade ; Capture of Constantinople. 1306 Victories of Genghis Khan ; Mongul Empire. 1217 Fifth Crusade ; 1338, Sixth Crusade led by the emperor Frederic II. 1348 Seventh Crusade under St. Louis. 1283 Sicilian Vespers; massacre of the French in Sicily. 1314 Battle of Bannockburn. 1315 Battle of Morgarten won by the Swiss. 1346 Battle of Cressy, won by the English over the French. 1356 Battle of Poictiera ; capture of the French king by the Black Prince. 1361 Capture of Adrianople by the Turks, who establish themselves in Europe. 1369-1405 Victories and Empire of Timour or Tamerlane. 1388 Battle of Otterbum between Percy and Douglas. .1403 Battle of Shrewsbury; 1405, of Monmouth. 1415 Battle of Agincourt won by Henry V, of England. 1445-85 Wars of the Red and White Roses in England ; 1455, battle of St. Albans ; 1463, of Hexham; 1471, of Tewks- bury ; 1485, of Bosworth field. 1476 Battles of Granson and Morat won by the Swiss over Charles the Bold. 1513 Battle of Flodden field ; Scots defeated by the English. 1515 Francis I of France, defeats the Swiss at Marignan. 1531 Conquest of Mexico by Cortes. 1535 Francis I of France defeated and made prisoner by Charles V, at Pavia. 1536 Battle of Mohacz ; Moldavia and Walachia conquered by the Turks. 1538 Conquest of Peru by Pizarro. 1539 First siege of Vienna by the Turks. 1546 Religious war in Germany; Smalcaldic league ; protes- tants defeated at Muhlberg. 1560 Religious wars in France ; 1569, Battles of Jarnac and Mon contour. 1566 Beginning of the insurrection of the Netherlands ; 1581, the United Provinces declare their independence on Spain, j 1571 Battle of Lepanto ; the Turkish fleet defeated. 1588 Defeat and destruction of the Spanish Armada. J 1618-48 Thirty year's war ; 1631, battle of Leipsic, won by Gustavus Adolphus over the Imperialists ; 1633, battle of Lutzen, death of Gustavus. 1643 Civil war in England ; battle of Edgehill ; 1644 of Mars- ton Moor ; 1645, of Naseby ; 1651, of Worcester. 1658 Battle of Gravelines. 1660 Restoration of the monarchy in England, and recall of the Stuarts. 1683 Siege of Vienna by the Turks ; raised by Sobieski. 168S Descent of the prince of Orange upon England ; revolu- tion ; 1690, battle of the Boyne. 1690 Battle of Fleurus. 1692, Battle of Steinkirk ; 1693, Bat- tle of Nerwinden. 1692 Battle of La Hogue ; French fleet destroyed by the English. 1702 Spanish Succession war ; 1704, Battle of Blenheim ; 1706, of Ramilies ; 1708, of Oudenarde ; 1709, of Malplaquet. 1709 Battle of Fultowa won by Peter the Great over Charles XII ; rise of Russia. 1715 Rebellion in Scotland ; battle of Preston Pans. 1716 Battle of Feterwardin gained by Eugene over the Turks. 1740-48 War of the Austrian Succession; 1743, Battle of Dettingen ; 1745, Battle of Fontenoy. 1745 Battle of Preston Pans; 1746, of Falkirk ; and Culloden. 1756-63 Seven year's War ; 1757, Battle of Prague; of Ros- bach; ofBreslan; 1758, of Crevelt ; 1759, of Minden ; of Cunersdorf ; capture of Quebec by the English. 1775 Battle of Bunker's Hill; 1776, Battle of Long Island. 1777 Battle of Brandywine; of Germantownj of Saratoga. 1781 Battle of the Cowpens ; of Guilford ; of Eutaw Springs ; Cornwallis surrenders at Yorktown. 1782 Attack on Gibraltar by the French and Spanish. 1792 Battle of Jemappes (Dumouricz). '93 of Pleury(Jourdan). 1794 Battle of Praga ; Suwarroff butchers 30,000 Poles. 1796 Bonaparte's Italian campaign ; battles of Montenotte ; Millesimo; Lodi; Roveredo ; Areola, &c. 97ofRivoli; Tagliamento. 1798 Campaign in Egypt ; battle of the Pyramids; Nelson's victory at Aboukir. 1800 Battles of Montebello; Marengo; Hohenlinden. 1802 Servile war in St. Domingo. 1805 Battles of Elchingen ; ,Trafalgar ; Austerlitz. 1806 Battle of Jena. 1807 Bombardment of Copenhagen ; battles of Eyiau and Fried land. 1809 Battles of Eckmuhl; Wagram ; Talavera. 1810 Battle of Busaco ; 1811, Fuente d'Onoro. 1813 Battle of Smolensk ; capture of Moscow. 1813 Battles of Lutzen ; Vittoria ; Dresden ; Culm ; Leipsic. 1814 Battles of Brienne ; Montmirail ; Montereau ; of Lake Erie ; of Lake Champlain and Plattsburgh ; Baltimore. 1815 Battle of New Orleans ; of Waterloo. 1817 Battle of Chacabuco; ofMaypa. 1830 Battle of Carabobo; 1821 Insurrection in Greece. 1823 Battle of Pichincha. 1834 Battle of Junin; ofAyacucho. 1837 Battle of Navarlno; destruction of the Turco— Egyptian fleet. 1833 Naval victory off Cape St. Vincent won by Napier over the Miguelite fleet. IMPORTANT INVENTIONS AND DISCOVERIES. B. c. 640 An eclipse predicted by Thales. A D. 70 Water Mills already in use ; 400 Bells invented. 635 Fens first made from quills. 660 Organs used in Churches. 700 Cotton Paper known to be made in the East ; introduc- ed into Europe in the 11th century. 800 Clocks introduced into Europe from the East. 990 Decimal Notation introduced into Europe from the East. 1134 Musical Notes invented. 1150 Mariner's Compass known to be in use in Europe. 1300 Wind Mills common. 1300 Spectacles invented. Chimneys used in domestic arch- itecture ; 1345, Gunpowder used in France. 1414 Muskets first used in France. 1433 Wood Cuts invented in Flanders ; 1435 Pumps invented. 1436 Guttenberg invents the Art of Printing. 1456 Hats invented at Paris. 1464 Diligences and Posts in France. 1477 Watches invented at Nuremberg. 1509 Diving Bell first used in Europe. 1511 Engraving qn copper invented. 1549 Telescopes invented. 1520 Pins first used about this time. 1561 First observatory in Europe in modern times ; at Gassel. 1609 Discovery of the Satellites of Jupiter. 1614 Invention of Logarithms by Napier. 