THE VOICE AN INTRODUCTION TO PRACTICAL PHONOLOGY W. A, AIKIN, M.a CORNELL UNIVERSITY LIBRARY MUSIC .••r «-. PSC?*" ""'"ereHy Library MT 821.A29 1920 The voicejan introduction to practical 3 1924 021 787 811 Cornell University Library The original of tiiis book is in tine Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924021787811 THE VOICE THE VOICE M INTEODUCTION TO PRACTICAL PHONOLOGY BY W. A. AlKIN, M.D. WITH DIAGRAMS NEW IMPRESSION LONGMANS, GEEEN, AND CO. 39 PATERNOSTER ROW, LONDON FOUETH AVENUE * 30th STREET, NEW TOEK BOMBAY, CALCUTTA, AND MAPBAiS 1920 All lights reserved PREFACE SmcE my publication of ' The Voice : Its Physiology and Cultivation/ in 1900, considerable advances have been made both in the subject and in the means of applying the principles then brought forward. In bringing out a new edition it has become necessary to remodel and rewrite the whole work, and to regard it as an introduction to the practical science of Phonology- The present work is addressed principally to those whose profession it is to train the speaking or singing voice, and therefore certain scientific and technical matters are dealt with somewhat minutely. But I hope that it may also indicate to men of science what the real problems of voice training are, and how much may be done by them in the promotion and demonstra- tion of Phonological Principles. There is a large field open in the analysis of vocal sound, and I regard the few observations which I have been able to make as only sufficient to demonstrate the physical system upon which the vocal functions are per- formed. In making practical use of these materials, as far as they go, I do not propose a special ' method ' of teaching, but the foundation for all methods, which scientific truth is alone capable of estabhshmg. W. A. AIKIN. London, 1910. CONTENTS INTRODUCTION P>SIS The RELA.TION op Phonology akd Phokbtios . , . 1-5 THE VOICE IN GENERAL Phtsicai Fokmation — The Two Instettments — The Order op THEIR Development — Pacchierotti's Principle — Phonolo- gical Pronunciation — Voice Training not a Musical Question 6-17 THE BREATH Physical Action — Normal Breathing — Central Breathing — Control — Eesertb — Permanent Expansion — Spiro-dyna- METER 18-34 THE RESONATOR The Resonating Spaces — Vowel-Sound ' Aa ' — Dipperentiation op other Sounds — Resonator Scale — Pronunciation op SiMPLB AND Compound Vowels 36-63 CONSONANTS Phonological Classipication — Pronunciation — ^Forward Posi- tion AND Movements op the Tongue — Sopt and G in Latin 64-74 PRACTICAL DEVELOPMENT OF RESONATOR SCALE Tuning the Vowels in the Whispering Voice — Practice op Vowel Positions and Consonants — Exercises . . 76-88 viii CONTENTS THE yiBRATOK PASBa Physical Action — Reasons jok condemnins the Glottic Shock — Positions or the Vocal Coeds — Voice Ttpes — Oapacitt AND Compass — Compbesseb High Notes — Speaking Pitch — Onset and Release op Vocal Sound — Vocalising fbom a Centbb 89-112 THE COMBINED INSTRUMENTS Explanation op the Habmonic Rbinpoecements in Vabious Vowbl- SOITNDS PeACTICAL DISTINCTION BETWEEN SONOEITT AND Chaeactee op Vowels — ^Pohndation Exbbcises . . 113-130 PRONUNCIATION CHART Peactioal Method op Coebecting and Pbactising English Peo- nbnciation 181-133 VOICE CAPACITY AND SONG DIAGRAMS The Pbactioai Estimation op Vocal Work, and its Application to Vocal Capacity , » 134-144 GENERAL REMARKS Voice Liteeattjeb — Vocal Education — Voice Peesebvation 145-159 LIST OF ILLUSTEATIONS iia PAOE 1. Front Vibv op Chest . 20 2. Side View „ „ . 21 3. SpraO-DTNAMBTBR . 33 4. Position op Vowjsl Sottst Af' . 40 6. „ „ 'AW AND 'Oo' . 47 6. „ „ *Eh' and 'Ee' .... . 60 7. Lips and Tongue in Yowel Positions . 79 8. Positions op Vocal Coeds . 93 Table op Eesonatob, Scale . 53 , Consonants . 65 , Whispered Exercises 1-8 .... . 87-88 , Vocal Capacity 97 , Voice Ttpes 99 , Vocal Exercises No. 1 . . , . 108 , „ =, „ 2 . . . . 110 , TTarmonic Eeinporcements No. 1 . 116 ) » J. J, 2 . . 120 , Vocal Exeecises No. 3 . . . . 128 4 J jj jj « ^ • • • ■ 129 Song Diagbams 1-20 138-140 Pe ONUN ciation Chart ~. • . , At the end oj • the vohime THE VOICE INTRODUCTION Phonology is the science of vocal sound. It is based upon tte physical laws involved in the production of soimd, and upon the physiological laws which govern the functions and actions of the living organs of the voice. In its widest sense it should include the study of all animal voices, but in this volume it is confined to the human organs which enable us to speak and to sing. The main object of speciahsing this science is to gather together all that is known about vocal sound and capable of being demonstrated, so that it may be brought into much closer contact with technical requirements than has hitherto been practicable. While bringing before those engaged in physics and physiology the vocal problems which are in need of further research, it places at the disposal of those who are responsible for vocal teaching the definite principles upon which vocal development must be conducted. Phonology, however, always remains an integral part of the general sciences whence it springs, and 2 THE VOICE cannot be separated ofi as far as knowledge is con- cerned; but in practice it builds its independence upon a wider and more intimate acquaiatance with vocal requirements. It is by studying tbe sounds of language and music that we learn what is demanded of those organs with whose natural functions we are directly concerned. But it should be clearly understood that phonology is only specialised by the inclusion of these additional branches of study. Its true authority in vocal matters is derived entirely from the physical and physiological principles which form its foimdation. However complete a knowledge of phonetics, elocution or music may be, it can only approach the voice from an outside point of view. The real principles of voice training have to be appUed from within, and must be based upon the phonological laws which govern the sounding properties of the organs themselves. In assuming general responsibility for voice train- ing, phonology is doing no more than is claimed by coromon sense in the case of every other function of the human body. The case of the voice, however, differs in one par- ticular from others. Its use in organised speech is a faculty acquired enticely by education. It is quite justifiable to say that defects in the speaking voice can only be due to (1) organic causes — e.g. malformations, etc. ; (2) neglect of errors that might have been corrected ; or (3) direct misinstruction. Of these the first cause is very rare in comparison with the others, and the educational obligation is therefore obvious. In all matters of public health true scientific PHONOLOGY AND PHONETICS 3 prinpiples have to be carefully applied, and in tke department of pubKc education it is not possible to neglect the phonological principles upon which the faculty of speech must be developed in the schools. It is not necessary to point out any further the importance of a real knowledge of the voice in all branches of oral education, and it has become impera- tive that a properly fotmded scientific basis should be established in order to provide teachers of aU kinds with both certainty and uniformity in their methods. The study of phonetics cannot be regarded as sufficient for the needs of the voice. The iavestigation of the sounds of speech and their reference to a phonetic alphabet no doubt greatly facilitate the correct pro- nunciation of languages, but they cannot reach any of the problems which underKe the actual development of the voice as a natural sounding instrument. Phonetic and phonological inquiry actually meet in the sounds of language, but while the former fixes the sound by comparing it with others of a similar nature, it is left to the latter to determine its constitution as a sound, and to show how the organs produce it. In phonology we have first to take the accepted phonetic form of any sound of speech, and then we have not only to observe the action of the organs that make it, but to satisfy ourselves that the principles of sound, and the natural behaviour of the organs, are properly apphed to it. We go so far as to indicate how a particular sound should be produced when we are able to show at the same time the phonological reason for it. In fact, 4 THE VOICE every item of phonological teaching must be justified by some particular advantage to the organs themselves and to the sounds they produce. The general principles of the voice are now quite sufl&ciently well known to enable us to make definite suggestions as to the use of the organs in speaking and singing. As to the principles themselves, there is very Uttle that is not imderstood about them ; but in their application to vocal sound, owing to the difl&culties of examining and analysing the natural actions of the organs, there is stiU much minute work to be done, especially in the matter of their proper demonstration. But as soon as it is reahsed among educationists that phonology is in a position to direct them in this difficult branch of their work, and has even set up a definite standard of pronunciation for them to refer to, there will be greater inducement for scientific observers to take up this line of research. The position of phonological science with regard to education is that of a referee. It cannot be expected that teachers should be phonologists in the fuU sense, for they could liot all possess sufficient knowledge of the voice organs to study them minutely. Neverthe- less, it is impossible to direct the development of those organs with certainty by any method that is purely empirical, and since a rational basis actually exists, it can only be to the advantage of teachers to understand at least what phonological principles are, and how they are apphed to the organs with which they have so much to do. The practical object of phonology is to provide QUALIFICATION IN PHONOLOGY 5 teachers with the knowledge to enable them to under- stand the vocal principles they are to apply in their teaching of language, speech, ahd song. The hnguist, elocutionist, and musician can no longer be accepted as authorities upon vocal science. The phonologist must, therefore, be ready to accept the responsibiUty of that position, and also to acquaint himself with the practical details of phonetics, declama- tion, and music, so that he may be able to understand what the teachers really want to know, as well as the diflB.culties with which they have to contend. It is not necessary or even advisable that he should carry on the practical work of voice trainirig himself, except in so far as may be' necessary ia the training colleges and musical institutions, where the teachers to whom pubhc education is entrusted should be thoroughly equipped and qualified to follow their important professions. THE VOICE IN GENERAL In order to understand what the voice is, ,it will be necessary first to regard it in its purely physical form. There is no artificial instrument made in exact imitation of the human voice, but a single reed-pipe of a church organ is the nearest approach to it in principle, and will serve as an illustration of its general structure. That arrangement consists of — (1) A wind-chest, into which air is pumped by bellows. (2) A vibrator or reed, which produces vibrations, and is the source of sound. (3) A resonance chamber or resonator, which modifies the soimd by giving it particular quahties. The air pumped into the wind-chest is trying to escape — that is, it is under compression. Its only outlet is through the narrow sUt at the free edges of an elastic plate, forming what is known as a vibrator or ' reed.' The force of the escape causes this to oscillate in such a manner that its fine sHt is repeatedly opened and closed, and the air passes out in a rapid succession of minute pufis, and transmits to the surrounding air a regular series of undulations or sound-waves of the same frequency. The sound is thus produced by the PHYSICAL FORMATION 7 physical action of an elastic vibrator. But the air chamber or resonator with solid walls above the vibrator, hj virtue of its property of resonation, favours within it those vibrations which are adaptable to the dimen- sions of its hollow interior, and the vibrations of the ' reed ' are therefore rearranged before they reach the outer air. Those that suit the resonator are reinforced, and those that do not, are antagonised or suppressed. In the reed organ-pipe under consideration, the note ef the vibrator and the resonant note of the resonator are carefully tuned to suit one another. The analogy between this mechanism and the vocal instrument may now be traced as far as it goes. The lungs form the wind-chest. Air is drawn in and pressed out again in the process of ordinary breathing. When we wish to produce sound, the outward passage of the air is obstructed by drawing across the windpipe two elastic membranes — the vocal xjords — which form the ' vibrator ' or ' reed ' of our vocal mechanism. The immediate consequence of this action is that the elastic edges of the vocal cords oscillate, and a regular series of undulations is produced in the air by the rhythmically interrupted escape of pressure, and sound is emitted. Our analogy holds good so far. The force of air in the wind-chest of an organ acts upon the ' reed ' in exactly the same way as the force of breathing out acts upon the vocal cords. But the power we possess of vary- ing the force of the breath, and controlling the rate of vibration of the cords, giving to the vocal note a wide range of intensity and pitch, is not to be found in any artificial instrument. 8 THE VOICE When the note has been formed by the vibratory action of the vocal cords, the sound can only reach the outer air through the passages of the throat, mouth, and nose, which form the resonator. Here, again, the process is similar in principle to the organ-pipe. The sound becomes modified and receives certain qualities of tone and character according to the resonat- ing properties of those hollow spaces as determined by their size and shape. The power of changing to some extent the size, and in a great number of ways the shape, of the human resonator, gives to the voice its variations in tone and the numerous characteristic quahties of the sounds of language. The stationary artificial instrument in the church organ only represents one position of the resonator and a single note upon the vibrator, whereas in the voice we possess not only a breath force governed by the will and capable of dehcate variation, but also a vibrator performing notes of varied intensity extending to a compass of about two octaves or more, and a resonator expanding to enrich the sound, and introducing into it, by its great mobihty and change of shape, aU the characters of speech. The problem of resonation in the voice cannot escape being somewhat comphcated, for one arrangement of resonance chambers has to adapt itself to a compass of about two octaves of notes, and every different position of the resonator gives to the whole compass of notes a distinctive character. There are several wind instruments such as the flute, clarionet, oboe, etc., the pitch of whose note is produced by strong resonation controlling the vibrations TWO INSTRUMENTS 9 of a feeble reed. But in the voice tlie reed is strong and tile resonator comparatively weak, so that the vibrations of the reed always determine the pitch of the vocal note, and to the resonator is left the power of augmenting its harmonics only. Thus, whatever changes take place in our resonator, they do not influence the pitch of the vocal note, but only its quahty. While the voice can play a considerable number of notes upon the vocal ' reed,' it is capable of giving to each a multitude of different quahties, by means of changes in the resonator. The true conception of the voice is therefore simplified by the recognition of two definite instruments formed upon distinct acoustic principles, and performing separate functions, but still absolutely united into one organic whole, and we may therefore divide the study of the voice into the separate consideration of — (1) The Breath Force, . (2) The Vibrator or Vocal Cords, (3) The Resonator, before they are put together in their complete com- bination. At the very outset of our study we are met by an important fact, which we are bound to incorporate in the foundations of anything we may think or do in connection with the voice. It is that the vocal cords are mechanically unconscious in the performance of their function. They are not guided directly by the will, but indirectly by our mental perception of the 10 THE VOICE sound they make. We perceive a note in the mind, and produce it by an unconscious mechanism. Children born without proper sound-perception are unable to produce any sound at all, as is the case with deaf-mutes ; for whatever sounds they may be taught later, in order to make their voices audible, the natural function of the vocal cords is never properly awakened. People who have no ear for music are defective iu their per- ceptive faculty, and therefore cannot sing in tune, and it is impossible to find any mechanical means of putting the instrument right ; so that we are bound to admit that we possess no direct control over this instrument, and that we can only assist its development by practising the mental perceptions, and giving them every oppor- tunity to express themselves naturally in sound. With regard to the other factors in the voice, the breath force must always be directly conscious, for it is that consciousness which estabUshes control over the whole performance of the voice. The resonator also, which introduces into the sound .of the voice all the characters of language, is conscious in the first instance, but becomes only half conscious by the force of acquired habit. This is not the place for discussing how far the almost rmconscious imitative instinct directs the organs in learning to speak in childhood, but it is quite certain that the conscious control of the speech organs them- selves takes an important part in learning to pronounce a foreign language, and in all forms of adult voice improvement. Therefore the resonator must be re- garded as the instrument which most depends upon EDUCATIONAL ORDER 11 education, and the object of the teacher's particular care. The cultivation of the voice thus resolves itself into a threefold process, to be undertaken in the following order : — (1) The development of the capacity and conscious control of the breath. (2) The conscious estabhshment of well - arranged positions and movements of the resonator which are to become half-conscious habits of speech. (3) The free and unhampered use of the vocal vibrator in its natural relation to mental sound-perceptions and xmder the dominion of the breath. (1) The breath, which is the foimdation of the voice, naturally comes first, so that its capacity and the control of its output may be cultivated independently. ^ (2) That the resonator should follow next is made possible by the fact that the behaviour of the speech organs can be most clearly understood and securely guided in the whispering voice — that is, when acted upon by the breath only without any vocal note. In this way the principles of resonation are developed on their own merits. (3) Finally, the process is completed by introducing the natural action of the vibratory instrument in con- junction with the breath, guided, in the case of singing, by the highly cultivated sound-perceptions of the art of music. 