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Cornell University Library 
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 Psychoanalysis and behavior, 
 
 3 1924 014 101 947 
 
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 http://www.archive.org/details/cu31 92401 41 01 947 
 
PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 AND BEHAVIOR 
 
 BY 
 ANDRE TRIDON 
 
 "Since humanity came into being, man has 
 enjoyed himself too little. That alone, my 
 brethren, is our original sin." 
 
 Nietzsche. 
 
 NEW YORK ALFRED ■ A • KNOPF 1920 
 
COPYRIGHT, 1920, BY 
 ALFRED A. KNOPF, Inc. 
 
 (3 
 "Bri75 
 
 ^ I cj 3 % u| 
 
 PBINTBD IN THB UNITED STATES OT AUSBIOA 
 
This book 
 
 is respectfully dedicated to 
 
 Dr. Edward J. Kempf 
 
 of Washington, D. C. 
 
The author acknowledges his indebtedness to 
 Dr. N. Philip Norman, Dr. Edward J. Kempf, Miss 
 Helena De Kay, H. L. Mencken, Esq., Dr. Elizabeth 
 Severn, Israel Spielberg, Esq., and Carl Dreher, 
 Esq., who have either supplied him with material 
 for the present book, or revised his manuscript or 
 offered valuable editorial suggestions. 
 
PREFACE 
 
 This is an attempt at interpreting human conduct 
 from the psychoanalytical point of view. The un- 
 conscious and involuntary play a tremendous part 
 in human life, the more tremendous as they usually 
 masquerade as conscious and voluntary. Courts 
 and public opinion, disregarding that fact, either 
 praise or condemn, either reward or punish. Psy- 
 choanalysis passes no judgments and only seeks to 
 understand and help. 
 
 The author has not felt the necessity of restating 
 historical and theoretical facts to which he devoted 
 a previous book: "Psychoanalysis, its history, 
 theory and practice." The various schools of an- 
 alysis, however, having reached almost identical 
 conclusions as to human behaviour, although they 
 started from different premises, the last four chap- 
 ters of the present book shall describe the paths 
 followed by the four best known psychoanalysts, 
 Freud, Jung, Adler and Kempf . 
 
 Andre Tridon. 
 121 Madison Avenue, 
 
 New York City. September 1920. 
 
TABLE OF CONTENTS 
 
 Preface, 7 
 
 I. THE ORGANISM 
 
 I. The Unconscious, 13 
 
 II. Body and Mind, an Indivisible Unit, 23 
 III. Nerves and Nervousness, 34 
 
 II. PROBLEMS OF CHILDHOOD 
 
 I. Childhood Fixations, 53 
 
 II. The Sexual Enlightenment of Chil- 
 
 dren, 66 
 
 III. PROGRESS AND REGRESSIONS 
 
 I. The Negative and the Positive Life, 87 
 
 II. Speech and Memory Defects, 107 
 
 III. Scapegoats, 115 
 
 IV. Dual Personauties, 129 
 
 V. How One Woman became Insane, 146 
 VI. The Neurotic Aspects of War, 165 
 
 IV. SLEEP AND DREAMS 
 
 I. Sleep, Sleeplessness and Nightmares, 
 
 185 
 
 II. Self-knowledge Through Dream Study, 
 
 201 
 
 V. PROBLEMS OF SEX 
 
 I. The Love Life, 219 
 
 II. Can We Subumate Our Cravings? 239 
 
 III, Puritanism, a Dignified Neurosis, 252 
 
Contents 
 
 VI. THE PSYCHOANALYTIC TREATMENT 
 I. Hypnotist and Analyst, 269 
 
 VII. THE FOUR SCHOOLS OF PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 I. Freud. The Pioneer, 289 
 II. Jung. The Zurich School, 305 
 in. Adler. Individual Psychology, 319 
 IV. Kempf. Dynamic Mechanism, 331 
 
 VIH. INDEX, 351 
 
I. THE ORGANISM 
 
CHAPTER I: THE UNCONSCIOUS 
 
 To the majority of people, our conscious life 
 appears as the most important, if not the only im- 
 portant, form of life. Most of our rules of 
 behaviour, most of our judgments on human 
 actions are based upon that estimate of our con- 
 scious life. 
 
 And yet we are conscious of very few things at 
 a time and we are conscious of each one of those 
 things only for variable, some times, very short 
 periods. 
 
 After a week, a day, an hour or a fraction of 
 a second, the various things we were conscious of 
 drop out of our consciousness, temporarily or per- 
 manently. We may witness a theatrical perform- 
 ance, be conscious of it that evening, think of it 
 perhaps the next day, mention it several times in 
 conversation, remember it years after when it is 
 alluded to in our presence, and then "forget it." 
 
 But the impression made on us by that per- 
 formance does not die off. It only becomes un- 
 conscious. That impression and millions of others 
 are stored up in our "unconscious" where they con- 
 tinue to live as unconscious elements. 
 
 [13] 
 
Psychoanalysis and Behaviour 
 
 These impressions meant either active or passive 
 reactions to certain stimulations, the yielding to or 
 resistance to those stimulations, memory-images of 
 satisfied cravings and of repressed cravings, joy or 
 pain, longing or hatred, in other words, all our life 
 from the day of our birth, with all its struggles 
 against reality, its compromises with reality, its 
 victories and defeats, etc. 
 
 All that past which we are constantly carrying 
 with us and to which we are constantly adding, is 
 bound, according to what elements predominate in 
 it, to colour strongly our conscious view of life and 
 to determine our conscious activities. 
 
 A neurologist, a sexual pervert, a sculptor and a 
 manicure would react very differently to the sight 
 of a woman's hand. An egotist would be unable 
 to notice in his environment things of a neutral 
 type, that is, unlikely to affect his egotism favour- 
 ably or unfavourably. To a farmer, a certain ac- 
 cumulation of clouds might only suggest a danger 
 to his crops; the same meteorological phenomenon 
 might transport a painter with artistic joy. A 
 chemist or a sailor would place a totally different 
 construction on their observations of the same 
 clouds. 
 
 We know that unconscious factors cause us to 
 engage in certain forms of activity, to become in- 
 [14] 
 
What Made Me Do That? 
 
 sane, to fall asleep or to remain sleepless, to love 
 a certain type and to remain frigid to another. 
 They influence our methods of reasoning, making 
 us at times illogical and one-sided, stubborn and 
 unjust. 
 
 In other words our entire life is influenced, if 
 not entirely determined, by unconscious factors. 
 
 Our unconscious is the greatest time and energy 
 saving machine, provided it functions normally. 
 Some of our simplest conscious acts presuppose 
 an enormous amount of unconscious work. Step- 
 ping aside to dodge ah automobile, simple as it 
 appears, is only made possible by innumerable 
 "mental" and "physical" operations such as realiz- 
 ing the nature, size, direction and speed, of the 
 dangerous object, selecting a safe spot at a certain 
 distance from it, performing the necessary muscu- 
 lar actions, etc., etc. 
 
 On the other hand we may, without any apparent 
 reason, perform useless, absurd, harmful actions 
 and be genuinely grieved or puzzled over our 
 behaviour. We ask ourselves "What made me 
 do that?" 
 
 Our unconscious made us do that. Our be- 
 haviour was dominated and determined by one or 
 several factors unknown to us and which, unless 
 investigated systematically, may remain unknown, 
 
 [15] 
 
Psychoanalysis and Behaviour 
 
 puzzling, detrimental, if not dangerous, and may 
 at some future time be once more the cause of 
 irrational behaviour. 
 
 Our unconscious "contains" two sorts of 
 "thoughts" : those which rise easily to the surface 
 of our consciousness and those which remain at the 
 bottom and can only be made to rise with more or 
 less difficulty. 
 
 Our unconscious is like a pool into which dead 
 leaves, dust, rain drops and a thousand other things 
 are falling day after day, some of them floating on 
 the surface for a while, some sinking to the bottom 
 and, all of them, after a while, merging themselves 
 with the water or the ooze. Let us suppose that 
 two dead dogs, one of them weighted down with a 
 stone, have been thrown into that pool. They will 
 poison its waters, and people wishing to use those 
 waters will have to rake the ooze and remove the 
 rotting carrion. The dog whose body was not 
 fastened to any heavy object will easily be brought 
 to the surface and removed. The other will be 
 more difficult to recover and if the stone is very 
 heavy, may remain in the pool until ways and 
 means are devised to dismember him or to cut the 
 rope holding him down. 
 
 Another simile might be offered. Out of fifty 
 persons assembled in a room, not one may be think- 
 [16] 
 
The Unconscious Is Permanent 
 
 ing of the multiplication table. Yet if some one 
 points out three chairs worth six dollars a piece and 
 asks the audience how much the three together are 
 worth, the part of the multiplication table contain- 
 ing the answer shall rise to the surface of every- 
 body's consciousness, to sink back into the 
 unconscious a second later. 
 
 Other thoughts would not rise so willingly into 
 consciousness: those associated with some painful 
 or humiliating memory or with the repression of 
 some human craving. Only a special effort aided 
 by many association tests will in certain cases cut 
 the rope that holds those "dead dogs tied to their 
 paving stone." 
 
 Such thoughts are called complexes and they 
 are the most disturbing element in our life, for, 
 unknown to us, they exert a strong influence on all 
 our mental operations and on our bodily activities. 
 
 It is not so much our consciousness as our un- 
 conscious which IS our personality. Our conscious 
 thoughts are fleeting and changing, our unconscious 
 is more permanent. If we take a list of some 
 himdred words and ask a person to tell us what 
 comes at once to his mind when he hears each word 
 spoken, it will be noticed that the answers which 
 come without any hesitancy would be the same 
 several months afterward. Those answers, in fact, 
 
 [17] 
 
Psychoanalysis and Behaviour 
 
 by their wording, present a striking picture of the 
 personality, a picture which only changes when the 
 personality undergoes distinct modifications. 
 
 Only the words referring to the person's com- 
 plexes are likely to change, as if the unconscious 
 was trying to conceal the place where the "dead 
 dogs" have been buried. In reaction tests, in fact, 
 the subject's failure to give the same answer is 
 taken to indicate a hidden complex. But even 
 the varying answers given in such cases are closely 
 related to one another. 
 
 When we remember how our unconscious has 
 "grown," that is, through the accumulation of 
 memories and repressions from the day of our 
 birth, or even from our prenatal existence to the 
 present day, we must realize that a large proportion 
 of the elements which constitute it is primitive, 
 infantile or childlike, unadapted or only partly 
 adapted. Its influence on our behaviour is not 
 likely, therefore, to facilitate our adaptation to 
 the innumerable rules imposed by a more and more 
 complex civilization. 
 
 Through all our life our unconscious follows 
 us like the shadow of an archaic self, prompting us 
 to seek a line of lesser resistance, or to give up 
 the struggle with the modem world, to indulge 
 ourselves in many ways which are no longer accept- 
 [18] 
 
Wrong Suggestions 
 
 able socially; when childlike or infantile elements 
 predominate in it, its influence may unfit us com- 
 pletely for life in modem communities unless we 
 are brought to a clear realization of the ghostly 
 power masquerading as ourselves and which tries 
 to pull us back. 
 
 When the man we were yesterday offers us sug- 
 gestions as to conduct, we are probably safe in 
 accepting them. When the boy we were at 15, en- 
 deavours to convince us that his way was the only 
 way, the struggle for mastery between ourselves 
 and the boy may usher in a neurosis. When the 
 infant we were at one or two years of age, coaxes 
 us to indulge ourselves as he did and we yield to 
 his entreaties, we may regress temporarily or per- 
 manently to a level at which we shall be adjudged 
 insane. 
 
 Academic psychologists have suggested a num- 
 ber of very interesting but meaningless words to 
 designate the varying degrees of unconsciousness, 
 such as foireconscious, preconscious, subconscious. 
 
 For scientific purposes the word unconscious is 
 sufficient. Instead of distinguishing degrees of un- 
 consciousness which may easily change, it is pref- 
 erable to assign reasons for unconsciousness. 
 The multiplication table in the above illustration 
 
 [19] 
 
Psychoanalysis and Behaviour 
 
 was unconscious because it was not needed, for 
 reasons of economy. It became conscious when 
 needed. Other factors, mentioned previously, re- 
 main unconscious because the thought of them is re- 
 pressed or suppressed. Some are forgotten, be- 
 cause they are insignificant, some because the 
 memory of them is weighted with unpleasant con- 
 notations as one of the dead dogs was weighted with 
 a paving stone. 
 
 It is the task of psychoanalysis to make us 
 thoroughly familiar with the content of our uncon- 
 scious that we may on every occasion determine 
 whether the voices talking to us from the past 
 buried in us are the voices of civilization or the 
 voices of regression. 
 
 Psychoanalysis forewarns us against any undue 
 influence it may exert in the conduct of our lives 
 and helps those of us who may have listened to the 
 wrong voice to free themselves from their slavery. 
 
 Instead of saying, as academic psychologists 
 would put it, that the psychoanalytic technique can 
 make unconscious factors foreconscious and 
 finally conscious we should say that it can estab- 
 lish a relation of cause-effect between certain acts 
 and certain unconscious factors. 
 
 For that reason psychoanalysis is the only key to 
 an xmderstanding of human behaviour. Ethics 
 [20] 
 
Every Case Is Peculiar 
 
 and statute books only record the various com- 
 promises which mankind in its onward march has 
 had to make with reality. They have, however, no 
 absolutely scientific value, because they are based 
 upon the conception of an inexistent being, the 
 average human being. 
 
 Psychoanalysis on the other hand discards the 
 "average" man or woman and deals solely with the 
 individual. 
 
 The neurotic applying for treatment who states 
 that his case is a "very peculiar one" is both right 
 and wrong. His case as a clinical picture is prob- 
 ably a very common one but as the content of one 
 man's unconscious is necessarily very different 
 from that of any other man's unconscious, no case 
 can be prejudged from the observations made in 
 any other case. Every case is "peculiar." 
 
 The law and current ethics criticize or punish a 
 pool for containing a dead dog which is held down 
 by a powerful weight, and for poisoning those who 
 drink of its water. 
 
 Psychoanalysis looks for the corpse at the bot- 
 tom of the pool and endeavours to remove it. 
 Neither before nor after the operation does it pass 
 judgments or pronounce sentences. 
 
 To understand is to forgive, but in spite of its 
 frankly determinist attitude in matters of behaviour, 
 
 [21] 
 
Psychoanalysis and Behaviour 
 
 psychoanalysis does not condone unethical or 
 criminal behaviour. Hygienists would not insult 
 or punish the infected pool but they would fence 
 it off until the contaminating substances had been 
 removed. Irrational and criminal individuals 
 should be likewise restrained and isolated, not for 
 purposes of castigation, but until such time when 
 dangerous factors in their imconscious have been 
 removed and when re-education has enabled them 
 to resume their place among normal individuals. 
 
 BIBLIOGRAPHY 
 
 The subject of the unconscious is discussed very clearly 
 in non-technical language by William Lay in "Man's Un- 
 conscious Conflict" (Dodd, Mead and Co.) pages 48 
 to 126. 
 
 This book is an excellent primer for those who wish to 
 familiarize themselves with the terminology of psycho- 
 analysis. 
 
 Advanced readers may study Jung's book "Psychology 
 of the Unconscious" (Moffat Yard) which requires a 
 certain knowledge of folklore, ancient religions and 
 psychiatry. 
 
 The chapters on Instincts, Memory Images and Trop- 
 isms in Jacques Loeb's "Forced Movements, Tropisms 
 and Animal Conduct" (Lippincott) will also prove very 
 valuable from the mechanistic point of view. 
 
 [22] 
 
CHAPTER II: BODY AND MIND, AN INDI- 
 VISIBLE UNIT 
 
 Academic psychologists simplify their tasks by 
 allotting the body to physiologists and occupying 
 themselves exclusively with the mind. Applied 
 psychology of the analytical type has been com- 
 pelled to discard that arbitrary division of the 
 human organism into "mental" and "physical." 
 
 Physiologists prying their way into obscure 
 "physical" phenomena have innumerable times 
 reached a sort of middle kingdom in which it seems 
 impossible to produce anything "physical" without 
 producing at the same tinie something "mental," 
 in which, to every "physical" stimulation, there cor- 
 responds a "mental" effect and to every "mental" 
 stimulation corresponds a "physical" effect. 
 
 After observing the constant interrelation exist- 
 ing between secretions, attitudes and emotions, one 
 no longer feels justified in speaking vaguely of the 
 influence of the mind on the body or reciprocally. 
 One can no longer understand life unless one 
 admits that mind and body are one. 
 
 The task of the psychoanalyst would be a hope- 
 
 [23] 
 
Psychoanalysis and Behaviour 
 
 less one if he ever attempted to study the so-called 
 "mental" disturbances as purely "psychic" phe- 
 nomena; the physician who would treat bodily ail- 
 ments as purely "physical" manifestations would 
 be baffled and impotent. 
 
