THE ELIZABETHAN 
 
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Cornell University Library 
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THE ELIZABETHAN PEOPLE 
 
BY THE SAME AUTHOR 
 
 SHAKESPEARE'S 
 LONDON 
 
 A companion volume to " The 
 Elizabethan People," with 43 il- 
 lustrations, mostly from old prints. 
 $2.00 net, by mail $3.15. A vivid 
 portrayal and a careful and 
 scholarly study of the topography, 
 customs, and picturesque side of 
 Elizabethan life. 
 
 "An excellent summary of 
 great value. The illustrations are 
 particularly well chosen." — The 
 Nation. 
 
 HENRY HOLT AND COMPANY 
 
 PUBLISHERS NEW YORK 
 
Aechehy Match. 
 
The Elizabethan 
 People 
 
 By 
 Henry Thew Stephenson 
 
 Associate Professor of English 
 Indiana University 
 
 ILLUSTRATED 
 
 NEW YORK 
 
 HENRY HOLT AND COMPANY 
 
 1912 
 
COPTBIOBT, 1810, 
 BY 
 
 HENRY HOLT AND COMPANY 
 
 Pabliihed February, 1910 
 
TO 
 
 MY WIFE 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 CHAPTEB TAQI 
 
 V I. The Euzabethax Chaaacteb .... 1 
 
 II. CocNTRT Life aitd Chabacxeb .... 36 
 
 III. Life ix the Capital 66 
 
 IV. Amcsements IK Genebal 103 
 
 V. Rural Sports 110 
 
 VI. Celebratiox of the Calekdab .... 144 
 
 VII. OuT-OF-DooR Sports 176 
 
 VIII. IlTDOOB Amitsements 195 
 
 IX. The Love of Spectacles 3S7 
 
 X. POPULAB SuPEBSTITIOir 366 
 
 XI. Birth — Baptism — ^Mabbiaoe — Death . . . 383 
 
 XII. Ghosts — Faibies — ^Witches 317 
 
 ^ XIII. DouEBTic Life 344 
 
 Index 403 
 
ILLUSTRATIONS 
 
 PAOi: 
 Abcheby Match Frontispiece 
 
 Philip Howard, Eabl of Abuvdel. Edmund Sfeitseb. 
 
 Illustbative of Elizabethax buffs .... 34 
 
 The Quadbanole, Leicester's Hospital, Wabwick, il- 
 lustbatixa timber and plaster framework; also 
 court with galleries 36 
 
 The Gateway, Leicester's Hospital, Warwick, il- 
 lustrating ORNAMENTAL WOODWORK AND PLASTER 
 
 construction 44 
 
 The Great Hall, Warwick Castle 48 
 
 The Stbatford Pobtbait of Shakespeabe, illustbatinq 
 
 THE soft band 53 
 
 The Dboeshout "Original" Pobtbait op Shake- 
 speabe, illustbatinq the stabched band . . 60 
 The Chandos Pobtbait of Shakespeabe, illustrating 
 
 THE soft band 64 
 
 Mabquis op Hamilton. Sib Philip Sidney. Il- 
 lustrative OP falling bands 76 
 
 Richard Burbage. John Lowin. Illustrative of 
 
 falling bands 84 
 
 George Clifford, Eabl op Cumberland. Henry Fitz- 
 ALAN, Eabl of Arundel. Illustrative of Eliza- 
 bethan hats 100 
 
 Hawking 116 
 
 Trained Bears 124 
 
 Trained Animals 133 
 
 Trick Horses 140 
 
 The Quintain 1S6 
 
 ix 
 
X ILL USTRATIONS 
 
 FAGB 
 
 The QuiNTAiir 180 
 
 The Watee Quintain 193 
 
 Plating Cards 204 
 
 Frost Fair on the Thames 220 
 
 Tilting 228 
 
 Tilting at the Ring 236 
 
 Tilting at the Quintain 236 
 
 A Court Dinner in the Time op King James . . 246 
 An Old House in Grub Street, London, illustrating 
 
 TIMBER construction 2S2 
 
 Carved Exterior op Sir Paul Pindar's House, London, 
 
 illustrating ornamental exterior woodwork . 260 
 
 Anne Hathawat's Cottage 268 
 
 LoNGiEAT. Illustrative op straight lines as an 
 
 element op design 276 
 
 The Duke's House, Bradford on Avon, Illustratino 
 
 the irregularity of exterior construction . . 280 
 
 The Great Hall, Charlecote 284 
 
 The Gallery at Haddon Hall 288 
 
 The Library, Charlecote 292 
 
 A Ceiling in Sir Paul Pindar's House, London . . 296 
 
 A Ceiling in Oldbourne Hall, London .... 300 
 
 Ornamental Ceiling in Crosby Hall, London . . 304 
 
 Painted Ceiling in Crosby Hall, London . . . 308 
 Ornamental Ceiling in the Nunnery of St. 
 
 Helen's, London 313 
 
 Room in Sir Paui, Pindar's House, London . . .316 
 
 Interior of a House in Crutched Friars, London . 320 
 Grotesoue Carving op a House in Crutched Feiars, 
 
 London 324 
 
 Fireplace in Oldbourne Hall, London .... 328 
 
ILLUSTRATIONS xi 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Moll Fbith, " The Roaring Giel " 333 
 
 Robe of Civic Digkitasv 336 
 
 two pobtraits of qceen elizabeth, illustrating 
 
 wide euff and elaborate headdress .... 340 
 Thomas Sackville, Earl of Dorset. Edward 
 Clinton, Earl op Lincoln. Illustrative op 
 
 Elizabethan hats 344 
 
 Elizabethan Ruffs 348 
 
 Portrait of Sm Philip Sidney, illustrating the eupf 
 
 worn with armour ....... 352 
 
 The Droeshout engraving op Shakespeare prefixed 
 to the first polio, illustrating starched band 
 
 and embroidered doublet 356 
 
 John Fletcher. Henry, Prince op Wales. Il- 
 lustrative op palling bands 360 
 
 Queen Elizabeth. Illustrative op the large 
 
 farthingale 364 
 
 Farthingale and Hose 358 
 
 Francis de Valois. Illustrative of short hose and 
 
 cape 373 
 
 Sir Walter Raleigh. Illustrative of garters and 
 
 ROSES 376 
 
 An Elizabethan Bed 380 
 
 Oak Chest supported on frame 384 
 
 An Elizabethan Chest 338 
 
 An Eijzabethan Oak Chest 393 
 
 An Elizabethan Olive Wood Chest .... 396 
 
THE ELIZABETHAN PEOPLE 
 CHAPTER I 
 
 THE ELIZABETHAN CHARACTER 
 
 THE result of the prolonged and often super- 
 ficial consideration of Shakespeare's plays 
 during the nineteenth century has resulted in an 
 idealisation of that dramatist which places him in 
 an incorrect relation to his time and to all other 
 literary artists. To assume, as some recent critics 
 have done, that we appreciate Shakespeare truly 
 only when we are able to prove that every detail 
 of his work is perfectly planned and executed is 
 equivalent to a denial of the fact that, during 
 twenty years of writing, Shakespeare made any 
 progress towards perfection in his art. To assert 
 that an early play of Shakespeare's is as excellent 
 as a later is to assume that he began his literary 
 career a finished artist, unhumanly god-like in his 
 perfection — a man who does, not having learned. 
 Yet Shakespeare is of supreme value to us to-day 
 mainly because he is so human, human in his feel- 
 ings, and human in his faults. To me, one of the 
 most delightful elements of the contemplation of 
 Shakespeare is the recognition of that steady 
 progress which is the result of a persistent proiJ»« 
 
2 THE ELIZABETHAN PEOPLE 
 
 ing by each mistake till he attained the splendid 
 degree of skill which enabled him to produce the 
 series of great tragedies. Is it not time, then, to 
 accept Shakespeare as a man? to look upon him 
 in the rational way in which we look upon Thack- 
 eray or Browning, as men who produced some 
 works better than others, — above all, as great 
 men, the value of whose great work is not marred 
 by the fact that at times their writing is not to 
 be judged by their own high standard? 
 
 One of my own critics once asked me why I di- 
 rected so much attention to matters connected but 
 indirectly with the text of Shakespeare's plays. 
 It was fortunate, as suggestive of an answer, that 
 we had attended the evening before a class-day ex- 
 ercise at a college where my questioner was a 
 stranger. By way of reply I asked him why every 
 one in the hall except himself had been immensely 
 amused by the local allusions. Of course he ex- 
 cused himself on the score of unfamiliarity rather 
 than as lacking a sense of humour. It is my belief 
 that conditions of life have so changed in three 
 centuries, that, unless one can in some way get into 
 the Elizabethan state of mind, view a play, so to 
 speak, from the Elizabethan point of view, many 
 parts of Shakespeare's dramas will be unappre- 
 ciated to the same extent as were the class-day 
 allusions by my friend, 
 
THE ELIZABETHAN CHARACTER 3 
 
 Not only may portions fail to be understood, 
 but also many may be understood awry. In an 
 open discussion that followed the reading of a 
 paper on the teaching of Shakespeare's plays, 
 I was once attacked by an elderly lady who in- 
 formed me and my hearers that she was old 
 enough to be my mother. It soon transpired that 
 my crime consisted of attributing to the bold, 
 designing, unbashful Juliet a degree of delicacy 
 and refinement that was prejudicial to the tender 
 morality of the pupils in my care — and all this 
 because Juliet had kissed Romeo on the first night 
 of their acquaintance. I must, however, do my 
 critic justice by saying that her point of view 
 changed when I told her that kissing, under the 
 circumstances, was a common mode of salutation. 
 She was ill-informed, but she was liberal-minded. 
 " I have maligned Juliet's character for thirty 
 years," she said, " but I shall do so no longer." 
 
 Amusing as the incident has always seemed, I, 
 nevertheless, took it seriously. If ignorance of a 
 small detail of social usage could result in black- 
 ening the character of one of the loveliest heroines 
 in literature, is it not fair to suppose that numer- 
 ous other and similar errors could be, nay, are, 
 made daily by critics more familiar with the text 
 of Shakespeare than with the conditions under 
 which those texts were written. 
 
4 THE ELIZABETHAN PEOPLE 
 
 Shakespeare was wholly a man of the hour. 
 Artist though he was, he never lost sight of the 
 fact that the productions of his art were to appeal 
 to his own people. I can ha^rdly fancy that he 
 thought much of posterity; but, if he did, I can- 
 not believe that he ever catered to the understand- 
 ing of later generations at the expense of his own. 
 Doubtless, had Shakespeare lived to-day, he would 
 have omitted the closing lines of Hamlet. But 
 I fancy that the people who first saw that play 
 upon the boards considered the entrance of Fortin- 
 bras and his followers not as an anti-climax but 
 as a most ingenious device for gracefully ridding 
 the stage of the dead bodies preparatory to the 
 coming jig. 
 
 In the following pages I have continued an at- 
 tempt, already begun, to lay before the modem 
 reader a wide view, not too much hampered by en- 
 cyclopasdic detail, of how the Elizabethans lived 
 and what they thought about things in general, 
 hoping that this knowledge will help to set the 
 scenes of Shakespeare and his fellow playwrights 
 before the modern audience in a more consistent 
 and rational simplicity. 
 
 It may be true that human nature changes but 
 little in its fundamental characteristics from gen- 
 eration to generation, from century to century; 
 
THE ELIZABETHAN CHARACTER 5 
 
 yet it cannot be denied that certain changes do 
 take place, and, whether or not they be considered 
 fundamental or superficial, a knowledge of them 
 materially influences our conception of a piece of 
 literature. We should certainly consider rag-time 
 interludes between the acts of Hamlet as, to 
 say the least, a manifestation of bad taste; yet 
 the buffoon scenes of the miracle plays, the ad- 
 mixture of serious and comic incidents in the 
 Elizabethan drama, the jig with which a tragedy 
 was neatly finished off, were quite in accordance 
 with the spirit of the age. To criticise, with our 
 own as a standard, and to conclude that such an 
 element of an early play is in bad taste is to mis- 
 take the situation. Unity, the violation of which 
 is one of the first points of modern attack, was, in 
 Elizabethan times, an unknown quality, or, at 
 least, an unnecessary if not an embarrassing one. 
 It is easy to comprehend the reason for this state 
 of affairs. /The Elizabethans, as a nation, though 
 brilliantly intellectual, were in many respects im- 
 mature, — as if the characteristics of childhood 
 were set in a body of manhood. 1 Their delight in 
 rapid changes of scene, in rapidly succeeding 
 varied emotional sensations, above all, in their 
 dislike of long and continuous mental strain — these 
 are qualities peculiar to them as a nation. It was 
 sympathy with rather than an intentional attempt 
 
6 THE ELIZABETHAN PEOPLE 
 
 to cater to this quality that produced in the in- 
 dividual play (the form of literature most di- 
 rectly addressed to the people at large) a variety 
 of motive and emotion so different from our pres- 
 ent conception of unity. 
 
 If one attempts to characterise the present na- 
 tions of the earth, one instinctively thinks of those 
 qualities generally shared by most of the in- 
 dividuals and that mark them as different from 
 the individuals of other nations. In the present 
 chapter there is no attempt to describe those quali- 
 ties that are to be found practically unchanged 
 in other periods of English development; rather 
 to describe characteristics that were shared by the 
 majority of the nation then, and not, or, at least, 
 not so significantly, at other periods of national 
 life. I find thus three peculiarly national charac- 
 teristics : 1, Credulity ; 2, Savagery, ; 3, Imitation. 
 
 Since the first step taken by Henry VIII. in 
 the religious reform of the English ecclesiastical 
 system, change had followed change with kaleido- 
 scopic contrast. The result of the divorce of 
 Katharine, of the destruction of the monasteries, 
 of the new role played by " The Defender of the 
 Faith " was, perhaps, secondarily religious, pri- 
 marily political. The most far-reaching effect 
 upon the people of these changes is to be found in 
 
THE ELIZABETHAN CHARACTER T 
 
 the lesson it taught them regarding the extent of 
 their own strength. Not only was the incubus of 
 mediaeval monasticism removed; it was removed in 
 such a way that England realised herself sufficient 
 to cope, strength against strength, with the mighty 
 power of the Papacy. This was a great and a 
 new idea. 
 
 The lesson taught by Henry VHI. was re- 
 taught on a far grander scale when all the in- 
 fluence of Rome and all the power of Spain com- 
 bined in the " Invincible Armada." William the 
 First conquered England. He superimposed upon 
 the soil a new nation and a new language. By the 
 time of Chaucer, however, England had swallowed 
 up the invader and his language. England had 
 emerged from the gloom of the long contest tri- 
 umphant. May we not safely fancy a similar 
 result had Philip II. triumphed over How- 
 ard and Drake? Again, the victory of 1588 is 
 important politically only in the second degree. 
 Its lasting effect is recognised to-day in the fact 
 that by making continental travel safe, tourists 
 were enabled to bring home precious manuscripts 
 and a knowledge of older and more perfect learn- 
 ing that, when published and conned, directly gave 
 birth to Shakespeare and his fellows. 
 
 England had learned her own strength. She 
 was becoming master of the ancient learning with 
 
8 THE ELIZABETHAN PEOPLE 
 
 its variety of ideas. The defeat of Spain gave 
 her time to reflect, to study, to produce. The 
 whole intellectual horizon was crowded with the 
 fleeing clouds of mediasval ignorance. The earth 
 had become round. Its face was daily growing 
 more familiar. A new map was published with 
 " the augmentation of the Indes." Blood had be- 
 gun to circulate in the veins of Harvey. All these 
 new ideas were tending to increase the extent of 
 the plain bounded by the mental horizon to a de- 
 gree unheard of before, and with astounding 
 rapidity. 
 
 Equally rapid and dazzling was the accession 
 of new literature daily fed to the people. Homer 
 appeared as a new book in English. The publi- 
 cation of Holinshed, together with numerous his- 
 torical poems and plays nourished the growing 
 patriotism. Epic and lyric poetry delighted man- 
 kind. Novels appeared in great numbers. Every 
 tavern group was entertained by marvellous tales 
 of oysters that grew upon trees, of manlike mon- 
 sters, and so forth, — tales brought home by the 
 man before the mast in the ships of Frobisher and 
 Hawkins. 
 
 Trade, both export and import, had outgrown 
 the fondest fancy of a generation before. The 
 lost art of gardening had been rediscovered. 
 Fruits and rare vegetables were being introduced 
 
THE ELIZABETHAN CHARACTER 9 
 
 from all parts of the world. New drinks, new 
 foods, new table manners, as well as improvements 
 in house-building and domestic conditions were 
 imported and developed with a rapidity suggestive 
 of the recent development of electricity. 
 
 This much has been said in order to suggest 
 the multiplicity of new ideas thronging upon the 
 people. Not in one but in every direction were 
 people daily astonished by something new. Noth- 
 ing was too unthought of to appear, nothing too 
 impossible to be believed. Itwas thiw-tiondition of 
 affairs_that^ gaj: e rise to i hfi nation fil ^JP'^n^'ty 
 One needed but an imagination and an audience to 
 obtain followers of the most intangible will-o'-the- 
 wisps. A gull gives his name to the earliest of 
 our Elizabethan comedies, and he remains a stock 
 character, significant of the times, till the end of 
 the period. A book was written for his instruction 
 by Dekker, and lago wound him about his finger 
 at the suggestion of Shakespeare. 
 
 This credulity manifests itself _again in the 
 natio5aJLgititude_towardg_§uperstition, to be dealt 
 with more at length in later pages. No country- 
 fair or horse-fair is to-day a more profitable field 
 for the operation of quacks and fakirs than were 
 the streets of London from January to December. 
 Let me once again suggest the danger of inferring 
 that an Elizabethan writer lacks skill and ac- 
 
10 THE ELIZABETHAN PEOPLE 
 
 curacy in the drawing of character because he 
 makes an intelligent man subject to a foolish 
 credulity. Or, may we not more profitably say, 
 that credulity was not then so foolish as it is 
 to-day? 
 
 " The nature of an Englishman," says Sir 
 Thomas Smith in 1621, " is to neglect death, to 
 abide no torment; and therefore he will confess 
 rather to have done anything, yea, to have killed 
 his own father, than to suffer torment ; for death, 
 our nation is free, stout, haughty, prodigal of life 
 no place shall you see malefactors go more con- 
 stantly, more assuredly, and with less lamentation 
 to their death than in England. The nature of 
 our nation is free, stout, haughty, prodigal of life 
 and blood ; but contumely, beating, servitude, and 
 servile treatment, and punishment it will not abide. 
 So in this nature and fashion, our ancient princes 
 and legislators have nourished them, as to make 
 them stout hearted, courageous, and soldiers, not 
 villains and slaves." (P. 97, ed. 1621.) 
 
 " The nature of Englishmen is to neglect 
 death." That is Sir Thomas's way of expressing 
 disregard of life. To one of us, who may live a 
 lifetime without seeing a man die a violent death,, 
 nothing is so difficult to comprehend as the Eliza- 
 bethan callousness to bloodshed. Life with them 
 
THE ELIZABETHAN CHARACTER 11 
 
 was a rough, rude game of broil and turmoil. 
 Every man wore commonly a sword by his side 
 in public. When justice failed the individual did 
 not scruple to take the law into his own hands. 
 Here are a few illustrations taken from the old 
 records, illustrations that show how quick every 
 one was to shed blood upon small provocation. 
 
 " In Notttingham, a man, attacked by another 
 with a stick, drew his knife upon him and stabbed 
 him." 
 
 " In Sussex, a man was pursued by his enemy 
 with a bill till stopped by a garden wall, where- 
 upon he turned and stabbed him with a dagger." 
 
 " In Cornwall one, armed only with a knife, slew 
 his pursuer, armed with a sword, for want of 
 breath to run any farther." 
 
 " And in London itself, in Fleet street, a citizen 
 who was at feud with a neighbour, waited about 
 his door, armed with a sword and buckler. When 
 his enemy at length emerged (by a happy chance 
 similarly armed) he found himself violently at- 
 tacked; and, being impeded in his retreat by a 
 crowd, faced his enemy and slew him in self-de- 
 fence." 
 
 No man went abroad without arms; if it was 
 after nightfall, he was accompanied by servants 
 with arms and torches if he could afford a retinue ; 
 if not, he stayed at home, or walked quickly with 
 
12 THE ELIZABETHAN PEOPLE 
 
 his sword drawn. This fair fighting, however, this 
 killing your man in self-defence, was not the 
 only sign of the savagery of the time. 
 
 " A girl named Miriam, in Northamptonshire," 
 an old record tells us, " maid-servant to a far- 
 mer, was leading a pair of horses with a harrow, 
 walking in front of them. Her master, who was 
 ploughing in the next field, observing that the 
 harrow progressed slowly, stole behind the horses 
 and suddenly belaboured them ; with the result that 
 the horses and the machine passed over the body 
 of the unfortunate girl, inflicting a horrible death. 
 The provocation pleaded was the lazyness of the 
 girl, a plea that was held sufEcient." (Quoted 
 from Hubert Hall. ) 
 
 It was the English archer with his cloth-yard 
 shaft that contributed most largely to the renown 
 of the mediaeval armies of England. By the time 
 of Elizabeth, however, archery had degenerated 
 into a mere sport or pastime. The state passed 
 various laws whose intent was to encourage yeo- 
 men to use the bow with their old-time skill and 
 energy. Among these laws we find the following : 
 
 " In case any person should be wounded, or 
 slain in these sports, with an arrow shot by one 
 or other of the archers, he that shot the arrow 
 shall not be sued or molested, if he had, immedi- 
 ately before the discharge of the weapon, cried 
 
THE ELIZABETHAN CHARACTER 13 
 
 out ' fast,' the signal usually given upon such 
 occasions." (Stow, Strype's ed., vi. p. 250.) 
 
 For further illustrations turn to Romeo and 
 Juliet. The opening situation, which contains 
 the rallying cry of the London 'prentices, " Clubs, 
 clubs ! " describes such a scene as every auditor in 
 the Globe play-house had often witnessed in the 
 streets of London. When we come to the brawl 
 that culminates in the death of Mercutio and 
 Tybalt, we may pause to reflect that in such a 
 brawl died Shakespeare's only rival for dramatic 
 fame, Christopher Marlowe. 
 
 There _^re twQ other manifestations of this 
 spirit of the age that are particularly illustrative. 
 One is the severity of the laws, and the cruelty of 
 the punishment inflicted; the other concerns cer- 
 tain sports and pastimes. 
 
 " The greatest and most grievous punishment 
 used in England," writes Harrison in 1587, " for 
 such as offend against the state, is drawing from 
 the prison to the place of execution upon an 
 hurdle or sled, where they are hanged till they be 
 half dead, and then taken down, and quartered 
 alive ; after that, their members and bowels are cut 
 from their bodies, and thrown into a fire provided 
 near at hand and within their own sight, even for 
 the same purpose." 
 
 In spite of Smith's testimony thirty years later, 
 
14 THE ELIZABETHAN PEOPLE 
 
 this is evidence of very brutal torment ; but it must 
 be remembered that this punishment was inflicted 
 for treason, and for the very reason that it was 
 repugnant to the national spirit. There were, 
 however, other cruel punishments. If the man 
 was guilty of murder, his right hand was cut off 
 near where the murder was committed, after which 
 he was dragged to the place of execution where he 
 was allowed to hang quietly till he was dead. The 
 common punishment for many petty violations of 
 law was hanging. Below is a partial list of crimes 
 so punished. 
 
 Escape from prison — Shunting by night with 
 painted faces and visors — embezzling of goods 
 over and above forty shillings — carrying of horses 
 and mares into Scotland — conjuring — ^witchcraft 
 — digging up of crosses (i.e. stones that marked 
 the boundary of real estate) — departure of a sol- 
 dier from the field — mutilation of coins — articles 
 taken from dead men by their servants — stealing 
 of cattle — letting out of ponds — housebreaking — 
 picking pockets — counterfeiting coins, etc., etc. 
 
 Pirates, and those who had committed robbery 
 aboard ship at sea, were hanged by the water's 
 edge at low tide arid left there till three tides had 
 washed over them. The site of Hermitage dock 
 east of the Tower of London, was, in all proba- 
 bility, the place where pirates were frequently so 
 
THE ELIZABETHAN CHARACTER 15 
 
 executed. There was an element of poetic justice 
 in such a penalty, which shows itself again in the 
 Halifax punishment, thus described by Harrison. 
 " Witches are hanged or sometimes burned ; but 
 thieves are hanged generally on the gibbet or gal- 
 lows, saving at Halifax where they are beheaded 
 after a strange manner, and whereof I find this 
 report. There is and has been of ancient time a 
 law or rather, a custom at Halifax, that whosoever 
 does commit any felony, and is taken with the 
 same, or confesses the fact upon examination, if 
 it be valued by four constables to amount to the 
 sum of thirteen pence halfpenny, he is forthwith 
 beheaded upon one of the next market-days (which 
 fall usually upon Tuesdays, Thursdays, and Sat- 
 urdays), or else upon the same day that he is so 
 convicted, if market be then holden. The engine 
 wherewith the execution be done is a square block 
 of wood of the length of four feet and a half, 
 which does ride up and down in a slot . . . 
 between two pieces of timber, that are framed and 
 set upright, of five yards in height. In the nether 
 end of the sliding block is an axe, keyed or fas- 
 tened with an iron into the wood, which being 
 drawn up to the top of the frame is there fastened 
 by a wooden pin (with a notch made into the 
 same, after the manner of a Sampson's post) unto 
 the midst of which pin also there is a long rope 
 
16 THE ELIZABETHAN PEOPLE 
 
 fastened that cometh down among the people, so 
 that, when the offender hath made his confession 
 and hath laid his neck over the nethermost block, 
 every man there present doth either take hold of 
 the rope (or putteth forth his arm so near to the 
 same as he can get, in token that he is willing to 
 see true justice executed), and, pulling out the 
 pin in this manner, the head-block wherein the axe 
 is fastened doth fall with such a violence that, if 
 the neck of the transgressor were as big as that 
 of a bull, it should be cut asunder at a stroke and 
 roll from the body by a huge distance. If it be 
 so that the offender be apprehended for an ox, 
 oxen, sheep, kine, horse, or any such cattle, the 
 self beast, or other of the same kind shall have the 
 end of the rope tied somewhere unto them, so that 
 they, being driven, do draw out the pin, whereby 
 the offender is executed. Thus much of Halifax 
 law, which I set down only to show the custom of 
 that country in this behalf." (P. 243.) 
 
 Felons who, when apprehended, refused to 
 speak at their arraignment were pressed to death. 
 A sharp stone was placed under the back, and 
 heavy weights placed upon the breast, one after 
 another till the victim was dead. If one man poi- 
 soned another, he was boiled to death in brine or 
 lead; but if a woman poisoned her husband she 
 was burned alive. Heretics were also burned at 
 
THE ELIZABETHAN CHARACTER 17 
 
 the stake. " Finally, such as having walls or 
 banks near the sea, and do suffer the same to 
 decay (after convenient admonition), whereby the 
 water entereth and drowneth up the country, are, 
 by a certain ancient custom, apprehended, con- 
 demned, and staked in the breech, where they re- 
 main forever as parcel of the foundation of the 
 new wall that is to be made upon them." (Harri- 
 son, p. 245.) 
 
 Thus, though there was no torture in the char- 
 acteristic sense of the word, crimes, great and 
 small alike, were requited by death, inflicted in 
 the most brutal manner. There were, however, 
 lighter punishments quite as savage. Rogues and 
 vagabonds often lost one or both of their ears; 
 the letter P was burnt into the forehead of per- 
 jurers, who also had to stand in the pillory. The 
 pillory and stocks were to be found in every village 
 throughout the kingdom, and were frequently used 
 on market days as punishment for disorderly con- 
 duct. Kent was put in the stocks for beating 
 Osric; had he done so in Stratford-on-Avon in 
 Shakespeare's time he would have met with the 
 same punishment. The " cucking " stool was 
 equally a part of the equipment of every village 
 and town. Scolding women were always ducked in 
 order to sweeten their tempers. 
 
 Whipping was one of the commonest punish- 
 
18 THE ELIZABETHAN PEOPLE 
 
 ments and carried to a cruel extreme. Every 
 town and hamlet was provided with a whipping 
 post; frequently the criminal was tied to the 
 tail of a cart and lashed while it drove slowly 
 through the town. This was the common punish- 
 ment for vagrancy, and was often continued till 
 the victim could stand up no longer. 
 
 "The 18th of December (1656) J. Naylor 
 suffered part: and after having stood full two 
 hours with his head in the pillory, was stripped 
 and whipped at a cart's tail, from Palace Yard 
 to the Old Exchange, and received 310 stripes; 
 and the executioner would have given him one 
 more (as he confessed to the sheriff) there being 
 311 kennels, but his foot slipping, the stroke fell 
 upon his own hand, which hurt him much." (Sew- 
 ell's History of the Quakers.) 
 
 It was considered proper for a man to flog a 
 grown daughter ; and youths in the university were 
 often whipped by their tutors. " You'll ne'er lin 
 [cease]," says Mudlin, "till I make your tutor 
 whip you ; you know how I served you once at the 
 free-school in Paul's Churchyard .f " {A Chaste 
 Maid in Cheapside, III. ii. 151.) Chamberlain, 
 in a letter to Carleton (Feb. 12, 1612), writes: — 
 " I know not whether you have heard . 
 that a son of the Bishop of Bristol, his eldest, of 
 nineteen or twenty, killed himself with a knife to 
 
THE ELIZABETHAN C HARACTER 19 
 
 avoid the disgrace of breeching, which his mother 
 or mother-in-law (I know not whether) would need 
 have put him to, for losing his money at tennis." 
 
 To learn the manners of the Elizabethans one 
 must read the contemporary plays. Nothing 
 more clearly indicates the cruel temper of the 
 people than the incidents they tolerated in these 
 plays. Hired murderers are common adjuncts, 
 not alone in plays of an early setting, but in such 
 a play of contemporary crime as Arden of 
 Feversham, where the murderers wrangle over the 
 amount paid, which is specified in definite terms. 
 Titus Andronicus aiFords a beastly illustration 
 of brutality. Lear's eyes are gouged out in the 
 presence of the audience. Piero's tongue is 
 plucked out in Antonio and Mellida. (Part 2, 
 act V. sc. ii.) Charles is hired to kill Orlando in 
 the daintiest of comedies; and few Elizabethans 
 could have felt that the mad-house treatment of 
 Malvolio was even a serious joke. 
 
 This callousness to what we should call the 
 finer sensibilities was manifested also in the popu- 
 lar sports. One such pastime was bear-baiting. 
 So popular, in fact, was this sport, that one of 
 the objections urged aginst the growing vogue of 
 the theatre was that the new sport drew the crowd 
 away from the exhibitions at the bear-garden — 
 the first sign that the attractiveness of baiting had 
 
20 THE ELIZABETHAN PEOPLE 
 
 begun to wane. Hentzner, who visited England 
 in 1598, thus describes the sport. 
 
 " There is a place built in the form of a theatre, 
 which serves for baiting of bulls and bears; they 
 are fastened behind, and then worried by great 
 English bull-dogs; but not without risque to the 
 dogs from the horns of the one and the teeth of 
 the other; and it sometimes happens they are 
 killed on the spot ; fresh ones are immediately sup- 
 plied in the places of those that are wounded or 
 tired. To this entertainment there often follows 
 that of whipping a blinded bear, which is per- 
 formed by five or six men standing circularly with 
 whips, which they exercise upon him without any 
 mercy, as he cannot escape because of his chains ; 
 he defends himself with all his force and skill, 
 throwing down all that come within his reach, and 
 are not active enough to get out of it, and tearing 
 the whips out of their hands and breaking them." 
 
 One can imagine the circular enclosure, the 
 rough board seats, the intent and breathless 
 crowd. Perhaps we condemn all this as wanton 
 brutality; but the Elizabethans enjoyed the sport 
 and appreciated its finer parts. Here is another 
 description, written in 1575. " It was a sport 
 very pleasant to see the bear, with his pink eyes 
 leering after his enemies, approach; the nimble- 
 ness and wait of the dog to take his advantage; 
 
THE ELIZABETHAN CHARACTER 21 
 
 and the force and experience of the bear again to 
 avoid his assaults if he were bitten in one place, 
 how he would pinch in another to get free; that 
 if he were taken once, liien by what shift with bit- 
 ing, with clawing, with roaring, with tossing, and 
 trembling, he would work and wind himself from 
 them; and, when he was loose, to shake his ears 
 twice or thrice with the blood and slaver hanging 
 about his physiognomy." 
 
 A few additional details of the sport are given 
 in the following contemporary description of a 
 bull-baiting. " They tie a rope to the foot of 
 the ox or bull, and fasten the other end of the cord 
 to an iron ring fixed in a stake, driven into the 
 ground ; so that this cord, being 15 foot long, the 
 bull is confined to a sphere about thirty foot di- 
 ameter. Several butchers or other gentlemen who 
 are desirous to exercise their dogs, stand round 
 about, each holding his own by the ears ; and when 
 the sport begins, they let loose one of the dogs ; 
 the dog runs at the bull; the bull immovable looks 
 down upon the dog with an eye of scorn, and only 
 turns a horn to him to hinder him from coming 
 near ; the dog is not daunted at this, he runs round 
 him and tries to get beneath his belly, in order to 
 seize him by the muzzle, the dewlap, or the pendant 
 glands. The bull then puts himself into a posture 
 of defence ; he beats the ground with his feet, which 
 
22 THE ELIZABETHAN PEOPLE 
 
 he joins together as closely as possible, and his 
 chief aim is not to gore the dog with the point of 
 his horn, but to slide one of them under the dog's 
 belly (who creeps close to the grouund to hinder 
 it) and to throw him so high in the air that he may 
 break his neck in the fall. This often happens. 
 When the dog thinks he is sure of fixing his teeth, a ^ 
 turn of the horn, which seems to be done with all 
 the negligence in the world, gives him a sprawl 
 thirty foot high and puts him in danger of a dam- 
 nable squetch when he comes down. This danger 
 would be unavoidable if the dog's friends were not 
 ready beneath him, some with their backs to give 
 him a soft reception, and others with long poles 
 which they offer him slantways, to the intent that 
 sliding down them, it may break the force of the 
 fall. Notwithstanding all this care, a toss generally 
 makes him sing to a very scurvy tune and draw his 
 phis into a very pitiful grimace. But, unless he 
 is totally stunned with the fall, he is sure to crawl 
 again towards the bull, with his old antipathy, 
 come on't what will. Sometimes a second frisk 
 into the air disables him forever from playing his 
 old tricks. But sometimes, too, he fastens upon 
 his old enemy, and when he has seized him with his 
 teeth, he sticks to him like a leech, and will sooner 
 die than leave his hold. Then the bull bellows and 
 bounds and kicks about to shake off the dog; by 
 
THE ELIZABETHAN CHARACTER 23 
 
 his leaping the dog seems to be of no manner of 
 weight to him, though in all appearance he puts 
 him to great pain. In the end either the dog tears 
 out the piece he has laid hold on, and falls, or 
 else remains fixed to him, with an obstinacy that 
 would never end, if they did not pull him off. To 
 call him away would be in vain; to give him a 
 hundred blows would be as much so; you might 
 cut him in pieces joint by joint before he would 
 let loose. What is to be done then? While some 
 hold the bull, others thrust staves into the dog's 
 mouth, and open it by main force. This is the 
 only way to part them." (Quoted in Ashton's 
 Fleet.) 
 
 This, however, was not a sport confined to the 
 vulgar commonalty. The following is from 
 Strype's edition of Stow's Survey of London. 
 
 " Anno 1604, June 3. King James taking with 
 him the Duke of Lenox (with divers Earls and 
 Lords) went to see the lions at the Tower. And 
 here he caused two of them, a He lion and a She, to 
 be put forth. And then a live Cock was cast to 
 them : which being their natural enemy they pres- 
 ently killed it, and sucked the blood. Then the 
 King caused a live Lamb to be put to them ; which 
 the Lions out of their Generosity (as having re- 
 spect to its Innocency) never offered to touch, 
 altho' the Lamb was so bold as to go close to them. 
 
24 THE ELIZABETHAN PEOPLE 
 
 Then the King caused the Lions to be taken away, 
 and another Lion to be put forth, and two Mas- 
 tiffs to be turned to him. The Mastiffs presently 
 flew upon the Lion, and turned him upon his Back ; 
 and tho' the Lion was superior to them in 
 Strength, yet it seems they were his match in 
 Courage. 
 
 " There was a Spanish Dog, for some Offence 
 or other, cast into the Lion's Den. But the Lion 
 did not attempt to hurt him. And this Dog con- 
 tinued in the Den with the Lion several Years, and 
 there died. 
 
 " This story may be subjoined. In the month 
 of June, 1609, a Resolution was taken to make 
 Trial of The Valour of the Lion; Which should 
 be by turning him loose to a Bear. Which Bear 
 had killed a Child; for which it was thought con- 
 venient he should suffer death. The Bear was 
 brought, and turned loose in an open Yard : Then 
 a Lion was turned out of his Den to him; but he 
 would not assault him, but fled from him. And 
 so was it done with other Lions, one after another ; 
 and lastly, Two together were turned to him. 
 But none set upon him, but rather sought to re- 
 turn to their Dens. A stone Horse was soon 
 after put into the Yard with the first Lion and the 
 Bear. The Horse fell to grazing between them, 
 after he had gazed a little upon them. Two Mas- 
 
THE ELIZABETHAN CHARACTER 25 
 
 tiff Dogs were let in, who boldly fought with the 
 Lion. Afterwards Six Dogs more were let in; 
 who flew upon the Horse, most in sight at their 
 first entrance; and would soon have worried him 
 to death had not Three stout Rearwards entered 
 in and rescued the Horse, and brought away the 
 Dogs, while the Lion and Bear stood staring upon 
 them. At this sight were present. King James, the 
 Queen and Prince, and divers great Lords. But 
 tho' the Bear had so escaped this Bout, the King 
 gave command he should be baited to Death with 
 Dogs upon a Stage; and so he was." (Bk. 1, p. 
 118.) 
 
 Badgers were also baited. Cock-fighting was 
 common, a sport to which Ascham was much 
 addicted. A favourite boy's sport was cock-throw- 
 ing. This consisted of tying a cock to a stake 
 and throwing small billets of wood at him till he 
 was dead. If, perchance, his legs were broken be- 
 fore he was killed, his body was propped up with 
 sticks so as to prolong the amusement. A cock 
 was often suspended over the middle of a street in 
 an earthen vessel with open ends, and thrown at 
 till he was killed. 
 
 Do not fancy that these are isolated instances 
 of sports practised as rarely as cricket in this 
 country. We read of travellers who, when they 
 struck bargains with the post-riders who con- 
 
26 THE ELIZABETHAN PEOPLE 
 
 ducted them about the country, inserted a clause 
 in the contract that enabled them to stop over in 
 any place where there was going to be a cock- 
 fight. Every town of any pretension possessed 
 its bear and bearward. The occasion of an enter- 
 tainment of this sort was made the subject of 
 elaborate advertisement. When a bear-baiting 
 was to take place, the same was publicly made 
 known, and the bearward previously paraded the 
 streets with his bear, to excite the curiosity of the 
 populace, and induce them to become spectators 
 of the sport. The animal on these occasions was 
 usually preceded by a minstrel or two, and car- 
 ried a monkey or baboon upon his back. 
 
 Another game for children was to balance one 
 piece of wood upon another like a sea-saw. A 
 toad was placed upon one end, the other struck 
 sharply with a stick. Then the children ran and 
 struggled to catch the toad as it came down, often 
 killing it in their eagerness. In the matter of 
 practical jokes, the Elizabethans went far beyond 
 the limits of our time. Dun is in the Mire, a 
 game referred to in Romeo and Juliet, provoked 
 no end of fun. Dun was a heavy log. One player 
 tried to lug it away, but, finding himself unable to 
 do so, he called another to his assistance. When 
 the latter came up the former dropped the log on 
 his companion's toes^f he could do so, for that 
 
THE ELIZABETHAN CHARACTER 27 
 
 was the game. Good, old-fashioned quarterstick 
 was nothing more nor less than fighting with 
 staves till blood flowed from the crown of the 
 head. The first to draw blood won. 
 
 We are not surprised after considering all this, 
 to find that the Elizabethans considered insanity 
 almost as a joke. The Elizabethans were not 
 hard-hearted ; they merely did not understand the 
 malady. It puzzled them. They believed that an 
 insane person was possessed of a devil; literally 
 that an evil spirit had taken up his abode in the 
 house of clay, and that the only way to drive him 
 out was to make his dwelling uncomfortable. 
 Hence the frequent maltreatment of the sufferer. 
 The treatment of Malvolio in Twelfth Night is a 
 good example of the current usage. " We have 
 but two sorts of people in this house, and both 
 under the whip ; that's fools and madmen." (Mid- 
 dleton's Changelmg, i. 2.) Another illustra- 
 tion : " Shut the windows, darken the room, fetch 
 whips; the fellow is mad." (Marston, What 
 You Will, v. 1.) The patients were starved 
 sometimes, and subjected to many other inhuman 
 punishments. 
 
 Yet, when all is said, there is still something to 
 be said. Cruel, callous to the sufferings of beasts, 
 quick to draw blood, used to the sight of mutilated 
 convicts, and corpses dangling in the gallows' 
 
28 THE ELIZABETHAN PEOPLE 
 
 chains — all this the Elizabethans were beyond a 
 doubt. But this is only one side of the picture. 
 The English of that age were a God-fearing peo- 
 ple, chivalrous to women, kind to the stranger, 
 hospitable, devoted to the Queen, and willing to 
 die for their country. This extract from a letter 
 written by Sir Henry Sidney to his son is typical 
 of the high-bom English gentleman of the time. 
 
 " Let your first action be the lifting up of your 
 mind to Almighty God in hearty prayer, with 
 continual meditation and thinking of him to whom 
 you pray. . . . Be humble and obedient to 
 your master [Philip was at school at Shrews- 
 bury] ; for unless you frame yourself to obey 
 others, yea, and feel in yourself what obedience is, 
 you shall never be able to teach others how to obey 
 you. Be courteous of gesture and affable to all 
 men ; with diversity of reverence according to the 
 dignity of the person. ... Be modest in 
 each assembly, and rather be rebuked of light fel- 
 lows for maidenlike shamefastness ; than of your 
 sad [serious] friends for pert boldness. Think 
 upon every word you shall speak before you utter 
 it; and remember how nature hath rampered 
 [walled] up, as it were, the tongue, with teeth, 
 lips, yea, and hair without the lips ; and all betok- 
 ing reins or bridles for the loose use of that 
 member. 
 
THE ELIZABETHAN CHARACTER 29 
 
 " Above all things tell no untruth. No, not in 
 trifles . . . for there cannot be a greater re- 
 proach to a gentleman, than to be accounted a 
 liar." 
 
 Take the nation through and through, this feel- 
 ing of honour and reverence pervaded it high and 
 low. In July, 1626, an Englishman, a common 
 sailor of Tavistock, was captured by the Span- 
 iards. After a long series of marvellous adventures 
 and miraculous escapes, he reached England. He 
 published an account of his perils ; this is how the 
 narrative ends: — 
 
 " And thus endeth my Spanish pilgrimage. 
 With thanks to my good GOD, that in this ex- 
 traordinary manner preserved me amidst these 
 desperate adventures. 
 
 "Oh my knees I thank Thee! with my tongue 
 will I praise Thee ! with my hands fight Thy quar- 
 rel ! and all the days of my life serve Thee ! 
 
 " Out of the red sea have I escaped ; from the 
 lion's den been delivered, aye rescued from death 
 and snatched out of the jaws of destruction, only 
 by Thee ! O my GOD ! Glory be to Thy Name for 
 ever and ever! Amen." 
 
 This from a common mariner saved from the 
 perils of the Inquisition! 
 
 Nor did these Elizabethans neglect the poor. 
 An account tells us that during the great frost 
 
30 THE ELIZABETHAN PEOPLE 
 
 which lasted from before Christmas till the end 
 of January, 1608, many persons would have 
 starved to death or have perished from cold had it 
 not been for the relief houses temporarily estab- 
 lished by the corporation of London. Christ's 
 Hospital was originally a home for the poor and 
 fatherless; St. Thomas' and St. Bartholomew's 
 were hospitals in our sense of the word. Lon- 
 don was noted for its charity. Throughout all 
 England laws were in force that provided relief 
 for the helpless and worthy poor. 
 
 Bring what charges we may. Englishmen can 
 look back upon this age, cruel and half-savage as 
 it was in many respects, and thrill with pride, for 
 it was the greatest age of modern times. There 
 was good Queen Bess and her land; there were 
 Sir Francis Drake, and John Hawkins, and Mar- 
 tin Frobisher, and Walter Raleigh, and Lord 
 Howard of Effingham. There were the poets and 
 the playwrights. And there was Gresham, who 
 built the Exchange, and laid the foundation of 
 England's commercial supremacy. 
 
 Now, leaving ancient quotations, let us come 
 down to writing of our own time, and read a para- 
 graph from the best recent picture of Elizabethan 
 Kfe and times; Kingsley's Westward Ho! 
 Amyas Leigh, the hero of the novel, has sailed 
 around the world with Drake, and has come back 
 
THE ELIZABETHAN CHARACTER 31 
 
 to Bidef ord after a three-years' absence. The time 
 is Sunday morning. 
 
 " And what is it," says Kingsley, " which has 
 thus sent old Bideford wild with that ' goodly joy 
 and pious mirth,' of which we now only retain 
 traditions in our translations of the Psalms ? Why 
 are all eyes fixed, with greedy admiration, on those 
 four weather-beaten mariners ; decked out with 
 knots and ribbons by loving hands ; and yet more 
 on that gigantic figure who walks before them, a 
 beardless boy, and yet with a frame and stature of 
 a Hercules, towering, like Saul of old, a head and 
 shoulders above all the congregation, with his 
 golden locks flowing down over his shoulders ? And 
 why, as the five go instinctively up to the altar and 
 there fall on their knees before the rails, are all 
 eyes turned to the pew where Mrs. Leigh of Bur- 
 rough has hid her face between her hands, and 
 her hood rustles and shakes to her joyful sobs? 
 Because there was fellow feeling of old in Merry 
 England, in country and in town; and these are 
 Devon men, and of Bideford . . . and they, 
 the first of all English mariners, have sailed round 
 the world with Francis Drake, and are come to 
 give God thanks." 
 
 Merry England he calls it ; Merry England has 
 become a by-word, but it applies to a time long 
 ago, before the Puritans swept away the Maypole 
 
32 THE ELIZABETHAN PEOPLE 
 
 and the Christmas revels. After all, despite the 
 cruel punishments, the baiting of bears, cock- 
 fighting, and the branding of criminals, the Eng- 
 land of Elizabeth was a merry, wholesome Eng- 
 land, hardly even to be fancied in these prosaic 
 times. 
 
 To this credulous people, whose savage nature 
 was undergoing a rapid progress of refinement, 
 must be attributed the open mind and the willing 
 heart. Not only were they ever ready to believe, 
 ibut they were also always quick to do what others 
 were doing. The very nature of their national 
 life and character bred in them an aptness of imi- 
 tation. 
 
 We find this quality illustrated in the literature 
 of the time. Whether or not one accepts Mr. Sid- 
 ney Lee's theory of regarding Shakespeare's Son- 
 nets, one cannot deny the long array of facts 
 cited to prove that the sonnet literature of the 
 age of Elizabeth, taken as a whole, is a narrow 
 mass of plagiarised imitations of foreign models. 
 Not only is the form copied, at least so far as it 
 was understood, but also the ideas, the mode of 
 expression, even, at times, the very words are but 
 a stolen translation, with no credit given to the 
 original writer. The same facts are true, to a 
 certain extent, of the drama. Sh^JcgspfiarsJjiiQself 
 
THE ELIZABETHAN CHARACTER 33 
 
 TOfl,sJjhe most pprs^S^'p^t qory'i''*^ He borrowed his 
 plots. In many cases he borrowed the details of 
 his dramatic technique. This is but another way 
 of saying that when Shakespeare saw a clever de- 
 vice cleverly worked out upon the stage he im- 
 mediately made use of it ; in general, however, dis- 
 playing greater skill in the manipulation. He was 
 quick to grasp the advantage of a heroine's part 
 played by a boy in his own clothes. Greene set 
 an example of the merry conceit of a man falling 
 in love with a boy disguised as a woman. Shake- 
 speare merely turned the situation end for end 
 when he gave us the love affair of Olivia and Viola. 
 The Elizabethan fondness for fads goes beyond 
 anything known to-day. The modern linguistic 
 imitation of certain fables in slang so familiar 
 to us of this generation is a mere bagatelle in com- 
 parison with the imitation of the more ponderous 
 and often meaningless phrases derived from Lyly's 
 novel. The innumerable sonnets that go to fill up 
 Mr. Lee's large collection were the offspring of a 
 fad that necessitated each and every man of the 
 time to drivel sonnets at a moment's notice In hon- 
 our of his sweetheart. The sonnet cycle was itself 
 a separate vogue to be distinguished from that of 
 the individual sonnet habit of domestic life. And 
 both lived the short span of life usually allotted 
 to a fashionable fad. 
 
34 THE ELIZABETHAN PEOPLE 
 
 In dress the Elizabethans were equally imitative. 
 They borrowed fashions from the continent and 
 developed them at home. A glossary of terms 
 connected with dress would reveal instantly the 
 continental origin of many of the most used gar- 
 ments. 
 
 Along with all this was a youthful exuberance of 
 spirit that may be considered as a fourth national 
 characteristic — or, perhaps, the one characteris- 
 tic that involves all the others. We may liken it 
 to youthfulness, to the opposite of that enervated 
 state we name blase. England for centuries had 
 remained practically unchanged, or had followed 
 the slow and ponderous march of mediaeval civili- 
 sation. Suddenly, at the introduction of the new 
 learning, England awoke with all the ardour of 
 young blood, all the eagerness of childhood. 
 
 They were lusty wooers, those Elizabethans. 
 They believed, with a naive effort to outdo one 
 another in accepting without question the new 
 and the strange. They discovered a delightful 
 habit — as the writing of a sonnet, or the wearing 
 of a ruff — and proceeded to carry it to an extreme 
 almost unthought of. They fought fiercely, and 
 they played with terrible energy. Even hospitality 
 and philanthropy existed to a degree, certainly the 
 former and possibly the latter, unknown even to- 
 day in London, that city of free givers to the 
 

 ■a 
 
 
 ^3 H 
 
 
THE ELIZABETHAN CHARACTER 35 
 
 helpless of the nation. This Is a delightful char- 
 acteristic. It is a noble characteristic. It is 
 because of this that we forget and forgive the dis- 
 agreeable and the savage, and, for we sometimes 
 meet them, the foolish characteristics of the Eliza- 
 bethan. We forget and forgive all this and ex- 
 press our idealisation of the country of Queen 
 Elizabeth by the phrase " In Merry England." 
 Our recollection is not of the tavsrn wherein Mar- 
 lowe fought and died but of the tavern wherein 
 Keats received his inspiration. 
 
CHAPTER II 
 
 COUNTRY LIFE AND CHARACTER 
 
 THOUGH the population of England during 
 the reign of Elizabeth was not increasing 
 rapidly, it was undergoing a change of distribution. 
 The number of inhabitants which, though not defi- 
 nitely known, was probably not far from 5,000,- 
 000, was slowly and steadily increasing; more 
 rapid, however, was the change in ratio of country 
 to city residents. The notable decrease in the 
 population of many of the larger towns was at the 
 time the occasion of much alarm. The uneasiness 
 caused by this recognised but misconstrued condi- 
 tion of affairs, it is now easy to see, was unjustifi- 
 able. The change was due not to the decrease of 
 the total number of inhabitants but to an exodus 
 
 Iirom town to country. It was a shift rather than 
 a change of population. Nor is the cause far to 
 seek. Roads, bad as they were, were gradually 
 being improved, thus rendering intercommunica- 
 tion easier in some places, possible in others where 
 before at certaifflseasons of the year it had been 
 altogether impossible. Even more accountable for 
 this change was the general safety of conditions 
 due to the firm hand and settled policy of the 
 
 36 
 
COUNTRY LIFE AND CHARACTER 37 
 
 Tudors. It was no longer necessary to seek shelter 
 and security within the fortifications of a walled 
 town. A thick population of considerable magni- 
 tude already occupied the immediate neighbour- 
 hood without the wall of London. The same is 
 true of other cities throughout the country. Far 
 and wide people of substance were removing to 
 pleasanter and now safe retreats in rural Eng- 
 land. Nor was it longer considered necessary to 
 continue building mansions on the older plan of a 
 hollow square in which beauty and convenience 
 were sacrificed to the exigencies of fortification. 
 
 There was also, during the reign of Elizabeth, 
 a remarkable rearrangement of the social scale. 
 The latter half of the sixteenth century, more than 
 any other period in the history of England, marks 
 the rise to aflSuence and importance of the middle 
 class. Not only was the small merchant becom- 
 ing wealthy, but also his position and that of his 
 class was becoming one of greater dignity. Eng- 
 land at large began to recognise the importance 
 of these people and the stability their order con- 
 tributed to the realm. It is hardly too much to 
 say that their assistance contributed so largely 
 as to be almost responsible for the great naval 
 victory over Philip of Spain. Thomas Gresham, 
 a typical representative of the merchant class, 
 built the Royal Exchange, was recognised 
 
38 THE ELIZABETHAN PEOPLE 
 
 throughout the land as a public benefactor, and 
 became the Queen's trusted adviser in matters of 
 finance. In consequence London became the 
 money centre of the world, a distinction it has 
 retained without intermission to this day. 
 
 There had never been in England a marked line 
 of separation between nobleman and commoner; 
 the distinction was drawn, rather, as Mr. Trevel- 
 yan puts it, between gentle and simple. The re- 
 lation between the two was generally that of mas- 
 ter and servant as we associate it with the better 
 form of patriarchal community. There was 
 greater freedom of manners between lord and ten- 
 ant, the family and domestic, than is found to- 
 day. At certain seasons of the year, as Yule 
 Tide, all social barriers were thrown down, mas- 
 ter and servant dancing and feasting on terms 
 of equality in the same hall of merriment. The 
 old rivalry between town and country was van- 
 ishing before the same causes that produced the 
 shifting of population, assisted not a little by the 
 strolling minstrels and travelling players, among 
 whom we find Shakespeare himself. 
 
 Another element that contributed largely to 
 this confusion of old lines of separation was the 
 Queen's habit of making progresses. A progress 
 was merely a visit of Elizabeth to the country 
 seat of some favoured nobleman. The visit was 
 
COUNTRY LIFE AND CHARACTER 39 
 
 planned in advance. When the time came, the 
 Queen and all her court, accompanied by numer- 
 ous dignitaries, trains of baggage, and hosts of 
 curious wayfarers, made " progress " through the 
 land. In spite of the improvements in the roads 
 they were oftentimes in such poor condition that 
 this ponderous parade could move but a dozen 
 miles a day. Thus the progress ostensibly occa- 
 sioned by a single royal visit would eventually in- 
 volve a score, with, in addition, elaborate civic 
 receptions in honour of the Queen whenever she 
 approached the vicinity of a city of her realm. 
 
 The streets of London were poorly paved, many 
 not paved at all. The Strand was a mud lane. 
 On the occasion of a queen's progress through 
 the city, Cheapside and other streets traversed 
 were copiously strewed with gravel. In going 
 from east to west the people avoided as much as 
 possible the unruly streets and resorted to the 
 great popular avenue of travel, the river Thames. 
 The river was not then the filthy race it is to-day. 
 " Silver-streaming " is Spenser's epithet, and 
 Barnfield alludes to " Thy christal billowed 
 waves." " That lady of fresh waters," as a 
 writer of 1608 calls the river, abounded in beds of 
 beautiful water flowers and in flocks of snow-white 
 swans. Used as it was as a thoroughfare, it 
 swarmed with watermen. Their wherries were 
 
40 THE ELIZABETHAN PEOPLE 
 
 hailed from the shore by the familiar cries of 
 Eastward Ho ! or Westward Ho ! and their ranks 
 furnished at least one writer who has been desig- 
 nated by the courtesy of time a poet. 
 
 Though I have referred to the improvement of 
 roads they were still in many parts of the country 
 little better than uninclosed tracks, frequently 
 rutted by the lumbering wheels of the recently in- 
 troduced coaches, muddy, and full of holes. 
 Travel was often altogether prohibited by flooded 
 rivers. Besides the new coaches, horse litters and 
 carriers' carts were occasionally to be met upon 
 the road. In general, however, goods were trans- 
 ported upon pack-horses, and people fared from 
 place to place in the saddle. A man accompanied 
 by wife or daughter carried her behind him on a 
 pillion. Travel, too, was unsafe, for the road was 
 likely to be infested by robbers. Men rode to- 
 gether in parties for mutual protection, each ac- 
 companied by one or more domestic servants, all 
 the party fully armed and ready to draw at a 
 moment's notice. On arrival at an inn each per' 
 son had to look with care to the provision of his 
 horse and the bestowal of his luggage; for only 
 too often the drawers and other domestic serv- 
 ants of country inns were in league with the neigh- 
 bouring highwaymen. 
 
 From an account published about 1610 (see 
 
COUNTRY LIFE AND CHARACTER 41 
 
 Rye, p. 131 ) we learn that riding " post from 
 Dover to Canterbury costs three English shil- 
 lings ; from Canterbury to Sittingbourne the same ; 
 from Sittingbourne to Rochester about two shil- 
 lings and sixpence." To this large expense (for 
 money was then worth about eight times its pres- 
 ent value) must be added the discomfort of sitting 
 upon hard, awkward saddles. Further annoy- 
 ances of post riding were due to the almost uni- 
 versal maltreatment of the post horses ; for, as 
 Taylor the Water Poet writes, " For poor hack- 
 neys England is a hell." Those of a sensitive 
 temperament might wish to avoid travel alto- 
 gether, not alone because of hardship and dan- 
 ger, but also because of the repulsive sights seen 
 by the wayside. The account quoted above con- 
 tinues with a typical illustration : " Just before 
 coming to Sittingbourne you will see a robber 
 hanging on a tree ; he treacherously killed the mes- 
 senger sent from the Elector Palatine to the King 
 of England; the body is surrounded by chains 
 and rings that it would be likely to last a long 
 time." Possibly enhanced for the sake of stage 
 effect is the finery of the following description of 
 a post-boy's habit. 
 
 " Gallus comes in first, attired like a post in 
 yellow damask doublet and bases ; the doublet with 
 close wings, cut like feathers; a pouch of carna- 
 
42 THE ELIZABETeAN PEOPLE 
 
 tion satin, wherein was his packet hung in a bal- 
 drick of the same; a pair of yellow boots; spurs 
 with one long prick like a cock; a little hat of 
 yellow damask, with a plume of red feathers like 
 a crest." (Stage directions. The Masque of 
 Flowers, 1614.) 
 
 The introduction of coaches into England is 
 thus recorded by Taylor the Water Poet. 
 
 " In the year 1564, one William Boonen, a 
 Dutchman, brought first the use of coaches hither, 
 and the said Boonen was Queen Elizabeth's coach- 
 man; for indeed a coach was a strange monster 
 in those days, and the sight of it put both horse 
 and man into amazement ; some said it was a great 
 crab shell brought out of China, and some 
 imagined it to be one of the Pagan temples, in 
 which the cannibals adored the devil; but at last 
 those doubts were cleared and coach-making be- 
 came a substantial trade." (Works, ed. 1630, 
 p. 240.) As late as 1598 this vehicle was still 
 looked upon as a novelty. " Now to diminish and 
 cut this charge, as weU of horses as of men, there 
 is a new invention, and that is, she must have a 
 coach, etc." (From a black-letter pamphlet by 
 W. W., 1598, quoted by Rye, p. 196.) 
 
 So popular, however, became the " new inven- 
 tion " that in 1601 an act was introduced into 
 the House of Lords "to restrain the excessive 
 
COUNTRY LIFE AND CHARACTER 43 
 
 and superfluous use of coaches within this realm. 
 The act, however, was rejected on the second 
 reading. 
 
 Coaches soon came into very general use. They 
 are frequently mentioned in contemporary plays. 
 They were not for the use of noblemen alone. In 
 Eastward Ho one belongs to the wife of a knight. 
 A " lady " owns one in The London Prodigal. 
 " Coaches are as common nowadays as some that 
 ride in 'em." (Middleton, A Mad World, etc.) 
 " As the nobleman's coach is drawn by four 
 horses, the knight's by two, and the cuckold's by 
 three." (Dekker, The Devil's Inn.) The latter 
 is a facetious allusion to the carting of lewd 
 women, and neither two nor four horses were 
 necessarily appropriate to knights or noble- 
 men. We often read of six and eight horses at- 
 tached to a coach. 
 
 These were crudely-built conveyances with 
 heavy wheels and without springs. In 1568 the 
 Queen complained to the French ambassador of 
 " the aching pains she was suffering in conse- 
 quence of having been knocked about in a coach 
 which had been driven a little too fast a few days 
 before." " A coach ! " contemptuously exclaims' 
 a character in Dekker's Westward Ho, " I can- 
 not abide to, be jolted." For all that, they were 
 gorgeously decorated. " They strangle and choke 
 
44 THE ELIZABETHAN PEOPLE 
 
 more velvet in a deep-gathered hose than would 
 serve to line through my lord what-call-ye-him's 
 coach." (Middleton, The Black Book.) Shortly 
 after the death of Shakespeare Lady Comp- 
 ton writes to her husband, Lord William, " I will 
 have my two coaches, one lined with velvet to my- 
 self, with four very fair horses, and a coach for 
 my women, lined with sweet cloth, one laced with 
 gold, the other with scarlet, and laced with watchet 
 lace and silver, with four good horses. Also, I 
 will have two coachmen, one for my own coach, 
 the other for my women. Also, at any time when 
 I travel, I will be allowed not only carroches and 
 spare horses for me and my women, but I will have 
 such carriages as shall be fitting for all orderly; 
 not pestering my things with my women's nor 
 theirs with either chambermaids. . . . Also, for 
 that it is indecent to coop myself up with my 
 gentleman usher in my coach, I will have him to 
 have a convenient horse to attend me either in 
 city or country. And I must have two footmen. 
 And my desire is, that you defray all the charges 
 for me." (Quoted by Drake, Vol. II., p. 145.) 
 
 In spite of the fact that it took a sturdy frame 
 to escape from a long ride in a coach uninjured, 
 or, at least, without aching bones, it was con- 
 sidered a sign of effeminacy for a man to ride 
 in a coach, and is often referred to in terms of 
 
The Gateway, Leicester's Hospital, Warwick, illustrating ornamental 
 woodwork and plaster construction. 
 
COUNTRY LIFE AND CHARACTER 45 
 
 contempt. For instance, " They that were accus- 
 tomed on trotting horses to charge the enemy with 
 a lance, now in easy coaches ride up and down to 
 court ladies." (Lyly, Campaspe.) 
 
 There were numerous characters to be met with 
 constantly on the road. Next to the dangerous 
 highwayman was the pestiferous sturdy beggar. 
 Some were cheats, Abraham-men, or Tom-o-bed- 
 lams. " An Abraham man is he that walketh 
 bare-armed, and bare-legged, and feigneth him- 
 self mad, and carrieth a pack of wool, or a stick 
 with bacon on it, or such like toy, and nameth 
 himself poor Tom." (Awdeley, The Fraternitie 
 of Vacabondes, 1565.) Others were more respect- 
 able, for they carried a royal license to beg 
 throughout the realm. It will be remembered that 
 with such a license King James rewarded the plea 
 for help from the age-stricken historian, John 
 Stow. Gipsies are often referred to as consorting 
 with rogues and vagabonds. A poor living these 
 beggars must have earned if we are to believe the 
 line spoken by one of them in a play of Heywood's, 
 " I scarcely earn me three pence by the day." 
 
 Pedlars were frequently met upon the road. 
 They usually stopped at the porter's lodge, where 
 they unbound their packs. This contained a mis- 
 cellaneous assortment of articles, always with full 
 provision of articles for needlework, cloths, and 
 
46 THE ELIZABETHAN PEOPLE 
 
 garments. They also peddled ballads. These 
 doggerel verses commemorated the events of the 
 day, and are the forerunners of the modern news- 
 papers. Pictures and almanacs, the latter full of 
 prognostications, political as well as meteorologi- 
 cal,, were a part of the pedlar's stock in trade. 
 The retired, often bankrupt soldier, strolling jug- 
 glers, wandering minstrels, and troupes of travel- 
 ling actors were plentiful during the summer 
 months, and were always sure of a warm welcome 
 in the baronial hall. 
 
 As illustrative of life in a country town let us 
 glance for a moment at the birthplace of Shake- 
 speare. Stratford in early times possessed a fa- 
 mous guild, so famous that people from all parts 
 of England were glad to become members of the 
 Holy Cross. Not Stratford merchants alone, but 
 nobles and even kings, were part and parcel of this 
 time-honoured institution, from whose records we 
 derive much of our information concerning ancient 
 Stratford. If one can dissociate mountains and 
 the sea from one's idea of natural beauty, War- 
 wickshire leaves nothing to be desired. " The 
 heart of England," as Drayton calls it, lies in 
 the centre of the lowlands. It is a flat country, 
 but not monotonously flat, the roads bordered 
 with hedges, and the fields teeming with wild- 
 
COUNTRY LIFE AND CHARACTER 47 
 
 flowers. In the immediate neighbourhood are 
 Warwick with its great castle and its associations 
 pertaining to the King-Maker, and the hospital 
 founded by Leicester ; Kenilworth is but a step be- 
 yond; and Guy's Cliff, one of the most splendid 
 palaces of country England ; and Coventry, which 
 played such an important part in the ancient 
 struggle for civic liberty; not to speak of the 
 numerous Shakespeare associations. 
 
 Now that the restorations of the Stratford 
 church are complete, it appears much like the 
 church of Shakespeare's day. Before the death of 
 John of Stratford in 1348, the church was a small 
 and incomplete though substantial structure of 
 Norman architecture. John of Stratford provided 
 for the building of several chapels, notably those 
 to the Virgin Mary, and to Saint Thomas a 
 Becket. He remodelled the tower, and probably 
 added the wooden spire that existed in the time of 
 Shakespeare. In 1332, with the permission of the 
 Bishop of Winchester and of Edward III., he 
 formed a chantry out of some of the chapels 
 that he had built, and dedicated it to Saint 
 Thomas the Martyr, and endowed it with some 
 neighbouring lands for its support. There were 
 five priests, one of whom was to be warden. 
 " Among those whose souls his masses were ex- 
 pected to free from purgatory were, besides him- 
 
48 THE ELIZABETHAN PEOPLE 
 
 self, and his brother Robert, his father and 
 mother, the Kings of England and the Bishops of 
 Worcester." * 
 
 In 1351 Ralph of Stratford built for his uncle's 
 chantry priests a stone house in the churchyard 
 that was known in Elizabethan times as the Col- 
 lege of Stratford. Many others followed these 
 men in beautifying the local church. In the time 
 of Edward IV., the warden of the college 
 " added a fair and beautiful choir, rebuilt from 
 the ground at his own cost," which still exists. 
 
 Ralph CoUingwood, the warden at the close of 
 the fifteenth century, renewed the north porch of 
 the nave. " The low, decorated clere-story was 
 removed, the walls pulled down to the crowns -of 
 the arches, rude angels (by some 'prentice hand) 
 were inserted to carry the philasters, and the walls 
 were panelled with huge lantern windows, with a 
 flattish roof." (Knowles.) He also Improved the 
 service by the introduction of a boy choir, placing 
 them under the rigid supervision of the college 
 priests. 
 
 The Stratford guild in the Middle Ages was 
 known by the name of the Guild of the Holy 
 Cross, the Blessed Virgin, and Saint John the 
 
 * Sidney Lee, Stratford on Avon. To this book I am 
 indebted for many of the facts of history in the following 
 sketch. 
 