12 THE .VOICE Such, is tlie phonological course of events in the cultivation of the voice, and it certainly shows how much more the process is regulated by physical and physiological considerations, than by any knowledge of the arts of elocution or music. This remark should be understood not so much as a condemnation of the present unqualified conditions of the voice-training profession, but as an encouragement to aU those who are thus occupied to realise the phonological needs of their situation, and to make themselves masters of scientific facts with a view to bringing stability and uniformity into their work. Phonological investigation shows more and more clearly that the cultivation of the breath and of the resonator forms the principal part of physical voice training. Indeed, it may be said to be practically the whole of it, since all that concerns the vocal cords belongs more to an automatic process, in which the general development of musical perceptions and their uncon- scious reproduction are the principal factors. It should not be thought that this conviction has been arrived at from the side of phonological science alone. One of our leading EngHsh singing masters ^ has quoted from his own teacher, Lamperti, a saying attributed to Pacchierotti, the great singer of the eighteenth century, which is absolutely in agreement with phono- logical ideas: 'Chi sa parlare e respirare, sa cantare.' ' He who knows how to speak and to breathe, knows how to sing,' is a statement which confirms in a striking manner the view that the greater part of voice training ' Wm. Shakespeare, The Art of Singing, part i. p. 24. PACCHIEKOTTI'S PEINCIPLE 13 is the cultivation of the breath and the resonator, and that the rest is left to the practice of natural facihties in the expression of musical art. This saying of Pacchierotti's not only supports our scientific conclusions, but also gives us good ground for thinking that the old ItaHan method of singing, which has been regarded as lost, is not lost at all, but has only been misunderstood. It must be remembered that Pacchierotti was speaking to Itahans, who enjoyed ip. his day a practical monopoly of singing. It would readily be admitted that an ItaKan, having learned how to make the most of the sounds of his mother-tongue, and also how to augment and control the forces of his breath, would be in the best possible condition to use his voice in the service of song. But it does not foUow, whatever the V0C9.I beauties of the Itahan language may be, that anyone who is not an ItaHan might acquire the same facihties by trying to sing in that language. ItaUans make a great deal of the sounds of their words, and it is very rare to find a foreigner speaking or singing them correctly with natural ease. Indeed, the same thing may be said of all languages, and it might take the greater part of a hfetime to make any language in which you were not brought up, so much your own as to become your natural means of expression ; and in the end there would probably be imperfections in its pronunciation which would not escape the ears of those to whom the language was native. This, then, would throw some doubt upon the possibihty of using any language other than your own mother-tongue as the foundation of an art which must be free and spontaneous 14 THE VOICE like that of singing. Therefore the saying of Pacchi- erotti must not be interpreted in the sense that if you learn to breathe and to speak Itahan (imperfectly) you •will know how to sing ; but it supports a much deeper and more widely appHcable principle — ^namely, that if you can breathe and speak your own native language, with the same appreciation of sound as the Itahans showed in their own speech, you may consider yourself well equipped for the higher flight, if your musical faculty will take you thither. This is certainly the true apphcation of Pacchierotti's principle, and whether we call it the old Italian tra,di- tion or not, the fact remains that if we wish to follow it in this coimtry, we shall have to associate with the development of our breathing the best possible form and quahty of Enghsh speech, in order to procure for whatever natural gift for song we may possess the freedom it demands. The same principle holds good in France, Germany, Russia, or anywhere, and may be regarded as the logical outcome of the best traditions of singing. There can be no doubt that the study of Itahan pronunciation, for the very reason that its sounds have been so carefully cherished, can be made very useful in the improvement of speech generally and of vowel- sounds in particular. But the transfer of Itahan vowel- sounds into another language could never be permitted, as it would give to it a foreign accent. The foreign accent with which nearly all singers sing the Enghsh language is due partly to the custom of dehberately teaching them to do this and partly PHONOLOGICAL PRONUNCIATION 15 to tlie imitation of foreign attempts at English vowel pronunciation. I do not wish to dwell too much upon this deplorable tradition, which robs Enghsh singing of so much of its excellence, and entirely unfits it for the operatic stage. I beheve it will disappear as soon as the pubhc and the singers become more conscious of the absurdity of it, and as soon as they reaUse that the perfect pronuncia- j„ tion of good Enghsh is for them the proper foundation for their natural vocal development. We are bound to admit that in many ways the Itahans have an advantage over us, as our language has diffi- culties which theirs has not, but it is an open question whether the French or German languages are any less difficult to those who are brought up in them than ours is to us. One thing is certain, namely, that if we learn to speak our own language beautifully, we are in a position to speak other languages also beautifully, as the same phonological principles of speech apply equally well to all. At the beginning of adult hfe, before which time it is neither safe nor advisable to train the singing voice, the speech organs have aheady estabhshed for themselves habits which are not easily altered. Forms of pro- nunciation can be changed and improved with a httle care, but the general habits of the voice are more deeply Tooted, and must therefore be respected as having become part of the acquired nature of the voice. Their unconsciousness makes them so. If, therefore, the voice is to remain natural, its powers of singing must be 16 THE VOICE built upon these, and not upon a foreign importation. A method of singing entirely different from the natural habits of speech betrays its manufactured character, and is usually devoid of sincerity. Whatever habits are phonologicaUy good should be carefully cultivated and improved ; and whatever are bad should be gradually counteracted in order that, at aU cost, the natural elements in the voice should not be interfered with. These considerations should lead to much greater care being bestowed upon the training of the speech organs of the young. Bad habits, such as glottic shocks and clenched teeth, are more easily eradicated in early hfe, or, better stiU, they might even remain unsuggested. Good models of pronunciation from the very first set their unmistakeable * hall mark ' upon the character of the voice which it is weUnigh impossible to imprint at a later period. As the perfection of speaking is to precede the development of singing, it is obvious that no distinction can be made between the two, except in so far as singing includes the additional performance of a musical phrase. The conditions imder which the voice is acting have to be taken into consideration. The ordinary sUpshod type of conversational language has no parallel in sing- ing, which is always more or less pohshed as regards its diction. The action of the speech organs in singing in a hall or upon the stage is identical with that required for public speaking or dramatic declamation under similar circumstances, and indeed the existence of a singer who INCOMPETENCE OE MUSIC ALONE 17 is not a speaker ought to be an impossibility. This may seem perhaps to be rather much to say, but there can be no doubt that if our speech organs were properly trained in the first instance in our youth, the whole process of teaching singing would be simphfied. In the great majority of cases the difficulties with which a singer has to contend are connected with the speech organs, and not with the vocal cords, and this accounts for the much too common vocal performance in which the notes are quite distinct but the words practically unintelhgible. This, after all, is the natural result of voice training by musicians who have only music as their qualification for teaching. As I have already insisted, music is the field in which the beauties of the voice are utihsed, and in which oppor- tunities are ofEered for its perfection in the art of expres- sion, but it has no more power to cultivate the voice than a great violinist would have to turn a bad instru- ment into a good one by constantly pla3mig upon it. Whereas we know quite well that a good mechanic might make the most beautiful violin ever heard, by really understanding its principles, but without ever being able to play a note. The same is true of the voice, and it would be possible to train up excellent vocal instruments without any reference to music at all. Phonology fully bears out the views of Pacchierotti in maintaining that he who can breathe and speak is more capable of becoming a great singer than the throaty unintelhgible person who may know all the Wagner operas by heart. THE BEEATH It is not necessary to enter into a detailed description of all tlie muscles involved ia the act of respiration. What is much more important to the speaker and singer is the sensation in his own body of a properly managed breath. For vocal purposes a deep breath and a strong control over it are what must be acquired ; for not only is it necessary to take in sufficient air to last for a prolonged period, but its exit has to be regulated so that in a long phrase the end may be as weU suppUed with force as the beginning, and, at any points within it, the appropriate accents may be given their due prominence. Under ordinary circumstances the breath is taken in easily and then let out quickly, after which follows a pause ; but in spealdng and singing the reverse is the case, for the breath must be taken in quickly and put out gradually, and there may be no opportunity for a pause before another breath has to be taken. It is also desirable that a considerable reserve of air should always be kept in the lungs, for much of the volume of the voice, as well as the control, is lost when the muscles of the chest are too much relaxed. Our natural frequency of breathiag is about fifteen PHYSICAL ACTION 19 times a minute, and in continuous singing and speaking the opportunities of taking breath occur very much less often, and an increased reserve ought to be kept up at the same time. An increased capacity becomes, '■ therefore, a vital necessity, or the speaker or singer would soon be in want of oxygen. It is also a most desirable acqmsition for other than vocal purposes, for the benefit to general health of the full expansion of the lungs can hardly be overestimated. It is best to study respiration in your own body, and to watch and feel carefully the movements which must be cultivated in order to obtain the maximum of breath and control with the minimum of effort. The lungs are completely enclosed within the ribs, and occupy the whole region of the chest, with the excep- tion of a small compartment in front and to the left, containing the heart, with which we are not concerned. All the lower part of the trunk uncovered by the ribs is the abdomen, containing the digestive organs, which is separated from the chest or thorax by a large muscular membrane, the diaphragm. This partition forms the , roof of the abdomen and the floor of the thorax, and bulges upwards into the latter, so that when ib is con- tracted, the floor of the chest is pulled downwards and forwards. In order to breathe we have to increase the capacity of the chest, and the air rushes in through the nostrils or mouth. There are two ways of doing this. One by raising the ribs, and the other by contracting and draw- ing down the diaphragm. The first of these expands the chest in its circumference, and the other extends 20 THE VOICE it downwards. Proper physiological breathing is the conjunction of both movements in due proportion. The upper ribs are not nearly so moveable as the lower Thjrioid cartilage Cricoid cartilage Trachea- C!ollar bone Breast bone •Thyro-hyoid membrane 'JPouch of the pharynx Stemo-thyroid muscle Bibs I to 10 and cartilages 6th inter- costal space (mazimam expansion) Fig. 1.— Front view of chest with ribs exposed, showing where movement of diaphragm is felt (epigastrium) when ribs are expanded. ones. In fact, the first and second can only be raised very httle, and that by a great efEort. The lower ribs, especially those which by means of their long flexible cartilages are attached to the lower end of the breast NORMAL BREATHING 21 bone, are much more easily raised, and their action has also more efiect, as they correspond to the widest part of the lungs. In tranquil breathing the upper part of Fia. 2. — Side view of chest and sec- tion of resonator in the position of ah, showing forward movement of upper part of abdomen (epi- gastrium) on contraction of dia- phragm with raised ribs< the chest remains almost still, while the lower part expands and the lower end of the breast bone advances. At the same time the diaphragm also descends a Uttle. This is the methpd adopted in sleep, and is the proper 22 THE VOICE way of obtaining the most air witli the least trouble. There is a difference between men and women in this respect, namely, that women use the upper ribs more, and the diaphragm less, than men ; but the rule with regard to singers of both sexes, and all who wish to increase their lung capacity, is the same. This may be stated as foUows : — Cultivate and develop the natural combination of costal and diaphragmatic breathing together, without' ever resorting to the extremes of either. When the lower ribs expand, it becomes possible to contract the diaphragm without causing injurious downward pressure upon the abdominal organs. The increase in the circumference of the chest, due to raising the lower ribs, also increases the circumference of the upper part of the abdomen, and the organs situated there may be pressed forwards by the diaphragm, without causing any distension of the lower part. When the diaphragm descends, the organs which are inmiediately under it must necessarily also move, as they are for the most part suspended from its under surface ; at the same time, its strong fibres (the pillars) attached to the spine, by their contraction, thrust the organs forwards. ^This accoimts for the bulging of the upper part of the abdomen in proper costal and diaphragmatic breathing, and must be carefuUy dis- tinguished from excessive ' abdominal ' breathing, which causes distension of the lower part of the abdomen due to pressure upon the intestines from above. The increased capacity of the lungs to be acquired by the singer must confine itself to the increased expan- CENTRAL BREATHING 23 sion of the lower ribs, and tlie proportionately increased contraction of the diaphragm, in imitation of ordinary physiological breathing, only on a larger scale. This form of breathing is called ' central ' to distingtiish it from other forms, such as ' costal/ which is too high, and * abdominal,' which is too low. The greatest expansion takes place just below the lower end of the breast bone, and to that spot the attention must be drawn when practising breathing. It is a help to place the hand across the arch formed by the ribs, or rather their cartilages, in front. On breathing deeply the arch widens, and the abdominal wall within it bulges forwards (see Figs. 1 an^ 2), while the upper part of the chest and shoulders, and the lower part of the abdomen, hardly move. The best exercises are those which gradually increase the power of the respiratory muscles without straining, and should be slow, even, and rhythmic. As it is essential that respiration should be carried on without interfering with other movements of the body, I would advocate free movement while exercising. It is more likely to make the breathing unconscious, and prevent the stifEness which is so often the singer's ruin both on and off the stage. The simple act of walking supplies a convenient rhythm to regulate the breathing by. All breathing exercises undertaken for the practice of breathing alone should be through the nose and with the lips closed. At the same time the head and neck are to be held erect and the back straight, but entirely free from any stiffness of the Umbs or clenching of the teeth ; it must be possible to move the arms and legs, 24 THE VOICE and even rotate the head if necessary. The eyes should look level and the whole aspect of the face entirely un- concerned, so that if these exercises were carried on at any time before a crowd of people, they could not possibly be detected. It is convenient, at first, to pass a tape round the body at the ' central ' level between the sixth and seventh ribs, which crosses over in front just below the tip of the breast bone. This is the cir- cumference where the most expansion is to take place, and there is to be no raising of the shoulders nor drawing of the ribs up too high, nor is there to be any distension of the lower abdomen below the belt. Counting either by the swing of the pendulum or steps taken in walking, this central circumference must be expanded slowly from a position of rest, during, let us say, three seconds. The expansion should be main- tained for a similar period, and during another three seconds allowed to return to a state of rest. This may then be followed by three seconds' rest. Such a cycle, lasting twelve seconds, requires deep breathing, since it would mean only five breaths per minute — ^that is, only a third of what occurs in ordinary shallow breath- ing. If any difficidty is experienced in maintaining this rate of breathing for, let us say, a period of ten minutes, it is advisable to leave out the period of rest and begin a fresh breath immediately after the output. It is far better for practice to continue a range of breathing which is well within the limits of capacity. On no account are records to be attempted. When three seconds for each part of the cycle have been practised twice daily for ten minutes, and found to be well BREATH CONTROL 25 within the powers of the breather, an advance may be made to four seconds for every part of the cycle, and so on until five, six, seven, or eight seconds are attained. In ordinary brisk walking two steps occupy about a second. In this, form of breathing the whole chest is allowed to expand and return to a position of rest, but great care must be exercised in order to maintain the maximum expansion at the ' central ' level, and to avoid distension below the waistband. We may now consider how the force acquired by taking a deep breath in the manner described may be best used in the service of the voice. What we desire is the power of making a clear attack of any strength, of giving any required emphasis, of sustaining and varying at wiU any length of phrase. All this will depend upon the control of the forces of breathing out, which regulate the pressure of the air in the chest. We must consider, first, what these forces are before we decide what to do with them. The lungs are extremely elastic, and when they have been filled with air they are quite ready to expel it again, in the same way that an indiarubber air-ball would do. The elastic recoil of the lungs is, therefore, the first part of the force we employ. The diaphragm contracts to draw breath in and relaxes to allow the breath to escape again, but it takes no active part in breathing out, except in determining when and how slowly it will cease to contract and yield to opposing forces. These forces are the elastic recoil of the lungs above referred to and the contraction of the 26 THE VOICE abdominal muscles, which, by pressing on the abdominal contents, lift the diaphragm up into the chest from below. The ribs and their cartilages are also elastic and springy. When the muscles that raise them are relaxed, the principal expiratory force that first comes into action is the elastic recoil of the chest wall itself, as well as of the lungs beneath it. This is followed by the action of the muscles that draw the ribs down and thus further expel the air from the chest. Thus we may consider four forces in the act of breathing out : (2) SraotionSdominal muscles j ^^^ ^''^ diaphragm relaxes. /nv mi 1- -i . 