1619 Harvey proves the circulation of the blood. 1620 Thermometers invented. 1643 Barometer invented ; 1650, Pendulum clock first used. 1654 Air pump invented by Otto Guericke. 1663 Idea of a Steam Engine by the marquis of Worcester. 1670 Bayonets invented at Bayonne. 1687 Invention of the Telegraph. 1732 Inoculation for the small pox introduced into Western Europe by lady Mary Wortley Montague. 1781 Herschel or Uranus discovered by Dr. Herschel. 1782 Air Balloon invented by Montgolfier. 1798 Vaccination introduced by Dr. Jennings, 1765 Watt's improvements in the steam engine; condensa- tion of steam in a separate vessel from the cylinder. 1796 Invention of lithography by Sennefelder. 1803 Fulton constructs a steamboat on the Seine. 1825 Railroads first used as a public thoroughfare j locomo- tive steam engines successfully introduced in 1829. ' ENCROACHMENTS OP THE SEA. 960 The islands of ^miniano aad Coataoziaco iu the Gulf of YenicB Bwept away by the sea. 1044-1309 IrruptionB of the sea on the coaat of Pomerania cause terrible rar- ages, and give rise to the popular story of the submersion of ViDeta. 1106 Malomacco, alarge town in the Venetian lagoons, eorulfed by the sea. 1218 The gulf of Jahde near the mouth of the Weser formed by inundations. 1219-20-21-46 & 61. A euccesBion of violent storms separated the island of Wieringen from the continent, and prepared the rupture of the istbmns which connected North Holland with Friesland. 1277-78-80-87 The fertile canton of Reiderland, with the town of Torum, and 60 market towas, villages, and monasteries, swallowed up by the sea, which formed the gulf of DoUart over their site. 12S2 The Zuider Zee formed by the rupture of the isthmus onitiug North Hbllaod and Friesland and many towns swept away. 1240 The island of Northstrand separated from the contioent, and a tract of the coast of Sleswic swallowed up. 1300-1500-1649 Violent storms carry off three fourths of Heligoland. 1300 The town of Ciparum in Istria swallowed up by the sea. 1303 A large part of the island of Rugeu, and several villages on the coast of Pomerania engulfed by tbe waves. 1337 Fourteen villages on Kadsand in Zeeland destroyed bv an inundation. 1421 The sea engul» the district of Bergseweld, and overflowe twenty-two villages, forming the large gulf of Bieabosch. 147S A strip of land at the mouth of tbe Hnmber with several villages car- ried away by the sea. 1510 The Baltic forms the mouth of the Frisch Haff 3600 yards wide. 1530-32 A part of tbe islands of North and South Bevekad with aeveral towns and many villages swallowed up. 1634 An inundation of the sea engulfs the island of Northstrand, destroying 1338 houses, towers, and churches, aad swallowing up 60,000 head of cattle^ and 6,400 human heiugs. 1TS6 A violent storm changed the salt-pans of Araya in Ciunana, into a large gulf, 1770-1786 Heligoland divided into two Isles by the encroaclmientB of the sea. 1784 Tbe lake of Aboukir on the coast of Egypt formed b^ a storm. 1803 The sea carried off the ruins of the pnory at Crail in Scotland. VOLCANIC ERUPTIONS AND EARTHaUAKES. B. C. 427 Eruption of Etna and Earthquake ravaged environs of Catania. 373 Helice and Bora destroyed by an earthquake, attended by a frightful inundation. 144 Isle of Hiera rose from tbe £gean Sea during an Earthquake. A. D. 79 Eruption of Vesuvius destroys Herculaneum and Pompeii. 115 Antiocb Destroyed by an earthquake. 1137 Catania swallowed up by an Earthquake. 1138 Ninth Eruption of Vesuvius, after which it is quieacent for 168 years. 1302 J&chia ravaged by a volcanic eruption preceded by violent earthquakes. 1538 Monte Nuovo, a bill 440 feet high, formed near Naples. 1573 Island of little Kdjneni rises near Hiera. 1631 Eruption of Vesuvius destroys Torre del Greco with 3,000 persons. 1666 New Eruption of Vesuvius after a pause of 36 years ; since this period in constant activity with rarely an interval exceeding ten years. 1669 Eruption of Etna ; Mount Rossi, 450 feet high, formed; 14 villages and towns, and part of Catania destroyed. 1692 Jamaica ravaged by an earthquake, and many of the inhabitants swal- lowed up by rents in the ground ; three quarters of the houses of Port Royal with the ground tbey occupied sank with their tenants under water. 1693 Shocks of earthquake In Sicily, which levelled Catania, and 49 other places to the ground, and destroyed 100,000 persons. 1699 Earthquakes in Java, when no less than 206 severe shocks were counted ; the fish killed in the rivers by the mud which filled them, and great num- bers of wild animals destroyed. 1706 Eruption of Teneriffe, attended by shocks which caused many springs to disappear and hills to rise up from the plains. 1725 Eruption of the volcano LeirhDUkur,in Iceland, dnring whicb a tract of high land sank down and formed alake, and ahill rose from the bed of a lake. 1730-36 Five years' convulsion of Lancerote; the earth was rent, and dis- charged pestilential vapors ; smoke and flames rose from tbe sea with loud explosions ; fiery streams of lava of great extent devaslated the land, choked up rivers, and running into the sea, killed great numbers of fish ; 30 volcanic cones from SOO to 600 ft. high from their base were formed. 1737 Earthquake in Kamschatka, which caused an inundation of ^e sea, formed new bills, lakes, and bays. 1746 Earthquake in Peru ; 200 shocks experienced in the first 24 houra ; Lima destroyed ; several new bays formed ; nineteen ships sunk and four carribd a great distance up the country by the rise of the sea ; several volcanoes burst forth in the vicinity, and poured forth torrents of water, which overflowed extensive tracts. 