COUNTRY LIFE AND CHARACTER 49 
 
 Baptist — a name that may indicate its origin in 
 three separate organisations. This guild, and 
 others like it, should not be confused with the 
 livery companies of later date. The Stratford 
 guild was at once religious and social ; only later, 
 as a secondary matter, did the idea of trade regu- 
 lation become a part of its government. Its mem- 
 bership was open upon the payment of an annual 
 fee to persons of both sexes. Besides the impor- 
 tance derived from membership, and the enjoyment 
 of annual feasts and merrymakings, the members 
 were sure of substantial help if they fell into finan- 
 cial trouble, provided always that they were hon- 
 estly helpless. They were also sure of a good and 
 stately funeral, with a numerous following of the 
 corpse. Orphans and widows were provided for, 
 as well as confirmed spinsters. 
 
 In the reign of Edward I., John of Strat- 
 ford built for the guild its chapel, dedicated 
 to Saint John the Baptist, and almshouses ad- 
 joining, which, together with the hall, were prob- 
 ably situated in Church Street, where the Guild- 
 hall subsequently stood. In 1332 Edward III. 
 gave the guild a charter; and the following de- 
 scription of its customs is taken from the report 
 on the ordinances, set forth by a commission of 
 Richard II. 
 
 " These are the ordinances of the brethren and 
 
50 THE ELIZABETHAN PEOPLE 
 
 sisters of the Guild of the Holy Cross of Strat- 
 ford. 
 
 " First, each of the brethren who wishes to re- 
 main in the guild, shall give fourpence a year, pay- 
 able four times in the year ; namely a penny on the 
 feast of Saint Michael, a penny on the feast of 
 Saint Hilary, a penny at Easter, and a penny 
 on the feast of Saint John the Baptist. Out of 
 which payments there shall be made and kept up 
 one wax candle, which shall be done in worship- 
 ful honour of our Lord Jesus Christ and of the 
 Blessed Virgin and of the Holy Cross. And the 
 wax candle shall be kept alight every day 
 throughout the year, at every mass in the church, 
 before the blessed cross; so that God and the 
 Blessed Virgin, and the venerated cross, may keep 
 and guard all the brethren and sisters of the 
 guild from every ill. And whoever of the breth- 
 ren and sisters neglect to come at the above- 
 named times shall pay one penny. 
 
 " It is also ordained by the brethren and sisters 
 of the guild, that, when any of them dies, the wax 
 candle before named, together with eight smaller 
 ones, shall be carried from the church to the house 
 of him that is dead; and there they shall be kept 
 alight before the body of the dead until it is car- 
 ried to the church; and the wax candles shall be 
 carried and kept alight until the body is buried. 
 
COUNTRY LIFE AND CHARACTER 51 
 
 and afterwards shall be set before the cross. Also, 
 all the brethren of the guild are bound to follow 
 the body to the church, and to pray for his soul 
 until his body is buried. And whoever does not 
 fulfil this shall pay one halfpenny. 
 
 " It is also ordained by the brethren and sisters, 
 that if any poor man in the town dies, or if any 
 stranger has not means of his own out of which 
 to pay for a light to be kept burning before his 
 body, the brethren and sisters shall, for their souls' 
 health, whosoever he may be, find four wax 
 candles, and one sheet, and a hearsecloth to lay 
 over the coffin till the body is buried. 
 
 " It is further ordained by the brethren and 
 sisters, that each of them shall give twopence a 
 year, at a meeting that shall be held once a year ; 
 namely, at a feast that shall be held in Easter 
 week, in such manner that brotherly love shall be 
 cherished among them, and evil speaking be driven 
 out; that peace shall always dwell among them, 
 and true love be upheld. And every sister of the 
 guild shall bring with her to this feast a great 
 tankard; and all the tankards shall be filled with 
 ale; and afterwards the ale shall be given to the 
 poor. So likewise shall the brethren do ; and their 
 tankards shall in like manner be filled with ale, 
 and this shall also be given to the poor. But, 
 before that ale shall be given to the poor, and be- 
 
52 THE ELIZABETHAN PEOPLE 
 
 fore any brother or sister shall touch his feast 
 in the hall where it is accustomed to be held, all 
 the brethren and sisters there gathereH together 
 shall put up their prayers, that God and the 
 Blessed Virgin and the venerated cross, in whose 
 honour they have come together, will keep them 
 from all ills and sins. And if any sister does not 
 bring her tankard, as is abovesaid, she shall pay 
 a halfpenny. Also, if any brother or sister shall, 
 after the bell has sounded, quarrel or stir up a 
 quarrel, he shall pay a halfpenny. ^ 
 
 " It is also ordained that no one shall remain 
 in this guild unless he is a man of good behaviour. 
 
 " It is moreover ordained, that when one of the 
 brethren dies, the officers shall summon a third 
 part of the brethren, who shall watch near the 
 body, and pray for his soul, through the night. 
 Whoever, having been summoned, neglects to do 
 this, shall pay a halfpenny. 
 
 " It is ordained by the common council of the 
 whole guild, that two of the brethren shall be Al- 
 dermen; and six other brethren shall be chosen, 
 who shall manage all the affairs of the guild with 
 the aldermen ; and whoever of them is absent upon 
 any day agreed among themselves for a meeting, 
 shall pay fourpence. 
 
 "If any brother or sister brings with him a 
 guest, without leave of the steward, he shall pay 
 
The Stratford portrait of Shakespeare, illustrating the soft band. 
 
COUNTRY LIFE AND CHARACTER 53 
 
 a halfpenny. Also, if any stranger or servant, or 
 youth, comes in, without the knowledge of the 
 ofBcers, he shall pay a halfpenny. Also, if any 
 brother or sister is bold enough to take the seat 
 of another, he shall pay a halfpenny. 
 
 " Also, if it happens that any brother or sister 
 has been robbed, or has fallen into poverty, then 
 so long as he bears himself well and rightly to- 
 wards the brethren and sisters of the guild, they 
 shall find him in food and clothing and what else 
 he needs." 
 
 The annual banquet was the chief social event 
 of the year. " The receipts," says Mr. Lee, " un- 
 der the various headings of ' light-money,' rents, 
 and fines, increase with satisfactory regularity, and 
 the expenses grow correspondingly. Candles both 
 of tallow and wax, repairs of house and property, 
 the setting up of hedges, form large items of ex- 
 penditure, but in each year's balance sheet the de- 
 tails of the food and drink provided for the an- 
 nual feast occupy more and more extravagant 
 space. The small pigs and large pigs ; the pul- 
 lets, geese, veal, and ' carcases ' of mutton ; the 
 eggs, butter, and honey; the almonds, raisins, cur- 
 rants, garlic, salt, pepper, and other spices were 
 gathered in from all the neighbouring villages in 
 appalling quantities. Gallons of wine and 
 bushels of malt for brewing ale were alike provided 
 
64 THE ELIZABETHAN PEOPLE 
 
 in generous measure. Horsemen were often 
 equipped at the guild's expense to bring in the 
 supplies. After the feast was done there came 
 the settlement for such items as washing the 
 napery, rushes for the floor of the dining hall, 
 coal and charcoal for the kitchen, the cooks' and 
 other servants' wages. At times the feast was en- 
 livened by professional minstrelsy. Thirty pence 
 was paid to minstrels from Warwick in 1424, and 
 a single performer was often engaged at a fee of 
 fivepence." 
 
 The fee for admission to the guild was from 
 four shillings eightpence to four pounds, and the 
 souls of the dead could be admitted upon payment 
 of the entrance fee. Often those who were unable 
 to pay, worked out their dues: some by cooking 
 the annual dinner, others by labour bestowed upon 
 the carpenter work and masonry ; still others gave 
 materials instead of money. 
 
 The grammar school of Stratford, which Shake- 
 speare attended, was built in 1427. Attendance 
 was free, and the schoolmaster was forbidden to 
 take anything from his pupils. 
 
 The last notable pre-Shakespearean benefactor 
 of Stratford was Sir Hugh Clopton. About 1480 
 he came from a neighbouring village to make his 
 home in Stratford. In 1483 he erected a large 
 house of brick and timber at the corner of Cliapel 
 
COUNTRY LIFE AND CHARACTER 65 
 
 Street and Chapel Lane. The house became 
 known as New Place, and was bought in 1597 by 
 Shakespeare, who resided there at the time of his 
 death. Clopton built the nave of the Guild-chapel 
 and decorated it with numerous paintings. His 
 chief contribution to the welfare of Stratford, 
 however, was of quite a different kind. 
 
 Leland, the antiquary who visited Stratford 
 about 1530, wrote that " Afore the time of Hugh 
 Clopton there was but a poor bridge of timber, 
 and no causeway to come to it, whereby many 
 poor folks either refused to come to Stratford 
 when the river was up, or coming thither stood in 
 jeopardy of life." It was to destroy this evil that 
 Sir Hugh Clopton built a freestone bridge of 
 fourteen arches with a long causeway " well walled 
 on each side at the west." He also left much 
 money to be distributed annually to the deserving 
 poor of the village. 
 
 From a structural point of view Stratford was 
 now practically complete, but the organisation of 
 its municipal government had not yet come into 
 existence. At the time of the Dissolution of the 
 Monasteries, Stratford suffered greatly. The 
 College was finally suppressed in 1547, as was also 
 the guild. The latter had exercised civic control, 
 and its suppression left the city without any or- 
 ganisation whatever. At the end of six years, af- 
 
56 THE ELIZABETHAN PEOPLE 
 
 fairs were in such a state of confusion, that a 
 petition was signed by all the principal men of 
 Stratford and forwarded to the King. Happily, 
 it received favourable consideration. The Guild 
 was reconstituted under the name of the Corpora- 
 tion and given full municipal power. The gram- 
 mar school was again opened, and a new era for 
 Stratford began. 
 
 This, then, is the Stratford in which Shake- 
 speare spent his youth. " It is essential for the 
 student of the social history of Stratford," says 
 Mr. Sidney Lee, " to grasp clearly the leading dif- 
 ferences between life in the sixteenth and in the 
 nineteenth centuries, and of the first importance is 
 it to realise how little personal liberty was under- 
 stood in Elizabethan country towns. Scarcely an 
 entry in the books of the new council fails to em- 
 phasise the rigidly paternal character of its rule. 
 If a man lived immorally he was summoned to the 
 Guildhall, and rigorously examined as to the truth 
 of the rumours that had reached the bailiff's ear. 
 If his guilt was proved, and he refused to make 
 adequate reparation, he was invited to leave the 
 city. A female servant, hired at a salary of 
 twenty-six shillings and eighteen pence and a pair 
 of shoes, left her master suddenly in 1611. The 
 aldermen ordered her arrest on her master's com- 
 plaint. Her defence was that 'she was once 
 
COUNTRY LIFE AND CHARACTER 57 
 
 frightened in the night in the chamber where her 
 master's late wife died, but by what or when she 
 cannot tell ' ; but this plea proved of no avail, and 
 she spent some months in the gaol by the Guild- 
 hall. Rude endeavours were made to sweeten the 
 tempers of scolding wives. A substantial ' cuck- 
 ing stool ' with iron staples, lock, and hinges, was 
 kept in good repair. The shrew was attached to 
 it, and by means of ropes, planks, and wheels, was 
 plunged two or three times into the Avon when- 
 ever the municipal council believed her to stand in 
 need of correction. Three days and three nights 
 were invariably spent in the open stocks by any 
 inhabitant who spoke disrespectfully of any town 
 officer, or who disobeyed any minor municipal de- 
 cree. No one might receive a stranger into his 
 house without the bailiff's permission. No jour- 
 neyman, apprentice, or servant might ' be forth 
 of their or his master's house ' after nine o'clock 
 at night. Bowling alleys and butts were provided 
 by the council, but were only to be used at stated 
 times. An alderman was fined on one occasion for 
 going to bowls after a morning meeting of the 
 council, and Henry Sydnall was fined twenty 
 pence for keeping unlawful or unlicensed bowling 
 in a back shed. Alehouse keepers, of whom there 
 were thirty in Shakespeare's time, were kept strictly 
 under the council's control, They were not a^ 
 
58 THE ELIZABETHAN PEOPLE 
 
 lowed to brew their own ale, or to encourage tip- 
 pling, or to serve poor artificers except at stated 
 hours of the day, on pain of fine and imprison- 
 ment. Dogs were not to go about the street un- 
 muzzled. Every inhabitant had to go to church 
 at least once a month, and absentees were liable 
 to penalties of twenty pounds, which in the late 
 years of Elizabeth's reign commissioners came 
 from London to see that the local authorities en- 
 forced. Early in the seventeenth century swear- 
 ing was rigorously prohibited. Laws as to dress 
 were always rigorously enforced. In 1577 there 
 were many fiuBS exacted for failure to wear the 
 plain statute woolen caps on Sundays, to which 
 Rosaline makes reference in Love's Labour's 
 Lost, and the regulation affected all inhabitants 
 above six years of age. In 1604 ' the greatest 
 part ' of the population were present at a great 
 leet, or law-day, ' for wearing their apparel con- 
 trary to the statute.' Nor would it be difficult to 
 present many other like proofs of the persistent 
 strictness with which the new town council of 
 Stratford, by the enforcement of its own orders 
 and of the statutes of the realm, regulated the in- 
 habitants' whole conduct of life." 
 
 Between the years 1557 and 1577, John Shake- 
 speare, the poet's father, filled at one time or an- 
 other, all the principal offices of the corporation 
 
COUNTRY LIFE AND CHARACTER 59 
 
 from ale-taster to chief alderman. Stratford, 
 during the period of his prosperity, was a thriv- 
 ing commercial town. The trading companies 
 represented skinners, tailors, shoemakers, sad- 
 dlers, glovers, tanners, collar-makers, chandlers, 
 soap-makers, ironmongers, and bakers. Pewter- 
 ers, butchers, brewers, drapers, grocers, carpen- 
 ters, painters, were numerous in the town. 
 Tradesmen's shops were usually the downstairs 
 part of their dwellings. A man frequently car- 
 ried on trade in a number of different wares at 
 the same time. Adrien Quiney, for instance, dealt 
 in ginger, red-lead, Southwich cloth, lime, salad 
 oil, and deal boards. 
 
 " Trade was maintained," says Mr. Lee, " at a 
 normal rate of briskness by the weekly markets 
 and the half-yearly fairs, the chief of which fell 
 in September. The town council strictly regu- 
 lated the procedure of the fairs, and appointed 
 to each trade a station in the streets. Thus, raw 
 hides at markets and fairs were to be laid down 
 at the cross in Rother Market. Sellers of butter, 
 cheese, and all manner of white meat, wick yarn, 
 and fruits, were to set up their stalls by the cross 
 at the chapel. A site in the high street was as- 
 signed to country butchers, who repaired to the 
 town with their flesh, hides, and tallow. Pewterers 
 were ordained to 'pitch' their wares in Wood 
 
60 THE ELIZABETHAN PEOPLE 
 
 Street, and to pay for the ground they occupied 
 fourpence a yard. Saltwains, whose owners did 
 a thriving trade in days when salted meats formed 
 the staple supply of food, were permitted to stand 
 about the cross in Rother Market. At various 
 points the victuallers were permitted to erect 
 booths. These regulations were needful to pre- 
 vent strife, and fines for breach of the rules often 
 reached as large a sum as five pounds. The 
 townsmen were anxious to secure for themselves 
 all the advantages of these gatherings, and the 
 council often employed men armed with cudgels 
 to keep Coventry traders out of the town." 
 
 In 1547, 1600 people regularly took the sacra- 
 ment at the Stratford church; and it may be in- 
 ferred from the householders' reports in 1562 
 that the population at that time was about 2000. 
 
 The majority of the houses were constructed of 
 timber, a heavy framework, of which the squares 
 and triangles formed by the wooden braces were 
 filled with lath and plaster. The roofs of the 
 better houses were of tile; but thatch was the 
 more common material. If the front did not rise 
 in steep gables, the slope of the roof was sure to 
 contain dormer windows peeping out of the 
 thatch. Porches invariably sheltered the door; 
 and, if the house were that of a trader, a pent- 
 house formed a covering beneath which he set up 
 
The Droesiiout " Okiginai, " portkatt of Shakespeare, illustratujo 
 
 THE STARCPIED BAND. 
 
COUNTRY LIFE AND CHARACTER 61 
 
 his stall. The better houses of the main streets 
 in the village were built of timber and brick in- 
 stead of timber and lath and plaster. Shake- 
 speare seems to have rebuilt New Place of stone, 
 a material of which the College was wholly con- 
 structed. Often the timber framework in front 
 of a house was elaborately carved. Barns and 
 office buildings were constructed like the smaller 
 dwelling houses, of timber, lath and plaster, and 
 always thatched. 
 
 The gardens were usually separated by m^id 
 walls that were thatched on top as a protection 
 against the rain. These walls were in constant 
 need of repair, easily broken down, and, conse- 
 quently, offered little or no real protection. The 
 gardens about the houses were generally planted 
 with fruit trees. Flowers, vegetables, and medic- 
 inable herbs were grown by almost every house- 
 holder. Trees were a common feature of the 
 smaller country towns. Stratford was especially 
 noted for its elms. 
 
 Once inside of a smaller Elizabethan house one 
 found few of what we now call comforts. Chim- 
 neys were rare till towards the end of Elizabeth's 
 reign. The fire was built upon the floor, often on 
 the bare clay, and the smoke found its deliberate 
 way out of a hole in the wall or roof. Frequently 
 the lower story was not partitioned off, the single 
 
62 THE ELIZABETHAN PEOPLE 
 
 room, or " hall " serving as kitchen, dining-room, 
 and general living-room. The second story con- 
 tained the sleeping-rooms, or, perhaps, the sleep- 
 ing-room, for it, like the floor below, was some- 
 times unpartitioned. 
 
 The furniture of such a house as that in which 
 Shakespeare was born was indeed meagre. From 
 an inventory made in 1592 of the effects of one of 
 John Shakespeare's friends we learn what to ex- 
 pect in the way of furnishing. In the hall was 
 " one table on a joined frame, five small joint 
 stools, a wainscot bench, and painted cloths." 
 There was evidently a fireplace and a chimney, 
 since the list contains and-irons, fire shovel, 
 tongs, pot-hooks, and pot-hangers. In another 
 room was a small table on a frame, two joint 
 stools, two chairs, a press, a joined bed, and a 
 small plank. " Item, three painted cloths (a 
 cheap imitation of tapestry), one feather bed, one 
 flock bed, two bolsters, one pillow, one bed cover 
 of yellow and green, four old blankets, and one 
 old carpet." A chest contained coarse sheets, 
 table cloths, dusters, and napkins. In another 
 were three pairs of flaxen sheets, a pair of hempen 
 sheets, a flaxen table cloth, half a dozen napkins 
 of flax, one of hemp, two diaper napkins, and four 
 pillow cases of flax. In the buttery a small as- 
 sortment of dishes, platters, etq., among whic^ 
 
COUNTRY LIFE AND CHARACTER 63 
 
 were a few pewter vessels. There were three brass 
 pots, a pan, six skimmers, a basin, a chafing dish, 
 a frying pan, and a dripping pan. In another 
 room on the ground floor were a truckle bed, an 
 old coverlet, an old bolster, an old blanket, a little 
 round table, and two old chests. In the kitchen 
 were six barrels of beer, five looms, four pails, 
 four forms, three stools, one bolting hutch, two 
 skips for taking up yeast, one vat, a table board, 
 two pairs of trestles, and two strikes (bushel 
 measures), an axe, shovels, and a spade. In an 
 upper room were more beds and bedding, a cheese 
 crate, malt, malt shovels, a beam with scales, two 
 dozen trenchers, and one dozen pewter spoons. 
 In the yard were bundles of laths, loads of wood, 
 buckets, cord and windlass for the well, and a 
 watchman's bill. This list of articles represents 
 the whole possession of a man in well to do circum- 
 stances.* 
 
 Cleanliness was unknown in the Elizabethan 
 house, whether great or small. The most preten- 
 tious palace boasted nothing better as a covering 
 
 * The substance of this inventory is given in Mr. Sidney 
 Lee's Stratford on Avon, page 137, and in a similar de- 
 scription of the goods of a wooldriver on page 143. The 
 appendix to Hall's Society in the Age of Elizabeth re- 
 prints a number of Inventories of the goods of people in dif- 
 ferent social ranks of life. A number of Elizabethan inven- 
 tories were privately printed by Halliwell-Phillipps. The 
 volume conteuns the Kenilwortb inventory. 
 
64 THE ELIZABETHAN PEOPLE 
 
 for the floor than a layer of rushes.* In the 
 smaller houses of such a town as Stratford 
 even rushes were dispensed with. The floor of 
 the hall was the bare earth, sometimes sprinkled 
 with sand, but seldom swept or cleaned. Water 
 was plentiful, but not in demand. Wood- 
 work was hardly ever scrubbed, and water upon 
 the person is seldom referred to in contemporary 
 writings. We hear very little of baths, but much 
 of dirty fingers, unkempt hair, and general neg- 
 lect of personal cleanliness. It was customary 
 to let refuse lie about. When it became too foul 
 it was swept out of the front door into the gutter, 
 or left in a pile against the house wall. Shake- 
 speare's father was fined for such a nuisance. 
 There were several public muck heaps near the 
 edge of town, but far too near the habitations for 
 safety. Pigs and other animals ran loose in the 
 streets, notwithstanding the fact that there were 
 laws against the custom. In 1611 the town council 
 issued an order " that no swine be permitted to be 
 in the open street of the town unless they have a 
 keeper with them, and then only when they are in 
 driving within this borough, upon pain for every 
 strayer of fourpence." The town itself provided 
 for cleaning the bridge, the market place, and the 
 
 * The word carpet, so often met in the old writings, usw- 
 ^lly refers to a table cloth. 
 
The Chaxdos portrait of Shakespeare, illustrating the soft band. 
 
COUNTRY LIFE AND CHARACTER 65 
 
 spaces in front of the Guildhall and of the Chapel. 
 Cleaning the streets was left to the individual 
 householder who, however, seldom performed the 
 duty till, like the poet's father, he was compelled 
 by law. 
 
 Such a town of filth and thatched roofs was 
 particularly liable to the double danger of disease 
 and of fire. The plague was a regular visitant 
 at Stratford every ten or twenty years. In the 
 summer of 1564! this dread sickness swept away 
 one-seventh of the population. The town was 
 frequently devastated by fire, and several times 
 nearly ruined. 
 
 Stratford has been chosen to illustrate the 
 Elizabethan small town. Its manners and cus- 
 toms, government, trade, etc., are typical. It was 
 slightly off the beaten track, however, therefore 
 lacking in that element of bustle, of men of all 
 sorts and conditions passing through on their 
 way to somewhere else, that was characteristic of 
 such a town as Coventry. Stratford also lacked 
 what Coventry had, and York and Chester still 
 have, a city wall. 
 
CHAPTER III 
 
 LIFE IN THE CAPITAL 
 
 AS I have elsewhere made an attempt to de- 
 ■ scribe topographically the city of London, 
 I shall now merely suggest the appearance of the 
 town, dwelling more at length upon a few features 
 of the social life that I have not treated elsewhere. 
 
 London was then not only the capital but also 
 the only influential city on a large scale in the 
 kingdom. It was the guiding centre at the time, 
 and exerted a far more dominating influence over 
 the country at large than it does to-day. An 
 Elizabethan could not grow up happily unless he 
 was able to make the acquaintance of the great 
 city. One went there and only there to try one's 
 fortunes ; and one frequently came home ruined in 
 body and soul, for London was, indeed, in those 
 days, a monstrous den of vice. 
 
 Yet it was an attractive city ; not too small, nor 
 yet so large as to preclude a general knowledge 
 on the part of one individual of the private affairs 
 of his neighbour. We should not overlook the 
 fact, when contemplating the Elizabethan drama, 
 that both actor and audience, meeting day by day, 
 
 66 
 
LIFE IN THE CAPITAL 67 
 
 grew familiar with one another, ahnost on speak- 
 ing terms of acquaintance. 
 
 The city was circled by a wall, in fact, had 
 grown a little beyond it on the three landward 
 sides. And a large settlement at Southwark 
 across the river extended from the only bridge 
 that spanned the stream. 
 
 The streets were narrow, filthy, and ill-paved. 
 The houses were built mostly of wood, with over- 
 hanging gables, were covered with red tile, thus 
 giving the city a distinct colour when seen from 
 a distance. As important as any of the great 
 streets as a thoroughfare was the river, then a 
 clear stream of fresh water. Thousands of boat- 
 men plied their clumsy little skiffs, or wherries, for 
 the service of passengers. 
 
 In spite of the narrowness and the filth of the 
 poorly paved streets, London possessed many 
 beautiful buildings and several fine prospects. 
 Traders still clung together, venders of one kind 
 of article living in one street, those of another in 
 another. In general they set up their shops in 
 the lower front rooms of their dwellings. 
 
 The reign of Elizabeth was a time when the 
 merchant was becoming more and more influential, 
 both in a business and in a social way. Though 
 Sir Thomas Gresham is a figure of magnificent 
 proportions, there is reason to believe that the 
 
68 THE ELIZABETHAN PEOPLE 
 
 average petty trader was about as dishonest as the 
 confidence man now met with at the racetrack. 
 
 Oftentimes the wares for sale were exposed in 
 a lean-to or booth outside the house, encroaching 
 upon the narrow street. The apprentices too£ 
 turns standing to attract customers whose atten- 
 tion they solicited by the well known cry of 
 " What do ye lack.? What do ye lack.? " Peo- 
 ple then as now often haunted shops for the pur- 
 pose of satisfying curiosity rather than for the 
 purpose of buying. Such people earned the con- 
 temporary title of " stall-troublers." The re- 
 placing of an appretice by an alluring wife or 
 daughter was a common trick of the trade and 
 frequently led to much scandal. Thus Field in 
 Amends for Ladies (ii. 2) refers to "some de- 
 cayed tradesman that doth make his wife entertain 
 those for gain that he not endures." 
 
 Numerous passages in the Elizabethan plays 
 refer to " false lights." The phrase applies to 
 the placing of windows and other sources of light 
 so as to defeat their own ends ; in other words, an 
 intentional effort was made to darken the shop 
 rather than to render it light for the easy an3 just 
 examination of goods. Thus: 
 
 " Fool that hadst rather with false lights and dark 
 Beguiled be than see the ware thou buyest." 
 
 (JSfero, ii. 3.) 
 
LIFE IN THE CAPITAL 69 
 
 "Though your shop wares you vent with your deceiving 
 lights." (Middleton, Anything for a Quiet Life, ii. 2.) 
 
 " Faith, choosing of a wench in a hugh farthingale 
 Is like the buying of ware under a great penthouse; 
 What with deceit of one and the false lights of the 
 other." (Middleton, Women beware Women.) 
 
 Dekker, in Westward Ho! says that the shop 
 of a mercer or a human draper is as dark as a 
 room in Bedlam. 
 
 The apprentice was a person of considerable 
 moment. Yet he was one whose position was not 
 always well defined. Nominally he was to learn 
 the trade or profession of his master. A bond 
 was executed between them: the master agreeing 
 to teach and to provide, the apprentice to serve 
 and to learn. At the end of his term of years the 
 pupil was supposed to be qualified to set up in 
 business on his own account. He often succeeded 
 to his master's business and frequently married 
 the daughter of the house. Though this equality 
 existed, the apprentice was expected to perform 
 many miscellaneous acts of domestic service not 
 referred to in the bond. He must run errands, 
 frequently serve at table, follow his master or mis- 
 tress when abroad in order to carry bundles or 
 to lend protection. Apprentices were attracted to 
 each other as a class by ties of very sympathetic 
 fellowship. Though they were permitted to carry 
 
70 THE ELIZABETHAN PEOPLE 
 
 no weapons other than staves, the cry of " Clubs, 
 Clubs ! " would rouse a whole neighbourhood 
 with disastrous results. Scott has accurately 
 described such a scene in The Fortunes of 
 Nigel. 
 
 There were two shops, that of the barber and of 
 the tobacco man, that merit special notice, for 
 they were, in a way, Elizabethan institutions. 
 The barber shop was recognised outwardly by the 
 pole and the basin. The latter sign was symboli- 
 cal not only of the bowl in which the barber mixed 
 his lather but also of the vessel in which he caught 
 blood when performing his office of surgeon, a 
 profession that went hand in hand with hair-cut- 
 ting. The barber often rented his basin for use 
 in making the general hub-hub that accompanied 
 the carting of a bawd. " Let there be no bawd 
 carted that year, to employ a basin of his." (Jon- 
 son, The Silent Woman.) 
 
 It is, however, the inside of the barber shop that 
 interests us particularly as an Elizabethan insti- 
 tution. It was the place above all for the manu- 
 facture and the dissemination of gossip. Here the 
 young gallant came, incidentally to be trimmed 
 and shaved, primarily to spend a social hour. The 
 shop was well fitted out for his amusement. Just 
 as a newspaper is handed one to-day who is com- 
 pelled to wait his turn at the chair, so a musical 
 
LIFE IN THE CAPITAL 71 
 
 instrument was given to an Elizabethan with which 
 to beguile the time. 
 
 The instruments most frequently in use were 
 of the lute or cittern order. Thus Dekker in 
 Match me m London speaks of a cittern with 
 a man's broken head " so that I think 'twas a bar- 
 ber-surgeon." The allusion is to the grotesquely 
 carved end of the instrument. In one of The 
 Merry Jests of Peele, when a lute is needed, 
 haste is made to borrow one of a barber. The 
 barber himself should also be a performer. " Have 
 you any skill in song or instrument ? " cries one 
 in Dekker's Wonder in a Kingdom. " As a 
 gentleman should have," is the reply. " I know all 
 but play on none. I am no barber." A passage 
 in Ford's Fancies Chaste and Noble (ii. 2), 
 shows that the barber was also, upon occasion, ex- 
 pected to instruct the lasses both in song and 
 dance. 
 
 Reed gives the following graphic sketch note 
 of the interior of a barber's shop with waiting cus- 
 tomers : 
 
 " A lute or cittern used to be part of the fur- 
 niture of a barber's shop, and as Sir John Haw- 
 kins, in his notes on Walton's Complete An- 
 gler, p. 236, observes, answered the end of a 
 newspaper, the now common amusement of wait- 
 ing customers. In an old book of enigmas, to 
 
72 THE ELIZABETHAN PEOPLE 
 
 every one of which the author has prefixed a 
 wooden cut of the subject of the enigma, is a bar- 
 ber, and the cut represents a barber's shop, in 
 which there is one person sitting in a chair under 
 the barber's hands, while another, who is waiting 
 for his turn, is playing on the lute; and on the 
 side of the shop hangs another instrument of the 
 lute or cittern kind." 
 
 A passage regarding the barber shop occurs in 
 Measure for Measure and has given rise to 
 much comment, 
 
 "laws for all faults, 
 
 But faults so countenanced, that the strong statutes 
 
 Stand like the forfeits in a barber's shop, 
 
 As much in mock as mark." 
 
 " In order to enforce some kind of regularity 
 in barber shops," says Dyer (p. 533), "which 
 were places of great resort for the idle, certain 
 laws were usually made, the breaking of which 
 was to be punished by forfeits." A list of such 
 rules is given by Nares, who, however, doubts their 
 authenticity. Warburton suggested a different 
 interpretation. Barber shops were continually 
 crowded with irresponsible persons " who would 
 be perpetually handling and misusing " the bar- 
 ber's instruments. " To remedy which, I suppose, 
 there was placed up against the wall a table of for- 
 feitures, adapted to every offence of this kind; 
 
LIFE IN THE CAPITAL 73 
 
 which it is not likely would long preserve its au- 
 thority," 
 
 An interesting sidelight is thrown upon the 
 Elizabethan barber shop by Mr. H. C. Hart, the 
 latest editor of Measure for Measure, who 
 seems to have discovered the correct interpreta- 
 tion of the above passage. After giving a list of 
 passages referring to barbers and their shops, 
 he says: 
 
 "Many other votaries of St. Cuthbert (Cut- 
 beards) might be mentioned, but nowhere is there 
 even an illusion, that I have met, that could be 
 construed into a reference to any kind of bye- 
 laws. 
 
 " But there is one kind of forfeit which the 
 barber took possession of from his customers and 
 hung up as part of his insignia in his shop, and 
 that was their teeth. For the barber was the 
 dentist of the time. These were the innocuous 
 forfeits that could mock, not mark. In the first 
 act (I. iii. 19) these neglected statutes have al- 
 ready suggested the metaphor : ' We have strict 
 statutes, and most bitmg laws. . . . Which 
 for this fourteen years we have let sleep.' If it be 
 objected that these shop fittings cannot be called 
 forfeits, since the idea of penalty is not present, 
 no doubt Cutbeard would reply if the sufferers 
 had visited him earlier their teeth would have been 
 
74 THE ELIZABETHAN PEOPLE 
 
 saved by proper treatment, and they forfeited 
 them from neglect. But Shakespeare would have 
 made nothing of that point in his choice of a 
 word to express a bold idea. He often paid slight 
 heed to the exact verbal signification, and left 
 it for others to discover his meaning. And he 
 uses forfeit (verb) absolutely in the sense of to 
 lose several times. 
 
 " With reference to the custom a few examples 
 will prove it. We learn from Jonson's Silent 
 Woman, iii. 2 (430b), how the decoration was 
 fixed : ' Or draw his own [Cutbeard's] teeth, and 
 add them to the lutestring.' In Beaumont and 
 Fletcher's Knight of the Burning Pestle (1611), 
 Act III., the string is confirmed : ' Lo, where 
 the spear [barber's pole] and copper basin 
 are! Behold the string on which hangs many a 
 tooth. Drawn from the gentle jaw of wandering 
 knights ! ' And in The Woman Hater, iii. 3 
 (1607), by the same authors, is another refer- 
 ence : ' I will break my knife, the ensign of my 
 former happy state, Knock out my teeth, have 
 them hung at a barber's, and enter into religion.' 
 Shakespeare has referred a number of times to 
 toothache and raging teeth. It is not therefore 
 an unlikely fancy to occur to him. One passage 
 is indeed a remarkable parallel to the thought in 
 the text. It is in 3 Henry VI., IV. vii. 16-19: 
 
LIFE IN THE CAPITAL 75 
 
 ' Away, burn all the records of the realm : my 
 mouth shall be the parliament of England. Holl. 
 Then we are like to have biting statutes, unless his 
 teeth be pulled out.' So that Shakespeare com- 
 pared the * biting statutes ' already to teeth that 
 should be extracted, then to become a mockery, 
 and hung up as a badge of ornament." 
 
 Tobacco was usually sold at the apothecary's 
 shop and our interest lies rather in the material 
 than in the shop. The use of tobacco, which had 
 recently been introduced into England, was rap- 
 idly becoming general. Stow tells us that it was 
 taken by most men and by many women. " In 
 these days," says Harrison in his Chronology, 
 " the taking of the smoke of the Indian herb 
 called tobacco, by an instrument formed like a 
 little ladle, whereby it passeth from the mouth 
 into the head and stomach, is greatly taken up 
 and used in England against Rewmes (colds) and 
 some other deseases ingendered in the lungs and 
 inward parts, and not without eifect. This herb 
 as yet is not so common but that for want thereof 
 divers do practice for the like purpose with the 
 Nicetian ... or the yellow henbane, albeit 
 not without great error; for, although that herb 
 be a sovereign healer of old vices and sores reported 
 incurable outwardly, yet is not the smoke or 
 vapour thereof so profitable to be received." 
 
76 THE ELIZABETHAN PEOPLE 
 
 We find in Jonson's Bartholomew Fair (ii. 1) 
 the following allusion to the adulteration of to- 
 bacco. "Three pence a pipe full, I will have 
 made of all my half-pound of tobacco, and a quar- 
 ter of a pound of colt's foot mixed with it to [eke] 
 it out ; " and in The Alchemist (i. 3) is another 
 allusion to the practice. 
 
 " This is my friend Abel, an honest fellow. 
 He lets me have good tobacco, and he does not 
 Sophisticate it with sack lees or oil. 
 Nor washes it in muscadel, and grains, 
 Nor buries it in gravel, underground, . . . 
 He has his maple block, his silver tongs, 
 Winchester pipes, and flre of juniper, etc." 
 
 In a note on this passage, Gifford says : " It 
 should be observed that the houses of druggists 
 were not merely furnished with tobacco, but with 
 conveniences for smoking it. Every well fre- 
 quented shop was an academy of this ' noble art,' 
 where professors regularly attended to initiate the 
 country aspirant. Abel's shop is very graphically 
 described, and seems to be one of the fashionable 
 kind. The maple block was for shredding the 
 tobacco leaf, the silver tongs for holding the coal, 
 and the fire of juniper for the customers to light 
 their pipes. Juniper is not lightly mentioned: 
 'when once kindled' Fuller says, 'it is hardly 
 quenched;' and Upton observes, from Cardan, 
 
s 
 
 "3. 
 in 
 
LIFE IN THE CAPITAL 77 
 
 that ' a coal of juniper, if covered with its own 
 ashes, will retain its fire a whole year.' " 
 
 It is hard to understand how a habit in such 
 general disrepute as " tobacco talcing " could have 
 grown so rapidly among the people. To be sure, 
 John Davies wrote the following praise, though 
 doubtless ironically: — 
 
 " It is tobacco, which doth cold expel. 
 And clears the obstructions of the arteries. 
 And surfeits threatening death digesteth well. 
 Decocting all the stomach's crudities: 
 It is tobacco, which hath power to clarify 
 The cloudy mists before dim eyes appearing; 
 It is tobacco, which hath power to rarify 
 The thick gross humour which doth stop the hearing; 
 The wasting hectic, and the quartan fever. 
 Which doth of physic make a mockery. 
 The gout it cures, and helps ill breaths foreve.. 
 Whether the cause in teeth or stomach be." 
 
 Though there are many serious allusions to the 
 virtues of the new drug, a greater number express 
 the contrary opinion. King James in his 
 Coimterblast calls it a " custom loathsome to 
 the eye, hatefull to the nose, harmful! to the brain, 
 dangerous to the lungs, and in the black stinking 
 fumes thereof, nearest resembling the horrible 
 Stigian smoke of the pit that is bottomless." 
 
 Above aU, the plays abound in allusions ex- 
 pressive of contempt. Jonson in Bartholomew 
 Fair makes Overdo exclaim " Hence it is that 
 
78 THE ELIZABETHAN PEOPLE 
 
 the lungs of the tobacconist are rotted, the liver 
 spotted, the brain smoked like the back side of 
 the pig-woman's booth here, and the whole body 
 within black as her pan you saw e'en now with- 
 out." 
 
 In Dekker's Shoemaker's Holiday we read, 
 " Oh, fie upon it, Roger, perdy ! These filthy to- 
 bacco pipes are the most idle, slavering baubles 
 that ever I felt. Out upon it ! God bless us, men 
 look not like men that use them." 
 
 " By my little finger, I'll break all your pipes, 
 and burn the case, and the box too, and you draw 
 out your stinking smoke before me." (Dekker's 
 Westward Ho.) 
 
 Beaumont and Fletcher are equally contempt- 
 uous. "Fie, this stinking tobacco kills me! 
 Would there were none in England." {Knight 
 of the Burning Pestle.) Middleton mentions the 
 goldsmith and the tobacco seller as the two ex- 
 tremes; and Field, "Her fortune, O my con- 
 science, would be to marry some tobacco man." 
 (^Amends for Ladies, iii. 1.) 
 
 The tobacco sold in that day must have been 
 very dark if we may draw an inference from 
 " faces far blacker than any ball of tobacco " a 
 line from Nash's The Terrors of the Night, i. 139. 
 It was the custom to hand one a pipe of tobacco 
 already filled ; and the phrase, " Will you take a 
 
LIFE IN THE CAPITAL 79 
 
 pipe of tobacco? " was the customary equivalent 
 of " Have a drinb? " In fact, the phrase " drink- 
 ing tobacco " was in use. 
 
 " I did not as you barred gallants do. 
 Fill my discourse up drinking tobacco." 
 
 (Chapman, All FooU, ii. 1.) 
 
 Dishonest tradesmen, gossiping barbers, and 
 adulterating tobacconists were not the only evil 
 elements in the popular London life. 
 
 More than once in the present volume attention 
 has been called to the credulity of the Elizabethans, 
 and its effect on the national character. It was 
 the tendency to believe in the marvelous that made 
 the age one of fortune telling and prophecy. 
 Palmistry, alchemy, and astrology were probably 
 then more popular than they have ever been be- 
 fore or since. The fact that the practice of these 
 professions was frowned upon by the authorities, 
 coupled with their mysterious nature, tended to 
 make them dear to the Elizabethan heart. The 
 very nature of these so-called arts was especially 
 tempting to dishonest people. London swarmed 
 with quack astrologers and alchemists who have 
 become through lineal descent the bunco men of 
 to-day. 
 
 It is not the purpose of the present chapter to 
 set forth an exposition of the serious beliefs per- 
 
80 THE ELIZABETHAN PEOPLE 
 
 taining to either of the allied arts ; but rather to 
 tell in the words of those who, at the time, were 
 sharp enough to see through the deceitful prac- 
 tices, what was really done by the Elizabethan 
 quacks. On the other hand, it should not be for- 
 gotten that there were honest and sincere devotees 
 to each of these arts who practised for the love 
 of science what they believed to be truth. 
 
 Whatever can be said of certain false astrolo- 
 gers, there can be no denial of the fact that they 
 were believed in implicitly by the people, from 
 the Queen down. The popularity of alchemy is 
 sufficiently attested by the fact that no less than 
 113 books on the subject were published between 
 1595 and 1615. It was the Queen's patronage 
 that contributed most largely to this popularity. 
 At bottom, the whole thing rested on the belief in 
 magic which we shall see was the mainstay of 
 witchcraft. In the following words, Nash bit- 
 terly attacked the belief in sorcery: 
 
 " Purblind London, neither canst thou see that 
 God sees thee, nor see into thyself. . . . 
 Therefore hath He smitten thee and struck thee 
 because thou wouldst not believe He was present 
 with thee. , . . His hand I may well term it, 
 for on many that are arrested with the Plague, is 
 the print of a hand seen, and in the very moment it 
 first takes them, they feel a sensible blow given 
 
LIFE IN THE CAPITAL 81 
 
 them, as it were the hand of some stander by. As 
 God's hand we will not take it, but the hand of 
 fortune, the hand of hot weather, the hand of close, 
 smouldy air. The astronomers [astrologers] they 
 assign to the regiment and operation of planets. 
 They say Venus, Mars, or Saturn are motives 
 thereof, and never mention our sins, which are his 
 chief procreators. The vulgar meniality con- 
 clude, therefore, it is like to increase, because a 
 heronshaw (a whole afternoon together) sat on 
 the top of Saint Peter's church in Cornhill. They 
 talk of an ox that tolled the bell at Woolwich, and 
 how from an ox he transformed himself to an old 
 man, and from an old man to an infant, and from 
 an infant to a young man. Strange prophetical 
 reports (as to touching the sickness) they mutter 
 he gave out, when in truth they are naught else 
 but cleanly coined lies which some pleasant 
 sportive wits have devised, to gull them most 
 grossly. Under Master Dee's name, the like fabu- 
 lous divinations have they bruited, when (good 
 reverend old man) he is as far from any such ar- 
 rogant prescience, as the superstitious spreaders 
 of it are from peace of conscience." 
 
 In that age it was not unusual for a scholar 
 or philospher, by entering all fields of thought, 
 to lay claim to well nigh universal knowledge. 
 So it was with the quacks. Though all the 
 
82 THE ELIZABETHAN PEOPLE 
 
 sciences were to a degree, medicine was the one 
 most closely linked to astrology. Jerome Cardan, 
 perhaps the greatest physician of the day, was 
 also one of the most famous astrologers. For- 
 man, who has left an interesting astrological 
 diary, as a physician diagnosed wholly by the 
 Ephemerides. 
 
 " On the basis of medicine and astrology," says 
 Mr. Hathaway, " it was easy for the would-be 
 general fakir to rear his structure. Conjuring up 
 spirits, telling fortunes, locating lost property, or 
 hidden treasure, preparing love philters, seemed 
 to the people but an extension of the practices 
 of the scientists and physicians of the times. 
 There was a difference in degree, but not in kind. 
 The base of it all was magical. This attitude of 
 wise and simple alike made imposters of the For- 
 man type not merely possible Gut inevitable. The 
 law of supply and demand applies at once. The 
 people believed that such operations could be per- 
 formed. They wished them to be performed. It 
 remained but to select the person to perform 
 them. Economic law presented him in a large as- 
 sortment of varieties. The demand still exists 
 in a lessened degree, and the supply meets it am- 
 ply. The truth of this, for verification, needs but 
 reference to the advertisements of any large daily 
 paper. Clairvoyants, quacks, patent-medicine 
 
LIFE IN THE CAPITAL 
 
 men abound. Their only dangerous competitors 
 are the founders of new religions. This latter is 
 to-day, perhaps, the most profitable and easily 
 operated swindle in the world." 
 
 Closely allied to the astrological practice of 
 medicine were the arts of palmistry and physiog- 
 nomy, which Nash bitterly attacks in The Ter- 
 rors of the Night. 
 
 " Just such like impostures as is this art of 
 exposition of dreams are the arts of Physiognomy 
 and Palmistry: wherein who beareth most palm 
 and praise, is the palpablest fool and Crepundio. 
 Lives there any such slow, itch-brained, beef- 
 witted gull, who by the riveld bark or outward 
 rind of a tree will take upon himself to forespeak 
 how long it will stand, what mischaices of worms, 
 caterpillars, boughs breaking, frost bitings, catel 
 rubbing against, it shall have? As absurd is it by 
 the external branched seams of furrowed wrinkles 
 in a man's face or hand, in particular or in gen- 
 eral to conjecture and foredoom his fate. 
 
 "According to every ones labour or exercise, 
 the palm of the hand is wrythen and pleyted, and 
 every day alters as he alters his employments or 
 pastimes ; wherefore well may we collect, that he 
 which hath a hand so brawned and interlined, 
 useth such and such tools or recreations ; but for 
 the mind or disposition we can no more look 
 
84 THE ELIZABETHAN PEOPLE 
 
 through it than we can into a looking-glass 
 through the wooden case thereof. . . . 
 
 " My own experience is but small, yet thus 
 much can I say by his warrantize, that those fatal 
 brands of physiognomy which condemn men for 
 fools, and for idiots, and on the other side for 
 treacherous circumventors and false brothers, have 
 in a hundred men I have known been verified in 
 the contrary." 
 
 Nash is one from whom we shall quote often in 
 the following pages ; for he, together with Robert 
 Greene, profligate and debauchee himself, were 
 most energetic in exposing the abuses of this time. 
 The same pamphlet from which the above is 
 quoted furnishes the following relative to the con- 
 jurors or " cunning " men of the time: 
 
 " Shall I impart unto you a rare secrecy how 
 these famous conjurors ascend by degrees to tell 
 secrets as they do. First and foremost they are 
 men that have had some little sprinkling of gram- 
 mar learning in their youth; or at least I will 
 allow them to have been surgeons or apothecaries 
 prentices, these, I say, having run through their 
 thrift at the elbows, and riotously among harlots 
 and makeshifts spent the annuity of half-penny 
 ale that was left them, fall a beating their brains 
 how to botch up an easy gainful trade, and 
 set a new nap on an old occupation. 
 
LIFE IN THE CAPITAL 85 
 
 " Hereupon presently they rake some dunghill 
 for a few dirty boxes and plaisters, and toasted 
 cheese and candles' ends, temper up a few oint- 
 ments and syrips ; which having done, far north, or 
 into sume such rude simple country they get them, 
 and set up. 
 
 " Scarce one month have they stayed there, but 
 what with their vaunting and prating, and speak- 
 ing fustian instead of Greek, all the shires round 
 about do ring with their fame ; and then they be- 
 gin to get a library of three or four old rusty 
 manuscript books, which they themselves nor any 
 else can read; and furnish their shops with a 
 thousand quid pro quos, that would choke any 
 horse; besides, some waste trinkets in their cham- 
 bers hung up, which may make the world half in 
 jealousy they can conjure. 
 
 " They will ever more talk doubtfully, as if 
 there were more in them than they meant to make 
 public, or was applicable to every common man's 
 capacity ; when God be their rightful judge, they 
 utter all that they know and a great deal 
 more. 
 
 " To knit up their knaveries in short (which, 
 insooth, is the hangman's office and none's else) 
 having picked up their crumbs thus pretty well in 
 the country, they draw after a time a little nearer 
 and nearer to London; and at length into Lon- 
 
86 THE ELIZABETHAN PEOPLE 
 
 don they filch themselves privily; but how? Not 
 in the heart of the city will they presume at first 
 dash to hang out their rat banners, but in the 
 skirts and outshifts steal out a sign over a cob- 
 bler's stall, like aqua-vitae sellers and stocking 
 menders. 
 
 " Many poor people they win to believe in them, 
 who have not a barreled herring or a piece of poor 
 John that looks ill on it, but they will bring the 
 water he was steeped in unto them in an urinal, 
 and crave their judgment whether he be rotten, or 
 merchant and chapmanable or no. The bruit of 
 their cumming thus travelling from ale-house to 
 ale-house, at last is transported into the great 
 hilts of one or other country serving-man's sword 
 to some good tavern or ordinary; where it is no 
 sooner arrived than it is greedily snatched up 
 by some dapper Monsieur Diego, who lives by 
 telling news, and false dice, and it may be hath a 
 pretty insight into the cards also, together with 
 a little skill in his Jacob's staff, and his compass : 
 being able at all times to discover a new passage 
 to Virginia. 
 
 " This needy gallant with the qualities afore- 
 said, straight trudgeth to some nobleman's to din- 
 ner, and there enlargeth the rumour of this new 
 physician, comments upon every glass and viol 
 that he hath, railed on our Galenists and calls 
 
LIFE IN THE CAPITAL 87 
 
 them dull gardners and hay-makers in a man's 
 belly, compares them to dogs, who, when they 
 are sick eat grasse, and sais they are no better 
 than pack or malt horses, who if a man should 
 knock out their brains will not go out of the 
 beaten highway; whereas his horsleach will leap 
 over the hedge & ditch of a thousand Dioscorides 
 and Hippocrates, and give a man twenty poisons 
 in one, but he would restore him to perfect health. 
 With this strange tale the Noble-man inflamed, 
 desires to bee acquainted with him; what does he 
 but goes immediately and breaks with this mounte- 
 banke, telling him if he will divide his gains with 
 him, he will bring him in cnstome with such and 
 such States, and he shall be countenanst in the 
 Court as he wold desire. The hungrie druggier 
 ambitious after preferment, agrees to anything, 
 and to Court he goes ; where being come to enter- 
 view, he speaks nothing but broken English like a 
 French Doctor, pretending to have forgotten his 
 natural tong by travell, when he hath never been 
 further than either the Lowe Countries or Ire- 
 land, inforced thether to fly either for getting a 
 maid with child, or marrying two wives. Suffiseth 
 he set[s] a good face on it, & will swear he can 
 extract a better Balsamum out of a chip than the 
 Balm of ludaea; yea, all receipts and authors 
 you can name he syllogizeth of, & makes a pish 
 
88 THE ELIZABETHAN PEOPLE 
 
 at in comparison of them he hath seen and read: 
 whose names if you aske, hee claps you in the 
 mouth with half a dozen spruce titles, never till 
 he invented them heard of by any Christian. But 
 this is most certaine, if he be of any sect, he is 
 a mettle-bruing Paracelsian, having not past one 
 or two Probatums for al deseases. But case he 
 be called to practise, he excutheth it by great 
 cures he hath in hand ; & will not encounter an in- 
 firmity but in the declining, that his credit may be 
 more autentical or els when by some secret in- 
 telligence hee is thoroughly instructed of the whole 
 process of his unrecoverable extremitie, he comes 
 gravely marching like a Judge, and gives peremp- 
 torie sentence of death ; whereby he is accounted a 
 Prophet of deepe prescience. 
 
 " But how come he to be the divells secretarie, 
 all this long tale unrips not. In secret be it 
 spoken he is not so great with the divell as you 
 take it." 
 
 Possibly the strictures of Nash will seem more 
 believeable when reinforced by the record of an 
 actual case. Dr. John Dee,* born in 1527, died 
 1608, was one of the best known and influential 
 astrological-alchemists who flourished during the 
 reign of Elizabeth. He graduated from Cam- 
 
 *I have drawn my facts largely from Mr. Hathaway's 
 excellent biographical sketch of the astrologer. 
 
LIFE IN THE CAPITAL 89 
 
 bridge, where he took both the B.A. and M.A. 
 degrees. He early showed genius as a mathema- 
 tician, and planned a reformation of the calendar 
 that received the government's serious considera- 
 tion. He was always held in high favour by the 
 Queen, who visited him in order to see spirits in his 
 crystal globe at Mortlake, a relic now preserved 
 in the British Museum. He had been imprisoned 
 by Queen Mary on the charge of enchantment 
 with malicious intent. He calculated an auspi- 
 cious day for the coronation of her successor. It 
 was he who was called in to counteract the bad 
 effects of the waxen image of Elizabeth picked up 
 in Lincoln's Inn Fields in 1577. The next year he 
 was required to charm away pains in the teeth of 
 the Queen. Subsequently, on the appearance of 
 a comet in the heavens, Dr. Dee was sent for to 
 explain its portentous significance. 
 
 Up to this point there is nothing to show that 
 Dee should be associated with Forman among the 
 abusers rather than the true but mistaken dis- 
 ciples of an absurd science. Whether he should 
 be ever so classed it is now hard to say; but his 
 proceedings have a doubtful look from the time 
 of his association with Edward KeUy. This man 
 was a knave to the inmost marrow. He had had 
 his ears dipt for coining counterfeit money. He 
 became Dr. Dee's " seer," that is, he saw the spirits 
 
90 THE ELIZABETHAN PEOPLE 
 
 invisible to the saner or more honest man ; and thus 
 they began together their joint career of public 
 deception. Dee's diary is full of references to 
 the spirits seen by Kelly, and of the remarks and 
 messages he reported from them. To continue 
 in the words of Mr. Hathaway : — " The repute 
 of Kelly and Dee was so high in alchemy that, in 
 1583, Albert Laski, a Polish nobleman of large 
 property, but considerably involved, took them to 
 Poland with him to build up his fortunes. Before 
 they went Kelly and the crystal got in their work 
 magnificently. Laski spent many hours in their 
 study, and Kelly got messages predicting great 
 things for Laski. The spirits were very hope- 
 ful while they were in England ; Laski was to have 
 dominion, perhaps over all of Europe. But the 
 judicious spirits changed their messages when 
 Kelly got to Poland and found that the count was 
 not so rich as he had supposed, and saw that some 
 result from the money spent on Dee and Kelly 
 was expected. After some years in various parts 
 of Germany, dealing with sovereigns, scholars, and 
 alchemists, after many wonderful adventures, after 
 several transmutations made (?) by Kelly, they 
 separated. Dee returning to England, and Kelly 
 remaining confined by the Emperor, Rudolph 11, 
 of Germany. He died in 1595 of a broken leg 
 incurred in an attempt to escape from his prison 
 
LIFE IN THE CAPITAL 91 
 
 by a window. Dee, it is highly probable, in addi- 
 tion to his scholarly activity, had acted as a po- 
 litical agent for Elizabeth abroad. In 1589 he re- 
 turned to England to find that his house had been 
 sacked by a mob and most of his books burnt. 
 The mob cursed him for a magician while wreck- 
 ing the house. Dee's reputation as a magician 
 had far outgrown the fame of his scholarship. He 
 complains several times during the rest of his life 
 of this evil repute." 
 
 Though the testimony of Nash has been quoted 
 to the eflFect that Dee was a good old man, he 
 certainly failed to keep clear of the company that 
 justified his later reputation. The affair with 
 Laski is typical. If he was not, his professional 
 colleagues were frequently guilty of the pretended 
 manufacture of gold. The usual practice was to 
 smelt quicksilver before the dupe's eyes. When 
 the process was well advanced the alchemist laid 
 on the crucible a bit of coal with silver filings 
 in holes plugged up with wax. Sometimes by 
 sleight of hand, a lump of gold or silver was sub- 
 stitq.ted for one of copper. At any rate, the 
 dupe was the one who was allowed to fish the 
 precious metal out of the fire. They all repaired 
 to a goldsmith who, after sufiicient trial, pro- 
 nounced it fine. This transmutation was a valu- 
 able secret indeed. Could one not immediately 
 
92 THE EUZABETHAN PEOPLE 
 
 grow rich by the possession of it? The victim 
 was willing to pay a great sum for the precious 
 drug that wrought the transformation. Needless 
 to say, he never again saw the vender. 
 
 Both Nash and Greene are outspoken in their 
 attack on alchemy. The former says: 
 
 " If they see you covetously bent, they will 
 tell you wonders of the philosopher's stone, and 
 make you believe they can make gold of goose- 
 grease; only you must be at some two or three 
 hundred pounds cost, or such a trifling matter, to 
 help set up their stills, and then you need not 
 care where you beg your bread, for they will make 
 you do little better if you follow their prescrip- 
 tions." He even goes so far as to make the usurer 
 in The Groat's Worth of Wit condemn it most 
 heartily. " Multiply in wealth, my son, by any 
 means thou mayest, only fly Alchemy, for therein 
 are more deceits than her beggarly artists have 
 words; and yet are the wretches more talkative 
 than women." 
 
 In spite of the complimentary prose concern- 
 ing Dr. Dee, Nash grows enthusiastically poetical 
 when he upholds the opposite side. 
 
 "Sky measuring mathematicians; 
 Ciold breathing Alchemists also we have. 
 Both which are subtle-willed humourists. 
 That get their meals by telling miracles, 
 
LIFE IN THE CAPITAL 93 
 
 Which they have seen in travelling the skies. 
 Vain boasters, liars, make-shifts, they are all, 
 Men that removed from their inkhorn terms. 
 Bring forth no action worthy of their bread." 
 
 In The Terrors of the Night, he says: 
 " They [the cunning men] may very well pick 
 men's purses, like the unskillfuUer kind of al- 
 chemists, with their artificial and ceremonial kind 
 of magic, but no effect shall they achieve thereby, 
 though they would hang themselves." 
 
 Though, Dr. Dee was well educated and a Cam- 
 bridge master of arts, there were many of his 
 class who deserved the condemnation of Nash, 
 pronounced in the following words : " How many 
 be there in the world that childishly deprave 
 alchemy, and cannot spell the first letter of 
 it." 
 
 The evil eflFects of professional astrology were 
 almost equaled by its disastrous effects upon pri- 
 vate fortunes. It was frequently followed merely 
 as the hobby of a gentleman. Thus, in Middle- 
 ton's Anything for a Quiet Life, one entreats 
 " that you would give ore this fruitless, If I may 
 not say this Idle study of alchemy ; why, half your 
 house looks like a glass house. . . . And the 
 smoke you make Is a worse enemy to good house- 
 keeping than tobacco. . . . Should one of your 
 glasses break, It might bring you to a dead palsy. 
 
94 THE ELIZABETHAN PEOPLE 
 
 . . . My lord, your quicksilver has made all your 
 more solid gold and silver fly in fume." 
 
 With all these attacks on a subject held in such 
 popular esteem, with the mildest satire of Lyly's 
 Galathea, with the more serious exposure con- 
 tained in Jonson's Alchemist — ^with all these 
 facts in mind, is one not likely to ask oneself, 
 What did the master writer think of it all? As 
 I have already pointed out, Shakespeare's writ- 
 ings, more than those of any contemporary dra- 
 matist, abound in allusions that show his fa- 
 miliarity with all the varied mass of superstition. 
 Yet, throughout these plays Shakespeare has 
 artfully concealed the feelings of his own heart. 
 The only inferences that can be drawn are due 
 to the fact that he sometimes presents one 
 side of a case with more apparent sympathy than 
 the other. Shakespeare's serious allusions to the 
 subject are not infrequent. Thus, in Julius 
 Casar, 
 
 "The fault, dear Brutus, is not in our stars. 
 But in ourselves that we are underlings." 
 
 And in King Lear, 
 
 " It is the stars. 
 The stars above us govern our conditions.'' 
 
 And in Pericles, 
 
 "Bring in thy daughter, clothed like a bride. 
 For the embracement even of Jove himself: 
 
LIFE IN THE CAPITAL 95 
 
 At whose conception, till Lucina reign'd. 
 Nature this dowry gave, to glad her presence. 
 The senate house of planets all did sit. 
 To knit in her their best perfections." 
 
 Yet Kmg Lear, which furnishes one of the above 
 quotations also furnishes the following piece of 
 ridicule which in sense, though not in quality, is 
 quite of a piece with the quotations from Nash 
 and Greene: 
 
 " This is the excellent foppery of the world, 
 that when we are sick in fortune — often the sur- 
 feit of our own behaviour — we make guilty of our 
 disasters the sun, the moon, and the stars : as if 
 we were villains by necessity, fools by heavenly 
 compulsion; knaves, thieves, and treacherous by 
 spherical predominance; drunkards, liars, and 
 adulterers, by an enforced obedience of planetary 
 influence; and all that we are evil in, by a divine 
 thrusting on; an admirable evasion of whore- 
 master man, to lay his goatish disposition to the 
 charge of a star! My father compounded with 
 my mother under the dragon's tail, and my na- 
 tivity was under Ursa major; so that it follows 
 that I am rough and lecherous. Tut, I should 
 have been that I am, had the maidenliest star in 
 the firmament twinkled on my bastardizing." 
 
 One can hardly over-estimate the shocking pre- 
 valence of venery among the Elizabethans. Per- 
 
96 THE ELIZABETHAN PEOPLE 
 
 haps no more positive attestation of the fact can 
 be cited than the careless way in which it was 
 made the subject of public consideration. Mid- 
 dleton may be called the bawdy playwright, fre- 
 quently selecting his heroines from the stews. 
 'T is Pity She's a Whore is almost a deifica- 
 tion of the class. Furthermore, references and 
 allusions to the practice crept in everywhere, 
 shamelessly, as a part of current speech. One is 
 surprised to count the number of allusions to 
 cuckolds in the plays of Shakespeare, the cleanest 
 of all the Elizabethan dramatists. 
 
 There are frequent allusions in the contempo- 
 rary literature to the great number of courtesans 
 in England — London especially. Dekker tells us 
 that all the loose women of Italy fled to England. 
 " Our soldiers are like glovers, for one cannot 
 work well nor the other fight well, without his 
 wench." (Middleton, Father Hubbard's Tales.) 
 Many other passages attest the fact that loose 
 women in great numbers followed English armies 
 to the field. They also hung about the theatres, 
 and so pestered London during the court term 
 that " termer " became a familiar name for whore. 
 They became, says Dekker, " as common as lice 
 in Ireland, or scabs in France." (Westward 
 Ho.) A consideration of the whole body of con- 
 temporary plays and pamphlets impresses one 
 
LIFE IN THE CAPITAL 97 
 
 with the guUability and the lecherous tendency 
 of the average Elizabethan. 
 
 Certain portions of London were the special 
 resorts. Stow graphically describes the stews in 
 Southwark near the theatres. The suburbs in gen- 
 eral were so notorious that, to be called a " su- 
 burban " was an insult. The suburbs were places 
 of " sixpenny sinfulness," says Dekker, who has 
 written so much about the seamy side of Eliza- 
 bethan London life. TurnbuU Street was a sort 
 of Elizabethan Burlington Arcade, but Shore- 
 ditch, Whitefriars, and Westminster were almost 
 equally notorious. 
 
 The Elizabethan dramatists frequently describe 
 the dress and appearance of these women. Tay- 
 lor, The Water Poet, write : " Commonly most of 
 the shee^bauds have a peculiar privilege more than 
 other women: for generally they are not starvel- 
 ing creatures, but well larded and embossed with 
 fat, so that a baud hath her mouth three stories 
 of chimes high, and is a well fed emblem of plenty ; 
 and though she be of but small estimation, yet is 
 she always taken for a great woman amongst her 
 neighbours." In fact, there seems to be in the 
 writing of this time a recurrence to this typical 
 picture of a fatted prostitute which reminds one 
 of the national incarnation, to-day of some type 
 as we see it in the comic papers. The double 
 
98 THE ELIZABETHAN PEOPLE 
 
 chin, in particular, was a favourite point of ref- 
 erence. " The boy, he does not look like a bawd, 
 he has no double chin." (Dekker, Northward 
 Ho.) "With her fat, sag chin, hanging down 
 like a cow's udder." (Middleton, The Black 
 Book.) 
 
 Prostitutes of the lower order frequently wore 
 loose bodied gowns in the street, a form of attire 
 that was not then, so far as we know, ever worn by 
 respectable women. 
 
 Sir John Davies thus describes a bawd: 
 
 "If Gella's beauty be examined. 
 She hath a dull dead eye, a saddle nose. 
 An ill-shaped face, with morphew overspread. 
 And rotten teeth, which she in laughing shows; 
 Briefly, she is the filthiest wench in town. 
 Of all that do the art of whoring use:- 
 But when she hath put on her satin gown, 
 Her cutlawn apron, and her velvet shoes. 
 Her green silk stockings, and her petticoat 
 Of taffeta, with golden fringen around. 
 And is withal perfum'd with civet hot. 
 Which doth her valiant stinking breath confound,— 
 Yet she with these additions is no more 
 Than a sweet, filthy, fine, ill-favour'd whore." 
 
 Though the meaning of the word is not clear 
 the association of taffeta with whoredom is very 
 common. A courtesan would not leave the house 
 without a fan ; but, perhaps, the most distinguish- 
 ing mark of her dress was her ring — a death's 
 
LIFE IN THE CAPITAL 99 
 
 head, which she wore upon her middle finger as a 
 sign of her profession. In the house of correc- 
 tion she was compelled to wear by way of punish- 
 ment a blue gown. 
 
 Street walkers were innumerable. They were 
 frequently preceded by a " squire," made assigna- 
 tions in the theatres, and in St. Paul's, where 
 " every wench takes a pillar." 
 
 Brothel houses and their inmates were made the 
 subjects of many writings. In Middleton's Five 
 Gallants, a pack of courtesans and their house are 
 imposed upon a gull as a music school. Such 
 houses were fitted out with expensive fittings and 
 furniture. Refreshments, such as stewed prunes, 
 muscadine and eggs, and other aphrodisiacs were 
 furnished gratis. Kept mistresses were also com- 
 mon; and the following is probably not excep- 
 tional as illustrative of the manners of a large 
 portion of the substantial middle class: 
 
 " The woman crying her ware by the door (a 
 most pitiful cry, and a lamentable hearing that 
 such a stiff thing as starch should want customers), 
 passing cunningly and slily by the stall, not once 
 taking notice of the party you wot on, but being 
 by this some three or four shops off, Mass, quoth 
 my young mistress to the weathercock her hus- 
 band, such a thing I want, you know: then she 
 named how many puffs and purls [fringes] lay 
 
100 THE ELIZABETHAN PEOPLE 
 
 in a miserable case for want of stiffening. The 
 honest, plain-dealing jewel husband sent out a boy 
 to call her (not bawd by her right name, but 
 starch woman) : into the shop she came, making 
 a low counterfeit courtesy, of whom the mistress 
 demanded if the starch were pure gear, and would 
 be stiff in her ruff, saying she had often been de- 
 ceived before, when the things about her have 
 stood as limber as eelskins. The woman replied as 
 subtilely. Mistress, quoth she, take this paper of 
 starch of my hand; and if it prove not of your 
 mind never beitow penny with me — ^which paper, 
 indeed, was a letter sent to laer from the gentle- 
 man her exceeding favourite. Say you so.!" quoth 
 the young dame, and I'll try it, i'f aith. With that 
 she ran up stairs like a spinner [spider] upon 
 small cob-web ropes, not to try to arraign the 
 starch, but to conster [construe] and parse the 
 letter (whilst her husband sat below by the 
 counter, like one of those brow bitten catchpolls 
 that wait for one man all day, when his wife can 
 put five in the counter before him), wherein she 
 found many words that pleased her. Withal the 
 gentleman writ unto her for a certain sum of 
 money, which no sooner was read, but was ready 
 to be sent: wherefore laying up the starch and 
 that, and taking another sheet of clean paper in 
 her hand, wanting time and opportunity to write 
 
■d H 
 
 O 
 
LIFE IN THE CAPITAL 101 
 
 at large, with a penful of ink in the very middle 
 of the sheet writ these few quaint monosyllables, 
 Com, Cares, and Cures, and all C's else are yours. 
 Then rolling up the white money like the starch in 
 that paper very subtilely and artificially, came 
 tripping down stairs with these colourable words, 
 Here's goodly starch indeed! fie, fie! — ^trust me, 
 husband, as yellow as th^'aundice; I would not 
 have betrayed my pjiffs with it for a million : — 
 here, here, here, (giving her the paper of money). 
 With that the subtile starch woman, seeming sorry 
 that it pleased her not, told her, within few days 
 she would fit her turn with that which should like 
 [please] her; meaning indeed more such sweet 
 news from her lover. These and suchlike, madam, 
 are the cunning conveyances of secret, privy, and 
 therefore unnoted harlots, that so avoid the com- 
 mon finger of the world, when less committers than 
 they are publicly pointed at." (Middleton's 
 Father Hubbard's Tales.) 
 