 It is only the profoundly ignorant who at the 
 present day pretend to know the limits of the physi- 
 cal and of the mental and attempt to attribute 
 certain phenomena to the mind and others to the 
 body. 
 
 Cut off a frog's head, thereby removing the brain 
 which is commonly supposed to be the seat of the 
 mind, of the intelligence, of consciousness, etc. 
 The frog then should be " entirely dead" or at least 
 should not be expected to perform any act, except 
 of a purely reflex type, showing any "intelligence." 
 And yet if you apply a strong stimulus such as a 
 drop of prussic acid to the skin of the frog's 
 stomach, one of the legs will at once try to reach 
 the burnt spot and to remove the harmful stimulus. 
 
 Such a "reflex" act proves that, even in the 
 absence of any thinking apparatus, the organism 
 is aware that something harmful is happening to 
 one of its parts and endeavours to perform appro- 
 priate motions to protect itself against further 
 destruction. 
 
 If a set of nerves and muscles can "think" as 
 [24] 
 
Nervous Hunger 
 
 clearly as that, unassisted by any brain or mind, 
 the so-called purely physical must be endowed with 
 a remarkable proportion of "mentality." 
 
 The deplorable inaccuracy of the words mental 
 and physical is well illustrated by experiments 
 made on dogs. 
 
 Feed a dog every possible morsel that will induce 
 him to overeat until the beast turns in disgust from 
 the most appetizing food. 
 
 Inject into that overfed dog blood from a dog 
 who has been kept hungry for two days and the 
 overfed dog will throw himself on food "as though" 
 he were hungry. 
 
 The same experiment could probably be per- 
 formed as successfully on a man. The man, how- 
 ever, would wonder at the possibility of his experi- 
 encing hunger after being surfeited with all sorts 
 of dainties. He would doubt the testimony of his 
 "senses," and speak of "nervous hunger," of 
 "imaginary himger," vague terms which explain 
 nothing. 
 
 If a dog is infuriated by the presence of a cat, 
 he will display for "reasons" which to him and 
 the onlookers appear "plausible" and "logical," 
 symptoms of anger such as the dilatation of his 
 pupils, bristling of the hair, snarling, stiffening of 
 the body, defensive poses. 
 
 [25] 
 
Psychoanalysis and Behaviour 
 
 Inject a small amount of adrenin into the veins 
 of that dog or any other dog of not especially 
 vicious disposition, and in the absence of any cat or 
 any other disturbing element, he will, "without any 
 reason" stare, snarl, bristle up his hair, and gener- 
 ally express, through threatening attitudes, violent 
 anger. 
 
 When large amounts of adrenin are released into 
 the human blood stream owing to the abnormal 
 functioning of certain glands, set in motion per- 
 haps by some obscure unconscious thought, a man 
 may likewise assume an attitude of anger, "without 
 any reason," and may justify his attitude by "imag- 
 ining" a grudge against some people, or impatience 
 at certain things. His attitude may later on appear 
 to him absurd and incomprehensible. He may 
 then excuse himself on the plea that "he lost control 
 of himself" or "he was not himself." 
 
 A crowd may congregate and indulge in some 
 ridiculous or violent deed of which, the following 
 day, every individual member may feel deeply 
 ashamed. "Crowd psychology," "mob suggestion" 
 will then be invoked, the assumption being that all 
 the individuals constituting the crowd had at one 
 time a sort of "collective mind" dominated by one 
 and the same obsessive "thought." 
 
 A curious light is thrown upon the behaviour of 
 [26] 
 
Moh Psychology 
 
 mobs by the behaviour of copepods, small crusta- 
 ceans, when carbonated water or beer or alcohol 
 are poured into the aquarium in which they disport 
 themselves. As long as their water remains pure, 
 they are apparently in full possession of theii? 
 "free will" and displace themselves as they please. 
 As soon as the ingredients mentioned above are 
 added to the water, they all abandon their occupa- 
 tions and go to mass themselves at the end of the 
 aquarium which is turned toward the light. 
 
 If one continues to drop at intervals small quan- 
 tities of carbonated or alcoholic liquids into the 
 aquarium, the little mob remains in the same posi- 
 tion. It cannot turn round. Nor can the helpless 
 animals partake of their food, if that food happens 
 to be placed at the opposite end of the aquarium, 
 that is, away from the source of light. 
 
 Drain the polluted water or place the copepods 
 into fresh water and the mob will soon disperse, 
 each small animal regaining its freedom of indi- 
 vidual motion and of direction. 
 
 Pour into the aquarium strychnin, caffein or 
 atropin and the copepods will once more gather 
 into a mob, this time, however, at the end of the 
 aquarium furthest removed from the light. 
 
 Their previous "fondness" for sunlight has been 
 replaced by a "craving" for darkness. 
 
 [27] 
 
Psychoanalysis and Behaviour 
 
 Prophets, artists, reformers, lovers, may undergo 
 all sorts of trials, brave starvation and death in 
 order to seek their ideal, and some day they may 
 forsake their ideal. Lovers having recovered from 
 their "infatuation" may recall with astonishment or 
 shame many absurd things they said or did once 
 and look upon their former love object with disgust 
 or even hatred. 
 
 Certain animals like copepods can be fooled a 
 number of times and be made to fall in love now 
 with the sun, now with the darkness. Others which, 
 were they human beings, would be said to learn 
 very quickly from experience, are never victimized 
 but once by their "idealistic cravings" and after- 
 ward lead a perfectly "sensible" life. 
 
 Take some newly hatched caterpillars and de- 
 posit them at the foot of a rod or stick on which 
 the sunlight is shining. They wiU all climb to the 
 top and stay there, staring at the sun, apparently 
 engrossed in the contemplation of their "ideal." 
 In fact they would starve to death unless some one 
 fed them a small piece of green leaf. 
 
 As soon as they partake of that food, their 
 obsessive sun worship seems to disappear. They 
 climb down the barren stick and seek other stores 
 of food, never bothering any more with the sun or 
 other sources of light. 
 [28] 
 
The Electric Dog 
 
 Watch the behaviour of bees at mating time. 
 Male and female can only fly in one direction, that 
 is toward the sun, and their amorous ecstasy car- 
 ries them into "higher regions," "uplifts" them, 
 takes them "far from the earth." The sexual act 
 performed, they both become once more crea- 
 tures of the earth, fly back to thei^ native hive 
 and no longer feel the "fascination of the empy- 
 rean." 
 
 An invention described recently in publications 
 devoted to electrical science shows how difficult it 
 would be to draw an absolute line of demarkation 
 between actions apparently due to physical and 
 chemical causes and actions apparently due to the 
 exercise of our "wiU power" and promptedT by 
 "feelings," etc. 
 
 The electric dog has two eyes supplied with 
 condensing lenses focussed on two selenium cells. 
 Selenium is an element whose electrical properties 
 change under the influence of light. The selenium 
 cells control two electro-magnetic switches. Two 
 motors, on the right and left, can propel the dog 
 forward or backward. 
 
 When light, as for instance from a small flash 
 lamp, is thrown on both eyes, the current is switched 
 on to both motors and the dog advances toward the 
 light. When the lamp is held to the right, the right 
 
 [29] 
 
Psychoanalysis and Behaviour 
 
 motor only is actuated and the dog turns to the 
 right. The dog follows the light in the most com- 
 plicated mancEuvres. Shade the light and the dog 
 stops; reverse the motors and the dog runs away 
 from the light, dodging it wherever it may come 
 from. 
 
 Thus a moth will rush toward a flame, thus 
 owls fly in distress from any bright light, thus 
 human beings are perhaps "propelled" toward a 
 goal, which they think they are striving for, thus 
 the races of the earth once started on their westward 
 wanderings, thus cities and towns, when not re- 
 strained by natural obstacles of an insuperable 
 nature, like mountains or bodies of water, spread 
 to the westward. 
 
 Naturalists manage to make the problem a little 
 more complicated by telling us that animals and 
 plants which are "fond" of light, that is which are 
 involuntarily and unavoidably determined by light, 
 are also "fond" of blue and green, while animals 
 which are negatively heliotropic, that is "fond" of 
 darkness and afraid of light, are "fond" of the 
 colour red. 
 
 And experiments on thousands of human beings 
 have revealed that men are most deeply aff'ected by 
 blue, women by red. 
 
 Whenever experiments first made on animals 
 [30] 
 
Cats, Dogs and Men 
 
 have been tried on human beings their results have 
 been found to confirm the first observations. 
 
 We know that the same method of training makes 
 both a man and a passenger pidgeon sexual per- 
 verts. Laboratory experiments have proved that 
 female cats and female dogs react more slowly to 
 anger stimuli than the males of both species, the 
 result being a smaller percentage of sugar found in 
 their urine. Observations made on college students 
 of both sexes prove that the rule holds good when 
 human beings are concerned. Human subjects, un- 
 fortunately, cannot be used as frequently as they 
 should be to assure us of the universal application 
 of certain biological and biochemical laws. 
 
 Some day when we abandon our wasteful method 
 of dealing with criminals and give imredeemable 
 offenders an opportunity to pay for the damage 
 they have inflicted by submitting to scientific ex- 
 periments likely at times to result in death, we may 
 be able to ascertain accurately in what measure 
 chemical determinism, for example, rules the lives 
 of men. 
 
 Specialization being the only road to thorough 
 knowledge and efficiency, body and mind must at 
 present, for the sake of convenience, be treated 
 separately when in distress. Internist and analyst, 
 however, must co-operate, both applying the latest 
 
 [31] 
 
Psychoanalysis and Behaviour 
 
 methods devised in their particular field and sub- 
 mitting to each other the doubtful details of every 
 case. 
 
 While analysts agree that innumerable diseases 
 of the so-called physical variety are induced or 
 invited by some unconscious predisposing factor, 
 no analyst denies the value of medical help or 
 would suggest doing without it. If a subject has 
 been so weakened by a wrong mental attitude that 
 his body has become an easy prey for certain 
 bacilli, all efforts should be made to check or 
 eliminate those bacilli in order to avoid the further 
 inroads they might make on the organism. 
 
 Specific medical treatment should be sought 
 under the direction of a physician who keeps him- 
 self well informed as to the latest therapeutic 
 methods, the most efficient pharmaceutic prepara- 
 tions, etc. The family physician, the surgeon, the 
 average specialist, however, cannot be expected to 
 follow all the research work done in applied 
 psychology. 
 
 Although Freud and other prominent analysts 
 have stated that psychoanalytical practitioners need 
 not have medical training, an analyst should possess 
 a good working knowledge of anatomy, physiology 
 and neurology. Reciprocally, every physician 
 should receive some elementary training in applied 
 [32] 
 
A Basis for Co-operation 
 
 psychology, regardless of whether he is to take up 
 the practice of general medicine or to specialize 
 in some particular branch of the medical profes- 
 sion. 
 
 Then, those who treat the more obviously mate- 
 rial part of the organism and those who treat the 
 more intangible part of the personality can co- 
 operate intelligently in relieving the ailments of 
 the human unit. 
 
 BIBLIOGRAPHY 
 
 Two books are absolutely essential to readers desir- 
 ing to study the problem of the interrelations of body and 
 mind from the modern physiological point of view. 
 Loeb's book mentioned in the bibliography for the pre- 
 ceding chapter and W. B. Cannon's capital work "Bodily 
 Changes in Pain, Hunger, Fear and Rage" (Appleton). 
 The latter book contains a very readable and entertaining 
 summary of many experiments made by Cannon and his 
 students not only on laboratory animals but on them- 
 selves as well, showing the chemical changes which 
 correspond to the various "emotions." G. W. Crile's 
 "Man an Adaptive Mechanism," while not as recent as 
 Cannon's book, should also be consulted. 
 
 [331 
 
CHAPTER III: NERVES AND NERVOUS- 
 
 NESS 
 
 Nerves, nervous and nervousness are terms which 
 should be used less frequently and less carelessly. 
 "My nerves are on edge" or "I am a nervous wreck" 
 are picturesque expressions devoid of any meaning 
 and which convey a very inaccurate picture of what 
 is taking place in the organism. 
 
 To the layman, nerves are just nerves; the nerve 
 which a dentist "kills" and the nerve which makes 
 our heart palpitate are to him identical things. 
 
 In reality there are in the human body two 
 nervous systems whose appearance, colour, make 
 up, distribution and functions are as different as 
 night is from day. 
 
 There is the sensori-motor system, or the system 
 of nerves which bring to the brain the information 
 about the condition of the various parts of the body 
 and about the way in which those parts are affected 
 by the environment: the nerves which tell us what 
 the eye "sees," what the mouth "tastes," what the 
 nose "smells," whether the water in which we poke 
 [34] 
 
The Autonomic Nerves 
 
 our toe is cold or hot, whether the apple we hold 
 is hard or soft. 
 
 That system, also transmits from ihe brain to the 
 various muscles definite orders based upon the in- 
 formation received. Motor nerves open or close 
 our eyes, cause us to chew or spit out certain kinds 
 of food, to extend our arm toward a desirable object 
 or withdraw it from a dangerous object, etc. 
 
 The sensori-motor nerves are white fibres en- 
 veloped in a fatty sheath interrupted at intervals by 
 nodes. 
 
 Besides this system there is another nervous 
 system for which various names are being used, 
 such as the vegetative system, the sympathetic 
 system or the autonomic system. These nerves 
 are white fibres covered by a very thin mem- 
 brane instead of a thick sheath and presenting 
 a more regular appearance owing to the absence 
 of nodes. 
 
 Instead of issuing' directly from the spinal 
 column as the sensori-motor nerves do, the auto- 
 nomic nerves, with the exception of the vagus which 
 has its root in the brain, take their roots in a column 
 of ganglia located in front of the vertebrae. 
 
 Although this system disintegrates soon after 
 death, for it is poorly protected and its ganglia lie 
 close to tissues which putrefy readily (nasal mu- 
 
 [35] 
 
Psychoanalysis and Behaviour 
 
 cous membrane, buccal cavity and intestinal canal), 
 it is older than the sensori-motor system and it 
 is fully developed at birth. 
 
 The autonomic Systran supplies the internal or- 
 gans of the body, tear glands, sweat glands, salivary 
 glands, hair roots, lungs, heart, stomach, liver, in- 
 testine, adrenal glands, bladder, rectum and 
 genitals. It carries motor impulses, but scientists 
 are not agreed as to whether it carries sensations. 
 It also controls in part the movements of the pupil. 
 
 The autonomic system is divided up into two sub- 
 systems which we shall designate as the cranio- 
 sacral division or end division and the thoracico- 
 lumbar division, or sympathetic division or middle 
 division. 
 
 The two divisions are absolutely antagonistic in 
 action. For instance the cranio-sacral contracts the 
 pupil, the sympathetic dilates it; the cranio-sacral 
 division slows down th& heart action, the sympa- 
 thetic division accelerates it. 
 
 The cranio-sacral division promotes all the 
 activities which build up the individual and assure 
 the continuance of the race. 
 
 The sympathetic division which extends from the 
 neck to the upper sacral region, decreases or stops 
 all those activities in emergencies and releases 
 safety devices. 
 [36] 
 
The Nervous Balance 
 
 For instance the cranio-sacral division causes 
 saliva to flow, which helps the disintegration of food 
 in the mouth; it causes the stomach glands to secrete 
 gastric juice and the stomach to contract regularly 
 and vigorously, which activates the digestion and 
 speeds the digested food on its way into the intes- 
 tine; it contracts the intestine and hence assists the 
 elimination of waste matter; it holds the rectum and 
 bladder openings closed until the proper accumu- 
 lation of feces or urine makes voiding necessary; 
 it regulates the heart beats, prevents the pupil from 
 admitting too much light and focuses it so that it 
 throws a clear image on the retina; finally it fills 
 the exterior genitals with blood and enables them 
 to perform their specific f imctions. 
 
 The sympathetic division, on the contrary, stops 
 the flow of saliva and of gastric juice, stops the 
 contractions of the stomach or reverses their direc- 
 tion, so that food may be regurgitated into the 
 aesophagus and, at times, vomited; it speeds the 
 heart action; at times, it voids suddenly the bladder 
 and bowels; releases into the blood stream a flow 
 of adrenin which contracts the arteries and a flow of 
 sugar from the liver which supplies the body with 
 extra fuel; stops all genital functions; causes the 
 pupil to dilate, thus giving the eye a staring glare; 
 bristleg the hair, causing goose flesh, etc. 
 
 [37] 
 
Psychoanalysis and Behaviour 
 
 One can see at once how all the activities of the 
 sympathetic protect the organism either directly, 
 by initiating necessary activities, or indirectly, by 
 inhibiting certain activities which are not necessary 
 in emergencies. 
 
 When the organism is in danger, that is, must 
 resort to fight or flight, nutrition and sex activities 
 should cease. Not only ^ould they cease because 
 the organism in danger cannot attend to them prop- 
 erly, but also because they deflect toward their 
 specific organs a certain amount of blood which is 
 needed elsewhere for defensive purposes. Hence 
 the dry mouth, the arrested gastric action, the im- 
 potence induced by fear. 
 