1. i 11 J 1 fWhen the muscles that raise the (3) Elasticity of chest wall and lungs < ., . (4) Muscular depression of ribs. When all these forces act at once the air can be rapidly driven out, as we reahse in a deep sigh. But in using the voice we have to learn to control them, so that the air shall pass out with whatever force we elect. If we attempt to control them aU at once the process wiU require most restraint at the beginning, followed by a general relaxation of the chest at the end of a phrase. The principal danger of this would be, that the attack would be liable to be too strong, and the end of the phrase too weak or uncontrolled, which is a very common fault in speaking and singing. ^ This danger is avoided by learning to use the breath forces one by one. After a full ' central ' breath has been taken the diaphragm may be relaxed alone, so that the first air is RESEKVE 27 driven out by the elastic recoil of the lungs, when the diaphragm is relaxed. This force is, strongest when the lungs are fully expanded, and requires no positive muscular efEort. This is followed and supplemented by the con- traction of the abdominal muscles, especially those within the arch of the ribs in front — that is, above and not below the waist. By this action the diaphragm may be lifted back to its uncontracted position in the chest, before the ribs are allowed to move. The action of the abdominal muscles may possibly draw the lower ribs down to some extent, but the intention is that the chest should remain expanded until the diaphragm is replaced. Then follows the relaxation of the ribs, which is felt principally in the region of the lower and most moveable ones, at the side of the chest, which are also drawn down by the abdominal muscles. Finally, the emptying of the limgs might be com- pleted by the muscular depression of the ribs. It has been found, however, that when there is a fair lung capacity the final depression of the ribs may be dispensed with, and the elasticity of the lungs, assisted by the abdominal muscles, and some relaxation of the lower ribs, can supply all the force required for the voice, while the ribs remain in a raised position. The maiatenance of raised ribs when using the voice becomes a habit causing no more exertion than simply standing up straight, and it has several important advantages. It keeps in the lungs a reserve of air which not only 28 THE VOICE delays want of breath, but by its volume helps to equahse the air pressure, and therefore promotes steady continuity in the vocal note. The increased rigidity of the chest walls also assists in keeping up the pitch of the vocal note. The expansion is always ready to diminish the force of the breath by expanding a little more when very particular control has to be exercised. Another important point is that the expanded chest is associated with the open throat and expanded neck, which gives to the voice its fully rich quaUty. This form of breathing is advocated here on the strength of the phonological advantages enumeirated, but it is also supported by practical experience. The question of breathing has been the subject of much controversy and misunderstanding, owing in great measure to the use of physiological terms by those who have not fully understood their meaning. Bilt while it must be admitted that some writers have favoured an excessive use of the diaphragm, and others an ex- clusive use of the ribs, the practice of good singers has been universally to get as much breath as possible by all the means in their power — ^that is, by a free use of the ribs and diaphragm as prompted by instinct, in spite of what masters may have written. Good central expansion is quite common among, men, both those who have and have not been taught to breathe. But among women there is a natural tendency towards costal or rib breathing, and it is quite common to meet with cases in which the diaphragm is hardly used at all. It is therefore obvious that, as a rule, men find it PERMANENT EXPANSION 29 easier to establish their breath control by maintaining an expanded thorax. Their tendency is more Hkely to be an excessive use of the diaphragm without raising the ribs enough. On the other hand, when women take a deep breath they almost invariably raise the ribs too high, with the result that when a note is attacked the ribs are seen to fall immediately. This is a sign which must always be watched carefully, because it some- times means that the ribs are being relaxed while the diaphragm is still contracted — ^an action which cannot be too strongly condemned, on account of the undue pressure then exerted upon the abdominal organs. When the diaphragm is relaxed, while the ribs are held up, the waist measurement becomes less and less. This should always happen, therefore, during the con- tinuation of the sound. The diaphragm jdelds to the abdominal contraction, and only shght pressure comes upon the abdominal contents. But if the ribs relax before the diaphragm, the whole abdomen bulges down- wards, and if the abdominal muscles also contract, the organs are severely compressed on aU sides without any profit to the act of breathing. Any sense of tighten- ing of the belt or waistband while sounding the voice must be immediately corrected, since it is injurious to the health as well as to the vocal sound, as we shall see later on. When the diaphragm acts only feebly, it requires a considerable amount of time, patience, and practice before sufficient breath can be acquired to allow the costal air to be held in reserve. The falhng of the ribs at the moment of the attack is a sign of breath 30 THE VOICE insufficiency, which may be noticed even in some quite successful singers. The early collapse of the chest .leads generally to dropping the sound at the end of phrases and gasping for breath in the pauses, two very common defects in both speaking and singing. The second form of breathing here suggested to be practised is, therefore,'that which especially exercises the control over the output of the breath. The chest is to be fully expanded by raising the ribs in such a way that the principal increase takes place at the ' central ' level. When the action is of the ribs alone without the dia- phragm, the abdomen falls in so that the clothes and the belt become quite loose. The diaphragm is then allowed to descend until the normal feeling of the belt is restored and no more, and the central diameter increased by some swelling of the extreme upper part of the abdomen within the angle of the ribs in front (epigastrium). Having in this way taken a full breath during a period of three seconds, and having held it for a similar period, the abdominal muscles replace the diaphragm, while the ribs remain expanded and the clothes and the belt become loose again as in the position from which we started. It is well to prolong the last part of this action to, let us say, six seconds. During this exercise the ribs remain unmoved in an expanded position ; the upper part of the abdomen and the lower ribs alone take part in the movement. At the end of breathing out there is considerable depression of the upper part of the abdomen, while the margins of the ribs still project. The maintenance of the expanded ribs requires some Uttle effort from those who are unaccustomed to EXEECISE OF CONTEOL 31 it, and in the course of five minutes a certain amount of ache will be felt round the chest and under the shoulder blades. This is not injurious, and merely indicates that the bases of the lungs have not habitually enjoyed their full expansion. If the complete cycle first practised should take twelve seconds it may be gradually increased to thirty, but no straining should ever be employed. This exercise can be modified by omitting the period during which the breath is held, and prolonging the period of output. The maintenance of an expanded chest in this form of breathing becomes a habit of position rather than part of ' taking a deep breath,' and this is an important point in the idea of breath control. When the ribs are held up by a muscular action not necessarily associated with the feeUng of taking a deep breath, the thought of breathing out does not disturb them, and they remain in their raised position independently and not confused with the act of breathing. When practising breathing out, strict attention has to be paid to this, because the raised ribs seem to antagonise the action. In reality they do antagonise the action, with the efiect that a large volume of air is held in reserve which need never be used for soimding purposes if the remainder of the expiratory action is sufficiently developed. The element of control which is introduced by this antagonis- ing action of the expanded ribs enables us to regulate the air pressure, during phonation, with great nicety. Anyone who is about to speak or sing in pubHc would then naturally assume the position of rib expansion beforehand, and maintain it throughout. A warning, 32 THE VOICE however, must be issued : the shoulders must be absolutely loose, and the expansion should concern the level of the sixth and seventh ribs, and not be merely a thrusting forward of the upper part of the chest. In men the sensation is that of an expansion just above the pockets of the waistcoat ; in women the position is that which frees the body from the tightness of the waistband. In all cases the expansion takes place laterally as much as forwards. In practising breathing there must be as little noise as possible — ^that is to say, the whole extent of the air passages must be free from any kind of contraction or obstruction. The breath must never be held by any stoppage of the throat. This device is detected by the slight cKck which would occur on releasing the breath. It is often iastructive to measure the breath capacity by means of a ' spirometer,' but a master who is practi- cally engaged with voices has plenty of opportunities of noticing by other means when that factor is deficient. But shortness of breath in phrasing may also be due to not using the breath sufficiently, or to wasting it, and it is well to find out by definite measurement if such is the case. The apparatus in the form of a ' gasometer ' is the most accurate. All the rotating machines are subject to error. An apparatus has been constructed, called a ' spiro- dynameter,' which indicates the force used in the breath within the ordinary hmits of the voice. It consists of a long glass vessel of water, measiued by a scale in inches, in which is suspended by a pulley a SPIRO-DYNAMETER 33 glass tube with a T piece at the top. Through a mouth- ®»^§j^ve Fm. 3. — Diagram of spiro-dynameter. piece and an indiarubber tube the breath is passed to one arm of the T, while to the other arm is fixed a valve 34 THE VOICE wliicli can be regulated by a screw. Wben the valve is closed the whole breath must pass down the tube and out at the bottom through the column of water at any required depth, shown in inches upon the scale, up to twenty inches. When the valve is shghtly open the breath escapes through it, and the air pressure is shown upon the scale by the length of the column of water displaced downwards and replaced by air in the tube. This simple mechanical contrivance is useful in demonstrating how the breath pressure is made even and continuous, and also how it can be accurately varied and controlled. The time in seconds is con- veniently counted by a stop-watch or a metronome at 60. THE RESONATOB Between the vocal cords and the Ups and nostrils there are certain, hollow passages which, by reason of their property of resonation, exert a strong influence upon the sound which passes through them. These hoUow spaces form for us a resonator, which stands in precisely the same relation to the vocal cords as the resonator of a reed-pipe does to its reed or vibrator. We shall examine it here by itseK — ^that is, in its independent capacity as a resonator, without any source of vibration being introduced other than a simple stream of breath. With regard to resonation in general, it wiU be enough for our present purposes to know that every hollow space has two main features — size and shape. The size has a definite relation to the length of the sound- wave or vibration that will oscillate within it, and therefore fixes, in a general sense, the pitch of the particular note suited to it, which is called the primary resonant note. The shape by a more complex infiuence determines the character or composition of the resonant note. AU such hollow resonators must necessarily be in conamunication with the air, and another factor 36 THE VOICE affecting both the pitch and character of the resonant note is the number and size of the openings. In every resonator, then, we have to consider these points : the size and shape of the hollow space within it, and the size and shape of its openings. In the human body the resonator, consisting of the hollow spaces contained in the neck, mouth, and nose, varies in size according to individual build, and is, as a rule, larger in men than in women, and in children smaller than in either. Among adults of the same sex the differences are not very great, but that between the sexes is generally marked. The shape of the resonator is roughly the same in all human beings, and its orifices are in proportion. In my description of the resonator I do not wish to go into anatomical details more than I can help. A closer study of the anatomy should be sought in the general text-books. The general cavity of the neck is formed principally by the pharynx, the lower front portion being occupied by the larynx, which contains the vocal cords. The shape is somewhat hke a bag, i.e. wide below, where it includes the larynx, the pharyngeal space behind it, and two pear-shaped pouches on either side, and narrow above, where it is reduced by the tonsils and the base of the tongue to an oval opening into the mouth. Having been vertical in the neck the resonator becomes horizontal in the mouth, its direction bending at a right angle round the base of the tongue towards the Ups. Directly above the pharyngeal opening is the passage to the nose guarded by the soft patoe. THE RESONATING SPACES 37 The size and shape of the mouth cavity depends chiefly upon the position of the jaw and tongue. When the jaw is moderately open, and the tongue lyiag flat within the boundary of the lower teeth, it is somewhat hemispherical, expanding considerably into the cheeks and arch of the hard palate, and contracting again towards the Ups. The nose commimioates with the back of the mouth by a broad flat opening between the soft palate and the bones of the skull. It is a tent-shaped cavity divided into two by a vertical partition, and opening iu front at the nostrils. The nose is not capable of any change of shape, being composed principally of bone, and should be regarded as an accessory resonator, the influence of which is made prominent only occasionally. The resonator proper is thus composed of two prin- cipal hollow spaces, one m the neck and one in the mouth, communicating with one another through an oval opening between the tonsils and behind the base of the tongue. The cavity in the neck is capable of a certain amount of enlargement downwards, by drawing upon the larynx from below by the action of the stemo-thyroid muscles. The same action also draws the larynx forwards, so that the pharyngeal space behind it and the pear-shaped pouches on each side of it are enlarged. This action is quite distinct from that of the sterno- hyoid muscles, which draw down the base of the tongue and press down the larynx from above. The sterno-thyroids do not pull upon the base of 38 THE VOICE the tongue until the membrane (thyro-hyoid) between the thyroid cartilage and hyoid bone has been fully stretched, and thus a considerable amount of expansion of the lower part of the resonator is afiected without hampering the freedom of the base of the tongue. It must, however, be remembered that this muscular action is not altogether a conscious one which can be directed by an ordinary efiort of the will, but it is intimately associated with the sense of expansion in the chest, and becomes as such a permanent factor in the general position of the resonator, when the maximxmi of resona- tion is required. The cavity of the mouth or upper portion of the resonator acts under very difierent conditions. The Ups, the tip of the tongue, and the jaw are directly subject to the will, and can be placed and moved with accuracy in whatever way we wish. The extreme mobihty of these organs, and the rapid manner in which the mouth cavity can be altered by their action, naturally brings the fimction of articula- tion into this region. Therefore, in order to study and examine any position of the mouth cavity, it is all the more necessary to definitely state what the positions of these organs are to be before proceeding with the investigation, as otherwise we should not be entitled to speak of any particular shape of the mouth cavity itself. It has been acknowledged by all physiologists that the position of the resonator in the pronimciation of the vowel-sound ah should be regarded as the starting- point whence aU the positions of other vowels may be THE VOWEL-SOUND 'AH' 39 said to be difierentiated. In the vowel ah the whole resonator is in a comfortable open position, but in order to be scientifically accurate it is necessary to define as closely as possible the positions of all organs which take part in its formation. The neglect of this particular precaution has led to an extraordinary amount of disagreement and misunderstanding among those who have investigated this question hitherto. It should be imderstood, therefore, that when the soimd ah is mentioned in these pages the following position of the organs has been prescribed : — The jaw open so that the front teeth are at least one inch apart. The tongue flat upon the floor of the mouth, with its tip and margin touching the inner surfaces of the lower teeth. The lips at rest upon the teeth and not retracted. The soft palate raised enough to obstruct the passage to the nose. The head and neck erect and the chest expanded. The larynx drawn down by the stemo-thyroids (as described above) in association with the expanded chest. In this position the two principal cavities of the resonator are expanded and open to their full extent without effort, and the breath passes freely out through them without any sound or sense of obstriiction. It is principally a position of rest, except as regards the soft palate, which directs the breath through the mouth by closing, or nearly so, the way into the nose. The jaw hangs loosely without any straining, and the tongue lies 40 THE VOICE flat in its forward position without any sense of con- traction or pulling, and the lips simply follow the jaw without any action of their own. The erect position of the head, the chest expansion, and the associated action of the stemo-thyroid muscles are grouped Fio. 4. — Side and front view of the posifion of the vowel-sound ah. together in the common sensation of wide expansion of the lower part of the neck, which frees the breath from all obstruction there. In the selection of this position of the vowel-sound ah I have been guided not only by the thought of phonological perfection, but also by the experience of a great number of examples, and I believe that it fairly THE VOWEL-SOUND 'AH' 41 represents a normal and natural sound which would be acceptable to anyone. I must, however, point out that it does not include any forcible depression of the tongue, and my object has been to secure a forward land flat position of the tongue with an open throat and an expanded resonance chamber in the neck, and to pre- vent the tendency to obtain an increased mouth cavity by tongue