1750 Conception or Fenco in Chili destroyed by an earthquake, and over- whelmed by the sea. 1765 Earthquake destroyed Lisbon (Nov. 1), and 60,000 persons perished in six minutes. The sea first retired, and then rolled in, rising 60 ft. above its usual level : tife largest mountains in Portugal rocked and split asun- der, and sebt forth flames and clouds of dust. The shock was felt nearly all over Europe, in the north part of Africa, in the Atlantic, and even in the West Indies ; a vast wave swept over the coast of Spain, in some places, 60 feet in height, and near Morocco the earth opened, swallowed up about 10,000 persons with their herds, and then closed over them. 1759 The volcano of Jorulto in Mexico ruse during an earthquake from the plain ofMalpais, forming a hill 1600 feet high. 1766 Violent shocks agitate Venezuela occurring hourly for above a year. 1772 Eruption of the volcano Papanduyang in Java ; a tract of country 15 miles long by six broad was engulfed, 40 villages swallowed up or over- whelmed, and the cone ofthe volcano was reduced in height 4, 000 feet. 1777 During the eruption of the volcano on the side of which the city of Gua- timala was built, the ground gaped open and swallowed the whole city with its 8,000 families, 1783 Earthquake in Calabria destroyed all the towns and villages, 20 miles round Oppido, and 40,000 persons were swallowed up or overwhelmed ; the shocks continued for four years. 1783 Eruption of the volcano Asamayama in Niphon, preceded by an earth- quake, during whicb tbe earth yawned and swallowed many towns. 1797 Earthquake in Q.uito destroyed many towns and villages. I8O6 An island 60 miles in circuit with several low conical hills upon it rose from the sea among the Aleutian islands. 1811 Earthquake in South Carolina, and in the valley ofthe Miesiseippi ; the lalterwBs convulsed to such a degree between the mouths of tbe Ohio and the St. Francis us to create lakes and islands ; and deep chasms were formed in the ground, from which vast volumes of water, sand, and coal were thrown up to the height of 60 or 70 feet. 1812 The city of Caraccas destroyed by an earthquake, and 10,000 persons buried under its ruins. , 1815 Eruption of the volcano Tomboro in Sumhava, attended by whirl- ' winds, which committed great ravages, and by a sudden rising of tbe sea, which submerged towns and considerable tracts. Of 12,000 ii^abi- tants of the island only 26 survived. 1819 An Earthquake in Cutcb destroyed many towns and villages ; deep- ened the eastern arnj of tbe Indus from one to eighteen feet ; submerged some tracts and elevated others. 1822 Aleppo destroyed by an earthquake. 181^ C'bili ravaged by an eartbquake, the shock of which was felt for a dis- distauce of 1200 miles ; the coast in the neighborhood of Valparaiso for a distance of 100 miles was raised above its former level from two to four, and even six or eight feet : tbe whole tract thus raised had an area of ' about 100,000 square miles. 1827 Earthquake commits great ravages around Bogota. 1831 Tbe island of Sciacca rose from the sea uear the aouthcrn coast of Sicily; the depth of tbe sea at this spot was 600 feet, and,the island was 100 feet above the surface : circuit 3,240 feet : in the winter of 1831, the island was swept away by the waves, leaving only a sboa.!. CHRONOLOGICAL TABLES OP EUROPEAN SOVEREIGNS AND DISTINGUISHED MEN. GERMANY. Carlovingians. 800 Charlemagne 814 Louis I 843 Louis II 876 Carloman — Louis III — Charles Fat 887 Arnold 899 Louis IV 911 Conrad I Saxon Idne, 919 Henry I Fowler 936 Otho Great 973 Otho II 983 Otho III 1002 Henry II Salic LiTie. 1024 Conrad (Salic) 1039 Henry III 1056 Henry IV 1106 Henry V 1125 Lothaire Hohenstaufens. 1138 Conrad III [sa 1152 Frederic I Barbaros- 1190 Henry VI 1198 Philip and Otho IV 1212 Frederic II 1250 Conrad IV 1254 William of Holland 1257 Richard 1273 RodolphofHapsburg 1292 Adolphus 1S98 Albert of Austria lyaxemburff Line. 1308 Henry VII 1314 Louis of Bavaria 1346 Charles IV 1378 Wenceslaus 1400 Robert 1411 Sigismund ffapslmrg Line, 1437 Albert II 1440 Frederic III 1493 Maximilian I 1519 Charles V 1558 Ferdinand I 1564 Maximilian II 1576 Rodolph II 1612 Matthias 1619 Ferdinand II 1637 Ferdinand III 1653 Leopold I 1705 Joseph I 1711 Charles VI 1742 Charles VII Lorraine Branch. 1742 Francis I and Maria Theresa 1765 Joseph II 1790 Leopold II 1792 Francis U as Emperor of Austria 1806 Francis 1. FRANCE 481 Clovis Merovingians till 746 Pepin 768 Carloman 771 Charlemagne 814 Louis 1 843 Charles Bald 877 Louis II Stammerer 879 Louis III, Carloman 884 Charles Fat 888 Eudes 898 Charles Simple 922 Robert 923 Raoul 936 Louis IV 954 Lothaire 986 Louis V Capelian Race. 987 Hugh Capet 997 Robert Pious 1031 Henry I 1060 Philip I 1108 Louis VI Pat 1137 Louis VII 1180 Philip II Augustus 1223 Louis VIII 1^6 Louis IX St. 1270 Philip III Bold 1285 Philip IV Pair 1314 Louis X 1316 Philip V Tall 1322 Charles IV Fair Valois Branch. 1328 Philip VI 1350 John 1364 Charles V Wise 1380 Charles VI 1422 Charles VH 1461 Louis XI Wise 1483 Charles VIII VaXois-Orleans Branch. 1498 Louis XII 1515 Francis I 1547 Henry II 1559 Francis II 1660 Charles IX 1574 Henry III Bourbon Branch. 1589 Henry IV Great 1610 Louis XIII 1643 Louis XIV 1715 Louis XV 1774 Louis XVI 1792 Republic 1804 Napoleon, Emperor 1814 Louis XVIII 1824 Charles X Younger Bourbon Line. 1830 Louis Philip. PRUSSIA. 1701 Frederic I 1713 Frederic William I 1740 Frederic II Great 1786 Frederic William II 1797 Fred'c William III OONSTANTINOPOLI- TAN Ehperors from 800. Qreek. 