 Space forbids any further enumeration of the 
 sins of London; but there is a plentiful supply 
 of material from which one can reconstruct such 
 a picture of the times as will lead one to believe 
 that the above suggestions as to the foul condi- 
 tion of the public morals is not in the least over- 
 drawn. 
 
CHAPTER IV 
 
 AMUSEMENTS IN GENERAL 
 
 THE American in Paris often asks himself 
 the question: What do they all do for a 
 living? At first sight, every one, whether high or 
 low, seems to be wholly bent on pleasure, a bent 
 the Parisians have developed into a fine art. One 
 is also likely to contrast the slow-moving, busi- 
 ness-like Londoners of to-day with their mercurial 
 neighbours by the Seine. This, however, is a con- 
 trast wholly of modern times. London, in fact all 
 England, in the time of Shakespeare was in a 
 state of transition, undergoing a rapidity of 
 change, an enlargement of horizon, that has not 
 been equaled before or since. Their increasing 
 importance created in the Elizabethans a feeling 
 of self-satisfaction. Since 1588 they had been 
 care free. The development and diversity of fun- 
 producing sports and customs reached a climax 
 at the end of the sixteenth century. Inasmuch as 
 space-limits prevent a complete enumeration here 
 of the amusements of the time, it is interesting 
 to note a partial list of games, which, though 
 written long before the EHzabethan age, is 
 
AMUSEMENTS IN GENERAL 103 
 
 quoted by the contemporary Stow as illustrative 
 of his own time. 
 
 " But London, for the shows upon theatres, 
 and comical pastimes, hath holy plays, represen- 
 tations of miracles, which holy confessors have 
 wrought, or representations of torments wherein 
 the constancy of martyrs appeared. Every year 
 also at Shrove-Tuesday, that we may begin with 
 children's sports, seeing we have all been children, 
 the schoolboys do bring the cocks of the game to 
 their master, and all the forenoon they delight 
 themselves in cock-fighting: after dinner all 
 the youths go into the fields to play at the 
 ball. 
 
 " The scholars of every school have their ball, 
 or baston in their hands ; the ancient aiid wealthy 
 men of the city come forth on horseback to see 
 the sport of the young men, and to take part of 
 their pleasure in beholding their agility. Every 
 Friday in Lent a fresh company of young men 
 comes into the field on horseback, and the best 
 horseman conducteth the rest. Then march forth 
 the citizens' sons and other young men, with dis- 
 armed lances and shields, and there they practice 
 feats of war. Many courtiers likewise, when the 
 King lieth near, and attendants of noblemen, do 
 repair to these exercises ; and while the hope of 
 victory doth inflame their minds, do show good 
 
104 THE ELIZABETHAN PEOPLE 
 
 proof how serviceable they would be in martial af- 
 fairs. 
 
 " In Easter holidays they fight battles on the 
 water; a shield is hung upon a pole, fixed in the 
 midst of the stream, a boat is prepared without 
 oars, to be carried by the violence of the water, 
 and in the fore part thereof standeth a young 
 man, ready to give charge upon the shield with his 
 lance; if so be he breaketh his lance against the 
 shield, and doth not fall, he is thought to have 
 performed a worthy deed ; if so be, without break- 
 ing his lance, he runneth strongly against the 
 shield, down he falleth into the water, for the boat 
 is strongly forced by the tide; but on each side 
 of the shield ride two boats, furnished with young 
 men, which recover him that falleth as soon as 
 they may. Upon the bridge, wharfs, and houses, 
 by the river's side stand great numbers to see and 
 laugh thereat. 
 
 " In the holidays all the summer the youths are 
 exercised in leaping, dancing, shooting, wrestling, 
 casting the stone, and practicing their shields ; the 
 maidens trip in their timbrils, and dance as long 
 as they can well see. In winter, every holiday 
 before dinner, the boars prepared for brawn are 
 set to fight, or else bulls and bears are baited. 
 
 " When the great fen, or moor, which watereth 
 the walls of the city on the north side is frozen 
 
AMUSEMENTS IN GENERAL 105 
 
 many young men play upon the ice; some, strid- 
 ing as wide as they may, do slide swiftly; others 
 make themselves seats of ice, great as millstones ; 
 one sits down, many hand in hand do draw him, 
 and one slipping on a sudden, all fall together; 
 some tie bones to their feet and under their heels, 
 and shoving themselves by a little piked staff, do 
 slide as swiftly as a bird flieth in the air, or an 
 arrow out of a cross-bow. Sometimes two run 
 together with poles, and hitting one the other, 
 either one or both do fall, not without hurt ; some 
 break their arms, some their legs, but youth de- 
 sirous of glory in this sort exerciseth itself against 
 the time of war. Many of the citizens do delight 
 themselves in hawks and hounds; for they have 
 liberty of hunting in Middlesex, Hartfordshire, 
 all Chiltron, and in Kent of the Water of 
 Cray." 
 
 The above passage from Fitzstephen's early ac- 
 count of London was quoted by Stow as charac- 
 teristic in 1598. Within a few years of the latter 
 date another authoritative list of sports was pub- 
 lished, a list that should be carefully noted, for it 
 was written by no less a person than the King of 
 England, who hoped that his utterance would at 
 once stamp out all sports that did not have the 
 royal hall-mark of respectability. 
 
 " Certainly," says King James, " bodily exer- 
 
106 THE ELIZABETHAN PEOPLE 
 
 cises and games are very commendable, as well as 
 banishing of idleness, the mother of all vice; as 
 for making the body able and durable for travel, 
 which is very necessary for a king. But from this 
 court I debar all rough and violent exercises; as 
 the foot-ball, meeter for laming, than making 
 able, the users thereof; as likewise such tumbling 
 tricks as only serve for comedians and balladines 
 to win their bread with: But the exercises I 
 would have you to use, although but moderately, 
 not making a craft of them, are running, leaping, 
 wrestling, fencing, dancing, and playing at the 
 catch, or tennis, archery, pelle-melle, and such- 
 like other fair and pleasant field games. And the 
 honorablest and most recommendable games that 
 ye can use on horseback ; for, it becometh a prince 
 best of any man to be a fair and good horseman ; 
 use, therefore, to ride and danton great and cou- 
 rageous horses ; — and especially to use such games 
 on horseback as may teach you to handle your 
 arms thereon, such as the tilt, and the ring, and 
 low-riding for handling of your sword. 
 
 " I cannot omit here the hunting, namely with 
 running hounds, which is the most honourable 
 and noblest sort thereof; for, it is a thievish 
 form of hunting to shoot with guns and bows; 
 and greyhound hunting is not so martial a 
 game. 
 
AMUSEMENTS IN GENERAL 107 
 
 " As for hawks, I condemn it not ; but I must 
 praise it more sparingly, because it neither re- 
 sembleth the wars so near as hunting doth in mak- 
 ing a man hardy and skillfully ridden in all 
 grounds, and is more uncertain and subject to mis- 
 chances ; and, which is worst of all, is therethrough 
 an extreme stirrer up of passions. 
 
 " As for sitting or house pastimes — since they 
 may at times supply the room which, being empty, 
 would be patent to pernicious idleness — I will not 
 therefore agree with the curiosity of some learned 
 men of our age in forbidding cards, and suchlike 
 games of hazard: when it is foul and stormy 
 weather, then, I say, ye may lawfully play at 
 the cards or tables ; for, as to dicing, I think 
 it becometh best deboshed souldiers to play at on 
 the heads of their drums, being only ruled by 
 hazard, and subject to knavish cogging: and as 
 for the chess, I think it over fond, because it is 
 over-wise and philosophic a folly." 
 
 The Elizabethans were very quick to take ad- 
 vantage of any mirth-producing opportunity. 
 The Thames which had not been frozen over since 
 the fifth year of Queen Elizabeth's reign was again 
 frozen in the fifth year of King James. In a mo- 
 ment the people were out upon the bosom of " that 
 Lady of Fresh Waters " as a contemporary writer 
 calls the frozen river. The people turned out en 
 
108 THE ELIZABETHAN PEOPLE 
 
 masse to enjoy the unusual phenomenon. There 
 was a " tavern that runs upon wheels on the river, 
 as well as a thousand have done besides." 
 
 " This cold breakfast being given to the city," 
 continues a contemporary historian of the subject, 
 " and the Thames growing more and more hard- 
 hearted ; wild youths and boys were the first mer- 
 chant-adventurers that set out to discover these 
 cold islands of ice upon the river. ... As the ice 
 increased in hardness . . . both men, women, and 
 children walked over and up and down in such 
 companies, that, I verily believe, and I dare almost 
 swear it, the one half, if not three parts of the 
 people of the city have been seen going on the 
 Thames. The river showed not now, neither shows 
 it yet, like a river, but like a field, where archers 
 shoot at pricks [targets] while others played at 
 the ball. It was a place of mastery, where some 
 wrestle and some run. . . . Thirst you for beer, 
 ale, or usquebaugh, &c., or for victuals? There 
 you may buy It, because [in order that] you may 
 tell another day how you dined upon the Thames. 
 Are you cold with going over.'' You shall ere you 
 come to the midst of the river spy some ready 
 with pans of coals to warm your fingers. If you 
 want fruit after you have dined, there stand coster- 
 mongers to serve you at your call. And thus do 
 people leave their houses and the streets; turn- 
 
AMUSEMENTS IN GENERAL 109 
 
 ing the goodliest river in the whole kingdom into 
 the broadest street to walk in." 
 
 So much for the generality of all sorts of fun. 
 Rich and poor, in town and country alike, looked 
 upon or took part in the pageants connected with 
 progresses and days of festivity. The dramatic 
 productions which the popular mind readily 
 recalls to-day as the most characteristic form of 
 Elizabethan amusement, have been described else- 
 where by the present writer and are therefore omit- 
 ted from the following pages. Doubtless hawking 
 and hunting, the most popular rural sports of 
 the time, lent more colour to the language than all 
 the other sports combined. In the hey-dey of 
 Elizabeth's reign it was as incumbent on the fash- 
 ionable gentleman to bfe able to speak with facil- 
 ity the technical language of venery as it had 
 been a few years earlier to be able to mimic the 
 elaborate phrases of Lyly's Euphues. Yet, in 
 the long list of diversions that follows, there are 
 many others that claimed an almost equal share of 
 the attention of Shakespeare's people. 
 
CHAPTER V 
 
 RURAL SPORTS 
 
 HAWKING. The sport of hawking as a 
 fashionable and popular pastime reached 
 its zenith about 1600. It was practised at the 
 time by every one who could afford the luxury, 
 and it was considered to be, beyond all others, the 
 proper sport for a country gentleman. The diffi- 
 culties, and, in fact, the personal danger encount- 
 ered in capturing wild birds, for no hawk reared 
 in captivity was considered fit for hunting, and 
 the tiresome treatment necessary during the subse- 
 quent period of training for the field — all these 
 together rendered the amusement expensive in the 
 extreme. So valuable, indeed, were a hawk and 
 her accompanying trappings that the gift was 
 considered a fit present for a king to make or to 
 receive. The members of the nobility were sel- 
 dom seen abroad without their hawks and hounds. 
 In earlier times, when bishops as well as lords fol- 
 lowed the birds afield, the presence of the hawk 
 was considered almost equivalent to a badge of 
 nobility. One would die rather than give up his 
 hawk, his especial privilege. By the time of 
 Shakespeare, however, a mere gentleman found 
 
 no 
 
RURAL SPORTS 111 
 
 life hard if it had to be lived without a hawk. The 
 sport was also, upon occasion, enjoyed by women. 
 
 The hawks, of which only the females were used 
 in hunting, were caught wild when young. The 
 female was used because, as Turberville tells us, 
 " The female of all birds of prey and ravin is ever 
 more huge than the male, more venturous, hardy, 
 and watchful." There were many kinds of birds 
 in use ; and, though this chapter is headed by the 
 term now best known in connection with the sport, 
 the Elizabethan never lost sight of the distinction 
 between the short-winged " hawk " and the long- 
 winged " falcon." The " falcon towering in her 
 pride of place " is a higher order of animal than a 
 " fine hawk for a bush." It is scarcely necessary 
 to enumerate here the different varieties of birds 
 in use for hunting save to say that the female 
 peregrine falcon has given her name to the art of 
 falconry ; for, says Turberville, " The falcon doth 
 pass all other hawks in boldness and courtesy, and 
 is most familiar to man of all other birds of 
 prey." 
 
 The young of the wild hawks were, when cap- 
 tured, immediately put through a severe and cruel 
 course of training in order to fit them for the 
 field. Now that this sport has gone out of 
 fashion, and with it our familiarity with its terms, 
 one is likely to overlook the technical significance 
 
112 THE ELIZABETHAN PEOPLE 
 
 of the word " taming " in Shakespeare's play, 
 The Tammg of the Shrew. In this roaring farce, 
 the character of Katharine is conceived through- 
 out as a human embodiment of the spirit of a 
 hawk. She is tamed as hawks were tamed; and 
 the sudden and complete change in her character 
 from extreme shrewishness to extreme docility was 
 exactly similar to the familiar change that took 
 place as the result of very similar treatment in 
 the life of every hawk. This idea, though no 
 Elizabethan could fail to see it, is explicity set 
 forth by Petrucio : 
 
 "Thus have I politickly begun my reign, 
 'And 'tis my hope to end successfully. 
 My falcon now is sharp and passing empty; 
 And till she stoop she must not be full-gorged, 
 For then she never looks upon her lure. 
 Another way I have to man my haggard. 
 To make her come and know her keeper's call. 
 That is, to watch her, as we watch these kites 
 That bate and beat and will not be obedient. 
 She eat not meat to-day, nor none shall eat: 
 Last night she slept not, nor to-night she shall not; 
 As with the meat some undeserved f^ult 
 I'll find about the making of the bed: 
 And here I'll fling the pillow, there the bolster. 
 This way the coverlet, another way the sheets: 
 Ay, and amid this hurly I intend 
 That all is done in reverend care of her: 
 And in conclusion she shall watch all night; 
 And if she chance to nod I'll rail and bawl 
 And with the clamour keep her still awake." 
 
RURAL SPORTS 113 
 
 This passage is full of technical allusions to 
 the process of training a hawk. In the first place, 
 there was but one thing to be done to a wild hawk, 
 namely to break her wilful spirit ; but there were 
 many ways in which it could be done. One was to 
 keep her hungry to the verge of starvation, tan- 
 talizing her by the show of food. This is one 
 of the methods resorted to by Petrucio. Another 
 common mode of training was to keep the hawk 
 awake till exhausted for want of sleep. The 
 Elizabethan word for waking was watching. The 
 word is used in this sense in the passage quoted 
 above — he will watch (keep her awake) as we 
 watch these kites. The word is similarly used in 
 Othello, where Desdemona says, " I'll watch him 
 tame." She means that she will keep Othello awake, 
 give him no peace, till he is more tractable. An- 
 other even more cruel procedure consisted of sew- 
 ing up the eyelids of the hawk for a time. This 
 was called seeling. It suggested the line in 
 Othello, 
 
 "To seel her father's eyes up close as oak." 
 
 This kind of cruelty can almost be forgiven as 
 sometimes a necessary step in the training of a 
 hawk; but it is painful to record that seelmg was 
 sometimes performed by Elizabethans on harmless 
 doves for the mere sport of witnessing their fran- 
 tic and helpless misery. We are told in Sidney's 
 
114. THE ELIZABETHAN PEOPLE 
 
 Arcadia, " Now she brought them to see a seeled 
 dove, who, the blinder she was, the higher she 
 strove to reach." In an explanatory note to a 
 passage in Ford's The Broken Heart, Gifford 
 says : " It is told in The Gentleman's Recreation 
 that this wanton amusement is sometimes resorted 
 to for sport! The poor dove, in the agonies of 
 pain, soars like the lark, as soon as dismissed frfim 
 the hand, almost perpendicularly, and continues 
 mounting till strength and life are totally ex- 
 hausted, when she drops at the feet of her in- 
 human persecutors." 
 
 We have, however, not yet exhausted the al- 
 lusions to falcony in Petrucio's speech. " I have 
 a way to man my haggard," he says. " To man " 
 was the technical term for gaining the mastery. 
 An unmanned, that is, an untrained hawk, was 
 called a haggard. 
 
 " If I do prove her haggard. 
 Though that her jesses were my dear heart strings, 
 I'd whistle her off and let her down the wind 
 To prey at fortune." 
 
 Thus, in his suspicious moment, Qthello com- 
 pares his wife to a haggard hawk. Oftentimes a 
 hawk that had not been properly trained would 
 turn aside while in the pursuit of prey in order to 
 follow something else. This turning aside of a 
 haggard was called checking, and is referred to in 
 
RURAL SPORTS 115 
 
 Marmion's motto, " Who checks at me to death 
 
 is dight." And in the words of Viola: 
 
 " To do that well craves a kind of wit: 
 He must observe their moods on whom he jests. 
 The quality of persons and the time, 
 And, like the haggard, check at every feather 
 That comes before his eye." 
 
 Until the hawk had learned to fly properly at 
 the game she was constantly " reclaimed," that 
 is, drawn back by a long string after having been 
 started. The falcons were cared for and trained 
 by the falconer and his assistants, the falconer's 
 boys. When the bird was injured in the hunt it 
 was the falconer who proceeded to imp the wing. 
 This process of mending required the broken wing 
 to be carefully trimmed, and the feather of another 
 bird matched to the broken one. One end of a 
 wet iron needle was thrust into the quill of the 
 new feather, and the other end into the quill of 
 the feather to be imped. The joint was then 
 bound up and the bird kept quiet till the whole 
 had rusted together. Shakespeare refers to the 
 custom literally in Richard II., in the phrase " imp 
 out our country's broken wing," and figuratively 
 in Coriolanus, " Imp a body [i.e. cure,] with 
 a dangerous physic." It was furthermore part 
 of the falconer's duty to understand all ailments 
 of the hawk, and be able to apply the proper 
 remedy. He also accompanied his master and 
 
116 THE ELIZABETHAN PEOPLE 
 
 superintended the flying of the hawks in the field. 
 Favourite hawks were often kept in the great 
 hall; but many, and all, during the period of 
 moultii^, were penned in their proper stable called 
 the mews. Hence the terms to mew and to enmew. 
 In later times, however, the name came to be ap- 
 plied to a stable for horses, a change in meaning 
 due to the fact that the King's stable for horses 
 happened to be built upon the site formerly oc- 
 cupied by the mews. 
 
 The hawk when not following the game was 
 kept covered by a hood that completely blinded 
 her. This headdress was made of silk or of 
 leather, often exceedingly dainty and ornamental. 
 It bore upon its top a little tuft of feathers that 
 served as a handle by which it could be easily 
 and quickly removed. The hawk was carried to 
 the field hooded and perched upon the falconer's 
 wrist, or upon his fist. If many hawks were taken 
 at once they were carried upon the cadge borne by 
 the cadge-boy. To each of the hawk's legs were 
 attached thongs of leather or of silk, called 
 jesses. They were used to bind the bird tightly to 
 the wrist or to the cadge: hence the meaning of 
 Othello's cry of despair: 
 
 "Though that her jesses were my dear heart strings." 
 
 The jesses passed between the falconer's fingers, 
 
^^dge^ 
 
 "1^^^^. 
 
 : - f^--- ^^-'"J?^-- "^ 
 
 '^& 
 
 
 r^^ 
 
 w 
 
 
 "^^^Mll 
 
 l/'^i^^S^^^iiir'C^ly^^^^^^^' \ 1^ 
 
 >i4f 
 
 if r-liL. 
 
 ^^3^^^ 1 
 
 Hawking. 
 (From Strutt's "Sports and Pastimes.") 
 
RURAL SPORTS 117 
 
 which in turn was fastened to the lines or leather 
 straps that were wound about the wrist. There 
 was a tiny silver bell of sweet tone attached 
 to each leg of the falcon, but the notes of the 
 bell were such as to jangle a discord, thus 
 more usefully serving their purpose as an aid in 
 tracking a bird that had strayed or hunted out 
 of sight. These bells were attached by leather 
 straps called bewits. To one of the bewits was 
 fastened the creance, or long thread, used in 
 reclaiming the hawk before she was fully trained. 
 
 When the game appeared in sight the hood was 
 removed quickly from the head of the hawk. Then 
 she was started, or whistled off, in the direction 
 of the game that was at the moment passing be- 
 fore her eyes. For an instant she bated, that is, 
 flapped her wings, then began her flight. The 
 height reached during the flight was called the 
 pitch. When she swooped down upon the prey 
 she was said to stoop. Some breeds of hawks pos- 
 sessed the characteristic of soaring, technically 
 termed towering. A bird was disedged when she 
 had lost her keenness of appetite. Sometimes a 
 hard substance was given the hawk to gnaw upon 
 in order to disedge her; this process was called 
 tiring. 
 
 If the hawk was loosed in the direction of the 
 wind she was not likely to return, hence the cus- 
 
120 THE ELIZABETHAN PEOPLE 
 
 pertaining to the art, one of which has recently 
 been reprinted in facsimilie: The Boke of Saint 
 Albans. 
 
 Hunting. — Of all outdoor games the Eliza- 
 bethans best loved the great stag hunt. This 
 grand occasion was generally made the excuse for 
 festive merry-makings on a large scale both be- 
 fore and after the day's sport. The preliminary 
 and formal process of locating the position of the 
 stag before he was hunted took place either dur- 
 ing the night in advance of the hunt or in the 
 early morning hours of the hunt day itself. Not 
 every animal, however, was suited to the occasion. 
 The beasts of the chase were divided into two 
 classes, thus: On one hand were the beasts of the 
 forest, including the hart, the hind, the hare, J;he 
 boar, and the wolf, who fed by night and lay in 
 cover during the day ; on the other hand were the 
 beasts of the field, who lay secret at night, includ- 
 ing the buck, the doe, the fox, the marten, and the 
 roe. The hart, therefore, being a beast of the 
 forest, must be harboured, or located while he was 
 abroad in search of food at night. 
 
 It was the duty of the forester and of the 
 huntsman to scour the country during the night 
 before the hunt in order to discover the stag 
 while he was feeding, and to follow him unper- 
 
RURAL SPORTS 121 
 
 ceived to his cover. This task was sometimes ac- 
 complished by actual sight of the stag, some- 
 times by observation of his tracks alone, and 
 sometimes by the use of a hound. A thorough 
 knowledge of woodcraft was necessary to the 
 forester, as well as of the habits of the hart and of 
 the topography of the surrounding country, which 
 might not only determine the position of the 
 chosen cover, but also the course taken by the 
 stag when roused upon the morrow. The hound 
 used in this delicate process of harbouring was 
 variously called the liam-hound, the slot-hound, 
 the limer, or the lym. His peculiar quality was 
 that he followed the trail in silence. As soon as 
 the first glow of dawn appeared, the forester and 
 the huntsman would set out for the wood where 
 the 'stag they had been tracking through the night 
 had sought refuge. Before long the hound would 
 discover the trail, and, though he would strain 
 with might and main to free himself from the liam 
 with which his master held him back, he would 
 remain perfectly silent as they drew near the 
 cover. The sharp eyes of the huntsman next dis- 
 covered the " entry," or broken branches that in- 
 dicated where the stag had entered the wood. A 
 few additional branches were broken so that the 
 place could be more easily found again. Being 
 ft b?a§t of the forest the stag remained in cover, 
 
122 THE ELIZABETHAN PEOPLE 
 
 unless molested, throughout all the day. But 
 there would be the possibility that he had changed 
 his cover since the harbouring at night. So the 
 huntsman's next task was to ascertain whether 
 the stag had remained in this particular wood. 
 Li all likelihood he had, but, in order to make 
 sure, the huntsman would make several circuits, 
 or " ring-walks," about the wood. If the hound 
 did not pick up the scent on any of these except 
 at the original " entry," it was to be inferred that 
 the stag had remained in the wood, or that he 
 had left it at exactly the same point where he 
 had in the first place made his entry. The likeli- 
 hood of the latter contingency was practically 
 reduced to nothing by making ring-walks at dif- 
 ferent distances both within and without the wood. 
 If by this time it was broad daylight, the hunts- 
 man could rest secure in the belief that he had 
 correctly harboured the stag, who would not of 
 his own accord stir from the position he had 
 chosen for his daytime bed till night. This prac- 
 tice of searching for the hart at night, and the 
 finishing details at dawn, are thus referred to by 
 Shakespeare in A Midsummer-Night's Dream. 
 
 " I with the mornmg's love have oft made sport, 
 And like a forester the groves may tread, 
 Even till the eastern gate, all fiery red, 
 Opening on Neptune with fair blessed beams, 
 
RURAL SPORTS 123 
 
 The unharbouring, or actual hunting of the 
 hart, began with the " assembly," a sort of pic- 
 nic, where hunters and guests met for an open air 
 meal at some point not far from the place where 
 the hart had been harboured, yet so far away that 
 no sound of the assembly revels could reach his 
 ears. When all was ready the entire hunt set out 
 for the cover, accompanied by the hounds. The 
 technical term for the pack of hounds was the 
 cry, the kind and number of the hounds being 
 chosen so that they " cried " a chord of music. 
 " If you would have your kennel for sweetness 
 of cry," says Markham, " you must compound it 
 of some large dogs that have deep solemn mouths, 
 and are swift in spending, which must, as it were, 
 bear the base of the consort; then a double num- 
 ber of roaring and loud ringing mouths which 
 must bear the counter tenor; then some hollow, 
 plain, sweet mouths, which must bear the mean or 
 middle part; and so with these three parts of 
 music you shall make your cry perfect ; and herein 
 you shall observe that these hounds thus mixed do 
 run just and even together, and not hang off 
 loose from one another, which is the vilest sight 
 that may be; and you shall understand that this 
 composition is best to be made of the swiftest and 
 largest deep-mouthed dog, the slowest middle- 
 sized dog, and the shortest legged slender dog; 
 
124. THE ELIZABETHAN PEOPLE 
 
 amongst these you may cast in a couple or two of 
 small single beagles, which as small trebles may 
 warble amongst them : the cry will be a great deal 
 more sweet." 
 
 With this quotation from the practical writer 
 upon domestic affairs in mind, one realises how^ 
 far from figurative are the allusions to the music 
 of the hounds contained in this well known pas- 
 sage from A Midsummer-Night's Dream: 
 
 "Go, one of you, and find out the forester; 
 For now our observation is perform'd; 
 And since we have the vaward of the day. 
 My love shall hear the music of my hounds. 
 Uncouple in the western valley; let them go; 
 Dispatch. I say, and find the forester, 
 We will, fair queen, up to the mountain's top 
 And mark the musical confusion 
 Of sounds and echo in conjunction." 
 
 By means of the cry the stag was dislodged 
 or roused. The hunt approached with a great 
 clamour, the pack in full cry, the people shouting 
 and singing " The hunt is up ! The hunt is up 1 " 
 
 "The hunt is up, the morn is bright and grey, 
 Hie fields are fragrant and the woods are green." 
 
 {Titm Andronicus.) 
 
 "Some say the lark and loathed toad change eyes; 
 O, now I would they had changed voices tool 
 Since arm from arm that voice doth us affray, 
 Huntine thee hence, with hunts un to thp rl<iT. 
 
Trained Bears. 
 (From Strutt's " Sports and Pastimes.") 
 
RURAL SPORTS 125 
 
 The next moment the stag broke cover with 
 the whole pack hard upon his heels. The hardiest 
 and most enthusiastic hunters followed the hunt 
 in all its windings, encouraging the hounds, ridi- 
 culing false moves, and in every way assisting as 
 far as possible in turning the stag towards some 
 difficult piece of country where he could be more 
 easily tired out and brought to bay. It was 
 at this point that a knowledge of the topography 
 of the surrounding country, of the animal's habits, 
 of artificial obstructions or toils, etc., often en- 
 abled one to tell in advance where the stag would 
 find himself compelled to stand at bay. To this 
 point less hardy riders and the women, for hunt- 
 ing was a sport often enjoyed by women, would 
 repair to await the critical moment of the finish. 
 
 Through fatigue, or through being cornered, 
 the panting stag would at last be brought to bay. 
 This moment was always one of extreme danger 
 to the hounds, for many of them were often 
 maimed or even killed outright by the infuriated 
 stag. Note how Shakespeare, who was keenly in- 
 terested in all matters pertaining to the hunt, de- 
 scribes in Venus and Adonis this fatal moment : 
 
 "Here kennel'd in a brake she finds a hound. 
 And asks the weary caitiff for his master. 
 And there another licking of his wound, 
 'Gainst venom'd sores the only sovereign plaster; 
 
126 THE ELIZABETHAN PEOPLE 
 
 And here she meets another sadly scowling. 
 
 To whom she speaks and he replies with howling. 
 
 "When he hath ceased his ill-resounding noise. 
 Another flap-mouthed mourner, black and grim. 
 Against the welkin volleys out his voice; 
 Another and another answer him. 
 
 Clapping their proud tails to the ground below. 
 Shaking their scratch'd ears, bleeding as they go." 
 
 The huntsman, in order to save the lives of his 
 dogs, customarily dashed in from behind and 
 killed the stag with a short sword or dagger. All 
 those who were present with horns blew the 
 " mort " of the deer, and the hunters were then 
 ready for the last ceremony. 
 
 The " assay," which followed next in order, is 
 thus described in The Noble Art of Venery: 
 " Our order is that the prince or chief (if so 
 please them) do augur and take assay of the deer 
 with a sharp knife, the which is done in this 
 manner: The deer being laid upon his back, the 
 prince, chief, or such as they shall appoint, comes 
 to it; and the chief huntsman (kneeling, if it be 
 a prince), doth hold the deer by the fore foot, 
 whiles the prince or chief cut a slit drawn alongst 
 the brisket of the deer, somewhat lower than the 
 brisket towards the belly. This is done to 
 see the goodness of the flesh, and how thick 
 it is." 
 
 The oflSce next performed was the breaking nn 
 
RURAL SPORTS 127 
 
 of the carcass, thus inveighed against by Eras- 
 mus : " When they have run down their game, 
 what strange pleasure they take in cutting it up. 
 Cows and sheep may be slaughtered by common 
 butchers, but what is killed in hunting must be 
 broke up by none under a gentleman, who shall 
 throw down his hat, fall devoutly on his knees, 
 and drawing out a slashing hanger ( for a common 
 knife is not good enough) after several ceremonies 
 shall dissect all the parts as artificially as the 
 best skilled anatomist, while all that stand round 
 shall look very intently, and seem to be mightily 
 surprised with the novelty, though they have seen 
 the same an hundred times before, and he that 
 can but dip his finger and taste of the blood shall 
 think his own bettered thereby." 
 
 The custom mentioned in the last line is also 
 referred to by Shakespeare in the following 
 words : " And here thy hunters stand. Signed in 
 thy spoil, and crimsoned in thy lethe." In a note 
 to this passage, Mr. Madden says : " Lethe is a 
 term used by hunters to signify the blood shed by 
 a deer at its fall, with which it is still a custom 
 to mark those who come in at the death." This 
 ceremony ended the stag hunt, save for the af- 
 ternoon and evening spent in all sorts of merry- 
 makings and festive games indoors, besides eat- 
 ing and drinking to a late hour. 
 
128 THE ELIZABETHAN PEOPLE 
 
 A passage in Shakespeare, namely: 
 
 "If this poor trash of Venice, whom I trash 
 For his quick hunting, shall stand the putting on, 
 I'll have our Michael Cassio on the hip," 
 
 has been a source of bother to many commenta- 
 tors. It was necessary, both for the purpose of 
 effective hunting, and in order that the sound of 
 the pack be harmonious at a distance, that the 
 hounds, while running, keep close together. A 
 hound who was guilty of running ahead of the 
 pack " overtopped " the rest. Though it has long 
 been known that the prevention of this habit was 
 performed by "trashing," the exact nature of 
 the cure was not so plain. One way was to im- 
 pede the hound by hanging " clogs," or weights, 
 about his neck. Mr. Madden's note, however, 
 throws much additional light on the subject. He 
 says in substance as follows. It [trash] is used 
 as a substantive by Gervase Markham in his 
 Country Contentments. He mentions trashes with 
 couples, liams, collars, etc., among articles com- 
 monly kept in a huntsman's lodgings. Mr. Mad- 
 den quotes from an earlier writer to the fol- 
 lowing effect : " A hound that runs too fast for the 
 rest ought not to be kept. Some huntsmen load 
 them with heavy collars; some tie a long strap 
 round their necks ; a better way would be to part 
 with them. Whether thev tm ton slow m- tr 
 
 tnl\ 
 
RURAL SPORTS 129 
 
 fast, they ought equally to be drafted." Mr. 
 Madden continues in his own words : " However 
 the trash may have been applied, it clearly ap- 
 pears, from Beckford's words, to have consisted 
 of a long strap, kept by the huntsman, according 
 to Markham, with collars, liams, and other ar- 
 ticles of the same kind. When the hound was 
 running, this long strap, dragged along the 
 ground, handicapped the overtopping hound." 
 Shakespeare further alludes to the subject in The 
 Tempest. 
 
 " Being once perfected how to grant suits. 
 How to deny them, who to advance and who 
 To trash for overtopping." 
 
 It is interesting to note further how the sport 
 of hunting flavours the language of Shakespeare. 
 To give a complete list of references would fill 
 many pages ; but the following, chosen at random, 
 are sufficient to illustrate the point: 
 
 "That instant was I turned into a hart; 
 And my desires, like fell and cruel hounds. 
 E'er since pursue me." 
 
 " Here wast thou bay'd, brave hart; 
 Here didst thou fall; and here thy hunters stand, 
 Sign'd in thy spoil, and crimson'd in thy lethe. 
 O world, thou wast the forest to this hart; 
 And this, indeed, O world, the heart of thee. 
 How like a deer, strucken by many princes. 
 Dost thou here lie." 
 
130 THE ELIZABETHAN PEOPLE 
 
 "Match'd in moufh like bells, 
 Each under each. A cry more tunable 
 Was never hoUa'd to, nor cheer'd with horn." 
 
 " Souter will cry upon 't for all this, though it 
 be as rank as a fox." 
 
 " How cheerfully on the false trail they cry, 
 O, this is counter, you false Danish dogs I " 
 
 " I do foUow here in the chase, not like a hound 
 that hunts, but one that fills up the cry." 
 
 " You common cry of curs ! whose breath I hate 
 As reek o' the rotten fens." 
 
 " And then to sigh as 't were the mort o' the deer." 
 
 " Why do you go about to recover the wind of me 
 as if you would drive me into a toil? " 
 
 " Do not cry havoc, where you should but hunt with 
 modest warrant." 
 
 The Hoese. — The horse in Shakespeare's 
 time was a necessary belonging to a man even 
 of modest circumstances. The country roads 
 were then so bad as to be quite unfit for the rapid 
 movement of any sort of wheeled vehicle. People 
 travelled in the saddle ; or on the pillion ; and most 
 of the transport of goods was done by pack-horse. 
 
 The best horses of Tudor times were far differ- 
 ent from the thoroughbred of to-day, an animal 
 that derives his best blood from the Arabian breed, 
 which was not seen in England before 1616, the 
 year of Shakespeare's death. Neither the race 
 
RURAL SPORTS 131 
 
 horse, the carriage horse, the cart horse, the hack, 
 nor the hunter as they are to-day was then in use. 
 There were instead, as BlundevUle tells us, " the 
 Turk, the Barbarian, the Sardinian, the Neapoli- 
 tan, the Jennet of Spain, the Hungarian, the 
 High Almaine, the Friezeland horse, the Flanders 
 mare, and the Irish hobby." The same writer in- 
 forms us that the hobby was " a pretty fine horse, 
 having a good head and body indifferently well 
 proportioned, saving that many of them be slender 
 and pin-buttocked, they be tender mouthed, nim- 
 ble, light, pleasant, and apt to be taught, and 
 for the most part they be amblers, and therefore 
 very meet for the saddle and to travel by the 
 way." They were, however, " somewhat skittish 
 and fearful, partly, perhaps, by nature and 
 partly for the lack of good breeding at the first." 
 There were also many kinds of home-bred horses 
 of great popularity, the best of which were reared 
 in Yorkshire. Though Gervase Markham asserts 
 that " the true bred English horse, him I mean 
 that is bred under a good clime, on firm ground, 
 in a pure temperature, is of tall stature, and large 
 proportions," it is true that most of the native 
 breed had degenerated in size to such an extent 
 that they were little better than ponies. " The 
 great decay of the generation and breeding of 
 good and swift and strong horses " is deplored 
 
132 THE ELIZABETHAN PEOPLE 
 
 in some of the statutes framed in the latter part 
 of the reign of King Henry VIIL " The altitude 
 and height prescribed by these statutes, thirteen 
 handfulls for mares, and fifteen for horses, tell 
 their own tale, and even this standard for horses 
 was afterward lowered to thirteen hands in regard 
 to certain ' marishes, or seggy grounds in Cam- 
 bridgeshire and elsewhere." (Madden.) " The 
 horses are small but swift," said Hentzner, who 
 published a description of his journey through 
 England in 1598; and Rathgeb, in 1602, wrote, 
 " Horses are abundant, yet, although low and 
 small, they are very fleet." 
 
 Little, however, was accomplished towards im- 
 proving the breed, either by statute or by public 
 agitation. " Master Blundeville's appeal," says 
 Mr. Madden, " to the noblemen and gentlemen of 
 England to turn their enclosures into practical 
 use in improving the breed of horses, and the 
 statutes which I have quoted, lead to the conclu- 
 sion that horse breeding in England was in his 
 time generally conducted after the haphazard 
 fashion still in use in open and unenclosed 
 countries." 
 
 The great horse market of London was West 
 Smithfield, where the English showed themselves 
 more proficient in selling a bad than in raising a 
 good breed of domestic animal. Shakespeare in 
 
Trained Animals. 
 (From Strutt's " Sports and Pastimes.") 
 
RURAL SPORTS 133 
 
 Venus arid Adonis gives a list of points pertain- 
 ing to a perfect and marketable horse that is 
 transferred almost word for word from a similar 
 list expressed in prose by Blundeville. 
 
 " So did this horse excel a common one, 
 In shape, in courage, colour, pace, and bone. 
 Round hoofd, stort-jointed, fetlocks shag and long. 
 Broad breast, full eye, small head and nostril wide. 
 High crest, short ears, straight legs, and passing strong, 
 Thin mane, thick tail, broad buttock, tender hide: 
 
 Look, what a horse should have he did not lack." 
 
 It is interesting to note that the quack physio- 
 logical beliefs of the time were held to be as true 
 of horses as of human beings. " He [the horse]," 
 says Blundeville, " is complexioned according as 
 he doth participate more or less of any of the 
 iiij elements. For if he hath more of the earth 
 than of any of the rest, he is melancholy, heavy 
 and faint-hearted, and of colour a black, a russet, 
 or a bright or, dark dun. But if he hath more of 
 the water then is he phlegmatic, slow, dull, and 
 apt to lose flesh, and of colour most commonly 
 a milk white. If of the air, then is he sanguine, 
 and therefore pleasant, nimble, and is of colour 
 commonly a bay. And if of the fire, then is he 
 choleric, and therefore light, hot, fiery, a stirrer, 
 and seldom of any great strength, and is wont to 
 be of colour a light sorrel. But when he doth 
 
134 THE ELIZABETHAN PEOPLE 
 
 participate of all the four elements, equally, and 
 in due proportion, then is he perfect, and most 
 commonly be one of the colours following," among 
 which he mentions roan as the most desirable. 
 
 Another detail in the selection of a horse is of 
 interest because it affords an explanation of sev- 
 eral passages in contemporary dramatic litera- 
 ture that have been occasionally misunderstood. 
 It was considered not only an ill omen for a 
 horse to have no white upon its body, but " it 
 is an excellent good mark also for a horse to have 
 a white star in his forehead. The horse that hath 
 no white at all upon him is furious, dogged, full 
 of mischief and misfortune." (Markham.) The 
 usual expression used to describe a horse that 
 had no white spot in his forehead was " a horse 
 with a cloud in his face." Hence, in reply to 
 the observation " He has a cloud in's face," Eno- 
 barbus remarks, " He were the worse for that were 
 he a horse." 
 
 Of the horses exposed for sale in Smithfield 
 Market, the place of first importance should be 
 given to the " great horse " or " horse of service." 
 He was useful in the wars and in the tourney at 
 a time when it required an animal of great strength 
 to bear the weight of his own and his master's 
 armour. Armour was going out of fashion in 
 the time of Elizabeth, but this kind of horse was 
 
RURAL SPORTS 135 
 
 still in great demand. The High Alraaine or Ger- 
 man horse was, perhaps, the most highly prized 
 breed for this purpose. He was strongly made, ac- 
 cording to Blundevilleji " and therefore more meet 
 for the shock than to pass a carrierre, or to make 
 a swift manage, because they be very gross and 
 heavy." The Flanders horse was also desirable, 
 which was like the other, " saving that for the 
 most part he is of a greater stature and more 
 puissant. The mares also of Flanders be of a 
 great stature, strong, long, large, fair, and fruit- 
 ful, and beside that will endure great labour." 
 Of the Neapolitan horse Blundeville says, " In 
 mine opinion, their gentle nature and docility, 
 their comely shape, their strength, their courage, 
 their sure footmanship, their well reining, their 
 lofty pace, their clean trotting, their strong gal- 
 loping, and their swift running well considered 
 (all which things they have in manner by nature) 
 they excel numbers of other races, even so far 
 as the fair greyhounds the foul mastif curs." 
 With the complete disuse of armour disappeared 
 the demand for the " great " horse, yet he was 
 not doomed to extinction, for his descendent is 
 the draft horse of to-day. 
 
 The horse of next importance was the road- 
 ster. The proper animal for the purpose in those 
 days was not a trotter, but an ambler. This 
 
136 THE ELIZABETHAN PEOPLE 
 
 name applied to a particular pace in which the 
 fore and hind leg on each side moved simultane- 
 ously. When a horse was taught to amble his legs 
 were geared together by means of trammels. Some 
 horses were hard to train; others, by nature, 
 learned the pace with great ease. Notable in this 
 respect was the Irish hobby, which was, therefore, 
 the most popular riding horse. 
 
 The foot-cloth horse was a staid trotting horse 
 used for show. He was so called from the long, 
 ornamental hanging, called a foot-cloth, that was 
 always used as a decoration on state occasions. 
 " Three times to-day my foot-cloth horse did 
 stumble," occurs in King Richard III. A dig- 
 nified mount for a venerable person in civil life 
 was a mule. It was thus Lord Burghley took his 
 daily exercise, riding about his private grounds. 
 Such an animal, we learn from Shakespeare, was, 
 upon state occasions, also dignified with the cov- 
 ering of a foot-cloth. 
 
 "Obscure and lowly swain, King Henry's blood. 
 The honourable blood of Lancaster, 
 Must not be shed by such a jaded groom. 
 Hast thou not kiss'd thy hand and held my stirrup? 
 Bare headed plodded by my foot-cloth mule 
 And thought thee happy when I shook my head." 
 
 The horses most frequently used in hunting and 
 hawking were the tinv native breed. Inasmuch. 
 
RURAL SPORTS 137 
 
 however, as these sports were usually followed on 
 foot, any wiry, swift animal was suflScient for oc- 
 casional need. 
 
 " The pack-horse, with his pack-saddle laden 
 with merchandise, was a familiar object not only 
 on the highway, but on numerous tracks known 
 as pack-horse roads, which are still pointed out in 
 numerous parts of the country. His pace was 
 neither to trot nor amble, but a fast walk known 
 as a foot-pace." (Madden.) " If you will choose 
 a horse for portage, that is, for the pack or ham- 
 pers, chose him that is exceeding strong of 
 body and limb, but not tall, with a broad back, 
 out ribs, full shoulders, and thick withers, 
 for if he be thin in that part you shall 
 hardly keep his back from galling." (Mark- 
 ham.) 
 
 Of races and race-horses nothing need be said 
 beyond the fact that, though horses were often 
 matched in speed against each other, and though 
 there were a few great races every year, as that 
 at the Cotswold games, there was no special breed 
 of horses for the sport. In fact, racing in Tudor 
 times was so occasional as scarcely to merit con- 
 sideration. 
 
 The Elizabethan trained his horse, especially 
 the horse of service, with the greatest care. Much 
 space is devoted to this subject by Blundeville, 
 
138 THE ELIZABETHAN PEOPLE 
 
 He describes seven stages in the regular course of 
 training. First, the horse was paced, that is, 
 taught to amble. " Secondly, you must teach 
 him to light at stop. . . . Thirdly, to ad- 
 vance before, and yerk out behind." Markham 
 advises one to train his horse to " yerk out be- 
 hind, yet so as it may be perceived it is your will 
 and not the horse's malice." Blundeville's fourth 
 stage is " to turn, readily on both hands with 
 single turn and double turn." The fifth is " to 
 make a sure and ready manage." The sixth and 
 most important stage refers to the carrierre. 
 " When your horse is perfect in the manages 
 aforesaid, then you may pass a career at your 
 pleasure, which is to run a horse forthwith at his 
 full speed, and then making him stop quickly, sud- 
 denly firm and close in the buttocks." Brevity 
 of duration and the sudden termination were the 
 essential qualities of a good career.* Into the 
 seventh class of things taught to a horse, Blunde- 
 ville puts aU such fancy but useless accomplish- 
 ments as the curvet, which he describes as " a cer- 
 tain continual prancing and dancing up and down, 
 still in one place, like a bear at a stake, and some- 
 times sidling to and fro, wherein the horse maketh 
 
 * The difference between this meaning and the modern con- 
 notation of the word career has led to some misunderstand- 
 ing of the text of Shakespeare. An interesting discussion of 
 
RURAL SPORTS 139 
 
 as though he would fain run, and cannot be suf- 
 fered." * 
 
 The limit of the present work precludes a more 
 detailed reference to the art of horsemanship and 
 of farriery, arts, however, that were so intimately 
 associated with the daily life of the Elizabethans 
 that references to them are found continually in 
 the dramatic literature of the time. The reader 
 who would follow the matter further will find a 
 chapter titled " The Horse in Shakespeare " in 
 Mr. Madden's The Diary of Master William 
 Silence, where are gathered together all the 
 poet's allusions to the horse. The best source, 
 however, is the contemporary treatises. Blunde- 
 ville, so frequently quoted above, wrote The 
 Four Chiefest Offices of Horsemanship. Ger- 
 vase Markham wrote several works upon the sub- 
 ject, namely: A Discourse of Horsemanship; How 
 to Chuse, Ride, etc., a Horse; Cavelerice, or the 
 English Horseman; A Cure for all the Deseases 
 of Horses; and Masterpiece, a treatise on farriery. 
 
 Let us end this brief note on an interesting sub- 
 ject with a quotation from one of the best de- 
 scriptive writers of the Elizabethan time — ^Wil- 
 liam Harrison : " Our horses, moreover, are high, 
 
 * The spur, bit, saddle, and the riding-rod, as the whip was 
 called, were then in use in a manner similar to the practice 
 of to-da^, save that the kinds of bit were more numerous. 
 
140 THE ELIZABETHAN PEOPLE 
 
 and, although not commonly of such huge great- 
 ness as in other places of the main, yet, if you 
 respect the easiness of their pace it is hard to 
 say where their like are to be had. Our land doth 
 yield no asses, and therefore we want the genera- 
 tion of mules and somers, and therefore the most 
 part of our carriage is made by these, which, re- 
 maining stone [ungelded], are either reserved 
 for the cart or appointed to bear such burdens 
 as are convenient for them. Our cart or plough 
 horses (for we use them indifferently) are com- 
 monly so strong that five or six of them (at the 
 most) will draw three thousand weight of the 
 greatest tale with ease for a long journey, al- 
 though it be not a load of common usage, which 
 consisteth only of two thousand, or fifty foot 
 of timber, forty bushels of white salt, or six and 
 thirty of hay, or five quarters of wheat, experi- 
 ence daily teacheth, and I have elsewhere re- 
 membered. Such as are kept also for burden will 
 carry four hundred weight commonly without 
 any let or hindrance. This, furthermore, is to 
 be noted, that our princes and the nobility com- 
 monly have their carriage made by carts, thereby 
 it Cometh to pass that when the Queen's majesty 
 doth remove from any one place to another, there 
 are usually four hundred carewares, which amount 
 to the sum of two thousand four hundred horses, 
 
Thick Horses. 
 (From StniU's " Sports and Pastimes.") 
 
RURAL SPORTS 141 
 
 appointed out of the countries adjoining, where- 
 by her a carriage is conveyed safely unto the ap- 
 pointed place. Hereby the ancient use of somers 
 and sumpter horses is in manner utterly relin- 
 quished, which causes the trains of our princes in 
 their progresses to show far less than those of the 
 kings of other nations. 
 
 " Such as serve for the saddle are commonly 
 gelded, and now grow to be very dear among us, 
 especially if they be well coloured, justly limbed, 
 and have thereto an easy ambling pace. For 
 our countrymen, seeking their ease in every cor- 
 ner where it is to be had, delight very much in 
 these qualities, but chiefly in their excellent paces, 
 which, besides that it is a manner peculiar to 
 horses of our soil, are not hurtful to the rider 
 or owner sitting on their backs, it is moreover 
 very pleasant and delectable in his ears, in that 
 the noise of their well proportioned pace doth 
 yield comfortable sound as he travelleth by the 
 way. Yet is there no greater deceit used any- 
 where among our horse-keepers, horse-coursers, 
 and hostelers; for such is the subtle knavery of 
 a great sort of them (without exception of any of 
 them be it spoken which deal for private gain) 
 that an honest-meaning man shall have very good 
 luck among them if he be not deceived by some 
 false trick or other. 
 
142 THE ELIZABETHAN PEOPLE 
 
 " There are certain noble markets wherein 
 great plenty of horses and colts are bought and 
 sold, and whereunto such as have need resort to 
 buy and make their necessary provision of them, 
 as Ripon, Newport Pond, Wolfpit, Harboro', and 
 divers others. But, as most drovers are very dili- 
 gent to bring store of these into these places, so 
 many of them are too-too lewd in abusing such as 
 buy them. For they have a custom, to make them 
 look fair to the eye, when they come within two 
 days' journey of the market to drive them till 
 they sweat, and for the space of eight or twelve 
 hours, which being done they turn them all over 
 the backs in some water, where they stand for a 
 season, and then go forward with them to the 
 place appointed, where they make sale of their 
 affected ware, and such as by this means do fall 
 into many deseases and maladies. Of such out- 
 landish [foreign] horses as are daily brought 
 over unto us I speak not, as the jennet of Spain, 
 the courser of Naples, the hobby of Ireland, the 
 Flemish roile and the Scottish nag, because that 
 further speech of them cometh not within the 
 compass of this treatise, and for whose breed and 
 maintenance (especially of the greatest sort) King 
 Henry the Eighth erected a noble studdery, and 
 for a time had very good success with them, till 
 the officers, waxing weary, procured a mixed brood 
 
RURAL SPORTS 14S 
 
 of bastard races, whereby his good purpose came 
 to little eflFect. Sir Nicholas Arnold of late hath 
 bred the best horses in England, and written of 
 the manner of their production: would to God 
 his compass of ground were like to that of Pella 
 in Syria, wherein the king of that nation had 
 usually a studdery of 30,000 mares and 300 stal- 
 lions, as Strabo doth remember, lib. 16." 
 
CHAPTER VI 
 
 CELEBRATION OF THE CALENDAR 
 
 IN a description of manners and customs such 
 as this, the writer's main difBculty after the 
 material is at hand is that of selection and ar- 
 rangement. An absolutely complete survey of the 
 field, even if such a survey were possible, would 
 in no way fulfil the purposes of the present vol- 
 ume, which, the author hopes, sufficiently de- 
 scribes the times without, on the other hand, pre- 
 suming either to the tediousness or volubility 
 which is the peculiar birthright of the techno- 
 logical dictionary. In treating, then, of the 
 Elizabethan celebration of the calendar, a few of 
 the most important feast days and their customs 
 have been described in detail as typical; the re- 
 mainder is left to the dictionary or to the im- 
 agination, according as one or the other is at 
 hand. 
 
 Yet a word may be said to advantage concern- 
 ing the omitted portion of the calendar. It is 
 well for Americans to bear in mind that in this 
 country to-day the days of the calendar are not 
 nearly so familiar to the people at large as they 
 
CELEBRATION OF THE CALENDAR 145 
 
 are to Englishmen. New Year's Day, St. Val- 
 entine's Day, Easter, the Fourth of July, and 
 a score of others would be known to every school 
 child; yet many a person of education might 
 pause over the location of Epiphany, or even 
 Shrove-Tuesday, and how often would a book of 
 names be called to the assistance when it is a 
 question of St. George and the Dragon or St. 
 Crispan ; and few of us know that so much of our 
 daily conversation at an afternoon tea is but a 
 tribute to the influence of St. Swithin. All this 
 is different in England. Yet the difference in 
 this respect between our familiar associations and 
 those of Englishmen is no greater than the dif- 
 ference between the association of Englishmen of 
 to-day and the Englishmen of three centuries ago. 
 
 Shakespeare lived at a time when the Roman 
 Catholic calendar had not gone altogether out 
 of fashion, and scarcely at all out of memory. 
 All its days were still remembered, and some that 
 were the distinctive property of the Roman 
 Church were still observed in Protestant England 
 as of old. There were numberless others common 
 to both churches, and yet others, associated 
 wholly with the new, making altogether a total of 
 which we have little conception. 
 
 The reader of the present volume will probably 
 find its main value in the assistance it lends to the 
 
146 THE ELIZABETHAN PEOPLE 
 
 appreciation of Elizabethan literature. What 
 such a reader should constantly bea,r in mind is 
 the Elizabethan familiarity with all these proper 
 names. The student of to-day who pauses over 
 an enthusiastic passage in Henry V. to look up 
 St. Crispan meets with a delay that, had it been 
 possible three hundred years ago, would have 
 caused Shakespeare to omit the allusion. 
 Richard HI., in swearing by St. Paul, is using the 
 name of a very familiar saint and friend. The 
 mention of Shrove-Tuesday meant to the Eliza- 
 bethans far more than pancakes ; and St. George's 
 Day was to them like the Fourth of July. Else- 
 where a similar change in the popular relation to 
 superstition and folklore belief is called to the 
 attention of the reader. In both cases we should 
 remember constantly that many of these allusions 
 that have passed completely out of our ready and 
 every day memory were still fresh and vital to the 
 common audience of Shakespeare. 
 
 The year was ushered in and ushered out by the 
 same set of festivities, for the Yule-Tide cele- 
 bration began long before Christmas and extended 
 to Twelfth Day. Both this and New Year's Day, 
 as falling within this period, are described below 
 at the end of the chapter. Though several days 
 of minor importance were connected with annual 
 celebration early in the year, a sort of popular 
 
CELEBRATION OF THE CALENDAR 147 
 
 relaxation manifested itself after the Christmas 
 sports which was, however, boisterously brought 
 to an end by the merry-making of Shrove-Tues- 
 day. Since the time of the Reformation Shrove- 
 Tide was no longer of such importance as a time 
 for shriving and general confession of sins. The 
 Protestant Elizabethans seized upon the carnival 
 element of the Roman Catholic celebration and 
 made the period before Lent one of the j oiliest 
 of the year. CoUop Monday followed Shrove- 
 Sunday; and was so-called as being the period 
 when the people reluctantly bade good-bye to 
 slices of meat called in some parts of the country 
 coUops. The next day was Pancake Tuesday, 
 commemorating an article of diet that has not yet 
 passed out of fashion as distinctively associated 
 with the observation of Shrove-Tuesday. 
 
 Thomas Tusser, a chorister of St. Paul's, later 
 joined the court as musician to William Paget, 
 first baron Paget. He farmed, wrote poetry, 
 and in 155T (expanded in 1570 and 1573), pub- 
 lished Htindreth Good Pointes of Hushandrie. 
 One of his stanzas concerning Shrove-Tide is 
 worth quoting : — 
 
 "At Shroftide to shroving, go thresh the fat hen. 
 If blindfold can kill her, then give it thy men: 
 Maids, fritters, and pancakes, now see ye make. 
 Let slut have one pancake, for company sake." 
 
148 THE ELIZABETHAN PEOPLE 
 
 Concerning one of the customs alluded to above, 
 Mr. Hilman says : " The hen is hung at a fellow's 
 back, who has also some horse-bells about him; 
 the rest of the fellows are blinded, and have bows 
 in their hands, with which they chase this fellow 
 and his hen about some large covert or small 
 enclosure. The fellow with the hen and bells shift- 
 ing as well as he can, they follow the sound, and 
 sometimes hit him and his hen; at other times, if 
 he can get behind one of them, they thrash one 
 another well favour'dly; but the jest is, the maids 
 are to blind the fellows, which they do with their 
 aprons, and the cunning baggages wiU endear 
 their sweet-hearts with a peeping hole, whilst the 
 others look out as sharp to hinder it. After this 
 the hen is boiled with bacon, and store of pan- 
 cakes and fritters are made. She that is noted for 
 lying in bed long, or any other miscarriage, hath 
 the first pancake presented to her, which most 
 commonly falls to the dogs' share at last, for no 
 one will own it their due." * 
 
 In the prologue to Hawkin's 'Apollo Shrov- 
 mg, printed in 1626, we find this quatrain: — 
 
 " All which we on this stage shall act or say, 
 Doth solemnise Apollo's shroving day; 
 Whilst thus we greet you with our words and pens, 
 Our shroving hodeth to none but hens." 
 
 • Quoted by Drake, Vol. I, p. 143. 
 
CELEBRATION OF THE CALENDAR U9 
 
 An answer in All's Well That Ends Well is " as 
 fit as a pancake for Shrove-Tuesday ; " and in 
 Pericles this article of food is termed a flap- jack. 
 There are numerous allusions to the pancake diet 
 in the Elizabethan dramas; and of the pancake- 
 bell Taylor, the Water Poet, has the following 
 to say: " Shrove-Tuesday, at whose entrance in 
 the morning all the whole kingdom is unquiet, but 
 by that time the clock strikes eleven, which (by 
 the help of a knavish sexton) is commonly before 
 nine, then there is a bell rung, cal'd pancake-bell, 
 the sound whereof makes thousands of people 
 distracted, and forgetful either of manners or hu- 
 manity." * 
 
 By the time of Elizabeth the cock-fighting mem- 
 tioned by Fitzstephen,t who wrote in the time of 
 Henry II., was coupled with or supplanted by the 
 less sportsmanlike amusement of cock-throwing. 
 The practice is thus described by Strutt: 
 
 " In some places it was a common practice 
 to put the cock in an earthen vessel made for the 
 purpose, and to place him in such a position that 
 his head and tail might be exposed to view; the 
 vessel, with the bird in it, was then suspended 
 across the street, about twelve or fourteen feet 
 from the ground, to be thrown at by such as chose 
 to make trial of their skill; two pence was paid 
 • Works, fol. 1630, p. 115. • See chapter p. 
 
160 THE ELIZABETHAN PEOPLE 
 
 for four throws, and he who broke the pot, and 
 delivered the cock from his confinement, had him 
 for a reward." 
 
 The evening of Shrove-Tuesday was given up 
 to dramatic entertainments. This was the cus- 
 tom both in town and country; at the court, 
 in the halls of noblemen, and in the public 
 theatres. 
 
 Shrove-Tuesday was considered by the appren- 
 tices as their particular holiday; and in the days 
 of Shakespeare they considered it as their especial 
 right to punish women of ill-fame, and to riot 
 among the bawdy houses. Dekker, in The Seven 
 Deadly Sins of London, says : " They presently 
 (like prentices upon Shrove-Tuesday) take the 
 law into their own hands and do what they list." 
 And Sir Thomas Overbury, speaking of a bawd, 
 remarks : " Nothing daunts her so much as the 
 approach of Shrove-Tuesday." Says Ralph in 
 The Knight of the Burning Pestle: — 
 
 "Farewell, all you good boys in merry London! 
 Ne'er shall we more on Shrove-Tuesday meet. 
 And pluck down houses of iniquity." * 
 
 " Jerusalem was a stately thing, and so was Nineveh, and 
 
 the city of Norwich, and Sodom and Gomorrah, with the 
 
 rising of the prentices, and pulling down the bawdy houses 
 
 there upon Shrove-Tuesday."f " Ille beat downe the doore; 
 
 * Act v.. Scene iii. 
 
 t Jonson, Bartholomew Fair, Act V., Scene i. 
 
CELEBRATION OF THE CALENDAR 151 
 
 and put him in mind of a Shrove-Tuesday, the fatal day for 
 the doors to be broken open." * 
 
 The theatres were also subject to these appren- 
 tice attacks, a fact alluded to by Middleton in 
 The Inner Temple Masque. (11. 170-175.) 
 
 " Stand forth, Shrove-Tuesday, one a' the silenc'st 
 bricklayers: 
 'Tis in your charge to pull down bawdy-houses. 
 To set your tribe a-work, cause spoil in Shoreditch, 
 And make a dangerous leak there; deface Turnbull, 
 And tickle Cod-piece Row; ruin the Cockpit: 
 The poor players never thrived in't." 
 
 Shoreditch and Turnbull were noted haunts of 
 courtesans in London; Cod-piece Row, a name 
 probably manufactured for the occasion. The 
 Cockpit theatre was burned by the apprentices on 
 Shrove-Tuesday, 16l6. Dyce, in a note to this 
 passage, points out that in the word leak there is 
 an allusion to a bawdy house by Madam Leak, 
 and quotes the following from Dekker's OwVs Al- 
 manacs : " Shrove-Tuesday falls on that day on 
 which the prentices plucked down the Cockpit and 
 on which they did always use to rifle Madam 
 Leak's house at the upper end of Shoreditch." 
 
 Easter-tide, or the week following Easter, was 
 
 a period of such exuberant merry-making that the 
 
 people popularly imagined that their own mood 
 
 was shared by the heavenly bodies, and believed 
 
 * Dekker, Match me in London. 
 
152 THE ELIZABETHAN PEOPLE 
 
 that the sun actually danced with joy on the day 
 of the Resurrection. It was the common custom 
 to go out early upon Easter morning to watch the 
 sun rise ; and it is not improbable that, if the ob- 
 servers looked persistently at the new-risen lumi- 
 nary without wincing, they were often rewarded 
 with a sight of this phenomenon. 
 
 Another of the numerous customs connected 
 with this feast was most frequently practised in 
 the north. At Newcastle the Mayor, Aldermen, 
 and many burgesses used regularly at Easter and 
 Whitsuntide to visit the Forth, with the mace, 
 the sword, and the cap of maintenance tri- 
 umphantly borne before in procession. 
 
 The morris-dance, especially connected with 
 the May-day celebration, was also occasionally an 
 element in the Easter sports. The principal out- 
 door game, however, played upon this occasion 
 was hand-ball. It was played in all parts of the 
 kingdom by the youth of both sexes, and the dis- 
 tinctive prize at this season of the year was a 
 tansy cake. 
 
 When Mercutio asked Benvolio whether he did 
 " not fall out with a tailor for wearing his new 
 doublet before Easter," he referred to the popular 
 custom of wearing new clothes upon that day. 
 It was, in fact, as necessary to wear something 
 new on Easter in that time as it is to-day. Dyer 
 
CELEBRATION OF THE CALENDAR 153 
 
 tells us that it is still the custom for young folks 
 in East Yorkshire to go to the nearest market- 
 town on Easter Eve, where they buy some new 
 article of dress to wear on the morrow in order to 
 prevent the rooks from soiling their clothes dur- 
 ing the coming year; and he quotes from Poor 
 Robin's Almanac: — 
 
 "At Easter let your clothes be new. 
 Or else be sure you will it rue." 
 
 Egg-Saturday concluded the period of egg eat- 
 ing before Lent, and Easter began the resumption 
 of the use of this article of diet; hence eggs were 
 a principal feature of the Easter celebration. 
 Then as now it was the custom to colour the 
 Pasche eggs, as they were called, from the pass- 
 over. Such eggs were considered by the young 
 people in the light of fairings and were highly 
 esteemed. Egg-giving was so prevalent a custom 
 that it gave rise to the popular proverb : " I'll 
 warrant you for an egg at Easter." 
 
 May-day was one of the great periods of open- 
 air festivities. So anxiously did people look for- 
 ward to the day that, as Shakespeare says, thej' 
 could not sleep. 
 
 " Pray, sir, be patient; 'tis as much impossible . . . 
 Unless we sweep 'em from the door with cannons . . • 
 To scatter 'em, as 'tis to make 'em sleep 
 On a May morning." {Hemry VIII.) 
 
154 THE ELIZABETHAN PEOPLE 
 
 The day was ushered in by going a-maying, a 
 custom that is thus described in Stew's Survey of 
 London: " In the month of May, namely, on 
 May-day in the morning, every man, except im- 
 pediment, would walk into the sweete meaddowes 
 and green woods, there to rejoice their spirits, 
 with the beauty and savour of sweet flowers, 
 praysing God in their kind." 
 
 This sedate and simple enjoyment, however, 
 was not sufficient for most people. Stubbes, in 
 The Anatomy of Abuses, thus describes the more 
 usual form of maying : 
 
 " Against May-day every parish, town, or vil- 
 lage assemble themselves, both men, women, and 
 children ; and either all together, or dividing them- 
 selves into companies, they goe, some to the woods 
 and groves, some to the hills and mountains, some 
 to one place, some to another, where they spend 
 all the night in pleasant pastimes, and in the 
 morning they return bringing with them birche 
 boughs and branches of trees to deck their as- 
 semblies withal. But their chiefest jewel they 
 bring from thence is the maie-poale, which they 
 bring home with great veneration, as thus — they 
 have twentie or fortie yoake of oxen, every oxe 
 having a sweete nosegaie of flowers tied to the tip 
 of his horns, and these oxen draw home the maie- 
 poale, stinking idol rather, which they covered 
 
CELEBRATION OF THE CALENDAR 155 
 
 all over with flowers and hearbes, bound round 
 with strings from the top to the bottome, and 
 sometimes it was painted with variable colours, 
 having two or three hundred men, women, and 
 children following it with great devotion. And 
 thus equipped it was reared with handkerchiefs 
 and flags streaming on the top, they straw the 
 ground round about it, they bind green boughs 
 about it, they set up summer halles, bowers, and 
 arbours hard by it, and then fall they to banquet- 
 ting and feasting, to leaping and dancing about 
 it, as the heathen people did about their idols." 
 
 It was also a custom of the time to deck the 
 doors and porches with green sycamore and haw- 
 thorn boughs brought in with the May-pole. The 
 habit of painting the May-pole in spiral lines of 
 different bright colours, mentioned above, is also 
 alluded to in A Midsummer Night's Dream 
 where Hermia calls Helena a painted May- 
 pole. 
 