 As the blood must circulate freely in the en- 
 dangered organism and absorb as much oxygen as 
 possible, the heart beats are increased and so is the 
 rate of respiration. As a larger amount of energy 
 has to be expended, the glycogen (sugar) stored up 
 in the liver must be released into the blood stream, 
 after the fashion of a motorist who "steps on the 
 gas" in order to climb a steep hill; if a wound be 
 sustained, adrenin is mixed with the blood causing 
 it to coagulate more quickly and close the wound ; 
 finally the hair must be raised, aff'ording to certain 
 animals, such as cats and dogs, a certain amount 
 of protection against teeth and claws and surround- 
 [38] 
 
The Vital Urges 
 
 ing the body, in the case of porcupines and hedge- 
 hogs, with an impassable barrier of sharp daggers. 
 
 The sudden voiding of the bowels and bladder 
 caused by fright is another emergency measure 
 taken by the sympathetic division. Empty bowels 
 and an empty bladder present a more favourable 
 condition in the case of deep abdominal injuries, 
 while the same organs, if full, might cause compli- 
 cations. 
 
 The activities of the sympathetic division corre- 
 spond to what we may call the safety urge, while 
 the cranial division which promotes nutrition and 
 assimilation would correspond to the food-ego- 
 power urge and the sacral division to the sex urge. 
 
 We may notice that the nerves of ego and sex 
 work in unison. 
 
 The two divisions of the autonomic system are 
 not always balanced with perfect accuracy and one 
 of them is bound to predominate. This will enable 
 us to distinguish roughly three "nervous" types. 
 
 The type in which the positive activities which 
 build up the individual and further rile continuance 
 of the race are not hampered by the negative activi- 
 ties of the sympathetic except in emergencies. 
 
 This is the type we may justly consider as nor- 
 mal. 
 
 The second type is one in which the positive 
 
 [39] 
 
Psychoanalysis and Behaviour 
 
 activities are so strong that they cannot be checked 
 in emergencies by the safety nerves. When the 
 personality is overwhehned by the cranio-sacral 
 division, that is by the ego and sex urges, the 
 individual is unadaptive and unsocial. Criminal, 
 gluttonous, obscene imbeciles belong to that type 
 for which the terms vagotonic has been suggested. 
 
 In the third type, or sympathicotonic type, the 
 sympathetic division functions in and out of season, 
 flashing danger signals when there is no danger and 
 holding back the natural cravings for nutrition, 
 self-expression, acquisition, power, reproduction, 
 etc. Neurotics suffering from anxiety, obsessions, 
 phobias, nervous indigestion, psychic impotence, 
 etc., belong to this type. 
 
 A very simple test has been devised to determine 
 to what type a subject belongs. It is known as the 
 Aschner test. It is based on the fact that the ends 
 of both divisions, the cranial and the sympathetic 
 divisions, can be reached and stimulated by pres- 
 sure on the pupil. 
 
 The cranial division increases the heart beats and 
 the sympadietic division decreases them. By 
 applying the same stimulation to both divisions, the 
 one which is more powerful will react more easily 
 than the other. If after pressing on the eyeballs 
 for half a minute, the initial pulse, let us say 90, 
 [40] 
 
Ghosts from the Past 
 
 has been reduced to about 80, the patient is prob- 
 ably normal. If the pulse rate has been decreased 
 by more than 10 or 12 beats, the patient is vago- 
 tonic, and if the pulse rate has remained unchanged 
 or has been increased the patient is sympathicotonic. 
 
 A study of the autonomic system enables us to 
 visualize complexes as defensive actions of the sym- 
 pathetic division or safety urge which were initiated 
 at some past time, generally in infancy when stimuli 
 are likely to produce the deepest impression and 
 which continue to be performed when no actual 
 danger has to be warded off, or in emergencies 
 which are not real emergencies but appear as such 
 owing to wrong associations. 
 
 A child, frightened imwisely, may all his life 
 show defence and fear reactions, which means that 
 the nerves of his sympathetic division will con- 
 stantly interfere with his digestion, his heart action, 
 his intestinal peristalsis, his sex life. 
 
 A child hurt by a doctor with a black beard, a 
 classical case in psychoanalytic literature, uncon- 
 sciously associated in later life all men with black 
 beards with the man who hurt him once and when 
 meeting such a man suffered from arterial tension 
 coimected with fright. 
 
 Experiments made on dogs illustrate well the 
 mechanism of association. 
 
 [41] 
 
Psychoanalysis and Behaviour 
 
 A dog was submitted to a delicate operation 
 whereby the gastric juice secreted by his stomach 
 would run into a graduated tube. For several days 
 a bell was rung every time the dog was given food. 
 To the sight of food there always corresponded a 
 flow of gastric juice. One day the bell was rung 
 but no food was offered to the animal. In spite 
 of the absence of food, gastric juice began to trickle 
 into the test tube. A "bell association" had been 
 created in the dog's organism. In other words, as 
 for several days the sound of a bell had been con- 
 nected with the sight and taste of food, his auto- 
 nomic nerves promoted the flow of gastric juice 
 as soon as the bell rang. 
 
 A study of the autonomic activities sheds a new 
 light upon many actions which at the present day 
 are considered as voluntary and subjected to criti- 
 cism or praised from a purely ethical point of view 
 based upon the distinction between body and mind. 
 
 A sixty candle power bulb should not be criti- 
 cized for carrying an amount of electrical power 
 inferior to that which can flow through a hundred 
 candle bulb. 
 
 A coward is not a coward because he wishes to 
 run away, but because his sympathetic nerves pro- 
 moting flight are especially sensitive to fright 
 stimuli which in other men would produce no re- 
 [42] 
 
The Training of Nerves 
 
 action or a reaction of fight. As Jacques Loeb 
 would put it, a coward runs in the direction where 
 his legs carry him. As the imscientific layman 
 would express it, the coward "loses his nerve" or 
 "is all nerves" or "cannot control his nerves." 
 
 Punishing a coward and insulting him wiU not 
 make him a brave man. It may compel him to , 
 pretend for a time that he is brave, after which he 
 may succumb to shell-shock when his cravings for 
 safety, long repressed, assert themselves violently 
 and abnormally. 
 
 But he need not remain a coward and can be 
 trained to master his fear by analyzing it and by 
 disintegrating the absurd associations which set his 
 organism in flight when no dangerous emergency 
 exists. 
 
 A coward with a well developed intelligence can 
 be made, through education, as indifferent to cer- 
 tain fear stimuli as other people can be made in- 
 different to some apparently alarming symptoms of 
 sickness. 
 
 For example: any one taking the typhoid vaccine 
 will after the first injection feel dreadfully sick. 
 He will develop violent fever, suffer from head- 
 aches, thirst, palpitations, nausea, he will feel very 
 weak, etc., in other words, he will, within twenty- 
 four hours, experience most of the symptoms of the 
 
 [43] 
 
Psychoanalysis and Behaviour 
 
 disease against which the vaccine is to protect him. 
 Duly warned by a physician, the patient will not 
 worry over those disturbances which are "ex- 
 pected," as suppuration is expected after vaccina- 
 tion for smallpox. 
 
 The patient knows what is causing his malaise 
 and what its duration shall be. While he could 
 not very well "enjoy" the situation, he resigns him- 
 self to it as to something temporary and unavoid- 
 able. 
 
 On the other hand, should a careless physician 
 fail to warn the patient of the effects of the first 
 hypodermic dose, the patient would add to the 
 unpleasant condition induced by the vaccine a deep 
 worry, a fear of possible complications and perhaps 
 devise unnecessary plans for emergency action, 
 thereby affecting his heart beats, his gastric and 
 intestinal activities and so on. 
 
 Knowing to what type he belongs is as necessary 
 for a human being as knowing, for instance, 
 whether one of his legs is shorter than the other. 
 A cripple in ignorance of the disparity of his legs, 
 would gather the impression that the road he was 
 travelling was strewn with ruts and obstructions. 
 The longer leg would seemingly encounter number- 
 less obstacles while the shorter would be constantly 
 descending into holes. 
 [44] 
 
Know Thyself 
 
 The man with a vagotonic tendency whose ego 
 and sex urges are apt to disregard the warnings 
 of his safety urge and the man with a sympathico- 
 tonic tendency whose sympthetic division is con- 
 stantly raising the danger flag are bound to have 
 very distorted impressions of their mental states 
 and of their environment. 
 
 Knowing themselves better, they can discount 
 considerably such deceptive impressions and there- 
 by correct their behaviour. 
 
 Those called upon to judge them can also by 
 understanding better their nervous mechanism, help 
 them to conform to standard conduct. 
 
 Even the perfectly normal man can derive much 
 comfort from knowing positively that he is normal 
 at times when, in a crisis or emergency, he might 
 conceive doubts as to his condition. A knowledge 
 of the functioning of one's autonomic system is at 
 all times of great assistance in remaining normal. 
 
 That knowledge also enables one to adopt or to 
 avoid for scientific, that is, plausible and compel- 
 ling reasons, certain forms of behaviour. 
 
 The following observation made on dogs by 
 Pavlof teaches a lesson which should be remem- 
 bered by every human being. 
 
 A dog submitted to the surgical operation I men- 
 tioned previously secreted some seventy cubic centi- 
 
 [45] 
 
Psychoanalysis and Behaviour 
 
 metres of gastric juice when fed a certain amount 
 of meat. One day, a cat was brought into the 
 laboratory while he was partaking of his meal and 
 aroused his anger. On that occasion, the amount 
 of gastric juice which flowed into the test tube was 
 just one tenth that accompanying a peaceful undis- 
 turbed meal. Anger and fear had raised the 
 danger signal in his organism and prepared the dog 
 for fight or flight, but not for the enjoyment of a 
 meal. 
 
 A quarrel at the dinner table affects human 
 beings as the sight of a cat affected oux dog. Their 
 flow of gastric juice is stopped or considerably re- 
 duced and whatever food they take into their 
 stomachs would linger in that organ much longer 
 than it should normally. The result will be some 
 form of "nervous indigestion," perhaps nausea and 
 in extreme cases, vomiting. 
 
 Observations of a similar order were made on a 
 small boy suffering from a gastric fistula which 
 allowed gastric juice to flow out of his body. When 
 the boy chewed pleasant food, the flow was copious, 
 whereas the chewing of some unpleasant or in- 
 different substance was not followed by any se- 
 cretion. 
 
 The flow of gastric juice is not induced solely, 
 as many people think, by the pleasant taste of food. 
 [46] 
 
The Value of Pleasure 
 
 The mere sight of appetizing aliments is sufficient 
 to start the digestive fluids. 
 
 Hence, a meal served in an attractive dining 
 room, on clean linen, in dainty dishes, with flowers 
 on the table, in a peaceful, soothing atmosphere, to 
 the tune of caressing, unemotional music, is likely 
 to be digested more easily than food served in 
 slovenly, noisy surroundings. 
 
 This applies to almost every experience in life. 
 
 Pleasant memories of gratifying happenings 
 create durable associations, like the food-bell asso- 
 ciation which had such an appetizing effect on 
 Pavlof's dog. Unpleasant memories produce per- 
 haps even more lasting effects of the opposite char- 
 acter and are responsible for a thousand "nervous" 
 iUs. 
 
 Every psychological theory will have to be re- 
 vised according to the rather recent findings of 
 scientists touching the autonomic functions. While 
 space does not allow us to dwell at length on that 
 aspect of the subject, we may say a few words on 
 the new interpretation of will-power which can be 
 based upon the study of the autonomic nervous sys- 
 tem. 
 
 The vagotonic, whose "animal" activities can 
 hardly be checked by a weaker sympathetic divi- 
 sion, is called "a creature of instinct," "led by his 
 
 [47] 
 
Psychoanalysis and Behaviour 
 
 cravings," "subservient to his lower nature," "lack- 
 ing in will-power," etc. 
 
 Hie whose sympathetic system acts in all emer- 
 gencies and in emergencies only, that is, does not 
 create absurd, unconscious reasons for illogical be- 
 haviour, is credited with a great amount of will- 
 power. 
 
 He whose sympathetic system acts in and out 
 of season, overpowering his ego and sex urges, 
 creating emergencies and raising obstacles, is con- 
 stantly "nervous," vacillating, considering one 
 course and then another, "unable to make up his 
 mind." 
 
 Education undertaken by a trained psychologist, 
 not by a disciplinarian, may alter the first type by 
 developing in his sympathetic division a fear of the 
 absolute privation which may be the consequence 
 of vagotonic indulgence. 
 
 The third type also can be trained to recognize a 
 true emergency from an imaginary one and to 
 gauge accurately the size of the obstacles rising in 
 his path. 
 
 Neither type should be dealt with by jailers or 
 judges. Neither should be held responsible for 
 behaviour due to weakness or self-deception. Both 
 should, if their conduct is socially intolerable, be 
 restrained and educated. Those whose nervous 
 [48] 
 
Ethical Considerations 
 
 system appears inadaptable should remain the 
 wards of the state and be considered as victims of 
 organic maladjustment for which they are in no 
 wise responsible. 
 
 BIBLIOGRAPHY 
 
 The subject of nerves cannot be well understood unless 
 the reader makes himself familiar with the autonomic 
 nervous system which in the majority of medical books 
 is designated as the sympathetic system. 
 
 The most important publication on the subject is H. 
 Higier's "Vegetative Neurology" (Nervous and Mental 
 Disease Pub. Co.) which is very technical. Consult also 
 M. Laignel Lavastine's "The Internal Secretions and the 
 Nervous System" (Nervous and Mental Disease Pub. Co.) 
 and Cannon's previously mentioned work. 
 
 G. V. N. Dearborn's "The Influence of Joy" (Little 
 Brown) and L. E. Emerson's "Nervousness" (Little 
 Brown), are two small books casting interesting side- 
 lights on the subject. 
 
 [49] 
 
II. PROBLEMS OF CHILDHOOD 
 
CHAPTER I. CHILDHOOD FIXATIONS 
 
 The seed of all mental disturbances is sown in 
 our childhood years. Whether we hold with Freud 
 that childhood memories, habits and repressions 
 disturb our mental balance in later years, or assume 
 with Adler that the neurotic adult simply draws upon 
 his childhood memories for the woof of his fancies, 
 the fact remains that one's childhood, directly or 
 indirectly, determines the content and form of one's 
 neurosis. 
 
 The problems of childhood are therefore the 
 problems of the adult. To a normal, happy child- 
 hood corresponds a normal, happy adulthood. 
 We cannot state that to an abnormal, unhappy 
 childhood there always corresponds an abnormal 
 unhappy adulthood, for most people manage to 
 remain normal regardless of what they do or have 
 to suffer at the hands of others; but we can state 
 that to every abnormality observed in an adult cor- 
 responds some abnormal situation which dominated 
 the subject's childhood. 
 
 The most fateful complication in a child's life 
 and one whose consequences are recognized by 
 
 [53] 
 
Psychoanalysis and Behaviour 
 
 analysts of all schools without any exception, is what 
 Freud has designated as the Oedipus complex, 
 or the excessive attachment of a child for the parent 
 of the opposite sex, resulting in a more or less vio- 
 lent dislike of the parent of the same sex. 
 
 Freud called it the Oedipus Complex as an illu- 
 sion to the well known legend of Oedipus, King of 
 Thebes, who killed his father Laius and married his 
 mother Jocasta. 
 
 Students of ancient religions and folk lore have 
 noticed that the. conflict between father and son, 
 mother and daughter, constitutes the substance of 
 thousands of mythological or popular legends. 
 Psychiatrists have observed it re-appearing in many 
 forms of mental derangement. 
 
 Freud has stated that such an excessive attach- 
 ment or ^'fixation" is unconsciously incestuous. 
 
 The Swiss school of analysts would rather believe 
 that the fixation is purely symbolical, the boy se- 
 lecting his mother, the girl, her father, as an ideal 
 of authority, intelligence, power, etc. 
 
 Adler, of Vienna, on the other hand, believes 
 that the incest situation is imagined by the neurotic 
 as one of the components of his regression to a 
 period of his life when he was absolutely dependent 
 on one of the parents and did not have to face 
 life and its struggles. 
 [54] 
 
Imitation Versus Heredity 
 
 None of those three views should exclude the 
 others. There may be a slightly sensuous attach- 
 ment in certain cases, encouraged by caresses of the 
 mother for the son and of the father for the daugh- 
 ter, in which there is a slight amount of veiled 
 sexuality, each of the parents showing preference 
 for the child of the opposite sex. But in many 
 cases, Jung's and Adler's views appear very plaus- 
 ible. 
 
 To those three hypotheses we may add a fourth 
 one: Imitation is probably the most potent factor 
 in human and animal life. Like instinct, it prob- 
 ably resolves itself into a set of little understood 
 physical, chemical and nervous phenomena, some 
 of which have been elucidated only recently. 
 
 We are what we are because we have imitated 
 some man or woman whose mannerisms, attitudes, 
 mode of speech, and consequently, whose emotional 
 life we have unconsciously reproduced. 
 