depression, on account of the constriction of the throat and the compression of the neck cavity which occur in consequence of that action. The expansion of the neck chamber by drawing down the whole larynx from below by means of the stemo-thyroid muscles and the stretching of the thyro-hyoid membrane, also draws down the base of the tongue to some extent, but that is a very difierent thing from the depression of the base of the tongue as generally practised without the corresponding expansion of the cavity of the neck. This very technical detail is of great phonological importance, because, as we shall see later, much of the proper action of the resonator depends upon the equality and similarity, or the definite inter-relation, of these two principal cavities, and the expansion of one at the expense' of the other is therefore to be discountenanced. There is also another reason why the base of the tongue should not be hampered by any muscular con- traction. The articulation of language depends so much upon the freedom of the body and tip of the tongue that any interference with its mobihty is often the cause of indistinct pronunciation. Thus we select the position of ah with a view to maintaining equahty 42 THE VOICE between the cavities of the mouth and of the neck, and giving the greatest freedom to the movements of the tongue. The resonant properties of hollow spaces are usually investigated by passing a current of air through them or across them in such a way that the particular sound which is called the resonant note is made audible. The resonant note is the result of the oscillations of the air which take place between the walls of the hollow space, and is therefore most distinct when the walls are regular in form, and it has a pitch in proportion to the size of the space and a character in accordance with its shape. The pitch and quahty of the resonant note is also affected by the size and the shape of the orifices. Speaking, therefore, of resonators in general, it is certain that the resonant notes are lowered in pitch both by enlarging their capacity and by diminishing their orifices, and that their resonant character is altered by varying their shape. It is from this property of varying the character of the resonant notes belonging to the hollow spaces of the resonator that we derive bhe power of making the vowel-sounds which form the basis of human language. Therefore, if we would tmderstand the true nature of speech, it is our duty to examine these very minutely. The problems involved are undoubtedly complex, but they can be reduced to a sufficiently simple form for the purpose of practical appHcation, and, with that in view, I have designed what is called the Resonator Scale, The resonant note of the vowel-sound ah, forming RESONATION IN GENERAL 43 the basis of this Resonator Scale, claims our first atten- tion. In the position which I have aheady defined, the resonator is double — ^that is, composed of two cavities. The shape of the expanded neck, the natural narrowing in the throat, the hemispherical shape of the mouth cavity, and their position at right angles to one another, all tend to divide th^ resonant vibrations into two. A phonological proof of this arrangement can be demonstrated by passing, through the mouth into the throat, a vibrating tuning-fork, tuned to the same pitch as the audible resonant note. On arriving at a spot where the two chambers meet, a strong reinforce- ment of the sound occurs, which reveals the existence of what is called a ' nodal point ' or meeting-place of two systems of vibrations. This ' node ' exists when the cavity of the neck is expanded and the tongue Ues forward in the mouth, and signifies an agreement between the resonant properties of the two cavities in that position. The ordinary way of demonstrating the resonant note is by breathing out strongly when the organs are in position. This is in reahty a soft form of whisper- ing, without any of that constriction of the throat which often occurs in the effort to make whispering more audible. I would remind the reader that when speaking of whispering it is not intended that there should be any such constriction of the throat, but that the sound should be made by the force of the breath only, with the throat wide open. Breathing strongly through the prescribed position of ah we shall hear a sound which not only satisfies our ear as characteristic of the vowel that we know well in 44 THE VOICE language, but also with a little practice we shall detect a note possessing a distinct pitch. fBy an efiort of further expanding the chest without disturbing the forward position of the tongue a distinct lowering of the note will be heard. On the other hand, when no definite expansion is exercised the resonant note becomes distinctly higher in pitch. It is ia this way that a deeper or hghter quaUty can be given to a vowel- sound without interfering with the true character of the vowel itself. As in all natural processes it is not advis- able to deal with extremes, so we shall consider as the normal resonant note that which is obtained by a fair measure of expansion. Subject to these conditions, it is commonly found that the resonant note of the vowel- sound ah has among men the pitch of c", which signifies in music the note on the third space of the treble clef. The power of varying it does not extend to more than a semitone downwards and two or three semitones upwards. Among women, however, whose resonators are naturally smaller, the average pitch of this vowel- soimd is usually e" flat — ^that is, about a minor third higher — with similar powers of variation. Among children it is higher still. This is simply due to the fact that the resonant note agrees with the natural size of the resonant spaces. I regret to be obUged to mention that the great physiologist Helmholtz ^ beheved the pitch of this resonant note to be the same ' in men, women, and children.' I can only attribute this error to the use of artificial aids to hearing, and not trusting to the sensitive- 1 Helmholtz, Seneationt of Tone, pait i. chap. v. p. 7. EESONANT PITCH OF VOWELS 45 ness of the ear alone. I have invariably met with not only the difierences between the sexes above described, but also the subtler difierences between individuals of the same sex proportionate to the actual measurements of the cavities in their necks and mouths. Having thus established in each individual this basic resonance of the vowel ah, we derive all the other vowel sovinds from it by similar actions. These actions ■Ee (T o ^ > O 4a ns XtJ3 m B -n l). •s II •SI ja M nis' K "TJ >s iVJ^ J|2 3 ~iBT iL. ^ ^ja with a free passage for the breath through an open throat and mouth, and is directed in the first instance to the acquisition of good positions for the vowel-sounds. With these are then associated free and agile movements for the various consonants before and after the vowels, with no other impediment to the continuity of breath than that which they involve. The general principles which can be apphed to vowel positions are — (1) That the jaw should remain open for all vowel- soimds, thus relying upon the hps and the tongue for the various modifications of there shape. (2) That all the positions must be definite and capable of being held stationary, that is, they must not be positions to which the organs spring and immediately retire from. (For instance, the oo position requires that the 76 THE VOICE lips shall be held stiU, no matter what the breath may be doing, for any length of time. The same must be said of the tongue in the extreme ee position.) (3) The normal position of the resonator as a soimd- ing instrument being considered as open, the consonants, being complete or partial closures of the resonator at various points, are all methods of opening or closing the vowel positions. (4) The sensation associated with all vowels and most of the consonants is that they are formed in the extreme front of the mouth. Most people, when they first attempt to make good vowel-sounds, discover that they have not been in the habit of opening the jaw sufficiently, especially in the positions ee and oo, at the two extremes of the Eesonator Scale. Attention, therefore, should first be given to the position of ah, which has abeady been defined, and the same opening of the jaw maintained for all the other vowels. The open jaw, the unconcerned Ups, the forward flat tongue can be watched in a hand-mirror. Further back than that, conscious voluntary move- ments cannot well be directed, and we are obHged to judge more by indirect means. If when the tongue is forward there is still some constriction of the throat, it may be removed by breath- ing in and out absolutely noiselessly. The soft sound required in a good whisper is produced by a strong TUNING THE VOWELS 77 outbreath, and not by any constriction of the throat. -The sensation is then that its sound comes from low down. It is not advisable to direct the attention of the student to the palate. The xmconscious way of raising the palate is by reaUsing that no passage of air takes place through the nose, and that it passes out freely through the mouth. In a properly whispered ah the sensation is that the breath is emitted and meets with no interference until it reaches the teeth. It is blown by the force of the breath right into the front of the mouth, and the more the attention of the student is directed to this region, the less likely are unfortunate contractions of the throat to occur. It should be borne in mind that we are trying to acquire the best soimding ah with as little effort as possible. It is, however, necessary that the head and neck should be erect and the chest expanded, as directed in the second form of breathing, that being the most advantageous to resonation. The pronunciation of ah as in ' father,' formed in this way, will give a definite resonant note when we breathe out in the manner prescribed. This note must in each case form the basis of the Kesonator Scale for that particular person, the average among men being c" and c" sharp and among women e" flat and e*. By breathing out through this position we can tune the resonant pitch a fifth downwards by rounding and bringing forwards the hps without moving the jaw or the tip of the tongue. We obtain in this manner a satisfactory position for oo. Arresting the action of 78 THE VOICE the lips halfway between the two, the sound or=aw is determined and the full oh, and the Hght 6 find their positions below and above it. With a Kttle practice the five notes of the scale will be readily heard in breathing out through the positions : V 11 III IV Average ~y : Man's j^y- Voice. W- =i= =P±: i22r 00 oh aw ah hoot hope hawk hot harp All that we have to concern ourselves with in practice is that the jaw should remain open and the tongue forward, and that the orifice at the Hps should be regulated without hesitation to these five positions. The same breathing conditions apply equally to all. This is what takes place ia those vowel-sounds which depend for their character upon the changes at the Ups ; in the others the lips remain stationary and the changes are effected by the tongue alone. Returning now to the position of ah while maintairi- ing an open jaw, if necessary with a prop of wood an inch long between the teeth, the position for ee, with the tip of the tongue behind the lower teeth and the body of the tongue well up towards the front of the roof of the mouth, will be heard to raise the pitch of ah up to an octave higher. When the breathing directions are properly followed and the throat remains open, the deep resonance in the neck can be made audible by tapping it hghtly with the finger, or pencil, or it is still better heard by the pupil by stopping the ears. "V^Tiile TUNING THE VOWELS 79 the front resonance goes up an octave the back resonance falls a fifth. When first deahng with the resonances it not in- frequently happens that the ah position contains some depression of the base of the tongue, and gives therefore a deeper resonance than is natural to it. This may not (a) (3> Pig. 7. — (a) Relative positions of lips in pronouncing the vowel-sounds A. = ah, = aw, and V — oo. (6) Relative positions of tongue in pronouncing the vowel-sounds A = ah, er, E = e^, and I = ee with an open jaw. be discovered during the determination of the positions of 00 and the others lower on the scale, because the unduly enlarged mouth cavity is affected by the lip closing in them all ahke. But when the tongue depres- sion is made to give way by the necessity of coming right forward to form the ee with an open jaw, the back cavity in the neck may then be found to be smaller than was expected, and the back resonance will not 80 THE VOICE fall so much as a fifth. This indicates that the resonance of ah is likely to be naturally higher (e* natural if in a woman or c" sharp if in a man), and the change can be verified by securing a flatter and more forward position of the tongue and a lighter, imrestrained character in this vowel-sound. To find the position for eh in which the tongue is not so far forward wiU not then be difficult, and the dull i va. ' hit/ which is between the two, and the short e as iu * head,' which is immediately below eh, can be placed so that in breathing through the five positions. Average Man i^ ^ ah heart IX =^= head XI eh hate hit XII 4 heat we hear the resonant notes rising first a fifth and then continuing, note by note, the remainder of the scale to the octave. By tapping on the neck or stopping the ears, there can be demonstrated the corresponding fall in pitch of the back hollow of the resonator down to a fifth below. The middle portion of the Eesonator Scale between ah and e as in ' head ' contains three sounds which are not very satisfactorily resonated, and therefore not so easy to fix upon the scale. When, however, the jaw remains open and the tongue is kept forward in the mouth, the three positions for the sounds, & as in ' up,' PRACTICE OF VOWEL POSITIONS 81 er as hx ' earth/ and a as in ' hat/ will be found to lie upon resonant notes within this interval. The resonant pitch of the position of er is in the middle, that of up, and the sounds aUied to it, between er and ah. The pitch of a in ' hat ' is between er and e (head), but if anything nearer to the latter. The sound is very variable, but must be kept within the limits indicated. Man m $ Average Jf fj- VI VU VIII IX I I ^PE^ ah u er a e bard hat herd had head Thus we have filled the twelve places upon the Resonator Scale, starting with No. V and forming the lower members down to No. I by positions of the Hps, and then starting again with No. V and securing the upper members up to XII by positions of the tongue. If there is any tendency to close the jaw, the wooden prop between the teeth may be used to prevent it until the necessary free movements of the hps an4 of the tongue have been acquired. Then the prop may be dispensed with. (See Table, p. 53.) If the pupU should be worried by the prop in the first instance, some consolation may be derived from the thought that this was probably the device made use of by Demosthenes, only he is reported to have used a pebble. Definite regular practice should be undertaken of vowel-sounds both alone and in connection with the various consonants. For this purpose it is better to take 82 THE VOICE the five principal vowel-sounds — at first with the aspirate H — Hoo Haw Hah Heh Hee and practise them in their relation to Uah, thus — Hah-Hoo Hah-Haw Hah-Hah Hah-Heh Hah-Hee carefully noting the change in resonant pitch in passing from Rah to each in succession, (Ex. p. 87.) The transition from the aspirated Hah to the xm- aspirated ah is somewhat subtle in the whispering voice. The difference is not in the strength of the breath only, but the additional sound of H is caused by the increased obstruction in the larynx, due to a shght further adduc- tion of the vocal cords, associated with a stronger breath. In the above exercise there are two aspirates to each breath and a double puff is required, but in Hah-oo Hah-aw Hah-ah Hah-eh Hah-ee the breath is continuous and even, and Hah-ah is necessarily one sound. The unaspirated sounds — Ah-oo Ah-aw Ah-ah Ai-eh Ai-ee may then be practised, great care being taken that no chck or ' glottic shock ' is allowed to precede them. To guard against this prominent evil I prefer to use the H in the exercises for common use. For H may then be substituted in turn the following consonants — L, N, T, D, B, PEACTICE WITH CONSONANTS 83 which, as they concern the tongue only, require Httle or no closure of the jaw. Then follow those of the Kps — M, P, B. in which the jaw is partly closed for the "fconsonant, but opens fully again for the vowel. The tongue remains at rest with its tip against the lower teeth. The Up, tongue, and teeth aspirates — F, TH, S,- SH, CH, and their corresponding sounding continuants — V, TH, Z, (soft) J, DG, should follow next, and since they aU include some closure of the jaw they must be followed by a brisk opening to the vowel position. I intentionally exclude from the practice the con- sonants K, G, NG, since they involve an action at the back of the mouth which constitutes one of the principal faults in diction which have to be counteracted. When the extremely far forward positions of the other consonants have been thoroughly acquired they may, however, be practised with impunity. The notes of the resonant pitch in the above exercise descending a fifth, a third, and then ascending a sixth and an octave make a kind of jingle which is caught by 84 THE VOICE the ear, and it should be one of the objects of practice to make it as distinct and uniform as possible. For a resonator, which is tuned to c" for ah, we shall hear — III Men ^^M^ 1 — r" XII T^- Hah Hoo Hah Haw Hah Hah Hah Heh Hah Hee or if on e" flat— V iviiivvvxvxn A , 3 Women 9 ^ Hah Hoo Hah Haw Hah Hah Hah Heh Hah Hee It is necessary to watch carefully the formation of the consonants according to what has already been said in the chapter upon the resonator. The open jaw for the first group is important, because the vowel position is in that respect already prepared, and therefore only an agile movement of the tip of the tongue is required to approach it. The actual position in the consonant L differs only from the ah position in that the tip of the tongue touches the extreme forward portion of the hard palate where the front teeth are inserted, instead of lying flat behind the lower teeth. The jaw may therefore be left open and the tongue movement prac- tised by itself. When the breath is passed out while the movement is taking place, the whispered sound Lah is recognised. CONSONANTS 85 The difference between L and N is that instead of a pointed tongue, the tip is spread out so as to lie flat upon the foremost part of the hard palate. The way through the mouth is thus entirely stopped, and the air passes freely through the nose. There should be no diflS.culty in performing this consonant without movement of the jaw. The position of T is identical with 2V, except that the passage to the nose is also closed and a complete stoppage is effected. This is relieved by the sudden descent of the tongue to the vowel position. There is a tendency to assist in emphasising this consonant by raising the jaw. The position of B is the same as that of T, but the action is less forcible because the explosion caused by the descent of the tongue takes place after the' vocal note has already begun. This distinction is qmte appreciable in whispering in spite of the absence of the vocal note. The roll of R without any vocal note is difficult. The definite double * flick ' of the tip of the tongue on the front of the hard palate is generally audible. The movement required for opening the lip con- sonants, M, P, B, is principally of the jaw. The passage through the nose during M must be carefully watched when opening on to a vowel, and the same apphes to the other nasal sound N. In both cases the nasal sovmd must dis- appear entirely at the beginning of the vowel-sound. 