 But the sport par excellence connected with the 
 May-day revels was the morris-dance. " About 
 the commencement of the sixteenth century, or 
 somewhat sooner, probably towards the middle 
 of the fifteenth century, a very material addition 
 was made to the celebration of the rites of May- 
 day, by the introduction of Robin Hood and some 
 of his associates, This was done with a view to- 
 
166 THE ELIZABETHAN PEOPLE 
 
 wards the encouragement of archery, and the cus- 
 tom was continued even beyond the close of the 
 reign of James L It is true that the May-games 
 in their rudest form, the mere dance of lads and 
 lasses round a May-pole, or the simple morris 
 with the Lady of the May, were occasionally seen 
 during the reign of Elizabeth ; but the general ex- 
 hibition was the more complicated ceremony we 
 are about to describe." * To these characters 
 were soon added several others, till, at its highest 
 development under Elizabeth and James, the 
 dramatis personal of the morris-dance included 
 the following characters: Robin Hood, Maid 
 Marian, Friar Tuck, Little John, the Fool, Tom 
 the Piper, the Hobby-Horse, the Dragon, and 
 from two to ten morris-dancers, or the same num- 
 ber of Robin Hood's men, with the painted May- 
 pole in the centre. 
 
 Robin Hood was created King or Lord of the 
 May, and sometimes bore in his hand a painted 
 standard. His paramour. Maid Marian, sup- 
 planted the former Queen of the May. Her part, 
 in the days of Shakespeare, was usually taken by 
 a smooth-faced lad whose unbroken voice ren- 
 dered him capable of taking the part of a woman 
 effectively. This custom gave offence to the Puri- 
 tans, one of whom wrote in the following vy^ords: 
 * Drake, Vol I., p. 159, 
 
The Quintain. 
 (From Strutt's " Sports and Pastimes.") 
 
CELEBRATION OF THE CALENDAR 167 
 
 " The abuses which are committed in your May- 
 games are infinite. The first whereof is this, that 
 you do use to attyre in woman's apparrell whom 
 you doe most commonly call may-marrions, where- 
 by you infringe that straight commandment given 
 in Deut. xxii. 5, that men must not put on women's 
 apparrell for fear of enormities. Nay, I myself 
 have scene in a May-game a troupe, the greater 
 part whereof hath been men, and yet have they 
 been attyred so like unto women, that their faces 
 being hidde (as they were indeede) a man could 
 not discerne them from women. The second abuse, 
 which of all others is the greatest, is this, that it 
 hath been toulde that your morice dauncers have 
 danced naked in nets: what greater enticement 
 unto naughtiness could have been devised.'' The 
 third abuse is that you (because you will loose 
 no time) do use commonly to run into woods in 
 the night time, amongst maidens, to fet bowes, in 
 so much as I have hearde of tenne maidens which 
 went to fet May, and nine of them came home with 
 child." * 
 
 Friar Tuck was Robin Hood's chaplain. The 
 Fool, Tom the Piper, and the dancers were mainly 
 distinguished by their dress. Of the Hobby-horse 
 and the Dragon, Drake speaks as follows : " The 
 
 * Featherstone's Dialogue agaynst light, lewde, and lasci- 
 vious dancing, 1582. Quoted by Drake, Vol, I., p. 161. 
 
158 THE ELIZABETHAN PEOPLE 
 
 former was the resemblance of the head and tail 
 of a horse, manufactured in paste-board, and at- 
 tached to a person whose business it was, whilst 
 he seemed to ride gracefully on its back, to imi- 
 tate the prancings and curvettings of that noble 
 animal, whose supposed feet were concealed by a 
 foot-cloth reaching to the ground ; and the latter, 
 constructed of the same materials, was made to 
 hiss and vibrate his wings, and was frequently 
 attacked by the man on the hobby-horse, who then 
 personated the character of St. George." * 
 
 The skilful management of the hobby-horse 
 was a matter of great difficulty, and required 
 considerable preliminary practice. A character 
 who takes this part in Sampson's Vow Breaker is 
 angry with his rival the mayor. The former calls 
 out : " Let the mayor play the hobby-horse among 
 his brethren, an he will. I hope our town lads 
 cannot want a hobby-horse. Have I practiced 
 my reines, my careers, my pranckers, my ambles, 
 my false trotts, my smooth ambles and Canter- 
 bury paces, and shall master mayor put me be- 
 sides the hobby-horse ? Have I borrowed the fore 
 horse bells, his plumes and braveries, nay, had 
 his mane new shorne and frizzled, and shall the 
 mayor put me besides the hobby-horse? " So im- 
 portant was the hobby-horse considered that the 
 * Vol, I., p. 166. 
 
CELEBRATION OF THE CALENDAR 169 
 
 proverbial expression " The hobby-horse is for- 
 got " was equivalent to our Hamlet with Hamlet 
 left out." 
 
 The music of the morris-dance was furnished 
 either by the simple pipe, the pipe and tabor, or 
 the bagpipe. That the latter instrument was 
 rather preferred is implied in the words announc- 
 ing the arrival of Autolycus. " If you did but 
 hear the pedlar at the door, you would never 
 dance again after a tabor and pipe ; no, the bag- 
 pipe could not move you." One of Thomas 
 Weilkes' Madrigals, printed in 1600, has the fol- 
 lowing : — 
 
 " Harke, harke, I hear the dancing 
 And a nimble morris prancing; 
 The bagpipe and the morris bells, 
 That they are not farre hence us tells; 
 Come let us all go thither, 
 And dance like friends together." 
 
 The garments of the morris-dancers were 
 adorned with bells which were meant to be wrung 
 while dancing. They were fastened to the wrists, 
 the elbows, and the ankles. They were of different 
 sizes and tones and bore such names as the fore- 
 bell, the second bell, the treble, the tenor or great 
 bell, and double bells. The principal dancer was 
 always superbly dressed. " He wants no clothes, 
 for he hath a cloak laid on with gold lace, and an 
 
160 THE ELIZABETHAN PEOPLE 
 
 embroidered jerkin; and thus he is marching 
 thither like the forman of a morris." * 
 
 Again, in Act iv. of The Knight of the Burnmg 
 Pestle: "Let Ralph come out on May-day in 
 the morning, and speak upon a conduit, with all 
 his scarfs about him, and his feathers, and his 
 rings, and his knacks ; " and Ralph says in his 
 declamation : — 
 
 " And by the common council of my fellows in the Strand, 
 With gilded staflF and crossed scarf, the May-lord here I 
 stand. 
 
 The morris rings, while hobby-horse doth foot it faeteously: 
 The lords and ladies now abroad, for their disport and play. 
 Do kiss sometimes upon the grass and sometimes in the hay; 
 
 And lift aloft your velvet heads, and slipping off your 
 
 gown, 
 With bells on legs, and napkins clean unto your shoulders 
 
 tied. 
 With scarfs and garters as you please, and ' Hey for our 
 
 town ! ' cried. 
 
 Up, then, I say, both young and old, both men and maid 
 
 a-maying. 
 With drums and guns that bounce aloud and merry tabor 
 
 playing." 
 
 The most complete and accurate description of 
 the ancient morris-dance, though written in later 
 times, is from the pen of the antiquarian Strutt, 
 * The Blind Beggar of Bedml Green, Day, 
 
CELEBRATION OF THE CALENDAR 161 
 
 It is quoted here entire from his romance Queen- 
 hoo-Hall, vol. L, p. 13, etc. 
 
 " In front of the pavilion a large square was 
 stated out, and fenced with ropes, to prevent the 
 crowd from pressing upon the performers, and 
 interrupting the diversion; there were also two 
 bars at the bottom of the enclosure, through 
 which the actors might pass and repass, as oc- 
 casion required. 
 
 " Six young men first entered the square, 
 clothed in jerkins of leather, with axes upon their 
 shoulders like woodmen, and their heads bound 
 with large garlands of ivy leaves intertwined with 
 sprigs of hawthorn. Then followed, 
 
 " Six young maidens of the village, dressed in 
 blue kirtles, with garlands of primroses on their 
 heads, leading a fine sleek cow, decorated with rib- 
 bons of various colours, interspersed with flowers ; 
 and the horns of the animal were tipped with gold. 
 These were succeeded by 
 
 " Six foresters, equipped in green tunics, with 
 hoods and hosen of the same colour; each of 
 them carried a bugle-horn attached to a baldric 
 of silk, which he sounded as he passed the barrier. 
 After them came 
 
 " Peter Laneret, the baron's chief falconer, who 
 personified Robin Hood; he was attired in a 
 bright grass-green tunic, fringed with gold; and 
 
162 THE ELIZABETHAN PEOPLE 
 
 his hood and his hosen were parti-coloured, blue 
 and white ; he had a large garland of rose-buds on 
 his head, a bow bent in his hand, a sheaf of ar- 
 rows at his girdle, and a bugle-horn depending 
 from a baldric of light blue tarantine, embroid- 
 ered with silver; he had also a sword and a dag- 
 ger, the hilts of both being richly embossed with 
 gold. 
 
 " Fabian, a page, as Little John, walked at his 
 right hand; and Cecil Cellerman, the butler, as 
 Will Stukely, at his left. These, with ten others 
 of the jolly outlaw's attendants who followed, 
 were habited in green garments, bearing their 
 bows bent in their hands, and their arrows in their 
 girdles. Then came 
 
 " Two maidens, in orange coloured kirtles with 
 white courtpies (a short vest); strewing flowers; 
 followed immediately by 
 
 " The Maid Marian, elegantly habited in a 
 watchet-coloured tunic reaching to the ground; 
 over which she wore a white linen rochet with 
 loose sleeves, fringed with silver, and very neatly 
 plaited; her girdle was of silver baudekin, fas- 
 tened with a double bow on the left side ; her long 
 flaxen hair was divided into many ringlets, and 
 flowed upon her shoulders; the top part of her 
 head was covered with a rude net-work cawl of 
 gold, upon which was placed a garland of silver. 
 
CELEBRATION OF THE CALENDAR 163 
 
 ornamented with blue violets. She was sup- 
 ported by 
 
 " Two brides-maidens, in sky-coloured rochets 
 girt with crimson girdles, wearing garlands upon 
 their heads of blue and white violets. After them 
 came 
 
 " Four other females in green courtpies, and 
 garlands of violets and cowslips. Then 
 
 " Sampson the smith, as Friar Tuck, carrying 
 a huge quarter-stafF upon his shoulder ; and Mor- 
 ris the mole-taker, who represented Much the mil- 
 ler's son, having a long pole with an inflated blad- 
 der attached to one end. * And after them 
 
 " The May-pole, drawn by eight fine oxen, 
 decorated with scarfs, ribbons, and flowers of 
 divers colours; and the tips of their horns were 
 embellished with gold. The rear was closed 
 
 by 
 
 " The Hobby-horse and the Dragon. 
 *'When the May-pole was drawn into the 
 square, the foresters sounded their horns, and the 
 populace expressed their pleasure by shouting 
 incessantly until it reached the place assigned 
 for its elevation: • . . and during the time 
 the ground was preparing for its reception, the 
 barriers of the bottom of the enclosure were 
 opened for the villagers to approach, and adorn 
 * The mcle-taker replaces the fool. 
 
164 THE ELIZABETHAN PEOPLE 
 
 it with ribbons, garlands, and flowers, as their in- 
 clination prompted them. 
 
 " The pole being sufficiently onerated with 
 finery, the square was cleared from such as had 
 no part to perform in the pageant; and then it 
 was elevated amidst the reiterated acclamations 
 of the spectators. The woodmen and the milk- 
 maidens danced around it according to the rustic 
 fashion ; the measure was played by Peretto Chev- 
 eritte, the baron's chief ministrel, on the bag- 
 pipes accompanied with the pipe and tabour, per- 
 formed by one of his associates. When the dance 
 was finished, Gregory the jester, who undertook 
 to play the Hohhy-horse, came forward with his 
 appropriate equipment, and, frisking up and 
 down the square without restriction, imitated the 
 galloping, curvetting, ambling, trotting, and 
 other paces of the horse, to the infinite satisfac- 
 tion of the lower classes of the spectators. He 
 was followed by Peter Parker, the baron's ranger, 
 who personated a dragon, hissing, yelling, and 
 shaking his wings with wonderful ingenuity; and 
 to complete the mirth, Morris, in the character of 
 Much, having small bells attached to his kneees 
 and elbows, capered here and there between the 
 two monsters in the form of a dance ; and as often 
 as he came near to the sides of the enclosure, he 
 cast slyly a handful of meal into the faces of the 
 
CELEBRATION OF THE CALENDAR 165 
 
 gaping rustics, or rapped them about the heads 
 with the bladder tied to the end of his pole. . In 
 the meantime, Sampson, representing Friar Tuck, 
 walked with much gravity around the square, and 
 occasionally let fall his heavy staff upon the toes 
 of such of the crowd as he thought were approach- 
 ing more forward than they ought to do; and if 
 the sufferers cried out from the sense of pain, he 
 addressed them in a solemn tone of voice, advis- 
 ing them to count their beads, say a paternoster 
 or two, and to beware of purgatory. These va- 
 garies were highly palatable to the populace, who 
 announced their delight by repeated plaudits and 
 loud bursts of laughter ; for this reason they were 
 continued for a considerable length of time; but 
 Gregory, beginning at last to faulter in his paces, 
 ordered the dragon to fall back ; the well-nurtured 
 beast, being out of breath, readily obeyed, and 
 their two companions followed their example; 
 which concluded this part of the pastime. 
 
 " Then the archers set up a target at the lower 
 end of the Green, and made trial of their skill in a 
 regular succession. . . . Robin was there- 
 fore adjudged the conquerer; and the prize of 
 honour, a garland of laurel embellished with varie- 
 gated ribbons, was put upon his head; and to 
 Stukely was given a garland of ivy, because he 
 was the second best performer in that contest. 
 
166 THE ELIZABETHAN PEOPLE 
 
 " The pageant was finished with the archery ; 
 and the procession began to move away, to make 
 room for the villagers, who afterwards assembled 
 in the square, and amused themselves by dancing 
 round the May-pole in promiscuous companies, 
 according to the ancient custom." 
 
 Of all the year no period was looked forward 
 to with an interest like that inspired by the ap- 
 proach of Christmas and the following days. The 
 principal characteristic of the Yule-tide sports 
 was general hospitality and the closely related un- 
 binding of social ties. It was the one time of the 
 year when there was practically no distinction of 
 class, when lord, lady, and rustic met in the same 
 hall, played the same games, and romped without 
 stint as if they were social equals. The proper 
 period for the Yule-tide sports was from Christ- 
 mas Eve to Twelfth Day; but, especially among 
 the lower classes, this period was extended in both 
 directions. It was customary during this period 
 to decorate the halls, houses, etc., with bay, laurel, 
 ivy, and holly leaves, decorations which were kept 
 in place to the end of the period of celebration. 
 An allusion in Stow's Survey of London to this 
 habit contains also an allusion to the extension of 
 the period of celebration by the common people. 
 " Against the feast of Christmas," he says, " every 
 man's house, as also their parish churches, were 
 
CELEBRATION OF THE CALENDAR 167 
 
 decked with holm, ivy, bays, and whatsoever the 
 season of the year afforded to be green. The 
 conduits and the standards in the streets were 
 likewise garnished. Amongst which I read, that 
 in the year 1444, by tempest of thunder and light- 
 ning, on the first of February at night, Paul's 
 steeple was fired, but with great labour quenched, 
 and towards the morning of Candlemas day, at 
 the Leadenhall in Comhill, a standard of tree, 
 being set up in the pavement fast in the ground, 
 nailed full of holm and ivy, for disport of Christ- 
 mas to the people, etc." 
 
 On Christmas Eve the people were wont to light 
 candles, called Christmas candles, of prodigious 
 size, and to stir the fire till it burned with un- 
 common brightness. In the midst of this extra il- 
 lumination the yule-log was brought in. It was 
 the special duty of the household carpenter to 
 provide the Christmas block which was the mas- 
 sive root or trunk of a tree capable of remaining 
 a part of the fire for a number of days. It was 
 brought into the centre of the hall on Christmas 
 eve amid great rejoicing, and, while still there, 
 each member of the household would come for- 
 ward, seat himself or herself upon it and sing a 
 Yule-song and drink to a merry Christmas and a 
 happy New Year. It was then rolled amid a 
 great tumult to the fire-place and, when properly 
 
168 THE ELIZABETHAN PEOPLE 
 
 set up and the material arranged about it for 
 fire, the yule-log was actually ignited by the brand 
 that had been expressively saved for the purpose 
 from last year's Christmas fire. The whole house- 
 hold, including family, friends, and domestics then 
 feasted to a late hour upon Yule-dough, Yule- 
 cakes, and bowls of frumity, with much music and 
 singing. 
 
 In Roman Catholic times special arrangements 
 were made whereby the poorer people found it 
 easy to collect money by begging, which was to be 
 applied to the purchase of masses for the forgive- 
 ness of the excesses to which they went during 
 the Christmas revels. In the time of Shakespeare 
 this custom was still in vogue in the form of carols 
 sung early on Christmas morning especially, as 
 a regular custom, but also carols or songs of a 
 more secular nature that were sung at all times 
 during Yule-tide, with a collection to follow. This 
 custom was frequently followed or accompanied 
 by mumming where a number of persons went 
 about together, from hall to hall, hoping for en- 
 tertainment and gratuitous remuneration. 
 
 The dinner upon Christmas day was served with 
 especial sumptuousness, with great attention paid 
 to the " dishes for show," as Markham calls them, 
 namely, fancy dishes representing objects, got up 
 with great elaboration, but not meant to be eaten. 
 
CELEBRATION OF THE CALENDAR 169 
 
 Not exactly conforming to the latter requirement, 
 however, was the peacock pie, in which the cock 
 was cooked whole, with the head projecting 
 "through the crust. The head of the cock would be 
 beautifully decorated at the serving, and the bill 
 gilded; and the tail set up in aU its extended 
 grandeur of coloured beauty. Though the follow- 
 ing description of a Christmas dinner is from 
 Nichols's accounts of the court, it is not more 
 elaborate than that of many of the noblemen of 
 the court, and differs but little from the celebra- 
 tion of even less wealthy people : 
 
 " On Christmas day, service in the church be- 
 ing ended, the gentlemen presently repair into 
 the hall to breakfast, with brawn, mustard, and 
 malmsey. 
 
 "At dinner, the butler appointed for the 
 Christmas is to see the tables covered and fur- 
 nished : and the ordinary butlers of the house are 
 decently to set bread, napkins, and trenchers, in 
 good form, at every table ; with spoons and knives. 
 At the first course is served a fair and large 
 boar's head, on a silver platter, with minstralsye. 
 
 " Two * servants ' are to attend at supper, and 
 to bear two fair torches of wax, next before the 
 musicians and trumpeters, and stand above the 
 fire with the music, till the first course be served 
 in through the hall. Which performed, they, with 
 
170 THE ELIZABETHAN PEOPLE 
 
 the music, are to return to the buttery. The 
 like course is to be observed in all things during 
 the time of Christmas. 
 
 " At night, after supper, are revels and danc- 
 ing, during the twelve days of Christmas. The 
 Master of the Revels is, after dinner and supper, 
 to sing a caroU or song; and command other gen- 
 tlemen then there present to sing with him and 
 the company; and so it is very decently per- 
 formed." 
 
 In Middleton's Father Hubbard's Tales a num- 
 ber of distinctively Christmas sports are alluded 
 to, among which are carols, wassail bowls, the 
 dancing of Bellinger's Round, Shoeing the Mare, 
 Hoodman Blind, Hot-Cockles, and playing the 
 King and Queen at Twelfth Night. Bellinger's 
 Round, or The Beginning of the World as it was 
 also called, is alluded to in Heywood's The Fair 
 Maid of the West. " I am so tired with dancing 
 with these same black shee chimney sweepers, that 
 I can scarce set the best leg forward, they have 
 so tir'd me with their mariscoes, and I have so 
 tickled them with our country dances. Bel- 
 linger's Round, and Tom Tiler: we have so fid- 
 dled it." 
 
 Hoodman Blind is our Blind Man's Buff, and 
 Hot-Cockles is a game still played under various 
 names. One player was blind-folded and the 
 
CELEBRATION OF THE CALENDAR 171 
 
 others struck him, he trying to guess who had 
 dealt the blow. Shoe the Mare was another bois- 
 terous Christmas sport. " One of the players 
 was chosen to be the wild mare, and the others 
 chased him about the room with the object of 
 shoeing him." (BuUen.) 
 
 The Lord of Misrule or Abbot of Unreason is 
 familiar to all readers of Sir Walter Scott. Of 
 this personage, who figured, but with less impor- 
 tance, in the rites of Whitsuntide, was one of the 
 most important officers of the Christmas celebra- 
 tion. " In the feast of Christmas," says Stow, 
 " there was in the King's house wheresoever he 
 lodged, a Lord of Misrule, or Master of merry 
 desports, and the like had ye in the house of 
 every nobleman of honour, or good worship, were 
 he spiritual or temporal. Amongst the which, the 
 Mayor of London and either of the Sheriffs had 
 their several Lords of Misrule, ever contending 
 without quarrel or offence, who should make the 
 rarest pastimes to delight the beholders. These 
 lords, beginning their rule on Alhallow Eve, con- 
 tinue the same till the morrow after the feast of 
 the Purification, commonly called Candlemas 
 Day. In which space there was fine and subtle dis- 
 guisings, masques and mummeries, with playing 
 at cards for counters, nayles and points, in every 
 house, more for pastime than for gain." And 
 
172 THE ELIZABETHAN PEOPLE 
 
 Stubbes, in The Anatomy of Abuses, prints the 
 following tirade: 
 
 " First, all the wilde heads of the parish, flock- 
 ing together, chuse them a graunde captain (of 
 mischief) whom they inroUe with the title of my 
 Lord of misrule, and him they crown with great 
 solemnities, and adopt for their king. This king 
 annoynted, chooseth forth twentie, fourtie, three- 
 score, or a hundred lustie guttes like to himselfe 
 to wait upon his lordly majesty, and to guarde 
 his noble person. . . . Thus all things set in 
 order, then have they their hobby-horses, their 
 dragons and other antiques, together with their 
 baudie pipers, and thundering drummers, to strike 
 up the Devils Daunce withall: then march this 
 heathen company towards the church and church- 
 yarde, their pypers pypyng, their drummers 
 thundering, their stumps dauncing, their bells 
 jyngling, their handkerchiefs fluttering about 
 their heads like madmen, their hobby-horses and 
 other monsters skirmishing amongst the throng : 
 and in this sorte they goe to the church like devils 
 incarnate, with such a confused noise, that no man 
 can heare his own voyce. Then the foolish people 
 they looke, they stare, they laugh, they fleere, and 
 mount upon formes and pewes, to see these goodly 
 pagants solemnised in this sort. Then, after this 
 about the church they goe agine and agine, and 
 
CELEBRATION OP THE CALENDAR 173 
 
 so foorth into the church yard, where they have 
 commonly their summer haules, their bowers and 
 arbours, and banquetting houses set up, wherein 
 they feast, banquet, and daunce all that day, and 
 (peradventure) all that night too." This de- 
 scription, though it applies to the summer elec- 
 tion of the Lord of Misrule, differs from the 
 Christmas celebration only in the out-of-door ele- 
 ment. 
 
 None was more familiar with the ancient cus- 
 toms of England and Scotland than Sir Walter 
 Scott. The following from the introduction to the 
 sixth canto of Marmion may well close this note 
 on the celebration of the calendar : 
 
 " And well our Christian sires of old 
 Loved when the year its course had roU'd, 
 And brought blithe Christmas back again, 
 With all his hospitable train. 
 Domestic and religious rite 
 Gave honour to the holy night; 
 On Christmas-eve the bells were rung; 
 On Christmas-eve the mass was sung: 
 That only night in all the year, 
 Saw the stoled priest the chalice rear. 
 The damsel donn'd her kirtle sheen; 
 The hall was dress'd with holly green; 
 Forth to the wood did merry-men go. 
 To gather in the mistletoe. 
 Then open'd wide the Baron's hall 
 To vassal, tenant, serf, and all; 
 Power laid his rod of rule aside. 
 And Ceremony dofPd his pride. 
 
174 THE ELIZABETHAN PEOPLE 
 
 The heir, with roses in his shoes. 
 That night might village partner choose; 
 The lord, underogating, share 
 The vulgar game of "post and pair." 
 All hail'd, with uncontroll'd delight. 
 And general voice, the happy night. 
 That to the cottage, as the crown. 
 Brought tidings of salvation down. 
 
 Hi' 
 
 The fire, with well-dried logs supplied. 
 Went roaring up the chimney wide; 
 The huge hall-table's oakeiij^face, 
 Scrubb'd till it shone, the day to grace. 
 Bore then upon its massive board 
 No mark to part the squire and lord. 
 Then was brought in the lusty brawn. 
 By old blue-cogted serving-man; 
 Then the grim boar's head frown'd on high. 
 Crested with bays and rosemary. 
 Well can the green-garb'd ranger tell. 
 How, when, and where, the monster fell; 
 What dogs before his death he tore. 
 And all the baiting of the boar_ 
 The wassel round, in good brown bowls, 
 Garnish'd with ribbons, blithely trowls. 
 There the huge sirloin reek'd; hard by 
 Plum-porridge stood, and Christmas pie; 
 Nor fail'd old Scotland to produce. 
 At such high-tide, her savoury goose. 
 Then came the merry maskers in. 
 And carols roar'd with blithesome din? 
 If unmelodious was the song, 
 It was a hearty note, and strong. 
 
CELEBRATION OF THE CALENDAR 175 
 
 Who lists may in their mumming see 
 
 Traces of ancient mystery; 
 
 White shirts supplied the masquerade. 
 
 And smutted cheeks the visors made; 
 
 But, O! what maskers, richly dight. 
 
 Can boast of bosoms half so light ! 
 
 England was merry England, when 
 
 Old Christmas brought his sports again. " 
 
 'Twas Christmas broach'd the mightiest ale; 
 
 Twas Christmas told the merriest tale; 
 
 A Christmas gambol oft could cheer 
 
 The poor man's heart through half the year." 
 
CHAPTER VII 
 
 OUT-OF-DOOR SPORTS 
 
 THE Elizabethans were such fun-loving people 
 that it is useless to attempt here to cata- 
 logue their amusements, either indoor or out. In 
 the following chapter and the next a brief descrip- 
 tion is given of those sports that were the 
 most, popular and therefore most typical of the" 
 time; 
 
 Ale was the staple drink of our ancestors of 
 this period and ales one of their staple amuse- 
 ments. An ale was nothing more nor less than a 
 fair at which practically nothing of importance 
 was sold except ale. There were many of them. 
 Some took their names from the dates on which 
 they were given as the Whitsun Ale; some were 
 named from the place at which they were given, 
 and might occur at any time, as the Church Ale. 
 The Leet Ale was rather a dinner than an ale, 
 given upon the occasion of the courtleet of a 
 manor. The Bride Ale is mentioned elsewhere. 
 The Clerk Ale owes its name to its purpose, 
 namely, that of a benefit for the clerk. Of all 
 these, the first two are the most important. 
 
 m 
 
OUT-OF-DOOR SPORTS 177 
 
 The Church Ale was a festival instituted some- 
 times in memory of the patron saint of the church 
 at which it was given, but more frequently for the 
 purpos#-of raising funds for the support of the 
 church, for its decoration or repair. Every one 
 was expected to go and to buy his share of ale. 
 The enthusiasm that followed often led persons to 
 contribute far more heavily to the good cause 
 than they would have done had they stayed away 
 and remained sober. 
 
 It was not an uncommon thing to have as many 
 as six or eight of these ales annually. Drake 
 quotes the following from a paper in Dodsworth's 
 MSS. in the Bodleian Library: "The pa- 
 rishioners of Elveston and Okebrook, in Derby- 
 shire, agree jointly, to brew four Ales, and every 
 Ale of one quarter of malt, betwixt this (the time 
 of the contract) and the feast of St. John Bap- 
 tist next coming. And every inhabitant of the 
 said town of Okebrook shall be at the several 
 Ales. And every husband and his wife shall pay 
 two pence, and every cottager one penny, and 
 all the inhabitants of Elveston shall have and re- 
 ceive all the profits and advantages coming of the 
 said Ales, to the use and behoof of the said church 
 of Elveston. And the inhabitants of Elveston 
 shall brew eight Ales betwixt this and the feast of 
 St. John Baptist, at the which Ales the inhabi- 
 
178 THE ELIZABETHAN PEOPLE 
 
 tants of Okebrook shall come and pay as before 
 rehearsed. And if he be away at one Ale, to pay 
 at the toder Ale for both, &c." * 
 
 Though this document is dated before the Ref- 
 ormation, times had not changed materially in 
 this respect by 1602 when Carew first published 
 his Survey of Cornwall. In it he says : " For the 
 church-ale, two men of the parish are chosen by 
 their best foregoers, to be wardens ; who, dividing 
 the task, make collection among the parishioners, 
 of whatsoever provision it pleaseth them volun- 
 tarily to bestow. This they employ in brewing, 
 baking, and other acates, against Whitsuntide; 
 upon which holy-dayes the neighbours meej at the 
 church-house, and there merily feed on th«r owne 
 victuals, contributing some petty portion to the 
 stock; which, by many smalls, groweth to a 
 meetely greatness : for there is entertayned a kinde 
 of emulation betweene these wardens, who by his 
 graciousness in gathering, and tgot>d husbandry 
 in expending, can best advance the churches pro- 
 fit. Besides the neighbour parishes at those times 
 lovingly visit one another, and this way frankely 
 spend their money together. The afternoons 
 are consumed in such exercises as olde and yong 
 folke (having leysure) doe accustomably weare 
 out time withall." Stubbes, in the Anatomy of 
 * "V^ol. I., p. 177. 
 
OUT-OF-DOOR SPORTS 179 
 
 Abuses, 1595, declares that " in certaine townes, 
 where drunken Bacchus bears swaie against 
 Christmas and Easter, Whitsunday, or some 
 other time, the church-wardens, for so they calle 
 them, in every parish, with the consent of the 
 whole parish, provide half a score or twentie 
 quarters of mault, whereof some they buy of the 
 church stocke, and some is given to them of the 
 parishioners themselves, everyone conferring 
 somewhat, according to his ability; which mault 
 being made into very strong ale, or beer, is set to 
 sale, either in the church or in some other place 
 assigned to that purpose. Then, when this nip- 
 pitatum, this huflFe-cappe, as they call it, this 
 nectar of life. Is set abroach, well is he that can 
 get the soonest to it, and spends the most at it, 
 for he is counted the goodliest man of all the rest, 
 and most in God's favour, because it is spent upon 
 his church forsooth." 
 
 " The church wardens shall not suffer any 
 pedlar, or others whatsoever, to set out any wares 
 to sale, either in the porches of churches, or in 
 the churchyard, nor anywhere else on holy 
 days or Sundays, while any part of divine 
 service is in doing or while any service is in 
 preaching." * 
 
 * Bishop Grindel's Injunction to the laaty at York. 
 1571-2. 
 
180 THE ELIZABETHAN PEOPLE 
 
 " Church or parish ales, revels, may games, 
 plays and such other unlawful assemblies of the 
 people of sundry parishes into one parish on the 
 Sabbath Day and other times, is a special cause 
 that many disorders, contempts of law, and other 
 enormities are there perpetrated and committed 
 to the great profanation of the Lord's Sabbath, 
 the dishonour of Almighty God, the increase of 
 bastardy and of dissolute life, and of many other 
 mischiefs and inconveniences of the common- 
 wealth." * 
 
 " In January, 1599, the justices took a long 
 step further, and having discovered that many 
 inconveniences * which with modesty cannot be 
 expressed ' had happened in consequence of these 
 gatherings, they ordered that parish ales, church 
 ales, and revels should thenceforth be utterly sup- 
 pressed. . . . An order of Easter, 1607, de- 
 clares that church ales, parish ales, sextons' ales, 
 and all revels are utterly to be suppressed. Yet 
 we find so late as 1622 that war against them 
 was still being carried on." f 
 
 Ballad singing in the streets was a common 
 custom, as was the frequent hawking about from 
 place to place of new ballads upon contemporary 
 events. These sheets, which usually sold for a 
 
 * Order of Justice, July, 1695. 
 
 f Quarter Sessions, Elizabeth to Anne. 
 
£ o 
 
 M 
 
OUT-OF-DOOR SPORTS 181 
 
 penny and often contained a clumsy wood-cut at 
 bhe top, were not the old English and Scottish 
 ballads of good poetical repute, but, rather, 
 irerses of very mediocre quality that related for the 
 most part, as has been said, to contemporary 
 events of public and private interest. In fact, the 
 ballads and short pamphlets of the day which 
 i^ere hawked about the streets in the same manner 
 as the penny ballads, supplied in a measure the 
 place of such publications as The Spectator of a 
 later date and the newspapers of to-day. There 
 w&s, for instance, a complete catalogue of the 
 Marian Martyrs written in verse and peddled 
 all over the kingdom by the ballad-mongers. The 
 following examples serve to show how the ballads 
 served the people with an account of current 
 jvents in the capital. A picturesque presentation 
 jf the ballad-monger is to be found in the person 
 jf Autolycus of The Winter's Tale. On August 
 5, 1597, immediately after the appearance of 
 Romeo and Juliet, a ballad on the story was en- 
 tered in the Stationer's Register, and on August 
 27, T. Millington was fined for printing ballads 
 jn The Taming of the Shrew and on Macbeth. 
 :Fleay.) 
 
 The following selection from an old ballad on 
 ;he execution of a noted wizard in 1597 serves 
 ;o show the character of these productions : 
 
182 THE ELIZABETHAN PEOPLE 
 
 "Of late in Southwarke there was known 
 Example of the same 
 When God's owne judgement fell upon 
 Simon Pembroke by name. 
 He was a noted conjurer 
 Lived neare unto the Clinke; 
 He was so famous in that place 
 To him did folks resorte — 
 Within the church the court was held, 
 St. Saviour's near the bridge," etc. 
 
 A naive use to which the pictures at the top of 
 the ballads were put is thus alluded to by Jonson 
 in Bartholomew Fair. " O, sister, do you remem- 
 ber the ballads over the nursery chimney at home 
 o' my pasting up? " 
 
 Ball games were played in great number and 
 variety. Balloon ball, in its more commonly used 
 variety, was played with a large ball, perhaps a 
 bladder or foot-ball, but pushed about from place 
 to place, either with the hands or with a sort of 
 short wooden paddle. It is thus described by 
 Strutt : " The balloon or wind-ball resembled the 
 foUis of the Romans ; it was a large ball made of 
 double leather, which being filled with wind by 
 means of a ventil, was driven to and fro by the 
 strength of men's arms; for this purpose every 
 one of the players had a round hollow bracer of 
 YfooA to cover the hand and lower part of the 
 arm, with which he struck the ball. The pastime 
 
OUT-OF-DOOR SPORTS 183 
 
 was usually practiced in the open fields, and is 
 much commended for the healthiness of the ex- 
 ercise it afforded." It is of frequent mention in 
 the Elizabethan plays, and is doubtless some- 
 times confused with foot-ball. (Cf. Middleton's 
 Game of Chess, ii. 2 ; Ford's Lover's Melancholie, 
 ii. 1; Eastward Ho, i. 1.) 
 
 The quotation above from King James's ultima- 
 tum in regard to sports rules foot-ball out be- 
 cause of its cruel nature, an objection that has 
 not yet quite disappeared. The ancient game, 
 however, was altogether different from the mod- 
 ern game played under the same name. It was 
 then played without system, and because of the 
 unequal numbers that frequently engaged upon 
 opposite sides, there was far more opportunity 
 for rough playing and accidents. The old way of 
 playing the game is sufficiently described in the 
 following paragraph from Strutt : " When a 
 match at foot-ball is made, two parties, each 
 containing an equal number of competitors, take 
 the field and stand between two goals, placed at 
 a distance of eighty or a hundred yards the one 
 from the other ; the ball, which is commonly made 
 from a blown bladder, and cased with leather, is 
 delivered in the midst of the ground, and the ob- 
 ject of each party is to drive it through the goal 
 of their antagonists, which being achieved the 
 
184 THE ELIZABETHAN PEOPLE 
 
 game is won. The abilities of the players are 
 best displayed in defending and attacking the 
 goals; when the exercise becomes exceeding vio- 
 lent, the players kick each other's shins without 
 the least ceremony, and some of them are over- 
 thrown at the hazard of their limbs." It is in the 
 last sentence that Strutt gives the key to the dif- 
 ference between the Elizabethan game and our 
 own. The game was often played with no atten- 
 tion to system or rule of play. In fact, the open 
 street was often a common foot-ball ground, a 
 mark taking the place of a regular goal. We 
 also hear that it was a popular sport of the Lon- 
 doners and was played in the courtyard of the 
 Royal Exchange. It was a winter as well as 
 a summer sport, and is mentioned as one of 
 the games played upon the frozen Thames in 
 1608. 
 
 Stow-ball and Bandy-ball are both names for 
 the game of golf which was played in Elizabethan 
 times. Hand-ball was the great ball game to be 
 played at Easter; a variety of which was called 
 hand-tennis, which was also sometimes played 
 under the name of fives. Tennis was a very popu- 
 lar game. It was played either out of doors, or 
 indoors under the name of racquet. Tennis or 
 racquet was a game for noblemen and princes as 
 
OUT-OF-DOOR SPORTS 185 
 
 well as for the common people. The contem- 
 porary plays are redundant with technical allu- 
 sions to the games; perhaps nothing so well 
 illustrates the popular familiarity with its 
 play and rules as the numerous allusions to 
 its technical details to be- found in Middle- 
 ton's play. The World Lost at Tennis. Many 
 references show that the indoor game of 
 racquet was most fashionably played in the 
 forenoon. 
 
 Trap-stick, trap-ball, and Northern-spell were 
 names given to a familiar game in which the ball 
 was struck out of a sort of trap by means of a 
 small paddle, and batted before reaching the 
 ground. In some respects, it resembled the mod- 
 ern cat-stick. 
 
 Barley-break was a rural sport of great popu- 
 larity, whose other and better known name was 
 The Last Couple in Hell. It is thus described 
 by Gifford : " It was played by six people (three 
 of each sex) who were coupled by lot. A piece 
 of ground was then chosen, and divided into three 
 compartments, of which the middle one was called 
 hell. It was the object of the couple condemned 
 to this division to catch the others, who advanced 
 from the two extremities ; in which case a change 
 of situ«ition took place, and hell was filled by the 
 
186 THE ELIZABETHAN PEOPLE 
 
 couple who were excluded by preoccupation from 
 the other places ; in this ' catching,' however, 
 there was some difficulty, as, by the regulations 
 of the game, the middle couple were not to sepa- 
 rate before they had succeeded, while the others 
 might break hands whenever they found them- 
 selves hard pressed. When all had been taken in 
 turn, the last couple were said to be in hell, and 
 the game ended." 
 
 This sport affords the key to so many allusions 
 in the old plays that it is worth while to insert a 
 description of the Scottish form of the game, 
 which was called Barla-breikes : " This innocent 
 sport seems to be entirely forgotten in the south 
 of Scotland. It is also falling into disuetude in 
 the north. ... A game generally played 
 by the young people in a corn yard. Hence 
 called baria-bracks, about the stacks. One stack 
 is fixed on as a dule or goal; and one person is 
 appointed to catch the rest of the company, who 
 run out from the dule. He does not leave it till 
 they are all out of his sight. Then he sets out to 
 catch them. Any one who is taken cannot run 
 out again with his former associates, being ac- 
 counted a prisoner ; but he is obliged to assist his 
 captor in pursuing the rest. When all are taken 
 the game is finished ; and he who is first taken is 
 bound to act as catcher in the next game," 
 
OUT-OF-DOOR SPORTS 187 
 
 (Quoted from Dr. Jamieson by Nares.) The re- 
 semblance of this game to the modern " I Spy ! " 
 is evident. 
 
 Base was a rustic game also known by the name 
 of Prison Base and Prison Bars, and gave rise to 
 the common expression meaning to challenge, 
 namely, bidding a base. It was played as follows : 
 " The performance of this pastime requires two 
 parties of equal number, each of them having a 
 base or home to themselves, at a distance of about 
 twenty yards. The players then on either side, 
 taking hold of hands, extend themselves in length, 
 and opposite to each other, as far as they con- 
 veniently can, always remembering that one of 
 them must touch the base. When any one of 
 them quits the hand of his fellow and runs into 
 the field, which is called giving the chase, he is 
 immediately followed by one of his opponents. He 
 is again followed by another from the former side, 
 and he by a second opponent, and so on alter- 
 nately until as many are out as choose to run, 
 everyone pursuing the man he first followed, and 
 no other; and if he overtake him near enough 
 to touch him, his party claims one towards the 
 game, and both return home. Then they run 
 forth again and again in like manner till the num- 
 ber is completed that decides the victory. This 
 
188 THE ELIZABETHAN PEOPLE 
 
 number is optional and rarely exceeds twenty." 
 (Strutt.) 
 
 The game of bowls was one of the commonest 
 sports for gentlemen. It will be remembered 
 that Drake, Hawkins, and other famous sea-cap- 
 tains were interrupted in a game of bowls upon the 
 Hoe at Plymouth (a game that the sturdy and 
 unruffled Drake wanted to play out), by the news 
 that the Spanish Armada had been sighted in 
 the Channel. In the country, or wherever space 
 was sufficient, the game was played upon a close- 
 cut turf called a green, hence the contemptuous 
 term, green-men. An equally common variation 
 of the game was like the modern nine-pins, and 
 was played in alleys. The bowling alley was a 
 common adjunct to the great house. The erec- 
 tion of such a place of amusement was one of the 
 first tasks undertaken by Henry VIII. when he 
 took possession of Whitehall. Stow is loud in his 
 lamentations over the numerous public bowling 
 alleys that took up men's time and " pestered " 
 certain districts of London to the exclusion of 
 more reputable buildings. There is not room 
 here to describe the numerous terms that crept 
 into the common speech from the game of bowls. 
 One, however, is so frequently met with in Shake- 
 speare as to warrant insertion. The bowl was 
 
OUT-OF-DOOR SPORTS 189 
 
 not always aimed directly at the Jack, or Mis- 
 tress, but bowled so as to roll in a curve and ap- 
 proach from the side. In order to accomplish 
 this irregular path with facility the bowl was 
 weighted upon one side with a piece of lead called 
 the bias. The name was also applied to the path 
 traversed by the ball; hence the name came to 
 denote any inclination out of the ordinary; and 
 " against the tias " a figurative expression for 
 any opposition to a steady tendency. 
 
 The Cotswold games consisted of a great an- 
 nual celebration attended by people from all 
 parts of the country. Cotswold, says Madden, 
 " was then to coursing what Newmarket is to 
 horse-racing, and St. Andrews to golf; the recog- 
 nised home and centre of the sport." (For fur- 
 ther details of this great celebration which in- 
 cluded the practice of almost every kind of sea- 
 sonable game, the reader is referred to Mr. Mad- 
 den's volume, and to Vol. I. of Drake, p. 252-4.)' 
 
 It is necessary to hurry over with a bare al- 
 lusion a number of sports of great popular de- 
 votion. All public demonstrations were accom- 
 panied by displays of fireworks. Crackers, much 
 like the modern plaything sold under the same 
 name, are often mentioned in the old plays. 
 
190 THE ELIZABETHAN PEOPLE 
 
 " There's first crackers, which run into the air, 
 and when they are at the top . . . keep a 
 crackling and a crackling and then break and 
 down they come." (Marston's Fawn, i. 2.) 
 Squibs was another name applied to one of the 
 varieties of crackers, often called squib-crackers. 
 " So squibs and crackers fly into the air, Then, 
 only breaking with a noise, they vanish In stench 
 and smoke." (Ford's The Broken Heart, ii. 2.) 
 " Squibs that run upon lynes," are mentioned 
 in Northward Ho. Coloured fires were of fre- 
 quent use, and the discharge of all sorts of noise- 
 producing weapons in the midst of such displays 
 was common. (Cf. the numerous descriptions of 
 public demonstrations in Nichols' Progresses of 
 Queen Elizabeth.) 
 
 The tales with which Othello beguiled Des- 
 demona are a good illustration of a fondness of 
 the Elizabethans that is to a large degree still a 
 characteristic of the English nation, perhaps, 
 however, not to so great extent as formerly: 
 namely, the love of monstrosities. These tales of 
 Othello are a fair example of a kind of tale often 
 told by returning travelers apparently in perfect 
 faith. The opening chapter of Kingsley's West- 
 ward Ho! contains similar tales, and this, as has 
 been elsewhere pointed out, is an almost literal 
 
OUT-OF-DOOR SPORTS 191 
 
 transcript of a contemporary pamphlet. Ben 
 Jonson in Bartholomew Fair (iii. 1.) ridicules this 
 love of his countrymen for monstrous objects. 
 " You said, let's go to Ursula's, indeed ; but then 
 you met the man with the monsters, and I could 
 not get you from him. An old fool, not leave see- 
 ing yet ! " And every one recalls the line from 
 the Tempest. " Were I in England now, as once 
 I was, and had but this fish painted, not a holiday 
 fool there but would give a piece of silver: there 
 would this monster make a man : when they will 
 not give a doit to relieve a lame beggar, they will 
 lay out ten to see a dead Indian. Legged like a 
 man ! and his fins like arms ! " 
 
 Many amusing anecdotes about monsters are 
 contained in Madden, and innumerable allusions 
 are contained in the old plays. One especially 
 popular kind of monster was the trained animal, 
 which was then looked upon much more in the 
 light of a monster than at present. Both Strutt 
 and Drake have several illustrations of trained 
 animals. Doubtless the most illustrious of all the 
 Elizabethan trained animals, one which has be- 
 come a veritable personage of history, was 
 Morocco, the horse belonging to one Banks, who 
 exhibited him for years in London. This horse 
 could dance, keep time, do a world of tricks that 
 were then considered of so marvellous a nature that 
 
192 THE ELIZABETHAN PEOPLE 
 
 in the end both he and his master were considered 
 to be in league with the evil one; and during an 
 European tour were both burned to death on the 
 charge of sorcery. 
 
 Nine Men's Morris : " In that part of Warwick- 
 shire where Shakespeare was educated, and in the 
 neighbouring parts of Northamptonshire, the 
 shepherds and other boys dig up the turf with 
 their knives to represent a sort of imperfect chess- 
 board. It consists of a square, sometimes only a 
 foot in diameter, sometimes three or four yards. 
 Within this is another square, every side of which 
 is parallel to the external square, and these 
 squares are joined by lines from each corner of 
 both squares and from the middle of each line. 
 One party or player has wooden pegs, the other 
 stones, which they move in such a manner as to 
 take up each other's men, as they are called,^ and 
 the area of the inner square is called the pond, 
 in which the men taken up are impounded. These 
 figures are always cut upon the green turf, or 
 leys, as they are called, or upon the grass at the 
 end of ploughed lands, and in rainy seasons never 
 fail to be choked up with mud." (James, Var. 
 Shak., 1821.) 
 
 The quintain was originally a military sport 
 whose purpose was to accustom pages and squires 
 
C 2 
 
OUT-OF-DOOR SPORTS 193 
 
 to the use of arms. The quintain was usually the 
 wooden figure of a man with outstretched arm, 
 pivoted so as to rotate freely. The young lancer 
 endeavoured, as he rode by, to strike the quin- 
 tain squarely in the breast. If he missed by ever 
 so little, it dashed round, giving the unsuccessful 
 adversary a sounding blow with its outstretched 
 arm. There were many variations of the game. 
 One of the most popular was the water quintain. 
 Here one stood in the prow of a small boat. 
 If he missed his aim he was likely, or almost 
 certain, in fact, to fall headlong into the 
 water. 
 
 So much space has been occupied with even 
 these slight allusions and descriptions of the most 
 typical Elizabethan sports for out of doors, that 
 others must be passed over even more briefly. 
 There were frequent wakes held in connection with 
 the end of harvest time and the sheep-shearing. 
 Shovel-board and wrestling were common. Mar- 
 bles were frequently played. Tops were the de- 
 light of the boys. The tops were of the whipping 
 variety, and a huge one was kept under the name 
 of the parish top to exercise the muscles of the 
 lazy and unemployed. " He turned me about with 
 his finger and thumb, as one would set up a top." 
 ( Coriolanus, IV. v. 160. ) " Enters a little boy with 
 
194 THE ELIZABETHAN PEOPLE 
 
 his top and scourge " is a stage direction in the 
 Yorkshire Tragedy. Several illustrative quota- 
 tions concerning the parish top are to be found in 
 Nares, including one from Evelyn that shows that 
 these tops were made of willow wood. 
 
CHAPTER VIII 
 
 INDOOR AMUSEMENTS 
 
 TT seems hardly necessary to say that gossip 
 ■*■ was then a matter of great indulgence. Not 
 women so much as men were the prime spreaders 
 of information by this process, and the barber- 
 shop, we learn repeatedly from the old plays, was 
 the centre and source of most of the gossip. 
 Fancy needle-work was a chief source of indoor 
 amusement to women who would otherwise not oc- 
 cupy their idle hours. Flirting, too, should not 
 be winked at as belonging to this division of our 
 subject. So common was this habit, especially 
 among the citizens' wives of London, that " sit- 
 ting in the bay-window " was an expression sy- 
 nonymous with catching the eye of a passing gal- 
 lant. Women were fond of pets, especially birds. 
 Squirrels were sometimes led about at the end of 
 a chain. We find an allusion to this custom in 
 Lyly's Endymion.* " Fairholt informs us that 
 the Tapestry of Nancy, found lining the tent of 
 Charles the Bold, after his death at the siege of 
 that place in 1476, contains a lady of rank seated 
 with a favourite squirrel secured to her wrist by 
 * Edition Bond, Vol. III., p. 37, and note, p. 508. 
 195 
 
196 THE ELIZABETHAN PEOPLE 
 
 a chain." * From The Puritem f we leam that 
 monkeys, parrots, and musk-rats were occasion- 
 ally used as lady's pets. This was a habit not un- 
 related to the more masculine habit of love for 
 captive wild animals. There was a famous 
 menagerie at the Tower of London, and in many 
 of the country houses wild animals were kept from 
 time to time as objects of show. 
 
 It is only the authority of Erasmus that sug- 
 gests classing the national custom of kissing 
 among the indoor amusements of the time. In 
 many respects the manners of the Elizabethans 
 were, judged by modern standards, very free and 
 unconventional. Between equals, kissing was a 
 form of salutation as common as hand-shaking is 
 to-day. A French lady thus addressed Caven- 
 dish : " ' Forasmuch,' quoth she, ' as ye be an Eng- 
 lishman, whose custom it is in your country to kiss 
 all ladies and gentlewomen without oflFence, and 
 though it be not so in this realm, yet will I be 
 so bold as to kiss you, and so shall all my 
 maidens.' " t 
 
 " Item, when a foreigner or an inhabitant goes 
 to a citizen's house on business, or is invited as 
 a guest, and having entered therein, he is received 
 by the master of the house, the lady, or the 
 
 * Same, note, p. 508. f Act IV., Scene ii. 
 
 J Cavendish, Life of Wolaey, Temple Ed., p. 75. 
 
INDOOR AMUSEMENTS 197 
 
 daughter, and by them welcomed (wilkommen 
 heiset) — as it is termed in their language — ^he has 
 even a right to take them by the arm and to kiss 
 them (zu kiissen), which is the custom of the 
 country, and if any one does not do it, it is re- 
 garded and imputed as ignorance and ill-breed- 
 ing on his part: the same custom is also observed 
 in the Netherlands." (Written by Samuel 
 Kiechel, 1585. See Rye, p. 90.) 
 
 "Another custom is observed there [England], 
 which is when guests arrive at an inn, the hostess 
 with all her family go out to meet and receive 
 them ; and the guests are required to kiss them all, 
 and this among the English was the same as shak- 
 ing hands among other nations." * 
 
 Erasmus in 1499 wrote a letter from England 
 to his friend Fausto Andrelini, an Italian poet, ex- 
 horting him in a strain of playful levity to think 
 no more of his gout, but to betake himself to 
 England ; for, he remarks, " here are girls with 
 angels' faces, so kind and obliging that you would 
 far prefer them to all your Muses. Besides, there 
 is a custom here never to be sufficiently com- 
 mended. Wherever you come, you are received 
 with a kiss by all; when you take your leave, you 
 are dismissed with kisses; you return, kisses are 
 repeated. They come to visit you, kisses again; 
 
 *Leo Ton Rozmital, 1577. See Rye, p. 360. 
 
198 THE ELIZABETHAN PEOPLE 
 
 they leave you, kisses all round. Should they 
 meet you anywhere, kisses in abundance: in fine, 
 wherever you move, there is nothing but kisses." * 
 
 Rye (p. 225) quotes again from a letter by 
 Chamberlain, 1625. " The Duchess of Richmond 
 admitted him [at Ely house] with the proviso 
 that he must not offer to kiss her; but what was 
 wanting in herself was supplied in her attendants 
 and followers, who were all kissed over twice in less 
 than a quarter of an hour." 
 
 A kiss seems to have been the customary fee of 
 a lady's partner in the dance: 
 
 " Sweetheart, 
 
 I were unmannerly to take you out. 
 And not to kiss you." f 
 
 The other Elizabethan plays contain numerous 
 allusions to the custom. In Arden of Fever sham 
 Alice, in order to convince her husband that his 
 jealousy is unfounded, says that she had done no 
 more than to kiss the object of their dispute. 
 " What favour hast thou had more than a kiss 
 at coming or departing from the town? " % 
 
 " Wife, give entertainment to our new acquain- 
 tance; your lips, wife; any woman may lend her 
 lips without her husband's privity; it's all allow- 
 able." § 
 
 * See Rye, p. 261. t Shakespeare, Henry VIII. 
 
 % See also I. i. 377; IV. iv. 93; IV. iv. 99. 
 § Dekker, Westward Ho, p. 31. 
 
INDOOR AMUSEMENTS 199 
 
 It was a mark of favour to kiss another below 
 one in rank (see Marlowe, Edward II., I. i. 140) ; 
 and a liberty, in cases amounting to an insult, to 
 kiss one of higher rank. (See Middleton, A Trick 
 to Catch the Old One, II. ii. 327.) 
 
 The Elizabethans were very fond of practical 
 jokes. They were resorted to upon all occasions, 
 and with very little provocation. Tossing in a 
 blanket, for instance, is mentioned in Satiromas- 
 tix. Dun is in the Mire, a game of this sort, is 
 often referred to in the contemporary plays. It 
 is thus described by Gilford : " A log of wood is 
 brought into the midst of the room: this is Dum, 
 (the cart horse), and a cry is raised that he is 
 stuck in the mire. Two of the company advance, 
 either with or without ropes to draw him out. 
 After repeated attempts, they find themselves un- 
 able to do it, and call for more assistance. The 
 game continues till all the company take part in 
 it, when Dun is extricated, of course; and the 
 merriment arises from the awkward and affected 
 efforts of the rustics to lift the log, and from 
 sundry such contrivances to let the ends of it fall 
 on one another's toes." Practical jokes of a more 
 elaborate nature form the main substance of the 
 plots of Twelfth Night, the Merry Wives of Wind- 
 sor, and The Silent Woman, not to mention other 
 well known plays. 
 
200 THE ELIZABETHAN PEOPLE 
 
 The story-teller, especially in the country, was 
 always in popular demand. It was a time when 
 the common people of the rural districts read 
 little. They would gather, about the fire of a win- 
 ter evening and listen credulously to the most out- 
 landish stories of spirits, prodigies, and fairies. 
 Desdemona was fond of hearing of " men whose 
 heads do grow beneath their shoulders." Even 
 King Richard did not disdain to " Sit upon the 
 ground And tell sad stories of the death of kings." 
 Domestic servants often held their positions by 
 virtue of their ability to tell a story with effect, 
 a skill they utilised to amuse their master and 
 his guests at meals. This personage merged into 
 the professional story-teller, who was only a step 
 removed from the juggler, the minstrel, and the 
 musician — all common Elizabethan characters in 
 both town and country. 
 
 There were in vogue a great number of parlour 
 games such as are still played to-day. A Thing 
 and Who Did It and Substantives and Adjectives 
 are two such, fully described in Cynthia's Revels* 
 The former is thus introduced by one of the 
 players: "Why, I imagine a Thing done; Hedon 
 thinks, who did it ; Moria, with what it was done ; 
 Anaides, where it was done; Argurion, when it 
 was done ; Amorphus, for what cause it was done ; 
 *Act IV., Scene i. 
 
INDOOR AMUSEMENTS 201 
 
 you, Philautia, what followed upon the doing of 
 it; and this gentleman, who should have done it 
 better? " Then the thing is mentioned and each 
 player must make good his answer already given 
 in ignorance of the name of the thing. The lat- 
 ter game required each member of the circle to 
 mention an adjective. Then some one suggested 
 a substantive. It was then the duty of each player 
 to explain how his adjective qualified the sub- 
 stantive. Thus : 
 
 " Arg. Humble ! 
 
 " Pha. O yes, we must not deny It. And why 
 barbarous, Hedon? 
 
 " Hed. Barbarous ! because commonly, when 
 you have worn your breeches suiBciently, you give 
 them to your barber." 
 
 A number of games were played upon boards, 
 some of which are elsewhere mentioned under dic- 
 ing. The modem bagatelle was familiar under the 
 name of Troll My Dame. A billiard table was a 
 common piece of furniture. Shovel-hoard and 
 Shove-groat were variations of the same game. 
 The latter is described in the statutes of S3d 
 Henry VIII. as a new game. The table necessary 
 for shovel-board was an expensive piece of furni- 
 ture. " It is remarkable," observes Dr. Ploot, 
 " that in the hall at Chartley the shuffle-board 
 table, though ten yards, one foot, and an inch 
 
202 THE ELIZABETHAN PEOPLE 
 
 long, is made up of about two hundred and sixty 
 pieces, which are generally about eighteen inches 
 long, some few only excepted, that are scarce a 
 foot; which, being laid on longer boards for sup- 
 port underneath, are so accurately joined and 
 glewed together, that no shuffle-board whatever 
 is freer from rubbs or casting." * 
 
 The mode of playing the game is thus described 
 by Strutt: "At one end of the Shovel-board there 
 is a line drawn across, parallel with the edge, and 
 about three or four inches from it; at four feet 
 distance from this line another is made, over which 
 it is necessary for the weight to pass when it is 
 thrown by the player, otherwise the go is not 
 reckoned. The players stand at the end of the 
 table, opposite to the two marks above mentioned, 
 each of them having four flat weights of metal, 
 which they shove from them, one at a time al- 
 ternately : and the judgment of the play is, to give 
 sufficient impetus to the weight to carry it be- 
 yond the mark nearest to the edge of the board, 
 which requires great nicety, for if it be too 
 strongly impelled, so as to fall from the table, 
 and there is nothing to prevent it, into a trough 
 placed underneath for its reception, the throw is 
 not counted; if it hangs over the edge, without 
 falling, three are reckoned towards the player's 
 * Quoted by Drake, Vol. I., 306. 
 
INDOOR AMUSEMENTS 203 
 
 game ; if it lie between the line and the edge, with- 
 out hanging over, it tells for two; if on the line, 
 and not up to it, but over the first line, it counts 
 for one. The game, when two play, is generally 
 eleven, but the number is extended when four, or 
 more, are jointly concerned." * 
 
 Chess was frequently played by both men and 
 women. It was a game so well known and under- 
 stood by the people in general that technical allu- 
 sion to its rules of play are introduced without 
 stint into the contemporary plays. Middleton's 
 A Game at Chess, a political satire, carries the 
 idea of chess-playing throughout with far more 
 fidelity than is observed in Alice's Adventures 
 Through the Looking Glass. Its full appreciation 
 must have required a knowledge of the game as 
 complete and detailed as the average American 
 audience possesses of base-ball. 
 
 A complete description of Elizabethan card 
 games would fill a volume. The fantastic names 
 of some of them have completely disappeared 
 from our vocabulary: for instance. Tickle me 
 Quickly, My Lady's Hole, Whip her Jenny, Mack, 
 Lodam, Post and Pair, etc. The most popular 
 games, however, were Gleek, Maw, Noddy, and 
 Prvmero — ^the latter above all the others. 
 
 Gleek was a game for three persons, requiring 
 
 * Sports and Pastimes, p. 364. 
 
204 THE ELIZABETHAN PEOPLE 
 
 but forty-four cards. The two's and three's were 
 thrown out of the pack. Each person received 
 twelve cards, and eight were left upon the table. 
 Seven of these could be bought by the players. 
 The eighth, or turn up card, belonged to the 
 dealer. The different cards had various nick- 
 names. The ace of trumps was Tib, the knave, 
 Tom, and the four, Tiddie. Each of these was 
 paid for by the others to him who held it. The 
 manner of counting was such that it involved upon 
 occasion the payment of large multiples of the 
 original stake. Thus, though a farthing or half 
 penny was often the sum adventured, considerable 
 money sometimes changed hands during a game. 
 Some people, however, would not play for less than 
 sixpence or a shilling; and a spendthrift in 
 Greene's Tu Quoque played for the high sum of 
 half a crown. In the time of Ben Jonson, gleek 
 seems to have been an extremely fashionable game. 
 " Nor play with costermongers," one says, " at 
 Mum-chance, tray-trip — But keep the gaUant'st 
 company and the best games — Gleek and 
 primero." * The name gleek was applied to three 
 cards of a sort. The laws of the game can be 
 found in full in Wit's Interpreter, 1662, p. 365. 
 
 Of the game maw very little is known beyond 
 the fact of its popularity. Sir John Harrington, 
 
 * The Alchemist, v. 4. 
 
Pl.AYIXG C.UIDS. 
 
 (From Strutt's " Sports and Pastimes.") 
 
INDOOR AMUSEMENTS 205 
 
 in one of his epigrams (IV. 12) speaks of heaving 
 the maw. " This heaving," says Nares, " was 
 clearly some grotesque bodily action performed in 
 the game and deemed characteristic of it." Tur- 
 berville, in his Book of Falconry, says : 
 
 "To checke at chesse, to heave at maw, at mack to pass 
 the time. 
 At coses or at sort to sit, or set their rest at prime." 
 
 It was doubtless the " heaving " that made the 
 game unsuitable for pedants and people of great 
 dignity. " Yet in my opinion it were not fit for 
 them [scholars] to play at stool-ball among 
 wenches, nor at mumchance or maw, with idle 
 loose companions." * 
 
 It has been conjectured that noddy is the same 
 as cribbage. The identification, however, rests 
 upon similarity of terms. In the same way it may 
 be inferred to have been similar to several other 
 games. Nothing is known of it beyond a few of 
 its terms. 
 
 Primero was the game of cards par excellence. 
 Gardiner relates that he left the king playing at 
 primero with the Duke of Suffolk. Sir John Har- 
 rington speaks of " overwatching himself at 
 primero." It was also in general use as a gamb- 
 ling game. " Primero, why I thought thou hadst 
 
 •Rainoldes' Overthrow of Stage Plays, 1599. 
 
206 THE ELIZABETHAN PEOPLE 
 
 not been so much gamester as to plaj at it." * 
 The following is one of the several quotations to 
 be found in Nares : 
 
 " Each player had four cards dealt to him, one 
 by one; the seven was the highest card in point 
 of number that he could avail himself of, which 
 counted for twenty-one ; the six counted for eigh- 
 teen, the five for fifteen, and ace for the same; 
 but the two, the three, and the four for their re- 
 spective points only. The knave of diamonds was 
 commonly fixed upon for the qumola, which the 
 player might make what card or suit he thought 
 proper; if the cards were of diiFerent suits, the 
 highest number was the primero [or pri7ne'\ ; but 
 if they were all of one colour, he that held them 
 won the flush." 
 
 The common name for a deck of cards was a 
 pair of cards. In Heywood's A Woman Killed 
 With Kindness Frankford calls to the drawer to 
 bring " A pair of cards . . . and a carpet to 
 cover the table." " Marry, I will allow you to 
 sweat privately, and tear six or seven score pair 
 of cards, be the damnation of some dozen or 
 twenty bale of dice, etc." f 
 
 ' Cards were in common use as an amusement for 
 the assembled audience in the theatre before the 
 
 * Oreene^s Tu Quoqvte, vii. 24. 
 fDekker, The Gull's Hornbook. 
 
INDOOR AMUSEMENTS 207 
 
 play began. " Before the play begins," says 
 Dekker to the GaUant in his Gull's Hornbook, 
 " fall to cards ; you may win or lose, as fencers 
 do in a prize, and beat one another by con- 
 federacy, yet share the money when you meet at 
 supper: notwithstanding, to gull the ragamuffins 
 that stand gaping aloof at you, throw the cards, 
 having first torn four or five of them, round about 
 the stage, just upon the third sound, as though 
 you had lost." 
 
 Dancing was a favourite amusement for all, 
 and a necessary accomplishment for the well bred. 
 Dancing was extremely popular at court, the queen 
 herself being a good dancer and very fond of the 
 amusement. It is common tradition that Sin 
 Christopher Hatton owed his advancement to his 
 pleasing skill in this accomplishment. Whether 
 the tradition is true or not, all who would appear 
 well at court spent much time in learning to 
 fashion their steps. Like card games, many of 
 the old dances have gone altogether out of fashion. 
 A list of dances taken from the old plays would 
 include many names that were also the names of 
 tunes which were sung by the dancer to accom- 
 pany his steps. The following are mentioned in 
 Heywood's A Woman Killed With Kindness: 
 Rogero, Beginning of the World, John Come Kiss 
 Me Now, Cushion Dance, Tom Tyler, Hunting of 
 
208 THE ELIZABETHAN PEOPLE 
 
 the Fox, Hay, Put on Your Smock a' Monday, 
 and Sellinger's Round. 
 
 It is hardly necessary to do more than to enum- 
 erate the most characteristic dances of the time. 
 Antic was generally applied to any kind of gro- 
 tesque dancing, made so either by boisterous be- 
 haviour or monstrous masquerade. The brawl was 
 a wild sort of dance that seems, from the follow- 
 ing couplet, to have been a rough imitation of a 
 battle : 
 
 "'Tis a French brawl, an apish imitation 
 Of what you really perform in battle." * 
 
 A special form of this dance, called the French 
 brawl, is thus alluded to in Good Fellows, a ballad 
 published in 1569 : 
 
 " Good fellows must go learn to dance 
 The brydeal is full near-a; 
 There is a brail come out of France, 
 The fyrst ye heard this year-a." 
 
 Marston's Malcontent gives the following de- 
 scription of Bianca's brawl, a quotation not in- 
 serted wholly on account of its lucidity : " Why, 
 'tis but two singles on the left, two on the right, 
 three doubles forward, a traverse of six round: 
 do this twice, three singles side, galliard trick of 
 twenty, curranto pace; a figure of eight, three 
 * Massinger, The Picture, ii. 3, 
 
INDOOR AMUSEMENTS 209 
 
 singles broken down, come up, meet two doubles, 
 fall back, and then honour." * 
 
 The canary was a quick and lively dance. " A 
 lady is taken out by a gentleman, and after danc- 
 ing together to the cadences of the proper air, 
 he leads her to the end of the hall; this done, 
 he retreats back to the original spot, always look- 
 ing at the lady. Then he makes up to her again, 
 with certain steps, and retreats as before. His 
 partner performs the same ceremony, which is 
 several times repeated by both parties, with vari- 
 ous strange fantastic steps, very much in the sav- 
 age style." t The galliard was another similar 
 dance with much leaping and capering among the 
 steps. A third dance of this nimble character was 
 the lavolta, to which Sir John Davies devotes the 
 following lines : 
 
 "Yet there is one the most delightful kind, 
 
 A lofty jumping, or a leaping round. 
 Where arm in arm two dancers are entwined, 
 And whirl themselves, with strict embracements bound; 
 
 And still their feet an anapest do sound. 
 An anapest is all their music's song, 
 Whose first two feet are short, and third is long." t 
 
 The two slow and dignified dances most in 
 vogue were the pavin and the measure. " The 
 
 * Act IV., Scene ii. 
 
 f Douce, Illustrations of Shakespeare, Vol. I., p. 331. 
 
 % Poem on Dancing, Stanza 70. 
 
210 THE ELIZABETHAN PEOPLE 
 
 pavm, from pavo a pea-cock, is a grave and ma- 
 jestic dance. The method of dancing it was an- 
 ciently by gentlemen dressed with a cap and sword, 
 by those of the long robe in their gowns, by 
 princes in their mantles, and by ladies with gowns 
 with long trains, the motion whereof in the dance 
 resembled that of a pea-cock's tail. This dance 
 is supposed to have been invented by the 
 Spaniards." * " The pavin," adds Drake, " was 
 rendered still more grave by the introduction of 
 the passamezzo air, which obliged the dancers 
 after making several steps round the room, to 
 cross it in the middle in a slow step, or cinque 
 pace." t 
 
 There is an interesting passage in Middleton's 
 Women Beware Women (iii. 2) concerning certain 
 dances as danced by certain people. 
 