 As in the first years of our life we have no one 
 to imitate but our parents, our parents are likely 
 to become our most obsessing model or ideal. 
 
 This phenomenon presents many dangers. The 
 normal child would be one who, up to the time of 
 puberty, had imitated both parents without showing 
 much partiality (admitting of course that the 
 parents harmonized well enough not to create a con- 
 
 [55] 
 
Psychoanalysis and Behaviour 
 
 flict in the child's mind) ; who at puberty, woidd 
 imitate the parent of the same sex, without exhibit- 
 ing any hostility toward the parent of the opposite 
 sex; and who finally would select secondary imita- 
 tion objects outside of the family circle, thus build- 
 ing up a consistent and original personality. 
 
 The parental traits would be there, father and 
 mother contributing varied qualities, and outsiders 
 furnishing pleasing variations upon the parental 
 type, introducing into the blend no discordant 
 features. 
 
 There are too many cases, however, in which that 
 happy situation is disturbed. Sickness in child- 
 hood may bring one child under the constant influ- 
 ence of one parent to the almost complete exclusion 
 of the other; and so may the death or continued 
 absence of one of the parents. One of the parents 
 may for rather regrettable reasons, attract and 
 amuse the child; a neurotic, eccentric parent will 
 have more influence upon his children than his 
 normal mate (circus freaks attract children more 
 than athletes), etc. 
 
 Children coming home from the circus almost 
 invariably imitate die freaks or the clowns, but 
 even Freud would fail to drag a sexual explanation 
 into that "fixation" which is often of long duration 
 and incredibly powerful, considering the short time 
 [56] 
 
The Family Romance 
 
 in which the children were exposed to the influenpe 
 of their favourites. 
 
 Three hours at the circus may mean several 
 weeks of attempts at performing certain stunts. A 
 little boy of my acquaintance walked for several 
 weeks like Charlie Chaplin after seeing him once. 
 
 In many cases, the Oedipus situation resolves 
 itself then into an exaggerated imitation of one 
 parent by the child. 
 
 A boy having selected his mother as the most 
 perfect model, is bound to dislike his father who, 
 not only is so unlike her, but wields too much influ- 
 ence over her. 
 
 If, on the contrary, he had selected his father as 
 his exclusive model, he would dislike his mother, 
 who is unlike the father and dominates him in cer- 
 tain respects. 
 
 The family romance of the neurotic girl would 
 be similar to that of the neurotic boy. 
 
 Imitation explains as much as sexuality and rids 
 certain details of the romance of their apparently 
 sexual aspect. 
 
 The boy with a fixation on his mother, who con- 
 stantly fondles her and has to be taken into her 
 bed, is not attracted by any of his mother's physical 
 qualities. He is, in all respects but one, a female 
 who feels no embarrassment in close contact with 
 
 [57] 
 
Psychoanalysis and Behaviour 
 
 another female and does not expect her to feel any 
 embarrassment either. The sexual fate of such 
 boys, who later in life are very indifferent to 
 women and not infrequently passive homosexuals, 
 confirms the suspicion that it is rather imitation of 
 the mother and self -identification with her than re- 
 pressed incest cravings which dominate their be- 
 haviour. 
 
 The many male and female neurotics who are 
 attracted solely to married men and women are 
 subjects with strong fixations who seek, not pri- 
 marily one physical or mental type for which they 
 have a special affinity, but a situation, which in 
 their childhood years was normal and habitual. 
 The father they loved had a wife, the mother they 
 loved had a husband. 
 
 Their jealousy of their lover's wife or of their 
 mistress's husband is what their dislike of the un- 
 loved parent was, not sexual but egotistical. 
 
 The boy with a mother fixation and the girl with 
 a father fixation, will not only try to be like the 
 favourite parent, but will on all occasions try to be 
 as unlike the unloved parent as possible, (Clergy- 
 men's sons.) 
 
 One boy I have observed was the son of a pro- 
 fessional man, very conservative, prudish and snob- 
 bish to a degree. 
 [58] 
 
A Restless Type 
 
 His mother fixation had been nursed along by 
 too much petting and fondling. At sixteen he still 
 played in mother's bed mornings and evenings. At 
 eighteen he showed absolutely no interest in girls 
 and compared every girl he knew to his mother in 
 a way most disadvantageous to the girl. 
 
 After a severe crisis at the time of puberty when 
 he once attempted suicide, his opposition to every 
 one of his father's ideas and plans for his future 
 began to manifest itself very clearly. 
 
 The father was extremely conservative; the son 
 embraced readily all radical beliefs. The father 
 was conventional, the son unconventional in his 
 behaviour and speech, and very slovenly in his way 
 of dressing. The father was very settled in his 
 habits, the son led the most irregular life, sleeping 
 all day and loafing all night, having his meals at all 
 times of the day or night. 
 
 His revolt against the father-image, symbolical 
 of authority, caused him to be involved in difficul- 
 ties with various teachers and finally to leave 
 college. 
 
 In his sedulous avoidance of the father type he 
 shunned all professional people and spent most of 
 his time with menials and labourers. 
 
 His distaste for work, which prevented him from 
 holding a position for more than a few days at a 
 
 [59] 
 
Psychoanalysis and Behaviour 
 
 time, was in part an imitation of the comparative 
 idleness of his middle class mother, financially de- 
 pendent on his father, and in part an expression of 
 dislike of his employers symbolizing the father's 
 authority, and also a way of "getting even" with 
 his father. 
 
 His constant schemes for getting-rick-quick and 
 his passion for gambling were attempted flights 
 from,' reality and a search for the line of least ef- 
 fort. 
 
 The struggle between his normal and his abnor- 
 mal tendencies revealed itself in his variable atti- 
 tude to his mother whom he at times overwhelmed 
 with caresses and at times treated very scornfully. 
 
 Another neurotic with a decided fixation on his 
 mother was unable to enjoy any food which had 
 not been prepared by her or according to hei: 
 recipes. Dishes which had never been served in 
 his home during his childhood repelled him and 
 when courtesy compelled him to eat of them, he 
 generally developed nausea and vomiting. In this 
 case, the mother fixation had not had any crippling 
 effects as far as sexual cravings were concerned. 
 He consorted with many women of different types 
 but selected for his wife a woman of the mother 
 type whom he constantly taunted by instituting un- 
 pleasant comparisons between her and his mother. 
 [60] 
 
Homosexual Fixations 
 
 This man always voiced a frank hatred of his 
 father and like the preceding type indulged con- 
 stantly in dreams of get-rich-quick schemes which 
 his restlessness never allowed to mature. 
 
 Besides heterosexual fixations or fixations on the 
 parent of the opposite sex, we must consider homo- 
 sexual fixations or fixations on the parent of the 
 same sex. 
 
 They do not lead to conflicts as acute as those 
 precipitated by the Oedipus situation. The boy 
 with a father fixation is not impelled by his dislike 
 of his mother to seek forms of behaviour which are 
 eccentric or absurd, for, being a male, he will on 
 all occasions act in ways different from hers. His 
 dislike will be due to her dissimilarity to his ideal, 
 which he will consider as an inferiority. 
 
 Very different from the boy with a mother fixa- 
 tion, the boy with a father fixation will not shun 
 women but he will despise them and fear them. 
 They will attract him as they attract the father he 
 imitates but he will be more or less ashamed of 
 yielding to their attraction. He will love them 
 and torture them and the origin of many cases of 
 cruel sadism is generally to be traced back to such 
 a situation. 
 
 Both forms of fixation have a crippling influence 
 on a human being's life. Clinging too closely to 
 
 [61] 
 
Psychoanalysis and Behaviour 
 
 an ideal, he has a tendency to disparage all con- 
 ditions which differ from the conditions under 
 which he acquired a fixation. 
 
 The man with a mother fixation will regret the 
 days when he still was his mother's little boy; when 
 life's emergencies threaten him with defeat he may 
 regress to the childhood level on which he then 
 lived. 
 
 The man with a father fixation will follow the 
 same deceptive line of least effort; there will be a 
 difference, however. While the man with a mother 
 fixation is likely to be a rebel, the man with a 
 father fixation is generally a crusty conservative, 
 a neophobiac, ranting over the good old days, old 
 fashioned in every way, at times more conservative 
 even than his father, for his father may have grown 
 mentally while he lingers in the stage during which 
 he acquired his fixation and still imitates his father 
 as his father was when he himself was from five to 
 fifteen years old. 
 
 A conflict between the parents results often in a 
 severe conflict in the child's organism. Parents 
 living in disharmony lack fairness, measure and 
 dignity. Their hostility to each other makes them 
 repellent to the child who is constantly in doubt 
 as to whom to imitate. In certain cases a fixation 
 [62] 
 
Results of Family Strife 
 
 on one of the parents may have disastrous effects. 
 
 B. M.'s parents never agreed and finally separ- 
 ated. B. M. realized her mother's mental infer- 
 iority and drew farther and farther away from her 
 in childhood. She was extremely attracted by her 
 neurotic father whose lack of kindness and erratic 
 ways, on the other hand, repelled her. Her psy- 
 chology has ever since been complicated by the fol- 
 lowing speculation: "I shall do this because my 
 father would have done it but it is wrong for me 
 to do it for my father was an unworthy type." The 
 result has been acute hysterical suffering. 
 
 I shall mention in the chapter on the Love Life 
 the various perversions due to maladjustments of 
 the fixation type in childhood. 
 
 From a consideration of the mental growth of 
 the child, one is forced to accept the conclusion 
 that the presence of a male and a female in the 
 household is absolutely necessary if the offspring 
 is to be normal in later life. The child brought 
 up by only one parent is likely to be one-sided or 
 perverse. 
 
 Affectionate parents are a source of great danger 
 for their children and so are those who do not know 
 how to restrain their children's affection when it 
 gets out of bounds. 
 
 [63] 
 
Psychoanalysis and Behaviour 
 
 Indifferent parents or the removal of the par- 
 ents by death in the child's infancy cripple the 
 child in another way. 
 
 Egotism of the positive, progressive, creative 
 type is the most valuable human trait, the trait 
 which differentiates man from the animals. A cer- 
 tain amount of self-love, self-confidence, self-re- 
 liance is absolutely necessary in life. 
 
 The child whom no parent has praised and who 
 has been treated like an intruder, the orphan com- 
 mitted to some institution where teachers or keepers, 
 however kind they may be, cannot lavish on fifty 
 or a hundred children the love which individual 
 parents would lavish on each of them separately, 
 suffer from a certain sense of inferiority which 
 often leads to negativism. 
 
 Such children do not know that they are impor- 
 tant for they have never seemed important to any 
 one. When herded in institutions they only have 
 distant models for imitation, the few adults they 
 could imitate being strangers separated from them 
 by a wall of indifference. The result is often a 
 stunting in mental and physical growth due to the 
 wholesale imitation of children by children. 
 
 The solution of the fixation problem will not be 
 within our reach until the phenomenon of imitation 
 has been studied more completely. At present a 
 [64] 
 
An Unsolved Problem 
 
 few scattered observations made by biologists con- 
 stitute the only material at our disposal. Those 
 few and unrelated facts, however, are enough to 
 make us suspect the tremendous importance of 
 imitation as a factor in human development. 
 
 [65] 
 
CHAPTER II. THE SEXUAL ENLIGHTEN- 
 MENT OF CHILDREN 
 
 One of the statements made by Freud and which 
 exposed him to the bitterest criticism on the part 
 of hostile or ill-informed opponents, was that in 
 children, even for the tenderest age, the sexual 
 life attains a much greater degree of development 
 than was generally conceded and that its growth 
 is gradual and continuous from the day of birth. 
 Puberty is the culmination of that progressive ripen- 
 ing instead of being, as it is considered by many, the 
 sudden, unprepared outburst of the sexual instinct. 
 
 Sexual, urinary and fecal activities being con- 
 trolled by the same nerves develop along parallel 
 lines. All of them, however, are submitted to a 
 severe regulation which in the case of sex amounts 
 to almost complete repression. 
 
 In probably many more cases than parents and 
 nurses are willing to admit, there is a certain 
 amount of sexual self -gratification indulged in by 
 children between the ages of three and five, that 
 is, long before puberty. Much of it certainly 
 escapes observation. 
 [66] 
 
Where Do Children Come From? 
 
 Whatever of it is observed is usually considered 
 by the average parent as a mdhifestation of some 
 "vicious" tendency, and is repressed either by 
 threats and punishment or by mechanical means 
 such as binding the children's hands at night, etc. 
 
 The general opinion at the present day in scien- 
 tific circles is that infantile onanism is simply one 
 of nature's primitive ways of developing the child's 
 sexual powers, a process to be watched closely by 
 the parents and stopped if indulged in excessively 
 by immobilizing the child's hands, but under no 
 circumstances to be repressed by threats or punish- 
 ment. 
 
 To that period of infantile onanism corresponds 
 naturally one of intense and stubborn curiosity on 
 the part of the child about matters pertaining to 
 reproduction. That curiosity is generally brought 
 to its climax by the arrival of a baby either in the 
 family or in a house of the neighbourhood and the 
 child will have no peace until he knows "where 
 babies come frotn." 
 
 What shall parents do when such a question is 
 put to them? The problem is simpler and yet more 
 complicated than it seems at first. 
 
 The question is not: "Must children be told?" 
 but "Who shall tell them and how?" 
 
 If every grown up will be honest with himself 
 
 [67] 
 
Psychoanalysis and Behaviour 
 
 he will have to confess that as soon as he attended 
 a kindergarten or school his sexual enlighten- 
 ment(?) was begun by the other children. 
 
 Children cannot be kept in absolute ignorance 
 about sexual matters because if the parents do not 
 instruct them some one else will. Some one else 
 always does. 
 
 The choice is then as to between correct, seri- 
 ous, sympathetic information, presenting sex as 
 a tremendous fact of capital importance to the in- 
 dividual and the race, a great source of happiness 
 and misery and, on the other hand, whispered gos- 
 sip of the most fantastic type, dealt out by children, 
 by ignorant or vicious adults, casting upon sexual 
 phenomena and activities an obscene, romantically 
 attractive light, leading to overindulgence, per- 
 versions, obsessions, etc. 
 
 Sexual information imparted by the ignorant 
 or the vicious does not satisfy the child, does not 
 stop his inquiries, and only causes him to seek 
 more details, to probe the fascinating fiction he has 
 heard, to build up around it the most dangerous 
 form of romance. 
 
 Accurate information of a scientific type stops 
 inquiries and day-dreams and vouchsafes to the 
 child's mind the peace that comes with the securing 
 of evidential facts, satisfactory to one's reason. 
 [682 
 
Neurotic Children 
 
 Mental rest is necessary to the child. The 
 child's mind is so burdened with the thousand prob- 
 lems of adaptation and conduct, which confront a 
 growing human being that the added pressure of 
 sexual curiosity has been known in many cases to 
 bring about neurotic symptoms. 
 
 Three children have been studied at close range 
 by some of the greatest analysts. One boy, little 
 Hans, studied by Freud and in whom sexual curi- 
 osity created an obsession which caused him to 
 think of the male genitals in connection with almost 
 every person or object he beheld; another boy, 
 little Arpad, examined by Ferenczi and who, fail- 
 ing to secure information from human beings, ad- 
 dressed himself to the fowls in the henyard and 
 identified himself with them; and finally, little 
 Anna, treated by Jung, who in her search for a so- 
 lution of the birth problem, propounded the most 
 picturesque theories of life and death, lost all con- 
 fidence in her mother and almost merged in a neu- 
 rosis. 
 
 The case of the 3^/^ year old Arpad, illus- 
 trates well the mental distortions which, at the time 
 when children begin to develop a strong sexual 
 curiosity, fear may cause in them, if connected with 
 the subject of their eager inquiries. 
 
 Arpad and his parents went to spend a summer 
 
 [69] 
 
Psychoanalysis and Behaviour 
 
 in the country and stopped at a house which had a 
 bam yard. Until then, Arpad's behaviour had 
 been that of any normal, intelligent child of his 
 age. He was interested in the various children's 
 games and toys. 
 
 That summer, however, a complete change came 
 over him. His toys were forsaken and he did not 
 seek the company of other children. From early 
 morning till he was sent to bed, he would spend 
 all his hours in the poultry house, watching the 
 chickens ,with tireless attention, imitating their 
 clucking and their motions and, when forcibly re- 
 moved, grew generally very indignant. 
 
 Even when led away from the fowl run, he did 
 nothing but crow and cackle. He finally seemed 
 to abandon words to use clucks, addressed people 
 and answered their questions with soxmds that imi- 
 tated the cock's and hen's calls until his parents 
 became quite concerned and feared he might loose 
 his power of speech. 
 
 Arpad's attitude never changed during the sum- 
 mer. When his family took him back to town, 
 he resumed human speech but could not be made 
 to talk of anything but cocks, hens, chicks, some- 
 times of ducks and geese. 
 