802 Nicephorus 811 Michael I 813 Leo V 820 Michael II ■ 829 Theophilus 842 Michael III 867 Basil I Macedonian 886 Leo VI 911 ConstantlnePorphy- rogenitus and Alex- ander. 959 Romanus II 963 Nicephorus 11 Pho- cas 969 John Zimisces 976 Basil II, Constan- tine IX 102S Romanus III 1034 Michael IV 1041 Michael V 1042 Zoe and Theodora — Conatantine X 1056 Michael VI 1057 Isaac Comnenus 1059 Constantine XI Du- cas 1067 Eudocia Romanus III 1071 Michael VII 1078 Nicephorus III 1081 Alexius Comnenus 1118 John Comnenus 1143 Manuel Comnenus 1180AlexiusComnenusII 1183 Andronicus Comne- nus 1185 Isaac II Angelus 1195 -Alexius Angelus 1203 Isaac, restored 1304 Alexius Ducas Lalins or Franks, 1204 Baldwin of Flanders 1206 Henry 1217 Peter de Gourtenay 1219 Robert de Courtenay 1228 John de Brienne 1237 Baldwin Qreek. 1361 Michael Paleologus 1282 Andronicus Paleolo- gus 1292 Michael^ associated 1328 AndronicusYounger 1341 John Cantacuzene 1355 John Paleologus 1391 Manuel Paleologus 1425 John Paleologus II 1448 Constantine Paleo- logus Turks. 1453 Mahomet II 1431 Bajazet II 1512 Selim I 1520 Solyman 1566 Selim 1674 Amurath 1595 Mahomet III 1604 Achmet 1617 Mustapha 1618 Osman 1622 Mustapha, restored 1623 Amurath IV 1640 Ibrahim 1648 Mahomet IV 1687 Solyman II 1691 Achmet II 1695 Mustapha II 1703 Achmet III 1730 Mahomet V 1754 Osman II 1757 Mustapha III 1774 Abed ul Hamet 1789 Selim III 1808 Mahomet VI ENGLAND. Sazons. 827 Egbert 836 Ethelwulf 857 Ethelbald 860 Ethclbert 866 Ethelred 872 Alfred 901 Edward Elder 926 Athelstan 941 Edmund 946 Edred • 955 Edwy 959 Edgar 975 Edward Martyr 978 Ethelred 1016Edm'd Ironside Danes. 1017 Canute 1036 Harold Barefoot 1039 Hardicanule 1041 Edward Confes- sor {^SoLan) 1065 Harold II J^ormans. 1066 William I [fus 1087 William II Ru- 1100 Henry I 1136 Stephen Plantagenets. 1154 Henry II 1189 Richard I Offiur de Lion 1199 John Lackland 1216 Henry III 1272 Edward I 1307 Edward II 1327 Edward III 1377 Richard II House of Lancaster. 1399 Henry IV 1413 Henry V 1422 Henry VI House of York. 1461 Edward IV 1483 Edward V — Richard 111 House of Tudor. 1485 Henry VII 1509 Henry VIII 1547 Edward VI 1553 Mary 1558 Elizabeth Stuarts. 1603 James I 1625 Charles I 1653 Cromwell 1660 Charles II 1685 James II 1689 William III & Mary 1702 Anne House of Hanover. 1714 George I 1727 George II 1760 George III 1820 George IV 1830 William IV RUSSIAN EMPER- ORS. Hoilse of Romanoff. 1721 Peter Great 1725 Catharine I 1727 Peter II 1730 Anna Iwan- owna 1740 Iwan 1741 Elizabeth House of Holstein. 1762 Peter III 1762 Catharine II 1796 Paul 1801 Alexander 1825 Nicholas SCOTLAND, from nth century. 1004 Malcolm II 1034 Duncan 1056 Macbeth 1057 Malcolm III 1093 Donald Bane 1094 Duncan II 1097 Edgar 1106 Alexander 1124 David I 1153 Malcolm IV 1165 William 1214 Alexander II 1249 Alexander III 1285 Margaret 1290 Interregnum. 1292 John Baliol 1296 Interregnum. 1306 Robert Bruce 1320 David II Stuarts. 1370 Robert II 1390 Robert III 1405 James I 1437 James 11 1460 James III 1487 James IV 1612 James V 1542 Mary 1587 James VI POPES, from Mid die of 11th century. 1067 Stephen X • 1053 Nicholas II 1061 Alexander II 1073 Gregory VII 1088 Urban II 1099 Pascal II 1118GelasiusII. 1119CalixtusII 1124 Honorma II 1130 Innocent II 1143 Celestine II 1144 Lucius ll 1146 Eugene III 1153 Anastasius IV 1155 Adrian IV 1159 Alexander III 1181 Lucius III 1185 Urban III 1187 Gregory VIII 1187 Clement III 1191 Celestine III 1198 Innocent III 1216 Honorius III 1227 Gregory IX 1241 Celestine IV 1243 Innocent IV 1254 Alexander IV 1261 Urban IV 1265 Clement IV 1272 Gregory X 1276 Innocent V 1276 Adrian V 1276 John XXI 1277 Nicholas III 1281 Martin IV 1286 Honorius IV 1288 Nicholas IV 1294 Celestine V 1294 Boniface VIII 1303 Benedict XI 1.105 Clement V 1316 John XXII 1334 Benedict XII 1342 Clement VI 1352 Innocent VI 1362 Urban V 1.370 Gregory XI 1378 Urban VI 1389 Boniface IX 1404 Innocent VII 1406 Gregory XII 1409 Alexander V 1410 John XXIII 1417 Martin V 1431 Eugene IV 1447 Nicholas V 1455 Calixtus III 1458 Pius II 1464 Paul II 1471 Sixtus IV 1484 Innocent VIII 1492 Alexander VI 1503 Pius III 1503 Julius II 1516 Leo X 1522 Adrian VI 1623 Clement VII 1534 Paul III 1550 Julius III 1565 Marcellus II 1555 Paul IV 1559 Pius IV 1.566 Pius V 1572 Gregory XIII 1685 Sixtus V 1690 Urban VII 1690 Gregory XIV 1591 Innocent IX 1592 Clement VIII 1605 Leo XI 1606 Paul V 1621 Gregory XV 1623 Urban VIII 1644 Innocent X 1655 Alexander VII 1667 Clement IX 1670 Clement X 1676 Innocent XI 1689 Alexander VIII 1691 Innocent XII 1700 Clement XI 1721 Innocent XIII 1724 Benedict XIII 1730 Clement XII 1740 Benedict XIV 1753 Clement XIII 1769 Clement XIV 1775 Pius VI 1300 Pius VII 1823 Leo XII 1829 Pius VIII 1831 Gregory XVI SPAIN. 1474 Ferdinand and Isabella .Austrian Line. 1605 Philip I 1516 Charles I (V) 1556 Philip II 1598 Philip III 1621 Philip IV 1665 Charles II Bourbons. 1700 Philip V 1746 Ferdinand VI 1759 Charles III 1788 Charles IV 1808 Ferdinand VII Joseph Napoleon 1814 Ferdinand VIII 1833 Isabella II • PORTUGAL. 1139 Alphonso I 1186 Sancho I 1211 Alphonso 11 1223 Sancho II 1248 Alphonso III 1279 Dionysius 1325 Alphonso IV 1357 Pedro I 1367 Ferdinand 1385 John I 1433 Edward 1438 Alphonso V 1481 John II Great 1495 Emanuel Great 1621 John III 1657 Sebastian 1678 Henry 1580-1640 To Spain House of Bragama. 1640 John 1656 Alphonso VI 1667 Pedro II 1706 John V 1750 Joseph I 1777 Pedro III — Maria 1816 John VI 1826 Pedro IV — Miguel — Maria II SARDINIA. 