86 THE VOICE The definite rushing sounds made by the breath, F, TH (hard), . S, must be capable of being intensified by strengthening the current of air through them. The upper teeth must be felt hghtly touching the lower hp in ^, in the same way as they are felt by the tip of the tongue in the hard TH, and as they are hghtly touched by the lower teeth in S. No constriction in the throat or at the back of the tongue has anything to do with these consonants or their sounding companions, V, TH (soft), and Z; the only obstruction to the flow of air is at the teeth. It should be borne in mind that the resonant pitch serves only as a guide. The student should become famihar with the sense of a well-adjusted position for ah, and also with the amount of movement required for his hps to pass to the oo position and for his tongue to reach that for ee. This sense of freedom of the lips, with the tongue well in the front of the mouth, is what ultimately gives to the speaker the ' natural ' ease of distinctness which is the main object of voice education. The following tables of exercises wiU speak for them- selves. WHISPERED EXERCISES 87 i RESONATOR SCALE OP WHISPERED VOWEL-SOUNDS (Resonant Notes to be suited to the Individual Voice) I II III IV V VI vn VIII IX X XI XII w il 00 oh a\r ah g eh Exercise 1. Whispered sounds only. A breath for every pair. Slowly and regularly. Resonant note V I V III j V V V X: V XII English sound Hah Hoo Hah Haw Hah Hah Hah Heh Hah Hee Jaw open / Hah Loo Hah Law H^ Lah Hah Leh Hah Lee Noo Naw - Nah - Neh - Nee Tongue tip ■ - Too - Taw - Tah - Teh - Tee - Doo - Daw - Dah - Deh - Dee Roo - Raw - Rah - Reh Ree - Moo - Maw - Mah - Meh Mee Lips ' - Poo - Paw Pah Peh - Pee - Boo - Baw - Bah Beh - Bee Lip and - Foo Faw - Fah - Feh - Fee teeth - Voo - Vaw - Vah - Veh Vee Tongue j and teeth 1 - Thoo Thaw - Thah - Theh - Thee - ^00 - T^aw - ^ah ~ fheh - Thee - Soo - Saw - Sah - Seh - See Teeth - Zoo Shoo - Zaw Shaw - Zah Shah - Zeh Sheh - Zee Shee - Joo - Jaw - jah - Jeh - A Jee Base of tongue - Koo - Kaw - Kah - Eeh - Hee - Goo - Gaw Gah - Geh (hard) - Gee (hard) This Exercise is varied by prefixing any other syllable in place of Hah. 88 THE VOICE {WhUper only) Exereitea. 2. V X XII X V III I ni V Hah Heh Hee Heh Hah Haw Hoo Haw Hah as in: (hard) (hate) (heel) (hate) (hard) (horn) (hoot) (horn) (hard) 3. V VII IS XII IX vn V Hah Her He Hee He Her Hah as in : (hard) (herd) (head) (heed) (head) (herd) (hard) 4. IV VI VIII XI VIII VI rv Ho Hu Ha Hi Ha Hii Ho as in : (hot) (hut) (bat) (hit) (hat) (hut) (hot) 6. Ill V VII X VII V ni Haw Hah Her Heh Her Hah Haw as in : (call) (car) (curl) (cake) (curl) (car) (call) 6. n IV VI IX VI IV II Hoh Ho Hu He Hu Ho Hoh as in: (hope) (hot) (hut) (head) (hut) (hot) (hope) 7. I III V VIII V III I Hoo Haw Hah Ha Hah Haw Hoo as in: (food) (ford) (far) (fad) (far) (ford) (food) 8. I n III IV V VI VII vin ix x xi xii Hoo Hoh Haw Ho Hah Hii Her Ha He Heh Hi Hee (as in the whole Resonator Scale) Each preceded in turn by — tNTDR MPB FV Tbfh SZ ShJ CHDG THE VIBEATOR The vibrator or * reed ' formed by the vocal cords is a well-defined mechanism for the production of sound- vibrations in the air. Its action is similar to the ' reed ' of an organ pipe ia that the elastic tremors of the plates or membranes of which it is composed cause the rapid opening and closing of a minute slit, through which air under pressure escapes in equally rapid minute puffs. It is not necessary in any practical work upon the voice to go closely into all muscular actions in con- nection with this mechanism, because they are not directly under the control of the will, and act uncon- sciously in obedience to mental perception of sound. For this reason the minute study of the larynx itself, in which the vocal cords are situated, will always remain a medical subject connected with physiological and pathological questions. It is not possible to train an organ without understanding something of its action, and a teacher must therefore know accurately what his teaching is endeavouring to produce. For the individual, the action of the vocal cords can only be perceived j_^indirectly, that is, their action remains unconscious, and the speaker's or singer's 90 THE VOICE consciousness has only to do with the result in the sound which they produce. At the top of the wind-pipe, through which air is delivered from the lungs, the two membranes called the vocal cords are placed. When a deep breath is taken they fall widely apart so as to ofEer no obstruction. On breathing out, however, they come sUghtly together like two draped curtains, one on either side. When we wish to make a sound these two curtains are drawn completely across the tube so as to obstruct the exit of the air. If they were absolutely rigid they would completely stop the breath, but fortunately they are elastic, and, with the act of expiration, the pressure upon the air is able to force its way between the edges of the membranes. The flutter of the edges is due to their elasticity and is the result of a welUmown physical principle which can be studied in the action of an artificial ' reed.' As a result of this, the breath pressure escapes in an extremely rapid succession of small puffs, which produce powerful undulations in the air, and are transmitted in the form of sound. The pressure of the breath is the natural force used in this action, and is therefore directly responsible for the sound of the voice. The rapidity with which the membranes vibrate is regulated by an unconscious muscular system, which we are able to guide by mental sound-perception, and by no other means. The fact that those who are bom deaf do not know even how to begin to make a sound, although the vocal organs appear to be absolutely normal, is a proof that GLOTTIC SHOCK CONDEMNED 91 even the onset of the sound is unconscious. I would therefore protest in the strongest possible terms against any interference with this natural action. The con- striction in the larynx, similar to ' a very slight cough/ advocated by a particular school of writers on this subject, is a method which aU phonological knowledge must utterly condemn. The complete approximation of the vocal cords, that is, the tight drawing of the two curtains in response to a desire for sound, is in reality only the completion of a natural part of an expiratory act, and, being thus associated with the simultaneous onset of expiratory force, is to be regarded as the simple and natural manner of initiating sound. This ' glottic shock ' is produced by two muscular folds called the ventricular bands or false vocal cords which, in conjunction with some other muscles, cause a complete constriction of the air passage above the true vocal cords. Their function is to protect the larynx during swallowing and to take any strain exerted by the respiratory muscles during muscular effort, such as vigorous action of the arms or abdominal muscles, involving the fixation of the chest. Their action in coughing is of the nature of a spasm preceding an explosion of the breath as an expulsive effort only, and cannot be accepted as a normal prelude to phonation. Any action may be admitted into the service of expression, and the ' shock of the glottis ' might possibly be employed when some very marked emphasis is required ; but when persisted in, hke all exaggerations, it is the frequent cause of damage to the vocal mechanism, 92 THE VOICE as well as being quite unnecessary when the proper force of the voice, namely the breath, is well directed and controlled. As I shall have to refer to this matter again later, I will say no more at present than that the normal natural onset of a note is an expiratory act, in which the onset of the breath is simultaneous with the bringing of the vocal cords into action. When this has taken place the continuation of the soimd is secured by prolonging the same expiratory act, that is, by maintaiiiing the force of the breath. The variation of the intensity of the sound will therefore be regulated by the control of the breath force. If the breath force should be suspended, not only will the sound cease, but also the vocal cords will fall back from their contiguous position, being no longer held together by the action which is associated with breathing out. It generally happens, however, that the note ceases and the vocal cords go apart before the breath force has been completely checked. Then there is a slight pufi of air emitted after the note has ceased, which may be regarded as a normal consequence of the cessation of a note, and can be reduced to a minimum by careful breath control. Particular stress is laid upon this point because it lies at the root of the proper use of the vocal instruments. The sole responsibihty of the breath for the onset, con- tinuity, and cessation of the vocal note is a first principle of phonology. The vocal cords or membranes are firmly fixed in front to the thyroid or shield cartilage at a point where they touch one another. The outer edge of each is POSITIONS OF VOGAL COEDS 93 Deep inspiration. Expiration. Whispering. A bieadiy note. A full note. A ' compressed ' note. Flo. 8. — Interior of Larynx. a epiglottic. 6 false vocal cord = ventricular band, c true vocal cord. d vocal process of arytsenoid cartilage, e, /, g- cricoid, Santorini, and Wrisberg cartilages. h pyrif orm fossa. i pharynx above oesophagus (expanded). 94 THE VOICE fiimly attached to tlie wall of the larynx ; at the back, however, they are fixed to two moveable cartilages (arytsenoid or ' ewer-shaped ') which rotate upon the large cricoid or ring cartUage immediately beneath them, which corresponds to the top of the wind-pipe. The inner edges of the membranes form the slit of the glottis {rima glottidis) when they are brought together. The whole of this slit does not take part in the vibration, as the back portion is stiffened by a rod or process {'processus vocalis) of cartilage projecting from the arytsenoid. At the extreme front, where the ends of the vocal cords are inserted, they are prevented from vibrating by touching one another. The true vibrating portion is then that which hes free between this point and the tip of the vocal process. This portion is called the ' pars vocahs ' of the glottis, and that behind it corresponding to the arytsenoid cartilages and their vocal processes is the ' pars respiratoria.' "When the cords are brought firmly together the entire force of the breath is expended upon producing the vibration of the ' pars vocaUs,' and a firm strong note is the result (Fig. 8, 5). Should there be an escape between the cartilages of the ' pars respiratoria,' a part of the breath force is wasted and a note is emitted, which is soft and breathy in proportion to the escape (Fig. 8, 4). While fully recognising the nature and uses of this form of undertone or half-voice, I regard the normal vocal note as meaning the full sound produced by the complete closing of the glottic sHt. The muscular mechanism, which is entirely ruled by VOICE TYPES 95 mental perception of sound or ' ear/ acts upon the vocal cords by tightening or relaxing them to quicken or retard their rates of vibration, and so produce notes of higher or lower pitch. Thus every voice can produce notes extending on an average to a range of about two octaves by this locally imconscious means of vary- ing the tension of the vocal cords. The size of the membranous vibrator differs in different individuals, and thus we have, among men as well as among women, every variety of differently pitched voices between certain limits. The pitch of women's voices is, roughly speaking, an octave higher than that of men's. The voices of either sex are generally classified, for convenience, as high, low, and middle. The great mass of voices, however, in either case approach the middle variety. Among men the true bass and the true tenor are rare compared with those of the middle type, which, for want of another name, is usually called barytone. Similarly among women the great bulk of voices belong to the middle variety, which may be called mezzo-soprano, although that name has been appUed in music to a voice with particular capabihties, and the high soprano and the true contralto are comparatively rare forms of voice. In dealing with the compass of notes which can be commanded by any particular voice, we can therefore assume that there is a central note in every voice, whence, by practically the same physical actions, all the sounds within the hmits of an octave above and an octave below may be reached. In this way we may 96 THE VOICE regard the working capacity of every voice to be theoretically identical, only doubtless being made to differ considerably in scope by individual development. We are entitled to say that the middle note of the voice is produced by the middle degree or ' mean ' of tension of the vocal cord and air pressure in the breath. The tension or tightness of the cords, and the force of air required to produce vibrations, are regarded as proportionate so long as the vibrating length of cord is not shortened, and therefore, in considering the compass of two octaves, the highest note reaches the maximum of tension and air pressure, while the lower octave reaches the minimum of the same. It is the law of vibrating strings that the ' tension increases in proportion to the square of the vibrations.' If, then, the vibrations of the lowest note of the compass be taken as 1, the middle note will be 2, and the upper note 4, each one in rising an octave being the double of the other. But the tension increases as the square of the vibrations, so that if the tension of the lowest note is 1, that for the middle note is 2^=4, and for the top note of the compass 4^=16. As the aic pressure follows very much the same proportion as the tension, it will be seen at once that in rising through the scale, the increase of tension and pressure required for every higher note is greater and greater the higher we get, and to add another note to the top of the compass requires no small additional effort. The actual figures ^ given in the table to represent ' From Sehafer's PJiysidlogy. VOCAL CAPACITY 97 98 THE VOICE the increase of tension and breath pressure are used only to indicate the principle upon which higher notes are produced by the fuU length of the vocal cords. They cannot be regarded as beiag scientifically accurate. The vibrations of the vocal cords are not like those of a free string, subject only to longitudinal tension. They concern the elastic edges of two membranes, and the paths of vibration are limited and subject to lateral tension. Some modification, therefore, must be made in the actual figures, on account of those considerations. This subject is extremely difficult to investigate experi- mentally. But the fact remains that the proportionate increase of tension and breath pressure increases rapidly the higher we go. This indicates the danger that is encountered in attempting to sing too high. There is, however, another way in which higher notes can be produced. When the vocal cords are more tightly pressed together the vibrations at their back ends, in the neighbourhood of the vocal processes, are interfered with by compression, or ' stopped.' A higher note is thus produced without increase of tension or air pressure, but the sound is smaller and thinner than that produced by the whole length of the cords. I call these notes ' compressed ' as distinguished from the ' free ' notes produced by the cords vibrating from end to end. The determination of the natural compass of the voice is a matter which requires considerable care and a thorough examination of its capabihties both as regards its lowest and its highest notes. If any voice ESTIMATION OF COMPASS 99 is capable of producing a very low note, it is impos- sible that it can also produce very high ones without TABLE OF VOICE TYPES compression. I would therefore recommend careful estimation of the lowest note in every case. The common variety of man's voice has its central 100 THE VOICE note on about f. An entirely unpractised voice may not have a compass of as much as two octaves, but an ordinary voice of average capacity finds no difficulty in attaining to that range. Thus we should place the average man's voice with/ as its middle, /' as its highest note, and V as its lowest. The true bass voice should be considered as based upon d in the middle, rising to A' and falling to D. The tenor should then be placed upon a, rising to a' and falling to A. It is not intended to convey the idea that the upper notes, d! of the bass, /' of the barytone, and a' of the tenor are the limits of those voices. It is so much the habit of musicians to write their vocal music for the upper part of the voice, and even above it, that every voice that would attempt to sing has to be trained in this direction to the utmost of its capacity. The power of extending the compass about one-third in an upward direction may be safely conceded, but it would be well if composers would realise that it is for occasional use only. The too frequent use of this upper extension, and, in general, the forcing of the voice upwards, is the commonest cause of vocal ruin. With the practice of increased freedom of the vocal cords, and increased resonation, extension downwards of one-third, or more, may easily be acquired also, but it is seldom called for except in part-singing. The subject of ' compression ' is one which has many sides to it, and it is difficult to be fair to them all. There can be no doubt, however, about certain points with regard to it. Compression, like every other mechanical action of COMPRESSED HIGH NOTES 101 the cords, is not directly voluntary, but merely happens in connection with the striving for high notes. The rehef from tension and air pressure is very marked, and ease is at all times desirable in natural processes. In women's voices especially, ia. which breath control is often weaker, and the power of resonation comparatively stronger than in men's, allowance must be made in its favour. But it is well to bear in mind that the sound of compressed notes is smaller than that of ' free ' notes. They are best adapted to piano passages, for when forced they are hard and penetrating. That singers, who are high sopranos by virtue of compression and not by nature, usually lose the middle notes of their voices, can be explained by the bending of the vocal processes and changes in the compressed portions of the cords themselves. A voice which is hke two voices, with a rich sound on low notes ajid a hard shrill sound on high notes, and an imcertain gap in between, is almost certain to be one of these. An exact parallel in a man's voice is not common. The much compressed note is so different from the full free note that it could not often be used except by small tenor voices. There are, however, degrees of compression. When sUght it naturally makes less difference, but when considerable its sound would be recognised at once as ' falsetto,' which cannot be regarded as natural to a man's voice. Among women the three types of voice fall for the ordinary middle variety upon gr', with a compass up to g" and down to g. The contralto, with its centre on e', rises to e* and falls to e. The true high soprano has its centre upon 6', rises to b" and falls to 6. All that I have 102 THE VOICE said with regard to extension upwards and downwards applies to women's voices ia the same way as to men's, but there is no doubt that compressed notes are much more commonly used among women than ambng men, and many women destroy the beauty of their natural voices in the endeavour to make them as high as possible. It may be said generally that the speaking voice is pitched at and below the centre of the compass, while the singing voice is used mostly above the centre. There is a certain analogy between the natural types of voice and the musical clefs. (See Table, p. 99.) The bass and tenor clefs are absolutely suited to those voices having the middle note upon the third line. The barytone clef, rarely used, is well suited to the