 "Plain men dance the measures, the sinquapace the gay; 
 Cuckolds dance the hornpipe, and farmers dance the hay: 
 Your soldiers dance the round, and maidens that grow 
 
 big; 
 Your drunkards the canaries; your whore and bawd 
 
 the jig. 
 Here's your eight kinds of dancers; he that finds 
 The ninth let him pay the minstrels." 
 
 Dancing was the usual amusement to follow a 
 
 * Sir J. Hawkins, quoted in Reed's Shakespeare,JV^^Va. 
 
 p. 407. ■""" 
 
 t Shakespeare and His Times, Vol. I., p. 174. 
 
INDOOR AMUSEMENTS 211 
 
 banquet. On such occasions the hall was cleared 
 by turning the tables up, that is, laying the tops 
 and trestles of the dining tables against the wall. 
 " A hall, a hall ! " is the cry generally met with in 
 the old plays as the sign for this prehminary. 
 Unless they were dancing the measure, or the 
 equally slow and dignified pavin, it was customary 
 for the men dancers to unhasp their swords and 
 to give them to a page or to one of the torch- 
 bearers. Prizes were frequently given at the end 
 of an evening's dancing for the best dancer among 
 the women, much as prizes are given at card 
 parties to-day. Cavendish alludes to this habit. 
 " And after supper and the banquet finished, the 
 ladies and gentlemen went to dancing: among 
 whom one Madam Fountaine, a maid, had the 
 prize." * 
 
 Elsewhere in the present volume something is 
 said about the special kinds of cozenage so much 
 more prevalent then than now in England. Here, 
 however, is a more suitable place to speak of 
 the almost universal custom of dice play and 
 gambling. The following tirade dates from 
 1586: 
 
 " But there are in the bowels of this famous 
 citie [London], farre more dangerous plays, and 
 little reprehended: that wicked plays of the dice, 
 
 * Life of Wolsey, Temple Ed., p. 80. 
 
212 THE ELIZABETHAN PEOPLE 
 
 first invented by the devil, (as Cornelius Agrippa 
 Wryteth,) and frequented by unhappy men: the 
 detestable roote, upon which a thousand villainies 
 grow. 
 
 " The nurses of thease (worse than heathenysh) 
 hellish exercises are places called ordinary tables: 
 of which there are in London, more in nomber 
 to honour the devyll, than churches to serve the 
 living God. 
 
 " I constantly determine to crosse the streets, 
 where these vile houses (ordinaries) are planted, 
 to bless me from the inticements of them, which in 
 very deed are many, and the more dangerous in 
 that they please with a vain hope of gain. Inso- 
 much on a time, I heard a distemperate dicer 
 solemnly sweare that he faithfully beleeved, that 
 dice were first made of the bones of a witch, and 
 cards of her skim, in which there hath ever sithence 
 remained an enchantment that whosoever once 
 taketh delight in either, he shall never have power 
 utterly to leave them for, quoth he, I a hundred 
 times vowed to leave both, yet have not the grace 
 to forsake either." * 
 
 The casual allusions contained in the old plays 
 to the thriftless indulgence in gaming by people 
 of all classes are innumerable. In Middleton's 
 Your Five Gallants (iv. 1) there is a reference to 
 
 * George Whetstone, The Enemie to Unthriftimsse, 1586. 
 
INDOOR AMUSEMENTS 213 
 
 one who staked away the very clothes on his 
 back. The same stake is referred to again in Hey- 
 wood's Wise Woman of Hogsden (i. !)• " Cloak, 
 band, rapier, all lost at dice ! " exclaims one of 
 the characters in Middleton's Spanish Gipsy 
 (ii. 2). 
 
 Not only was dicing common, but cheating at 
 dice so frequent as to give rise to the proverbial 
 expressions " false as dice," and " false as dicers' 
 oaths." An anonymous manuscript of the time 
 of James I. tells the following typical story : " Sir 
 William Herbert, playing at dice with another 
 gentleman, there rose some question about a cast. 
 Sir William's antagonist declared it was a four 
 and a five; he as positively insisted that it was 
 a five and a six; the other then swore with a bit- 
 ter imprecation that it was as he had said; Sir 
 William then replied, ' Thou are a perjured knave; 
 for give me a sixpence, and if there be a four 
 upon the dice, I will return you a thousand 
 pounds ; " at which the other was presently 
 abashed, for indeed the dice were false, and of a 
 high cut, without a four." * Indeed there were 
 many kinds of false dice. Some were unevenly 
 cut, others were hollow, and some were loaded by 
 setting in pieces of lead upon one side. The Percy 
 Society has published A Manifest Detection of 
 
 * Quoted by Strutt, Sports and Pastimes, p. 272. 
 
214 THE ELIZABETHAN PEOPLE 
 
 the Most Vile and Detestable Use of Dice Flay, 
 where a full description of methods of cheating at 
 play is given. 
 
 The dice were usually made of bone. It was not 
 uncommon, however, to make them of ivory. Oc- 
 casionally even precious metals were used as the 
 material for a " Bale of dice," the usual term for 
 a pair. We learn from Holinshed's history * that 
 the wife of Arden of Feversham sent her paramour 
 Mosbie a pair of silver dice as a present to patch 
 up a quarrel. In and In, Backgammon, Tick 
 Tack, Tables, Passage, and Hazard, were the 
 popular dice games. The latter, which was one 
 of the games played upon a board, was, perhaps, 
 the most popular of all games in taverns and 
 ordinaries. In it the players were accustomed to 
 invocate the dice when they were thrown, as is the 
 present habit in craps. 
 
 The sword, dagger, or rapier was a part of the 
 regular every-day dress of the Elizabethan; and 
 its proper use a necessary part of his education. 
 In a letter dated from Leicester House, October 
 15, 1580, Sir Philip Sidney offers the following 
 advice to his brother Robert: 
 
 " When you play at weapons ; I would have 
 you get thick caps and bracers [gloves] , and play 
 out your play lustily; for indeed, tricks and dal- 
 * Vol. III., p. 1063. 
 
INDOOR AMUSEMENTS 215 
 
 Hances are nothing In earnest : for the time of the 
 one and the other greatly differs. And use as well 
 the blow as the thrust. It is good in itself; and 
 besides increaseth your breadth and strength, and 
 will make you a strong man at the tourney and 
 barriers. First, in any case, practice with the 
 single sword; and then with the dagger. Let no 
 day pass without an hour or two of such exercise." 
 
 Fencing schools were common and usually re- 
 sorted to in the morning. In them persons re- 
 ceived regular degrees as master, provost, and 
 scholar, indicative of their skill. The degree was 
 preceded by a prize contest, usually in public, 
 hence the term, " to play a prize." Public fenc- 
 ing matches in the tavern yards and in the play- 
 houses were a frequent means of popular enter- 
 tainment. The three following entries in the Re- 
 membrancia (p. 351) illustrate this kind of spec- 
 tacle : 
 
 " July 1, 1582. Letter from Ambrose, Earl of 
 Warwick, to the Lord Mayor, Aldermen, and 
 Sheriffs, requesting them to grant a licence to his 
 servant, John David, to play his provost prize 
 in his science and profession of defence, at the 
 Bull, in Bishopsgate, or in some other convenient 
 place to be assigned within the liberties of the 
 City of London. 
 
 " July 23, 1582. Letter from Ambrose, Earl of 
 
216 THE ELIZABETHAN PEOPLE 
 
 Warwick, to the Lord Mayor, complaining of the 
 treatment and disgrace put upon his servant in 
 not being allowed to play prizes, after the publica- 
 tion of his bills, wherein his (the writer's) name 
 had been used, although others had been so per- 
 mitted. 
 
 " July 24, 1582, Letter from the Lord Mayor 
 to the Earl of Warwick, in reply. He had not 
 refused permission for his servant to play his 
 prizes, but had granted him a licence, only re- 
 straining him from playing at an inn for fear 
 of infection, and had appointed him to play in 
 an open place at the Leadenhall. Not having 
 availed himself of the permission for fourteen 
 days, and the infection increasing, it became neces- 
 sary to prohibit the assembling of the people to 
 his play within the City, but permission had been 
 give., him to perform in the open fields. No per- 
 mission had been granted to any others. With 
 the man's own consent he had appointed Monday 
 next, and had allowed him liberty to pass openly 
 through the city with his company, drums, and 
 show." 
 
 The city council of Cambridge feared that dis- 
 order would grow out of a public fencing match 
 to be held January 20, 1579, and found' it neces- 
 sary to take especial precautions to prevent 
 trouble. From fencing as an amusement to fenc- 
 
INDOOR AMUSEMENTS 217 
 
 ing in earnest was but a step. Duelling, in Eliza- 
 bethan times, was very common. In fact, " points 
 of honour " were matters of daily settlement. 
 The least provocation was sufficient for a fight. 
 Such matches were hedged about by many rules. 
 There was also a sort of court, resident in Lon- 
 don, consisting of four Ancient Masters of De- 
 fence, to whom difficult points of honour were sub- 
 mitted for judgment. How difficult of interpreta- 
 tion a point of honour might become is familiar 
 to us all from the dissertation of Touchstone con- 
 cerning the lie seven times removed. He was a 
 sly fellow with a delightful sense of humour, but 
 we cannot fairly accuse him of exaggeration. The 
 book from which Shakespeare derived the infor- 
 mation he put into the mouth of Touchstone was 
 written by Vincentio Saviola, and printed in 1595. 
 The full title is, Vincentio Saviola his Practice. 
 In Two Books. The First intreating of the use 
 of the Rapier and Dagger. The second of Honor 
 and honorable Quarrels. In the second book is 
 contained " A Discourse most necessarie for all 
 Gentlemen that have in regarde their honors 
 touching the giving and receiving of the Lie, 
 whereupon the Duello & the Combats in divers 
 sortes doth insue, and many other inconveni- 
 ences, for lack only of the true knowledge of 
 honor, and the contrarie ; & the right understand- 
 
218 THE ELIZABETHAN PEOPLE 
 
 ing of wordes, which here is plainly set downe, be- 
 ginning thus." Then comes a treatment under 
 the following heads : " Of the manner and diver- 
 sity of Lyes " ; " Of Lyes certaine " ; " Of condi- 
 tional Lyes " ; " Of the Lye in general " ; " Of the 
 Lye in particular," and " Of foolish Lyes." One 
 or two quotations may be of interest as a justifi- 
 cation of Touchstone and his creed. 
 
 " Conditionall lyes be such as are given condi- 
 tionally: as if a man should say or write these 
 wordes. If thou hast saide that I have offered my 
 Lord abuse, thou lyest: or if thou saiest so here- 
 after, thou shalt lye. And as often as thou hast 
 or shalt so say, so oft do I and will I say that 
 thou doest lye. Of these kind of lyes given in this 
 manner, often arise much contention in words, and 
 divers intricate worthy battailes, multiplying 
 wordes upon wordes, whereof no sure conclusion 
 can arise." Furthermore, the reader is warned 
 " by all means possible to shunne all conditionall 
 lyes, never giving any other but certayne Lyes: 
 the which in like manner they ought to have great 
 regarde, that they give them not, unlesse they be 
 by some sure means infallibly assured, that they 
 give them rightly, to the ende that the parties 
 unto whom they be given, may be forced without 
 further Ifs and Ands, either to deny or justifie, 
 that which they have spoken." 
 
INDOOR AMUSEMENTS 219 
 
 When one surveys the great field of Elizabethan 
 Literature he finds that the body of lyric poetry 
 produced in that age is scarcely less remarkable 
 than the body of dramatic literature. The lyric 
 note was in the air. Every one of any pretension 
 to cultivation could write verses, generally with 
 a fair degree of proficiency. Instead of a note to 
 accompany a trivial gift, the sender would write 
 a sonnet. Love lyrics were as frequent as love. 
 And with it all went a popular pleasure and skill 
 in music that has utterly passed away. Relative 
 to this universal knowledge of music is the follow- 
 ing paragraph in Chappell's Old English Popular 
 Music (i. 59) : 
 
 " During the reign of Elizabeth, music seems to 
 have been in universal cultivation, as well as uni- 
 versal esteem. Not only was it a necessary quali- 
 fication for ladies and gentlemen, but even the 
 city of London advertised the musical abilities of 
 boys educated in Bridewell and Christ's Hospital, 
 as a mode of recommending them as servants, ap- 
 prentices, or husbandmen. . . . Tinkers sang 
 catches ; milkmaids sang ballads ; carters whistled ; 
 each trade, and even the beggars, had their special 
 songs; the base viol hung in the drawing room 
 for the amusement of waiting visitors ; the lute, 
 cittern and virginals, for the amusement of wait- 
 ing customers, were the necessary furniture of 
 
220 THE ELIZABETHAN PEOPLE 
 
 the barber shop. They had music at dinner; 
 music at supper; music at weddings; music at 
 funerals; music at dawn; music at night. . . . 
 He who felt not, in some degree, its soothing in- 
 fluences, was viewed as a morose, unsocial being, 
 whose converse ought to be shunned and regarded 
 with suspicion and distrust." 
 
 An interesting collection of songs, edited by 
 William Byrd, and printed in 1588, has the fol- 
 lowing introduction: 
 
 " Reasons briefly set down by the author, to 
 persuade everyone to learn to sing. 
 
 " 1. First it is a knowledge easily taught, and 
 quickly learned ; where there is a good master and 
 an apt scholar. 
 
 " 2. The exercise of singing is delightful to 
 Nature, and good to preserve the health of man. 
 
 "3. It doth strengthen all parts of the breast, 
 and doth open the pipes. 
 
 "4. It is a singular good remedy for a stutt- 
 [er]ing and stammering in the speech. 
 
 " 6. It is the best means to procure a perfect 
 pronunciation, and to make a good orator. 
 
 " 6. It is the only way to know where Nature 
 hath bestowed the benefit of a good voice; which 
 gift is so rare, as there is not one among a thou- 
 sand that hath it : and in many, that excellent gift 
 is lost, because they w^nt Art to express Nature. 
 

 iii'fi; -^ 
 
INDOOR AMUSEMENTS 221 
 
 " 7. There is not any music of instruments 
 whatsoever comparable to that which is made of 
 the voices of men ; where the voices are good, and 
 the same well sorted or ordered. 
 
 " 8. The better the voice is, the meeter it is 
 to honour and serve GOD therewith: and the 
 voice of man is chiefly to be employed to that 
 end." 
 
 Bands of musicians, consorts as they were 
 usually called, were a regular part of the house- 
 hold of the Queen, and of all the great nobles, 
 and even of lesser private gentlemen. In 1571 the 
 Queen's musicians consisted of eighteen trum- 
 peters, seven violins, six flutes, six sackbuts, and 
 ten singers. King James's musicians numbered 
 twenty-six in 1606, and twenty-two in 1617. 
 
 The word consort was properly applied to a 
 group of musicians playing upon similar instru- 
 ments : thus, a consort of stringed instruments, a 
 consort of wind instruments, etc. Often, however, 
 one or two instruments were introduced into a 
 consort that differed from the others. A lute, 
 bandore, base-viol, cittern, and flute constituted 
 the instruments of a consort that played before 
 the queen during an entertainment at Elvetham 
 in 1591.* The word noise, often applied gener- 
 ally to a group of anything, as a noise of horns 
 * Lyly's Works, Ed, Bond, i. 450, 
 
THE ELIZABETHAN PEOPLE 
 
 and hunters, was also commonly applied to music. 
 Thus, a noise of musicians meant a group, and a 
 noise often referred to music without any implica- 
 tion as to the quality of the sound. It is prob- 
 able that musicians, either singly or in consorts, 
 were to be had at little expense and at a mo- 
 ment's notice. We have frequent contemporary 
 allusions to persons meeting in a tavern, and de- 
 ciding suddenly to send out for musicians to help 
 them while away the time for an hour. Such 
 strolling players were not held in high repute; 
 hence " consort " was often used with an insult- 
 ing connotation as almost synonymous with vaga- 
 bond.* In the Knight of the Burnmg Pestle we 
 learn that the waits (another term for a band of 
 musicians) will come from Southwark in a hurry 
 for two shiUings.f 
 
 Drayton in his Poly-Olbion X thus enumerates 
 the instruments in use at the time in England : 
 
 "The English that repined to be delayed so long. 
 All quickly at the hint, as with one free consent, 
 Strook up at once and sung each to the instrument; 
 (Of sundry sorts there were, as the musician likes) 
 On which the practiced hand with perfect'st fingering 
 
 strikes. 
 Whereby their right of skill might liveliest be expressed. 
 The trembling lute some touch, some strain the vioU best, 
 
 * See Romeo and Juliet, III. i. 49. 
 
 t Induction. | Fourth Song. 
 
INDOOR AMUSEMENTS 223 
 
 In setts which there were seene, the musick wondrous 
 
 choice. 
 To shew that England could variety afforde, 
 The Cithron, the Pandore, and the Therbo strike; 
 The Cittern and the Kit the wandering fiddlers like. 
 So there were some againe, in this their learned strife, 
 Loud instruments that loved, the Cornet and the Phife, 
 The Hoboy, Sagbut deepe, Recorder and the Flute, 
 Even from the shrillest Shawm unto the Cornemute, 
 Some blow the Bagpipe up, that plaies the country 
 
 'round. 
 The Tabor and the Pipe some take delight to sound." 
 
 The word " setts " in the above quotation re- 
 fers to the fact that the instruments composing 
 a consort were usually sold in sets: thus a chest 
 or set of viols would consist of two trebles, two 
 tenors, and two basses. 
 
 The lute was the popular instrument in use to 
 accompany the voice. In one form it possessed 
 eight strings and looked not unlike a mandolin. 
 There were also other forms, one of which con- 
 tained a number of unfretted strings. The fact 
 that this instrument required retuning with every 
 change of key gives point to many allusions, the 
 following of which is a fair example : " If a lute 
 player have lived eighty years, he has probably 
 spent about sixty years tuning his instrument." * 
 The gift of a set of lute strings was a dainty and 
 much-coveted gift in Shakespeare's time. A very 
 *Mattheson, 1720. 
 
THE ELIZABETHAN PEOPLE 
 
 unique use to which lute strings broken upon the 
 instruments in the barber shops were put is al- 
 luded to by Ben Jonson, where he desires one 
 " to draw his own teeth and add them to the 
 lute string." * Every barber shop provided lutes 
 and zitterns for the amusement of waiting cus- 
 tomers. Most barbers in those days were also 
 surgeons on a small scale, whose chief surgical 
 duty was the extraction of teeth. It was their 
 habit to tie the successfully drawn teeth closely 
 together upon lute strings, which were then hung 
 out by way of a sign — a mode of display that in a 
 slightly altered form has survived to the present 
 day in London. Lute playing was often made the 
 point of reference to imply a high degree of ef- 
 feminancy. Thus Tamberlaine chides: 
 
 " . . . Bewrays they are too dainty for the wars. 
 Their fingers made to quaver on a lute. 
 Their arms to hang about a lady's neck." f 
 
 The virginals consisted of an instrument much 
 like the piano in appearance, but smaller. When 
 the keys were struck, small quill picks twanged 
 the strings which gave out a high note without 
 much volume. Virginal playing was a necessary 
 accomplishment for young women. Elizabeth 
 herself was an adapt on the virginals, a fact 
 that forms the subject of one of Melville's most 
 
 * The Silent Woman, iii, 3, f The Second Part, i, 3, 
 
INDOOR AMUSEMENTS g25 
 
 amusing illustrations of the Queen's inordinate 
 vanity. 
 
 " The same day after dinner," says the Scotch 
 ambassador, "my Lord Hunsdon drew me up to 
 a quiet gallery that I might hear some music (but 
 he said he durst not avow it) , where I might hear 
 the queen play upon the virginals. After I had 
 hearkened a while I took by the tapestry that 
 hung by the door of the chamber, and seeing her 
 back was towards the door, I entered within the 
 chamber, and stood a pretty space, hearing her 
 play excellently well ; but she left off immediately 
 so soon as she turned her about and saw me. She 
 appeared to be surprised to see me, and came for- 
 ward, seeming to strike me with her hand, al- 
 leging she was not used to play before men, but 
 when she was solitary, to shun melancholy. She 
 asked how I came there.? I answered, as I was 
 walking with my Lord Hunsdon as we passed by 
 the chamber door, I heard such a melody as rav- 
 ished me, whereby I was drawn in ere I knew how ; 
 excusing my fault of homeliness as being brought 
 up in the court of France where such freedom 
 was allowed; declaring myself willing to endure 
 what kind of punishment her majesty should be 
 pleased to inflict upon me for so great offence. 
 Then she sank down low upon a cushion, and I 
 upon my knees by her; but with her own hands 
 
THE ELIZABETHAN PEOPLE 
 
 she gave me a cushion to lay under my knee; 
 which at first I refused, but she compelled me to 
 take it. She inquired whether my queen or she 
 played best. In that I found myself obliged to 
 give her the praise. . . . 
 
 " Then she asked what kind of exercises she 
 used.? I answered that when I received my dis- 
 patch the queen was lately come from the High- 
 land hunting: that when her more serious affairs 
 permitted, she was taken up with the reading of 
 histories; that sometimes she recreated herself in 
 playing upon the lute and virginals. She asked 
 if she played well.? I said, reasonably for a 
 queen." 
 
CHAPTER IX 
 
 THE LOVE OF SPECTACLES 
 
 ON the day before her coronation Elizabeth 
 made the customary progress through the 
 City from the Tower to Whitehall. This pageant, 
 which was the regular preliminary to a corona- 
 tion, is one of the most interesting that could be 
 described in this chapter; but, as it is too long 
 in its original account for convenient insertion 
 here, and as the reprint of Arber's English Gar- 
 ner has put it within the reach of all, the circum- 
 stantial contemporary account is omitted. 
 
 A synopsis of The Prmcely Pleasures of Kenil- 
 wortk is to be found in Strutt's Sports and Pas- 
 times of the English People; and the same elabo- 
 rate revels are fully described in Scott's Kenil- 
 worth, most of the local colour of which is taken 
 directly from a contemporary account. 
 
 The present writer need offer no apology for 
 continuing the narrative of this chapter as far 
 as possible in the words of contemporary writers, 
 usually so graphic and so full of the spirit of the 
 time in which they were written. 
 
 " (April 23, 1559.) The same day the queen 
 337 
 
228 THE ELIZABETHAN PEOPLE 
 
 in the afternoon went to Baynard's Castle, the 
 Earl of Pembroke's Place, and supped with him, 
 and after supper she took a boat and was rowed 
 up and down the Thames, hundreds of boats and 
 barges rowing about her, and thousands of people 
 thronging at the water side to look upon her maj- 
 esty, rejoicing to see her and partaking of the 
 music and sights upon the Thames ; for the trum- 
 pets blew, drums beat, flutes played, guns were 
 discharged, squibs hurled up into the air, as the 
 queen moved from place to place." (Strype.) 
 
 " May 22d, the Bishop of London's Palace, and 
 the Dean of Paul's House, with several other 
 houses of the Canons and Prebendaries of the 
 said church were taken up for the French Ambas- 
 sadors and their retinue. 
 
 " The 23d they came and landed at Tower 
 Wharf where many lords and nobles came to meet 
 them, and conducted them to their said lodgings. 
 
 " The 24<th they were brought from the Bis- 
 hop's Palace through Fleet Street by the greatest 
 nobles about the court to the queen's palace to 
 supper. The hall and the great chamber of pres- 
 ence was hung with very rich cloth of arras and 
 cloth of state. There was extraordinary cheer at 
 supper, and, after that, as goodly a banquet as 
 had been seen, with all manner of music and enter- 
 tainments till midnight. 
 

THE LOVE OF SPECTACLES 
 
 " The 25th they were brought to court with 
 music to dinner, and after a splendid dinner, they 
 were entertained with the baiting of bears and 
 bulls with English dogs. The Queen's grace her- 
 self and the ambassadors stood in the gallery 
 looking on the pastime till six at night. * After 
 that they went by water to Paul's Wharf, and 
 landed there to go to the Bishop's palace to sup- 
 per. It was observed of these ambassadors that 
 they were most gorgeously apparelled. 
 
 " The 26th they took barge at Paul's Wharf, 
 and so to Paris Garden, where was to be another 
 baiting of bulls and bears, and the captain with 
 an hundred of the guard, kept room for them 
 against they came, that they might have place to 
 see the sport. 
 
 " The 28th the French ambassadors went away, 
 taking their barge towards Gravesend, and car- 
 ried with them many mastiffs given them for hunt- 
 ing their wolves." (Strype.) 
 
 The following quotations illustrate the form 
 and ceremony that accompanied the daily life of 
 the Queen: 
 
 " The thirteenth day when she took her way 
 
 * On such an occasion the dogs and animals to be baited 
 were taken to Whitehall, where the exhibition was given. 
 There is no evidence that Elizabeth ever attended in person 
 the bear-ring in Southwark or the public theatres. The 
 details of the sport of baiting are given elsewhere. 
 
230 THE ELIZABETHAN PEOPLE 
 
 from [the Charter-House] by Clerkenwell, over 
 the fields to the Savoy, to Mr. Secretary Cecil, 
 where she supped. 
 
 " The next day she departed on her progress to 
 Essex ; and the chief streets of the city being re- 
 newed with fresh gravel for her equipage, she 
 passed from the Charter-House through Smith- 
 field, under Newgate; and also along St. Nicholas 
 Shambles, Cheapside, Cornhill, unto Aldgate and 
 Whitechapel. All the houses were hung with cloth 
 of arras, and rich carpets, and silk; but Cheap- 
 side was hung with cloth of gold and silver, and 
 velvets of all colours, all the crafts of London 
 standing in their liveries from St. Michael the 
 Quern as far as to Aldgate. The cavalcade was 
 after this manner: first, serving men riding; then 
 the Queen's pensioners, gentlemen, knights, lords, 
 the Aldermen in scarlet, the sergeants at arms, the 
 heralds in their coat armour ; then my Lord Mayor 
 bearing the scepter ; then the Lord Hunsden bear- 
 ing the sword, and then came the Queen's grace 
 and her footmen richly habited; the ladies and 
 gentlemen followed; after all, the lords' and 
 knights' men ; and at Whitechapel the Lord Mayor 
 and Aldermen took leave of her grace ; and so she 
 took her way towards Essex, and I suppose lodged 
 that night at Wanstead House in the forest." 
 (Strype.) 
 
THE LOVE OF SPECTACLES 231 
 
 Tilting was one of the popular amusements of 
 the day, carried on in harmless sport far different 
 from the dangerous joustings of mediaeval times. 
 The following is a condensation of Holinshed's 
 description of a famous tilting before the Queen 
 on Whitsun Monday and Tuesday, 1581 : 
 
 " The chief challengers in these attempts were 
 these: The Earl of Arundel, the Lord Windsor, 
 Master Philip Sidney, and Master Fulke Grevile, 
 who, calling themselves the Four Foster Children 
 of Desire, made the invention of the aforesaid 
 triumph, in this order and form following : 
 
 " The gallery or place at the end of the tilt- 
 yard adjoining her majesty's house at Whitehall, 
 whereat her person should be placed, was called, 
 and not without cause, ' The Castle or Fortress of 
 Perfect Beauty,' forasmuch as her highness 
 should be there included, whereto the said foster 
 children laid title and claim as their due by de- 
 scent to belong to them. And upon denial, or any 
 repulse from that their desired patrimony, they 
 vowed to vanquish and conquer by force who 
 should seem to withstand it. For the accomplish- 
 ing whereof they sent their challenge, or first de- 
 fiance, to the Queen's majesty, which was uttered 
 by a boy on Sunday, the sixteenth of April last, 
 as her majesty came from the chapel, who, being 
 apparelled in red and white, as a martial messen- 
 
232 THE ELIZABETHAN PEOPLE 
 
 ger of Desire's foster children, without making 
 any precise reverence at all, uttered these speeches 
 of defiance from his masters to her majesty, the 
 effect whereof ensueth." 
 
 There follows in the original account a long 
 Euphuistic harangue that sets forth in part a 
 description of the sports that are to take place 
 on the morrow. 
 
 " The said day being come, the four foster 
 children had made preparation to beseige the 
 Fortress of Beauty; and thereto had provided a 
 frame of wOod which was covered with canvas, 
 and painted outwardly in such excellent order, as 
 if it had been very natural earth or mold, and 
 carried the name of a rowling trench which went 
 on wheels wherever the persons within it did drive 
 it. Upon the top whereof were placed two can- 
 nons of wood, so passing well coloured, that they 
 seemed to be indeed two field pieces of ordinance, 
 and by them was placed two men for gunners, 
 clothed in crimson sarcenet, with their baskets of 
 earth for defence of their bodies by them. And 
 also there stood on the top of the trench an en- 
 sign bearer, in the same suit with the gunners, 
 displaying his ensign; and within the said trench 
 was cunningly conveyed divers kinds of most ex- 
 cellent music against the Castle of Beauty. These 
 things thus all in a readiness, the challengers ap- 
 
THE LOVE OF SPECTACLES 233 
 
 proached and came from the stable toward the 
 tilt-yard, one after another, in brave and excellent 
 order, and the manner of their several enterings 
 was as followeth: 
 
 " First, the earl of Arundel entered the tilt- 
 yard, all in a tylt and engraven armour, with 
 caparisons and furniture richly and bravely em- 
 broidered, having attendent on him two gentlemen 
 ushers, four pages riding on four spare horses, 
 and twenty of his gentlemen. All which afore- 
 said were apareled in short cloaks and Venetian 
 hose of crimson velvet, layed with gold lace, doub- 
 lets of yellow satin, hats of crimson velvet with 
 gold bands and yellow feathers, and yellow silk 
 stocks. Then had he six trumpeters who sounded 
 before him, and thirty-one yeomen that waited 
 after him, appareled in cassock cloaks and Vene- 
 tian hose of crimson velvet, layed on with red 
 silk and gold lace, doublets of yellow taiFeta, hats 
 of crimson taffeta, and yellow worsted stockings." 
 
 After the entrance of Arundel, the other chal- 
 lengers arrived in equal splendour of dress, and 
 accompanied by an equal number of gaudily ar- 
 rayed retainers. Then the boy who had pre- 
 viously addressed the Queen, as she was returning 
 from chapel the day before, approached the bal- 
 cony where she sat and made known to her that 
 there was about to be made an assault by Desire 
 
234. THE ELIZABETHAN PEOPLE 
 
 upon the Castle of Beauty. The rowling trench 
 or artificial mound was then moved near to where 
 the Queen sat. Music within played pleasantly 
 and two songs were sung by pages, one bidding 
 the Queen to surrender, the other exhorting the 
 challengers to bravery. 
 
 " Which ended, the two cannons were shot off, 
 the one with sweet powder, the other with sweet 
 water, very odoriferous and pleasant, and the 
 noise of the shooting was very excellent consent 
 of melody within the mound. And after that was 
 store of pretty scaling ladders, and the footmen 
 threw flowers and such fancies against the walls, 
 with all such devices as might seem fit shot for 
 Desire. All which did continue till the time the 
 defendants came in. 
 
 " Then came in the defendants in most sump- 
 tuous manner, with every one his servants, pages, 
 and trumpeters (having some more, some less) on 
 such order as I have hereunder placed them, with 
 every one his sundry invention." 
 
 After the entrance of twenty-one gentlemen and 
 their attendants, came " Sir Henry Leigh, as 
 unknown, and when he had broken his six staves, 
 went out in like manner again." For the rest of 
 the day the gayly dressed courtiers rode back- 
 wards and forwards, each arriving in order before 
 the Queen, where his page on the behalf of his 
 
THE LOVE OF SPECTACLES 235 
 
 naster delivered himself of a speech. The speeches 
 vere all alike, long and prolix, composed of ful- 
 jome compliments to the Queen, and full of lamen- 
 ;ation on the part of Desire. " This said, and all 
 ;he triumphal shows ended, the knights, in very 
 !omely and convenient order (as they came) de- 
 >arted. 
 
 " The next day's show was done in this order : 
 The Four Foster Children of Desire entered in a 
 )rave chariot (very finely and curiously decked) 
 IS men fore-wearied and half overcome. The 
 ihariot was made in such sort that on top the 
 four knights sat with a beautiful lady repre- 
 ienting Desire whereunto their eyes were turned, 
 n token of what they desired. In the bulk of the 
 ihariot was conveyed room for a full consort of 
 nusic, who played still very doleful music as the 
 ;hariot moved. The chariot was drawn by four 
 lorses according to four knights, which horses 
 ivere appareled in white and carnation silk, being 
 the colours of Desire. And as it passed by the 
 jpper end of the tilt, a herald of arms was sent 
 jefore to utter these speeches on the knights' be- 
 lalf to her majesty: 
 
 " ' No confidence in themselves, most un- 
 natched princess, before whom Envy dieth, want- 
 ng all nearness of comparison to sustain it, and 
 ^.dmiration is expressed, finding the scope of it 
 
236 THE ELIZABETHAN PEOPLE 
 
 void of conceivable limits, nor any slight regard- 
 ing the force of your valiant knights, hath encour- 
 aged the Foster Children of Desire to make this 
 day an inheritor of yesterday's action ; but the 
 wing of memory, alas, the sworn enemy Unto the 
 woeful man's quietness, being constantly held by 
 the hand of perfection, and never ceasing to blow 
 the coal of some kindred desire, hath brought their 
 inward fire to blaze forth this flame unquenchable 
 by any means till by death the whole shall be con- 
 sumed. And, therefore, not able to master it, they 
 are violently borne whither Desire draweth, al- 
 though they must confess (alas) that yesterday's 
 brave onset should come to such a confession, that 
 they are not greatly companied with Hope, the 
 common supplier to Desire's army. So as now, 
 from summoning this castle to yield, they are fal- 
 len lowly to beseech you to vouchsafe your eyes 
 out of that impregnable fortress to behold what 
 will fall out betwixt them and your famous 
 knights ; wherein, though they be so overpressed 
 with other's valour, that already they could 
 scarcely have been able to com,e hither if the 
 chariot of Desire had not carried them; yet will 
 they make this whole assembly witness so far of 
 their will, that sooner their souls shall leave their 
 bodies, than Desire shall leave their souls.' " 
 Thereupon the defenders of the day before re- 
 
Tilting at the Ring. 
 (From an old print.) 
 
 TlITlNG AT THE QuiNTAIN. 
 
 (From an old print.) 
 
THE LOVE OF SPECTACLES 237 
 
 enter the lists, and there is tilting and sword-play 
 for some hours; after which a boy carrying an 
 olive branch approaches the Queen to acknowledge 
 on the part of Desire their mistake in not seeing 
 that she was quite out of their sphere, and that 
 the attack on the Castle of Beauty had proved 
 an utter failure. The Queen then rose and 
 thanked them for their entertainment and gave 
 them praise, " which they esteemed so well, and 
 thought themselves awarded according to their 
 wishes ; and so they departed, each one in order, 
 according to the first coming in. And thus ceased 
 these courtly triumphs." 
 
 On October 7, 1586, the proudest, finest speci- 
 men of an Elizabethan gentleman died at the post 
 of duty on Zutphen field. " He was the great 
 glory of his family," says Camden, " the great 
 hope of mankind, the most lively pattern of virtue, 
 and the darling of the learned world." 
 
 Sir Philip Sidney was sent by her majesty to 
 the Low Countries where he was made Lieutenant 
 of Flushing, at which place he arrived in the latter 
 part of 1585. He was colonel of the Dutch regi- 
 ment of Flushing, and captain of 200 English 
 foot and 100 horse. " In September," says the 
 curious old roll described by Thorpe, " at the re- 
 lieving of Zutphen he charged the enemy thrice in 
 
THE LOVE OF SPECTACLES 237 
 
 enter the lists, and there is tilting and sword-play 
 for some hours; after which a boy carrying an 
 olive branch approaches the Queen to acknowledge 
 on the part of Desire their mistake in not seeing 
 that she was quite out of their sphere, and that 
 the attack on the Castle of Beauty had proved 
 an utter failure. The Queen then rose and 
 thanked them for their entertainment and gave 
 them praise, " which they esteemed so well, and 
 thought themselves awarded according to their 
 wishes; and so they departed, each one in order, 
 according to the first coming in. And thus ceased 
 these courtly triumphs." 
 
 On October 7, 1586, the proudest, finest speci- 
 men of an Elizabethan gentleman died at the post 
 of duty on Zutphen field. " He was the great 
 glory of his family," says Camden, " the great 
 hope of mankind, the most lively pattern of virtue, 
 and the darling of the learned world." 
 
 Sir Philip Sidney was sent by her majesty to 
 the Low Countries where he was made Lieutenant 
 of Flushing, at which place he arrived in the latter 
 part of 1585. He was colonel of the Dutch regi- 
 ment of Flushing, and captain of 200 English 
 foot and 100 horse. " In September," says the 
 curious old roll described by Thorpe, " at the re- 
 lieving of Zutphen he charged the enemy thrice in 
 
THE ELIZABETHAN PEOPLE 
 
 one skirmish, and at the last charge he was 
 wounded by a musket shot, whereof he died at 
 Amham the 7th of October, from whence he was 
 brought by water to Flushing, where he was kept 
 eight days for his convenient passage." He was 
 escorted to the harbour by an English garrison 
 1200 strong, " marching three and three, shot, 
 halberds, pikes, and ensigns, all trailing, the 
 burghers of the town following. His body being 
 embarked, the small shot gave a triple volley, then 
 the general ordnance," etc. 
 
 When Sidney's body reached London, it was 
 landed at the Tower Wharf, whence it was trans- 
 ported to the church of the Minories without Aid- 
 gate. Here it lay for some time in state before it 
 was carried with great pomp to St. Paul's Cathe- 
 dral. The funeral was conducted by Robert 
 Cook, Clarenceux King-at-Arms, an office after- 
 wards occupied with such glory to the College of 
 Heralds by William Camden. 
 
 Following are the details of the funeral pro- 
 cession: First came two conductors of the poor 
 in short coats and buttoned close, deep-crowned 
 hats, and large ruffs, swords by their sides and 
 staves in their hands. They were followed by 
 thirty-two (his age) poor men in long gowns. 
 Then came the officers of his foot soldiers, trail- 
 ing their pikes, the drums and fifes playing softly. 
 
THE LOVE OF SPECTACLES 239 
 
 the instruments hung with black ; next the ensign, 
 the colours wound round the staff and trailed. 
 Then followed all the officers of the horse fully 
 armed, the banners, the steward of his house, sixty 
 esquires chosen from his kindred and friends, 
 twelve knights, the chaplain, and a gentleman 
 carrying a pennon inscribed with Sidney's arms. 
 Then came a footman leading the masterless horse, 
 followed by a page trailing the useless lance. The 
 heralds carrying his spurs, gloves, helmet, etc., 
 came next, and then the King-at-Arms. He was 
 followed by the gentleman usher in a long gown, 
 bare-headed, his right hand upon his breast, his 
 hat under his left arm. The corpse which followed 
 was covered with black velvet and was carried by 
 fourteen of his yeomen; the corners of the pall 
 were held by four friends, and the banrols were 
 carried by four of his near kindred. Sir Robert 
 Sidney, his brother, followed as chief mourner, in 
 a gown with a close hood, and his hands clasped. 
 Then followed other mourners: Lords Hunting- 
 ton, Leicester, Pembroke, Essex, Willoughby, and 
 North, all on horseback; representatives of the 
 States of Holland to the number seven; the Lord 
 Mayor, the Aldermen, the Recorder, and the 
 Sheriffs of London riding in purple; the Grocers' 
 Company in their livery to the number of one 
 hundred and twenty. The procession was closed 
 
240 THE ELIZABETHAN PEOPLE 
 
 by three hundred men chosen of the trained bands 
 of the city, walking three and three. 
 
 The above details are from a roll drawn by 
 Thomas Lant, 1587. The roll is thirty-eight feet 
 and some inches in length, the figures executed 
 with much grace and accuracy. The roll is fully 
 described by the antiquary John Thorpe, from 
 whose account this extract is borrowed. Preced- 
 ing the picture of the funeral procession is a view 
 of the interior of St. Paul's with the hearse ready 
 to receive the corpse. It is covered with black 
 velvet and decorated with escutcheons. 
 
 Descriptions of pageants and progresses could 
 be repeated ad infinitum; but lack of space cur- 
 tails the quotations. A very different kind of 
 pageant, one that pertained to the common people 
 rather than to the court, was the usual Midsum- 
 mer Watch in London. The following description 
 is from the inimitable pages of Stow: 
 
 " Then had ye besides the standing watches all 
 in bright harness, in every ward and street of the 
 city and suburbs, a marching watch, that passed 
 through the principal streets thereof, to wit, from 
 the Little Conduit by Paul's Gate to West Cheap, 
 by the Stocks through ComhiU, by Leadenhall 
 to Aldgate, then back down Fenchurch Street, by 
 Grass Church, about Grass Church Conduit, and 
 up Grass Church Street into Cornhill, and through 
 
THE LOVE OP SPECTACLES 241 
 
 it into West Cheap again. The whole way for 
 this marching watch extendeth to three thousand 
 three hundred and twenty tailor's yards of assize ; 
 for the furniture whereof with lights, there were 
 appointed seven hundred cressets, five hundred of 
 them being found by the companies, the other 
 two hundred by the chamber of London. 
 Besides the which lights every constable in Lon- 
 don, in number more than two hundred and forty, 
 had his cresset; the charge of every cresset was 
 in light two shillings and four pence, and every 
 cresset had two men, one to bear or hold it, 
 another to bear a bag with light, and to serve 
 it, so that the poor men pertaining to the cressets, 
 taking wages, besides that every one had a straw 
 hat, with a badge painted, and his breakfast in 
 the morning, amounted in number to almost two 
 thousand. The marching watch contained in 
 number about two thousand men, part of them 
 being old soldiers of skill, to be captains, lieuten- 
 ants, sergeants, corporals, etc., whifflers, drum- 
 mers, and fifes, standard and ensign bearers, 
 sword players, trumpeters on horseback, demi- 
 lances on great horses, gunners with hand guns, 
 or half hakes, archers in coats of white fustian, 
 signed on the breast and back with the arms of 
 the city, their bows bent in their hands, with 
 sheaves of arrows by their sides, pikemen in 
 
242 THE ELIZABETHAN PEOPLE 
 
 bright corslets, burganets, etc., halberds, the 
 like billmen in almaine rivets, and aprons of mail 
 in great number ; there were also divers pageants, 
 morris dancers, constables, the one-half, which was 
 one hundred and twenty, on St. John's, the other 
 on St. Peter's Eve, in bright harness, some over- 
 gilt, and every one a jomet of scarlet thereupon, 
 and a chain of gold, his henchman following him, 
 his minstrels before him, his cresset light passing 
 by him, the waits of the city, the mayor's officers 
 for his guard before him, all in a livery of worsted 
 or say jackets parti-coloured, the mayor himself 
 well mounted on horseback, the swordbearer be- 
 fore him in fair armour well mounted also, the 
 mayor's footmen, and the lite torchbearers about 
 him, henchman twain upon great stirring horses, 
 following him. The sheriflF's watches came one 
 after another, but not so large in numbers as the 
 mayor's; for where the mayor had besides his 
 giant three pageants, each of the sheriff's had be- 
 sides their giants but two pageants, each their 
 morris dance, and one henchman, their officers in 
 jackets or worsted or say parti-coloured, differing 
 from the mayor's, and each from other, but hav- 
 ing harnessed men a great many." 
 
 There is not room in the present volume to in- 
 sert a complete description of the parade and 
 pomp of Elizabeth's court. The following brief 
 
THE LOVE OF SPECTACLES 243 
 
 description from the pen of the contemporary 
 traveller, Paul Hentzner, must suffice to illustrate 
 the formality that accompanied the daily life of 
 the great Queen : 
 
 " We arrived next at the royal palace of Green- 
 wich, reported to have been originally built by 
 Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester, and to have re- 
 ceived very magnificent additions from Henry 
 VII. It was here Elizabeth, the present Queen, 
 was born, and here she generally resides, particu- 
 larly in summer for the delightfulness of its situa- 
 tion. We were admitted by an order Mr. Rogers 
 had procured from the Lord Chamberlain into 
 the presence chamber hung with rich tapestry, 
 and the floor, after the English fashion, strewed 
 with hay [rushes], through which the Queen com- 
 monly passes on her way to chapel. At the door 
 stood a gentleman dressed in velvet, with a gold 
 chain, whose office was to introduce to the Queen 
 any person of distinction that came to wait on 
 her; it was Sunday when there was usually the 
 greatest attendance of nobility. In the same hall 
 were the Archbishop of Canterbury, the Bishop 
 of London, a great number of Councillors of State, 
 officers of the Crown, and gentlemen, who waited 
 on the Queen's coming out ; which she did from her 
 own apartment when it was time to go to prayers, 
 attended in the following manner : — 
 
244 THE ELIZABETHAN PEOPLE 
 
 " First went gentlemen, barons, earls, Knights 
 of the Garter, all richly dressed and bareheaded ; 
 next came the Chancellor, bearing the seals in a 
 red silk purse, between two, one of whom carried 
 the Royal sceptre, the other the sword of state, 
 in a red scabbard, studded with golden fleurs de 
 lis, the point upwards: next came the Queen, in 
 the sixty-fifth year of her age, as we were told, 
 very majestic; her face oblong, fair, but wrinkled; 
 her eyes small, yet black and pleasant ; her nose a 
 little hooked ; her lips narrow, and her teeth black 
 (a defect the English seem subject to, from their 
 too groat use of sugar) ; she had in her ears two 
 pearls, with very rich drops ; she wore false hair, 
 and that red; upon her head she had a small 
 crown, reported to be made of some of the gold 
 of the celebrated Lunebourg table ; her bosom was 
 uncovered, as all the English ladies have it till 
 they marry ; and she had on a neckcloth of exceed- 
 ing fine jewels; her hands were small, her fingers 
 long, and her stature neither tall nor low ; her air 
 was stately, and her manner of speaking mild and 
 obliging. That day she was dressed in white silk, 
 bordered with pearls of the size of beans, and over 
 it a mantle of black silk, shot with silver threads ; 
 her train was very long, the end of it borne by a 
 marchioness ; instead of a chain she had an oblong 
 collar of gold and jewels. As she went along in 
 
THE LOVE OF SPECTACLES M5 
 
 all this state and magnificence, she spoke very 
 graciously, first to one then to another, whether 
 foreign Ministers, or those who attended for dif- 
 ferent reasons, in English, French, and Italian; 
 for, besides being well skilled in Greek, Latin, and 
 the languages I have mentioned, she is mistress of 
 Spanish, Scotch, and Dutch. Whoever speaks 
 to her, it is kneeling; now and then she raises 
 some one with her hand. While we were there, W. 
 Slawata, a Bohemian baron, had letters to present 
 to her ; and she, after pulling off her glove, gave 
 him her right hand to kiss, sparkling with rings 
 and jewels, a mark of particular favour. Wher- 
 ever she turned her face, as she was going along, 
 D^TOTyhni^y M\ fin yfn ou their knees . The ladies 
 of the court followed next to her, very handsome 
 and well shaped, and for the most part dressed 
 in white. She was guarded on each side by the 
 gentlemen pensioners, fifty in number, with gilt 
 battle-axes. In the ante-chapel, next the hall 
 where we were, petitions were presented to her, 
 and she received them most graciously which oc- 
 casioned the acclamation of ' Long Live Queen 
 Elizabeth ! ' She answered it with ' I thank you, 
 my good people.' In the chapel was excellent 
 music; as soon as it and the service were over, 
 which scarce exceeded half an hour, the Queen 
 returned in the same state and order, and pre- 
 
246 THE ELIZABETHAN PEOPLE 
 
 pared to go to dinner. But while she was still at 
 prayers, we saw her table set out with the follow- 
 ing solemnity: — 
 
 " A gentleman entered the room bearing a rod, 
 and along with him another who had a table-cloth 
 which, after they had both kneeled three times with' 
 the utmost veneration, he spread upon the table, 
 and, after kneeling again, they both retired. Then 
 came two others, one with the rod again, the other 
 with a salt-cellar, a plate, and bread; when they 
 had kneeled as the others had done, and placed 
 what was brought upon the table, they too retired 
 with the same ceremonies performed by the first. 
 At last came an unmarried lady (we were told she 
 was a countess), and along with her a married one, 
 bearing a tasting knife; the former was dressed 
 in white silk, who, when she had prostrated herself 
 three times in the most graceful manner, ap- 
 proached the table and rubbed the plates with 
 bread and salt with as much awe as if the Queen 
 had been present. When they had waited there 
 a little while the yeomen of the guards entered, 
 bareheaded, clothed in scarlet, with a golden rose 
 upon their backs, bringing in at each turn a 
 course of twenty-four dishes, served in plate, most 
 of it gilt; these dishes were received by a gentle- 
 man in the same order they were brought, and 
 placed upon the table, while the lady taster gave 
 

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THE LOVE OF SPECTACLES 247 
 
 to each of the guard a mouthful to eat of the par- 
 ticular dish he bad brought, for fear of any 
 poison. During the time that this guard, which 
 consists of the tallest and stoutest men that can 
 be found in all England, being carefully selected 
 for this service, were bringing dinner, twelve trum- 
 pets and two kettle drums made the hall ring for 
 half an hour together. At the end of all this cere- 
 monial, a number of unmarried ladies appeared, 
 who, with particular solemnity, lifted the meat 
 off the table, and conveyed it into the Queen's 
 inner and more private chamber, where after she 
 had chosen for herself, the rest goes to the ladies 
 of the Court." 
 
 It is interesting to set beside this a description 
 of the more sociable kind of state dinner enjoyed 
 by Elizabeth's successor, King James. The de- 
 scription is from the pen of Juan Fernandez de 
 Velasco, Ambassador of Philip III. to England 
 in 1604.* 
 
 " The audience chamber was elegantly fur- 
 nished, having a buffet of several stages, filled with 
 various pieces of ancient and modem gilt plate 
 of exquisite workmanship. A railing was placed 
 on each side of the room in order to prevent the 
 
 * The account is published by Rye, p. 118, and is pre- 
 ceded by an engraving illustrative of a similar banquet 
 given by the king. 
 
THE ELIZABETHAN PEOPLE 
 
 crowd from approaching too near the table. At 
 the right hand upon entering was another buffet, 
 containing rich vessels of gold, agate, and other 
 precious stones. The table might be about five 
 yards in length, and more than one yard broad. 
 The dishes were brought in by gentlemen and ser- 
 vants of the King, who was accompanied by the 
 Lord Chamberlain, and before placing them on 
 the table they made four or five obeisances. The 
 Earls of Pembroke and of Southampton officiated 
 as gentlemen-ushers. Their Majesties with the 
 Prince Henry entered after the Constable and 
 the others, and placed themselves at their throne, 
 and all stood in a line to hear the grace said; the 
 Constable being at the King's side, and the Count 
 de Villamediana on the Queen's. Their Majesties 
 washed their hands in the same basin, the Lord 
 Treasurer handing the towel to the King, and the 
 High Admiral to the Queen. The Prince washed 
 in another basin, in which water was also taken 
 to the Constable, who was waited upon by the 
 same gentlemen. They took their seats in the 
 following manner: their Majesties sat at the 
 head of the table, at a distance from each other 
 under a canopy of state, the Queen being upon 
 the right hand, on chairs of brocade with cush- 
 ions ; and at her side, a little apart, sat the Con- 
 stable, on a tabouret of brocade with a high 
 
THE LOVE OF SPECTACLES 249 
 
 cushion of the same, and on the side of the King 
 the Prince was seated in like manner. On the op- 
 posite side of the table and on the right sat Count 
 Yillamediana, and next to him the Senator Rovida 
 opposite the Constable ; and on the same side with 
 the senator, nearly fronting the Prince, were 
 seated the President Richardot and the Audi- 
 encier ; a space in front being left vacant owing to 
 the absence of the Count d'Arembergue, who was 
 prevented by the gout from attending. The prin- 
 cipal noblemen of the kingdom were likewise at the 
 table, in particular the Duke of Lenox," etc. 
 Then follows a long list of noblemen and their titles 
 who were present at the dinner. " There was 
 plenty of instrumental music, and the banquet was 
 sumptuous and profuse. The first thing the King 
 did was to send the Constable a melon and half 
 a dozen of oranges on a very green branch, telling 
 him that they were the fruit of Spain transplanted 
 into England; to which the latter, kissing his 
 hand, replied that he valued the gift more as com- 
 ing from his Majesty than as being the fruit of 
 his own country ; he then divided the melon among 
 their Majesties, and Don Blasco de Aragon handed 
 the plate to the Queen, who politely and graciously 
 acknowledged the attention. Soon afterwards 
 the King stood up, and with his head uncovered 
 drank to the Constable the health of their Spanish 
 
250 THE ELIZABETHAN PEOPLE 
 
 Majesties, and may the peace be happy and per- 
 petual. The Constable pledged him in like man- 
 ner, and replied that he entertained the same hope 
 and that from the peace the greatest advantages 
 might result to both crowns and to Christendom. 
 The toast was then drunk by the Count Villame- 
 diana and the others present, to the delight and 
 applause of their Majesties. Immediately after- 
 wards the Constable, seeing that another oppor- 
 tunity might not be offered him, rose and drank to 
 the King the health of the Queen from the lid of 
 a cup of agate of extraordinary beauty and rich- 
 ness, set with diamonds and rubies, praying his 
 Majesty would condescend to drink the toast from 
 the cup, which he did accordingly, and ordered 
 it to be passed round to the Prince and others; 
 and the Constable directed that the cup should 
 remain in his Majesty's buffet. At this period the 
 people shouted out : ' Peace, peace, peace! God 
 save the King! God save the King! God save the 
 King! ' and a king at arms presented himself be- 
 fore the table, and after the drums, trumpets, and 
 other instruments had sounded, with a loud voice 
 said in English: — 'that the kingdom returned 
 many thanks to his Majesty for having concluded 
 with the King of Spain so advantageous a peace, 
 and he hoped to God it might endure for many 
 ages, and his subjects hoped that his Majesty 
 
THE LOVE OF SPECTACLES 251 
 
 would endeavor with all his might to maintain it, 
 so that they might enjoy from it tranquility and 
 repose, and that security and advantage might 
 result to all his people ; and therefore they prayed 
 him to allow the same to be published in the king- 
 dom and the dominions of his Majesty.' The 
 King gave permission accordingly and the peace 
 was forthwith proclaimed in that city, the 
 proclamation being repeated at every fifty 
 paces. 
 
 " The Constable rose a second time, and drank 
 to the Queen the health of the King from a very 
 beautiful dragon-shaped cup of crystal garnished 
 with gold, drinking from the cover, and the Queen 
 standing up gave the pledge from the cup itself, 
 Don Blasco de Aragon performing on this oc- 
 casion the office of cup-bearer as also interpreter 
 to what was spoken by the Constable and the 
 Queen, on whose [i.^. the Queen's] buffet he or- 
 dered that the cup should remain." In like man- 
 ner the banquet proceeded, health after health 
 being proposed in succession till the whole com- 
 pany adjourned to the neighbouring hall to spend 
 the further time in dancing. 
 
 A form of dramatic entertainment has been re- 
 served for description here because essentially a 
 part of the pomp and circumstance of court life 
 and of the life of the nobleman rather than a part 
 
252 THE ELIZABETHAN PEOPLE 
 
 of those kinds of dramatic amusement that have 
 been described in Chapter XIV. of the author's 
 Shakespeare's London. 
 
 The masque, which reached its greatest glory 
 during the reign of King James, had a very meagre 
 beginning long before in England. In the begin- 
 ning it was nothing more than a form of dis- 
 guising indulged in by some of the regular guests 
 who took part in a festive occasion where dancing 
 was a part of the ceremony. These details must 
 be constantly borne in mind. The masquers were 
 of the regular and expected guests, there was al- 
 ways a dance to give rise to the masque, and there 
 was a disguise. Bacon, in his essay Of Masques 
 and Triumphs, says, " Let the suits of the mas- 
 quers be graceful and such as become the person 
 when the vizers are off; not after examples of 
 known attires — Turks, soldiers, mariners, and the 
 like." This allusion is to what constituted the 
 next step in the development of the masque, namely 
 the assumption of some costume that was so un- 
 usual as to require a word of explanation. It 
 was customary to have this explanation of what 
 the masquers represented spoken by a page, and 
 it is such a speech that is referred to in Romeo 
 and Juliet under the name " without-book pro- 
 logue." When the page had spoken his piece he 
 withdreiv^ ftud left the masquers to choose their 
 
Olu House in Guub Street, London", illustrating timber construction. 
 (From a print in Smith's collection.) 
 
THE LOVE OF SPECTACLES 253 
 
 partners for the dance from among the ladies 
 present. 
 
 Out of this prologue grew the habit of prefac- 
 ing the dancing by more or less elaborate conver- 
 sation, written for the masquers beforehand and 
 committed by them to memory. As soon as it 
 was done with, they, as usual, chose their partners, 
 and the dance which gave occasion for the masque 
 began. This dramatic dialogue in turn developed 
 to such an extent that it became more than an 
 easy task for amateurs, and professional actors, 
 often of the comic and vaudeville type, were called 
 in to assist. They and their parts constituted 
 the anti-mask. As was the case with the prologue, 
 as soon as the anti-masque was over, or the whole 
 dramatic entertainment which contained the anti- 
 masque, was over, the professional actors withdrew, 
 leaving the masquers proper to go on with their 
 dancing. " Let the anti-masques not be long," 
 says Bacon ; " they have been commonly of fools, 
 satyrs, baboons, wild men, antiques, beasts, spirits, 
 witches, Ethiopes, pigmies, turquets [Turkish 
 dwarfs], nymphs, rustics, Cupids, statuas moving, 
 and the like." 
 
 This is the stage to which the masque attained 
 during the height of its popularity in the reign of 
 James. It was, however, a far more elaborate 
 affair than has been hinted at above. The prepa- 
 
254 THE ELIZABETHAN PEOPLE 
 
 ration of a masque occupied many days. The poet, 
 the musician, the professional actor, and the stage 
 carpenter were all called in to contribute, each 
 his part, to the production of the entertainment. 
 And of all these, the words of the poet were con- 
 sidered as the least important. It was not a 
 drama but a spectacle in which the dramatic dia- 
 logue bore a very subordinate part. Jonson was 
 the most skilful of Elizabethan masque writers and 
 has born testimony to his chagrin at the fact that 
 the poet's part of the labour was so slightly es- 
 teemed. The most skilled musicians were em- 
 ployed to compose music for the occasion; and 
 such a famous architect as Inigo Jones did not 
 consider it beneath his dignity to design and build 
 the stage effects. The expense of a masque was so 
 great as to completely rule such attempts at stage 
 setting from the public stage, a fact that should 
 be taken into consideration when the subject of 
 scenery on the Elizabethan public stage is dis- 
 cussed. The magnificence of these masques is well 
 illustrated by the following comments in the na- 
 ture of stage directions that accompany the text 
 of Beaumont's Mash of the Inner Temple and 
 Grafs Inn: 
 
 " This Masque was appointed to have been pre- 
 sented the Shrove-Tuesday before, at which time 
 the masquers, with their attendants, and divers 
 
THE LOVE OF SPECTACLES 255 
 
 others, gallant young gentlemen of both houses, 
 as their convoy, set forth from Winchester-house 
 (which was the rendezvous) towards the court, 
 abo"t seven of the clock at night. 
 
 " This voyage by water was performed in great 
 triumph: the gentlemen-masquers being placed by 
 themselves in the King's royal barge, with the rich 
 furniture of state, and adorned with a great num- 
 ber of lights, placed in such order as might make 
 the best show. 
 
 " They were attended with a multitude of barges 
 and gallies, with all variety of loud music, and 
 several peals of ordnance; and led by two 
 admirals. 
 
 " Of this show his majesty was graciously 
 pleased to take view, with the prince, the Count 
 Palatine and the Lady Elizabeth their highnesses, 
 at the windows of his privy gallery, upon the 
 water, till their landing, which was at the privy 
 stairs; where they were most honourably received 
 by the lord-chamberlain, and so conducted to the 
 vestry. 
 
 " The hall was by that time filled with company 
 of very good fashion, but yet so as a very great 
 number of principal ladies and other noble per- 
 sons were not yet come in, whereby it was fore- 
 seen that the room would be so scanted as might 
 have been inconvenient; and thereupon his maj- 
 
256 THE ELIZABETHAN PEOPLE 
 
 esty was most graciously pleased, with the con- 
 sent of the gentlemen-masquers, to put off the 
 night until Saturday following, with the special 
 favour and privilege, that there should be no let 
 as to the outward ceremony of magnificence until 
 that time. 
 
 " At the day that it was presented, there was a 
 choice room reserved for the gentlemen of both 
 their houses, who, coming in troup about seven 
 of the clock, received that special honour and noble 
 favour, as to be brought to their places by the 
 Right Honourable the Earl of Northampton, 
 Lord-Privy Seal. 
 
 " The Device or Argument of the Masque. 
 
 Jupiter and Juno, willing to do honour to the 
 marriage of the two famous rivers Thamesis and 
 Rhine, employ their messengers severally, Mer- 
 cury and Iris, for that purpose. They meet and 
 contend: then Mercury, for his part, brings forth 
 an anti-masque all of spirits or divine natures; 
 but yet not of one kind or livery (because that 
 had been so much in use heretofore), but, as it 
 were, in consort, like to broken music; and, pre- 
 serving the propriety of the device, — for that 
 rivers in nature are maintained either by springs 
 from beneath or showers from above, — ^he raisetl} 
 
THE LOVE OF SPECTACLES 257 
 
 four of the Naiades out of the fountains, and 
 bringeth down five of the Hyades out of the clouds 
 to dance. Hereupon Iris scoffs at Mercury, for 
 that he had devised a dance but of one sex, which 
 could have no life; but Mercury, who was pro- 
 vided for that exception, and in token that the 
 match should be blessed both with love and riches, 
 calleth forth out of the groves four Cupids, and 
 brings down from Jupiter's altar four Statuas of 
 gold and silver, to dance with the Nymphs and 
 Stars ; in which dance, the Cupids being blind, and 
 the Statuas having but half life put into them, 
 and retaining still somewhat of their old nature, 
 giveth fit occasion to new and strange varieties 
 both in the music and paces. This was the first 
 anti-masque. 
 
 " Then Iris, for her part, in scorn of this high- 
 flying device, and in token that the match shall 
 likewise be blessed with the love of the common 
 people, calls to Flora, her confederate, — for that 
 the months of flowers are likewise the months of 
 sweet showers and rainbows, — to bring in a May- 
 dance, or rural dance, consisting likewise not of 
 any suited persons, but of a confusion or com- 
 mixture of all such persons as are natural and 
 proper for country sports. This is the second 
 anti-masque. 
 
 " Then Mercury and Iris, after this vying one 
 
258 THE ELIZABETHAN PEOPLE 
 
 upon the other, seem to leave their contention; 
 and Mercury, by the consent of Iris, brings down 
 the Olympian Knights, intimating that Jupiter 
 having, after a long discontinuance, revived the 
 Olympian games, and summoned thereunto from 
 all parts the liveliest and activest persons that 
 were, had enjoined them, before they fell to their 
 games, to do honour to these nuptials. The 
 Olympian games portend to the match celeb- 
 rity, victory, and felicity. This was the main 
 masque. 
 
 " The fabric was a mountain with two descents, 
 and served with two traverses [curtains]. 
 
 " At the entrance of the King, 
 
 The first traverse was drawn, and the lower de- 
 scent of the mountain discovered, which was the 
 pendant of a hill to life, with divers boscages and 
 grovets upon the steep or hanging grounds there- 
 of ; and at the foot of the hill four delicate foun- 
 tains, running with water and bordered with 
 sedges and water-flowers. 
 
 " Iris first appeared ; and, presently after. Mer- 
 cury, striving to overtake her. Iris apparelled in 
 a robe of discoloured [of various colours] taffeta, 
 figured in variable colours, like the rainbow, a 
 cloudy wreath on her head, and tresses. Mercury 
 in doublet and hose of white taffeta, a white hat. 
 
THE LOVE OF SPECTACLES 259 
 
 wings on his shoulders and feet, his caduceus in 
 his hand, speaking to Iris as foUoweth: — 
 
 Immediately upon which speech, four Naiades 
 arise gentle out of their several fountains, and 
 present themselves upon the stage, attired in long 
 habits of sea-green taffeta, with bubbles of crystal, 
 intermixt with powdering of silver, resembling 
 drops of water, bluish tresses, on their heads gar- 
 lands of water-lilies. They fall into a measure, 
 dance a little, then make a stand. 
 
 Five Hyades descend softly in a cloud from the 
 firmament to the middle part of the hill, appar- 
 elled in sky-coloured taiTeta robes, spangled like 
 the heavens, golden tresses, and each a fair star 
 on their head; from thence descend to the stage; 
 at whose sight the Naiades, seeming to rejoice, 
 meet and join in a dance. 
 
 Enter four Cupids from each side of the boscage, 
 attired in flame-coloured taffeta close to their 
 body, like naked boys, with bows, arrows, and 
 wings of gold, chaplets of flowers on their heads, 
 hood-winged with tiffilny scarfs; who join with the 
 Nymphs and the Hyades in another dance. That 
 ended. Mercury speaks. 
 
THE ELIZABETHAN PEOPLE 
 
 The Statuas enter, supposed to be before de- 
 scended from Jove's Altar, and to have been pre- 
 pared in the covert with the Cupids, attending 
 their call. 
 
 " These Statuas were attired in cases of gold 
 and silver close to their body, faces, hands, and 
 feet; nothing seen but gold and silver, as if they 
 had been solid images of the metal ; tresses of hair, 
 as if they had been of metal embossed, girdles and 
 small aprons of oaken leaves, as if they likewise 
 had been carved or moulded out of the metal; at 
 their coming, the music changed from violins to 
 hautboys, cornets, etc., and the air of the music 
 was utterly turned into a soft time, with draw- 
 ing notes, excellently expressing their natures, 
 and the measure likewise was fitted unto the same, 
 and the Statuas placed in such several postures, 
 sometimes altogether in the centre of the dance, 
 and sometimes in the four utmost angles, as was 
 very graceful, besides the novelty. And so con- 
 cluded the first Anti-masque. 
 
 • • ■ • • 
 
 The second Anti-masque rush in, dance their 
 measure, and as rudely depart; consisting of a 
 Pedant, May-Lord, May-Lady, Servingman, 
 Chambermaid, a Country Clown or Shepherd, 
 Country Wench ; an Host, Hostess ; a He-Baboon, 
 
Carved exterior of Sir Paul Pindar's House, London, illus- 
 trating ORNAMENTAL EXTERIOR WOODWORK. 
 
 (From a print in Williinson's collection.) 
 
THE LOVE OF SPECTACLES 261 
 
 She-Baboon ; a He-Fool, She-Fool, ushering them 
 in. 
 
 "All these persons apparelled to the life, the 
 men issuing out of one side of the boscage, and 
 the women from the other. The music was ex- 
 tremely well fitted, having such a spirit of country 
 jollity as can hardly be imagined; but the per- 
 petual laughter and applause was above the music. 
 
 " The dance likewise was of the same strain ; 
 and the dancers, or rather actors, expressed every 
 one their part so naturally and aptly, as when a 
 man's eye was caught with one, and then passed 
 on to the other, he could not satisfy himself which 
 did best. It pleased his Majesty to call for it 
 again at the end, as he did likewise for the first 
 Anti-Masque; but one of the Statuas by that 
 time was undressed. 
 