1720 Victor Amade- usll 1730 Charles Eman- uel 111 1773 Victor Amade US HI 1796 Charles Eman uel IV [el I 1802 Victor Emanu- 1821 Charles Felix I 1831 Charles Albert. TWO SICILIES. Bourbons. 1759 Ferdinand IV 1808 Jos. Napoleon 1815 Murat 1816 Ferdinand I (of Two Sicilies, IV of Naples) 1826 Francis I 1830 Ferdinand II NETHERLANDS, 1815 William I BELGIUM. 1830 Leopold GREECE. 1832 Otho I SWEDEN. 1533 Gustavus Vasa 1560 Eric XIV 1569 John III 1592 Sigismund 1600 Charles IX 1611 Gustavus Adol- phus 1632 Christina , Souse of Deux Fonts. 1654 Charles X 1660 Charles XI 1697 Charles XII 1719 Ulrica Eleonora — Frederic Holstein House. 1751 Adolphus Fred- eric 1771 Gustavus III 1792 Gustavus IV A- dolphus 1809 Charles XIII 1818 Chas. XIV John ' (adopted), DISTINCmSHED AUTHORS, PHILOSOPHERS, &c. HEBREWS. B.C. 1572-1452 MoBea 1065-15 David 1033-975 Solomon 8Q0 Jonah Amos Hosea Joel Obadiah Micah Jsaiah Nahum 700 Habakkuk Jeremiah 600 Baruch Ezekicl Daniel Zachariah Haggai 500 Ezra Nehemiah Malachi 300 JeBUB Sirach GREEK. 900 Homer Heeiod 700 Tyrtffius ArchilochuB 600 Alcfflua Solon Epimenidea Pylhagoraa Anacreon 525-426 ;EachyliiB 518-439 Pindar 500-428 Anaxagoraa 495-405 Sophocles 480-406 Euripidea 484-04 Herodotus- 471-391 Thucydidea 468-399 Socratea d. 385 Aristophanes 458-378 Lysias 444-359 Xenopboa 429-347 Plato 436-338 Taocrates - 3822SZ Demosthenes 384^22 Ariatotle d. 288 Theophrastus 342-291 Menander 341-270 Epicurua Jl. 300 Euclid Bion /. 280 Theocritua fi. 250 ApoUoniUB Rhodiua d, 212 Archimedes 206124 Polybius Jl, 10 Dionysius Halic. DiodoruB Siculus A.D^. SOStrabo yi. iTS Pauaanias 50-130 Plutarch Jl. 120 Epiclclus d. 140.£han Appien 70-150 Ptolemy 103-193 Galen Polyienus 120-200 Lucian Oppian Diogenes Laertlua Jl. 190 Dion C&saius f. 230Herodian d. 275 LoDginuB LATIN. E. C.200Plautua Enniua Terence Jl. 70 Lucretius 107-43 Cicero 86-40 Catullus 98-46 Julius Cssar 85-35 Salluat 70-19 Virgil 65-8 Horace Cornelius Nepos 59A.D9Livy 43 A. D. 17 TibulluB Ovid 19 it . D. 30 Faterculus A. D. Valeriui Maximua Ph^edrus Q.aintus Curtius 34-62 Peraius 38-65 Lucan d. 67 Petroniua Arbiter 12-65 Seneca Valerius Flaccua 2^-79 Pliny Elder Sill u a Itahcua Jl. 90 Q.uintilian d. 99 StatiuB 29-104 Martial 48-128 Jnveual 61-113 Pliny Younger Tacitus Jl. 100 Suetoniua Jl. 100 Florua Jl. 100 Frontinus Jl. 120 AulUB Gelliua Jl. 150 ApuleiuB ITALIAN. 1265-1321 Dante 1304-1374 Petrarch 1313-1375 Boccacio 1380-1349 Poggio 1407-1457 DeUa Valla 1405-1464 £neas SylviuB 1432-1487 Pulci 14541494 PoHtian Cdici 1448-1492 Lorenzo de'Me 1463-1494 Pico Mirandola 1452-1520 Da Vinci 1474-1664 Buonaroti 1434-1494 Boiardo 1458-1530 Sannazzaro d. 1530Berni 1474-1533 Ariosto 1469-1528 MachiavelU 1470-1547 Bembo 1482-1540 Guicdardini 1483-1553 Fracaatora 1500-1570 Beov. Cellini 1523-1563 Falopo 1503-1566 Varchi 1514-1578 Vaaari 1544-1595 TasBo 1529-1606 Davanzati 1538-1607 Baroniua 1538-1613 Guarini 1552-1623 Sarpi 1561-1635 Tassoni 1576-1631 Davila 1552-1637 Chiabrera 1564 1642 Galileo 1579-1644 Bentivoglio 1606-1664 Lippi 1615-1673 Salvator Rosa 1642-1707 Filicaia 16251713 Casaioi 1672-1750 Muratoil 1664-1718 Gravina 1674-1735 Forteguerra 1669-1750 Zeno 1675-1755 Maffei 1677-1756 Caasini 1680-1748 Giannone 1698-1782 Metaslaaio 1707-1772 Frugoni 1712-1769 Genoveai 1712-1764 Algarotti 1711-1787 BoBCOvilch 17201795 Beccaria 1731-1794 TiraboBchi 1737-1798 GalYani 1745-1827 Volta 1749-1803 Alfieri 1751-1798 Filangieri 1753-1828 Monti SPANISH. 1236-1315 Lullo 1398-1458 Mendoza 1407-1470 Zamora 1492-1540 Vives d. 1644 Boacan [Vega 1503-1536 Garcilasode la 1520- 1561 Montemayor 1513-1590 Morales 1547-1600 Acoata 1528-1569 Ferreira 1533-1560 Ercilla d. 1575 Mendoza 1537-1624 Mariana 1549-1616 Cervantes 1565-1625 Herrera 1570-1645 ftuevedo 1562-1635 Lope de Vega 1560-1621 Saudoval d. 1646 Guevara 1597-1641 Acuna 1601-1667 Calderon d. 1660Ulloa 1595-1669 Villegas 1611-1686 Solia 1652-1735 Ferreras d. . 1765 Feyjoo 1722-1772 Velasquez 1752-1794 yriarte 1716-1795 Dlloa 1745-1799 Munoz d. 1799 Arteaga 1731-1804 Azara 1744-18U Jovellanoa 1756-1823 Llorente d. lS28Moratin ENGLISH. 1214-1292 Roger Bacon d. 1372 Maundeviile 1324-1384 Wickliffe Langlande 1328-1400 Chaucer d. 1402Gower 1380-1440 Lydgaie ' 1475-1555 Latimer 1480-1535 More 1541 Wyatt 1546 Surrey 1577 Gaacoigne 1581 Hollingahed _ 1568 Aacham 1554-1586 Sir P. Sidney d. 1593 Marlowe 1553-1598 Spenaer 1653-1600 Hooker 1564-1616 Shakapeare 1576-1625 Fletcher 1586-1615 Beaumont d. leiOKnoUes 1550-1634 Coke 1551-1623 Camden 1553-1616 Hackluyt 1552-1617' Raleigh 1574-1637 Johnson 1576-1639 Burton 1585-1639 Masainger 1560-1626 Bacon 1562-1641 Spelman 1563-1631 Drayton 1584-1654 Selden 1611-1677 Harrington 1588-1667 Donne 1594-1666 Shirley 1588-1679 Hobbes 1609-1641 Suckling 1615-1668 Denham 1612-1688 3. Butler 1608-1674 Milton 1605-1687 Waller 1618-1667 Cowley d. 1667 Taylor 1630-1677 Barrow 1617-re83A!g. Sydney 1617-1688 Cudworth 1620-1706 Evelyn 1648-1680 Rochester 1633-1684 Roscommon 162S-1688 Bunyan 1651-1685 Otway 1631-1701 Dryden 1632-1704 Locke 1642-1719 Newtou 1664-1721 Prior 1656-1742 Halley' 1660tl731 Defoe 1672-1719 Addison 1673-1718 Rowe 1672-1728 Congreve 1661-1740 BenUey 1696-1742 A. Clarke 1672-1751 Bolingbroke 1688-1732 Gay 1684-1753 Berkeley 1689-1761 Richardson 1667-1745 Swift 1674-1748 Walta 1681-1765 Young 1688-1744 Pope 1700-1748 ThomaOQ 1703-1791 Wesley 1707-1754 Fielding 1709-1784 Johnson 1716-1779 Garrick 1713-1768 Sterne 1714-1763 Shenstone 1720-1756 Collins 1709-1779 Warburton 1723-1780 Blackatone 1711-1776 Hume 1721-1770 Akenaide 1716-1771 Gray 1721-1793 RobertBon 1723-1790 A. Smith 1720-1771 Smollet 1731-1774 Goldsmith 1^8-1790 T. Warton 1731-1800 Cowper d. 1797Walpole 1732-1811 Cumlaerland 1732-1802 Darwin 1723-1792 Reynolds 1737-1794 Gibbon 1733-1804 Prieatley 1735-1803 Beattie 1733-1794 Cohnan 1743-1805 Paley 1730-1797 Burke 1759-1796 Burns 1759-1808 Poraon 1738-1822 Herschel 1751-1816 Sheridan 1771-1832 Scoti 1788-1824 Byron FRENCH. 