middle type of man's voice for the same reason. The ' soprano clef is similarly appUcable to the middle type of woman's voice. The alto clef, however, is too low for a woman's contralto voice, and is better suited to a male alto. The woman's deep voice is adapted to a clef in which c' is on the second line, which may be called the mezzo-soprano clef. The high soprano, which is a rare form of natural voice, finds its sippropriate clef in the treble or ' violin ' clef commonly used at present. It is important to aU voices that the middle note of the compass should be recognised, and all vocahsing should start upon this note, and be developed smoothly and evenly in both directions until the full compass of two octaves is reached. Before proceeding to practise the vibrator it is PITCH OF SPEAKING VOICE 103 essential to determine, as accurately as possible, the size of tlie vocal cords, that is to say, we must know the natural pitch of the voice we are considering. In speak- ing, when the vocal note is not definitely organised, but merely used to make speech audible and to convey the sense of phrases by natural inflection, it is not necessary to do more than guard the voice from the habit of raising itself to too high a pitch. The general pitch of an ordinary speaking voice may be compared with what corresponds to the lower middle region of the types of voices, which we have already considered. It will then at once be discovered whether a voice has adopted too high a pitch or not. An easy pitch may be chosen about a third below the centre note. The range of inflection need not be more than a fifth ia either direction for all practical purposes. It is not advisable to direct or prompt the inflections of the voice too much for fear of introducing unnatural ones. When the breath and not the throat is made responsible for the sound of the voice, the natural inflections possess greater intensity and meaning, with- out covering so large a range of pitch as when the common forms of constriction are allowed to perform their vocal antics unrestrained. In the case of a voice that is only good for speaking, it may not be possible to go further than indicate a general pitch ; but in the great majority of cases it is possible to find the central note, within a semitone or BO, which should be used for practice. In the case of singing students, this must be ascer- tained with the greatest care, as the whole future of 104 THE VOICE the voice may depend upon it. If any error should be conunitted, it is better that it should be below rather than above the true middle. The first point to notice is the lowest note which can be produced by the vocal cords. The points to be deduced from it are, that if a woman's voice can sing down to/ i it cannot be a high soprano, and he cannot when a man sings down to £^E be a high tenor. ""^ In entirely untrained voices it is not wise to take the upper Umit of the compass into consideration before definite practice has been imdertaken to secure the onset and the continuity of the middle notes, by the proper action of the breath, and without ' shock of the glottis ' or any other similar contraction. It is always quite safe to start a Httle initial practice upon a note an octave higher than the lowest possible. Thus a woman's voice that can sing down to / is probably rather below the average in pitch, and could be safely given the note JO. /' ( C T ) ^J ^ ' *° practise on. In the case of a man singing down to E, the note e &■ - r - ' would be a good practisiug note for a probable low barytoHe. It must, however, be left to the discretion of the teacher how far the performance of the vibrator is to carry the voice in the direction of song. It is good for the speaker to realise the pitch of his own voice, and the practice of recitation on a continuous note near VOCAL NOTES 105 and below the middle of his voice, will develop all that he requires from the vibrator. He should therefore practise the single note exercises which follow (p. 108). It is in the practice of the vibrator or vocal reed that the musical faculties are first introduced into the process of voice development. It must not be forgotten that this instrument is in itself unconscious, and cannot be directed in technical study in the same way as when voluntary movements have to be educated, as, for instance, those of the hand in the study of the pianoforte or violin. The education of the vocal reed resolves itself into the regulation of the breath, the only force used, and the cultivation of the mental perception and appreciation of sound. From these facts we may deduce the following general rules : — (1) To take a good breath immediately before making a soxmd. (2) At the moment of singing a note to have already decided in the mind what that note is to be. (3) The whole instrument, the resonator, to be in position at the onset of the note. (4) To sing absolutely in tune by relying upon distinctness of mental perception and suffi- ciency of breath. The vibrator cannot be practised by itself, that is, its association with a vowel-sound cannot be avoided, since the vocal note is obliged to pass through the resonator. It is not advisable that all vocal exercises should be 106 THE VOICE associated with one vowel position only, such as ah. All the vowel positions have an equal right to be practised in conjunction with the notes, but the five principal sounds, 00 aw ah eh ee are selected for convenience. As we wish to deal with the vibrator by itself as much as possible, we shall assume, in this chapter, that what- ever vowel position is selected, it must remain absolutely unchanged during the vocal exercise. Every note of a vocal exercise must satisfy the ear as to the quality of the vowel character, and no movement of the jaw, Ups, or tongue must be visible. A full breath is taken through the nose and allowed to pass out through the nose, without allowing the chest to drop. The mouth is then open to the ah position, and breath is taken in through the mouth noiselessly, and passed out again with sufficient force to make the already known resonant pitch of ah dis- tinctly audible. When this has been repeated several times without any movement of the mouth, the mind should be directed to the perception of the middle note of the compass (Foundation Ex. No. 1, p. 108). Into the breathed vowel this note is then to be introduced in such a way that the sound is that of an aspirated vowel, followed by a note, and passing again into an aspirated vowel. An escape of breath after the note ceases should be heard, in order to make sure that no contraction of any kind occurs in the larynx or elsewhere. Care must be taken that the vowel position ONSET AND RELEASE 107 remains motionless, and that the chest does not drop. The whispered vowel preceding the note should then be gradually shortened and the note itself carefuUy and gradually prolonged, so as to remain well within the capacity of the breath. Finally the aspirate may be dropped altogether, and the attack of the note should coincide with the onset of the breath. The even continuity of the note then depends upon the even continuity of the breath, and the ' free release ' after the note must indicate an easy and natural cessation of the breath force. It is advisable to return to the begiiming of this exercise and breathe in and out through the vowel-sound alternately with singing a note upon it, first with an aspirate and then without, in this way accustoming the voice to the attack of a note with an open throat, and to avoid the danger of any ' shock of the glottis ' already referred to. The position of each vowel or consonant is breathed through before sounding the note, and again after it, without movement of the resonator. In the last group the aspirate becomes the corresponding sounding con- tinuant without any change of position. At first the middle note of the compass is used only (as in Exercise 1) until the attack is accomphshed with that definition which the breath gives it, when the force and the sound are simultaneous. DifEerent vowel positions are to be used in turn ; first the five principal vowels, and then all the other vowels on the Resonator Scale. During the entire performance of the note the breath must be even and continuous, but not escaping 108 THE VOICE Centre - Vocal j Notes. ' Ah Eh Ee Aw Oo M N. h . FOUNDATION EXERCISE No. 1. High Mid. Soprano. Soprano. Con- tralto. Tenor Bye lower. Barytone. Bass. ^^^--^, Es^^^^ JF-V . ■fh-if^ S-Z . whispered resonance breath "1 note whispered resonance \ breath .... breath . "1 note breath onset note ■{ release SO as to give a breathy character to the note. A candle flame held in front of the mouth must not flicker during the continuation of the note, but when the sound ceases, sufficient breath escapes after it to cause a considerable flickering, or even to blow the candle out. It must be carefully noted that during the contiau- ance of the note the measurement of the waist, as evidenced by the loosening of the belt or waistband, becomes gradually less, and that there is no sinking of the ribs. VOCALISING 109 At the end of the note the ribs still remain elevated, and the sudden falling in of the upper abdominal wall, just below the end of the breast bone, can be felt dis- tinctly with the hand when the breath is released. When aU these points have been carefully noticed and practised the pupil may undertake the exercise No. 2, p. 110. In addition to the single notes, I am giving here only one form of vocal exercise. It is graduated and in four sections. Each may be taken separately at first and afterwards ia sequence. This foundation exercise is better suited to the even development of the vocal compass than the singing of ordinary scales, and should be written out in various keys for systematic practice, and for every kind of voice. Similar exercises of all musical intervals, upwards and downwards from a centre, and variously accom- panied, would greatly assist singers in accustoming them to the needs of modem music, and in develop- ing the particular refinement of ear which they must have. I do not intend to carry this matter so far in this volume, and prefer to leave it in the hands of a musician. Whatever the middle note of the compass may be, it is first chosen as the tonic or key note of the exercises. They should be written out exactly as they have to be sung, and the pupil is to be encouraged to take in every note with the eye before singing it, as that habit forms the foundation of reading music, which is as essential to the art of singing as the reading of words is to the art of speech. 110 THE VOICE ~\J3 — fa \E-I OQ iz; J ><^ ts] 1^ ffl S ^5 J > <§^, S ^ ^ w >d >o ^ 1^ gv^ g ^ ^ _ _ ^ EXEECISES FEOM A CENTEE 111 The exercises are to be sung separately to the five principal vowel-sounds, and afterwards to any of the remaining vowels ia the Eesonator Scale, with the same careful attention as bestowed upon ah ia Exercise 1. These and similar exercises not only form the beginning of vocal practice, but they represent the basis of the working capacity of the voice and are for daily practice throughout the entire life of a singer. The habit of carefully reading the exercises apphes to beginners only, as more proficient singers will usually sing them by heart. I would, however, warn teachers against playing the scales themselves. One chord to indicate the key should be suflS.cient, and if pupils are unable to sing a scale correctly without further assist- ance, it becomes a question whether they should be encouraged to sing at all. "When the middle range of the compass has thus become well established, its extension in both directions should be undertaken, not by practising high notes, but by moving the centre note gradually by semitones both upwards and downwards, to the extent of a fourth in both directions, and repeating the same exercises. In this maimer the full compass of notes for an octave above and below the centre may be practised in their proper relation to one another. Prolonged high notes are to be carefully avoided imtil considerable eflBtciency in vocaUsing throughout the entire two octaves of the voice has been acquired. Prolonged notes should at first be definitely limited to the central region of the compass. As a general rule, vocaHsing exercises are not to be continued for longer than ten minutes at a time on 112 THE VOICE account of the throat constriction and mouth contor- tion which readily accompany too much practice upon simple vowels alone. It is therefore advisable always to practise these for short periods interspersed with practice of the continuant consonants, which bring the vowels forward in the mouth. With this in view it is good to vocaUse M, N, L, V, f&. Z. The only difference between the vocahsing of these consonants and that of the vowels is that the resonator is held in a partly closed position instead of an open one. The freedom of the breath and absence of any con- striction in the throat is as essential to the proper sound- ing of these consonants as it is to the vowels themselves. With the hps closed as in the position for M, the centre note should be attacked, continued, and released through the nose, exactly as a vowel-sound would be through the mouth as in Exercise 1. Breathing out strongly through the nostrils when the Ups are closed indicates the position in which the resonator is to be held. The sounding of a note on M causes considerable vibration to be felt near the nostrils in front, and not in the throat or at the back of the nose. The tongue is forward in the mouth with its tip against the lower teeth, and the teeth are considerably apart. I have chosen M to begin, upon because it is one of those consonants which is usually freer from faulty pronunciation than most of the others. The other continuants should then be practised, following carefully what has been said with regard to them in the chapter on consonants. THE COMBINED INSTEUMENTS Having considered the phonological properties of each of the two instruments of the voice, namely the vibrator and the resonator, we must now examine what takes place when these instruments act together, as is the case in the ordinary uses of the voice. We know that when by an act of breathing out we form the vocal note, the sound so produced is modified in its quaUty and character by the hollow spaces of the resonator ; thus on any note we can impress the character of the vowels and give them proper sonority. But we know that there is attached to every vowel position a particular phonological condition with its distinctive character and resonant pitch. In speech, where the vocal notes are not organised as they are in singing, they simply move unconsciously, and are controlled only with a view to making language intelligible and distinct. Under such circumstances it is not necessary to consider too closely the phonological agreement between the ever-varying vocal note and the rapidly changing resonant pitches of the different vowels. But in singing, where the performance of vocal notes is musically organised, the power of maintaining both the quality and the character of a vowel-sound throughout 114 THE VOICE a musical phrase is a matter which should be studied as minutely as possible. The problem before us then is, that since we possess only a single resonator how are we to satisfy a whole compass of two octaves of notes with proper resonation ? We will consider this more theoretical question before going on with our practical study. In men the resonator has for its position of ah a resonant pitch of, let us say, c". The lowest resonance upon the Resonator Scale is /', for oo and the back resonance of ee. It will be noticed that /' is also a high note in the average man's compass, therefore his resonator will very rarely be in a position to reinforce the primary note of his vocal cords, but generally one of its harmonics or upper partials. A man with a large resonator and a high voice is sometimes in a position to obtain this remarkable rein- forcement of the few notes at the top of his compass on certain vowel-sounds, and that accounts for the marvellous high notes a few of our greatest singers have been able to produce. In a woman's voice the case is different. While the vocal compass is practically an octave higher than a man's, the pitch of the resonator is barely a third higher. It therefore happens that the lowest notes of the Resonator Scale are brought almost to the middle of the vocal compass, so that its upper octave often coincides with the primary resonant pitches of the vowel-sounds in the neck. It thus becomes clear that a woman's voice is THE COMBINED INSTRUMENTS 115 proportionately more deeply resonated than a man's, and is therefore more Hable to sudden changes ia resona- tion, owing to the greater distance between the reinforced harmonics of its vocal notes. We therefore meet with frequent so-called ' breaks/ due to this cause, which destroy the even tone of the instrument, and have to be overcome by very careful adjustment of the resonator. The manner in which the reinforcement and resona- tion is carried out is practically as follows. In every reinforcing or resonating system there is a certain amount of latitude in its function, that is, it will reinforce a particular note and its immediate neighbours a Httle above and a httle below it, the only difference being that in the case of the more perfectly adjusted vibrations the reinforcement is stronger. Open resonators have a wider range of adaptation than the more enclosed. A very little power of expansion, and the reverse, of a resonant hollow, goes a long way towards remedying this inequality, and we find that a range of about one-th,ird can be obtained for a resonator under such circumstances. It is precisely this action that takes place in the voice. If in the vowel position ah with the resonant pitch c" the deep bass note C shoidd be sung, the reinforce- ment of the eighth harmonic can be heard, with some practice. When the vocal note rises a semitone to G sharp the resonant reinforcement in the mouth will be heard to rise to c" sharp, but on reaching D the resonant reinforce- ment in the mouth falls again to c", that being the ^- ii- k. I.