 The Main Masque. — The second traverse is 
 drawn, and the higher ascent of the mountain is 
 discovered; wherein, upon a level, after a great 
 rise of the hill, were placed two pavilions, open in 
 the front of them: the pavilions were to sight as 
 of cloth of gold, and they were trimmed on the 
 inside with rich armour and military furniture 
 hanged up as upon walls; and behind the tents 
 there were represented in prospective the tops of 
 divers other tents, as if it had been a camp. la 
 
262 THE ELIZABETHAN PEOPLE 
 
 these pavilions were placed fifteen Olympian 
 Knights, upon seats a little embowed near the 
 form of a croisant; and the Knights appeared 
 first, as consecrated persons, all in veils, like to 
 copes, of silver tiffiny, gathered, and falling, a 
 large compass about them, and over their heads 
 high mitres, with long pendants behind falling 
 from them ; the mitres were so high that they re- 
 ceived their hats and feathers, that nothing was 
 seen but veil. In the midst between both the tents, 
 upon the very top of the hill, being a higher level 
 that than that of the tents, was placed Jupiter's 
 altar, gilt, with three great tapers upon golden 
 candle-sticks burning upon it; and the four Sta- 
 tuas, two of gold, two of silver, as supporters, and 
 Jupiter's priests in white robes about it. Upon 
 the sight of the King, the veils of the Knights did 
 fall easily from them, and they appeared in their 
 own habit. 
 
 " The Knights' Attire. — ^Arming doublets of 
 carnation satin, embroidered with blazing stars of 
 silver plate, with powderings of smaller stars be- 
 twixt; gorgets of silver mail; long hose of the 
 same, with the doublets laid with silver lace 
 spangled, and enriched with embroidery between 
 the lace; carnation silk stockings embroidered all 
 over ; garters and roses suitable ; pumps of carna- 
 tion satin embroidered as the doublets ; hats of the 
 
THE LOVE OF SPECTACLES 
 
 same stuff and embroidery, cut like a helmet be- 
 fore, the hinder part cut into scollops answering 
 the skirts of their doublets; the bands of their 
 hats were wreaths of silver in form of garlands of 
 wild olives ; white feathers, with one fall of carna- 
 tion; belts of the same stuff, and embroidered 
 with the doublet; silver swords; little Italian 
 bands and cuffs embroidered with silver; fair long 
 tresses of hair. 
 
 " The Priests' Habits. — ^Long robes of white 
 taffeta ; long white heads of hair ; the High-Priest 
 a cap of white silk shag close to his head, with two 
 labels at the ears, the midst rising in form of a 
 pyramis, in the top thereof a branch of silver; 
 every Priest playing upon a lute; twelve in 
 number. 
 
 " The Priests descend, and sing this song fol- 
 lowing; after whom the Knights likewise descend, 
 first laying aside their veils, belts and swords. 
 
 The Knights by this time are all descended and 
 fallen into their place, and then dance their first 
 measure. 
 
 The Knights dance their second measure. 
 
 The Knights take their ladies to dance with them 
 galliards, durets, corantos, etc., and then lead 
 
264 THE ELIZABETHAN PEOPLE 
 
 them to their places ; then loud music sounds, sup- 
 posed to call them to their Olympian games. 
 
 The Knights dance their parting measure, and 
 ascend, put on their swords and belts; during 
 which time the Priests sing 
 
 " The Fifth and Last Song." 
 
 This running commentary to Beaumont's masque 
 illustrates all of the parts of a masque as described 
 above. It also serves to illustrate the magnificence 
 of dress, music, and scenery necessary to the suc- 
 cessful presentation of a masque at the height of 
 the popularity of this kind of amusement. The fact 
 that all the text proper, that is, the lines written 
 by the poet, has been omitted, and yet so much 
 remains, points out the relative importance of the 
 poet's work to that of the other contributors to 
 the entertainment. In this respect it may be well 
 to notice that the splendid poetry of Milton's 
 Comus, is a priceless heritage to us ; but the very 
 splendour and amount of the poetic verses are in 
 reality somewhat against it as a masque. Who 
 amid such splendour of accompaniment, the merri- 
 ment of a great festive occasion cares to abstract 
 his mind enough to appreciate the verse of Comus. 
 Few will deny that the productions of Shakespeare 
 lose much in the great spectacular presentations 
 
THE LOVE OF SPECTACLES 265 
 
 that are now sometimes given during the Lon- 
 don season. Conversely, a poet who designs and 
 writes his verse to fit such a presentation need 
 take no less care. The power expended upon 
 Comus was unnecessary and not likely to be of 
 value in its place. 
 
CHAPTER X 
 POPULAR SUPERSTITION 
 
 IT is difficult for us to imagine the sincere 
 quality of the faith with which people then 
 accepted the articles of folklore superstition that 
 were in vogue. People not only believed in ghosts, 
 witches, wise women, fortune tellers, palmists, as- 
 trologers, and fairies, with implicit faith; they 
 also believed in omens by the score and score, con- 
 nected with numberless plants and animals, with 
 days of the week and hours of the day, with nat- 
 ural objects on the earth, the sun, the moon, and 
 the stars. This was not a matter of faith with 
 the common people alone ; it was a part as well of 
 the belief of the most educated, the most refined, 
 the most intelligent of people. Elizabeth was a 
 firm believer in astrology. She once sent in great 
 excitement for a magician to counteract the dire- 
 ful effects of a waxen image that had been picked 
 up in one of the fields near London. One of the 
 customary ways of bewitching people was to 
 fashion a small image out of wax to represent the 
 person to be bewitched. Whatver was done to the 
 image happened without delay to the original. If 
 266 
 
POPULAR SUPERSTITION 267 
 
 the model were stuck full of pins the person it 
 stood for suffered sharp pains in all parts of the 
 body. If the model were hung up before the fire 
 and allowed to melt slowly away from day to 
 day, the original would go into a decline and die 
 simultaneously with the final disappearance of 
 the waxen image. On another occasion Elizabeth 
 sought the services of Dr. Dee, a noted astrologer, 
 rather than consult a physician to counteract the 
 effect of a toothache. The date of her coronation 
 was determined by astrology with great success. 
 Many intelligent people in the kingdom believed 
 that Leicester's great influence over the queen 
 could be explained only by taking into considera- 
 tion the magical effect of the fact that they were 
 both born at the same time, to the hour and day. 
 Even the learned scholar John Stow in all faith 
 explains the common accident of a church struck 
 by lightning as the work of a personal devil who 
 was actually seen entering the belfry window ; and, 
 furthermore, Stow himself had often examined the 
 prints left by the claws of the evil doer, and had 
 inserted a feather into them to the depth of several 
 inches. 
 
 Laveterus who wrote a book, De Spectris, in 
 1670, which was translated into English in 1672, 
 remarks that " if when men sit at the table, men- 
 tion be made of spirits and elves, many times 
 
268 THE ELIZABETHAN PEOPLE 
 
 women and children are so afraid that they dare 
 scarce go out of doors alone lest they should meet 
 with some evil thing; and if they chance to hear 
 any kind of noise, by and by they think there are 
 some spirits behind them: • . . simple foolish 
 men imagine that there be certain elves or fairies 
 of the earth, and tell many strange and mar- 
 vellous tales of them, which they have heard of 
 their grandmothers and mothers, how they have 
 appeared unto those of the house, have done ser- 
 vice, have rocked the cradle, and (which is a sign 
 of good luck) do continually tarry in the house." 
 
 The same writer also tells of a custom that 
 helps to explain the generality of the credence 
 of grown people, for it was bred in them from 
 childhood. 
 
 " It is a common custom in many places, that 
 at a certain time of the year, one with a net or 
 vizard on his face maketh children afraid, to the 
 end that ever after they should labour and be 
 obedient to their parents ; afterward they tell 
 them that those which they saw were bugs, witches, 
 and hags, which they verily believe, and are com- 
 monly miserably afraid. How be it, it is not 
 expedient so to terrify children. For sometime 
 through great fear they fall into dangerous 
 deseases, and in the night cry out when they are 
 fast asleep." 
 
I" 
 
 K 
 < 
 
POPULAR SUPERSTITION 269 
 
 Reginald Scott further dilates upon the sub- 
 ject: "In our childhood our mother's maids have 
 so terrified us with an ugly devil, having horns in 
 his head, fire in his mouth, and a tail in his breech, 
 eyes like a bason, fangs like a dog, and a voice 
 roaring like a lion, whereby we start and are 
 afraid when we hear one cry boo: and they have 
 so fraid [frightened] us with bull-beggars, spirits, 
 witches, urchens, elves, hags, fairies, satyrs, pans, 
 fauns, syrens, kit with the can'stick, tritons, cen- 
 taurs, dwarfs, giants, imps, calcars [astrologers], 
 conjurors, nymphs, changelings. Incubus, Robin 
 Grood-fellow, the sporne, the mare, the man in the 
 oak, the hell-wain, the firedrake, the puckle Tom- 
 thumb, hob-goblin, Tom Tumbler, boneless, and 
 other such bugs [terrors], that we are afraid of 
 our own shadows: insomuch that some never fear 
 the devil but in a dark night; and then a polled 
 sheep is a perilous beast, and many times is taken 
 for our father's soul, specially in a churchyard, 
 where a right hardy man heretofore scant durst 
 pass by night, but his hair would stand upright." 
 {Discovery of Witchcraft, 1580.) 
 
 Addison tells us in The Spectator (No. 419) 
 that " our forefathers loved to astonish themselves 
 with the apprehensions of witchcraft, prodigies, 
 and charms, and inchantments. There was not a 
 village in England that had not a ghost in it ; the 
 
270 THE ELIZABETHAN PEOPLE 
 
 churchyards were all haunted; every large com- 
 mon circles of fairies belonging to it; and there 
 was scarce a shepherd to be met with who had not 
 seen a spirit." 
 
 Two other quotations are added from more 
 recent writers that will help to fix in mind the 
 generality of superstition in England in former 
 times. 
 
 " In former times these notions were so pre- 
 valent that it was deemed little less than atheism 
 to doubt them; and in many instances the terrors 
 caused by them embittered the lives of a great 
 number of persons of all ages ; by degrees almost 
 shutting them out of their own houses, and deter- 
 ring them from going from one village to another 
 after sunset. The room in which the head of a 
 family had died was for a long time untenanted; 
 particularly if they died without a will, or were 
 supposed to have entertained any particular re- 
 ligious opinions. But if any disconsolate old 
 maiden, or love-crossed bachelor, happened to 
 dispatch themselves in their garters, the room 
 where the deed was perpetrated was rendered for- 
 ever afterward uninhabitable, and not infre- 
 quently was nailed up. If a drunken farmer, re- 
 turning from market, fell from old Dobbin and 
 broke his neck, — or a carter, under the same pre- 
 dicament, tumbled from his cart or wagon, and 
 
POPULAR SUPERSTITION 271 
 
 was killed by it, — ^that spot was ever after haunted 
 and impassable : in short there was scarcely a bye- 
 lane or cross-way but had its ghost, who appeared 
 in the shape of a headless cow or horse ; or clothed 
 all in white, glared with its saucer eyes over a gate 
 or stile. Ghosts of a superior rank, when they 
 appeared abroad, rode in coaches drawn by six 
 headless horses, and driven by a headless coach- 
 man and postillions. Almost every ancient manor 
 house was haunted by some one at least of its 
 former masters or mistresses, where, besides divers 
 other noises, that of telling money was distinctly 
 heard; and as for the churchyards, the number of 
 ghosts that walked there, according to the village 
 computation, almost equaled the living parishion- 
 ers : to pass them at night was an achievement not 
 to be attempted by any one in the parish, the sex- 
 tons excepted; who perhaps, being particularly 
 privileged, to make use of the common expression, 
 never saw anything worse than themselves." 
 {Grose's Provincial Glossary, p. 242.) 
 
 " Nothing is commoner in country places than 
 for a whole family in a winter's evening to sit 
 round the fire and tell stories of apparitions and 
 ghosts. Some of them have seen spirits in the 
 shape of cows, and dogs, and horses; and some 
 have seen even the devil himself, with a cloven 
 foot. 
 
272 THE ELIZABETHAN PEOPLE 
 
 " Another part of this conversation generally 
 turns upon fairies. These, they tell you, have 
 been frequently heard and seen; nay, there are 
 some still living who were stolen away by them, 
 and confined seven years. According to the de- 
 scription they give of them, who pretend to have 
 seen them, they are in the shape of men, exceed- 
 ing little : they are always clad in green, and fre- 
 quent the woods and fields ; when they make cakes 
 (which is a work they have been often heard at) 
 they are very noisy: and when they have done, 
 they are full of mirth and pastime. But gener- 
 ally they dance in moonlight when mortals are 
 asleep, and not capable of seeing them, as may 
 be observed on the following morn ; their dancing 
 places being very distinguishable. For as they 
 dance hand in hand and so make a circle in their 
 dance, so next day there will be seen rings and 
 circles on the grass. 
 
 " Another tradition they hold, and which is often 
 talked of, is, that there are particular places al- 
 lotted to spirits to walk in. Thence it was that 
 formerly, such frequent reports were abroad of 
 this and that particular place being haunted by a 
 spirit, and that the common people say now and 
 then, such a place is dangerous to be passed 
 through, because a spirit walks there. Now, 
 they'll further tell you, that some spirits have 
 
POPULAR SUPERSTITION 273 
 
 lamented the hardness of their condition, by be- 
 ing obliged to walk in cold and uncomfortable 
 places, and therefore desire the person who was so 
 hardy as to speak to them, to gift them with a 
 warmer walk, by some well grown hedge, or some 
 shady vale, where they might be sheltered from 
 the wind and rain. 
 
 " The last topic of this conversation I shall take 
 notice of, shall be the tales of haunted houses. 
 And indeed it is not to be wondered at that this 
 is never omitted. For formerly almost every 
 place had a house of this kind. If a house was 
 seated on some melancholy place, or built in some 
 old romantic manner; or if any particular acci- 
 dent had happened in it, such as murder, sudden 
 death, or the like, to be sure that house had a 
 mark set on it, and was afterwards esteemed the 
 habitation of a ghost. In talking upon this point 
 they generally show the occasion of the house's 
 being haunted, the merry pranks of the spirit, 
 and how it was laid. Stories of this kind are in- 
 finite, and there are few villages which have not 
 either had such an house in it, or near it." 
 (^Bourne's Antiquities of the Common People.) 
 
 With the fact of such widespread and deep- 
 rooted notions of the truth of the folk-lore tra- 
 ditions in mind, one will not be surprised to find 
 how hemmed about every-day life was by an in- 
 
274 THE ELIZABETHAN PEOPLE 
 
 numerable miscellany of omens, good, bad, and in- 
 different. 
 
 Raven's eggs were good for the ague. A large 
 house spider swallowed alive in treacle was a sure 
 cure. The salamander's skin would keep one from 
 sun burning. Tumours could be removed by 
 stroking with a dead man's hand. Carduus 
 Benedictus was called the Holy or Blessed thistle 
 from its supposed virtue as an antidote for poison. 
 The Thracian stone when touched cured grief and 
 melancholy. Feeding on snakes was supposed to 
 recover youth. Amulets were believed in and con- 
 stantly worn. There were rings to counteract en- 
 chantments, charms against the evil effects of 
 thunder — for it was the mysterious thunder-stone 
 precipitated by a clap that the Elizabethan feared, 
 not the lightning. There were waistcoats ren- 
 dered shot-proof by charms. The carbuncle had 
 the power of expelling evil spirits. It was a 
 sign of excellent good luck to have the martlet 
 build its nest about the house. Gerard, though a 
 scientist, does not hesitate to record the following 
 facts in his herbal (p. 147) : " The roots of 
 the garden angelica is a singular remedy against 
 poison, and against the plague, and all infections 
 taken by evil and corrupt air ; if you do but take 
 a piece of the root, and hold it in your mouth, 
 or chew the same between your teeth, it doth most 
 
POPULAR SUPERSTITION 275 
 
 certainly drive away the pestilent air." This is 
 but one of hundreds of the medical superstitions, 
 some of them with more than a grain of truth, 
 that clustered about plants or simples, in com- 
 mon use at that day. 
 
 This list of signs or superstitions with a fa- 
 vourable significance could be extended almost in- 
 definitely; but omens of the opposite sort were 
 even greater in number. It was ill luck to hear 
 a toad croak, or the owl hoot. Mice only for- 
 sook houses before their fall. The withering of 
 the bay tree was a sign of bad luck. Beasts of the 
 field licking against the hair foretold a direful 
 storm. Anything begun or finished during an 
 eclipse was sure to turn out badly. It was a 
 positive sign of an unlucky life to be born dur- 
 ing the dog days. Friday was then as now, an 
 unfortunate day on which to set out upon a jour- 
 ney, or on which to begin an important enterprise. 
 It was a direful neglect if one passed a memorial 
 cross without murmuring a pater noster. One 
 who stumbled upon the threshold would certainly 
 meet with trouble within. " He sleeps like a hare, 
 with his eyes open, and that's no good sign." 
 (Ford, The Lover's Melancholy, ii. 2.) It was 
 bad luck to meet a splay-footed wench in the 
 forenoon; so it was to sit at the foot of a sick 
 bed. Anything out of the ordinary was inter- 
 
276 THE ELIZABETHAN PEOPLE 
 
 preted usually as a bad sign rather than as a 
 good one. Thus a ship painted black all over, 
 without a white spot anywhere to be seen, raised 
 great fear in the hearts of those who saw it. 
 (See Heywood's The Fair Maid of the West, 
 iv. 2.) 
 
 There were numerous indications that pointed 
 directly at death. " It is an unlucky sign in the 
 chamber of the sick to talk of marriages ; for my 
 mother sayeth that it foreshoweth death." (Lyly, 
 Sapho and Phao, iii. 3.) One whose name was 
 mentioned frequently on a death bed would not 
 live long. Drake quotes the following list of 
 signs that usually implied either death or some 
 dreadful calamity: lamentings in the air, shaking 
 and trembling of the earth, sudden gloom at noon- 
 day, the appearance of meteors, eclipses of the 
 sun and moon, the moon of a bloody hue, the 
 shrieking of owls, the croaking of ravens, the 
 shrilling of crickets, the night howling of dogs, 
 the clicking of the death-watch, the chattering of 
 pies, the wild neighing of horses, their running 
 wild and eating each other, the cries of fairies, 
 the gibbering of ghosts, the withering of bay trees, 
 showers of blood, blood dripping thrice from the 
 nose, horrid dreams, demoniacal voices, ghastly 
 apparitions, winding sheets, corpse candles, night 
 fires, and strange and fearful noises. Most of 
 
POPULAR SUPERSTITION 277 
 
 these are referred to in the plays of Shakespeare 
 alone. 
 
 Convulsions of nature on the grand scale were 
 particularly apt of interpretation. They always 
 heralded great events of world-wide importance, 
 but were not always indicative of calamity. The 
 births of great persons, Owen Glendower, for 
 instance, were heralded by storms. "Every peer's 
 birth sticks a new star in heaven." (Dekker, 
 The Whore of Babylon.) A great storm with 
 monstrous phenomena accompanying it preceded 
 the murder of Caesar and of Duncan. The mad- 
 ness of Lear occurred simultaneously with a 
 tremendous upheaval of the elements. That such 
 signs generally, though not always, foretold dis- 
 aster, is expressed in the lines : 
 
 " For I have heard the meteors in the air. 
 Of lesser form, less wonderful than these. 
 Rather foretell of dangers imminent 
 Than flatter us with future happiness." 
 
 " The sky is overcast, and there is a porspice 
 [porpoise] even now seen at London Bridge, 
 which is always the messenger of tempests." 
 ( Jonson, Eastward Ho, iii. 3.) Untimely storms 
 were an indication of dearth. 
 
 People spoke of blood-drinking sighs, referring 
 to the superstition that every sigh cost one a drop 
 of blood. Sudden bleeding at the nose was an 
 
278 THE ELIZABETHAN PEOPLE 
 
 ominous sign. "Ha, bleed? I would not have 
 a sad and ominous fate hang o'er thee for a 
 million: perhaps 'tis custom with you." (Hey- 
 wood, The Fair Maid of the West.) Bloodshot 
 eyes were cured by the pressure of a ring. The 
 bloodstone hung about the neck would staunch a 
 wound. 
 
 The juice of the mandrake would take away an 
 artificial mole raised by magic. It was a matter 
 of common belief that the mandrake gave a pecu- 
 liar cry when torn from the ground. One who 
 heard this cry was likely to go mad. " I have 
 this night digged a mandrake . . . and I am 
 grown mad with it." (Webster, The Dutchess of 
 Malfi.) This sound was also a sign of coming 
 death and calamity. " Curses kill as doth the 
 mandrake's groan." (^ Henry VI., iii. 2.) "O 
 hark, hark. The mandrake's shrieks are music to 
 their cries. The very night is frighted, and the 
 stars do drop like torches to behold the deed." 
 (Hey wood, ^ Edward IV.) 
 
 Madmen were affected by the moon. The Eliza- 
 bethans believed in the man in the moon, with a 
 bundle of sticks on his back, and his dog follow- 
 ing. Very sharp horns to the new moon indicated 
 windy weather. The changeable nature of women 
 was also attributed to the influence of the chang- 
 ing moon. 
 
POPULAR SUPERSTITION 279 
 
 The raven was one of the most ominous of birds. 
 It is mentioned in connection with Duncan's 
 death. Ravens appear in Edward IV. before the 
 battle of Poitiers. If ravens sat on a hen's eggs 
 the chicks would be black. " O, it comes o'er my 
 memory As doth the raven o'er the infected house, 
 Boding to all." {Othello, Iv. 1.) " Came he right 
 now to sing a raven's note whose dismal tune be- 
 reft my vital power." ( ? Henry VI., iii. 2. ) And 
 again Marlowe, in The Jew of Malta, says: — 
 
 " Thus like the sad presaging raven, that tolls 
 The sick man's passport in her hollow beak 
 And in the shadow ot the silent night 
 Doth shake contagion from her sable wings." 
 
 Touching for the king's evil, so emphatically 
 brought to our attention in Macbeth, was revived 
 during the reign of James I. The interesting cere- 
 mony is circumstantially described in the follow- 
 ing words by John Ernest, Duke of Saxe-Weimar, 
 161S: "When it [the service] concluded, his 
 majesty stood up, his chair was removed to the 
 table, and he seated himself in it. Then immedi- 
 ately the royal physician brought a little girl, 
 two boys, a tall strapping youth, who were 
 a£9icted with incurable diseases, and bade them 
 kneel down before his majesty; and as the physi- 
 cian had already examined the desease (which he 
 is always obliged to do, in order that no deception 
 
280 THE ELIZABETHAN PEOPLE 
 
 may be practiced), he then pointed out the af- 
 fected part in the neck of the first child to his 
 majesty, who thereupon touched it, pronouncing 
 these words : ' Le Roy vous touche, Dieu vous 
 guery,' and then hung a rose-noble round the 
 neck of the little girl with a white silk ribbon. He 
 did likewise with the other three. During the per- 
 formance of this ceremony, the above named 
 bishop, who stood close to the King, read from the 
 gospel of Saint John, and lastly a prayer, whilst 
 another clergyman knelt before him and made oc- 
 casional responses during the prayer. Now when 
 this was concluded, three lords — among whom 
 were the earl of Montgomery and his brother — 
 came forward at the same time, one bearing a 
 golden ewer, another a basin, and a third a towel. 
 They fell on their knees thrice before the king, 
 who washed himself, and then went with the young 
 Prince (who, with his Highness, walked before his 
 Majesty) through the ante-room again into the 
 apartment. His Highness, however, remained in 
 the ante-room. This ceremony of healing is un- 
 derstood to be very distasteful to the King, and 
 it is said he would willingly abolish it ; but he can- 
 not do so, because he assumes the title of king of 
 France as well; for he does not cure as king of 
 England, by whom this power is said to have been 
 possessed, but as a King of France, who ever had 
 
POPULAR SUPERSTITION 281 
 
 such a gift from God. The Kings of England 
 first ventured to exercise this power when they 
 upwards of two centuries and a half ago had 
 possession of nearly the whole of France, and 
 when Henry VI. had himself crowned at Paris as 
 King of France." (Quoted by Rye, p. 151.) 
 
 This miscellaneous list of omens could be con- 
 tinued indefinitely. It is the purpose, however, of 
 the present chapter to illustrate the generality of 
 superstition rather than to record a complete list 
 of beliefs. The people believed in angels who 
 guarded or pursued the individual to destruction. 
 The time was especially well provided with devil 
 lore. Numerous contemporary devils of more than 
 local fame are referred to in the old plays. Scot 
 is detailed in his attack upon devil worship. 
 Magic of all sorts was practised upon every hand. 
 Palmistry, sooth-saying, various kinds of fortune- 
 telling and divining all had their staunch adher- 
 ents. The publication of almanacs containing 
 forecasts of the weather, medical advice, and prog- 
 nostications of various other kinds constituted a 
 lucrative business. 
 
 Though Nash in The Terrors of Night violently 
 attacks the theory of interpretation of dreams 
 then in vogue, he was somewhat in advance of his 
 time. It was well enough for him to say that 
 " Anie meate that in the day time we eat against 
 
282 THE ELIZABETHAN PEOPLE 
 
 our stomackes begetteth a dismal dreame ; " but 
 his readers knew better than that what a dis- 
 mal dream stood for. The Elizabethan plays 
 abound in allusions to the fulfilment of dreams. 
 Every one recalls Clarence's dream, and the dream 
 of Calpurnia. Dreams were often significant in 
 other ways. Maids hoped to dream of their fu- 
 ture husbands on Saint Agnes's eve. " I dreamed 
 mine eye tooth was loose, and that I thrust it 
 out with my tongue ... it foretelleth the loss of 
 a friend." (Lyly, Sapho and Phao, iv. 3.) 
 " They that in the morning dream of eating. Are 
 in danger of sickness, or of beating, Or shall hear 
 of a wedding, fresh beating." (Lyly, Mother 
 Bombie, iii. 4.) 
 
CHAPTER XI 
 
 BIRTH— BAPTISM— MARRIAGE— DEATH 
 
 MANY were the superstitious rites pertaining 
 to birth, marriage, and death. The Eliza- 
 bethans talked freely and without shame among 
 themselves in a manner that has gone out of 
 vogue in our more artificial age — hence it is not 
 surprising that many of their superstitions re- 
 lated to the time preceding birth. Certain fea- 
 tures of the body indicated the likelihood of chil- 
 dren. An oily palm was thought to be a fruitful 
 prognostication. A child got when drunk was 
 certain to be a girl. An affectionate husband was 
 likely to suffer from toothache during his wife's 
 pregnancy. Pregnant women and women in child- 
 bed were especially liable to be stolen by fairies 
 either to nurse the fairy children or to nurse hu- 
 man children who had been stolen by the wood- 
 land folk. We are told that a piece of bread, or 
 iron, or the Bible put in the bed in the time of 
 labour was a protection against the malice of the 
 fairies. The knowledge that one's wife was with 
 child was often the occasion for building a bon- 
 fire in celebration of the fact. 
 
 Birth was also commemorated by the building 
 283 
 
284 THE ELIZABETHAN PEOPLE 
 
 of huge bonfires, and by other public rejoicing. 
 For a month or more the new-born infant led a 
 strenuous life. Two dangers were immediately to 
 be guarded against. The child might be over- 
 looked, or it might be stolen by the fairies. Many 
 people possessed the evil eye, a power that enabled 
 them to overlook one, or bewitch one, with baneful 
 results. Out and out witches by reputation would 
 in no case be allowed in the neighbourhood of an 
 unbaptised infant; but other people of ugly fea- 
 ture and darksome reputation might be guilty of 
 exercising the power of the evil eye. This custom 
 is the subject of frequent allusion. Overlooking, 
 however, was not confined to the time of infancy. 
 In The Merry Wives, Pistol cries out of Falstaff, 
 "Vile worm, thou wast o'erlook'd even in thy 
 birth." 
 
 More dangerous yet was the malice of the 
 fairies. Only people of evil minds exercised the 
 above-mentioned malicious practice, and, though 
 fairies were on the whole a goodly kind of folk 
 and well disposed towards human beings, there 
 were fairies of malicious inclinations. Perhaps 
 this was why their ill-timed acts were so hard to 
 guard against, for they stole the human children 
 out of love. Fairies were not only beautiful in 
 themselves but notoriously fond of beautiful chil- 
 dren. They stole such on every occasion. 
 
BIRTH— BAPTISM— ETC. 285 
 
 Every mother who gazed for the first time upon 
 a lovely child at her bosom felt a thrill not of 
 joy alone but also of fear — secret fear lest his 
 beautiful exterior should arouse the longing of the 
 fairy folk, causing them to steal him, leaving be- 
 hind in his place an ugly changeling. Equally 
 certain was every mother whose offspring did not 
 come up to expectation that it was a changeling, 
 and that her own beautiful child had been stolen, 
 perhaps at the very moment of birth. In a way, 
 this was a comfortable belief and a useful sop to 
 maternal vanity. Whether the child were merely 
 ugly, or whether increasing years showed it to be 
 dull, or idiotic, the cause was always the same — 
 what more could one expect from a changeling! 
 Then, too, as people believed more or less in the 
 goodness of fairies there was always room for 
 hope that repentance would lead to the return of 
 the original child. Neither prince nor pauper was 
 exempt from this terrible danger. Note the sin- 
 cere exclamation that falls from the lips of King 
 Henry IV.: 
 
 " O that it could be prov'd 
 That some night tripping fairy had exchang'd 
 In cradle clothes our children where they lay. 
 And call'd mine Percy, his Plantagenet 1 " 
 
 Mr. Dyer is my authority for the following de- 
 scription of a practice so similar to the usual 
 
286 THE ELIZABETHAN PEOPLE 
 
 treatment of insane people in the time of Shake- 
 speare : " To induce the fairies to restore the 
 stolen child," he says, " it was customary in Ire- 
 land to put the one supposed of being a change- 
 ling on a hot shovel, or to torment it in some other 
 way. It seems that in Denmark the mother heats 
 the oven, and places the changeling on the peel, 
 pretending to put it in, or whips it severely with 
 a rod, or throws it into the water. In the wes- 
 tern isles of Scotland idiots are supposed to be 
 the fairies' changelings, and in order to regain the 
 lost child, parents have recourse to the following 
 device. They place the changeling on the beach, 
 below high-water mark, when the tide is out, and 
 pay no heed to its screams, believing that thi fair- 
 ies, rather than suffer their offspring to be 
 drowned by the rising water, will convey it away, 
 and restore the child they had stolen. The sign 
 that this has been done is the cessation of the 
 child's screaming." 
 
 The surest protection against such dangers was 
 baptism; hence the haste on the part of supersti- 
 tious people to have the ceremony performed as 
 soon as possible. The christening was the oc- 
 casion of much rejoicing and public festivity. 
 The child was often borne upon a costly and beau- 
 tifully embroidered cushion, the child itself being 
 covered during the ceremony with the bearing 
 
BIRTH— BAPTISM— ETC. 287 
 
 cloth. " Here's a sight for thee," cries one in 
 The Wmter's Tale at the discovery of Perdita, 
 " Here's a sight for thee : look thee, a bearing 
 cloth for a squire's child! Look thee here; take 
 up, take up, boy ; open 't." " A yard of lawn 
 will serve thee for a christening cloth," occurs in 
 Middleton's The Witch. During the ceremony the 
 priest laid on the child's face the face-cloth, or 
 chrisom-cloth, of pure white linen, emblematic of 
 purity. This was worn by the child till after the 
 churching of the mother. Infants who died dur- 
 ing the period allotted to the wearing of the 
 chrisom were frequently alluded to in the records 
 of deaths merely as chrisoms. The sweet inno- 
 cence of infancy is implied by Dame Quickly in 
 her well-known remark : " 'A made a finer end, 
 and went away an it had been any christom 
 child." 
 
 It was the custom to give presents at the chris- 
 tening. In Stow's Chronicle (Ed. 1631), we 
 read that at about this time it is not customary 
 " for godfathers and godmothers generally to give 
 plate at the baptism of children, but only to give 
 ' christening shirts,' with little bands and cuflFs, 
 wrought either with silk or blue thread. The best 
 of them for chief persons were edged with small 
 lace of black silk and gold, the highest price of 
 which, for great men's children, was seldom above 
 
288 THE ELIZABETHAN PEOPLE 
 
 a noble, and the common sort, two, three, or four, 
 and six shillings apiece." 
 
 A few years earlier, however, in the time of 
 Shakespeare, it was indeed the custom to give 
 presents of plate, often of great value, at christen- 
 ings. Money, jewelry, and cups were common 
 presents, but the form of plate considered neces- 
 sary as a gift from the sponsors was one or more 
 of the well-known apostle spoons. These were 
 wrought with the handle terminating in a carved 
 image representing one of the apostles. Some- 
 times one, two, or more were given ; and the finest 
 example of extravagant generosity on the occasion 
 consisted in presenting the child with a full set of 
 the twelve apostles. In King Henry VIII., when 
 Cranmer professes himself unworthy to be spon- 
 sor to the young princess, the king cries out: 
 " Come, come, my lord, you'd spare your 
 spoons." 
 
 In a collection of anecdotes compiled by Sir 
 Nicholas L'E strange under the name of Merry 
 Passages and Jests (MSS. Harl. 6395) occurs the 
 following amusing bits of repartee: 
 
 " Shakespeare was godfather to one of Ben 
 Jonson's children, and after the child's christen- 
 ing, being in a deep study, Jonson came to cheer 
 him up, and ask'd him why he was so melancholy. 
 -' No, faith, Ben,' says he, ' not I; but I have been 
 
BIRTH— BAPTISM— ETC, g89 
 
 considering a great while what should be the 
 fittest gift for me to bestow upon my godchild, 
 and I have resolved at last.' ' I pr'y thee, what? ' 
 says he. ' I' faith, Ben, Fie e'en give him a dozen 
 good Latin spoons, and thou shalt translate 
 them.' " Latten was an inferior kind of metal 
 resembling brass. 
 
 Following the christening was the gossips' feast. 
 This was the occasion of much fraternal drinking 
 and exchange of sentiment. The Bachelor's 
 Banquet, published in 1603, and attributed to 
 Thomas Dekker the dramatist, says in regard to 
 the gossips' feast : " What cost and trouble it 
 will be to have all things fine against the Christen- 
 ing Day; what store of sugar, biskets, comphets, 
 and caraways, marmalet, and marchpane, with 
 all kinds of sweet suckers and superfluous ban- 
 queting stuff, with a hundred other odd and need- 
 less trifles, which at that time must fill the pocket 
 of dainty dames." 
 
 The falling off in generosity exemplified by the 
 gradual cessation of the habit of giving presents 
 of plate seemed to foster a notion that the gossips 
 no longer deserved their feast. At any rate, we 
 read the following in regard to the custom in 
 Shipman's Gossip, published in 1666. 
 
 "Especially since gossips now 
 Eat more at christenings than bestow. 
 
290 THE ELIZABETHAN PEOPLE 
 
 Formerly when they used to troul 
 Gilt bowls of sack, they gave the bowl; 
 Two spoons at least; an use ill kept; 
 'Tis now well if our own be left." 
 
 The birthday was annually commemorated by 
 a great feast, often given at high noon. An in- 
 teresting superstition concerning the time of in- 
 fancy is thus alluded to in Dekker's Westward 
 Ho. " I do assure you if a woman of any mark- 
 able face in the world give her child suck, look 
 how many wrinkles be in the nipple of her breast 
 — so many will be in her forehead by that time 
 twelve month." 
 
 Courtship in the time of Shakespeare was car- 
 ried on in a more fearless though less refined man- 
 ner than at the present time. Except for this 
 people seem to have fallen in love then much as 
 they have done at other times in the history of 
 the race. It was the custom to sand gifts and 
 tokens to the sweetheart; and it was quite the 
 fad to accompany the present with a set of verses 
 which, at a period of several years either way 
 from 1600, usually were couched in the form of a 
 sonnet. Whether it was the sonnet vogue which 
 produced such an appalling mass of worthless 
 sonnet literature, justifying Mr. Sidney Lee's 
 comparison of their authors to " mere wallowers 
 in the bogs that lie at the foot of the poetic 
 
BIRTH— BAPTISM— ETC. 291 
 
 mountain," — whether it was this that fostered the 
 custom on the part of lovers, or whether their 
 ill-advised but popular attempts accounts for the 
 worthless character of so much of the production, 
 it is hard to say. Certainly the two, to a certain 
 extent, went hand in hand, for the wholly unpoetic 
 lover had his literature " done out " by the pro- 
 fessional verse writer. 
 
 It was customary for the sad lover, who went 
 about " sighing like a furnace," to drink his sweet- 
 heart's health in public with a right hearty will. 
 In fact, the vivacity of his toast and the length of 
 his draught were a fair indication to his fellows of 
 the depth of his passion. On such an occasion the 
 sentimental lover was likely to be furnished with 
 his lady-love's favour, which he wore not upon 
 his crest as in the former days of chivalry, but 
 upon the more modern love-lock. Even when the 
 hair was cropped fairly close, fashion decreed that 
 one lock behind the ear on one or both sides should 
 be left long. To this, the love-lock, was tied the 
 sweetheart's favour, much as we attach a blue rib- 
 bon to the braided mane or tall of the prize win- 
 ner at a horse show. We are reminded of this 
 by a line in Edward II. (ii. 2), " Where women's 
 favours hang like labels down." Again, in Lyly's 
 Ml/das (iii. 2), " Your love-locks wreathed with 
 silken twist, or shaggie to fall on your shoulders." 
 
292 THE ELIZABETHAN PEOPLE 
 
 A sweetheart's picture as well as her bracelets were 
 frequently in possession of her lover. In case of a 
 quarrel all presents were immediately returned to 
 the rightful owner. 
 
 It was not considered good form to propose to 
 a girl until after the parents' consent had been 
 obtained; and then it was as often they as the 
 lover who submitted the proposition to the young 
 woman for consideration. The old plays furnish 
 us with more allusions to the need of the lover's 
 endeavour to gain the aid of the mother in his 
 suit than of the father. Gifts to the mother are 
 of great service in Heywood's The Fair Maid of 
 the Exchange. One necessity for this previous 
 sanction of the parent was due to the fact that 
 it would be a recMess lover indeed who forgot the 
 marriage portion, no matter how deeply he was 
 in love. The father's will for a marriage was all 
 in all to the daughter, and few girls dared to ex- 
 press dissatisfaction with a marriage already 
 planned. Neither of these facts is exaggerated in 
 the following quotation from Lyly's Mother Bom- 
 hie (i. S) : 
 
 " Parents in these days are grown peevish, they 
 rock their children in their cradles till they sleep, 
 and cross them about their bridals till their hearts 
 ache. Marriage among them has become a mar- 
 ket. What will you give with your daughter.? 
 
BIRTH— BAPTISM— ETC. 293 
 
 What jointure will you make for your son? And 
 many a match is broken off for a penny more or 
 less, as though they could not afford their children 
 at such a price; when none should cheapen such 
 ware but affection, and none buy it but love. 
 . . . Indeed our parents take great care to make 
 us ask blessing and say grace whenas we are little 
 ones, and growing to years of judgment, they de- 
 prive us of the greatest blessing, and the most 
 gracious things to our minds: they give us pap 
 with a spoon before we can speak, and when we 
 speak for that we love, pap with a hatchet: be- 
 cause their fancies being grown musty with hoary 
 age, therefore nothing can relish in their thoughts 
 that savours of sweet youth: they study twenty 
 years together to make us grow as straight as a 
 wand, and in the end by bowing us, make us as 
 crooked as a cammock. For mine own part (sweet 
 Candius) they shall pardon me, for I shall meas- 
 ure my love by mine own judgment, not my 
 father's purse or peevishness. Nature hath made 
 me his child not his slave." 
 
 How like a slave's was the treatment of an Eliza- 
 than girl, who opposed her father's will in mar- 
 riage may be read in The Two Gentlemen of 
 Verona and in Romeo and Juliet. Though the 
 scene in the latter play where Capulet abuses 
 Juliet is doubtless introduced for comic effect, the 
 
294 THE ELIZABETHAN PEOPLE 
 
 modern reader should remember that the scene was 
 comic to the Elizabethan audience merely because 
 Capulet was overdoing a natural and customary 
 role. In a milder way Ophelia is responsible for 
 much of the pathos in Hamlet's situation because 
 of her unquestioning obedience to her father's ar- 
 bitrary decree. Yet this was what a well bred 
 Elizabethan girl should have done and the action 
 should not be interpreted as an indication of the 
 colourless character of the heroine.* 
 
 Young women in Shakespeare's time were mar- 
 ried at an earlier age than to-day, sometimes at 
 such a tender age that it was necessary to wait 
 several years before they were old enough to live 
 with their husbands as man and wife. Juliet and 
 her mother were brides at fourteen. Fifteen or 
 sixteen was a common marriageable age. And 
 the woman who reached twenty unmarried had 
 justly earned the title of confirmed spinster. 
 
 * Though Ophelia is not, literally speaking, an Eliza- 
 bethan girl, it should be remembered that Shakespeare in 
 common with his fellow dramatists interpreted their char- 
 acters in accordance with his own times regardless of the 
 local time or place represented in the story. Thus Hamlet 
 and the grave-diggers both speak of current affairs in 
 London. In almost any play allusions to the customs of 
 Elizabethan England can be discovered mingled with what 
 little local colour the original of the play furnished. The 
 idea of accuracy in this respect was not yet familiar to the 
 Elizabethans. 
 
BIRTH— BAPTISM— ETC. 295 
 
 The marriage ceremony was often, if not gener- 
 ally, preceded by the ceremony of betrothal. The 
 latter should take place in church and be per- 
 formed by the priest; yet it was not always per- 
 formed in church, and the presence of a priest was 
 not deemed absolutely essential provided that a 
 responsible witness were present. The following 
 words constituted the oath administered on this 
 occasion : " You swear by God and his holy saints 
 herein and by all the saints of Paradise, that you 
 will take this woman whose name is N. to wife 
 within forty days if holy church will permit?" 
 The priest then joining their hands, said: "And 
 you thus affiance yourselves ? " to which the parties 
 answered " Yes, sir.'* 
 
 The ceremony was concluded by some sign or 
 token of constancy, thus, a piece of gold might 
 be broken, each retaining a portion. Exchange of 
 rings was commoner. One kind of ring, the gim- 
 mel ring, was frequently used on this occasion. 
 It consisted of three rings so closely wrought that 
 they fitted together like one ring. One, however, 
 who understood the puzzling structure could 
 easily split them apart into three separate rings. 
 One was given to each party to the betrothal, 
 and the third to the priest or to the principal 
 witness. 
 
 From the frequent allusion to this custom in 
 
296 THE ELIZABETHAN PEOPLE 
 
 the plays of Shakespeare and his contemporaries, 
 it is to be inferred that the betrothal was still of 
 frequent occurrence. There is no reason, how- 
 ever, to believe that the limit of forty days as the 
 period intervening between betrothal and marriage 
 was regarded as binding. 
 
 Such a ceremony is circumstantially recorded 
 in Twelfth Night (iv. 3). Olivia says to Sebas- 
 tian: 
 
 " Now go with me and this holy man 
 Into the chantry by: there before him. 
 And underneath that consecrated roof. 
 Plight me the full assurance of your faith; 
 That my most jealous and too doubtful soul 
 May live at peace. He shall conceal it 
 Whiles you are willing it should come to note; 
 What time we will our celebration keep 
 According to my birth." 
 
 It will be noticed here and elsewhere that the 
 terms husband and wife were usable after the cere- 
 mony of betrothal, notwithstanding the fact that 
 the marriage proper had not yet taken place. 
 Later, the priest, describing what had passed be- 
 tween the couple, says : 
 
 "A contract of eternal bond of love. 
 Confirmed by mutual joinder of your hands. 
 Attested by the holy close of lips, 
 Strength'd by interchangement of your rings; 
 And all the ceremony of this compact 
 Seal'd in my function, by my testimony." 
 
hJ 2 
 
 
 
BIRTH— BAPTISM— ETC. 297 
 
 Recalling the first of the above quotations, one 
 notes in Olivia's words the motive for the be- 
 trothal, namely that it was but little different from 
 a secret marriage subsequently to be openly 
 avowed. Though much evidence is lacking on the 
 subject, it is generally supposed that betrothal 
 carried with it the privileges of the marriage bed. 
 Opposed to this view, however, are the words of 
 Mr, Sidney Lee, who says : " Shakespeare's apolo- 
 gists have endeavoured to show that the public 
 betrothal or formal ' troth-plight ' which at the 
 time was a common prelude to a wedding carried 
 with it all the privileges of marriage. But 
 neither Shakespeare's detailed description of a 
 betrothal nor the solemn verbal contract that or- 
 dinarily preceded marriage lends the contention 
 much support," {Life of Shakespeare, p. 23). 
 On the other hand are the words of Leontes in 
 The Winter's Tale: 
 
 "My wife's a hobby-horse; deserves a, name 
 As rank as any flax-wench, that puts to 
 Before her troth-plight." 
 
 Sunday was a common day for weddings. The 
 bridal party assembled at the house of the bride 
 whence the procession marched to the church. On 
 one occasion the bride was " attired in a gown of 
 sheep's russet, and a kirtle of fine worsted, her hair 
 attired with a billement of gold, and her hair as 
 
298 THE ELIZABETHAN PEOPLE 
 
 yellow as gold hanging down behind her, which was 
 curiously combed and plaited, she was led to the 
 church between two sweet boys, with bride laces 
 and rosemary tied about their silken sleeves. 
 There was a fair bride cup of silver, gilt, carried 
 before her, whereon was a goodly branch of rose- 
 mary, gilded very fair, hung about with silken rib- 
 bands of all colours. Musicians came next, then 
 a group of maidens, some bearing great bride 
 cakes, others garlands of wheat finely gilded ; and 
 thus they passed on to the church." {History of 
 Jack Newbury. Quoted by Drake, i. 223.) The 
 above describes a rural wedding. In Dekker's The 
 Shoemaker's Holiday, the bride walks to the 
 church through the streets of London masked. 
 The bride-laces referred to were long ribbons of 
 gay appearance distributed among the guests. 
 They were used to bind up the rosemary twigs 
 and other flowers carried, and after the ceremony 
 used as ornaments in the hat or twisted in the hair. 
 The priest hastened on in order to await the 
 bridal party with its lively music and joyous 
 laughter at the door of the church. Here a bowl 
 of wine was presented, out of which the happy 
 couple quenched their thirst. It was brought for- 
 ward again at the end of the ceremony when 
 aU the guests present likewise shared in the con- 
 tents of the bowl. Among the household ordi- 
 
BIRTH— BAPTISM— ETC. 299 
 
 nances of Henry VII. is one " For the Marriage 
 of a Princess — Then pots of ipocras to be ready, 
 and to be put into cups with sop, and to 
 be born to the estates, and to take a sop and 
 drink." The bowl of wine was used at the wed- 
 ding of Queen Mary to Philip of Spain at Win- 
 chester. And few forget the exaggeration of the 
 custom that is set down in The Tammg of the 
 Shrew (iii. 2) : 
 
 Petruchio " stamped and swore. 
 As if the vicar meant to cozen him. 
 But after many ceremonies done. 
 He calls for wine: — 'A health!' quoth he as if 
 He had been aboard, carousing to his mates 
 After a storm: — quaffed off the muscadel. 
 And threw the sops all in the sexton's face; 
 Having no other reason 
 But that his beard grew thin and hungerly. 
 And seemed to ask him sops as he was drinking." 
 
 The same Petruchio " took the bride about the 
 neck and kissed her lips with such a clamorous 
 smack that, at the parting, all the church did 
 echo." The act was customary, only the manner 
 was an innovation. 
 
 Though the hair of the bride was braided in the 
 wedding procession described above, it hung down 
 her back ; and the more frequent custom was to let 
 it fall quite loose. At the marriage of Elizabeth 
 Stuart she wore " her hair dishevelled and hang- 
 
300 THE ELIZABETHAN PEOPLE 
 
 ing down her shoulders." (Dyer, p. 353.) And 
 from Heywood we quote the couplet: 
 
 "At length the blushing bride comes, with her hair 
 Dishevelled 'bout her shoulders." 
 
 Flowers were lavishly used at weddings. Rose- 
 mary, for remembrance, was especially suitable. 
 
 "Were the rosemary branches dipped, and all 
 The hippocras and cakes eat and drunk off; 
 Were these two arms encompass'd with the hands 
 Of bachelors to lead me to the church." 
 
 — Beaumont and Fletcher, The Scornful Lady. 
 
 Rosemary, however, was not the only flower 
 strewed before the bride on her way to church or 
 in the church itself. The following bit of verse 
 is found in the fifteenth song of Drayton's un- 
 poetic but interesting Polyolbion: 
 
 "Thus for the nuptial hour, all fitted point device, 
 Whilst some still busied are in decking of tlie bride, 
 Some others were again as seriously employ'd 
 In strewing of those herbs, at bridals used that be; 
 Which everywhere they throw with bounteous hands and 
 
 free. 
 The healthful balm and mint, from their full laps do fly. 
 The scentful camomile, the verdurous costmary. 
 The hot muscado oft with milder maudlin cast; 
 Strong tansy, fennel cool, they prodigally waste: 
 Clear isop, and therewith the comfortable thyme, 
 Germander with the rest, each thing then in her prime; 
 As well of wholesome herbs, as every pleasant flower, 
 Which nature here produced, to fit this happy hour. 
 Amongst these strewing kinds, some other wild that grow, 
 As burnel, all aboard, and meadow-wort they throw." 
 
a<ji>^g'iM?wjtj^^.a-g)Tg^J 
 
BIRTH— BAPTISM— ETC. 301 
 
 There are sufficient allusions in contemporary 
 literature to establish the fact that the curious 
 custom was then in vogue of brides wearing knives 
 and daggers as part of their wedding costume. 
 In the 1597 quarto Juliet is so provided when she 
 attends the friar's cell, as well as at the time 
 when she took the potion. A bride in Dekker's 
 Match me m London, cries : 
 
 "See, at my girdle hang my wedding knives! 
 With those dispatch me." 
 
 And the Witch of Edmonton supplies the quo- 
 tation : 
 
 " But see, the bridegroom and bride come; the new 
 Pair of Sheffield knives fitted both to one sheath." 
 
 Great and elaborate festivities followed the wed- 
 ding ; and though wheat was thrown upon the pair 
 as we now throw rice, symbolical of fruitfulness, 
 and though the old shoe was also thrown as a 
 token of good luck, it was not customary for the 
 groom and bride immediately to depart upon a 
 wedding trip. On the contrary, they remained as 
 the principal figures in the merry-making that fol- 
 lowed — often lasting over several days. 
 
 The guests wore scarves, gloves, and other fa- 
 vours. The bride cake, which was first carried to 
 the church, was, after the ceremony, distributed 
 among the guests. Dancing was one of the im- 
 
30g THE ELIZABETHAN PEOPLE 
 
 portant kinds of merriment. It was, in accord- 
 ance with a tradition of long standing, incumbent 
 upon the bride to dance with each and every guest 
 present. In the Christian State of Matrimony 
 (1543) we read: " Then must the poor bride keep 
 foot with a [11] dancers, and refuse none, how 
 scabbed, foul, drunken, rude, and shameless soever 
 he be." 
 
 Readers of The Taming of the Shrew recall 
 how necessary it was to marry Katharine first so 
 that her younger sister might decently and in order 
 approach the bridal altar. In rare cases, how- 
 ever, a younger sister was permitted to marry 
 first. On such occasions, the older unmarried 
 sisters were compelled to mingle barefoot in the 
 dancing that followed the ceremony. It is to this 
 custom that Katharine refers so angrily in the 
 words : 
 
 "She is your treasure, she must have a husband: 
 I must dance barefoot on her wedding day. 
 And, for your love to her, lead apes in hell." 
 
 If the elder sister refused to perform this cere- 
 mony, she would die an old maid ; and for such the 
 Elizabethans could imagine no more profitable oc- 
 cupations during the long years after death than 
 to lead apes in hell. In weddings among those 
 of great wealth and position the masque, whicK 
 is elsewhere described, formed one of the principr* 
 
BIRTH— BAPTISM— ETC. 303 
 
 entertainments. But high and low, rich and poor 
 alike made much of the wedding feast. All sorts 
 of dishes were cooked in great variety, especially 
 many kinds of highly spiced cakes and drinks. 
 
 As the festivities drew to a close on the evening 
 of the wedding day the women present took ofF 
 the bride and put her to bed. Later, the same 
 was done by the men for the groom. The 
 ceremony of blessing the bridal bed, which fol- 
 lowed, is thus described by the antiquary, Mr. 
 Jeafrison {Brides and Bridals, i. 98) : " On the 
 evening of the wedding day, when the married 
 couple sat in state in the bridal bed, before the 
 exclusion of the guests, who assembled to com- 
 mend them yet again to heaven's keeping, one or 
 more priests, attended by acolytes swinging to 
 and fro lighted censers, appeared in the crowded 
 chamber to bless the couch, its occupants, and the 
 truckle bed, and fumigate the room with hallow- 
 ing incense." 
 
 Shakespeare had the custom in mind when he 
 
 wrote the words for Oberon: 
 
 " Now until the break of day. 
 Through the house each fairy stray. 
 To the best bride bed will we. 
 Which by us blessed shall be; 
 And the issue there create 
 Ever shall be fortunate." 
 
 "It is recorded in France," Mr. Dyer tells us. 
 
304 THE ELIZABETHAN PEOPLE 
 
 " that on frequent occasions, the priest was im- 
 properly detained till midnight, while the wedding 
 guests rioted in the luxuries of the table, and made 
 use of language that was extremely offensive to 
 the clergy. It was therefore ordained, in the year 
 1577, that the ceremony of blessing the nuptial 
 bed should for the future be performed in the day- 
 time, or at least before supper, and in the pres- 
 ence of the bride and bridegroom, and of their 
 nearest relatives only." 
 
 Early the next morning the couple were roused 
 from slumber by a serenade, usually the " Hunt's 
 up," or hunting song which so frequently pre- 
 ceded the great hunt that had been planned for 
 the second day of merriment. However great 
 the celebration during this period, all things usu- 
 ally went off decently and in order. In the 
 country, however, the case was not exactly the 
 same. There the merry-making often became ex- 
 aggerated to boisterous buffoonery. So different 
 was the appearance of a rural wedding from the 
 more decorous ceremony in vogue in London that 
 Leicester considered the representation of such a 
 scene suitable for the entertainment of the Queen 
 when she visited his castle. Laneham, who wrote 
 a description in the form of a Letter on the 
 Queen's Entertainment at Kenilworth Castle in 
 1575, is so circumstantial in his narrative of the 
 
Ornamental Ceiling in Cbosby Hall, London. 
 (From a print in Wilkinson's collection.) 
 
BIRTH— BAPTISM— ETC. 305 
 
 preliminary procession that the interesting ac- 
 count is here set down entire: 
 
 " Thus were they marshalled. First, all the 
 lustie lads and bold bachelors of the parish suit- 
 ably, every wight with his blue buckram bride- 
 lace upon a branch of green broom (cause rose- 
 mary is scant there), and his alder pole for a 
 spear in his right hand, in martial order ranged 
 on afore, two and two in a rank : Some with a hat, 
 some in a cap, some a coat, some a jerkin, some 
 for lightness in his doublet and his hose, clean 
 trust with a point afore : Some boots and no spurs, 
 he spurs and no boots, and he neither one nor 
 t'other : One a saddle, another a pad or a pannel 
 fastened with a cord, for girths wear geason 
 [were scarce]. And these to the number of a six- 
 teen wight riding men and well beseen. But the 
 bridegroom foremost, in his father's tawny 
 jacket (for his friends were fain that he should 
 be a bridegroom before the Queen), a fair straw 
 hat with a capital crown, steeple-wise on his head : 
 a pair of harvest gloves on his hands, as a sign of 
 good husbandry : A pen and inkhorn at his back ; 
 for he would be known to be bookish: lame of a 
 leg, that in his youth was broken at foot-ball: 
 Well-beloved yet of his mother, that lent him a 
 new muffler for a napkin that was tied to his girdle 
 for losing. It was no small sport to mark this 
 
306 THE ELIZABETHAN PEOPLE 
 
 minion in his full appointment, that through great 
 schoolation, became as formal as his action, as he 
 had been a bridegroom indeed; with this special 
 grace by the way, that ever as he would have 
 framed him the better countenance, with the worse 
 face he looked. 
 
 " Well, sir, after these horsemen, a lively mor- 
 ris-dance, according to the ancient manner: six 
 dancers, maid-marian, and the fool. Then three 
 pretty puzels (maids, or damsels from pucelle), 
 as bright as a breast of bacon, of a thirty year old 
 a piece, that carried three special spice cakes of a 
 bushel of wheat (they had it by measure out of 
 my lord's bake-house), before the bride: Cicely 
 with set countenance, and lips so demurely sim- 
 mering, as it had been a mare cropping of a 
 thistle. After these a lovely lubber woorts, a 
 freckle faced, red-haired, clean trussed in his 
 doublet and his hose taken up now indeed by com- 
 mission, for that he was so loth to come forward, 
 for reverence belike of his new cut canvass doub- 
 let; and would by his good will have been but a 
 gazer, but found to be a meet actor for his oiBce : 
 That was to bear the bride-cup, formed of a sweet 
 sucket barrel, a fair turned foot set to it, all 
 seemly besilvered and parcel gilt, adorned with a 
 beautiful branch of broom, gayly begilded for 
 rosemary; from which two broad bride-laces of 
 
BIRTH— BAPTISM— ETC. 307 
 
 red and yellow buckram begilded, and gallantly 
 streaming by such wind as there was, for he car- 
 ried it aloft : This gentle cup-bearer yet had his 
 freckled physiognomy somewhat unhappily in- 
 fested as he went, by the busy flies, that flocked 
 about the bride-cup for the sweetness of the sucket 
 that it savoured on; but he, like a tall fellow, 
 withstood their malace stoutly (see what manhood 
 may do), beat them away, killed them by scores, 
 stood to his charge, and marched on in good 
 order. 
 
 " Then followed the worshipful bride, led (after 
 the country manner) between two ancient pa- 
 rishioners, honest townsmen. But a stale stallion, 
 and a well spread (hot as the weather was), God 
 wot, and ill smelling was she: a thirty-five year 
 old, of colour brown bay, not very beautiful in- 
 deed, but ugly, foul, ill-favoured; yet marvellous 
 vain of the oflice, because she heard she should 
 dance before the Queen, in which feat she thought 
 she would foot it as finely as the best : Well, after 
 this bride came there two by two and two, a 
 dozen damsels for bridemaids ; that for favour, 
 attire, for fashion and cleanliness, were as meet 
 for such a bride as a treen ladle for a por- 
 ridge pot; more (but for fear of carrying all 
 clean) had been appointed, but these few were 
 
308 THE ELIZABETHAN PEOPLE 
 
 Concerning death the Elizabethans entertained 
 many superstitious notions and performed numer- 
 ous superstitious rites. It was, doubtless, the 
 earnest seriousness of the moment that prompted 
 them to believe that people about to die were often 
 for a moment on the borderland betwen life and 
 death, thereby seeing beyond, a fact which found 
 expression in the form of prophecy, " Methinks 
 I am a prophet new inspired. And thus, expiring, 
 do foretell of him," cries Gaunt in Richard II. 
 ii. 1). And again, Percy, in Henry IV. (v. 4), 
 alludes to the belief in the words : 
 
 "O, I could prophesy. 
 But that the earthly and cold hand of death 
 Lies on my tongue." 
 
 A sudden brightening of the spirits often pre- 
 ceded death and was frequently regarded as a 
 sign. 
 
 " How oft, when men are at the point of death. 
 Have they been merry! which their keepers call 
 A lightning before death." 
 
 {Romeo and Juliet, v. 3.) 
 
 And again, in the last act, immediately before 
 
 Romeo receives the news that prompts him to take 
 
 his life, he exclaims: 
 
 " If I may trust the flattering truth of sleep. 
 My dreams presage some joyful news at hand: 
 My bosom's lord sits lightly on his throne; 
 And all this day an unaccustom'd spirit 
 Lifts me above the ground with cheerful thoughts." 
 
Painted Ceiling in Crosby Hall, London. 
 (From a print in AVilliinson's collection.) 
 
BIRTH— BAPTISM— ETC. S09 
 
 Strange noises preceded death; so, in many 
 cases, did direful storms, especially if the death 
 were the result of a crime. 
 
 It was customary at that time to draw the pil- 
 low from beneath the head of dying persons in 
 order to accelerate the passage to the world be- 
 yond. " Pluck stout men's pillows from below 
 their heads " is a line from Timon of Athens. 
 It was thought hard to die on feathers plucked 
 from a dove. This is what gave rise to the above 
 superstition, for there was always a chance of 
 some of the tabooed feathers having got among 
 the others used to stuff the pillow. 
 
 Agents of the deities that ruled the upper and 
 
 the lower worlds waited upon a man at the moment 
 
 of death. The Elizabethans were in ever constant 
 
 dread lest on such occasions the agent of the devil 
 
 should prove the more powerful of the two. 
 
 Signing the cross, incantations, and many other 
 
 rites besides earnest prayer were resorted to in 
 
 order to drive away these evil spirits. Recall 
 
 Henry's appeal at the bedside of Beaufort : 
 
 " O thou eternal mover of the heavens. 
 Look with a gentle eye upon this wretch! 
 O beat away the busy meddling field 
 That lays strong siege unto this wretch's soul, 
 And from his bosom purge this black despair ! " 
 
 Perhaps the most popular and wide-spread su- 
 perstition of this kind was that which related to 
 
310 THE ELIZABETHAN PEOPLE 
 
 the appearance of corpse candles before death. 
 When a person was about to die a pale flame 
 would appear at the window of the room in which 
 he lay. It would hover there for a moment, then 
 disappear in the direction of the churchyard, tra- 
 versing the same path along which the body would 
 subsequently be carried. It would stop and bum 
 more brightly for a while over the spot to be oc- 
 cupied by the grave. Sometimes this apparition 
 took the form of a procession. Laveterius, who 
 has already been quoted, says : " There have been 
 seen some in the night when the moon shined, going 
 solemnly with the corpse, according to the custom 
 of the people, or standing before the doors, as if 
 some body was to be carried to the church to 
 burying." 
 
 Blue candles are often mentioned by those in 
 the presence of death. This grew out of a super- 
 stition that the presence of unearthly beings 
 changed the colour of flame. Thus, in Richard 
 III.:— 
 
 " The lights burn blue — it is now dead midnight; 
 Cold fearful drops stand on my trembling flesh. — 
 Methought the souls of all that I had murdered. 
 Came to my tent." 
 
 Less poetic but more specific is the following 
 quotation from Lyly's Gallathea (ii. 3): "That's 
 a stinking spirit. I thought there was some 
 
BIRTH— BAPTISM— ETC. 311 
 
 spirit in it because it burnt so blue. For my 
 mother would often tell me that when the candle 
 burnt blue there was some ill spirit in the house, 
 and now I perceive it was the spirit of brim- 
 stone." 
 
 The place of interment was supposed to be ever 
 after haunted by the spirit of the deceased except 
 at such times as he was compelled to walk else- 
 where in the way of penance. The presence of 
 spirits in the neighbourhood of graves is the sub- 
 ject of frequent allusion. 
 
 " Now it is the time of night. 
 
 That the graves, all gaping wide, 
 Every one lets forth his sprite. 
 
 In the churchyard paths to glide." 
 
 (^ Midsummer^ghfs Dream, v. 1.) 
 
 In another part of the same play (iii. 2) Puck 
 says : — 
 
 "At whose approach, ghosts, wandering here and there. 
 Troop home to churchyards: damned spirits all. 
 That in cross-ways and floods have burial. 
 Already to their wormy beds are gone; 
 For fear lest day should look their shames upon." 
 
 Those buried in cross-ways were those who had 
 committed suicide. It was customary to dig the 
 graves of such at the intersection of two public 
 roads. The interment took place at midnight by 
 torchlight, and part of the ceremony was the 
 driving of a sharp wooden stake through the 
 
312 THE ELIZABETHAN PEOPLE 
 
 breast of the corpse just before the grave was 
 filled up. In the same line above there is a refer- 
 ence to the hanging of pirates and mutineers at 
 the seaside in such a position that the waves at 
 high tide would wash over the body. 
 
 It was a curious custom of the time to shave 
 the head just before death. This custom is re- 
 ferred to in Measure for Measure (iv. 2). " O, 
 death's a great disguiser ; and you may add to it. 
 Shave the head and tie the beard; and say it was 
 the desire of the penitent to be thus bared before 
 his death: you know the course is common." 
 
 The passing bell was originally tolled by the 
 sexton at the moment of death as a help towards 
 the driving away of the evil spirits. It was also 
 expected that whoever heard the passing bell 
 should meditate for a moment on his own sins, 
 and breathe a prayer for the dying. 
 
 " No longer mourn for me when I am dead, 
 ITian you shall hear the surly, sullen bell 
 Give warning to the world that I am fled 
 From this vile world." 
 
 (Shakespeare, Sonnet 71.) 
 
 "And now his grief may be compared well 
 To one sore sick that hears the parting bell." 
 
 {VeuMS and Adonis.) 
 
 Subsequently, however, the practice of ringing 
 the bell at the moment of death was given up, 
 though it continues to this day to be rung at 
 

 
 K C 
 
 O 
 
BIRTH— BAPTISM— ETC. 313 
 
 burial. It is interesting to read in the Chamber- 
 lain's accounts for July 4, 1579 : " For the bell 
 and pall for Mr. Shaxper's daughter, 8d." — the 
 highest fee on the list, as Mr. Fleay points out. 
 
 The bellman was a civic officer of no little im- 
 portance. One of his chief offices, besides ringing 
 the bell at deaths and funerals, was to visit con- 
 demned criminals the night before their execution 
 and to admonish them of their sins. 
 
 " I am the common bellman 
 That usually is sent to condemned persons 
 The night before they suffer." 
 
 (Duchess of Malfi, iv. 2.) 
 
 I have elsewhere described in detail the elabo- 
 rate performance of this officer when a prisoner 
 was taken from Newgate for execution. * 
 
 In the time of Shakespeare the putting on of 
 the winding sheet was an impressive ceremony, ac- 
 companied by solemn and melancholy music. The 
 following descriptive lines are taken from Web- 
 ster's White Devil: 
 
 "I found them winding of Marcello's corse; 
 And there is such a solemn melody, 
 'Tween doleful songs, tears, and sad elegies; 
 Such as old grandames, watching by the dead. 
 Were wont to outwear the nights with; that, believe me, 
 I had no eyes to guide me forth the room, 
 They were so o'er charged with water. 
 
 * Shakespeare's London, page 329, 
 
314 THE ELIZABETHAN PEOPLE 
 
 [Cornelia, the Moor, and three other ladies discovered 
 winding Marcello's corse. A song. 
 
 Cor. This rosemary is withered, pray get fresh; 
 I would have these herbs grow up in his grave. 
 When I am dead and rotten. Reach the bays, 
 I'll tie a garland here about his head: 
 'Twill keep my boy from lightning. This sheet 
 I have kept this twenty years, and every day 
 Hallow'd it with ray prayers. 1 did not think 
 He should have worn it." 
 
 The shroud, which was white, was often stuck 
 with bits of yew. This practice is referred to in 
 Twelfth Night (ii. 4) : " My shroud of white, 
 stuck all with yew." 
 
 The customary wake that intervened between 
 death and burial, had changed somewhat with the 
 passage of years. Originally the dearest friends 
 and the nearest relatives met solemnly and se- 
 dately for the purpose of watching the corpse 
 during the brief time it remained above the 
 ground. The wake, however, soon degenerated 
 into a feast of wild revelry and intoxication. 
 Throughout the sixteenth and seventeenth cen- 
 turies it continued to be of this character. 
 So unbecoming, indeed, was the behaviour 
 of guests and relatives at this time that the 
 celebration of the wake bordered upon sacri- 
 lege. 
 
 Before burial the corpse w?i§ fimply decorated. 
 
BIRTH— BAPTISM— ETC. 315 
 
 Flowers were used profusely, also fine clothes, 
 usually the finest procurable, in which to dress 
 the corpse. Burning tapers were also placed 
 upon the coffin. A garland of flowers and sweet 
 smelling herbs was carried before the coffin of a 
 maid, and afterward hung up in the church as a 
 symbol of virginity. 
 