1079-1142 Abelard 1260-1318 JoiDville 133r-1402 Froissart 1445-1509 Comines 1463-1525 Marot 1483-1553 Rabelais 1484-1558J. C. Scaliger 1503-1559 Stephens 1509-1564 Cafviu 1528-1590 H. SteplieoB 1533-1592 Montaigne 1540-1609J. J. Scaliger 1553-1617 De Thou 1556-1628 Malherbe 1592-1655 Gasaendi 1596-1650 Dea Cartes 1606-1684 Corneille 1603-1680 Rocbefoucault 1620-1673 Moliere 1623-1652 Paacal 1621-1695 La Fontaine 1628-1694 Sevigne 1636-1696 La Bruyere 1633-1715 Malbranche 1639-1699 Racine 1636-1711 Boileau 1646-1706 Bayle 1651-1715 Fenelon 1657-1756 Fontenelle 1652-1704 BosEUet 1661-1741 Rollin 1663-1742 Maesillon 1663-1741 J. B. Rousseau 1674-1762 Crebilion 1677-1747 Leaage 1695-1778 Voltaire 1698-1755 Montesquieu 1712-1798 Rouaaeau 1707-1788 Buffon 1713-1784 Diderot 1716-1795 Barthelemy 1719-1799 Marmontel d. 1782D'Anville La Grange 1727-1781 Turgot 1749-1791 Mirabeau 1737-1814 St. Pierre 1738-1813 Delille 1755-1820 Volney 1746-1830 Genlifl 1768-1817 De Stael 1749-1827 La Place 1769-1832 CuTier GERMAN. 1193-1280 AlbertUB Mag- 1376-1415 Husa [nuB 1380-1471 T. A. Kempia 1436-1476 Regiomonta- 1483-1546 Luther fnua 1484-1531 Zwingle 1497-1560 MelanchthoD 1494-1574 Hana Sacks 1512-1594 Mercator 1519-1609 Beza 1571-1631 Kepler 1597-1639 Opita 1602-1680 Guerike 1631-1694 Puffendorf 1646-1716 Leibnitz 1695-1755 Moaheim 1700-1766 Gottached 1708-1754 Hagedom 1715-1769 GeBert 1724-1805 Klopstock 1728-1795 Zimmerman 1730-1780 Zollikoffer 1724-1804 Kant 1725-1798 Leeaing 1733-1813 Wieland 1730-1813 Oessner 1748-1794 Burger 1741-1801 Lavater 1749-1832 Gccthe 1751-1826 VoBs 1769-1805 Schiller 1761-1819 Kotzebae 1741-1803 Herder 1752-1809 Muller 1762-1814 Fichte 1776-1831 Niebuhr PALESTINE OR THE HOLY LAND. Extent, Names. This region, the southwestern part of the Syria of the Greeks and Romans, though only a narrow strip of land extending from Phoe- nicia to Arabia, is full of historical interest.- Here the wandering patriarchs pitched their tents and fed their flocks ; ^lere was the cradle of the Mosaic and Christian religions, the scene of the awful mjracles of Mpses and of Christ; and here was the battle-field on which the cluvalry of Europe and Asia en- countered each other, aroiind the holy sepulchre, in the everitful period of the crusades. .. ' - The country was early called the land of spots mentioned by the sacred historian, and per- hapS a more exact-knowledge of its surface would not enable us to distinguish from each other the roCky summits or the sandy, plains, which have so little peculiar to characterise them. > Mount Horeb arid Mount Sinai were probably in the group of mountains, which occujjjes the centre of the peninsula, while the mountainous ridge called S^ir and Hor in scripture reaches north towards the Dead Sea. nf THE WORLD AS KNOWN TO THE ANCIENTS. j Geographical knowledge of the Ancients. The ancient Greeks and JRomans were acquainted only with a part of the eastern continent ; the- ex- ftreme northern, eastern, and southern parts of which were however quite (Unknown. To Homer the earth was a flat circle, which was surrounded by ^a vast river, the Ocean, and in whose centre was situated Greece. Hero- fdotus, who lived several hundred'years later, was acquainted with the division of the continent into three parts, Europe, Asia and Libya, afterwards called sAfrioa, and his knowledge extended to Persia, the African desert, the coun- Jtries north and west of the Black Sea ; but he knew little of Southern Arabia iand of the Spanish and Italian peninsulas. At a much later period, Eratosthenes andSjrabq had a correct notion of the earth's figure, and Ptolemy, the last of the great geographers of antiquity, .describes the regions laid down on the accompanying map, with considerable laocuracy, although the true bearing and relative distances of differentpoints !were not accurately known. f Sea^. The three great gulfs of the Indian Ocean on the snuth of Asia, were known under the names of the Arabian Gulf (Red Sea) ; thfr Erythrean jSea,, Arabian Gulf of the moderns; and the Gulf of the Ganges, now called JBayiof Bengal. The great inland sea, the Caspian, bore the same nam^, but 'the Arid sea was either unknown, or, as is more pr.obJftjle, anciently formed an {arm of the Caspian, froni which it has been subsequently separated. ; Between Europe an4 Asia, were the Palus Mtsoti^ (Sea of Azgph) ; the ^Pontus Enxinus (Black Sea) ; Propontis (Sea of Marmora) : Hellespont (Dar- danelles), and ./Egean Stea (Archipelago). :- S Bfetween Europe and Africa, the Mediterranean had no distinctive name, ibat was called the Sea, the Inner Sea, Our Sea* that part east of Italy was called the Adriatic (Gulf of Venice) ; on the ssutheast was the Ionian Sea, land on the southwest the Tyrrhenian j^or Tuscan Sea. I Passing through the Straits of Hercules (Gibraftar), we come into the Atlan- 'tic Ocean, and in the north of Europe enter theCodanic Gulf, now called the I Baltic Sea. -i Asia. Beyond the Imaus (Beloor Tag), and the Ganges, the knowledge of the ancients was imperfect and confused. Here they placed Serica, supposed (to be Little Bucharia ; Sinse, by some considered as China, by others Siam ; . the Golden Chersonese (perhaps