 No toy appealed to him any more. He would 
 all day long form little cocks and bens out of 
 [70] 
 
A Little Chanticler 
 
 crumpled newspaper and offer them for sale to 
 imaginary buyers. He then armed himself with 
 some small object, called it a knife, went to the 
 kitchen sink and declared that he was cutting the 
 throat of his paper chickens. He imagined the 
 animal bleeding and by various contortions mim- 
 icked strikingly its agony. Whenever the family 
 purchased live chickens, he showed extreme ex- 
 citement and his greatest joy was to attend the 
 slaughtering of those fowl. He was however quite 
 afraid of live cocks. 
 
 The parents plied him with many questions and 
 always elicited from him the same story: once while 
 playing in the chicken coop he wanted to micturate 
 and a rooster pecked him painfully. The child 
 was then two and a half years old. 
 
 Brought into Ferenczi's office, Arpad at once 
 caught sight of a little bronze representing a moun- 
 tain cock and asked for it. ^ Given a pencil 
 and paper he proceeded to draw a picture of a 
 cock. 
 
 Mental examination proved impossible and 
 Ferenczi had to confine his study to the mother's 
 observations. 
 
 Early in the morning, Arpad would wake up the 
 household with his lusty crowing. He sang con- 
 tinually but all the songs had to do with chickens. 
 
 [71] 
 
Psychoanalysis and Behaviour 
 
 He drew all day long pictures of birds with large 
 beaks. 
 
 His parents yielded to necessity and bought him 
 unbreakable toys representing chickens. They 
 proved unsatisfactory as he could not cut off their 
 necks. He would sometimes throw them into the 
 oven, then take them out, clean them and caress 
 them. 
 
 Several times he attempted to break a vase which 
 had cocks painted on it. He often expressed a 
 desire to put out the eyes of live or slaughtered 
 chickens he saw in the house, and gave vent to other 
 sadistic and also masochistic tendencies. 
 
 He identified himself and his family with barn- 
 yard fowl saying that his father was the rooster, 
 his mother the hen, he himself a chicken and he 
 once told a woman of the neighbourhood that when 
 he grew old and became a rooster, he would marry 
 her, her sister, his three cousins and the cook, and 
 perhaps his mother too. 
 
 This remark was the key to the enigma of the 
 child's conduct. Arpad had probably spied on 
 his parents and the activities of the bamyardj the 
 sexual activities of cocks and hens, the laying of 
 eggs, the hatching of the little chicks had given 
 him answers for all the riddles which his parents 
 had refused to solve. 
 [72] 
 
What the Fowl Knew 
 
 With a certain logic he had that summer given 
 up the language of human beings who were, so to 
 speak, silent to his questioning, and he had adopted 
 that of the barnyard beasts who answered all his 
 questions and illustrated for him all the processes 
 of reproduction. 
 
 His cruelty toward chicketis and his constant de- 
 sire to cut off their necks was a natural reaction to 
 his being pecked and to a fear of castration due to 
 a foolish servant's threat. 
 
 A repetition of the same threat caused him to pro- 
 pound many questions as to the problem of death, 
 angels and heaven. Later he began to occupy him- 
 self with religious thoughts. Old bearded beggars 
 impressed him deeply and at the same time at- 
 tracted and frightened him. Often after watch- 
 ing one of them he would let his head hang down 
 and say: "Now I am a beggar chicken." 
 
 The animals who had satisfied his curiosity had 
 also supplied him with a model with which to 
 identify himself. 
 
 Very logically he had decided to cast in his lot 
 with the knowing instead of the ignorant. His 
 parents and other adults "did not know," the 
 chickens "knew." 
 
 The little girl observed by Jimg, Anna, was a 
 healthy, intelligent, lively child of three, who had 
 
 [73] 
 
Psychoanalysis and Behaviour 
 
 never been seriously sick and whose nerves seemed 
 to be in excellent condition. 
 
 She once asked her grandmother whether she 
 would become young again. Her grandmother ex- 
 plained to her that she would grow older and older 
 and finally die and become an angel. 
 
 And then, little Anna asked, "Will you again 
 become a baby?" 
 
 This was not the child's first attempt at solving 
 the great problem of the origin of human life. 
 
 Her father had explained to her that children were 
 brought by the stork; then some one else imparted 
 to her the supplementary information that the stork 
 picked them up in heaven where they were living 
 as angels. 
 
 The remark made to her grandmother revealed 
 the relatively enormous mental exertion, consider- 
 ing the child's age, to which Anna had submitted 
 herself. Children are angels brought down by 
 the stork; grandmother after death will go to heaven 
 and become an angel; then probably she will be 
 picked up some time by the stork and become a 
 baby. 
 
 This solved more or less satisfactorily the prob- 
 lems of birth and death. Death became a pic- 
 turesque experience of a romantic type devoid of 
 any horror and holding out hopes of rejuvenation. 
 [74] 
 
Life and Death Theories 
 
 Very soon after, her mother became pregnant. 
 Anna apparently did not notice the fact or, if she 
 did, failed to mention it. ^ 
 
 A few hours before the mother's delivery, Anna's 
 father took the child on his knee and asked her: 
 "What would you do if you should get a little 
 brother tonight?" "I would kill it," Anna an- 
 swered simply, without emotion, which in view of 
 her theories of death and resurrection, implied 
 merely that she would send the child back where it 
 came from. 
 
 On the other hand, she undoubtedly had de- 
 veloped by that time her death-birth theory, for she 
 asked her mother when admitted to her room, 
 "What is going to happen now? Are you not go- 
 ing to die?" ^ 
 
 1 Bleuler cites the case of a little girl three and a half years 
 old who, after the coming of a baby in the household, also con- 
 structed a theory of life and death. 
 
 She was extremely interested in the baby and its nursing. 
 When bitten once by a mosquito she was heard to remark that a 
 little breast was growing on her, and she resented greatly the 
 disappearance of the swelling as the bite healed. 
 
 One day her mother told her the story of the Ugly Duckling 
 and she showed keen interest in it. She constantly asked to have 
 the story repeated, especially that part of it in which the duck 
 brings forth young ones. The wording of her request for the 
 story reveals the problem which was on her mind: "Tell me 
 about the lady and how the children come," although she knew 
 that the tale dealt with a duck, not with a woman. 
 
 Asked once why she liked the story so well she said: 
 
 "Because it gives me so much pleasure." 
 
 [75] 
 
Psychoanalysis and Behaviour 
 
 Sent to spend a few weeks with her grandmother 
 while her mother was recuperating, Anna constantly 
 reverted to questions concerning the stork theory. 
 When she returned she appeared annoyed and 
 suspicious. While not hostile to the baby, she 
 would keep away from it and sit for hours under 
 a table, mournful and dreamy, at times singing to 
 herself little songs she improvised and in which the 
 nurse seemed to play an important part. 
 
 At times, too, she would grow rebellious; she 
 threatened to abandon her mother and to go to live 
 with her grandmother. Once, finally, the result 
 of her long cogitations revealed itself in an unex- 
 pected outburst. 
 
 "We are going into the garden," her mother said 
 to her. 
 
 "Don't tell lies. Mamma," Anna answered. 
 
 "What are you thinking of? I always tell the 
 truth," the mother said. 
 
 "No, Mamma, you are not telling the truth." 
 
 "You will see; come with me into the garden." 
 
 "What gives you pleasure?" 
 
 "The way in which the little children come out." 
 
 Immediately after she added: 
 
 "I dreamt that Suppenkaster (a character in a children's story) 
 fell into the toilet." 
 
 Suppenkaster in the story becomes thinner and thinner and 
 finally dies. After death he grows again. 
 
 This child's theory was not essentially different -from that built 
 by little Anna. 
 
 [76] 
 
Children and Flowers 
 
 "And so it is really true? You were not lying?" 
 This amazing conversation had only one mean- 
 ing. Her observations had convinced her that the 
 death-and-birth-stork-and-angel theory was an im- 
 position and that, consequently, both her father and 
 mother were liars. As the idea of relativity is very 
 undeveloped in the young, if her mother lied in 
 one case, she was bound to lie in every case and a 
 simple statement like "We are going into the 
 garden" was only another of her mother's fabrica- 
 tions. 
 
 About that time, the Messina earthquake caused 
 the child to develop an intense scientific curiosity 
 based mainly on fear. She spent hours in her 
 father's library looking for pictures of volcanoes 
 and lava flowing out of the earth. Her question- 
 ing assumed a different aspect. She would ply her 
 parents with questions like the following: 
 
 "Why is Sophie (her little sister) younger than 
 I? Where was Freddie (the baby) before? What 
 was he doing in heaven? Why didn't he come 
 down sooner?" 
 
 Her parents, noticing her nervous eagerness, de- 
 cided to tell her a part of the truth. Freddie, she 
 was told, grew in the body of the mother as flowers 
 develop out of a plant. 
 
 This occasioned more questions: 
 
 [77] 
 
Psychoanalysis and Behaviour 
 
 "How did Freddie come out? Since he cannot 
 walk, did he crawl out? And is there a hole 
 in the breast or did he come out of the mouth? 
 Why don't babies come out of the nurse or the 
 servant?" 
 
 One day, when her father was compelled by in- 
 disposition to remain in bed, Anna approached 
 him with the inquiry: 
 
 "Have you a plant growing in you too?" 
 
 Her dreams showed a constant preoccupation 
 with the birth problem and were offering solutions 
 for them; Noah's ark with animals falling out of 
 it, spring and summer days with all the flowers 
 coming out. 
 
 A visit to a pregnant neighbour brought out a 
 curious comparison between the woman's body and 
 certain flowers and fruit. Then one day at the 
 table, Anna took an orange announcing that she 
 was going to swallow it, after which she would have 
 a baby. 
 
 We must point out the remarkable similarity be- 
 tween the child's fancy and the various theories 
 found in fairy tales and according to which preg- 
 nancy is produced by the eating of certain foods. 
 
 Thus Anna solved the problem of how children 
 enter the mother's body. After which the role 
 played by the father in the bringing forth of chil- 
 [78] 
 
Horrifying Impressions 
 
 dren began to occupy her thoughts. Certain re- 
 marks she made seemed to imply that she had been 
 spying on her parents. 
 
 That manifestation of childlike curiosity often 
 has disastrous consequences. The child who has 
 watched the sexual act performed by his parents 
 and cannot by any means understand its meaning 
 may carry away the most horrifying impressions. 
 
 Some children are terrified and obsessed by what 
 seems to them a scene of violence. Some may de- 
 velop frigidity or impotence later in life owing to 
 the disgust they experienced. Some may be 
 goaded into spying some more and waste much time 
 and energy keeping themselves awake and waiting 
 for a new opportunity. Some, identifying them- 
 selves with the overpowering father, develop strong 
 sadist, cruel traits, others, identifying themselves 
 with the mother, will on the contrary, be masochistic 
 perverts. Others will, owing to their ignorance of 
 anatomy and physiology, develop curious obses- 
 sive ideas of an analerotic type. 
 
 Little Anna had, therefore, reached a very crit- 
 ical stage at which definite action had become im- 
 perative. 
 
 Her father finally decided to satisfy her curi- 
 osity. Confronted one day with a demand for ex- 
 planations as to who planted in her mother the seed 
 
 [79] 
 
Psychoanalysis and Behaviour 
 
 from which her little brother grew, he gave her the 
 following answer suggested by Jung: 
 
 "The mother is like the soil of the garden, and 
 the father like the gardener. The father plants in 
 the mother the seed from which babies grow." 
 
 The explanation proved satisfactory and the lit- 
 tle girl, after receiving confirmation of the truth 
 which she suspected, that children come out the 
 mother's genitals, ceased to cudgel her brain with 
 the vexing problem which for two years had dis- 
 turbed her so profoundly. 
 
 Little Arpad's and Little Anna's cases point out 
 a practical solution for the problem of sexual en- 
 lightenment of children. 
 
 Explanations based upon botanical phenomena 
 do not satisfy the children, their little minds un- 
 used to generalizations cannot draw from stories 
 of pollen and seeds conclusions applicable to hu- 
 man beings. Parents must either become the sexual 
 educators of their children or allow some one else 
 to play that part. A teacher or the family physi- 
 cian and no one else, is qualified to undertake such 
 a task. 
 
 The parents themselves, however, properly in- 
 structed by a competent person, would be the best 
 persons to open their children's minds to such im- 
 portant facts. By denying them such knowledge, 
 [80] 
 
The Revolt Against the Parents 
 
 they give to their children an impression of ignor- 
 ance and expose themselves to the implied scorn 
 which little Arpad revealed unconsciously by ad- 
 dressing himself to fowls. By telling lying stories 
 they lose the confidence of their children and cause 
 them to question every statement they may make 
 later in life on vital subjects. 
 
 The revolt against the father's authority is cer- 
 tainly due in many cases to the hostility and jeal- 
 ousy which the boy feels against the man who 
 monopolizes his mother's attentions, but in many 
 cases too, the apparent stupidity and unreliability 
 of the parents as a source of information on impor- 
 tant matters, as exemplified by their dodging and 
 fibbing about sex, is likely to exacerbate a boy's 
 egotistical sense of superiority. 
 
 If parents wish to lead their children they must 
 obviously be ahead of them. If parents appear 
 either ignorant of certain facts known to many of 
 the child's associates, or too bashful to discuss 
 things which his little school chums or some shady 
 characters with whom he may be in contact, dis- 
 cuss openly and without much embarrassment, the 
 child can only draw one conclusion, that his parents 
 are either lacking in knowledge or in courage, or 
 hopelessly behind the times. 
 
 Parents often wonder why their children in 
 
 [81] 
 
Psychoanalysis and Behaviour 
 
 school and out of school generally follow the 
 wrong leader. If a child is nice, modest, well be- 
 haved and soft spoken, he wiU get very little credit 
 in school from his associates. He will not be taken 
 as a model, and never will be a leader. The little 
 Lord Fauntleroy has a miserable time of it in 
 school and gets a lot of hazing. 
 
 The foul-mouthed urchin, on the other hand, who 
 swears and knows obscene words and seems to lead 
 a romantically indecent life out of school excites 
 everybody's curiosity and his advice is taken on 
 every occasion. He is supposed to know things. 
 
 Children are great egotists, whose main ambi- 
 tion is to become grown ups and to be treated as 
 such. They wish to be taken seriously and resent 
 being considered as mentally inferior beings. 
 
 The bad boy acts "like a man" and his "wis- 
 dom" and "knowledge" make it easy for him to 
 assume the leadership of "the gang." 
 
 With a little more knowledge and less fear of 
 certain words and facts, parents could retain their 
 authority and save their children from many mis- 
 takes committed while emulating the bad boys. 
 
 The question of the sexual enlightenment of chil- 
 dren goes much farther than the mere problem of 
 telling children accurate facts about sex. It has 
 [82] 
 
Parents and Children 
 
 an important bearing upon all the relations between 
 patents and children. 
 
 BIBLIOGRAPHY 
 
 The analysis of Little Hans by Freud is not accessible 
 to English readers. The cases of Little Arpad and Little 
 Anna, however, are infinitely richer in their psycho- 
 logical applications and can be found in all their detail 
 in S. Ferenczi's "Contributions to Psychoanalysis" 
 (Badger) and Jung's lectures on "The Association 
 Method," published by Clark University. The treat- 
 ment accorded to children in the various epochs of his- 
 tory is well described in G. H. Payne's "The Child in 
 Human Progress" (Putnam's). 
 
 The various problems of childhood are discussed 
 thoroughly by H. V. H. Hellmuth, a woman physician, in 
 "The Mental Life of the Child" (Nervous and Mental 
 Disease Pub. Co.) and by William A. White, superin- 
 tendent of St. Elizabeth Hospital for the Insane, Wash- 
 ington, D. C, in "The Mental Hygiene of Childhood" 
 (Little, Brown), two books which should be read by 
 every parent and educator. See also "The Problem of 
 the Nervous Child" by Elida Evans (Dodd, Mead). 
 
 [83] 
 
III. PROGRESS AND REGRESSIONS 
 
CHAPTER I. THE NEGATIVE AND THE 
 POSITIVE LIFE 
 
 The positive human being aims at a goal which 
 is ahead, in time and space, and perhaps at a 
 higher level than the one on which he presently 
 stands. He makes plans for a future of useful 
 activity, of beneficial endeavour and of social co- 
 operation. He expects to encounter problems and 
 to solve them in his own way, perhaps in a novel 
 way. 
 
 The negative human being, on the contrary, 
 seems fascinated by the past, seems to live in the 
 past. He is constantly seeking some abnormal, 
 unpleasant, painful form of regression, resorting 
 to unsocial, selfish means, avoiding problems, and 
 when he has to solve them himself, proving a slave 
 to precedents. 
 
 Since all men should obviously be positive, why 
 do so many lead a negative life? Why do so many 
 'regress instead of advancing? Why do so many 
 destroy instead of being constructive? 
 
 Neurotics, perverts and criminals regress: neu- 
 
 [87] 
 
Psychoanalysis and Behaviour 
 
 rotics ransack their past life for ready made solu- 
 tions which, in the majority of cases, cannot be 
 made to fit modified conditions; perverts seek sex- 
 ual gratification in ways which are childish and 
 imperfect; criminals revert to ethics of the prim- 
 eval days, when each man or each beast, ignorant 
 as yet of any form of solidarity, assaulted every 
 other man or beast. 
 