- -n M| i) e5 o .a "5 ^1i THE COMBINED INSTRUMENTS 117 seventii harmonic ; this in its turn will be heard to rise to A" when the vocal note reaches B, but when the vocal note touches V the sixth harmonic c" is heard again. When the bass note rises to G the reinforcement in the mouth may rise to d", but with the vocal note of A flat the reinforcement will fall to the fifth harmonic on c", and so on, as shown in the accompanying diagram, always remembering that when the reinforcement in the vowel position is strained upwards it has the alterna- tive of further expanding to catch a harmonic on V, that is, a semitone lower than c*. In this way, with Kttle or no conscious movement beyond that of a desire to keep expanded, satisfactory reinforcement of all the not^s of the compass is to be obtained, each vowel position having its own series of reinforcements based upon its pitch on the Resonator Scale heard in the whispering voice. So far, however, we have considered only the extreme low notes of a bass voice, for it is especially in these that the reinforcements of the harmonics are most easily distinguished. As the vocal notes rise in the scale, the resonating properties of the vowel positions naturally fall upon lower harmonics, which are also wider apart from one another. Thus the phonological difficulties increase as we rise in the scale. But very soon the reinforcements are more clearly heard an octave higher, that is, among harmonics that are not so far distant from one another. As the accompanying table is, I believe, the first of its kind that has ever been made, and as this field has scarcely yet been subjected to repeated investigation, it is not yet possible 118 THE VOICE to say positively what the law is with regard to these reinforcements. As far as the matter has gone at present I am only in a position to say what the results of my own observations are, and the conclusions which I am inclined to draw from them. The problems of multiple resonation, that is, the resonation taking place in several communicating cavities, has hardly been touched by physicists. The fact also that the human resonator is at least a double one and not a single ' funnel shaped ' tube, as it was regarded by the older physiologists, reopens the whole question on a new basis. In aU investigations of sound it is almost impossible to obtain pure vibrations, that is to say, vibrations without harmonics, so that when I speak of the resonant pitches of the vowels, I cannot mean more than that a particular primary resonant note is heard which is more powerful than any of the other subsidiary notes that must of necessity be involved in it. Thus, when I come to sound the deepest notes of the bass voice and hear very distinct reinforcements of its harmonics by the primary resonant notes, most likely their octaves are also present. Therefore the distinct- ness of the higher octave, further up in the scale, may be due to its merely coming more prominently into notice when the primary note is in some difficulty of finding vibrations to suit it. There is, however, another view to take of this. The resonator itself is composed of two chambers, that of the mouth being open at both ends, and that in the neck open at one end only, the vibrating THE COMBINED INSTRUMENTS 119 ' reed * being regarded in physics as a closure of the resonator at the lower end. Thus it is quite likely to be the case that the resonant pitches of the vowels are correctly stated on the Resonator Scale for the cavity in the neck, but that the resonances of the mouth belonging to a tube open at both ends ought really to be regarded as an octave higher. Personally, I am inchned to this A^ew but have not altered the Resonator Scale, because the actual pitch of the notes therein contained is not so important as their relations to one another, and it matters Httle, for instance, in the lower six members, whether the notes heard are in imison or whether they should be considered octaves. In estimating high resonances it is often difficult to discriminate between the pitch of a harmonic and its octave, and when they occur together the upper one is generally more distinct than the lower. But the fact that the upper resonances are often heard an octave higher does not affect the practical purposes of the Resonator Scale. , In some further experiments with the reinforce- ments of the upper members I have recently been able to obtain the complete series of resonances from ah (V) to ee (XII) upon the notes of the scale from C to c. As seen in the table, the resonance of ah (V) is upon the eighth harmonic, where the harmonic scale of tones and semitones begins. It is therefore a simple matter fpr these high resonances to find harmonics in accord with their respective pitches. But on rismg through 120 THE VOICE H O « Mil K« SV See end of yolume. 132 THE VOICE the subtle difEerences between what may be considered the same sotmds in different languages. Under all circumstances in the practice of diction it is best to breathe through the words softly and smoothly, so as to make certain of the vowel resonances and good movements for the consonants before using the vocal sound. In practising the Pronunciation Chart all the words in the vertical columns, when so whispered, should have the same vowel resonance, whereas when whispered along the horizontal lines the whole Resonator Scale shoidd be made distinct. When the vocal sound is introduced care should be taken that the positions of the vowels should be exactly the same as those which have been acquired by whispering. English. Verie hy Tennyson. Besonator. viii-vii Ki i-xn xi-i XI Ki-vii VIII in vii in There is sweet mu - sic here that softer falls vin IX VI IV n ii ix iv vi v Than petals from blown roses on the grass, in vl3i ki-i IV xi in vn ix xn ni Or night - dews on still waters between walls IV vni n XI vm xi xi vi xn xi v Of shadowy granite, in a gleaming pass; S^i XI vin IX XI VII IV VI XI XI vi-xi Mu - sic that gent - li - er on the spirit lies. h vin vi-xi-vii VI-XI XI VI IV vi-xi-vn vi-xi Than tir'd eye - lids upon tir'd eyes ; Sj XI vin XI i-xii xn v-i iv vi xi i vi^ Mu - sic that brings sweet sleep down from the blissful skies PRONUNCIATION CHART 133 XI-VII V I IV IX! XII Here aie cool mosses deep. I — , Vra I VI IV XII VI-XI XI XII And through the moss the i - vies creep VIII XI VI KII VI IV XII V-I-VII I^II And in the stream the long-leaved flowers weep, Viii IV VI VIII XI IS VI IV XI vni xi xii And from the craggy ledge the poppy hangs in sleep. Some lines are given here as an example of how to apply the Resonator Scale to the study of ordinary declamation. Over every word the proper positions of the vowels are indicated by the Roman numbers of the Resonator Scale. By slowly breathing out these words the proper resonant positions of the vowels and move- ments of the consonants can be determined before any vocal soimd is used. The power of using the speech organs slowly and steadily upon an out-breath, as indicated here, gives; with practice, that control which is the key to good diction. VOCAL CAPACITY AND SONG DIAGEAMS It is not the intention of phonological science to carry the vocal exercises any further into the art of music than the simple technique of continuous notes, sequences and intervals would warrant. Thus far we are entitled to regard the formative process of voice cultivation as a scientific subject based upon natural law. It remains, therefore, for the musician to take up the completion of vocal performance in the art of song at this point. He may then bring aU that art can suggest into the service of the voice as his instrument of expression, remembering always that there are special principles attached to the human organs, in the same way as they are attached to the violin and other instruments that he uses, which should not be contravened. A musical composer who imderstood the nature of the voice would have satisfaction in feeling that the performance of his music was at the same time improving and perfect- ing the human voice as an instrument of musical expression. There can be no doubt that the tone of a violin improves by being played upon when in the hands of a great master, but that, on the other hand, some kind of playing might in itself be detrimental to the instru- ment. It is also well known that considerably altering VOCAL CAPACITY AND SONG DIAGRAMS 1^5 the pitch, for instance, of a beautiful vioUn, may have anything but a good effect upon it. How much more, then, is it not the case in the sensitive, elastic, hving instrument of the voice, depending for its existence upon the manner ia which it has been developed and the manner in which it continues to be used, that it would be ruined if condemned to uses beyond its natural capacity. Composers deUght in high notes, and in all kinds of effects, many of which may be beautiful, while others only startle and arrest attention. But they should not forget that while they are possibly advancing their reputa- tion in the ears of the pubUc, they may, at the same time, be crushing the Hfe and UveUhood out of that very iastru- ment which they ought to worship as the most human of all means of musical expression. I have had the satisfaction of seeing a celebrated violinist walk off the concert platform, because the pianoforte which was to accompany him was tuned to the fiigh Enghsh pitch. He would not run the risk of straining his magnificent Stradivarius. If singers would take the game care of their voices, composers would probably become more careful in their writing, and conductors might do more to subdue their vocal accompaniments and keep down the general instrumental pitch. It is not generally known to what extent singers still suffer, even under the so-called ' diapason normal ' (a' = 435 "5). Mr. Alexander J. EUisi has shown in his ' Vide Helmholtz, Sentations of Tone, Eng. Trans, and Appendix by A. J. Ellis. 136 THE VOICE ' History of Musical Pitch ' how the general pitch of a' = 420, or thereabouts, was prevalent in Europe for two centuries, i.e. all through the great vocal period, up to the beginning of the nineteenth century. The rise to a' = 452 "5 and higher, and the subsequent com- promise which reduced it to a' = 435 '5, only gave the singers one-half theic due. The instrumentalists forgot that the voice is not physically able to make concessions and compromises, and whatever brilliant quaUty other instruments may obtain by the higher pitchy the natural limits of the voice, which had determined the general pitch for the two centuries before the growth of the modem orchestra, could not possibly be altered. The compromise still condemns the singer to sing all the music of classical composers, up to and including Beethoven and Schubert, nearly half a tone higher than the composers intended, even when so-called * continental ' pitch is adopted. Considering the tendency to write for the upper part of the voice, the additional rise in pitch increases the strain upon the vocal organs very considerably. Modem musicians seldom remember that in studying the vocal music of Mozart, for example, they should mentally transpose it nearly half a tone. It would be easy to imagine the progress of a modem musical Juggernaut driving in his triumphal car amid the plaudits of the populace along the way strewn with the debris of vocal instraments, shattered in his fierc6 conflicts with the laws of nature. But this is a scientific treatise in which the imagination is not to be indulged. Fortunately we have a more accurate method of pro- VOCAL CAPACITY AND SONG DIAGRAMS 137 cedure. By constructing what is called the 'Song Diagram ' we can estimate, as accurately as we wish, the actual work demanded by any vocal composition. By comparison of such a diagram with the normal capacity of the voice, it becomes apparent to what voice the composition is suitable and what are its particular, demands in vocal performance, and so we come at once to dispassionate conclusions. In constructing the * Song Diagram ' it is not necessary to be punctihous about semitones, so that for the sake of simpUcity, and in order to Hghten a some- what laborious task, we neglect accidentals and regard the scale as represented by lines and spaces without signatures. Upon special paper ruled in squares a vertical line is drawn representing the scale, and into the squares are placed dots, one for the value of every quaver or whatever unit we select. The usual plan is to regard the square as fiUed when eight dots have been put into it. In going through the voice parts of the work we obtain an estimate of all the notes, expressed in quaver units as dots, and measured in squares in a horizontal direction as regards duration, and upon the scale in a vertical direction as regards pitch. When the work is finished the squares are darkened, the fuU ones entirely, and those that are not entirely filled, at the ends of the lines, are darkened in proportion to the number of dots in them. The diagram then shows us not only the range of voice covered by the composition, but also where most of the work hes. Thus estimated, we find that the work required by 138 THE VOICE ' Messiah Handel (i.-'t--^^ "Rejoice greatly* Sojwono No. 1. Messiah HandeL. The [leofile Biat WolkecL indarknea. (B minoiy Barytone Messiah Handel, 'Comfort ye, &, Every vdleU TenoT^. No. 2. IlFlautoMaglco Mozart 'Qui sdegnof Bass. No. 4. Don Grtovannl Mozart a' t\:--^ It i^'o tesoYo ,.--1 Tenor Lje Nozze dL Ttgaro Mozayf Non fi-u. andiul No. 5. No. 6, Meistcrsingsir Wagnan HansSachs' Monologue Aetm 'Mainocht* "Safi|ihisdieOdc" Brahms. Barytone No, 7. VOCAL CAPACITY AND SONG DIAGRAMS 139 Get'ontius Elgw ■^'^^^^^ Angel prir ETrteniq ^ Schubert. (Emijibr) Bra'ijton& No. 9. 'Meisterslnger' Wagners (PrelsLied) No. 11. 'FhrslfaL. >A'agne^ Tenor No. 12. Meistersingcr Wagner Poqner's sheech Actl. BaTijtoiK IL Rauto Mogico No. 13. Mozart /\h! injttice/ Sofirano No. 14. RxTSifol. Wqgner. 'Kiindnj' ActE (finale.) Sftpmno 757 1 ^fez^Bso|lwno ■'■ 1114. Ho. 16. Tristan und. Isolde. V/agner^ Isolde. ActI.Sc.3(g4 Sottmna No. 16, 140 THE VOICE FidellQ Beethoven. Tloi-estar. Actit ■J tenof? No. Vi GeTontius. r, ^HU« Altai TcnoT No. 18. Much ado olraut nothing gi. r, l'"taBB— Beatrice Act HE ISotmina No. 19. S* Cecilia's Day CKHRmy, BfliyM« f No. 20. F Bonjtone. NOTES Nos. 1-8. Good examples of writing for the voice indicated. The prolongation oJ high notes is not eztieme. Nos. 9, 10. Not so good — except the second part of No. 10, which is excellent, Nos. 11, 12. Both Btiain the Tenor voice to the full. No. 13. High for Barytone. The part is said to be for a Bass. No. 14. Good — but for a phenomenally high Soprano with a high note ' in alt.' Nos. 15, 16. Very full work for true Soprano voice. Should not be attempted by a Mezzo- soprano, which voice would have to bear an estimated additional strain of 46°/„inNo. 15. Nos. 17, 18, 19, 20. All too high or ' top-heavy,' though without going beyond tho bmits. VOCAL CAPACITY AND SONG DIAGBAMS 141 any given composition is shown diagrammatically in somewhat triangular form, which can be compared with the similar form in which we have already expressed the normal vocal capacity. What we learn from this comparison is that a composition is best suited to that voice in which the bulk of the work falls near the centre of the vocal compass. The centre of the voice and its immediate neighbourhood must always be regarded as best fitted for continuous work; it is therefore quite as important to apply to it the bulk of the work required, as to keep the hmits of the compass of the composition within the limits of the compass of the voice (pp. 97, 99). It is a common practice amongst musicians to regard only these limits, and to say of any musical com- position that it is suited to a particular voice because it does not go higher or lower than the compass of that voice, but this assumption is frequently erroneous. There are many compositions written for the voice within the limits of the treble clef, which, although they could be reached by the lower female voices, are in reahty only suitable to the high soprano. The musical practice of writing for the upper string of the violin or violoncello for the sake of effectiveness, may not damage those instruments, but if the same principle is carried out ia writing for the voice, very serious mischief may result. It is quite legitimate for composers to write for rare voices only, if they Hke, but if they think that by restricting their works to the treble clef, for instance, they are suiting the generahty, they are profoundly mistaken. When a voice performs any work in which its 142 THE VOICE maximum use lies well in the middle of its capacity, it gives to the singer that sense of ease and suitability so necessary to proper expressiveness, and whatever high notes may occur at the uppermost limit of the compass, they are certain to possess a better quaUty than those from a voice that has been constantly strained. The triangular figure expressing the ' Vocal Capacity ' of the various types of voices is drawn over the ' Song Diagram ' to show whether the maximum work corre- sponds with the maximum power of doing work. It is not intended to be laboriously exact, because to be of general use a considerable amount of latitude must be permitted ; but if the bulk of the work lies much above the centre of the voice, in spite of not exceeding the Umits, at least the fatigue of its performance will be explained. It becomes clear, therefore, that the composer is not definitely able to state for what voice he has written his music until he has estimated the work that it requires by means of a ' Song Diagram.' If the ' Song Diagram ' were printed upon the cover of the book, the singer would know beforehand whether the study of the work would be a strain to his voice or not. Every singer should know exactly where the centre of his voice lies, because that should have been the foundation of all his vocal practice from the first. If he cares sufficiently for the instrument upon which his art, and possibly also his UveUhood depends, he will take care to protect himself against strain by avoiding works which obviously lie too high, although they may not go outside his compass. VOCAL CAPACITY AND SONG DIAGKAMS 143 Singers often complain that they are obliged to sing what composers have written for their voices, which is perfectly true, from a worldly point of view. That difficulty may, however, now be remedied, since it is possible for a composer to learn the natural capacity of human voices, as well as the amount of work required by his compositions, by this sufficiently accurate method of observation. There is no longer an excuse for music said to be for the bass voice but which is only suited to barytone, nor for barytone music written entirely upon the upper leger lines of the bass clef, nor for the placing of music for the average female voice weU up in the treble clef. The fault of writing too low for the voice is very rarely indulged in. It is, however, a fact that singers sometimes find music too low for them, because their voices have been trained too much in the upward, and not sufficiently in the downward direction. While discussing this subject I may here refer to the difference that exists between the true vocal compass and the declamatory compass. It has already been explained that the increase of tension and pressure exerted upon the vocal cords in rjsing to high notes is best sustained in continuous phrases, that is, in lyrical passages and in prolonged notes. The constant cessation and recommencement of sound caused by unvoiced consonants, such as the aspirates and explosives, render the upper fourth of the vocal compass imsuitable for ordinary declamation. This part of the compass is very seldom used in speech except on occasions of great excitement and emotion, and then only in soHtary emphatic exclamations. A composer who raises a 144 THE VOICE declamatory passage above the fifth from the centre of the voice he is using, must therefore have very serious reasons for so doing. Another point to be remembered is that the lowest notes of the vocal compass are naturally of a soft character and cannot be sung ' forte ' ; but that they furnish some of the most beautiful ' piano ' sounds of the human voice does not seem to be generally appreciated by vocal composers. The space within these pages only permits of a small number of examples being given. A complete study of this subject would run into many volumes. GENERAL REMARKS VOICE LITERATURE From the foregoing scientific and technical details it is evident that the full capacity and good control of the breath, and a well-adjusted and freely moving resonator, are acquisitions from which very few people need con- sider themselves debarred. Musical perception suflfi- cient to warrant the use of these instruments to some extent in singing, is not so rare a gift, in my own experi- ence, as proficiency in speech. On the contrary, it is quite natural for everyone to be able to sing a httle. The question is rather, how far that gift can be carried in the direction of expressing a highly cultivated art Hke that of music. For the voice to rank as a real instrument of song it must be able to do more than produce sounds. That ' more ' is wholly within the province of the musician, and must therefore be left to the artist for its proper cultivation. But as regards the sounds themselves, the science of phonology claims the sole authority. The problems involved are physical and physiological only. It is only in so far as they are understood in phonology that anything definite can be said about them at all. That musicians should write books attempting to 146 THE VOICE explain the action of the vocal organs according to suggestions by other musicians and supplemented by ideas of their own, cannot do more than acquaint us with the opinions of those authors and show us how much or how httle of real physiological fact they have been able to incorporate in their teaching. Such works have their own undoubted importance, but do not furnish us with what we recognise as the truth ia science. The truth of vocal principles can only be arrived at through physical and physiological research by those whose knowledge enables them to understand and demonstrate the phenomena they are investigating. I do not wish to go so far as to advise musicians not to write books about the voice. They are at Uberty to say all they know of its final performances. But it is only fair to let them know that deductions from a superficial knowledge of science much more often mislead than enHghten, and that while their considera- tion of anatomy, etc., may impress the uninitiated, theif pseudo-scientific conclusions have the reverse effect upon those who are qualified to criticise them. It is no exaggeration to say that the majority of works on the voice by musicians throw more light upon the author than upon the subject. And yet, if they would only relate as clearly as possible their positive experi- ences and observations, without omitting any detail, musicians might indicate to phonological science a great many new points for thorough investigation. For instance, in these pages I have suggested that since the sound of the voice depends upon breath pressure, the best way to maintain and regulate it is VOICE LITEEATUEE 147 by preserving the costal expansion until the diaphragm is replaced. Some practical teachers may have other methods of breathing. If they have, they should describe them accurately and cause definite experiments to be made with a ' spiro-dynameter ' to show whether they are more efficacious in maintaining and regulating breath pressure than the one here suggested. The positions of the vowels and movements of the consonants, and the variations they cause in the functions of the resonator, afford endless opportunities for in- dividual research, which the sensitive ears of teachers could materially assist. The analysis of vocal sound into its components is work that only carefully trained ears, such as theirs, can undertake, and much Ught might be thrown upon the action of the resonator in producing ' tone ' by such observations. The vocal cords themselves I should advise musicians to leave alone, for the direct investigation of such an unconscious mechanism is practically beyond their reach. The indirect examination of the attack, continuity and release of the note, the estimation of the vocal compass and such questions are, however, always before them. Phrasing and expression and all that belongs to the art of music is their own particular province of study, and it is notable in musical hterature how little has been written on the subject of Song in comparison with other subjects. So that there is a great deal for them to write about in preference to conjectural physiology. 