Malacca), and the Gold and Silver Regions, answering probably to the Birman empire. Scythia was a vast region of indefinite extent, stretching from the Jeixartes 1 (Sihon) to the Rha (Volga), and watered by the Daix (Ural)'. The Massagetas, IChorasmii, SacEe, Ohatce, Is'sedones, &c., were among the principal hordes of this regipn. Bordering, on Scythia and peopled by similar inhabitants was Sarmatia, which, though lying chiefly in Europe, may be mentioned here from its form- ing with- Scythia the liiortheastera limits of the known world.' It stretched ; northerly from the Carpathian Mountains, the Pontus Euxinus, and Caucasus, ; and easterly from- the Vistula to unknown regions. The Tyras (Dniester), , Hypanis (Bo^, Borysthenes (Dnieper), and Tanais (Don), were the princi- . pal rarers. The Chersonesus Taurica (Crimea) formed its southern extrem- ity. The Alani, Roxolani, Jazyges,' Alauni, Agathyrsi, Geloni, Bastarnte, &c., f were Sarmatian tribes. I The India of the ancients was divided into India withiri the Ganges, and I Indiai'beyond the Ganges. Hither India extended west to the Paropamisus .1 Mountains (Hindoo Kno) , and north to the Emodus (Himalaya) . On the south f was the island of Taprobana (Ceylon). The Indus received the Acesines,the f Hydaspes,(Behut or Chelum), and the Hyphasis. Nysa, Taxilla, Malli, and Pattala, were important cities in this quarter. On tlie Ganges, .dwelt the Prassi, whose capital was Palibothra, and the Gangaridte. Bactriana on the northwest of India was si fertile region, whose .capital, Bac^tra (Balkh), has always been a great commerciaJrmart. Sogdiana (Great Bucharia), situated between the Oxus (Gihon), and the Jaxartes, was like Bactriana, peopled^Jjy an industrious and commerbiaV race, whose brilliant capital was MaraoftndaI(Samarcind). ', On the south «f BactrianaVere'Ariohbsia (Candahar), and Aria (Khorasan)j with a capital (^f the same naiSie, riow^erat. ' ■ - ' , On the coast were Gedrosis^BelociShistan), and Caramania.(Kej:man). To the north lay Persis, the Slam of ,teiipture (Farsistan) , with its celebrated capital Persepolis or PasargEodjg, and tSjiJie west Susiana (Khusistan),:in which stood Susa. , .;:.''- Parthia,and Hyrcania, wild .and mountainous regions, borderfed on the fertile Media (Irak Ajemi), which' contained the magnificent city of Ecbaferfli,. Between the.Euxine and Caspian -wjare Colchis, Iberia, and Albania. - On the Tigris and Euphrates were Armenia, watered by the Cyrus (Kur), Araxes, and Phasis, with the'cities of Artaxata and Tigranocerta ; Mesopota- mia, the Padan Aram of th^ Hebrewsi'm which were Edessa, Thapsaciis, and Cunaxa ; ; Assroiia or Adiabene (Kurdistan), containing Nineveh or Ninus, and Arbela ; aid Babylonia or Chaldica, the very ruins ofwhose brilliant capitals, Babylon, Seleucia, and Ctesiphon, have perished. ';. Arabia was 'divided by the ancients into Arabia Petraea, in ' the north, in which were Petra, Mount Sinai, and the country of the N^batheans ; Arabia Felix (the Fertile), in the west and south, comprising Leucecome, MacoraBa (Mecca), the country of the Sabeans, Mariaba, and perhaps the Ophir of the Hebrews, and further east the Region of Incense, Moscha,'Omanum, arid Gefta on the Persian Gulf; and Arabia Deserta, or the interior, which was impef- feotly known. . ■ - <• Asia Minor and Syria, are described in separate tables. Africa. Only the northern part of this country was known to the ancients, by whom it was also called Libya. Egypt, called by the Hebrews Mizriam, is by some of the ancient writers considered a part of Asia ; the Nile formerly entered the sea by seven mouths, now mostly choked up. The country was divided into three parts ; Upper Egypt or the Thebaid, Middle Egypt or the Heptanomis, and Lower Egypt or the Delta. Syene (Assouan), Thebes, Tentyris, Abydus, Lycopolis (Siut), and Berenice on the Arabian Gulf, were towns of the Thebaid ; Arsinbe and Memphis of the Heptanomis; and Heliopolis, Bubaste, Pelusium, Sals, and Alexandria of the Delta. To the soiith of Egypt was Ethiopia (Nubia), in which was the famous Meroe (Sennaar)., On the west were Marmpxica, a desert region, in which was the port of Pareetonium ; and Cyrenaica, called also Pentapolis, containing the Greek col- ony of Cyrene. Further west lay Syrtica, comprising Tripolis, and the fabulous region of the Lotpphagi; Leptis (Lebida), and Cydamus (Gadames), were its principal tovvns. On thecoast were the gulfs of the Greater and Lesser Syrtis. Africa Proper, divided into Zeugitana and Byzacium, contained the cele- brated city of Carthage, and was watered by the Bagradas. In the north were Utica and Zama, and in the south lake Triton. ■ N umidia presents iiJthing remarkable ; its. chief towns were Cirta (Constan- tina), and Hippo p.egius .(Bona). - ~ .