 The burial, which often took place as soon as 
 the day following death, was preceded by a pro- 
 cession, as ostentatious and as spectacular as 
 the relatives, or, more usually, the deceased's pro- 
 vision, could manage. From the house to the 
 church, thence to the grave, was the path of this 
 procession. Relatives, retainers, and domestic 
 servants formed a part of it. If the deceased 
 were a member of one of the city guilds, the of- 
 ficial pall would probably be pressed into service 
 as a covering to the coffin. Either the entire fra- 
 ternity or an official delegation followed, walking 
 reverently, and bareheaded. Inmates of alms- 
 houses and hospitals supported by the guild also 
 swelled the following. Oftentimes one provided in 
 his will for the expenses of the funeral. Among 
 these expenses one is likely to find black gowns 
 and gold rings for each of the principal mourn- 
 ers. It was also customary to pin upon the coffin 
 copies of memorial verses, written by admiring 
 friends, or by professional verse writers. Flowers 
 
316 THE ELIZABETHAN PEOPLE 
 
 and garlands in profusion, and much music char- 
 acterised the funerals. 
 
 Following the funeral in point of time was the 
 lunch at the house of the deceased, an institution 
 made much of in those days. Oftentimes it was 
 found upon opening the will that the deceased 
 had left a great gift of money in order sumptu- 
 ously to entertain the true friends who did him 
 the honour to accompany him to the end of his 
 last earthly journey. It is in Hamlet that we 
 
 read (i. 2): 
 
 "The funeral baked meats 
 Did coldly furnish forth the marriage tables." 
 
 And at the supposed death of Juliet, the wed- 
 ding cheer was changed " to a sad burial feast." 
 Immediately after the burial, if the deceased 
 were a man of property, an official inventory of 
 his goods and chattels was taken. These in- 
 teresting lists give us many clues to the daily life 
 and household furnishing of the Elizabethans 
 that would otherwise be lost in the obscurity of 
 the past. 
 
v^lifi/|liii 
 
 y'y " ^ 
 
 Room ix Sir Paul Pindar's House, London. 
 
 (From a print in Wilkinson's collection. The chimney-piece to the top 
 
 of the stag-hunt tablet is stone; above this, the cornice 
 
 and ceiling are plaster; the rest is oak.) 
 
CHAPTER XII 
 
 GHOSTS— FAIRIES— WITCHES 
 
 T N spite of the space devoted to popular super- 
 -■• stition in the preceding chapter, three im- 
 portant classes of supernatural beings have been 
 scarcely more than mentioned. To the average 
 Elizabethan the ghost of his ancestor was a very 
 real thing. Any ghost, in fact, might be met at 
 almost any place, the time, however, usually be- 
 ing night. Perhaps no quality is so helpful to 
 the would-be intelligent critic of Shakespeare as 
 a genuine and vivid realisation of how important 
 this matter was to the folk of that day. 
 
 Ghosts possessed not only the supernatural 
 powers and qualities acquired by death, but also 
 retained certain human qualities that were pe- 
 culiar to them in life. Thus, when a ghost ap- 
 peared he looked as he had looked in life, save for 
 his pale and bloodless face, and, often, the ex- 
 pression of pain, sorrow, or remorse, dependent 
 upon whatever way the fates were compelling 
 him to work out his salvation in ghost-land. He 
 retained his earthly voice, and generally ap- 
 peared dressed as he was last seen in life, or in 
 317 
 
318 THE ELIZABETHAN PEOPLE 
 
 some characteristic garb, such as the armour of a 
 warrior, or the regal robes of a king. 
 
 The Elizabethans knew that they were all sin- 
 ners of the first water, and believed that in most 
 cases the " walking," that is, the appearance of a 
 ghost, was in part penance for sins committed 
 while in the flesh. This, however, was not always 
 the case. Often the ghost returned to earth to 
 make a revelation : sometimes of hidden treasure, 
 sometimes to ease his conscience with a confes- 
 sion, sometimes to warn loved ones on earth 
 against impending danger, perhaps more often, 
 as in Hamlet, to demand revenge, to be enacted 
 by those alive. 
 
 One need not go further than the accessible 
 Elizabethan plays to learn almost the complete 
 list of ghost traditions. Hamlet alone affords a 
 score. From this play we learn that the appear- 
 ance of a ghost implied something momentous; 
 and that a ghost frequently spoke in Latin 
 (though it is more than probable that this is not 
 referred to in the line " Thou art a scholar ; speak 
 to it, Horatio"). Ghosts, in spite of their 
 supernatural powers, were hampered by many 
 limitations. Thus, the ghost of Hamlet could not 
 speak till addressed by the right person, hence 
 its silence in the presence of Horatio, the ghost's 
 errand being to Hamlet. It was a current belief 
 
GHOSTS— FAIRIES— WITCHES 319 
 
 that a ghost could not speak till questioned about 
 the subject on which he wished to talk, hence 
 Horatio's attempt to unseal the ghost's mouth by 
 guessing different purposes for its appearance. 
 A similar belief was that the ghost could not 
 speak till called by some particular name or form 
 of address. Thus Hamlet, in the hope of hitting 
 by accident upon the proper term, cries out: 
 " I'll call thee Hamlet, King, father ; Royal Dane, 
 O, answer me ! " In general appearance the 
 ghost of the elder Hamlet was quite like himself 
 as he had been in life. The play further tells us 
 that people are safe from ghosts on Christmas 
 eve ; that ghosts are frightened home by the crow- 
 ing of the cock, night being their only time to 
 walk. The ghost appears, as usually, exactly 
 at twelve o'clock. It recollects perfectly what 
 happened upon earth; it can come and go 
 at will, locks and walls are no impediment to 
 it. 
 
 Some critics have attempted to make a dis- 
 crimination between the actual ghost, if we can 
 imagine such a thing, of the first act, and the im- 
 aginary vision conjured up by Hamlet's over- 
 wrought brain in the presence of his mother. 
 However ingenious and psychological such a 
 theory may be, I cannot believe that it can have 
 anything to do with Hamlet. These two appear- 
 
820 THE ELIZABETHAN PEOPLE 
 
 ances, I think, are of one and the same ghost, and 
 they presented to the Elizabethan audience no 
 such difference as is hinted at in the above subtle 
 distinction. In fact, the Elizabethan ghost pos- 
 sessed the power not only of making himself visi- 
 ble or invisible at will, but also the power of ren- 
 dering himself visible to some and invisible to 
 others in the same room at the same time. In 
 Act I. the ghost preferred to be seen by all the 
 persons on the platform. At the later appear- 
 ance he desired to remind Hamlet of his neglected 
 duty, but did not wish to frighten the queen — 
 hence he was visible to one and not to the other. 
 This would be perfectly understood by the Eliza- 
 bethan audience. 
 
 One could multiply the instances of ghost lore 
 from the old plays ad infinittmi. Ghosts figure in 
 numerous plays by the older dramatists. From 
 Locrine we learn that ghosts are subject to 
 vexation from malicious spirits quite after the 
 fashion of human beings ; also that they are 
 frightened by the baying of dogs. In Richard 
 III. ghosts have the power of prophecy. 
 
 The generality of the belief of ghostly revela- 
 tion introduced a quality, or rather, a condition, 
 into Elizabethan crime which has sometimes been 
 overlooked in criticising the relations between 
 Hamlet and Claudius. To-day one who would 
 
IXTERIOR OF A HoUSE IX CrUTCHED FrIARS, LoXDOX. 
 
 (From a print in Smith's collection. The cornice and ceiling are plaster; 
 
 the rest oak.) 
 
GHOSTS— FAIRIES— WITCHES S21 
 
 commit a murder considers his chance of safety 
 from detection to be proportioned to the secrecy 
 with which the crime is committed. But in the 
 time of Shakespeare, every criminal had to reckon 
 with the possibility of a supernatural revelation. 
 However carefully he laid his plans he had to ac- 
 cept the likelihood of defeat through the walking 
 of the ghost of his victim. Claudius must have 
 thought of this before ever he poured poison into 
 his brother's ears. When he is called upon to 
 fathom the almost unaccountable extremity of 
 Hamlet's suUenness, one of the first facts that 
 would have been likely to occur to the king was 
 the possibility of Hamlet's having learned the 
 truth through a ghostly revelation. The play 
 read with this idea in mind makes clear some 
 things that have been otherwise interpreted. 
 
 One need but to recall A Midsummer Night's 
 Dream to realise how important and how delicate 
 and pleasing was the charm pertaining to fairy 
 lore. Beauty was the most characteristic attri- 
 bute of the fairies. Not only were they beautiful 
 in face and form, but also beautiful in all their 
 surroundings. When they rode abroad they were 
 mounted on the best of horses, slenderly shaped 
 and delicately prancing. None of such quality 
 were ever possessed by mortals. In the fields the 
 
322 THE ELIZABETHAN PEOPLE 
 
 fairies flew hawks superior in breed and training 
 to the best that belonged to human beings. The 
 furnishing of their abodes was of crystal, the 
 precious metals, and brilliantly coloured gems. 
 Their natural surroundings were chosen with care 
 to procure a beautiful effect. The interior of 
 gracefully shaped conical hills frequently con- 
 tained their habitations. Only the loveliest and 
 most romantic dells were inhabited by them. 
 They emerged to the surface of the earth only on 
 clear nights when the soft bright moon was shin- 
 ing. Whatever their amusements, whether they 
 danced or hunted, their revelry was accompanied 
 by the tinkling of silver bells and the harmonious 
 strains of the sweetest music. 
 
 One of their favourite amusements was to come 
 forth on a starry night to dance in the wavering 
 moonlight. The places where they held these 
 magic festivities were recognised in the daytime 
 by the rings of grass of a brighter hue than the 
 surrounding meadow, the marks left by their hal- 
 lowed footsteps. Many interesting superstitions 
 cling about these fairy rings; some of good, 
 others of bad import. If one inadvertently 
 stepped within the ring he immediately became 
 liable to the fairy power. Maidens who gathered 
 dew in the month of May, to be used as a face 
 wash, scrupulously avoided that upon the fairy 
 
GHOSTS— FAIRIES— WITCHES 
 
 rings. They feared that, out of revenge, the 
 fairies would play tricks with the complexion. 
 
 Fairies, of course, possessed many super- 
 natural powers. They could change their form at 
 will. They could make themselves invisible. They 
 could move from place to place with marvellous 
 velocity, far beyond the utmost speed of human 
 mankind. Neither bolts nor bars nor solid walls 
 hindered their passage. They were very diminu- 
 tive in size. They were supposed to dress gen- 
 erally in green. 
 
 Fairies, as a rule, were good spirits. That is, 
 they loved the human race and liked to do people 
 kindnesses. A clean room and a bowl of water 
 were likely to attract the well-wishing fairies. 
 In fact, this class of beings was particularly fond 
 of cleanliness and, as a rule, rewarded thrifty 
 housemaids by dropping money in their shoes at 
 night. Often a good fairy performed an energetic 
 housemaid's tasks during the night. But slug- 
 gish maids were pinched as " blue as bilberry," 
 by the same taskmasters. 
 
 Yet there were distinctly bad fairies as well 
 as good: and many others, such as Puck, were 
 harmlessly though tantalisingly mischievous. 
 One attribute of even the good fairies was their 
 fickle nature. The least failure to perform the 
 rites due to them, or the least encroachment upon 
 
324 THE ELIZABETHAN PEOPLE 
 
 their traditional privileges and liberties, was suf- 
 ficient to change their love to malicious hatred — 
 as when one stepped within their sacred rings. 
 They were especially jealous of prying curiosity. 
 Often one who came too suddenly upon them with- 
 out heeding the tinkling of their warning bells, 
 would be stricken blind. Sometimes even a worse 
 fate attended him. " He that speaks to them 
 shall die. No man their works must eye." {Merry 
 Wives of Windsor.) They also coveted the 
 possession of beautiful earth-born children. So 
 certainly did this trait overpower their humane 
 characteristics, that every fond mother regarded 
 an ugly infant or a dull child as a fairy change- 
 ling. So, too, was a child uncannily precocious 
 accounted for. 
 
 To the beautiful, pleasing conception of the 
 fairies was opposed the grotesque and malignant 
 surroundings of the witches. A scarce tract by 
 John Stearne, published at London in IGIS, as- 
 serts on its title page " That there are witches 
 called bad witches, and witches untruly called 
 good or white witches." The word " untruly " 
 suggests the difficulty of drawing a line or defin- 
 ing a limitation between the two classes. If there 
 was at the time a definite line of demarkation be- 
 tween black and white, it seems to have been at 
 
Grotesque Carving of a House i>f Crutched Friars, LoNDo>r. 
 (From a print in Smith's collection.) 
 
GHOSTS— FAIRIES— WITCHES 325 
 
 that point where the petty and harmless witcheries 
 of a novice developed in magnitude and malignity 
 sufficient to give her a claim for entrance into 
 the true sisterhood of her order. Such harmless, 
 or white, witches lived among their neighbours 
 often upon terms of familiarity and good willl 
 They told fortunes, exercised the arts and prac- 
 tices of palmistry and elementary astrology, 
 dealt out simples for a substantial consideration, 
 cast waters and furnished love potions to dis- 
 tressed and disappointed youths and maidens. 
 We learn from The Wise Woman of Hogsden a 
 list of the notable white witches then in fashion. 
 Mothers Nottingham and Bombie were especially 
 famous for casting of waters; Mother Hatfield 
 in Pepper Alley was useful in finding lost things, 
 a task in the performance of which she was es- 
 pecially famous. Those who suffered from weak- 
 ness of back went to Mother Phillips in the Bank- 
 side. The good acts of several of these people 
 cuts them off from the class of bad witches whose 
 influence was always malignant. The Wise 
 Woman of Hogsden thus enumerates her own ac- 
 complishments : " Let me see how many trades I 
 have to live by: First, I am a wise woman, and 
 a fortune teller, and under that I deal in physic 
 and forespeaking, in palmistry, and in recover- 
 ing of things lost ; next, I undertake to cure mad 
 
THE ELIZABETHAN PEOPLE 
 
 folks; then I keep gentle-women lodgers to fur- 
 nish such chambers as I let out by the night ; then 
 I am provided for bringing young wenches to 
 bed; and for a need, you see, I play the match- 
 maker." The witch's shop was packed with the 
 grotesque ingredients and materials used in her 
 trade. Thus : " One would suspect it for a shop 
 of witchcraft, to find in it the fat of serpents, 
 spawn of snakes, Jew's spittle, and their young 
 children's ordure." (Duchess of Malfi.) It is 
 interesting to record one of the contemporary 
 sure tests of the identity of a witch; namely, if 
 her house was burned and she came running forth 
 clamouring and crying, she was a witch. " This 
 thatch is as good as a jury to prove she is a 
 witch." (The Witch of Edmonton.) 
 
 Far more important and oftentimes far more 
 dignified were the black witches who so often suf- 
 fered the death penalty during the reign of King 
 James. Scott in his Discoveries of Witchcraft 
 tells us that there are three sorts of witches: 
 " One sort can hurt and not help, the second can 
 help and not hurt, and the third can both help 
 and hurt. Among the hurtful witches there is 
 one sort more beastly than any kind of beasts, 
 saving wolves; for these usually devour and eat 
 young children and infants of their own kind. 
 These be they that raise hail, tempests, and hurt- 
 
GHOSTS— FAIRIES— WITCHES 327 
 
 ful weather, as lightning, thunder, etc. These be 
 they that procure barrenness in man, woman, and' 
 beast. These can throw children in waters, as 
 they walk with their mothers, and not be seen. 
 These can make horses kick, till they cast their 
 riders. These can pass from place to place in the 
 air invisible. These can so alter the minds of 
 judges, that they can have no power to hurt them. 
 These can procure to themselves and to others, 
 taciturnity and insensibility in their torments. 
 These can bring trembling to the hands, and 
 strike terror into the minds of them that appre- 
 hend them. These can manifest unto others, 
 things hidden and lost, and foreshew things to 
 come, and see them as though they were present. 
 These can alter men's minds to inordinate love or 
 hate. These can take away man's courage. 
 These can make a woman miscarry in childbirth, 
 and destroy the child in the mother's womb, with- 
 out any sensible means either inwardly or out- 
 wardly applied. These can with their looks kill 
 either man or beast. 
 
 " Others do write that they can pull down the 
 moon and the stars. Some write that with wish- 
 ing they can send needles into the livers of their 
 enemies. Some that they can transfer corn in 
 the blade from one place to another. Some that 
 they can cure deseases supernaturally, fly in the 
 
328 THE ELIZABETHAN PEOPLE 
 
 air, and dance with devils. Some write that they 
 can play the part of Succubus, and contract 
 themselves to Incubus. Some say they can trans- 
 substantiate themselves and others, and take the 
 forms and shapes of asses, wolves, ferrets, cows, 
 horses, hogs, etc. Some say they can keep devils 
 and spirits in the likeness of toads and cats. 
 
 "They can raise spirits (as others affirm), dry 
 up springs, turn the course of running waters, in- 
 habit the sun and stay both day and night, chang- 
 ing the one into the other. They can go in and 
 out of auger holes, and sail in an eggshell, a 
 cockle or mussel shell, through and under the tem- 
 pestuous seas. They can bring souls out of the 
 graves. They can tear snakes in pieces. They 
 can also bring to pass that, churn as long as you 
 list, your butter will not come; especially if either 
 the maids have eaten up the cream, or the good 
 wife have sold the butter before in the market." 
 
 The appearance of these mysterious and usu- 
 ally bearded women is thus described by the 
 same author: "The sort of such as are said to 
 be witches are women which be commonly old, 
 lame, blear-eyed, pale, foul, and full of wrinkles ; 
 poor, sullen, superstitious, and papists; or such 
 as know no religion; in whose drowsy minds the 
 devil hath gotten a fine seat; so as, mischief, mis- 
 chance, calamity or slaughter is brought to pass. 
 
Fireplace ix Oi.dboukxe Halt., London. 
 (From d print in Wilkinson's collection.) 
 
GHOSTS— FAIRIES— WITCHES 
 
 they are easily persuaded the same is done by 
 themselves; imprinting in their minds an earnest 
 and constant imagination thereof. They are lean 
 and deformed, showing melancholy in their faces, 
 to the horror of all that see them. They are dot- 
 ing, scolds, mad, devilish, and much diflFering from 
 them that are thought to be possessed with 
 spirits ; so firm and steadfast in their opinions, as 
 whosoever shall only have respect to the con- 
 stancy of their words uttered, would easily believe 
 they were true indeed. 
 
 " These miserable witches are so odious unto 
 all their neighbours, and so feared, as few dare 
 offend them, or deny them anything they ask; 
 whereby they take upon them, yea, and sometimes 
 think, that they can do such things as are beyond 
 the ability of human nature. They go from 
 house to house, and from door to door for a pot 
 full of milk, yeast, drink, pottage, or some such re- 
 lief; without the which they could hardly live; 
 neither obtaining for their service or pains, nor 
 by their art, nor yet at the devil's hands (with 
 whom they are said to make a perfect and visible 
 bargain) either beauty, money, promotion, wor- 
 ship, pleasure, honour, knowledge, learning, or 
 any benefit whatsoever." 
 
 To this description let us add the following 
 vivid passage from Archbishop Harsnet's Decla- 
 
THE ELIZABETHAN PEOPLE 
 
 ration: " Out of these is shaped us the true Idcea 
 of a witch, an old, weatherbeaten crone, having 
 her chin and knees meeting for age, walking like 
 a bow leaning on a shaft, hollow-eyed, untoothed, 
 furrowed on her face, having her lips trembling 
 with the palsy, going mumbling in the streets, 
 one that hath forgot her pater noster, and hath 
 yet a shrewd tongue in her head, to call a drab a 
 drab. If she have learned of an old wife in a 
 chimney's end: Pax, max, fax, for a spell, or can 
 say Sir John of Grantham's curse for the miller's 
 eels that were stolen : All you that have stolen the 
 miller's eels, Laudate dommum de cceUs; And all 
 they that have consented thereto, benedicamus 
 domini: Why then ho, beware, look about you, my 
 neighbours ; if any of you have sheep sick of the 
 giddies, or an hog of the mumps, or a horse of 
 the staggers, or a knavish boy of the school, or an 
 idle girl of the wheel, or a young drab of the 
 suUens, and hath not fat enough for her porridge, 
 nor her father and mother butter enough for their 
 bread; and she have a little help of the Mother, 
 Epelepsie, or Cramp, to teach her [to] roll her 
 eyes, wry her mouth, gnash her teeth, startle with 
 her body, hold her arms and ha,nds stiff, make antic 
 faces, grin, mow, and mop like an ape, tumble like 
 a hedge-hog, and can mutter out two or three 
 words of gibberish as ohus, hdbus; and then withal 
 
GHOSTS— FAIRIES— WITCHES 331 
 
 old Mother Nobs hath called her by chance idle 
 young housewife, or bid the devil scratch her, then 
 no doubt but that Mother Nobs is the witch, the 
 young girl is owl-blasted and possessed; and 
 it goes hard but ye shall have some addle, giddy, 
 lymphatical, illuminate dotrel, who being out of i 
 credit, learning, sobriety, honesty, and wit, willj 
 take this holy advantage to raise the ruins of his 
 desperate decayed name, and for his better glorj 
 will bepray the juggling drab, and cast out Mopj, 
 the devil." 
 
 According to the popular superstition, witches 
 were provided with beards; thus, in the words of 
 Macbeth, " you should be women. And yet your 
 beards forbid me to interpret That you are so." 
 " The women that Come to us for disguises must 
 wear beards; And that's to say, a token of a 
 witch." (Middleton's The Honest Man's For- 
 tume.) 
 
 It was generally believed that witches met in a 
 disturbance of the elements. This is the case at 
 the opening of Macbeth. Terrible thunder and 
 lightning accompany the raising of the spirits in 
 Henry the Sixth (2d part, i. 4). So, midnight 
 hours and desolate places were associated with 
 witches. They were exorcised by charms often 
 composed of a nonsensical succession of syllables, 
 sentences (especially the Lord's prayer), repeated 
 
SS2 THE ELIZABETHAN PEOPLE 
 
 backward, foul images, most of their charms in- 
 troducing the magic numbers three, and three 
 times three. With witches were associated all 
 sorts of loathsome objects: for instance, the 
 articles that compose the magic broth in Macbeth. 
 
 "First Witch. Round about the cauldron go; 
 In the poispn'd entrails throw; 
 Toad, that under cold stone 
 Pays and nights has thirty one 
 Swelter'd venom sleeping got, 
 BoU thou first i' the charmed pot. 
 
 All. Double, double toil and trouble; 
 Fire burn, and cauldron bubble. 
 
 Sec. Witch. Fillet of a fenny snake. 
 In the cauldron boil and bake; 
 Eye of newt and toe of frog. 
 Wool of bat and tongue of dog. 
 Adder's fork and blinded-worm's sting. 
 Lizard's leg and howlet's wii^ 
 For a charm of powerful trouble. 
 Like a hell-broth boil and bubble. 
 
 All. Double, double toil and trouble; 
 Fire bjirp, and cauldron hubUe. 
 
 Third Witch. Scale of dragon, tooth of wolf. 
 Witches' mummy, maw and gulf 
 Of the ravin'd salt-sea shark." 
 
 Later in this chapter something is said about 
 the famous trial of witches in Lancashire in 1612. 
 The following description of the compact with 
 the evil one is taken from the confession of one of 
 those so-called witches : 
 
 " Whereupon the said wicked spirit moved this 
 
BIoLL Frith, "The Roarixg Gtel." 
 (From an old print.) 
 
GHOSTS— FAIRIES— WITCHES 
 
 examinate that she would become his subject, and 
 give her soul unto him; the which she at jSrst re- 
 fused to assent unto; but after by the great per- 
 suasions made by the said Demdike, she yielded to 
 be at his commandment and appointment; where- 
 upon the said wicked spirit then said unto her, 
 that he must have some part of her body to suck 
 upon; the which she denied then to grant unto 
 him; and withal asked him, what part of her 
 body he would have for that use: who said he 
 would have a place of her right side near to her 
 ribs, for him to suck upon; whereunto she as- 
 sented." 
 
 This form of sucking the blood was the act 
 by which the witch swore fealty, so to speak, to 
 the evil one. The instrument that thus partook 
 of the spirit through the blood was thenceforth 
 the witch's evil spirit, or familiar. It was this 
 being, known by numerous names, in the likeness 
 usually of an animal, that performed for the 
 witch many of the tasks that are beyond mortal 
 powers. It was currently believed, however, that 
 the animal form of a familiar was always incom- 
 plete in one respect : it lacked a tail. This fact is 
 referred to in Macbeth in the phrase, " Like a 
 rat without a tail," which means in the form or 
 likeness of a rat without a tail. Contemporary 
 writings give many lists of familiars by name, 
 
THE ELIZABETHAN PEOPLE 
 
 some of which have acquired considerably more 
 than a local or contemporary fame. Lucifer, 
 Little Robin, Lightfoot, Makeshift, Hardname, 
 Tiff, Ball, Puss, and Jake are among others men- 
 tioned by a writer, Bernard, in his Guide to Jury- 
 men. The following interesting set of names is 
 taken from Pitcairne's Trials: Robert the Jakis; 
 Sanderis, the Red Rover; Thomas the Fairy; 
 Swain, the Roaring Lion; Thief of Hell; Wait 
 upon Herself; Mak Hectour; Robert the Rule; 
 Hendrie Laing; and Rorie. Some of the names 
 supplied by Harsnet's Declaration have almost 
 become household words. Among them are Phil- 
 pot, Smolkin, Lustie Huff-cap, Hob, Fraterette, 
 Flibberdigibbett, Hoberdidance, etc. Even this 
 long list could be lengthened to a considerable 
 extent by drawing upon the pages of Shakespeare 
 and his contemporaries in the drama. In Ford's 
 play, The Witch of Edmonton, occurs the follow- 
 ing allusion to familiars : — 
 
 " I have heard old beldames 
 Talk of familiars in the shape of mice. 
 Rats, ferrets, weasels, and I wot not what, 
 That have appeared and sucked, some say, their blood 
 But by what means they came acquainted with them I 
 I am now ignorant." 
 
 The bond with the evil one alluded to above is 
 thus more circumstantially described by Reginald 
 Scot: "The order of their bargain or profes- 
 
GHOSTS— FAIRIES— WITCHES 335 
 
 sion is double: the one solemn and public, the 
 other secret and private. That which is called 
 solemn or public is where the witches come to- 
 gether at certain assemblies [i.e. the well known 
 witches' Sabbath], at the times prefixed, and do 
 not only see the devil in visible form, but confer 
 and talk familiarly with him. In which confer- 
 ence the devil exhorteth them to observe their 
 fidelity unto him, promising them long life and 
 prosperity. Then the witches assembled com- 
 mend a new desciple (whom they call a novice) 
 unto him; and if the devil find that young witch 
 apt and forward in renunciation of Christian 
 faith, in despising any of the seven sacriments, in 
 treading upon crosses, in spetting at the time of 
 the elevation, in breaking their fast upon fasting 
 days, and fasting on Sundays; then the devil 
 giveth forth his hand, and the novice joining hand 
 and hand with him, promiseth to observe and 
 keep all the devil's commandments. 
 
 " This done the devil beginneth to be more bold 
 with her, telling her plainly that all this will not 
 serve his turn ; and therefore requireth homage at 
 her hands; yea, he also telleth her that she must 
 grant him both her body and soul to be tor- 
 mented in everlasting fire ; which she yieldeth unto. 
 Then he chargeth her to procure as many men, 
 women, and children also, as she can, to enter into 
 
THE ELIZABETHAN PEOPLE 
 
 this society. Then he teacheth them to make 
 ointments of the bowels and members of children, 
 whereby they ride in the air, and accomplish their 
 desires. So as, if there be any children unbap- 
 tised, or not guarded with the sign of the cross, 
 or orisons; then the witches may and do catch 
 them from their mothers' sides in the night, or 
 out of their cradles, or otherwise Mil them with 
 their ceremonies; and after burial steal them out 
 of their graves and seethe them in a caldron, until 
 their flesh be made potable. Of the thickest where- 
 of they made ointment, whereby they ride in the 
 air; but the thinner portion they put into 
 flagons, whereof whosoever drinketh, observing 
 certain ceremonies, immediately becometh a 
 master or, rather, a mistress in that practice 
 and faculty. 
 
 " Their homage, together with their oath and 
 bargain, is received for a certain term of years, 
 sometimes forever. Sometimes it consisteth of a 
 denial of the whole faith, sometimes in part. And 
 this is done either by oath, protestation of words, 
 or by obligation in writing, sometimes sealed with 
 wax, sometimes signed with blood, sometimes by 
 kissing the devil's bare buttocks." 
 
 Though the witches and their familiars pos- 
 sessed many supernatural qualities, their powers 
 in this direction were limited. When the dog in 
 
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 fm?W^ 
 
 
 
 ^K 
 
 
 ^H 
 
 
 H 
 
 
 HK;^ 
 
 
 ^^^^^^IHhI 
 
 
 
 
 H^H 
 
 
 
 ^^^hB 
 
 ■j^^H 
 
 
 
 
 m 
 
 m^^ 
 
 
 WilHWHlH 
 
 HH 
 
 
 
 
 i^^^^l8 
 
 M^^SM 
 
 
 
 ^^^^■^^^^l^^l 
 
 jB^ y^^ "JB 
 
 
 
 ^^H 
 
 ^f' ,1. j^Hj 
 
 ft ' 
 
 
 H 
 
 rSwHHnL^^^I 
 
 
 
 ■(-■^■s-v^""^^-*^^^^^^?? 
 
 ^^^^BP^^^^^ 
 
 mn 
 
 
 Robe of civic dignitary. 
 
 (From the portrait of Edward AUeyn at Duhvich 
 
 Gallery.) 
 
 J 
 
GHOSTS— FAIRIES— WITCHES 337 
 
 The Witch of Edmonton is asked, " Why wilt not 
 kill him? " he replies, " Fool, because I cannot. 
 Though we have power, know it is circumscribed 
 And tied in limits." Yet the supernatural acts 
 that witches could perform were numerous. They 
 could render themselves invisible, they could come 
 and go at will, traversing long distances instantly. 
 They could control the weather, and, as a result, 
 they often drove a thrifty trade in selling winds to 
 mariners. They could foretell and they could be- 
 witch. Under the latter head one would group 
 the thousand and one acts of malignant evil that 
 were currently attributed to witches. Sudden 
 illness, violent accident, misfortune in business, 
 monstrous birth, etc., etc., were due, oftentimes, 
 to witchcraft, and honestly believed to be so by all 
 sorts and conditions of men. " Finally she said 
 she would be even with me; and soon after my 
 child, my cow, my sow, or my pullet died, or was 
 strangely taken." ( Scot. ) " She came on a 
 time to the house of one Robert Lathburie . . . 
 who, disliking her dealing, sent her home empty; 
 but presently after her departure, his hogs fell 
 sick and died, to the number of twenty." (A De- 
 tection of Damnable Drifts Practised by Three 
 Witches, 1769.) 
 
 One of the commonest means and withal one of 
 the most feared instruments of witchcraft was 
 
THE ELIZABETHAN PEOPLE 
 
 the clay or wax image, or picture, as it was called. 
 Concerning the practice. Old Demdike, one of the 
 famous Lancashire witches brought to trial in 
 1612, has the following to say in her Volvmtarie 
 Confession: " And further, this examinate con- 
 fesseth and sayeth, that the speediest way to 
 make a man's life away by witchcraft is to make 
 a picture of clay, like unto the shape of the per- 
 son whom they mean to kill, and dry it thor- 
 oughly; and when they would have them to be 
 ill in any one place more than another, then take 
 a thorn or pin and prick it in that part of the 
 picture you would fain so have to be ill ; and when 
 you would have any part of the body to consume 
 away, then take that part of the picture and burn 
 it. And when they would have the whole body 
 to consume away, then take the remnant of the 
 said picture, and burn it. And so thereupon by 
 that means the body shall die." 
 
 In 1612 a famous trial, followed by a wholesale 
 execution of witches, took place at Lancaster. 
 The above quotation is taken from a very minute 
 and circumstantial account of the trial written 
 by one Potts, clerk of the court. Many interest- 
 ing details concerning contemporary belief in 
 witchcraft have been preserved in this Potts's 
 Discovery. Also of great value is the introduc- 
 tory essay prefixed by Mr. Crossley, who edited 
 
GHOSTS— FAIRIES— WITCHES 
 
 a reprint for the Cheltham Society in 1844. He 
 has gathered together in his introduction a num- 
 ber of interesting quotations, all illustrative of 
 this practice of picture or image witchcraft. Two 
 are of especial interest as showing how seriously 
 even the people in the highest rank of life looked 
 upon this matter. The first is from Strype's An- 
 nals of the Reformation, where we are told that 
 Bishop Jewel, preaching before the Queen in 1558, 
 said : " It may please your grace to understand 
 that witches and sorcerers within these last few 
 years are marvellously increased within your 
 grace's realm. Your grace's subjects pine away, 
 even unto the death; their colour fadeth, their 
 flesh rotteth, their speech is benumbed, their senses 
 are bereft. I pray God they never practise fur- 
 ther than upon the subject." 
 
 The second quotation is also from Strype, rela- 
 tive to the year 1589: "One Mrs. Dier had 
 practised conjuration against the Queen, to work 
 some mischief to her majesty; for which she was 
 brought into question ; and accordingly her words 
 and doings were sent to Popham, the Queen's at- 
 torney, and Egerton, her solicitor, by Walsing- 
 ham, the secretary, and Sir Thomas Heneage, her 
 vice-chamberlain, for their judgment, whose 
 opinion was that Mrs. Dier was not within the 
 compas of the statute touching witchcraft, for 
 
340 THE ELIZABETHAN PEOPLE 
 
 that she did no act, and spake certain lewd 
 speeches tending to that purpose, but neither set 
 figures nor made pictures." 
 
 Allusions to this practice of image sorcery 
 could be quoted by the score. It is enough to 
 say that the current belief held that whatever the 
 witch did to the image would happen to the per- 
 son represented by it. Thus, a quill stuck into 
 the wax image would eventually drain the blood 
 of the victim as " dry as hay." From The Duch- 
 ess of Malfl we learn that " It wastes me more 
 Than were't my picture fashioned out of wax, 
 Stuck with a magical needle, and then buried In 
 some foul dunghill." 
 
 It was popular belief that the rowan tree was 
 able to keep away witches ; and the planting of it 
 at the four corners of the house for this purpose 
 is not yet wholly out of vogue in some of the 
 wilder parts of Scotland. Drawing blood upon a 
 witch also rendered her enchantments ineffectual, 
 a belief illustrated by the following: "I'll have 
 a bout with thee; devil or devil's dam. I'll con- 
 jure thee. Blood will I draw upon thee, thou art 
 a witch." (First Part of Henry the Sixth.) 
 Firm faith was also depended upon as a protec- 
 tion against witches. " If my breast had not been 
 made of faith and my heart of steel, She had 
 transformed me into a curtail dog, and made me 
 
<b -^ 
 
 /f^^#%, 
 
 Of 
 
 o 
 & 
 
 H 
 
GHOSTS— FAIRIES— WITCHES 341 
 
 turn i' the wheel." (The Comedy of Errors.) 
 When Dromio says: 
 
 " Some devils ask but the parings of one's nails, 
 A rush, a hair, a drop of blood, a pin, 
 A nut, a cherry stone; " 
 
 he alludes to the frequent propitiation of witches 
 by gifts. From Potts's account we learn that 
 witches levied blackmail and that a constaiit an- 
 nual tribute was not infrequently paid as a sufe 
 means of avoiding the baneful results of magic 
 spells. 
 
 Ghosts and fairies are wholly supernatural. 
 They are, so to speak, creatures of the imagi- 
 nation. The belief in ghosts and spirits is not 
 yet wholly dead; but the tiny fairy folk are no 
 longer with us. However the Elizabethans may 
 have felt, we can say with confidence that nOiie 
 of them ever saw Queen Mab, or actually heard 
 the tinkly music of the moonlight revels. On the 
 other hand, witches were creatures of flesh and 
 blood. They lived on earth among friends and 
 neighbours. A witch could be remembered in her 
 own reputable days before she had sold herself to 
 the devil. An examination of the numerous acts 
 attributed to witches shows how prone the Eliza- 
 bethan mind was to jump at conclusions as a re- 
 sult of circumstantial evidence. One died sud- 
 denly and, perhaps, mysteriously. What was the 
 
342 THE ELIZABETHAN PEOPLE 
 
 cause of death? None could say. Then he must 
 have been bewitched. By whom? Yesterday he 
 refused a penny to so and so, a chattering old 
 hag. What more likely, etc., etc. Long before 
 so many questions had been asked and answered, 
 a case, perhaps of heart disease, had been fas- 
 tened upon some local witch who did not deny the 
 charge. 
 
 All this is but illustrative of that temper of 
 credulity so superlatively characteristic of the 
 Elizabethan character. Not only were the people 
 ready to believe these tales of the supernatural 
 acts performed by witches, but the witches them- 
 selves came to believe in them as ardently as did 
 any of their disciples. It is a mistake to think 
 that they were all fakirs through and through as 
 were many of the professional swindlers de- 
 scribed in a former chapter. Who has not at 
 one time or another been startled by the merely 
 accidental fulfilment of a wish? It is but a step 
 further to him who opens the Bible at hazard and 
 believes in the supernatural guidance to a selec- 
 tion of a text for the day, or to her who, having 
 cursed her neighbour successfully, believes that 
 the devil has supernaturally vested some of his 
 power in her weak hands. Just as there were 
 voices, like Reginald Scot's, occasionally crying in 
 the wilderness against the folly of belief in witch- 
 
GHOSTS— FAIRIES— WITCHES 843 
 
 craft, so there were occasionally witches that were 
 imposters. Yet the fact to be remembered is that 
 in general good faith was practised on both sides. 
 The people in the playhouse shuddered with Mac- 
 beth, who upon so lonely a heath came face to 
 face with three weird sisters of the forbidden clan. 
 Doubtless the witches in Macbeth are such as 
 might have been met with in flesh and blood. 
 Doubtless, also, they believed in themselves. 
 What did Shakespeare think? — not of his crea- 
 tions, but of his examples of the popular creation ? 
 Note how carefully he strips them of the power of 
 prophecy in nearly every case, how all of what 
 they say is just such as might have been uttered 
 by Old Demdike of Lancaster fame; and withal, 
 how emphatically he sets forth Macbeth's willing- 
 ness to consider his own interpretations of am- 
 biguous words as so many prophecies emanating 
 from the supernaturally inspired witches. What- 
 ever Shakespeare thought, he is here carefully 
 following the workings of the contemporary credu- 
 lity of his fellow men. 
 
CHAPTER XIII 
 
 DOMESTIC LIFE 
 
 STYLE in architecture is a term the signifi- 
 cance of which develops long after the time 
 to which it applies. What we now recognise as 
 the characteristic style of building introduced by 
 the Elizabethans was, of course, looked upon by 
 the people themselves as an innovation, a novelty, 
 and not in the least typical of the time. It is the 
 purpose of this section, not to write of a distinct 
 and new step in the development of architectural 
 history, but rather to describe the houses in 
 which the Elizabethans lived; consequently, more 
 will be said of houses and buildings that from an 
 architectural point of view belong in reality to an 
 earlier period. 
 
 During the reigns of the Tudors life in country 
 England had become comparatively safe. In 
 London, and elsewhere throughout the kingdom, 
 the city walls were allowed gradually to fall into 
 a state of disrepair and dilapidation, for the fact 
 was fully realised that they were no longer of 
 any great use as a protection. In consequence 
 344 
 
c 
 
 
 
 o 
 Q 
 
 H 
 
DOMESTIC LIFE 345 
 
 of this increased safety of social conditions there 
 was general shifting of population. Contempo- 
 rary authorities lament the sad decay of the prin- 
 cipal towns, and look upon the fact as an indi- 
 cation of the abatement of national prosperity. 
 It is easy for us to see now that this was not at all 
 the case. The decay of towns was but a natural 
 result of this shift of population. The greater 
 safety of life that obtained throughout the king- 
 dom fostered in many persons the desire to move 
 from the larger walled towns to the smaller un- 
 walled towns, or to the rural districts. This 
 change occasioned much new building, little of 
 which, however, is associated with that distinctive 
 " style " that characterises the larger manor- 
 houses built later in the reign of Elizabeth. By 
 this time national prosperity was so great that it 
 affected everything. The decay of towns was ar- 
 rested, and building began to go on in the cities 
 as rapidly as elsewhere throughout the kingdom. 
 This fact brought about an interesting situa- 
 tion in London. To us, who are used to the great 
 metropolis of which "The City" and "West- 
 minster" are but integral parts, it is a difficult 
 task to imagine the situation when London and 
 Westminster were rival centers of population, 
 separated by green hills and parks, and joined by 
 but a single row of widely separated palaces. 
 
346 THE ELIZABETHAN PEOPLE 
 
 Such, however, was the case throughout the greater 
 part of the reign of Queen Elizabeth. At West- 
 minster were the royal court and the chief courts 
 of justice. There met the national Parliament. 
 The Queen and Privy Council felt a decided jeal- 
 ousy of the walled town so near at hand that had 
 so often closed its ponderous gates in the face 
 of a duly constituted sovereign. Proud as Eliza- 
 beth was of her wealthy and beautiful capital, she 
 felt a substantial jealousy of the amazing ra- 
 pidity of its growth that took place during the 
 later years of her reign. The attempt to stop 
 this growth gave rise to a royal proclamation 
 that intimately affected the building trade of the 
 capital. 
 
 For some time the crowded condition of Lon- 
 don had made it an unpleasant place for domestic 
 habitations, and for the showy, spectacular daily 
 life of the wealthy noblemen while in town for the 
 season. This fact, coupled with the increasing 
 safety of life in districts unprotected by walls, 
 gave rise to an exodus from the city proper, and 
 thus sprang into existence the long line of palaces 
 fronting upon the river and extending backward 
 as far as the Strand; and thus also came into ex- 
 istence the first travelled connection by land be- 
 tween London and Westminster. The city pal- 
 aces thus vacated were turned to various uses; 
 
DOMESTIC LIFE 347 
 
 mainly, however, into tenement houses capable of 
 housing a score or more of families, thus provid- 
 ing room for the rapidly increasing population 
 of London. Against the so-called evil of this 
 rapid growth, Elizabeth directed a proclamation 
 that forbade the living together of diflFerent fami- 
 lies under the same roof. Of course, this procla- 
 mation was, in the main, ineifectual. The Tudors, 
 despotic as they were, could not resist the tremen- 
 dous wave of energy that their firm government 
 had diverted from civil strife into the channel 
 of mercantile and industrial development. Yet 
 their resistance had some effect as a hindrance, 
 and is a very significant indication of the temper 
 of the time. 
 
 The crowded condition of London, further- 
 more, gave rise to the erection of many new build- 
 ings without the walls. So rapid was the progress 
 of erection that the jealous Queen found it neces- 
 sary to forbid, again by royal mandate, the con- 
 struction of any building within three miles of 
 any gate of the city wall. This proclamation 
 likewise acted as a hindrance, and was likewise, 
 in the long run, quite ineffective, even often openly 
 disobeyed during the life of the Queen. So much 
 for the general condition of building during her 
 reign. 
 
 Of materials : most churches which were erected 
 
848 THE ELIZABETHAN PEOPLE 
 
 fA an e^jlier date were constructed of stone; as 
 wfiie also the larger private mansions of ancient 
 p^gin in both town and country, and the huge 
 public buijdings, such as the halls and prisons. 
 @tone was also used in the construction of many 
 pf the newer buildings. With the distinctly new 
 type of large mansion that came into vogue during 
 the later part of the reign, brick and tile were the 
 favourite building materials. Taking into consid- 
 eration all the houses, great and small, through 
 and through, timber was probably the chipf ele- 
 pient of construction. A large majority of the 
 London houses were constructed in a peculiar 
 fashion of a massive timber framework with gable 
 roofs. The squares and the triangles formed by 
 the beams were filled in with lath and plaster. 
 Each story projected some distance over the one 
 below; and the wooden fronts were grotesquely 
 carved and painted. Examples of this style of 
 building may still be seen in Staple's Inn, London ; 
 Leicester's Hospital, Warwick; Shakespeare's 
 birthplace, Stratford; and whole streets of mod- 
 em imitations, both in form and decoration, at 
 Chester. Smaller country houses were either 
 built of small stone, often put together without 
 cement, a habit still followed at Keswick, or con- 
 sisted of poor clay hovels. 
 MqqU of churcbe? s.nd of many of the great 
 
,^v\U^^-^'^''/)M 
 
 
 Pi 
 
 'l9J^d't)SAi^^^' 
 
DOMESTIC LIFE 349 
 
 stone mansions were generally covered with lead. 
 In the latter case they were likely to be flat and 
 much used by the household in hot weather as 
 walks and places for recreation and exercise. 
 Tile, however, was. a more common roofing ma- 
 terial which gave rise to the general red appear- 
 ance from a distance of so many Elizabethan 
 towns. Because of its inexpensiveness, thatch was 
 a common substitute for tile in country districts, 
 and was sometimes used in the construction of 
 mansions of even considerable pretension. 
 
 Windows were made of glass except in the most 
 insignificant houses, where expense necessitated the 
 use of open lattices, or closed board shutters when 
 the inclement weather made the former impossi- 
 ble. The use of translucent horn in windows had 
 practically ceased in Elizabethan times. The 
 manufacture of plate glass was still in its infancy, 
 and the secret of making large pieces quite un- 
 known. Hence the characteristic small panes 
 that were in use even when a large opening had to 
 be thus filled by many subdivisions. 
 
 Floors of the meaner houses, especially in the 
 country districts, on the first floor, were of bare 
 earth, co\ered frequently with rushes; but often- 
 times even this addition was dispensed with. 
 Floors in the better houses were generally either 
 of stone or of tile, The floors above ground were 
 
350 THE ELIZABETHAN PEOPLE 
 
 generally of wood, the flooring often set edgewise 
 for the purpose of producing extreme rigidity and 
 durability. 
 
 Much iron and brass was used in construction, 
 usually wrought in ponderous proportions, but 
 often elaborate and delicate in design. Such were 
 the ornamental brass knobs, knockers, and bells. 
 Iron locks were huge, and so were the keys, a 
 bunch of two or three frequently constituting a 
 considerable handful. Hinges and huge orna- 
 mental hinge plates were bolted solidly to the 
 weighty doors, and oftentimes of such wide and 
 elaborate design that they covered most of the 
 door. Hooks for hanging clothes out of the win- 
 dows to air, and hooks beneath the eaves for the 
 purpose of supporting hangings in time of street 
 decoration, were important items in building con- 
 struction. So were the iron extinguishers by the 
 front doors into which links were thrust; and the 
 highly ornate brackets from which street signs 
 were suspended. 
 
 The ground plan of the Elizabethan mansion 
 was variously designed, but usually falling into 
 one of two classes : the house with a square court, 
 or the house planned like an E. The latter is the 
 characteristic form used mainly by the builders 
 of the later part of the reign of Queen Elizabeth. 
 
 The house, in its plainer form, built in th^ 
 
DOMESTIC LIFE 351 
 
 shape of a hollow square, but in its more developed 
 style consisting of two courts placed end to end, 
 is familiar to all from Bacon's description of the 
 ideal type in his essay On Building. The main 
 detail of such a structure is the grouping of the 
 various buildings about the side of a square, one 
 building closely abutting upon another and joined 
 to it so as to complete the design. The form origi- 
 nated when the idea of defence had to be incor- 
 porated in the architectural plan. There was a 
 large entrance to the court, and entrances to the 
 various parts and buildings from the court itself. 
 By the time of Elizabeth, however, this notion of 
 defence was dropping out of consideration. This 
 gave rise to a separation or isolation of parts. 
 Sometimes a garden with a grotto and pavilion 
 intervened between the two courts. At Kenil- 
 worth and many other mansions the lodge was 
 separated by some distance from the main 
 structure. 
 
 The courts were usually square and placed end 
 to end. This was, however, not the universal cus- 
 tom. Both Kenilworth and the Charter House 
 are extremely irregular; and Crosby Hall pos- 
 sessed two square courts placed comer to corner. 
 
 The E-shaped house was an innovation intro- 
 duced during the reign of Elizabeth. In it the 
 court is altogether absent, and offices, stables, etc.5 
 
352 THE ELIZABETHAN PEOPLE 
 
 quite detached. The plan derives its name from 
 three projecting entrances in the fa9ade, each 
 provided with a porch. These gave the ground 
 plan the shape of an E, with, however, very short 
 and stubby arms. The peculiar characteristics 
 of this style of house were mainly details of out- 
 side appearance. Much more space was given 
 up to bays and to ordinary windows than in the 
 old style of house. Straight lines as an element 
 of ornamentation were carried continuously from 
 bottom to top of the fa9ade. The usual material 
 was brick and tile. Balustrades surmounted the 
 porches and the roofs when flat. Gable roofs, 
 however, were frequent, and numerous clusters of 
 ornamental tile chimneys a characteristic feature. 
 Such buildings may be studied at Charlcote, 
 Longleat, and in the Duke's House at Bradford 
 on Avon. 
 
 Numerous secondary buildings existed in con- 
 nection with the great mansions, sometimes ac- 
 tually a part of, at other times quite distinct 
 from it, in position. Such were the lodge, the 
 stables, brewing-house, store-houses, servants' 
 quarters, etc. Banquet was the common Eliza- 
 bethan term for light refreshments, such as we 
 serve at an afternoon tea, of coffee and wafers 
 after dinner. Wherever practicable a banquet- 
 house or pavilion for serving the banquet was 
 

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DOMESTIC LIFE 353 
 
 provided in the garden, to which the family and 
 guests adjourned upon the occasion of the ban- 
 quet. 
 
 The servants' quarters, though separate, were 
 closely grouped about the central building. 
 " Moreover," says Harrison, " the mansion houses 
 of our towns r.nd villages . . . are builded in such 
 sort generally as that they have neither dairy, 
 stable, nor brew house annexed unto them under 
 the same roof . . , but all separate from the first 
 and one of them from another. And yet for all 
 this they are not so far distant In sunder but that 
 the good man lying in his bed may lightly hear 
 what is done in each of them with ease, and call 
 quickly unto his many if any danger should at- 
 tack him." Later in the reign, however, and in 
 the reign of James, it became the custom to erect 
 the offices, or servants' quarters, at a greater dis- 
 tance from the mansion proper. Moats were like- 
 wise in existence but no longer needful. Often 
 they were drained and planted; and not con- 
 structed about new buildings. 
 
 The timber house that was most frequently met 
 with in cities has already been alluded to. In 
 such city houses as belonged to tradesmen it was 
 the universal custom to keep shop in the front 
 part downstairs, the rest of the house being oc- 
 cupied as a residence. It was also very common 
 
354 THE ELIZABETHAN PEOPLE 
 
 to set up temporary booths for the display of 
 wares about the doors and lower windows. The 
 gradual solidification of these temporary stalls 
 into permanent pent-houses that inconveniently 
 encroached upon the narrow streets was often 
 the subject of serious remonstrance. 
 
 The principal room in an Elizabethan house of 
 any size or pretension was the hall. This, usu- 
 ally the largest room in the house, was in use for 
 many purposes. All the merrymakings on an- 
 nual feast days took place in the hall. Meals 
 were served there upon movable tables that were 
 laid against the walls between times. Though 
 the women withdrew at the end of a meal the men 
 remained in the hall to drink, tell stories, or to 
 attend to a thousand and one articles of daily 
 business. The hall, being also a sort of trophy 
 room for weapons and articles of venery, formed 
 a convenient workshop for imping broken hawks' 
 wings, curing dogs, mending arrows, cleaning 
 guns, polishing armour, etc., etc. 
 
 A withdrawing room, or bower, was always pro- 
 vided for the women, to which they withdrew at 
 the end of meals, and where they practised the 
 daily occupations of sewing and playing upon the 
 lute, not to mention looking out of the bay-win- 
 dow after passing gallants — a habit which is the 
 subject of frequent reference in Elizabethan 
 
DOMESTIC LIFE 355 
 
 plays. A library and chapel were other neces- 
 sary rooms, as was the long gallery. 
 
 The gallery, a wide and long corridor, often 
 extended across the whole side or end of a house, 
 and was one of the essential features of the 
 larger Elizabethan mansion. It, however, was 
 not in reality utilised to advantage as a corridor 
 in order to give access to rooms. It was rather a 
 walk and place of exercise, where one could get 
 the light and take the air in bad weather. 
 
 Closets and drawers were not then in general 
 use; and though chests were common articles of 
 bedroom furniture, they did not obviate the neces- 
 sity of a wardrobe, or room where the garments 
 were hung upon pegs about the walls. 
 
 One very inconvenient feature of Elizabethan 
 houses is of interest. The people, even of the 
 better class, seem to have had no conception of or 
 desire for privacy of dally life at home. In con- 
 sequence, separate entrances to rooms were al- 
 most undreamed of. One room opened into an- 
 other, and that into a third. So arranged were 
 they that often a series of half a dozen apart- 
 ments were so connected that in order to reach one 
 of them it was necessary to traverse several or 
 all of the others; and this, too, in the case of 
 bedrooms. Furthermore, it was not an infre- 
 quent custom to convert one large room into sev- 
 
366 THE ELIZABETHAN PEOPLE 
 
 eral sleeping apartments by means of no other 
 partitions than hastily-erected curtains. 
 
 There was much ornamental work in the Eliza- 
 bethan houses, inside as well as out. Ceilings in 
 the timber houses of the meaner kind were gener- 
 ally omitted altogether; and also in the halls of 
 greater houses where the finish and decoration of 
 the timber framework overhead was intended to 
 show for beauty. All the other rooms, however, 
 with the single exception of the hall, were ceiled, 
 sometimes plain, but more often with eldborate 
 fancy work in plaster or coloured frescos. A 
 writer in The TraTisactions of the London and 
 Middlesex Archaological Society thus describes 
 the ceilings of Paul Pindar's house in London: 
 " The primary arrangement of the mansion is en- 
 tirely destroyed, but in several of the rooms there 
 still exists some of the most glorious ceilings 
 which our country can furnish. They are gener- 
 ally mutilated, in several instances the half alone 
 remaining, as the rooms have been divided to suit 
 the needs of later generations. These ceilings 
 are of plaster, and abound in the richest and fin- 
 est devices. Wreaths of flowers, panels, shields, 
 pateras, bands, roses, ribands, and other forms 
 of ornamentation are charmingly mingled, and 
 unite in producing the best and happiest effect." 
 Chimney-pieces were also the object of equal or- 
 
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 To the Reader. 
 
 This Figure, that thou here fcefl put, 
 
 It was for gentle Shakefpearecut; 
 Wherein rhe Grauer had a ftnfe 
 
 with Nature, to our-doo the life; 
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 B.l. 
 
 The Droeshout exghaving of Shakespeake prefixed to 
 
 THE FIRST folio; ILLUSTRATIVE OF A STARCHED BAND 
 AND EZMBROIDERED DOUBLET. 
 
DOMESTIC LIFE S57 
 
 namentation, either in plaster, tile, or carved 
 wood. 
 
 Many rooms were panelled completely in wood — 
 walls and ceiling. Pictures were often painted 
 directly on the wood panel or firmly let into, as 
 a part of, the wall. Heraldic devices, either 
 painted or carved, were frequently a part of the 
 permanent ornamentation. Wood floors were gen- 
 erally made extremely solid by laying the floor- 
 ing boards on edge instead of on the side. The 
 floors of the great hall, however, were frequently 
 tiled. 
 
 It may be well to end this section with a quota- 
 tion from Drake relative to the houses of the lower 
 classes. 
 
 " The houses or cottages of the farmer were 
 built, in places abounding in wood, in a very 
 strong and substantial manner, with not more 
 than four, six, or nine inches between stud and 
 stud; but in the open champaine country, they 
 were compelled to use more flimsy materials, with 
 here and there a girding to which they fastened 
 their splints, and then covered the whole with a 
 thick clay to keep out the wind. ' Certs, this rude 
 kind of building,' says Harrison, ' made the 
 Spaniards in queene Maries dales to wonder, but 
 cheefelie when they saw what large diet was used 
 in manie of these so homelie cottages, in so much 
 
358 THE ELIZABETHAN PEOPLE 
 
 that one of no small reputation amongst them 
 said after this manner: "These English (quoth 
 he) have their houses made of sticks and durt, 
 but they fare commonly as well as the king." ' 
 . . . The cottages of the peasantry usually con- 
 sisted of but two rooms on the ground floor, the 
 outer for the servants, the inner for the master 
 and his family, and they were thatched with straw 
 or sedge; while the dwelling of the substantial 
 farmer was distributed into several rooms above 
 and beneath, and was very neatly roofed with 
 reed.'* (Vol. L, p. 99.) 
 
 II 
 
 One who would comprehend the style of Eliza- 
 bethan dress must, for the time being, set aside 
 all notion of simplicity or fit. In fact, the people 
 of that time carried their idea of what was proper 
 in wearing apparel to such a ridiculous extreme 
 that they were made the subject of innumerable 
 satires; and dress was the most popular point 
 of attack by all the abusive writers on reform. 
 Bright colours, elaborate trimmings, and exces- 
 sive padding are the most notable characteristics 
 of Elizabethan dress. Padding was so full that 
 all outward semblance to the human form was 
 completely lost, both to men and to women. 
 
 " There is not any people under the zodiac 
 
DOMESTIC LIFE 359 
 
 of heaven," says Philip Stubbes, " however clown- 
 ish, rural, or brutish soever, that is so poi- 
 soned with the arsenic of Pride or hath drunk so 
 deep of the dregs of this cup as Alga [England] 
 hath." Harrison, a contributor to Holinshed's 
 history, wrote: " The phantastical folly of our na- 
 tion (even from the courtier to the carter) is such 
 that no form of apparel liketh us longer than the 
 first garment is in the wearing, if it continue 
 so long, and be not laid aside to receive some other 
 trinket newly devised by the fickle-headed tailors, 
 who covet to have several tricks in cutting, 
 thereby to draw fond customers to more expense 
 of money. . . . And as these fashions are di- 
 verse, so likewise it is a world to see the costliness 
 and the curiosity, the excess and the vanity, the 
 pomp and the bravery, and finally the fickleness 
 and folly, that is in all degrees, insomuch that 
 nothing is more constant in England than incon- 
 stancy of attire." 
 
 Stubbes was a satirist, and Harrison a plain 
 historian; the following quotation is from Cam- 
 den, the most learned scholar of the age : 
 
 " In these days [1574] a wondrous excess of 
 Apparel had spread itself all over England, and 
 the habit of our own country, though a peculiar 
 vice incident to our apish nation, grew into such 
 contempt, that men by their new fangled gar- 
 
360 THE ELIZABETHAN PEOPLE 
 
 ments, and too gaudy apparel, discovered a cer- 
 tain deformity and arrogancy of mind whilst they 
 jetted up and down in their silks glittering with 
 gold and silver, either imbroidered or laced. The 
 Queen, observing that, to maintain this excess, a 
 great quantity of money was carried yearly out of 
 the land, to buy silks and other outlandish 
 [foreign] wares, to the impoverishing of the com- 
 monwealth; and that many of the nobility which 
 might be of great service to the commonwealth 
 and others that they might seem of noble extrac- 
 tion, did, to their own undoing, not only waste 
 their estates, but also run so far in debt, that of 
 necessity they came within the danger of law 
 thereby, and attempted to raise troubles and 
 commotions when they had wasted their own 
 patrimonies ; although she might have proceeded 
 against them by the laws of King Henry VHI. 
 and Queen Mary, and thereby have fined them in 
 great sums of money, yet she chose rather to deal 
 with them by way of command. She commanded 
 therefore by proclamation, that every man should 
 within fourteen days conform himself for ap- 
 parel to a certain prescribed fashion, lest they 
 otherwise incur the severity of the laws; and 
 she began the conformity herself in her own court. 
 But, through the untowardness of the times, both 
 this proclamation and the laws also gave way by 
 
DOMESTIC LIFE 361 
 
 little and little to this excess of pride, which grew 
 daily more and more unreasonable." 
 
 The contemporary drama contains innumerable 
 allusions to the extremity of fashion. " Ap- 
 parel's grown a god." (Marston's What You 
 Will, iii. 1.) " Poor citizens must not with cour- 
 tiers wed Who will in silks and gay apparel spend, 
 More in one year than I am worth, by far." 
 (Dekker's Shoemaker's Holiday, ii. 1.) " O, 
 many have broke their backs with laying houses 
 on 'em." {Henry VIU.) 
 
 This magnificent extreme obtained in all ranks 
 of life, as Harrison says, from the courtier to the 
 carter. The only difference was that the rich 
 man dressed in more expensive stuffs; he wore 
 diamonds and rubies where the poor man wore 
 beads of coloured glass. He bought clothes of- 
 tener than the poor man; yet people were all 
 aUke in this; they dressed as fine and finer than 
 their pockets would allow. 
 
 The kind of dress worn upon any occasion was 
 not dependent upon the time of day. A man 
 would appear at court in his gaudiest cjothes, 
 whether the time was day or night, morning or 
 afternoon. The garments were stiffened and 
 stuffed till the wearer could not move with any 
 comfort. A man in full dress was laced from head 
 to foot. His doublet was laced or buttoned in 
 
THE ELIZABETHAN PEOPLE 
 
 front. The sleeves were often laced to the arm- 
 holes. The doublet was laced to the hose. The 
 hose was laced. Sometimes even the shoes were 
 laced. A man could not dress himself without 
 assistance. Fashionable dressing, or " making- 
 ready," was such a formidable undertaking that, 
 once accomplished, a man was glad to keep the 
 same clothes on his back all day long. Women 
 carried dress to an even greater extreme than 
 men. They put on a complete framework of 
 whalebone and wire before they began to assemble 
 the outer garments. When the process was com- 
 pleted, all resemblance to a human figure had dis- 
 appeared. Women were wide and round, stiff and 
 rigid as if made of metal, and their dress abounded 
 in straight lines and sharp angles. 
 
 What women achieved by means of wire and 
 bone, men accomplished by means of wadding. 
 Wool, hair, rags, and often bran, were used to 
 pad out the doublet and hose. A writer in 1563 
 (Bulwer, Artificial Changeling) tells a story of a 
 young gallant " in whose immense hose a small 
 hole was torn by a nail of the chair he sat upon, 
 so that as he turned and bowed to pay his court 
 to the ladies, the bran poured forth as from a 
 mill that was grinding, without his perceiving it, 
 till half his cargo was unladen on the floor." 
 
 Holme in his Notes on Dress (Harl. 4375), 
 
DOMESTIC LIFE 363 
 
 relates the following : " About the middle of 
 Queen Elizabeth's reign, the slops, or trunk hose, 
 with peascod-bellied doublets, were much esteemed, 
 which young men used to stuff with rags and other 
 like things to extend them in compass, with as 
 great eagerness as women did take pleasure to 
 wear great and stately verdingales; for this was 
 the same in effect, being a sort of verdingale 
 breeches. And so excessive were they herein, that 
 a law was made against them as did stuff their 
 breeches to make them stand out; whereas when 
 a certain prisoner (in these times) was accused 
 for wearing such breeches contrary to law, he 
 began to excuse himself for the offence, and en- 
 deavoured by little and little to discharge him- 
 self of that which he did wear within them; he 
 drew out of his breeches a pair of sheets, two 
 table cloths, ten napkins, four shirts, a brush, a 
 glass, a comb, and night-caps, with other things 
 of use, saying: your lordships may understand 
 that because I have no safer a storehouse, 
 these pockets do serve me for a room to lay my 
 goods in ; and though it be a straight prison, yet 
 it is a storehouse big enough for them, for I 
 have many things more yet of value within them. 
 And so his discharge was accepted and well 
 laughed at: and they commanded him that he 
 should not alter the furniture of his storehouse. 
 
364. THE ELIZABETHAN PEOPLE 
 
 but that he should rid thie hall of his stuff, and 
 keep them as it pleased him." 
 
 Female extravagance in dress was proverHal: 
 
 " Not like a lady of the trim, new crept 
 Out of the shell of sluttish sweat and labour 
 Into the glittering pomp of ease and wantonness 
 
 Embroideries, and all these antic fashions 
 That shape » woman monstrous; to transform 
 Your education and a noble birth 
 Into contempt and laughter." 
 
 (Ford's Lover's Melancholy, i. 3.) 
 
 " The women," says Stubbes, " when they liave 
 all these goodly robes upon them, seem to be the 
 smallest part of themselves, not natural women, 
 but artificial women; not women of flesh and 
 blood, but rather puppets or mawmuts, consisting 
 of rags and clouts compact together." 
 
 Out of doors a woman wore little or nothing 
 upon her head. There were several kinds of light 
 hoods, some of which were attached to the collar 
 of the gown, as the "French-hooded cloak." 
 The more common custom, however, was to throw 
 a light scarf or veil over the head. Cypress, 
 a light, gauzy material, was often used for 
 the purpose. (See Middleton's No Wit, No Help, 
 ii. 1.) "A cypress over my face, for feAr of 
 sun burning." A mask was always worn by 
 ladies. Masks were made of silk, as a rule, and 
 
Illustrative of the large fautiiixgale 
 
DOMESTIC LIFE 365 
 
 were either pinned or tied. They were of all 
 colours : black, however, was most popular. 
 
 People of high social rank often built the hair 
 into towering masses on the crown of the head; 
 but as a rule the hair was dressed plain, though 
 freiquently covered with jewels. The Elizabethan 
 women, as well as the men, dyed their hair, not to 
 conceal the fact that it was turning gray, but to 
 please a passing fancy. There was no attempt to 
 conceal the practice, nor was the same colour al- 
 ways used. Li fact, the colour of the hair was 
 made to harmonise with the garments worn upon 
 any particular occasion. Those who did not care 
 to dye their hair wore wigs. The Elizabethans 
 revelled in wigs. The Records of the Wardrobe 
 show that Elizabeth possessed eighty at one time. 
 Mary Stuart, during a part of her captivity in 
 England, changed her hair every day. So usual 
 was this habit, and so great the demand for hair, 
 that children with handsome locks were never al- 
 lowed to walk alone in the London streets for fear 
 they should be temporarily kidnapped and their 
 tresses cut off. 
 
 That was also a day of face washes and com- 
 plexion paints. " The old wrinkles are well filled 
 up, but the Vermillion is seen too thick." (Mid- 
 dleton's Old Law, iii. 1.) "Thou most ill-shrouded 
 rottenness, thou piece made by a painter and a 
 
366 THE ELIZABETHAN PEOPLE 
 
 'pothecary!" (Philaster, ii. 4.) "But there is 
 never a fair woman has a true face." {Antony 
 and Cleopatra, ii. 6.) It was also common to 
 paint the breast. ( See Jonson's Malcontent, ii. 3 ; 
 Midd'leton's Anything for a Quiet Life, v. 1 ; 
 Marston's Antonio and Mellida, Part II. iv. 2.) 
 
 Men wore hats of all sizes, shapes, and colours. 
 The most popular material was velvet. All sorts 
 of feathers were used by men to decorate their 
 hats; black feathers eighteen inches or two feet 
 in length were in great demand. A common 
 decoration was a twisted girdle next the brim, 
 called a cable hat-band. Some hats, however, 
 were perfectly plain, of soft felt. Others wore 
 velvet caps with a jewelled clasp. Occasionally 
 small mirrors were worn in the hat for novelty. 
 The place for the hat was frequently upon the 
 head; but quite as often the hat was worn dang- 
 ling down the back at the end of a brightly- 
 coloured ribbon. It was worn in either place, 
 either within or without doors. The hair was 
 usually cut short, with, however, a love lock left 
 long behind one or both of the ears. It was 
 adorned with pretty bows of ribbon. Men painted 
 the face quite as frequently and as carefully as 
 the women. The moustache was sometimes left 
 very long. Hair, moustache, and beard were 
 coloured as fancy prompted. The following from 
 
DOMESTIC LIFE 367 
 
 A Midsummer Night's Dream is to be understood 
 quite literally : " Either your straw-coloured 
 beard, your orange tawny beard, your purple in- 
 grain beard, or your French crown coloured 
 beard, your perfect yellow." " Forsooth, they 
 say the king has mew'd [moulted] AU his gray 
 beard, instead of which is budded Another of a 
 pure carnation colour, speckled with green and 
 russet " (Ford's The Broken Heart, ii. 1.) Har- 
 rison writes : " Neither will I meddle with our va- 
 riety of beards, of which some are shaven from 
 the chin like those of the Turks, not a few cut 
 short like the beard of the Marquise Otto, some 
 made round like a rubbing brush. . . . Therefore 
 if a man have a lean, straight face, a Marquis 
 Otto's cut will make it broad and large; if it be 
 platter like, a long slender beard will make it 
 seem narrower. . . . Some lusty courtiers also, 
 and gentlemen of courage do wear either rings of 
 gold, stones, or pearl, in their ears, whereby they 
 imagine the workmanship of God not to be a 
 little amended." Harrison does not mention the 
 fact that gallants usually wore the love lock as 
 an especial support for ladies' favours. 
 