 Regression is invariably due to some feeling of 
 inferiority. Some people develop a weak heart. 
 After which a rapid ascent up steep stairs, over- 
 indulgence in dancing, or a hearty meal may be fol- 
 lowed by discomfort which makes the owner of the 
 inferior organ keenly conscious of his inferiority. 
 Some of us have capricious stomachs or fatigued 
 eyes, bad teeth, a bald skull, thin arms, fat legs, 
 lungs which are too sensitive to changes in the 
 temperature, etc. 
 
 And most of us take those imperfections as 
 granted. We do not worry over them, we reach 
 some crompromise between life as we would lead 
 it if we could and the life which our inferior 
 organ allows us to lead; the man with a weak 
 heart shuns dances and avoids excitement; the man 
 with a poor digestion may select from the bill of 
 fare a hundred dainties which demand no gastric 
 strenuosity; the man with poor eyes picks out 
 [88] 
 
Mysterious Organs 
 
 books in large print; the thin person favours a fat- 
 tening diet; the obese one selects a diet likely to 
 bring him back to pleasant proportions; the bald 
 man avoids exposing his skull to icy blasts; the 
 person with decayed teeth uses a nut cracker. . . . 
 
 All of them, as long as they are normal, find 
 enough enjoyment in the long list of activities which 
 do not aggravate their condition; all of them come 
 to the conclusion that "it cannot be helped" and 
 let it go at that. 
 
 In certain cases the problem is more complicated. 
 Baldness or bad teeth or palpitations are obvious 
 facts and the discomfort they bring in their wake is 
 easily traced to its true source. 
 
 There are many organs, however, whose location 
 in our body is very vague to most of us, whose 
 names we do not even know, which are not painful 
 when diseased or deranged, and yet whose faulty 
 functioning may cause distressing symptoms. 
 Overactive adrenals, causing by their secretion of 
 adrenin, a constant sense of arterial tension, may 
 cause us to experience obscure feelings of discom- 
 fort which we express by saying: "I don't feel 
 right, I feel out of sorts, etc." The normal man 
 has himself examined carefully by a physician and 
 follows the treatment prescribed, and unless the 
 treatment seems to fail absolutely to relieve him, 
 
 [89] 
 
Psychoanalysis arid Behaviour 
 
 goes about his business and does not pay too much 
 attention to his condition. 
 
 The neurotic, on the contrary, dramatizes his in- 
 feriority, and instead of looking hopefully at all 
 the opportunities which are open to him in spite 
 of that inferiority, dwells constantly and stub- 
 bornly upon the handicaps which it places on him, 
 on the pleasures, advantages, privileges, which pal- 
 pitations of the heart have removed from his reach, 
 the attitudes his bald pate would spoil, etc. 
 
 In the case of unlocalized, obscure feelings of 
 discomfort, he may become despondent, expect 
 death or a lingering illness, lose his desire for life, 
 let himself drift. 
 
 At times, a sense of inferiority is forced upon 
 perfectly normal people by an environment which 
 they have allowed to dominate them too completely. 
 
 Healthy young men and women may develop 
 a deep sense of sin when they find themselves con- 
 stantly reproved for the "impulsive" acts, the un- 
 restrained enthusiasm, the outbursts of demonstra- 
 tive affection which are natural to strong, full- 
 blooded human beings. 
 
 In small communities, in puritanical circles, 
 which are only too often dominated by oldish, sex- 
 ually starved, narrow-minded old maids of both 
 sexes, most manifestations of vitality are likely to 
 [90] 
 
Repressing Normal Cravings 
 
 he characterized as low, animal, bestial. Young 
 women of an exuberant nature, who crave the 
 perfectly legitimate excitement and the active life 
 of an actress, of a concert artist, of an interpreta- 
 tive dancer, are the particular butt for such at- 
 tacks. 
 
 Either they leave their environment in a rash 
 way which not infrequently entails suffering or re- 
 grettable entanglements, or they allow their en- 
 vironment to indicate their conduct, they judge 
 themselves as severely as their critics judge them, 
 they co-operate with their critics in repressing 
 normal cravings which soon proceed to seek an ab- 
 normal outlet in the form of hysteria, headaches, 
 torturing states of anxiety. 
 
 Or they accept weakly their environment's esti- 
 mate of their character with a discouraged "I am 
 no good" as their justification and become a plague 
 or a plaything for the world, drifting into promis- 
 cuity, prostitution or "insanity." 
 
 As neither normal nor abnormal people can 
 carry happily through life a feeling of inferiority, 
 they assume after a while a certain attitude which 
 brings them consolation or compensation. 
 
 The best and most fruitful attitude in such cases 
 is the following: In one respect I am inferior but 
 in other respects, I am or can be superior. 
 
 [91] 
 
Psychoanalysis and Behaviour 
 
 The positive man striking that attitude will strive 
 for some form' of superiority: he may become an 
 inventor of genius, a creator of new things, an artist, 
 a writer. He may devise novel ways of curing his 
 inferiority, of exercising the inferior organ (Adler 
 has noticed that many people became chefs because 
 they originally had a poor stomach and that many 
 singers start singing as the best way of developing 
 their inferior throat) . 
 
 Accomplishment of some sort will restore the con- 
 fidence which a feeling of inferiority may have 
 weakened; it will compensate for the satisfactions 
 which mere inferiority places beyond the inferior 
 man's reach and offset jhe feeling that something 
 is wrong somewhere in the organism. By accom- 
 plishment, I mean the kind of positive, creative ac- 
 tivity which receives a measure, however small, of 
 recognition. 
 
 Negative people and in certain cases, the origin- 
 ally positive people who go to extremes, may be 
 more tortured by their attempts at compensation 
 than they were by the inferiority for which they 
 are attempting to compensate. 
 
 The world is acquainted with the many crazy in- 
 ventors who are pestering their friends with some 
 mechanical trifle they consider tremendous, with 
 the cranks who would make the world an ideal place 
 [92] 
 
Others Are Inferior 
 
 by banishing cigarette smoking, the uninspired 
 poets, the undramatic playwrights, and too often, 
 the true men of genius whose fame is to be a post- 
 humous one. 
 
 Not a few merge into a deep melancholia on ac- 
 count of their failure to impress the world with the 
 importance of their fad, not a few are aroused to 
 acts of maniacal violence by the indifference with 
 which their "discoveries" are received. 
 
 Another attitude which the inferior human being 
 may adopt is expressed by the statement: Other 
 people too are inferior. 
 
 This may be a basis for a healthy and normal 
 compromise with life. I should not take my in- 
 feriority too tragically for many other people have 
 a weak heart and yet enjoy life; many have im- 
 perfect features and yet have found love, etc. A 
 realization of mankind's imperfections is a good 
 antidote for the romantic view adopted by many- 
 sentimental beings and which in too many cases 
 leads them to idealize strangers, to make gods and 
 goddesses of people to whom distance lends m!any 
 graces. 
 
 Such a realization may be very constructive in 
 its results, for with it may go an intelligent sym- 
 pathy for fellow sufferers, more tolerance, more 
 patience, more kindness for other members of the 
 
 [93] 
 
Psychoanalysis and Behaviour 
 
 social body, who are burdened with the same or 
 similar handicaps. 
 
 That understanding is often a source of definite 
 ego-satisfaction and the inferiority is often ac- 
 cepted gratefully on account of the mental su- 
 periority to which it leads. "Not until I was a 
 sufferer from . . . did I understand, etc." is one 
 statement frequently met with, and which is uttered 
 with a certain amount of pardonable pride. 
 
 The negative type, on the other hand, the neu- 
 rotic individual convinced of his inferiority, will 
 not have any peace until he proves to himself and 
 to others that ALL human beings are inferior, not 
 only in ways similar to his but in many other re- 
 spects. 
 
 His level will appear to him extremely low until 
 he has dragged mankind down to the same level 
 or even to a lower one. Without doing himself any 
 appreciable good and without accomplishing any- 
 thing positive, he destroys his environment's equi- 
 librium and ultimately his own. 
 
 He begins a campaign of disparagement which 
 impugns every statement, every act, every motive, 
 aims at dwarfing every accomplishment, attributes 
 sordid or unethical reasons to every form of ac- 
 tivity that comes within his ken. 
 
 He casts reflections on other people's morals, 
 [94] 
 
Withdrawing from Reality 
 
 spreads vague rumours about their health, their 
 disposition, their financial status. The gossip- 
 monger enjoys a measure of power due to his repu- 
 tation for having a sharp tongue; some, deceived 
 by his spurious fearlessness, may respect him, some 
 of his victims may fear hini 
 
 But there grows around him a more or less con- 
 cealed hostility which he soon capitalizes in order 
 to lend plausibility to his scorn and hatred of the 
 world. 
 
 Scorn and hatred may soon lead him into intro- 
 version, that is, withdrawal from human society, 
 from social groups, which he characterizes as too 
 superficial, from crowds, which he denounces as 
 vulgar, from friendly intercourse, which he pre- 
 sents as a waste of time. 
 
 The foundation is laid for the introversion of 
 dementia praecox in which the patient gradually 
 withdraws into himself paying no more attention to 
 his environment, interested only in his own thoughts, 
 staring at unseen things and in some cases assum- 
 ing the prenatal position of the fetus in the mother's 
 womb. 
 
 Another attitude which individuals may assume 
 in order to compensate for a feeling of inferiority 
 is the "sour grape" attitude. Within certain limits 
 it is helpful. The man who fails to attain a certain 
 
 [95] 
 
Psychoanalysis and Behaviour 
 
 object may console himself by letting his mind 
 dwell on the advantages instead of on the unfor- 
 timate side of his failure. "That position would 
 have been advantageous but it would have meant 
 less freedom, etc." The jilted suitor may remem- 
 ber certain unpleasant traits of his sweetheart which 
 might have made life with her a doubtful venture. 
 The neurotic, on the other hand, proceeds to dispar- 
 age all the goals which are beyond his reach. Un- 
 prepossessing bachelors of both sexes are very loud 
 in their denunciation of the badness of men and 
 women respectively. Ugly persons destined to be 
 wall flowers criticize the dances at which they are 
 not welcome and the low neck gowns which would 
 expose their lack of charms. Not only do they 
 deny vociferously their desire for "sour grapes" 
 but they condemn all attempts on the part of others 
 at reaching the goals which have eluded them. 
 Negative in their life, they become teachers of neg- 
 ativism. They say "No" to life, because life said 
 "No" to them and they avenge themselves by dis- 
 couraging all those who, young and healthy, would 
 say "Yes" to life. 
 
 A craving for safety is natural in all living 
 things and constitutes one of the essential conditions 
 of individual or group survival. The race which 
 is not afraid of other, more aggressive races, which 
 [96] 
 
The Craving for Safety 
 
 disregards the dangers accruing from epidemics 
 and does not insure its future by permanent agen- 
 cies of welfare, the individual who fails to stop, 
 look and listen at crossings and never looks before 
 he leaps, has an interesting but abbreviated career. 
 It is especially when our organism is not abso- 
 lutely perfect that we must exercise very special 
 care to offset that handicap. The man with a weak 
 foot should not take chances and cross avenues in 
 front of swiftly moving vehicles. The man with 
 weak eyes should not jump until he has estinfated 
 very accurately the distance between starting and 
 landing points; the man with weak kidneys should 
 avoid strong beverages, etc. 
 
 Normal and inferior persons can indulge their 
 craving for safety in perfectly positive ways, arriv- 
 ing at a compromise between what they would like 
 to do and what they can safely do without injury 
 to life and limb, without loss of money or of social 
 prestige, etc. The positive person asks: "How 
 can I safely do a certain thing?" 
 
 The abnormal neurotic person on the other hand 
 will ask : "What shall I avoid in order to be safe?" 
 In other words the positive person stresses the 
 accomplishment, the negative lays emphasis on 
 safety- 
 Here again, instead of looking into the future, the 
 
 [97] 
 
Psychoanalysis and Behaviour 
 
 negative neurotic looks into the past for prece- 
 dents. "How did I once find safety?" 
 
 This means, as usual, a regression to a younger 
 and yoiuiger stage, to one in which safety was as- 
 sured by the parents, guardians or teachers, who 
 solved all problems as soon as they arose, constantly 
 created precedents for conduct and made all plan- 
 ning for the future unnecessary. Thousands of 
 neurotics thus run back to father or mother in a 
 symbolic way. 
 
 We are all acquainted with the man who uses as a 
 criterion of his and other people's actions what "his 
 poor father" would have thought of them, with the 
 woman who does a certain thing because "it would 
 have made mother happy," and also with the men 
 and women who refrain from doing perfectly 
 simple, legitimate, harmless things because their 
 father or mother disapproved of them. Thousands 
 are Democrats or Republicans because of their 
 fathers' political affiliations and for no other con- 
 scious reason. 
 
 Such people are naturally hostile to every change, 
 be it in fashions or in government, because, very 
 naturally, there was nothing in their past which 
 constitutes a precedent for harem skirts or munic- 
 ipal ice houses, for cubism or original surgical 
 methods. 
 [98] 
 
Nagging Men and Women 
 
 The feeling of strangeness experienced by many 
 neurotics is easily explained as a regression to the 
 past. Life goes on, but they either linger at one 
 level or sink to a lower one and reality is to them 
 a more and more puzzling phenomenon. 
 
 The old-fashioned type is often the product of a 
 sense of inferiority, lack of adaptability and elastic- 
 ity, low power of assimilation, coupled with an 
 abnormal desire for safety. 
 
 This attitude very often assumes a sexual com- 
 plexion which may deceive superficial observers. 
 
 The inferior male, who obscurfely fears that he 
 might not come up to the expectations of a sexual 
 partner, disparages all women and seeks safety on 
 the pedestal of his self -assumed masculine superior- 
 ity. The inferior female pretends to scorn all 
 males. The inferior husband surrounds his wife 
 with varied protective devices which are ostensibly 
 meant to protect her, and imply her inability to pro- 
 tect herself. He dictates what she may read, whom 
 she may properly meet, what she should wear, in 
 reality, isolating her as completely as possible from 
 other more attractive and perhaps mlore virile 
 males. 
 
 The inferior wife nags her husband into giving 
 up "habits," friends, clubs, membership in asso- 
 ciations likely to supply him with alibis; in brief, 
 
 [99] 
 
Psychoanalysis and Behaviour 
 
 she protects him from women more attractive than 
 she is by constantly asserting her ownership of him 
 and excluding from his circle of acquaintances all 
 sources of possible temptation. 
 
 Inferior persons of both sexes only feel safe when 
 the opposite sex has been humiliated. Men and 
 women alike have contributed to the hostility be- 
 tween sexes as a consequence of which the mascu- 
 line dom'ination which is now gradually yielding 
 to the onslaughts of feminists, implanted itself for 
 many centuries. 
 
 And this leads us to a consideration of the will-to- 
 power from its positive and negative sides. 
 
 The will-to-power is a normal striving of the liv- 
 ing being for the natural result of regular, un- 
 hampered growth, physical and mental, of the per- 
 fect functioning of all the bodily agencies of ac- 
 quisition, assimilation, metabolism and elimination: 
 power. 
 
 Health and power are synonymous; power to re- 
 sist death, power to do one's tasks without a feeling 
 of exhaustion; power to join in all the world's ac- 
 tivities; power for enjoyment; power to be used in 
 emergencies. Every normal m,an or woman de- 
 sires and seeks that form of power. 
 
 The will-to-power, on the other hand, becomes 
 negative when the craving for it is synonymous with 
 [100] 
 
Negative Compensation 
 
 a desire to destroy, not to create, to overpower 
 others, not to be their equal in every respect. 
 
 Instead of the positive statement: I must be 
 strong, the neurotic says, unconsciously: "I must 
 appear as though I were strong." 
 
 Ferenczi cites the very striking case of a weak, 
 neurotic clerk who, when submitted to some humil- 
 iation by his employer, went out to seek some male 
 prostitute. Instead of being strong, manly, and 
 either meeting the insult with proud rebuif or mak- 
 ing himself more valuable and more worthy of 
 respect, the poor neurotic spent some money, rep- 
 resenting power, in order to subdue to his will and 
 to humiliate some wretched man of the gutter. 
 
 And indeed, that psychology is not as rare as one 
 might think; to many a neurotic, physical relations 
 are symbolical of a humiliation of the woman; 
 many a jealous neurotic has confessed to me that 
 his worse torture was not the suspicion that his 
 wife's affection was growing less but that some 
 other man might subject her to his will even as he 
 himself did. 
 
 Innumerable neurotic disturbances, epilepsy, 
 sick headaches, dizziness, fainting spells, are ex- 
 pedients enabling the sick to indulge their will-to- 
 power in a negative way. Instead of accumulat- 
 ing strength, they wear out the strength of those 
 
 [101] 
 
Psychoanalysis and Behaviour 
 
 with whom they come in contact and who have to 
 take care of them. Many an epileptic, facing de- 
 feat, "throws" a fit and thus gains an advantage he 
 could not claim justly. 
 