^ Mauritania comprising'Tingitaia, extended to the Atl^tic, and on its west- ern coast" were tJie Fortunate Isles (Canaries). On the south of the Atlas Mountains was Libya Proper, comprising Gsetu- lia, the country of the Garamantes (Phasania', now Fezzam) and Nasamones, and the oases of Augila, Ammon (Sivah), &c. It is uncertain vvhether the Niger of the ancients was the Joliba. -Europe. Crossing the strait of Hercules we enter Hispania (Spain), called also Iberia and Hesperia: It was inhabited by Celtic and Iberian tribes. Its principal rivers were the Iberus'ifEbro), Baetis (Guadalquivir), Anas (Guadiana), Tagus, -and Durius (Duero). The southern part was called BBEtica; that be- tween the Anas and the Durius, Lusitania, and the rest Tarraconeusis. His- palis (Seville), Gades (Cadiz), Corduba (Cordova), Olisipo (Lisbon), Numan- tia, Toletum (Toledo), Saguntum, &c.,'were among the towns. - Separated from Hispania by the Pyrenees was Gallia (France), watered by the Rhodanus (Rhone) jRhenus (Rhine^,Xiger (Loire), Sequang, (Seine), an^ Garumna (Garonne). . The principal divisions of the country were Aquitania, Celtica or Lugdunensis, Belgica, and Narbonensis. — Towns, Massilia (Mar- seilles), Nemausus'(Nimes), Narbo (Narbonne), Burdigala (Bordeaux), Lug- dunum (LyonsY, Lutetia (Paris), &c. Beyond the^GalUc Strait (Strait of Dover), were the British islands, called Albion and Jerne by the Greeks, and Britannia and Hibernia (Ireland), by the Romans. The smaller islands were Cassiterides (Scilly Isles), Mona (An- glesea), Moncsda (Man), Ebudee (Hebrides), and Orcades (Orkneys) ; beyond flie latter was Thule (Shetland). The nortliern part of Britannia was called Caledonia (Scotland). The Tamesis (Thames), and Sabrina (Severn), were the principal rivers. Londinium (London), Eboracum (York), and AquEe Ca- lidse (Bath), were among the towns. Germania comprised the country from the Vistula to thfi'Rhenus. The riv- ers were Viadrus (Oder), Albi^ (Elbe), Visurgis (Weser), andlster (Danube). .The country beyond the _Codanic Gulf was called Scandinavia or Scandia (Sweden), and was considered an island, belonging to Germany. On the north projected the Cimbric, Chersonese (Denmark), while the rest of the country was occupied by numerous German tribes. South of Germania and Sarmatia were Vindelicia, between the Ister and the Brigantine Lake' (Constance) ; Noricum, between the Ister and Alps ; Pan- nonia; and Dacia, extending frpih the Tibiscus (Theiss) to the Euxine. Rhe- tia, Illyricum, and Mossia, separated these countries from Italy, Thrace, and Macedonia. - - -., Italia, comprising. Cisalpine Gaul (Piedmont, Lombardy, and Venice) and ,j Italy Proper, was traversed in its whole length by the Apennines, and was also.called Ausonia,XEnotria, and Ssturnia. Ci|alpine Ga-ol was watered, by the Padus (Po), Trebia, Mincius, Athesis (Adige), Medoacus (Brenta), &c. In the northej^i part or Transpadane Gaul were Pola, Tergeste "(Trieste), Aquileia, Patavium (Padua), Verona, Mantua, Mediolanuni'(MiIan), Ticihum (Pavia) , and^^-ugusta Taurinorum (Turin). In the southern' or Cispadane Gaul was Liguria, containing 'Genoa ; Ravenna, Bononia (Bologna), Mutina (Modena), Parma, and Placentia, were the chief towns of this fertile region. , South of the Rubicon (Fiumesino) was Middle Italy, comprising Etruria or T^scia,withthe Arnus (Arno),lake Thrasymene (Perugia), Pisa, Cortona, Veii^ &c. ; Umbria, with Ariminiiim (Rimini) ; Picenum, wiUi Ancona ; Sa- bina, containing Uie Allia, the Anio (Teverone), lake Veliuus, and Nursia (Nor- ^cia) ; Lajtium with the Tiber, Rome, Terracina, Preneste, Cajeta (Gaeta), &c.. ; Campania, extending from the Liris (Garigliano) to the Silurus ; here were Capua, Parthenope (Naples), Baise, Puteoli, &c. ; and Samnium, of which Beneventum and Caudium, were the chief towns. Southern Italy was called Great Greece on account of its rich Greek colo- nies ; it comprised Apulia, with Sipontam, Cannae, Barium, &c. ; Messapiaor Calabria, in whiqh Brundusium (Brindisi), Hydruiitum (Otranto), and Ta- renturo were the chief towns ; Lucania, containing Posidonia or Psestum, and Sybarfs; and Bruttium, with Crotona, Locri (Gerace), Rhegium (Reggio). Thrace, Macedonia, and Greece, are described in another table. U..-8---. _J --.. ,THE WORLD AS PEOPLED BY THE DESCENDANTS OF NOAH, SHOWING THE COUNTRIES POSSESSED BY JAPHETH, HAM, AND SHEM, AND THEIR POSTERITY, AFTER THE CONFUSION OP TONGUES Origin of the Human Race. We have already given, in another table, a'view of the physical varieties , into which the human race has been divided by the most eminent physiologists ; and we there stated that there have been some, who, "rejecting the Mosaic history of the Noachic deluge and the destruction of the human race, have attempted to establish the theory that these varieties have sprung ^ach from a dif- ferent stock, and that they form in fact so many different ^ecies. But not only is this assumption altogether gratuitous, arid inconsistent with the Mosaic records, but it is at war with well known fects in natural his- tory ;,yiz. ; that not only does every individual of tlie animal creation instinctively shrink from mixing its species with that of another, but that the fruit of such an unnatural connexion is itself incapable of continuing its race ; neithe^'of which facts is true of the most widely separated varieties of the human race. Ante-Diluvian PATRiAKCHSi The sacred writings inform us ex- pressly that Adam and Eve were the common progenitors of_iijankihd, that they were expelled from the Garden of Eden, where they had lived in a state of purity and bliss, for the crime of disobedience, that 1650 years from their creation the whole human race, with the exception of Noah and his family, was destroyed by a flood, and that thus all men are descended from one common stock, proceedmg from Noah and his posterity. - ADAM. fCain,' Enocb, Irad, Mehujael, Laraech, Seth, Enos, Cainan, Mahaleel, . Jared, Jabal-Jubal-Tubal. Enoch, . - JViethuaelah,^- . '_ tiamech. Noali, Family op Noah and his Posterity. On ,a reference to the sacred records, we find that Noah, the second founder of the human race, had three sons, Japheth, the eldest. Ham, and Shem, whose early poster- ity is represented in the following tables : JAPHETH. 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