 Stubbes writes in 1583 : " They, the barbers, 
 have invented such strange fashions of monstrous 
 manners of cuttings, trimmings, shavings, and 
 washings, that you would wonder to see." He 
 
368 THE ELIZABETHAN PEOPLE 
 
 mentions the French cut, the Spanish, Dutch, 
 Italian, the new, the old, the gentleman's, the 
 common, the court, and the country cuts. He 
 concludes with: "They have also other kinds of 
 cuts innumerable; and therefore when you come 
 to be trimmed they will ask you whether you will 
 be cut to look terrible to your enemy, or amiable 
 to your friend; grim and stern in countenance or 
 pleasant and demure, for they have divers kinds 
 of cuts for all these purposes, or else they lie." 
 Is it, then, any wonder that such words as fool, 
 wretch, ape, and monkey, were then used as terms 
 of endearment! Motto, the barber, in Lyly's 
 Midas, says to his boy : " Besides, I instructed thee 
 in the phrases of our elegant occupation, as, 
 ' How, sir, will you be trimmed? will you have 
 your beard like a spade, or a bodkin.'' a pent- 
 house on your upper lip, or an alley on your chin .'' 
 a low curl on your head, hke a bull, or a dangling 
 lock like a spaniel.' " 
 
 When one thinks of costume in the age of 
 Elizabeth one naturally thinks of three details 
 as most characteristic: the ruff, the huge-padded 
 hose, and the farthingale. Of these three, the 
 first is the unique feature of the dress of that par- 
 ticular age. Ruffs of our own time convey no 
 idea of what was meant by a ruff in 1600. Dur- 
 ing the time of the early Tudors, partelets, or 
 
Illustratixg farthixgai.e axd hose. 
 (From an old print.) 
 
DOMESTIC LIFE 369 
 
 narrow collars of divers colours, generally made 
 of velvet, were much worn by the nobility. These 
 began to grow in size and popularity during the 
 reign of Elizabeth. As was usual in those days, 
 the new fashion was introduced by the men, but 
 the women were quick to follow in the adoption 
 of the ruff. Ruifs were made of linen, often 
 decorated with gold and silver thread, and 
 adorned with jewels. They were expensive gar- 
 ments, and could be worn but a few times. In 
 1564, a woman became the great benefactor of 
 English society. This woman was a Mrs. Ding- 
 ham, wife of a Dutch coachman in the service of 
 the Queen. Mrs. Dingham brought to England 
 the art of starching. The use of starch gave the 
 ruff a new birth. It could now be worn more than 
 once; and, in a trice, the garment was within the 
 reach of all. Elizabeth wore her ruffs closed in 
 front, extending close under her chin; most 
 women, however, who had fairer skin and shape- 
 lier necks, preferred to wear the ruff open in front. 
 The ruff was made of linen, much plaited, and 
 starched stiff, usually with white starch. For a 
 while yellow starch was fashionable, but the fad 
 was of short duration. Starch was also occasion- 
 ally used of other colours. Stubbes tells us that 
 the women used " a certain kind of liquid matter 
 which they called starch, wherein the devil hath 
 
370 THE ELIZABETHAN PEOPLE 
 
 willed them to wash and die their rufFs well; and 
 this starch they make of divers colours and hues 
 — ^white, red, blue, purple, and the like; which, 
 being dry, will then stand stiif and inflexible about 
 their necks." In Middleton's The World Tost at 
 Tennis we find the following stage direction: 
 " Music striking up a light, fantastic air, the 
 five starches. White, Blue, Yellow, Green, and 
 Red . . . come dancing in." There was a great 
 revival in the popularity of yellow starch in 1615 
 due to the fact that an infamous woman, a Mrs. 
 Turner, wore bands so starched at her execution 
 at Tyburn. A long and interesting note on this 
 occasion is found in Hazlitt's Dodsley, Albumazar 
 (ii. 1). After having been washed, the rufF was 
 got up with a hot iron and a " poking stick " till it 
 stood out a marvel to behold. 
 
 What made the ruff so conspicuous was its 
 size. When first introduced it was modest and un- 
 pretentious ; but nothing upon which fashion in 
 those days once took a fair hold could remain 
 " confined within the modest limits of order." 
 We hear of ruffs that contained eighteen or nine- 
 teen yards of linen. The fashionable depth was 
 one-fourth of a yard. Sometimes they were as 
 much as one-third of a yard deep. Imagine the 
 head of a man or woman, like the hub of a cart- 
 wheel, firmly gripped in the midst of a mass of 
 
DOMESTIC LIFE 371 
 
 starched linen extending a foot on all sides! So 
 cumbersome were these articles of dress that it 
 became necessary to underprop them with a 
 framework of wire to keep them from tumbling 
 down of their own weight, and to prevent them 
 from dragging their wearer's head down with 
 them. What a stiff, unnatural carriage the habit 
 of wearing ruffs gave to the upper half of the 
 body is fully illustrated by the following : " He 
 carries his face in's ruff, as I have seen a serv- 
 ing man carry glasses in a cypress hatband, mon- 
 strous steady for fear of breaking." (Webster's 
 White Devil, ii. 4.) One's head in the midst of 
 such a ruff was free to move, of course, only 
 within limits. In fact, people found it most diffi- 
 cult to eat and to drink. In France, for this 
 fashion was imported from Paris, where it was 
 carried to an even greater extreme than in Eng- 
 land, we read of a royal lady who found it neces- 
 sary to take soup out of a spoon two feet long. 
 
 In the latter part of the reign of Queen Eliza- 
 beth the garment that ultimately supplanted the 
 ruff became popular. The falling band, like the 
 ruff, was made of linen, but less elaborate, not 
 so large, and unstarched. Bands, as distinguished 
 from falling bands, were often starched, as may 
 be seen in the Droesheut engraving of Shake- 
 speare. It was the lack of starch that gave rise 
 
372 THE ELIZABETHAN PEOPLE 
 
 to the peculiar name of falling band. It fell 
 close to the neck over the narrow collar of the 
 doublet. A falling band that reached to the edge 
 of the shoulder was unusually large. They were 
 frequently made of, or decorated with, the finest 
 lace. A reason for their popularity is glanced 
 at in The Malcontent (v. 3) : " You must wear 
 falling bands, you must come to the falling 
 fashion; there is such a deal o' pinning these rufFs, 
 when the fine clean fall is worth all; and, again, 
 if ye should chance to take a nap in the after- 
 noon your falling band requires no poting [pok- 
 ing] stick to recover his form." 
 
 The upper part of a woman's body was cased 
 in a neat, tightly-laced bodice, that followed the 
 contour of the body with a fair resemblance to 
 nature. This, however, was the only part of the 
 figure that retained any of its native semblance. 
 The bodice frequently projected downward in a 
 long sharp point over the abdomen ; and was often 
 open towards the top to show the breast, or 
 the stomacher of brightly coloured silk beneath 
 crossed laces. 
 
 The corresponding garment for men was the 
 doublet. It was usually padded and stuffed till 
 quite twice the size of the natural body. The 
 doublet was cut and slashed in front and sides 
 80 as to show the gay-coloured lining of costly 
 
-^'i3*3Kfe»2SS^i32•»i»i^V,9.'i^5. 
 
 ra-u CI c^o aalesivs n r n^ j^-^t \\bo\ jk nui^ irax^ 
 
 liaBS^^i 
 
 ^^^^K^«sv/M%ir-/ii-?ii<2K'-zsi?3s;s3E;as: 
 
 Illustrative of short hose and cape. 
 
DOMESTIC LIFE 373 
 
 material. It was sometimes laced, but was more 
 frequently buttoned up the front. Two or three 
 buttons at the top were left open and the shirt of 
 delicate white lawn pulled out a little way. This 
 has become the open vest and necktie of our own 
 time. The doublet sometimes projected down- 
 ward in front, when it was called a peascod bel- 
 lied doublet ; sometimes it surrounded the hips like 
 a short skirt. The sleeves were generally remov- 
 able and laced to the doublet at the arm-holes. 
 Working people, who, of course, wore doublets, 
 or jerkins, that were but slightly padded, fre- 
 quently did without the sleeves altogether, the 
 arms covered by the sleeves of the shirt. A pair 
 of drawstrings working in opposite directions at 
 the small of the back enabled one to tighten or 
 loosen one's doublet at will. 
 
 There used to be a punishment in use in the 
 Colony of New York by which a man was com- 
 pelled to walk about encased in a barrel; his 
 head projecting from one end, his feet from the 
 other. The Elizabethan women did not carry a 
 barrel about their hips, but they carried a corre- 
 sponding bulk. What would correspond to a 
 skirt in our time was then called a farthingale. 
 This name, however, was properly applied to the 
 framework of whalebone and wire which the 
 woman buckled on before she began to dress. It 
 
374 THE ELIZABETHAN PEOPLE 
 
 clamped her tightly about the waist and was ab- 
 solutely rigid. One style gave a curve from the 
 waist-line downward; the other style extended 
 level from the waist, and met the vertical line of 
 drapery at right angles. In either case the nether 
 garments were supported by this structure much 
 as we support the week's wash on a rotary drier. 
 The appearance of a fashionable woman when 
 fully dressed was not unlike the colonial culprit in 
 his humiliating barrel; save that the farthingale 
 reached to the floor and was richly bedecked with 
 jet, beads, strings of pearl, jewels, and gold 
 thread. The women of that day thoroughly un- 
 derstood the art of tight lacing. Some of the old 
 pictures of a woman with a wasp-like waist and a 
 huge farthingale look very much like a tin soldier 
 soldered to his base. In 1563 a law was passed 
 in France to limit farthingales to an ell, about 
 four feet, in diameter; and the satirists tell us 
 that in this respect the English outdid their rivals 
 across the Channel. The Scotch farthingale was 
 a variety that was smaller and closer fitting. " Is 
 this a right Scot? Does it clip close and bear 
 
 up round i" Fine stuff, i' faith; 'twill keep 
 
 your thighs so cool, and make your waist so 
 small." {Marstoa's Eastward Ho, i. 2.) "Bum- 
 rolls " were a sort of " stuffed cushions used by 
 women of middling rank to make their petticoats 
 
DOMESTIC LIFE 375 
 
 swell out in lieu of the farthingales, which were 
 more expensive." (Nares.) 
 
 The nether garment for men was called the 
 hose. Its size was likewise carried to a ridicu- 
 lous extent. The man, however, laboured under 
 an additional disadvantage. Instead of spread- 
 ing himself out with whalebone, he gained his 
 volume by padding. It was from this garment 
 that the poor fellow, already described, took out 
 his table cloths, napkins, sheets, and other house- 
 hold goods. The hose, which was laced to the 
 doublet, was of different lengths. The French 
 hose, or trunk hose, was short and full-bodied, 
 reaching less than halfway between the hip and 
 knee. The gaily hose was long, and reached almost 
 to the knee. The Venetian hose reached below the 
 knee to the place where the garter was tied. " The 
 French hose," says Stubbes, " are of two divers 
 makings, for the common French hose (as they 
 list to call them) containeth length, breadth, and 
 sideness sufficient, and is made very round. The 
 other containeth neither length, breadth, nor side- 
 ness (being not past a quarter of a yard side) 
 whereof some be paned, cut, and drawn out with 
 costly ornaments, with canions annexed, reaching 
 down beneath their knees." Canions were orna- 
 mental rolls that terminated the hose above the 
 knee, a fashion imported from France. They are 
 
376 THE ELIZABETHAN PEOPLE 
 
 noted in Henslowe's diary among the properties 
 of his theatre. Thus, under April, 1598, he pays 
 for " a pair of paned hose of bugle panes drawn 
 out with cloth of silver and canyons to the same." 
 He also notes " a pair of round hose of panes of 
 silk, laid with silver lace and canons of cloth of 
 silver." Paned hose consisted of hose in which 
 pieces of cloth of different texture or colour were 
 inserted to form an ornamental pattern; or of 
 hose slashed to show the lining or the garment be- 
 neath. " He [Lord Mount joy] wore jerkins and 
 round hose . . . with laced panes of russet 
 cloth." (Fynes Moryson.) " The Switzers wear 
 no coats, but doublet and hose of panes, inter- 
 mingled with red and yellow, and some with blue, 
 trimmed with long cuffs of yellow and blue sar- 
 cenet rising up between the panes." (Coryat's 
 Crudities.) 
 
 A slop was the common name for a padded 
 hose, and was also applied to wide loose breeches, 
 as were the names, Dutch slop, gaskins, and gally- 
 gascoyns. Gamashes was a name applied to a sort 
 of loose outside breeches worn over the other gar- 
 ments, usually as a protection in travelling. 
 
 Stockings, or nether hose, were usually of silk 
 and gartered at the top below the knee. They 
 were worn of all colours, and were padded only 
 when necessary to improve the shape of the leg. 
 
Portrait of Sir Walter Raleigh, illustrating garters 
 axd roses. 
 
 / 
 
DOMESTIC LIFE 377 
 
 The shoes of this period were of various shapes 
 and of many colours. They were frequently 
 slashed below the instep in order to show the 
 colour of the stocking. At parting, Ralph, in 
 The Shoemaker's Holiday (i. 1), gives Jane a pair 
 of shoes " made up and pinked with letters of thy 
 Same." Hamlet speaks of " provincial roses in 
 my razed shoes." " Provincial roses " refers to 
 the habit of wearing roses, or rosettes, upon the 
 instep. They were generally made of lace, and 
 often decorated with gold thread, spangles, or 
 even jewels. At times the roses were worn large — 
 four or five inches in diameter. " Why, 'tis the 
 devil; I know him by a great rose he wears on's 
 shoe To hide his cloven foot." (Webster's White 
 Demi, v. 3.) Corks, so often referred to in the 
 old plays, were shoes with cork soles that increased 
 in thickness towards the heel, where they might 
 be two or three inches thick. Their purpose was 
 the same as high heels, and, when more fully de- 
 veloped, became known by another name. "Thy 
 voice squeaks like a dry cork shoe." (Marston's 
 Antonio and Mellida, Part I. v. 1.) The chopine 
 was a device used by women principally for the 
 purpose of increasing their height, and to keep 
 their embroidered shoes and farthingales out of 
 the dust and dirt when they walked abroad. The 
 chopine was an expansion of the high heel cork ; 
 
378 THE ELIZABETHAN PEOPLE 
 
 though, in its extreme fashion, it is better de- 
 scribed as a short stilt. The shoe was fastened 
 to the top of the chopine, which was frequently a 
 foot high. The fashion came from Venice, where 
 the height of the chopine corresponded roughly 
 to the rank of the wearer. Persons of very high 
 rank have been known to wear chopines eighteen 
 inches high. The Venetian women so dressed 
 could not walk alone, but required the assistance 
 of a staff, or were led about upon the arm of an 
 assistant, constable-fashion. There is a line in 
 one of the old plays to the effect that when a 
 woman walks on chopines she cannot help but 
 caper. 
 
 Buttons were then in frequent use, but not so 
 common as to-day. They were small when used 
 upon the front of the doublet, but in female at- 
 tire they were generally large. One of the most 
 popular styles consisted of buttons covered with 
 silk. They were also occasionally made of brass 
 or of copper, and upon occasions, bore jewels set 
 in gold. We even hear of diamond buttons. 
 
 The laces by which so many parts of the dress 
 were fastened together were tagged at the ends 
 with " points." These points were frequently of 
 gold, handsomely engraved, and carved. Jewelry 
 of all sorts was in common use, including ear- 
 rings, hat and shoe bmcjdes, brppches, gold chains, 
 
DOMESTIC LIFE 379 
 
 rings, bracelets, garter-clasps, watches, etc. 
 Rings especially were much worn by both sexes. 
 It was a common custom to engrave on the inside 
 a line or two of sentimental poetry, called the 
 posy. It is to this fashion that Hamlet refers 
 in the words, " Is this a prologue or the posy of 
 
 a 
 
 ring 
 
 ?» 
 
 Fans came into use in England for the first 
 time in the reign of Elizabeth. They dangled 
 from the girdle by a silk cord or a gold chain. 
 They were often handsomely decorated with dia- 
 monds, rubies, emeralds, agate, and feathers. 
 Fans were not used by men till later times. 
 Gloves were worn, perfume was used, and hand- 
 kerchiefs were elaborate and costly. 
 
 The dress of the common folk was like fashion- 
 able dress except that it was of cheaper material 
 and did not run to such extremes. It was com- 
 mon then for persons of different ranks and of 
 different trades to reveal the fact by the manner 
 of their dress. Thus the long blue gown was the 
 especial badge of a servant, and the London flat 
 cap of the apprentice. Because of the Reforma- 
 tion, that swept away so many Romish customs, 
 the dress of the clergy was less distinctive than 
 in former times. The armour of this period was 
 an attempt to copy in metal the ordinary fashion- 
 able dress. The helmet was decked with enormous 
 
380 THE ELIZABETHAN PEOPLE 
 
 plumes. A ruff frequently surmounted a steel 
 corselet. The plates of the body armour were 
 grooved, embossed, and engraved from top to bot- 
 tom in imitation of embroidery and folds of 
 drapery. Liveries, too, were common. Many 
 trades and societies of London possessed their dis:- 
 tinctive dress. The retainers of the great noble- 
 men always wore a badge containing their mas- 
 ter's coat-of-arms. This badge, or cognisance, 
 was worn upon the left sleeve. 
 
 Ill 
 
 In another place I have noted the fact that 
 Shakespeare's father was fined for keeping a 
 muck-heap so close to his house as to be a nui- 
 sance to the public. This, however, is not an in- 
 dication of a habit of uncleanliness confined to 
 those who lived in the humbler circumstances of 
 life. Lack of ventilation, careless habits, and 
 general inattention to sanitary conditions were so 
 common that Cavendish tells us in the Life of 
 Wolsey that a house upon continual use " waxed 
 savoury." Perhaps what contributed more than 
 anything else to this condition of affairs was the 
 custom of matting or rushing the floors. No car- 
 pets in the modern sense of the word were then in 
 use, except on the rarest occasions and late in 
 the period here treated. Only the lower classes^ 
 
s 
 
 d S 
 
 >5 
 
 
 <! 
 
 ffl 
 
 H 
 
 
 M 
 
 
 
 
 <: 
 
 .is 
 
 N 
 
 O 
 
 
 O 
 
 m 
 
 !5 
 
 
 ■< 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 X 
 
DOMESTIC LIFE 381 
 
 however, were content with bare wood floors or 
 floors of earth. Something more elegant was 
 needed. This material was found in the rushes 
 that were plentifully strewn upon the floors. 
 Every private garden possessed a portion laid 
 aside for the growing of rushes. They were also 
 sold in large quantities. These were strewn upon 
 the floors, not only of sleeping rooms, but also of 
 the dining room, in the great hall, and even upon 
 the stage of the public theatre. They contributed 
 slightly to the warmth of the feet ; they were, in a 
 small way, decorative ; and, above all, according to 
 the Elizabethan's light, they were elegant. 
 
 One of to-day may suppose that, when there 
 was need of re-rushing a room, the old rushes were 
 taken out and new ones brought in. Not at all. 
 This was entirely too much trouble to people who 
 had not heard of germs and who believed that 
 magic was as good a remedy as was to be found 
 against the plague. The Elizabethans merely 
 carted in the new rushes and deposited them upon 
 the old ones. And a room was not always thor- 
 oughly purged of its rushes more than once a 
 year. The result was filth more or less absent to 
 the eye but present to the nose. The latter con- 
 dition gave rise to a whole profession, as neces- 
 sary and as distinctive as that of the chimney 
 sweep ; namely, the perfumer. It was his business 
 
382 THE ELIZABETHAN PEOPLE 
 
 to come, when a room had grown too foul to live 
 in, in order to remove the stench by burning 
 Juniper wood and other sweet-smelling herbs. 
 Vermin flourished under such conditions, and many 
 are the allusions that could be cited referring 
 even to royal visits from which persons returned 
 bitten from head to foot. 
 
 The furniture of these houses was plentiful, but, 
 in the main, rude. The art of cabinet-making 
 was practically unknown till Tudor times. By 
 the reign of Elizabeth so much proficiency had 
 been attained in this art that we occasionally find 
 very elaborate and beautiful examples of handi- 
 work. Much, probably most, of the cabinet work 
 of the period was, however, of a simple character. 
 The articles manufactured were chiefly chests, 
 chairs, long seats, with here and there a preten- 
 tious cabinet. Stools and tables, of course, were 
 common. Larger tables for the dining room 
 were for the most part mere tops supported on 
 trestles. The whole combination was taken down 
 at the end of a meal and placed against the 
 wall. 
 
 The cabinet work of the period was massive, 
 and contained many straight lines. There was 
 some carving, but usually of simple design and 
 not overdone, as was so often the case in the carved 
 exterior woodwork of the house frames. The fur- 
 
DOMESTIC LIFE 383 
 
 niture was strongly made, for use rather than for 
 show. The material used was generally oak. 
 
 In the damp climate of England the people 
 were hard-pressed to discover a means of decorat- 
 ing the stone walls of their buildings. The prob- 
 lem was solved by the use of arras and tapestry. 
 These hangings were of costly material, bearing 
 pictures that were sometimes painted, sometimes 
 worked with the needle. The arras was hung 
 upon frames that supported it about a foot from 
 the wall. This frame device was to protect the ex- 
 pensive hangings from the mildew of the damp 
 walls. The space behind the arras was a charac- 
 teristic feature of Elizabethan domestic life. In 
 the first place, it enabled the arras to move with 
 the least breath of air, a fact that doubtless went 
 far to convince many a person of the truth of 
 those numberless stories so often told of house- 
 hold ghosts. Behind the arras was also a con- 
 venient place for hiding. Polonius was eavesdrop- 
 ping behind the arras when he met his death. It 
 was a Mecca for assassins. One needed to examine 
 the arras in those days as the more timorous of 
 to-day look under the bed. There are contem- 
 porary references to " behind the arras " being 
 a convenient place for courtship. 
 
 In the humbler ranks of life, painted cloth took 
 the place of the more expensive tapestry of the 
 
384 THE ELIZABETHAN PEOPLE 
 
 higher ranks. The habit of making pictures in 
 series, and of adorning the pictures with pro- 
 verbial and religious mottos, seems to have been 
 commoner with' this class of hangings than with 
 the other. 
 
 Curtains were frequently in use. There are 
 allusions to window curtains, though they were 
 not common. Curtains were hung about the beds. 
 Curtains were frequently the only divisions be- 
 tween the smaller rooms into which a larger one 
 was divided by their use. One of the frequent uses 
 for a curtain was as a covering to a picture. Pic- 
 tures were not then a common form of decoration. 
 Such as were to be found were mostly portraits; 
 These were sometimes painted directly upon the 
 wood panelling. When they were movable, they 
 were sometimes painted upon wood, sometimes 
 upon canvas. In any case, they were likely to 
 be protected by curtains, for glass makers had 
 not yet learned to make glass in large pieces. 
 
 As has already been said, in the dining room, 
 which was more likely to be the hall than a sepa- 
 rate room, the table, between meals, was stood 
 against the wall, with its pair of trestles beside 
 it. Perhaps the only other characteristic piece 
 of dining room furniture was the cupboard or buf- 
 fet. This was frequently large and massive. In 
 «nd on it was stored much plate; and dishes of 
 

 ■O', 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^4»« r 
 
 Oak Chest Supported on Frame. 
 
 (From N. Hudson Moore's " Old Furniture Book." By permission of 
 
 Frederick A. Stokes Company.) 
 
DOMESTIC LIFE 385 
 
 meat were left upon it between meals for those 
 who wished to help themselves. 
 
 When meal time came, the servants entered and 
 set up the table. It was then covered with a 
 carpet. Occasionally we find a carpet used on the 
 floor as a sort of rug; but in most instances 
 where the word is used in Elizabethan literature 
 the reference is to a covering for the table. Nap- 
 kins were also used. Most of the table linen was 
 perfumed. Plate was indulged in to a great ex- 
 tent by those who could afford the gratification. 
 The bulk of a family's wealth was often in the 
 plate. China and porcelain were coming into use, 
 but when the plate ran short, pewter was more 
 likely to be the material of the other dishes. 
 Pewter was not then cheap, and in no wise looked 
 down upon. The common folk used wooden 
 dishes in place of plate. Mottos were often 
 carved about the edge of the wooden trenchers. 
 
 Perhaps the main reason why we do not to-day 
 eat with our knives is because we are conserva- 
 tively subject to the instinct that was bred into our 
 nature when every person at the board used the 
 weapon at his side to assist him at dinner. What- 
 ever duty the dagger may have performed be- 
 tween meals is irrelevant; but once arrived at 
 table the knife that went into the common dish 
 could not with propriety go into the individual 
 
386 THE ELIZABETHAN PEOPLE 
 
 mouth. It may surprise some readers to know 
 that table knives as a distinctive instrument only 
 came into use in England about the beginning 
 of the reign of Elizabeth; and that the fingers 
 were used as main assistants till 1611, when forks 
 were first introduced by Thomas Coryat, who had 
 seen them in use in Italy. 
 
 It is hardly necessary to mention pots, flagons, 
 and tankards of all shapes and sizes, and in all 
 kinds of ware. But one other article of table 
 furniture is of interest. Toothpicks had been 
 recently introduced. In those days, when cleanli- 
 ness of the body was as little thought of as was 
 the sanitary condition of the house, the advent of 
 the toothpick was really a mark of advanced 
 civilization. The Elizabethan susceptibility to 
 fads caused the generation to " take up " tooth- 
 picks. They were ostentatiously carried by all. 
 They were frequently made of gold with jeweled 
 cases. And to pick one's teeth in public became 
 as surely the mark of a gentleman as to talk the 
 rubbish set in vogue by Lyly's Euphu£S. 
 
 In the bedroom we find heavy four-posted beds, 
 very massive in construction and frequently 
 carved. There was a canopy above the bed, and 
 curtains permitted the inhabitants to sleep abso- 
 lutely independent of ventilation. The page of 
 the master or mistress usually slept upon a low 
 
DOMESTIC LIFE 387 
 
 truckle bed which was pushed under ihe large one 
 during the daytime. Sheets of linen were fastened 
 to the bed by little pegs. The counterpanes 
 were elaborate and gaudy. Though nightclothes 
 were in use, many people habitually slept naked. 
 Oftentimes the word nightclothes in Eliabethan 
 literature refers not so much to sleeping clothes 
 as clothes for negligee wear. Perhaps the only 
 other characteristic article of bedroom furniture, 
 besides a few stools and, perhaps, a day bed, that 
 is, a sofa, was a chest. These chests were huge 
 affairs and used to store whatever would to-day 
 be put into drawers, an article of furniture that 
 had not yet come into general use. Most of the 
 outer clothes, however, were not kept in the bed- 
 room, but in the wardrobe. This was not an ar- 
 ticle of furniture, but a separate room where the 
 articles of the wardrobe were kept, hence its 
 name. The garments were hung about the walls 
 of the room upon pegs. Frequent allusions seem 
 to point to the fact that cut flowers were more 
 frequently found in the bedroom than in any other 
 part of the house. 
 
 In the library or den of the master of the house 
 we find his books, usually sumptuously bound 
 volumes, small in number and not various in sub- 
 ject-matter. The Bible and a book on hawking 
 or hunting were considered necessary. A few 
 
388 THE ELIZABETHAN PEOPLE 
 
 others were thrown in for effect. Books, however, 
 plajed a small part in the daily life of the aver- 
 age Elizabethan. The bindings, however, were 
 frequently very beautiful and studded with jewels. 
 Sometimes only the clasp was jewelled, hence rose 
 the custom of putting books on the shelf with the 
 binding next the wall so that the handsome clasp 
 would be visible. A candlestick a little more ele- 
 gant than those used throughout the rest of the 
 house, an hour-glass, and a globe were other re- 
 'quisites. Also writing materials. Pocket ink- 
 stands were in general use. Pens were made of 
 quills. In place of blotting paper scriveners used 
 small boxes of sand pierced like pepper boxes. 
 Perfumery, in so frequent demand elsewhere, was 
 also pressed into service in preparing paper for 
 correspondence. Letters were always sealed with 
 wax; and it was considered bad fortn for one to 
 deliver his own letter. 
 
 IV 
 
 "Wives in England," -sftj^-the- Antwerp mer«- 
 chant Van Meterea4»-"l&99r" are entirely in the 
 power of their husbands, their lives only excepted. 
 Therefore when they marry they give up the sur- 
 name of their father and of the family from which 
 they are descended, and take the surnames of their 
 husbands, except in the case of duchesses, coun- 
 
DOMESTIC LIFE 389 
 
 tesses and baronesses, who, when they marry 
 gentlemen of inferior degree, retain their first 
 name and title, which, for the ambition of the said 
 ladies, is rather allowed than commended. But 
 though the women there are entirely in the power 
 of their husbands except for their lives, yet they 
 are not kept so strictly as they are in Spain or 
 elsewhere. Nor are they shut up, but they have 
 the free management of the house or housekeeping, 
 after the fashion of those of the Netherlands and 
 others their neighbours. They go to market to 
 buy what they like best to eat. They are well 
 dressed, fond of taking it easy, and commonly leave 
 the care of household matters and drudgery to their 
 servants. They sit before their doors, decked out 
 in fine clothes, in order to see and be seen by the 
 passers-by. In all banquets and feasts they are 
 shown the greatest honour ; they are placed at the 
 upper end of the table, where they are the first 
 served ; at the lower end they help the men. All 
 the rest of their time they employ in walking and 
 riding, in playing at cards or otherwise, in visit- 
 ing their friends and keeping company, convers- 
 ing with their equals ^s^asskJia^texoLffasseiUi)" 
 and their neighbours, and making merry with them 
 at child-births, christenings, churchings ^(isert^- 
 ,,gsiai^fhew^ aad funerals ; and all this with the per- 
 mission and knowledge of their husbands, as sucK 
 
390 THE ELIZABETHAN PEOPLE 
 
 is the custom. Although the husbands often 
 recommend to them the pains, industry, and care 
 of the German or Dutch women, who do what the 
 men ought to do both in the house and in the 
 shops, for which services in England men are em- 
 ployed, nevertheless the women usually persist in 
 retaining their customs. This is why England is 
 called the paradise of married women. The girls 
 who are not yet married are kept much more 
 rigorously and strictly than in the Low Countries.^ 
 
 " The women are beautiful, fair, well-dressed, 
 and modest, which is seen there more than else- 
 where, as they go about the streets without any 
 covering either of huke or mantle (huyclee) hood, 
 veil, or the like. Married women only wear a hat 
 both in the street and in the house; those unmar- 
 ried go without a hat, although ladies of distinc- 
 tion have lately learnt to cover their faces with 
 silken masks or vizards, and feathers — for indeed 
 they change very easily, and that every year to 
 the astonishment of many." (The translation is 
 due to Rye.) 
 
 An anonymous black-letter pamphlet printed at 
 London in 1598 contains the following interest- 
 ing details relative to the customs pertaining to 
 women; 
 
 " But yet there remains one service wherein they 
 [gentlemen] must employ more men than the 
 
DOMESTIC LITE 391 
 
 table's attendance requireth, that is, if their mis- 
 tress ride abroad^ she must have six or seven serv- 
 ing men to attend her, she must have one to carry 
 her cloak, and hood, lest it rain, another her fan, 
 if she use it not herself, another her box with 
 ruffs and other necessaries, another behind whom 
 her maid or gentlewoman must ride, and some 
 must be loose to open gates, and supply other serv- 
 ices that may be occasioned. Now to diminish 
 and cut of this charge, as well of horse and men, 
 there is a new invention, and that is, she must 
 have a coach, wherein she, with her gentlewomen, 
 maid, and children, and what necessaries they or 
 any of them are to use, may be carried or con- 
 veyed with smaller charge, less cost, and more 
 credit, as it is accounted: for one or two 
 men at the most besides the coachman, are 
 sufficient for a gentlewoman or lady of worthy 
 parentage." 
 
 Gervase Markham, in his English Housewife, 
 thus describes her: 
 
 " Next unto her sanctity and holiness of life, 
 it is meet that our English housewife be a woman 
 of great modesty and temperance, as well in- 
 wardly as outwardly; inwardly as in her be- 
 haviour and carriage towards her husband, 
 wherein she shall shun all violence of rage, pas- 
 sion, and humour, coveting less to direct than to 
 
392 THE ELIZABETHAN PEOPLE 
 
 be directed, appearing ever unto him pleasant, 
 amiable and delightful; and, tho' occasion of mis- 
 haps, or the mis-government of his will may in- 
 duce her to contrary thoughts, yet virtuously to 
 suppress them, and with a mild sufference rather 
 to call him home from his error, than with the 
 strength of anger to abate the least spark of his 
 evil, calling into her mind, that evil and uncomely 
 language is deformed, though uttered even to serv- 
 ants; but most monstrous and ugly, when it ap- 
 pears before the presence of a husband; out- 
 wardly as in her apparel, and diet, both which 
 she shall proportion according to the competency 
 of her husband's estate and calling, making her 
 circle rather straight than large ; for it is a rule, 
 if we extend to the uttermost, we take away in- 
 crease; if we go a hair's breath beyond, we en- 
 ter into consumption ; but if we preserve any part 
 we build strong forts against the adversaries for- 
 tune, provided that such preservation be honest 
 and conscionable : for as lavish prodigality is 
 brutish, so miserable covetousness is hellish. Let 
 therefore the housewife's garments be comely and 
 strong, made as well to preserve the health, as to 
 adorn the person, altogether without toyish gar- 
 nishes, or the gloss of light colours, and as far 
 from the vanity of new and fantastic fashions, as 
 near to the comely imitations of modest matrons; 
 
DOMESTIC LIFE 393 
 
 Let her diet be wholesome and cleanly, prepared 
 at due hours, and cooked with care and diligence, 
 let it be rather to satisfy nature, than her affec- 
 tions, and apter to kill hunger than revive new 
 appetites ; let it proceed more from the provision 
 of her own yard, than the furniture of the mar- 
 kets ; and let it be rather esteemed for the familiar 
 acquaintance she hath without it, than for the 
 strangeness and rarity it bringeth from other 
 countries." 
 
 Very good advice, this, and I fear seldom fol- 
 lowed by the housewives Markham is extolling. 
 In another part of the same volume he becomes 
 more specific, more practical, and more accurate. 
 He tells us that the housewife should be skilled in 
 many things that have passed out of fashion. To 
 begin with, she ought to understand medicine and 
 nursing. Markham assists her to a sufficient 
 knowledge of such things by descriptions of the 
 various diseases and by prescriptions for their 
 cure. Here is a fair example, the manner of treat- 
 ment of quotidian fever : " You shall take a new- 
 laid egg, and opening the crown, you shall put oUt 
 the white, then fill up the shell with very good 
 aquavitae, and stir it and the yoke very well to- 
 gether, and then as soon as you feel your cold fit 
 begin to come upon you, suck up the egg, and 
 either labour till you sweat, or alse, laying great 
 
394 THE ELIZABETHAN PEOPLE 
 
 store of clothes upon you, put yourself in a sweat 
 in your bed, and thus doe while your fit continues, 
 and for your drink, let it be only cool posset 
 ale." 
 
 The housewife should also have a knowledge of 
 cookery, " else she can perform but half her vow 
 in marriage." She should have a knowledge of 
 all kinds of herbs, their uses, when to sow them, 
 and when to gather them. "At any time sow 
 Asparagus & colworts ... in the February new 
 moon Spike and Garlick . . . full moon Parsley 
 . . . March new moon Marigolds and violets 
 . . . etc." She must also know when and what 
 herbs are to be transplanted. Concerning her 
 ability to cook Markham says, " she must have a 
 quick eye, a curious nose, a perfect taste, and a 
 ready eare; (she must not be butter-fingered, 
 sweet-toothed, nor faint-hearted;) for the first 
 will let everything fall, the second will consume 
 what it should increase, and the last will lose 
 time with too much niceness. She must know how 
 to prepare salids, simple and compound; salids 
 for show only ; how to adorn the table," etc., etc. 
 Moreover, the housewife should understand the art 
 of cutting up meat, the making of cheese and but- 
 ter, and the care of poultry. 
 
 Another duty of the housewife was distilling. 
 She ought to furnish herself with stills, and learn 
 
DOMESTIC LIFE 895 
 
 their use in the preparation of medicines, per- 
 fumes, sauces, etc. She should know all about the 
 ordering of wines, she should be a competent 
 brewer, and know how to gauge wine and ale 
 casks. Then a knowledge of wool was necessary. 
 " The housewife should know when to send it to 
 the dyer, yet, in case of emergency, she should 
 understand dyeing, the action whereof must be 
 got by practice, not by relation." All about flax 
 was another part of her necessary knowledge, and 
 skill in dairy work. Markham, after enumerating 
 all these various duties with descriptions and re- 
 ceipts, belittles the value of his own volume by 
 saying that the housewife must not only find time 
 to read and study about these things, but also to 
 practise them all, else the study will prove of no 
 avail. The modern reader should bear in mind 
 that the average English housewife in the time of 
 Elizabeth was actually skilled in all these various 
 duties, and that it often fell to her lot to train 
 servants to skill in them, even if she did not 
 need to exercise the knowledge otherwise her- 
 self. 
 
 In those days the retinue of household servants 
 was far more numerous than it is to-day, and 
 a more essential mark of gentility than at any 
 other age. The servants wore their master's arms 
 upon the left sleeve; their distinctive dress was a 
 
396 THE ELIZABETHAN PEOPLE 
 
 blup C09.t, The feeling that dignity depended 
 largely upop the size of the train of servants per- 
 ya.ded all r^pks of sflciety. The domestics, at least 
 xhilp they were within doors, were kept under tl^e 
 strictest discipline. John Harrington, in 1566, 
 drew up a set of rules by which the servants of his 
 house were to be governed. Such dpcuments were 
 coipQion: the following selection illustrates the 
 ch&tacter qf the supervision : 
 
 1. A servant shall not be absent from morn- 
 ing or evening prayer without excuse, upon the 
 fine of ,£d each time. 
 
 3. No man shall leave any door open that he 
 findeth sh^t, without cause— rfine Id. 
 
 6. No bed shall be left unmade, nor fire or 
 candle box unclean, after 8 a. m. 
 
 8. No nian shall wait at table without a 
 trencher in his hand except for good c^use — 
 fine Id. 
 
 14. No one shall provoke another tp strike, or 
 strike another on pain of dismissial. 
 
 16. No man shall come to the kitchen without 
 reasonable cause-^he shall be fined Id and the 
 cook Id. 
 
 20. The court gate must be shut during each 
 meal. 
 
 The fines are to be bestowed upon the poor. 
 
DOMESTIC LIFE 397 
 
 Servants usuedly rose at fpur in the summer 
 and five in the winter time. They were subject 
 throughout the long day to rule and regimen. 
 We are told that even the maid-servants were 
 thrashed into good behaviour by their masters. 
 When not in disgrace, it was a part of their duty 
 to amuse their master, mistress, and the guests 
 during the meal. In this direction, however, the 
 fool was the greatest resource. Fools were of 
 two kinds. One was the witty fool or jester, so 
 cleverly described in Twelfth Night. He wore 
 the parti-coloured or motley garb, the cock's- 
 comb, and carried his bauble and bells. The other 
 kind of fool was the idiot. Elizabethans had not 
 yet learned the pathos of insanity. The foolish 
 antics of the half-witted afforded them endless 
 amusement. 
 
 Returning again to Markham we find that he 
 lays great stress upon the proper serving of a 
 meal. " Thus you shall order them in your 
 closet; but when they go to the table you shall 
 first send forth a dish made for show only, as 
 Beaste, Bird, Fish, or Fowle, according to inven- 
 tion: then your marchpane, then your preserved 
 fxuit, then a paste, then a wet sucket, then a dry 
 sucket, marmelaide, cumfits, apples, pears, war- 
 dens, oranges, and lemons sliced ; then wafers and 
 another dish of preserved fruits and so conse- 
 
398 THE ELIZABETHAN PEOPLE 
 
 quently all the rest before: no two dishes of one 
 kind going or standing together, and this will not 
 only appear delicate to the eye, but invite the ap- 
 petite with the much variety thereof." The fore- 
 going description refers to the lighter part of 
 the repast, known usually as the banquet, the 
 dishes often being set upon the table first and 
 the meat and game courses then served. For a 
 family not too large, Markham says that six- 
 teen dishes of meat and sixteen dishes of salad 
 and vegetables would, if properly distributed, be 
 sufficient. 
 
 Dinner and supper were usually served upon 
 movable tables, which were covered with table- 
 cloths of linen, often called carpets. The hour 
 for dinner was twelve o'clock; supper was served 
 at six. Wooden trenchers were still seen upon the 
 tables of the rich. Pewter in its best form was 
 a costly material, and wealthy persons often 
 rented their stock of pewter by the year. It was, 
 however, in its plainer forms, slowly working its 
 way into the houses of the common people, hardly 
 any of whom did not boast, at least, the posses- 
 sion of a few pewter dishes. Silver, gilt plate, cut 
 glass, and china, the latter sparingly, were in 
 use. Before 1563 people ate with their fingers; 
 hence the frequent circulation at table of 
 water and a towel. Knives were introduced in 
 
DOMESTIC LIFE 399 
 
 1563, but forks did not come till some time 
 later. 
 
 Dinner was usually served in three courses: 
 the first, meat; the second, game; the third, 
 sweets. The last, called the banquet, was, when 
 possible, served in the summer-house in the gar- 
 den, from which, after sufficient time spent in con- 
 versation, the family adjourned to evening prayer 
 and then prepared for supper. The people were 
 extremely lavish in the matter of provision, and 
 extravagant in their tastes. The consumption of 
 wine was then far greater than now. Harrison 
 mentions fifty-six French wines, thirty-six Span- 
 ish, and several made at home. Englishmen were 
 very fond of sugar, which it was customary to 
 mix with every kind of wine. 
 
 In an attempt to describe the social conditions 
 of the Elizabethans one is constantly confronted 
 with the difficulty of selection. There must be, 
 however, a limit of space that often curtails when 
 one would be inclined to continue. The brief view 
 contained in this volume, it is hoped, will serve 
 to give in broad lines the habits of life that 
 characterised the people of Shakespeare's genera- 
 tion. Gaps there are, and some details may have 
 been over-emphasised. The present writer, how- 
 ever, hopes that the attempt here set down may 
 
400 THE ELIZABETHAN PEOPLE 
 
 serve, if but inadequately, to help the modern 
 reader to an easier and more complete compre- 
 hension of those great Elizabethan writings to 
 which this book aspires to be no mor^ than a 
 humble footnote. 
 
 THE EKD 
 
INDEX 
 
INDEX 
 
 Abbot of Unreason, 171 
 
 Abraham man, 45 
 
 Adjectives, substantives and, 
 200 
 
 Against the bias, 189 
 
 Agnes' Eve, Saint, 282 
 
 Alchemy, books on, 80 
 
 Ale, Ales, 176 
 
 Ale-houses in Stratford, 57 
 
 Allhallow Eve, 171 
 
 Almanacs, 281 
 
 Amulets, 274 
 
 Angels, superstition concern- 
 ing, 281 
 
 Antic, 208 
 
 Apes in Hell, 302 
 
 Apostle spoons, 288 
 
 Apprentices, 69, 150 
 
 Archery, 12 
 
 Architecture, 60 
 
 Architecture, domestic, 344 
 
 Armada, 37 
 
 Armada, political effect of 
 the, 7 
 
 Armour, 379 
 
 Arms, the wearing of, 11 
 
 Arras, 383 
 
 Assay, the, 126 
 
 Assembly, the, 123 
 
 Astrology, 80, 325 
 
 Attendants, 391 
 
 Autolycus, 181 
 
 Backgammon, 214 
 Badger baiting, 23 
 Baiting with dogs, 21 
 Bale of dice, 214 
 
 Ballads, ballad singing, 46, 
 180 
 
 Ball games, 182 
 
 Balloon ball, 182 
 
 Balustrades, 352 
 
 Band, falling, 371 
 
 Bandy ball, 184 
 
 Banks, 191 
 
 Banquet, 352, 398 
 
 Baptism, 286 
 
 Barbers, 224 
 
 Barber-shop, 70, 71, 195 
 
 Barla-breikes, 186 
 
 Barley-break, 185 
 
 Base, 187 
 
 Basin, barber's, 70 
 
 Bate, to, 117 
 
 Bawds, 97, 371 
 
 Bawds, carting of, 70 
 
 Bawdy houses, 150 
 
 Bay, at, 125 
 
 Bay tree, superstition con- 
 cerning, 275 
 
 Bear-baiting, 19, 26, 239 
 
 Bearing cloth, 286 
 
 Beasts of the field, of the 
 forest, 120 
 
 Beasts, superstition concern- 
 ing, 275 
 
 Bed clothes, 387 
 
 Bed rooms, 355 
 
 Beds, 386 
 
 Beggars, 45 
 
 Bells of a hawl^ 117 
 
 Bells of Morris dancers, 
 159 
 
 Betrothal, 295 
 
 403 
 
404 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Bewits, 117 
 
 Beginning of the world, 
 207 
 
 Bias, against the, 189 
 
 Birthday, 290 
 
 Black ship, superstition 
 concerning, 275 
 
 Black witches, 326 
 
 Blessing the bridal bed, 
 303 
 
 Bloodstone, 278 
 
 Blood sucking, 333 
 
 Blue candles, 310 
 
 Blue coat, 396 
 
 Blue gown, 379 
 
 BlundeviUe's writing on 
 horsemanship, 139 
 
 Bodice, 372 
 
 Boke of Saint Albans, 120 
 
 Bonfires, 283 
 
 Books, 387 
 
 Books on horsemanship, 139 
 
 Bower, 364 
 
 Bowling, 57 
 
 Bowling alley, 188 
 
 Bowls, 188 
 
 Branding, 17 
 
 Brass as building material, 
 349 
 
 Brawl, 208 
 
 Breaking a hawk, 113 
 
 Brick as a building ma- 
 terial, 347 
 
 Bride ale, 176 
 
 Bride cake, 301 
 
 Bride's hair, 297 
 
 Bride laces, 298 
 
 Buffet, 384 
 
 Building material, 347 
 
 Building restrictions, 347 
 
 Bull baiting, 21 
 
 Bum rolls, 374 
 
 Burghley, Lord, 136 
 
 Burial, 315 
 
 Burlington Arcade, 97 
 
 Burning at the stake, 16 
 Buttons, 378 
 
 Cabinet-making, 382 
 
 Cable hat-bands, 366 
 
 Cadge, cadge-boy, 116 
 
 Calendar, iJie, 145 
 
 Canary, 209 
 
 Candlemas Day, 171 
 
 Canions, 375 
 
 Carbuncle, 274 
 
 Cardan, Jerome 83 
 
 Cards, 203 
 
 Carpets, 64, 380, 389, 398 
 
 Carrierre, Uie, 138 
 
 Ceilings, 356 
 
 Changelings, 285 
 
 Chapel, 355 
 
 Charity of the Elizabethans, 
 
 29 
 Cheapside, strewing with 
 
 gravel, 39 
 Checking, 114 
 Chess, 203 
 Chests, 387 
 Childbirth, 283 
 Chimneys, 61 
 China, 385 
 Chopine, 377 
 Chrisom cloth, 287 
 Christmas, 146 
 Christmas customs, 166 
 Christmas dinner, 169 
 Christinas Eve, 167 
 Church Ale, 176, 177 
 Church attendance, 58, 60 
 Claudius in Hamlet, 321 
 Clerk Ale, 176 
 Clogs, 128 
 Clopton, Hugh, 54 
 Closets, 355 
 Cloud in's face, 134 
 Coaches, 42, 391 
 Cock fighting, 25 
 Cockpit burned, 151 
 
INDEX 
 
 405 
 
 Cock-throwing, 25, 149 
 Coffins, decoration of, 315 
 College of Stratford, 48 
 Collop Monday, 147 
 Colors of horses, 133 
 Conjurers, 84 
 Consorts, 22J 
 Corks, 377 
 Corpse candles, 310 
 Cotswold games, 137, 189 
 Counterpane, 387 
 Country life, 36, 344 
 Courtesans, 96, 97 
 Court life,, 239, 243 
 Court-shaped house, 351 
 Courtship, 290 
 Crackers, fire, 190 
 Craps, 214 
 Creance, 117 
 Creduli%, 9, 79, 342 
 Cribbage, 205 
 Crime and ghostlore, 321 
 Cross-roads, 311 
 Cruelty, 10 
 Criielt^ of laws, 13 
 Cry. the, 123 
 Ciystal globe, 89 
 Cucking stool, 17, 57 
 Cuckolds, 96 
 Cunning men, 84 
 Cupbctard, 384 
 Curtains, 384 
 Cushion dance, 207 
 CypresSj 364 
 
 Dancing, 198, 207 
 Dancing at weddings, 302 
 Death customs, 308 
 Death penalties, 14 
 Death, signs of, 276, 308 
 Deathbed, 276 
 Death's head ring, 99 
 Dee, Dr., 88, 267 
 DeVil, belief in the, 261 
 Devil, compact with, 332, 
 334 
 
 Devils, 281 
 
 Dice, 211 
 
 Dier, Mrs., 339 
 
 Dingham, 369 
 
 Disedge, to, 117 
 
 Dishonesty of tradesmen, 68 
 
 Dog d^s, 275 
 
 Dogs, baiting with. 21 
 
 Domestic architecture, 344 
 
 Doublet, 372 
 
 Drawers, 365 
 
 DreamSj 281 
 
 Dress, 358 
 
 Dress, discomfort of, 361 
 
 Dress, imitation in,, 34 
 
 Dress of uiorrisrdftncei;$, 
 
 159 
 Dress, regulation of, 360 
 Drinking tobacco, 79 
 Ducking stool, 17, 57 
 Duelling, 217 
 Dun in the mire, 26, 199 
 Dutch slop, 376 
 
 Easter tide, 151, 184 
 
 Eclipse, 275 
 
 Egg Saturday, 153 
 
 Elizabeth as a musician, 225 
 
 Elizabeth, description of, 
 244 
 
 Elizabethan fads, 33 
 
 Elizabethan, the point of 
 view, 2 
 
 Elizabethans, charity of, 29 
 
 Elizabethans, immaturity of, 
 & 
 
 Elizabethans, qualities of, 6 
 
 Elizabethans, realization of 
 their nation^ strength, 7 
 
 Elizabethans, religious qual- 
 ity of, 28 
 
 Elizabethans, their imita- 
 tion, 32 
 
 Entry, the, 121 
 
 E-shaped house, 351 
 
406 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Evil eye, 284 
 Extinguishers, 350 
 Extremity of dress, 359 
 
 Fads, 33 
 
 Fairies, 373, 383, 284 
 
 Fairy lore, 331 
 
 Fairy rings, 272, 322 
 
 Falcon, 111 
 
 Falconer, 115 
 
 Falling band, 371 
 
 False lights, 68 
 
 Fanuliar spirits, 333 
 
 Fans, 379 
 
 Farmers' houses, 367 
 
 Farthingale, 373 
 
 Feathers, 309 
 
 Female hawks. 111 
 
 Filth, 380 
 
 Fire, 65 
 
 Fireworks, 189 
 
 Fives, 184 
 
 Flanders horse, 135 
 
 Flat cap, 379 
 
 Flirting, 195 
 
 Floors, 357 
 
 Floors, construction of, 349 
 
 Floors, rushing of, 380 
 
 Flowers, 387 
 
 Flowers at funerals, 315 
 
 Flying a hawk, 117 
 
 Folklore, belief in, 266 
 
 Food, 368 
 
 Fools, 157, 397 
 
 Foot-ball, 183 
 
 Foot-cloth, 136 
 
 Forfeits in a barber-shop, 
 
 72 
 Forks introduced, 386 
 Forman, 83, 89 
 Fortress of Beauty, 231 
 Friar Tuck, 167 
 Friday, 275 
 Funeral feast, 316 
 Funeral of Sidney, 337 
 
 Funerals, 316 
 Furniture^ 62, 383 
 
 Gable roofs, 352 
 Gallery, 365 
 Galliard, 209 
 Gallygascoyne, 376 
 Gaily hose, 375 
 Gambling, 311 
 Gardening, 8 
 Gardens, 61 
 Gaskins, 376 
 Ghosts, 371, 273, 317 
 Gipsies, 46 
 Glass, use of, 349 
 Gleek, 303 
 Gloves, 379 
 
 Gold, manufacture of, 91 
 Golf, 184 
 Gossip, 70, 196 
 Gossips' feast, 389 
 Graves, 311 
 Gray's Inn Mask, 254 
 Greene, 84 
 Green men, 188 
 Gresham, Sir Thomas, 37 
 Guild of the Holy Cross, 46, 
 48 
 
 Haggard, 114 
 Hair, hair dress, 360, 365 
 Halifax punishment, 15 
 Hall, the, 354 
 Hamlet, end of, 4 
 Hamlet, Ghost in, 319 
 Hand baU, 152, 184 
 Handkerchiefs, 379 
 Hand tennis, 184 
 Harbouring the stag, 121 
 Hats, 366 
 
 Hatton, Christopher, 307 
 Haunted houses, 273 
 Haunted rooms, 270 
 Hawk, to man a, 114 
 Hawk, seeling a, 113 
 
INDEX 
 
 407 
 
 Hawk, training of. 111, 113 
 
 Hawk, watching, 113 
 
 Hawking, 110 
 
 Hay, 208 
 
 Hazard, 314 
 
 Head dress, 364 
 
 Healths, drinking, 291 
 
 Heaving, 205 
 
 Herbs, 394 
 
 Herbs, remedial, 274 
 
 Hermitage Dock, 14 
 
 Holy Cross, Guild of the, 
 
 46, 48 
 High Almaine horse, 135 
 Hired murderers, 19 
 Hobby, the, 131 
 Hobby-horse, 157 
 Hoe at Plymouth, 188 
 Hood of hawks, 116 
 Hoodman blind, 170 
 Hooks, 350 
 Horse in Shakespeare, the, 
 
 139 
 Horse market of Smithfield, 
 
 132 
 Horse racing, 137 
 Horses, 130 
 Hose, 376 
 Hot cockles, 170 
 Houses, domestic, 61 
 Housewife, the, 391 
 Hunting of the fox, 207 
 Hunting with hawks, 118 
 Hunt's up, 304 
 
 Imitation in the drama, 33 
 Imitation, love of, 32 
 Immaturity of the Eliza- 
 bethans, 5 
 Imping, 115 
 In and in, 214 
 Inner Temple Masque, 254 
 Inns, country, 40 
 Insanity, treatment of, 27 
 Inventories, 63, 316 
 
 Irish hobby, 136 
 
 Iron as a building material, 
 
 350 
 I spy, 187 
 
 Jesses, 116 
 Jewelry, 378 
 John come kiss me, 307 
 John of Stratford, 47 
 Juliet's character, 3 
 Juniper, 382 
 Juniper fire, 76 
 
 Katharine, 112 
 
 Kelly, 89, 90 
 
 Kenilworth, 351 
 
 King's Evil, 279 
 
 Kissing, 196 
 
 Knives at meals, 385 
 
 Knives worn by brides, 301 
 
 Laced garments, 362 
 
 Laces, 378 
 
 Lacing, 374 
 
 Lancaster witches, 338 
 
 Lant, Thomas, 240 
 
 Laski, Albert, 90 
 
 Last Couple in Hell, 185 
 
 Latten, 289 
 
 Lavolta, 209 
 
 Laws, cruelty of, 13 
 
 Lawlessness, 11 
 
 Lead roofs, 349 
 
 Leak, Madam, 151 
 
 Leet Ale, 176 
 
 Leicester's influence over the 
 
 Queen, 267 
 Lethe, 127 
 Letters, 388 
 Liam hound, 121 
 Library, 355, 387 
 Limer, 121 
 Lion baiting, 23 
 Lodam, 203 
 London, 66, 345 
 
408 
 
 INDEX 
 
 London shops, 68 
 
 London streets, 67 
 
 London theatres, 66 
 
 London wall, 67 
 
 Lord of Misrule, 171, 173 
 
 Lord of the May, 1S6 
 
 Love-lock, the, 291 
 
 Love lyrics, 219 
 
 Lute, 233 
 
 Lutes in barber-shops, 71 
 
 Lute strings, 223 
 
 Lym, 131 
 
 Lyric poetry, 219 
 
 Mack, 203 
 
 Madden, 297, note 
 
 Magic, 82, 281 
 
 Maid Marian, 156 
 
 Man a hawk, to, 114 
 
 Mandrake, 278 
 
 Maple block, 76 
 
 Marmion's motto, 115 
 
 Marriage, 394 
 
 Martlet, the, 374 
 
 Masque, the, 253 
 
 Masque of the Inner Temple, 
 
 355 
 Masques, 364 
 Maw, 303 
 
 May-Day, 162, 163, 160 
 Maying, 154 
 May-pole, 154, 155 
 Meals, 354, 384, 397 
 Meals at Court, 246 
 Medicine, 83 
 
 Medical superstitions, 275^ 
 Mews, 116 "^ 
 
 Mice, 275 
 
 Middle class, rise of, 37 
 Middleton, 96 
 Midsummer Watch, 240 
 Mirrors, 366 
 Mistresses, 99 
 Monsters, 191 
 Moon, 278 
 
 Morocco, 191 
 
 Morris-dance, 152, 155, 161 
 Mort, the, 126 
 Mumming, 168 
 Murderers, hired, 19 
 Music, 219 
 
 Musical instruments, 159 
 My Lady's Hole, 303 
 
 Napkins, 385 
 
 Nash, 84 
 
 Neapolitan horse, 135 
 
 Needle-work, 195 
 
 New clothes on Easter, 152 
 
 New Place, &S, 61 
 
 New Year's Day, 146 
 
 Night clothes, 387 
 
 Nine Men's Moris, 193 
 
 Noble Art of Venery, the, 
 
 126 
 Noddy, 203, 206 
 Noise of musicians, 231 
 Northern Spell, 185 
 Nose-bleed, 277 
 
 Obedience of children, 294 
 Old English Popular Music, 
 
 319 
 Old maids, 302 
 Overlooking, 284 
 Overtopping, 128 
 Owl, 275 
 
 Pack horse, 137 
 Padding of clothes, 363 
 Pair of cards, 206 
 Painted cloth, 383 
 Painting the face, 366 
 Palmistry, 83, 381, 325 
 Pancakes, pancake bell, 149 
 Pancake Tuesday, 147 
 Paned hose, ^tp 
 Panelling, 357 
 Parish top, 193, 194 
 
INDEX 
 
 409 
 
 Partelets, 369 
 
 Pfische eggs, 153 
 
 Bassage, 314 
 
 Passing bell, 313 
 
 Pavin, 320 
 
 Peascod bellied doublet, 373 
 
 Pedlars, 45 
 
 Pens, 388 
 
 Perfume, 379, 385, 388 
 
 Perfumer, the, 381 
 
 Perjury, punishment for, 17 
 
 Pets, 196 
 
 Pewter, 385, 398 
 
 Philosopher's stone, 92 
 
 Physiognomjr, art of, 83 
 
 Pictures, 357, 384 
 
 PiUoiy, 17, 18 
 
 Pindar's house, ceilings of, 
 
 356 
 Piracy, punishment for, 14 
 Pitch, the, 117 
 Plague, 65 
 Plate, 385 
 Points, 378 
 Population, 36 
 Population, shift of, 345 
 Post and Pair, 203 
 Post boy's habit, 41 
 Post riding, 25, 41 
 Poking stick, 370 
 Potts' Account, 338 
 Practical jokes, 199 
 Presents, 387 
 Pressing to death, 16 
 Primero, 203, 205 
 Prison bars, 187 
 Prison base, 187 
 Prize, to play a, 215 
 Prizes for dancing, 211 
 Progresses, 38 
 Prostitutes, 97, 98 
 Punishment for decay of 
 
 walls, 17 
 Punishment for treason, .14 
 Purification, feast of, 171 
 
 Put on your Smock a' Mon- 
 day, 308 
 
 Quinola, 206 
 Quacks, 80 
 
 Qualities of the Elizabeth- 
 ans, 1 
 Quarterstick, 37 
 Queen of the May, 156 
 Quintain, 193 
 
 Racquet, 184 
 
 Rapidity of national de- 
 velopment, 8 
 
 Raven, 379 
 
 Ravens' eggs, 274 ' 
 
 Reclaiming a hawk, 115 
 
 Rings, 374, 379 
 
 Rings, fairy, 272, 322 
 
 Ring^walks, 122 
 
 Roads, condition of, 36, 39, 
 40, 130 
 
 Robin Hood, 155 
 
 Roofs, gable, 352 
 
 Rogero, 207 
 
 Roofs, lead, 349 
 
 Rosemary, 300 
 
 Roses, 377 
 
 Rowan tree, 340 
 
 Rudolph II, 90 
 
 RuflFs, 368 
 
 Rural wedding, 305 
 
 Rushes, 64, 381 
 
 Sabbath, witches', 335 
 Saint Paul's, 99 
 Salamander, 374 
 Sanitary conditions, 64 
 Scotch farthingale, 374 
 Seeling a hawk, 113 
 Seer, 89 
 
 Bellinger's round, 170, 208 
 Servants, 396 
 Servants' quarters, 353 
 Sets t)f instruments, 233 
 
410 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Shakespeare and supersti- 
 tion, 94 
 
 Shakespeare, John, 58 
 
 Sheets, 387 
 
 Shoeing the mare, 170, 171 
 
 Shoes, 377 
 
 Shop, barber, 70 
 
 Shops of London, 68 
 
 Shoreditch, 97, 151 
 
 Shove groat, 201 
 
 Shrove tide, 147 
 
 Shovel board, 193, 201 
 
 Shroud, 314 
 
 Shrove Tuesday, 103, 147, 
 150 
 
 Sick bed, 275 
 
 Side arms, 214 
 
 Sidney, funeral of, 237 
 
 Sighs, 277 
 
 Signs, street, 350 
 
 Singing, 220 
 
 Sleep, 276 
 
 Slops, 376 
 
 Slot hound, 121 
 
 Smithfield, 131 
 
 Snakes, feeding on, 274 
 
 Social conditions, 37 
 
 Sonnet vogue, the, 33 
 
 Southwark, 67 
 
 Spiders, 274 
 
 Splay footed wench, 275 
 
 Spoons, apostle, 288 
 
 Squibs, 190 
 
 Squire, 99 
 
 Squirrels as pets, 195 
 
 Stag hunt, 120 
 
 Stall troublers, 68 
 
 Starches, colored, 369 
 
 Starch, introduction of, 369 
 
 Stews of London, 97 
 
 Stockings, 376 
 
 Stocks, 17, 57 
 
 Stomacher, 372 
 
 Stone as a building ma- 
 terial, 347 
 
 Stoop, to, 117 
 
 Storms, 277 
 
 Story telling, 190, 200, 271 
 
 Stow ball, 184 
 
 Stow, John, granted a license 
 
 to beg, 45 
 Stow's superstition, 267 
 Strand, the, 39, 346 
 Stratford, 46 
 Stratford bridge, 55 
 Stratford church, 47 
 Stratford college, 48 
 Stratford grammar school, 
 
 54 
 Stratford guild, 48 
 Stratford, John of, 47 
 Stratford markets, 59 
 Stratford, population of, 60 
 Stratford trading companies, 
 
 59 
 Street cleaning, 64 
 Street parades, 229 
 Streets, condition of, 39 
 Streets, danger of, 11, 13 
 Streets of London, 67 
 Strype, 229 
 Substantives and adjectives, 
 
 200 
 Suburbans, 97 
 Suicide, 311 
 
 Sun dancing on Easter, 152 
 Superstition, 9, 267, 270 
 
 Tables, 214, 354, 384 
 Taffeta, 98 
 Taking tobacco, 78 
 Taming, 112 
 Tapestry, 383 
 Tempest, The, 139 
 Tenements, 347 
 Tennis, 184 
 Tennis, hand, 184 
 Termer, 96 
 
 Terrifying children, 268 
 Thames, condition of, 39 
 
INDEX 
 
 4.11 
 
 Thames, frozen, 107 
 
 Thames, spectacles on, 338 
 
 Thatch, 349 
 
 Theatres, 66, 207 
 
 Thing and who did it, a, 200 
 
 Thorpe, John, 240 
 
 Thracian stone, 274 
 
 Threshold, stmnbling on, 275 
 
 Thimderstone, 274 
 
 Tib, 204 
 
 Tickle me quickly, 203 
 
 Tick tack, 214 
 
 Tiddie, 204 
 
 Tile as a building material, 
 
 347, 349 
 TUting, 231 
 Tire, to, 117 
 Toad, 275 
 Toad throwing, 26 
 Tobacco, 75, 93 
 Tobacco adulteration, 76 
 Tobacco drinking, 79 
 Tobacco taking, 78 
 Tom, 204 
 
 Tom-o-bedlams, 45 
 Tom the Piper, 157 
 Tom Tiler, 170, 207 
 Toothpicks, 286 
 Tops, 193 
 Tower, to, 117 
 Towns, decay of, 346 
 Trade, increase of, 8 
 Tradesmen's houses, 353 
 Trained animals, 191 
 Training a hawk, 113 
 Training horses, 138 
 Trammels, 136 
 Trap ball, 186 
 Trap stick, 185 
 Trashing, 128 
 Travel, 130 
 Travel, means of, 40 
 Treason, punishment for, 14 
 Troll my dame, 207 
 Truckle bed, 387 
 
 Turnbnll, 57, 151 
 Turner, Mrs., 370 
 Tumours, 274 
 Twelfth Day, 146 
 Tyrrit, 116 
 
 Uncleanliness, 64 
 Unity, the quality of, 5 
 
 Venery, 95 
 
 Venetian hose, 375 
 
 Vermin, 382 
 
 Verse writing to order, 291 
 
 Virginals, 224 
 
 Waits, 222 
 
 Wakes, 193, 314 
 
 Walking of ghosts, 272, 318 
 
 Wall of London, 67 
 
 Wardrobe, 356, 387 
 
 Warwickshire, 46 
 
 Watch, midsummer, 240 
 
 Watching a hawk, 113 
 
 Watermen on the Thames, 
 39 
 
 Water quintain, 193 
 
 Wax image, 89, 266, 337, 
 338 
 
 Weapons, 11, 214 
 
 Weddings, 297 
 
 Westminster, 97, 346 
 
 Wheat throwing at wed- 
 dings, 301 
 
 Whip her Jenny, 203 
 
 Whipping, 17 
 
 Whipping post, 18 
 
 Whitefriars', 97 
 
 White witches, 325 
 
 Whitsun Ale, 176 
 
 Whitsuntide, 171, 178 
 
 Wigs, 365 
 
 Windows, 349 
 
 Winding sheet, 313 
 
 Wine, 399 
 
 Witchcraft, 324 
 
M2 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Witches, LaBcaster, 338 
 Witches, supernatural quali- 
 ties of, 337 
 Women's dress, 363 
 Women, treatment of, 388 
 Wood as a buildihg ma- 
 terial, 347 
 Wooden dishes, 385 
 WfeiHiag, 193 
 
 Witches, 284 
 Writing materiids, 388 
 
 Yew, 314 
 Yule dough, 168 
 Yute log, 167 
 Yule-tide, 38, 146 
 
 Zittcm is barber-shop, 71 
 
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