 The woman with a sick headache silences the 
 entire household; the dizzy person suffering from 
 agoraphobia, requires an escort; the person who 
 faints commands the services and the attention of 
 all those present. None of those neurotic sufferers 
 is conscious of that procedure but almost all of 
 them confess naively some time or other to the 
 pleasure vouchsafed them by the prompt succour 
 offered them. 
 
 And in that naive avowal there is concealed one 
 more egotistical satisfaction: "You see how ap- 
 preciative I am. . . ." This is one form of uncon- 
 scious hypocrisy very noticeable in people with a 
 weak heart. They promptly exploit the popular 
 superstition which makes the heart the centre of all 
 the tender emotions and boast of their sensitiveness 
 which naturally makes them more sympathetic and 
 places a new duty upon those whom they uncon- 
 sciously victimize. 
 
 Self-knowledge as acquired through analysis or 
 self -analysis, is the only protection against a nega- 
 tive orientation, against an attitude which is dis- 
 astrous to the sufferer and his environment. For 
 [102] 
 
Neurotic Superiority 
 
 while the neurotic derives infinite unconscious sat- 
 isfaction from his abnormality he consciously goes 
 through the tortures of hell. His spurious su- 
 periority and power do not satisfy him consciously. 
 And this is one of the reasons why he is so easily 
 aroused, so vituperative and insulting in disputes. 
 From this he again derives a certain superiority. 
 People are afraid of discussing any subject with a 
 neurotic and oftentimes yield point after point in 
 order to avoid unpleasantness. 
 
 The neurotic obscurely feels that his arguments 
 are not valid, that his position is untenable, that 
 his evidence could not stand any test and his anger 
 at his own powerlessness is projected on those who 
 cross-examine him. He is like a man who has 
 been hypnotized and unconsciously invents very 
 plausible reasons for proving that he did of his 
 free will what the hypnotist commanded him to do. 
 
 Insight into our unconscious, like the gradual 
 and detailed explanations of the hypnotist to his 
 subject, allows both neurotic and medium to realize 
 that they were subjected for a while to an abnormal 
 influence and that to a certain extent "they were not 
 themselves." 
 
 The problem to solve constantly in human con- 
 duct is: "Am I myself, is it I myself who am 
 speaking and acting or is it my unconscious self, 
 
 [103] 
 
Psychoanalysis and Behaviour 
 
 attempting to follow the line of least resistance, 
 leading me toward regression instead of progress, 
 toward the past instead of toward the future?" 
 
 Conduct based upon that system alone might 
 not be perfectly normal. Introversion and extro- 
 version, that is the fixation of our attention upon 
 ourselves or upon exterior objects, can both be 
 normal and abnormal. Extreme introversion, the 
 detachment of our interest from the entire world 
 and its fixation on ourselves alone means absolute 
 negativism;; extreme extroversion, the constant chas- 
 ing of a new butterfly, exaggerated interest in every 
 passing fad or detail of life, means the squandering 
 of our resources, mental and physical, on a hundred 
 goals none of which is ever reached. 
 
 He who attempts too many things is almost as 
 unproductive as he who withdraws from reality. 
 
 Our reactions to stimulus words and our dreams 
 alone can give us a clear picture of our orientation. 
 Introversion and extroversion are easily determined 
 by even a superficial examination of the first and our 
 dreams reveal to us accurately what our uncon- 
 scious is trying to make us do. 
 
 The Aschner test described on page 40 is a sim- 
 ple way of confimdng the diagnosis. 
 
 He whose reactions reveal him as extremely self- 
 [104] 
 
Positive Standards 
 
 centred and introverted should be on his guard 
 against that tendency and force himself to adopt 
 attitudes which will lead to fewer conflicts with his 
 environment. 
 
 The overmodest person burdened with a feeling 
 of inferiority can go through a systematic training 
 of ego-building and personality development. 
 
 In other words, those who have been deceived 
 by their unconscious and who know to what extent 
 the deception has gone, may discount their first im- 
 pressions and withhold final judgment until they 
 have ascertained whether their conscious I or their 
 imconscious I is responsible for that first impres- 
 sion and is dictating their judgment. 
 
 We must now and then go through the process 
 which the Catholics call examination of conscience 
 and submit our attitudes to a test based upon the 
 following five propositions: 
 
 A tendency to constantly disparage is negative 
 and should put ourselves on our guard. 
 
 Desire for power that exalts us at the expense of 
 others is also negative. 
 
 The constant search for precedents is negative. 
 
 In brief, whatever enables us to harmonize with 
 our environment and to help it toward its goal is 
 positive. 
 
 [105] 
 
Psychoanalysis and Behaviour 
 
 Whatever creates disharmony between ourselves 
 and our environment and retards its onward march 
 is negative. 
 
 BIBLIOGRAPHY 
 
 For a study of the neurotic temperament consult 
 William A. White's "Elements of Character Formation" 
 and "Principles of Mental Hygiene," both published by 
 Macmillan. "Human Motives," by J. J. Putnam, is a 
 very simple presentation of the hidden forces which com- 
 pel us to act abnormally at times. 
 
 The deepest and most searching analysis of the neu- 
 rotic's mental workings will be found in A. Adler's "The 
 Neurotic Constitution" (Moffat, Yard) which requires 
 very careful reading, for it presupposes a certain knowl- 
 edge of analytic methods and has been translated in 
 rather heavy style. 
 
 [106] 
 
CHAPTER II. SPEECH AND MEMORY DE- 
 FECTS 
 
 The neurotic type in its negative attitude to life 
 refuses to face unpleasant facts. It adopts the os- 
 trich's tactics and buries its head in the sand. The 
 most efficient way to flee from an unpleasant reality 
 is not to know any longer that it was once perceived. 
 Oblivion is the simplest way to rid oneself of an 
 unpleasant fact. If it cannot be entirely forgotten, 
 avoiding to mention it is the next best negative ex- 
 pedient. Loss of memory, partial or complete, ob- 
 literates a part of our biography which we lack 
 courage to acknowledge as our own. Aphasia, 
 aphonia or stammering withhold conveniently state- 
 ments which our unconscious considers damaging. 
 
 A German woman of fifty who at the beginning 
 of the war had been especially loud in her proger- 
 manism and had thereby caused her family and 
 relatives a great deal of annoyance, was absolutely 
 prostrated when her son, a naturalized citizen, was 
 drafted. A panicky fear seized her lest her indis- 
 crete utterances might bring punishment upon her 
 beloved boy's head. 
 
 [107] 
 
Psychoanalysis and Behaviour 
 
 The night when he left for camp, she became 
 strangely silent and the next morning she was ab- 
 solutely disoriented, being unable to recognize any 
 member of her family or her environment. 
 
 Her memory for everything which had occurred 
 since August, 1914, was entirely gone; she could 
 speak only with great difficulty and for a while 
 her vocal cords lost all resonance; she regained to a 
 certain extent her powers of speech when express- 
 ing herself in English but she was absolutely unable 
 to make herself heard when she talked German, 
 
 On the other hand, her memory of events preced- 
 ing the world catastrophe was absolutely unim- 
 paired. While she never joined a conversation or 
 addressed any one first she would very often supply 
 with astounding accuracy facts or dates needed by 
 those conversing in her presence. All the facts 
 of her biography and of that of her children ante- 
 dating 1914 were perfectly clear and well remem- 
 bered, but when asked their age, she gave the age 
 they had reached in August, 1914. 
 
 Here is a case then in which partial amnesia and 
 partial aphasia proved a negative asset to the neu- 
 rotic. The war which brought her much misfor- 
 tune was forgotten. The voice which had carried 
 to hostile ears many indiscrete statements was 
 muted and the language which at a time none could 
 [108] 
 
The Ways of the Stammerer 
 
 speak in public without being eyed suspiciously or 
 ostracised, failed to make her vocal cords vibrate. 
 
 A stammerer engaged in scientific research never 
 had any difl&culty in mentioning a certain chemical 
 whose methods of production he was trying hard 
 to improve. One day, however, a fellow laboratory 
 worker forestalled him in finding a more efficient 
 device. At the next appointment, the stammerer 
 was almost unable to tell me of the occurrence and 
 could not for several minutes pronounce clearly the 
 name of the chemical in question. His unconscious 
 egotism was bent on withholding from me informa- 
 tion of a humiliating character. As soon as the 
 neurotic expedient became obvious to him, his im- 
 pediment disappeared. 
 
 A woman compelled in self-defence to tell her 
 husband a very complicated story lacking in plaus- 
 ibility, began to stammer whenever a word in her 
 conversation seemed to be unconsciously associated 
 with the compromising incident. A full confession 
 in my office relieved the tension and the "watchful 
 technique" did the rest. 
 
 A study of all cases of memory and speech dis- 
 turbances will soon convince the observer that our 
 memory does not retain or lose words and facts 
 indiscriminately. 
 
 Stammerers do not stammer indiscriminately, 
 
 [109] 
 
Psychoanalysis and Behaviour 
 
 There always is an absurd unconscious reason, 
 neurotically logical, which causes us to forget a 
 word, a fact, a duty, a figure, or to lose partly or 
 completely our powers of speech. 
 
 We may forget anything which has an unpleasant 
 unconscious connotation, we may stammer on any 
 word which has an xmpleasant association or be 
 totally unable to pronounce it. 
 
 Hence the usual methods for improving the mem- 
 ory are psychologically absurd. 
 
 We may memorize long lists of words or sen- 
 tences, poems and orations and yet at the crucial 
 moment the right word may be withheld because 
 some unconscious complex makes it impossible for 
 us to utter it. 
 
 Mnemotechnic methods which seek to create new 
 and at times illogical and absurd associations of the 
 "clang" type or of the pun type are better. They 
 grant unconsciously what the analysts claim, that 
 the associations conjured up by a word may be of 
 such a nature that the word cannot be uttered and 
 they seek to replace a natural and unconscious as- 
 sociation by an unnatural and conscious one. 
 
 This involves however a gigantic amount of ex- 
 ertion and the results of this procedure cannot be 
 permanent. 
 
 The removal of the complexes which hold words 
 [110] 
 
Why We Forget 
 
 down is the only scientific method for "improving" 
 one's memory. Psychoanalysis does not, however, 
 "improve" one's memory; it disintegrates the ele- 
 ments which impair our memory. 
 
 Our memory is simply the faculty our autonomic 
 nerves have of making use, in an emergency, of im- 
 pressions received in the course of our bringing up. 
 When some fear-impression causes the safety divi- 
 sion of the autonomic system to repress the natural 
 activities of the other divisions, the words are, if the 
 repression is complete, entirely forgotten, or if the 
 repression is less complete, remembered but unpro- 
 nounceable and, if the repression fails, stammered 
 on more or less painfully. 
 
 The various cures suggested for stammering 
 have never cured any one permanently. 
 
 Any stammerer can be trained to read without 
 any difficulty lists of disconnected words and sen- 
 tences of varying length. Any stammerer can be 
 trained to sing without stammering. 
 
 This means that the words he studies lose grad- 
 ually their present, unconscious associations and 
 become mere sounds. As soon, however, as those 
 words are grouped differently and acquire anew 
 their imconscious associations, the stammerer once 
 more becomes tongue-tied. 
 
 Making the sufferer change the pitch of his voice, 
 
 [111] 
 
Psychoanalysis and Behaviour 
 
 one popular method of treating stammerers, is just 
 as inefficient. Called upon to single out one word 
 and to treat it as a "vehicle" for sound, not for 
 thought, the stammerer no longer feels any embar- 
 rassment. The embarrassment returns, however, 
 when the stammerer has to speak in a natural, even 
 tone of voice. 
 
 Experiments show that fixation of the reading 
 glance on one word only at a time, helps the stam- 
 merer, for it accomplishes more simply the same 
 purpose as a change of pitch. It disconnects each 
 word from its context and hence rids it of its as- 
 sociations. 
 
 This is, however, little more than an expedient 
 and does not go to the root of the matter. 
 
 Nothing avails except to free the subject from the 
 imconscious complexes withholding the words on 
 which he stamm,ers. 
 
 The stammerer who gains insight into the mech- 
 anism of his disability, who realizes not only that 
 every bothersome word, sound or even letter, is 
 fraught with an unpleasant connotation, but, fur- 
 thermore, that his stammering is a valuable nega- 
 tive asset for him, will gradually acquire perfect 
 fluency of speech. 
 
 One stammerer I treated came to realize that his 
 stammering enabled him to dominate his environ- 
 [112] 
 
Memory and Speech Training 
 
 ment, as his mother and sister had to do all his 
 shopping, receive and send all his telephone mes- 
 sages; he could keep his employer waiting for ex- 
 planations, he could delay his answers and modify 
 their wording (hereby satisfying his safety crav- 
 ings). While he could pronounce without diffi- 
 culty the name of any woman he was acquainted 
 with, he could seldom pronounce men's names, es- 
 pecially when those men wielded some authority 
 over him. 
 
 The usual memory and speech methods are based 
 on the assumption that certain people are bom 
 with a poor memory or a "heavy tongue." Psycho- 
 analysis assumes that all human beings are bom 
 with probably the same average ability but that 
 in the course of their bringing up some of that 
 average ability has been handicapped by complexes 
 and cannot manifest itself freely. Instead of de- 
 veloping memory or fluency, psychoanalysis busies 
 itself with the rem,oval of the complexes which 
 disable the patient. 
 
 This precludes the relapses which are so frequent 
 and so discouraging in the treatment of amnesia, 
 aphasia and stammering by the old fashioned 
 methods. 
 
 [113] 
 
Psychoanalysis and Behaviour 
 
 BIBLIOGRAPHY 
 
 Very little has been published on stammering from the 
 psychoanalytic point of view. See "Stammering as a 
 Psychoneurosis" by Isador H. Coriat, Journal of Abnor- 
 mal Psychology, Vol. IX, No. 6, and "Stammering as a 
 Psychonem:osis and Its Treatment by Psychoanalysis" by 
 M. D. Eder, Int. Med. Congress, Section of Psychiatry. 
 Tr. XVII. See also A. Appelt: "Stammering and Its 
 Permanent Cure." 1912. 
 
 [114] 
 
CHAPTER III. SCAPEGOATS 
 
 Ever since man appeared on the earth he has 
 felt the necessity of scapegoats. Frazer's monu- 
 mental work "The Golden Bough" reveals thou- 
 sands of obvious or subtle attempts on the part of 
 mankind to saddle the responsibility for individual 
 or group shortcomings on some xmwilling or willing 
 sacrificial victim, beast, man or god. 
 
 The Greek drama blamed fate, the Middle Ages 
 the devil; one civilization sacrificed a goat whose 
 death wiped off the sins of men; in another civiliza- 
 tion, Jesus died to save mankind. 
 
 In our days, we no longer accuse the devil of 
 causing our failures. "Popular science" spread 
 thinly by Sunday newspapers and club lectures, 
 supplies the masses with new impressive scapegoats. 
 
 "Racial traits," "inbreeding," "heredity," "en- 
 vironment," have been in a most hypocritical way 
 substituted for the goat of old. 
 
 The pagan who sinned and, afraid of the im- 
 pending reckoning, killed a goat in order to mol- 
 lify some heavenly policeman, did not deny his 
 
 [115] 
 
Psychoanalysis and Behaviour 
 
 guilt. The modem "sinner" who seeks excuses for 
 his brutality or his lewdness in his heredity or his 
 environment, is guilty of a much more complete 
 flight from reality. 
 
 The pagan admitted that sinning was pleasant but 
 could not be indulged in unless there was one 
 more goat to be offered to the gods. The 
 modern sinner is consciously in fear of sin, but 
 unconsciously preparing his escape by heaping 
 up guilt upon vague biological processes which he 
 does not understand. 
 
 The pagan said: "I did not repress certain 
 cravings and I am willing to pay the price." The 
 modem sinner on the other hand says: "I could 
 not repress certain cravings, because my ancestry, 
 my bringing up or my environment have made it 
 impossible for me to suppress such cravings." 
 
 If the modem sinner has a conscience, such a 
 disclaimer of guilt may be perfectly honest and 
 straightforward and constitute for the person mak- 
 ing it a great danger. 
 
 The hypocrite who exploits heredity and other 
 scapegoats as a convenient explanation for the 
 gratification of his -own cravings is probably safe. 
 The ethically-minded person who believes that his 
 heredity or some other biological factor has un- 
 fitted him to repress unsocial, inadmissible crav- 
 [116] 
 
Pseudo-heredity 
 
 ings may undergo very torturing "soul struggles" 
 and be defeated in life's battle. 
 
 Physical heredity cannot be denied and Mendel's 
 experiments prove that it is ruled by absolute 
 mathematical laws. Not only do we observe in 
 nature that certain characteristics of the parents are 
 reproduced in an invariable proportion of the off- 
 spring, but we can, before crossing certain animal 
 or vegetable species, predict accurately how many 
 of the offspring will present certain characters and 
 how many will not present such characters. 
 