148 THE VOICE VOCAL EDUCATION Once, when stating the general claims of phonology, I was told by a high musical authority that there was so much else which singers had to be taught that their curriculum could not be increased, and I have often wondered since, what so many young singers, turned out year after year, could have devoted their time to in preference to the rudiments of breathing and pro- nunciation. However much that may be the case, it is also true that a great deal of a singer's training has nothing whatever to do with music. One of the results of phonological advance is the clear conviction that it has become necessary to re- organise our present system of voice education. Not even for the sake of argument do I intend to criticise the old system, for it is a far stronger and more truly scientific principle to uphold and promote what is sound, and to leave what is unsound to natural processes. I shall, therefore, simply state the course of voice development which phonological principles would prescribe. It should be borne in mind that — (1) Phonological development includes all that con- cerns the voice from the beginning to the end. (2) The sounding properties of the voice organs, subject to their own welfare, and to the particular functions they have to perform, are to form the guiding priuciple of their education. VOCAL EDUCATION 149 (3) The road to perfection in song is the same as that which leads to perfection in speech, but goes further. Children. — Particular care must be taken to provide the new-born infant with ample room in its swaddhng- clothes for full expansion of the lungs. Bandages and tapes round the lower ribs are to be discouraged. Every opportunity is to be taken to secure the passage of breath through the nose from the first. No child should be allowed to acquire the habit of breathing through the mouth either night or day. I respect the enlighten- ment of those American Indian tribes who tie up the babies' mouths when they are not being fed. The infant, thus muted and muzzled, learns to keep quiet and not to bite everything, as well as to breathe through the nose — all inestimable advantages. Nothing does the nose so much good as breathing through it. I need not go into all the important medical reasons for this. I will only mention that the growth of the upper jaw depends upon the proper dilation of the nasal cavity, and the constantly open mouth pro- duces the undersized lower jaw and receding chin. So that neglect of the nose may be the cause of grave difficulties in the speech organs as well as of adenoids and other obstructions. I should Uke also to draw attention to the importance of keeping the nose straight. Children should be carefully handled in this respect and taught to use their handkerchiefs with two hands, for tiie use of one hand only is liable to bend the cartilages. The sooner children can be taught to stand up 150 THE VOICE straight and expand their lungs the better. Quite little ones can be induced to heave a few deep sighs through the nose and to use their lower ribs when their chests are gently grasped with both hands. Any nurse can see to this morning and evening with advantage. When children begin to make sounds it is quite as easy for them to imitate good ones as bad ones, and it is therefore advisable to begin early with the best models. 'Mah-mah' and ' Nah-nah ' are to be en- couraged with open mouth and nasal consonants. If, however, they should say * Bah-bah ' and ' Dah-dah ' some nasal obstruction may be suspected. Every word a child is tkught to say should be con- sidered more from the point of view of its soimd than its sense, and carefully pronounced for it to imitate. With the learning of its own native language the child's education begins. We now come to an important step in our phono- logical programme. A teacher who is to guide the process of learning a language ought to be acquainted with the phonological laws of prontmciation. He, or she, ought to be able to watch the organs of articulation, to see that they are properly used, and to help even small children to speak distinctly, if not correctly. The most enhghtened modem Elementary School teachers have, I beheve, already gone far in estabhshing a system by which children become famiUar with the sounds of words and the names of objects, before they are troubled with the letters of the alphabet. This interesting process is one in which phonology can be VOCAL EDUCATION 151 made directly useful, and it is hoped that in the Training Colleges for Elementary Teachers a definite uniform plan in accordance with its principles may finally be adopted. In the later schools where Enghsh Language and Literature, and the Classics and Modem Languages are studied, the principles of pronunciation and vocal sound can be applied directly with less difficulty. It is at that age that children begin to have a httle control over their speech organs and can understand the forma- tion of vowels with the mouth open, the free move- ments of the consonants, the open throat and all such matters that lay in their voices the foundation of future excellence. The teachers, in both public and private institutions of this kind, already reaUse the benefit of systematising the subject of pronunciation so that their work may be uniform and continuous in the various departments, and are also aware of the credit they can gain by the good manner of speaking and pronouncing to be heard among their pupils. Adults. — An important poiat in connection with the Training Colleges is that the teachers very willingly take up the subject, on account of the benefit to them- selves, of learning to manage their own voices to greater advantage. It is in reahty a practical necessity to most teachers who have to use their voices for many hours a day. Here, however, we begia to speak of adult teaching. With the growth of the understanding comes the desire to use the voice in many ways beyond the ordinary 152 THE VOICE limits of conversation. Public speaking of any kind requires some extra training in order to bring the natural uses of tbe voice up to the level of the demands made upon it. Thus with the full growth of the body the fuller development of the breath and resonating organs is advanced as a necessary part of a man's or woman's equipment for the speaking professions. If good phonological principles have been carried out from the first, very httle extra study should be neces- sary. If, on the other hand, the voice ^has been entirely neglected up to this point, as is generally the case at present, it is still possible to enter upon the process of acquiring better habits of speech and pro- nunciation ; but it should be remembered that the later the start, the more difficult the change and the slower the improvement. Taking all things into consideration, the provision of school teachers with a uniform phonological system is the most promising scheme for improving the national habits of speech. Affecting directly, as it then would, the elementary and secondary, public and private schools, it would naturally find its way into the uni- versities, and very Uttle, if any, additional training would be required for the Church, the Bar, Politics, or the Stage. Then comes the important vocal question of singing. Very great care would be exercised in the junior schools, by any masters acquainted with phonology, in the matter of allowing singing. The vocal cords are easily strained during their growth. In girls the growth goes on more or less steadily up to the age of about VOCAL EDUCATION 153 sixteen or seventeen, so ttat what was within their compass one year, might be too high for it the next. Boys go through the soprano stage and change rapidly at the end of it, when all singing must cease for about two years or so. Most boys who have beautiful soprano voices strain them during that and the transition period, so that they cannot sing later in life. A httle singing may, of course, be allowed and encouraged in the schools, especially when it is required to be associated with good pronunciation, as it woidd be in proper hands. But it has to be watched very care- fully to guard against strain and fatigue, the ill effects of which may be permanent. At the age of seventeen, boys and girls may expect to begin their training iu singing if their musical faculties are considered worthy of the attempt. If the right phonological principles have already been apphed to the perfection of the speech organs, progress in vocalising can be rapidly made, and such training would not be the arduous struggle which it often is. If the voice has not had that advan- tage, two years should be spent upon it before attempting to approach the more musical part of the training. To introduce musical phrases into an undeveloped resonator is Hke playing upon an instru- ment before it is properly finished, and it is only too likely to end in the disappointments which are so common under the present system from the same cause. It is therefore necessary that a real voice master should be acquainted with all that phonological science 154 THE VOICE can teach him, for that alone can give him proper authority to deal with the development of the vocal instrmnents. If he is not a musician he can direct the process as far as the completion of the powers of speech. Only when he adds music to his other qualifications can he be permitted to carry on the instruction into the art of song. But a musician without special phono- logical knowledge can only be entrusted with the care of a voice which has already been brought to the sing- ing stage by proper training, and it wiU still be necessary to keep that voice under phonological supervision in order to guard it against habits detrimental to it as a whole, which are not infrequently acquired in the course of musical study. This plan has much to recommend it, for it opens the subject of singing to all qualified musicians, and enables the phonological voice master to watch the whole process and correct in good time errors which are too often allowed to continue until they have done permanent harm. From this accoimt of phonological voice education it might be thought that the province of the singing master is being invaded. But that is not exactly the case. Phonology insists only upon the great difierence between a singing master and a voice master. There is no reason why a master should not be both, by being doubly qualified in music and phonology, but with a single quahfication only, he cannot be more than one or the other. As a musician he has a large field open to him in bringing the enormous amoimt of music which is written for the voice to the perfection of its interpreta- tion. That is his real province, and he is not entitled VOCAL EDUCATION 155 to go out^de it unless he is prepared to undertake the whole development of the instrument he employs. If he does so he is bound to quahfy himself iu the know- ledge that enables him to recognise and to direct the education of all the elements that combine to form the singing voice. What science can teach him of that purely physiological process he, as a voice master, must then know. And when the problems of breathing and the training of the speech organs are brought before him, he must be able to undertake their complete cultivation without any uncertainty or vagueness. He must be able to teach the fuU phonological value and linguistic accuracy of the soimds of language, since every vocal note emitted must pass through the resonator. Indeed, as already indicated, the work of the voice master has most to do with breathing and the pro- duction of speech by the resonator. The vibrating vocal cords are so unconscious that teaching, except as regards the onset, continuity and cessation of their sound, can hardly be said to apply to them. It is, therefore, by the excellence of the breath control and speech organs that a voice master would expect to be judged, and fine phrasing and diction are the best evidence of good training. Vocalising betrays more often the competence or incompetence of the singer than of the master, although its technique may be facihtated by the proper control of the other factors. The course of phonological instruction which is here advocated for teachers of all stibjects which involve speaking or singing is the same, and includes — 156 THE VOICE (1) Study of respiration and the best means oi acquiring a full volume of air and complete control over it. (2) Study of the resonator and all its functions in producing the sounds of language and the tone of vocal sound. (3) Study of the vibrator and the natural principles of producing vocal notes. (4) Study of general vocal requirements in all branches of speaking and singing. A special institution for the pursuit of these studies does not at present exist, nor is it as yet decided whether existing alHed institutions wiU open departments for that purpose. The subject itself is not a new one, but the phonological way of regarding it is not yet fully understood by educational authorities. The general interest in it, however, increases, and the volume of our phonological knowledge is being extended by research, and those who are working at it are better satisfied with gradual changes than with excited or over- advertised reforms. VOICE PEESERVATION It is not possible to leave the subject of voice educa- tion without adding something on behalf of its proper preservation. The vibrator upon which the sound depends is extra- ordinarily tenacious and active, but in the greater performances of the voice it is subjected to very VOICE PEESERVATION 157 considerable strain. The wonder is tliat so powerful a sound can be produced by so small an organ. It has, however, its limitations Uke every other Uving organ, and like these also, when habitually overtaxed, is liable to changes Vhich destroy its natural function beyond recovery. In the tender years of growth this is most particularly the case, and a whole lifetime of beautiful soimd can easily be sacrificed for the sake of a httle showing ofE in childhood. It is only with the completion of manhood and womanhood that the flower of the voice attains its true significance. There is no gainsaying this great vital fact, and the ancient maxim that ' children should be seen and not heard ' is as true in ordinary Ufe as it is upon the stage and public platforms. In adult life, especially when the voice is important to a profession, as much care should be bestowed upon the sounding instrument as would be given to any of the other organs of special sense. Those who value their eyes should not habitually read until the sight fails, nor is the neighbourhood of cannon or machinery good for the dehcacy of the ear, and so also should those who have any caring for the voice avoid shouting or screaming themselves hoarse, whatever their excitement may be. There are, of course, all the general hygienic pre- cautions, such as the moderation of tobacco and spirits, and the avoidance of dusty and ill-ventilated atmo- spheres; but what concerns the subject of phonology most particularly is that the whole course of voice training should lead up to the best means of preserving 158 THE VOICE the health of the vocal cords. The development and control of the breath force and its entire responsibiUty for vocal sound, without any ' glottic shocks ' or con- strictions in the larynx, give to the vocal cords the proper freedom within the limits of natural compass. The full expansion in the neck by the stemo-thyroid muscles acting from below the larynx, and the free and forward pbsition of the tongue, not only relieve the vocal vibration from any obstruction in the throat, but also, by giving them resonant reinforcement, add to the sound and diminish the strain upon the cords. In fact, the fuU development of breath control and resonator acts beneficially upon the vibrator and gives it less work to do. Moreover, the mechanisms of the breath and resonator are practically indestructible, and go on steadily improving so long as they are kept up to the mark by gentle exercise. Such exercise, as we know, can be carefully carried out without any sound beyond that of a soft whisper. In later life the general elasticity of all the tissues to some extent declines, but when the other factors are strongly developed it is often extraordinary to notice how Httle the vigour of the voice is affected by sUght impairment of the cords. Examples of this phenomenon are so numerous that it is unnecessary to mention them. The hfe history of the voice points so emphatically to the resonator as the basis of both the education and the preservation of our powers of speech and song, that there is no longer any warranty for vagueness or inde- cision in the matter. Vocal education is thus brought VOICE PRESEBVATION 159 out of the region of mystery, and made plain and straightforward, I would even say obvious, and quite within the powers of understanding of anyone who will take the trouble to learn what the voice really is, and what the science of phonology can practically demonstrate. Printed by Spottiswoodb, Ballantyne &■ Co. Ltd. Colchester, London &• Eton, England