 This is as far as heredity goes. The transmis- 
 sion of mental characteristics is probably due to 
 what Freud calls pseudo-heredity, that is to the in- 
 fluence wielded on the child by its environment, that 
 environment consisting chiefly of the parents for the 
 first years of the child's life. 
 
 Biologists generally agree that while inherited 
 characters or congenital characters cannot be modi- 
 fied, acquired characters can be caused to disap- 
 pear in later life. 
 
 Those who consider themselves as "burdened 
 with a bad heredity" should ponder that fact. 
 They should remember that even a weak or defec- 
 tive organ, stomach or lungs, may be, not inherited 
 from the parents, but acquired under the same un- 
 favourable circumstances which caused that in- 
 
 [117] 
 
Psychoanalysis and Behaviour 
 
 feriority to establish itseK in their parents' organ- 
 ism. 
 
 A changed environment, proper exercise and 
 plenty of food have been known, together with imi- 
 tation of the proper model, to modify entirely the 
 physical appearance of various races. 
 
 I have mentioned elsewhere that the so-called 
 hereditary instincts can be absolutely "removed" 
 by the influence of the environment. 
 
 When a messenger pigeon refuses to mate with 
 its kind if hatched by a ring dove and then will only 
 mate with ring doves, we must come to the conclu- 
 sion that training is stronger than instinct. 
 
 When we observe that a change in temperature 
 either shortens or prolongs the average life of a 
 certain species or creates a different species, we 
 must also conclude that environment is stronger 
 than heredity. 
 
 Eggs from the same butterfly or puppae of the 
 same species will give entirely different species 
 at different temperatures. 
 
 The number of "hereditary characters" is de- 
 creasing year after year as scientists become more 
 thorough in their observations and include in their 
 statistics a growing number of factors. 
 
 It was admitted for centuries that some inherited 
 [118] 
 
Fishes and Carbonic Acid 
 
 instinct caused fishes to rise to the surface of the 
 waters at night and to go down to the bottom at 
 dawn. 
 
 We know now that heredity has nothing to do 
 with that phenomenon. 
 
 The presence of carbonic acid in water causes 
 all aquatic animals to direct themselves toward the 
 source of light. At night the waters of pools and 
 rivers become charged with carbonic acid as the 
 green aquatic plants cannot absorb that gas in the 
 dark. Fishes and other organisms are affected by 
 that excess of carbonic acid and are compelled to 
 rise to the surface where the light, however feeble, 
 is stronger than at the bottom. 
 
 In the morning, the supply of acid decreases 
 rapidly and all the organisn^s regain their freedom 
 and can seek safety in the deeper strata of the 
 water. 
 
 By liberating large quantities of carbonic acid 
 in. the water during the day, one can compel all the 
 aquatic organisms to rise to the surface, and by 
 directing at night a strong light on the waters, which 
 facilitates the absorption of carbonic acid by green 
 plants, one can, on the contrary, cause the fishes 
 to remain at the bottom. 
 
 It is not improbable that in a few years, many 
 
 [119] 
 
Psychoanalysis and Behaviour 
 
 obscure facts attributed to heredity or to instincts 
 will be traced to physical or chemical phenomena 
 which can be produced or removed at will. 
 
 A French scientist, Pouchet, has noticed that cer- 
 tain fishes reproduce the colour or pattern of the 
 aquarium in which they are kept PROVIDED THEY 
 CAN SEE IT. Blind fishes of the same species, kept 
 in the same aquarium, retain the whitish or greyish 
 colour they had when they first came out of the 
 egg. The so-called protective colouring of certain 
 animals, the seasonal changes observed in the plu- 
 mage of the ptarmigan, may not be more than mere 
 unconscious imitation of the environment, devoid 
 of any purpose. A very illuminating case of what 
 we might call metachemistry. 
 
 Insanity, feeble-mindedness or criminality are 
 not inherited characters. They are often acquired 
 through either imitation or suggestion or both. 
 
 The insane and the criminal solve their problems 
 by following the line of least resistance and least 
 effort. The children they bring up are likely, un- 
 less some healthier influence is exerted on them, 
 to solve their problems in the same way, the only 
 way which observation has made thoroughly fa- 
 miliar to them. 
 
 Auto-suggestion and involuntary suggestion by 
 [120] 
 
Stupid Relatives 
 
 others play a powerful part in the acquisition of 
 criminal or neurotic traits. In a crisis, the in- 
 dividual weakened by his superstitious belief in 
 heredity, may either commit a crime or merge into 
 a neurosis because his father, mother or grand- 
 father established such a precedent. 
 
 That precedent may not be more than a legend 
 perpetuated by inaccurate, stupid or gossipy rela- 
 tives. 
 
 A man guilty of some act of brutality is easily 
 catalogued in family archives as a man of criminal 
 instincts. A man of rather morose disposition very 
 often has his trouble diagnosed by amateur psy- 
 chiatrists in his family circle as melancholia. 
 
 A romantic legend may form after his death 
 around his actual biography and invest some de- 
 tail of behaviour, which on one occasion impressed 
 the beholders, with the dignity of a life-long habit 
 or of a serious mental disturbance. 
 
 The stupid parent who vents his anger on his 
 offspring by making remarks such as "You are 
 as crazy as your father (mother, uncle, aunt)," 
 "You will end in jail as your uncle did," may start 
 a train of suggestive thought which is highly danger- 
 ous. 
 
 I have known personally three brothers who were 
 
 [121] 
 
Psychoanalysis and Behaviour 
 
 brought up by an exceptionally idiotic mother and 
 who on several occasions had themselves committed 
 to an insane asylum when they lost their money or 
 their jobs. None of them succeeded in remaining 
 "insane" for any length of time, although all of 
 them repeated constantly that they were "going 
 crazy like their father." Inquiry showed that their 
 father, who died when they were very young, had 
 several fits of blues coinciding with slumps in the 
 family's finances but never showed at any time any 
 "insane" traits. 
 
 Men and women have been known to reproduce 
 in their behaviour certain habits bad or good of 
 their grandparents. Investigation showed in many 
 of them, and would probably have shown in every 
 one of them, that they were obsessed by the old be- 
 lief that genius or vice, etc., "skips a generation." 
 
 "Racial psychology," a limited form of "men- 
 tal" heredity, is, like heredity proper, a weapon 
 directed against our enemies and a scapegoat for 
 our own sins. To the honest psychologist, so-called 
 racial traits amount merely to different sets of bad 
 manners tolerated or encouraged in one community, 
 discouraged and held shameful in other communi- 
 ties owing to reasons of temperature, climate, food 
 supply, etc. 
 
 The unconscious make-up of all races, however, 
 [122] 
 
Unions Between Blood Relations 
 
 is the same the world over as a careful analysis of 
 all folk traditions, legends, religions, superstitions, 
 ritual, neurotic psychology, etc., proves abundantly. 
 It is as silly to expect a certain form of behaviour 
 from one individual because he is a Jew or an 
 Irishman as it would be for a Jew or an Irishman 
 to excuse a certain form of behaviour of his on the 
 plea that his antecedents determined certain psy- 
 chological processes. 
 
 Inbreeding is another cause for worry which 
 neurotics are likely to seize upon as a conscious 
 screen for their unconscious strivings to escape 
 reality. 
 
 There is absolutely no evidence of a scientific 
 nature that the marriage of blood relations is pro- 
 ductive of insanity or feeble-mindedness in the 
 offspring. 
 
 But there are good reasons to suspect that feeble- 
 mindedness leads to unions between blood relations 
 and in many cases to incestuous unions. Parent 
 fixation being stronger in neurotics than in normal 
 individuals, the family complex is bound to attract 
 related neurotics to each other. The result is that 
 the children whom they procreate may be bom 
 normal but are brought up by their neurotic parents 
 to adopt neurotic forms of action and thought. 
 
 Goddard, who has made exhaustive studies of 
 
 [123] 
 
Psychoanalysis and Behaviour 
 
 feeble-mindedness, has reached the conclusion that 
 the feeble-minded are constantly thrown together, 
 congregate in certain places and intermarry more 
 than normal individuals. 
 
 That each neurotic family trains its children to 
 one peculiar form of abnormal behaviour is well 
 illustrated by the history of the sinister Juke family 
 propagated by incestuous descendance: all the 
 descendants of Ada were criminals, the descendants 
 of Belle, exhibitionists or rapists, the descendants 
 of Effie, beggars. 
 
 As against the tragic results of inbreeding among 
 the inferior, we may remind the readef of the re- 
 markable results of inbreeding among individuals 
 of superior stock. 
 
 In Athens and her suburban communities be- 
 tween 530 and 430 b. c, that is during the heyday 
 of Hellenic brilliancy, there was a small popula- 
 tion from which came about fifteen of the most 
 remarkable geniuses the world has ever known. 
 
 Inbreeding was the custom, marriage with half- 
 sisters being lawful, and unions with aliens being 
 discouraged. 
 
 The decline of the Hellenic civilization was not 
 brought about by any racial decay but by the over- 
 whelming pressure of primitive races of a more 
 savage type invading a highly cultured region much 
 [124] 
 
Re-education Possible 
 
 as the desert sand gradually invaded the centres of 
 culture of Mesopotamia and North Africa. 
 
 Some of the most wonderful specimens of agri- 
 cultural products or animal breeds have been ob- 
 tained through continual inbreeding. It is not 
 riierefore inbreeding which influences the mental 
 quality, nor even the fact that one of the parents or 
 both are neurotically inclined, but the fact that 
 children are trained in a neurotic way. 
 
 Re-education, however, mental or physical, is 
 fortunately a possibility which should never be 
 overlooked. 
 
 We are bom with general physical tendencies, 
 that is, we reproduce closely the general type of 
 the human variety to which we belong. We receive 
 the bony, muscular and nervous structure of what 
 will, according to the pains we take, become a 
 statue or a scarecrow. 
 
 Imitation is mostly unconscious and a negative 
 way of dealing with problems. Our parents are 
 the first models presented to us by nature while 
 we are casting about for some one to imitate. But 
 they need not remain the only models from which 
 we shall shape our statue. 
 
 Our parents may have fleshless limbs and poor 
 lungs. But we can go to a gynasium, run around 
 the track, lift weights, breathe fresh air, at least 
 
 [125] 
 
Psychoanalysis and Behaviour 
 
 all night long, regulate our diet scientifically, walk 
 to and from work. 
 
 Our parents may be abnormal mentally, but li- 
 braries, lecture halls and meeting places will bring 
 us into contact with active men and women who are 
 normal and whom we can imitate, dispelling thereby 
 the mental ghosts who thrive in the home atmos- 
 phere. 
 
 Animals are creatures of their environment and 
 according to whether that environment is favourable 
 or unfavourable, they die out or survive. Man is 
 the creator of his environment and can change his 
 surroundings at will. 
 
 Most of our heredity is a pseudo-heredity which, 
 being simply the shaping influence of our environ- 
 ment, can be defeated as soon as we realize that it 
 is not working for our welfare. 
 
 One question every one of us must ask himself 
 frequently is: "Am,' I myself, or am I imitating 
 some one and if I am imitating some one, am I fol- 
 lowing the line of least resistance?" 
 
 Another question is: "Do I believe in a certain 
 thing or have I accepted this belief at some one's 
 suggestion, and if so, what necessary task am I 
 trying to shirk?" 
 
 One of Kempf 's patients let her parents bring her 
 up as a perfectly irresponsible woman and later, 
 [126] 
 
Fate and the Devil 
 
 when that irresponsibility made her married life 
 very unpleasant, instead of re-educating herself and 
 solving her problems in a positive, constructive 
 way, she accepted her relatives' dictum that "she 
 was crazy," and became "crazy." 
 
 Kempf re-educated her; after becoming herself, 
 she threw off the yoke of suggestion imposed upon 
 her by silly relatives. 
 
 The day when the combined power of imitation 
 and suggestion is realized, the knowledge of our 
 abnormal ascendance will not trouble us. Instead 
 of discouraging us and of causing us to say neu- 
 rotically: "What can I do against such odds?" 
 we shall study carefully the ways in which our 
 progenitors or parents deviated from the normal 
 standard and consciously train ourselves to avoid 
 their physical and mental errors. 
 
 Heredity shall cease to be a menace and shall be- 
 come in certain cases a warning and a guide. 
 
 When insight has delivered us from the absurd 
 belief in fate, in the devil or some other overpower- 
 ing metaphysical force which shall crush us and 
 compel us to do what unconsciously we are crav- 
 ing to do, we shall be better off for an accurate 
 knowledge of our so-called hereditary handicaps. 
 We shall not allow ourselves to use them neuroti- 
 cally as scapegoats. 
 
 [127] 
 
Psychoanalysis and Behaviour 
 
 BIBLIOGRAPHY 
 
 William White's "Mechanisms of Character Forma- 
 tion " will enable the average reader to complete a picture 
 which, owing to lack of space, had to remain rather 
 sketchy. Advanced students should read the fourth part 
 of J. G. Frazer's "Golden Bough" entitled "The Scape- 
 goat" in order to fathom the psychology which has made 
 scapegoats necessary. 
 
 The latest data on heredity can be found in two 
 extremely technical volumes published under the auspices 
 of the Rockefeller Institute, East and Jones "Inbreeding 
 and Outbreeding" (Lippincott) and T. H. Morgan "The 
 Physical Basis of Heredity" (Lippincott). 
 
 [128] 
 
CHAPTER IV. DUAL PERSONALITIES 
 
 Every human being has two personalities: an 
 archaic, primitive, childlike, unadapted personal- 
 ity, and a modem, sophisticated, adult, and, to all 
 appearances, adapted personality. 
 
 Civilization and education have superimposed 
 the second over the first or rather built over the first 
 a thin crust of manners which does not permit its 
 sharp angles to protrude. 
 
 When the operation of walling in the archaic per- 
 sonality is performed in a bungling way some of its 
 sharp points have a tendency to crop out and when 
 civilization tries to force back all those sharp points 
 by exerting on the thin crust a pressure which it 
 cannot bear, the archaic personality breaks through 
 entirely and for a certain period of time refuses 
 to be buried again. 
 
 Psychiatrists of the old school were extremely 
 puzzled by cases of double personality and some 
 spoke of dissociation of the brain, of two separate 
 brains, of wrong associations of neurons or cell 
 groups, etc. 
 
 [129] 
 
Psychoanalysis and Behaviour 
 
 To the psychoanalyst, a case of double personal- 
 ity is not any more mysterious than the simplest of 
 our day or night dreams. 
 
 It is a neurosis which offers to the subject a 
 means of escape from reality, which enables him 
 to regress to a mode of life in which some or all 
 of his responsibilities are removed, and which in 
 no essential detail is different from the various 
 forms of "insanity" for which psychiatrists have 
 devised impressive and meaningless designations. 
 
 A brief review of the best known cases of double 
 personality will help me to make my point clear. 
 
 The Rev. Ansel Bourne was a hard working 
 clergyman of excellent character and reputation, 
 enjoying the confidence of all his associates. His 
 health was good and his muscular strength and 
 endurance normal. Since childhood he had been 
 subject to fits of "blues," and became easily de- 
 pressed. 
 
 One day he drew $500 from a bank in Provi- 
 dence, boarded a Pawtucket car and disappeared 
 for two months. Then his nephew in Providence 
 received a telegram saying that a man claiming to 
 be, Rev. Ansel Bourne was in Norristown, Pa., act- 
 ing strangely. 
 
 The m,an was not acting strangely, but very 
 normally. He was in reality the Rev. Ansel 
 [130] 
 
He Wanted Rest 
 
 Bourne, who suddenly had found himself in a 
 strange town and in a small fruit store. 
 
 Six weeks before his awakening, Bourne had 
 gone to Norristown, rented a small store, stocked 
 it with candy and fruit and had been doing business 
 as A. Brown, living in the back of his shop where 
 he cooked his own meals. His manners never at- 
 tracted any one's attention. He went regularly to 
 church, and once, at a prayer meeting, made a 
 rather good address. 
 
 When the awakening came and he regained his 
 former personality, he was very weak and had 
 lost over twenty pounds in weight. 
 
 William James examined him and induced him 
 to submit to hypnotism. In hypnosis the Brown 
 personality came to the fore with surprising readi- 
 ness and with such insistence that the subject could 
 not remember any of the facts of his life as Ansel 
 Bourne. 
 
 Brown didn't even "know" Ansel Bourne and 
 repeated constantly that he felt "hedged in at both 
 ends." He could not remember any of the inci- 
 dents preceding the ride to Pawtucket, nor any of 
 those following his awakening in Norristown. The 
 only explanation he gave for his escapade was that 
 "there was trouble back there" and "he wanted 
 rest." 
 
 [1311 
 
Psychoanalysis and Behaviour 
 
 In this case the first personality did not know 
 the second, nor did the second know the first. 
 
 In other cases one of the personalities was ac- 
 quainted with the other, or both knew each other 
 and in one case there was a distinct feeling of scorn 
 and hatred, in the other a deep friendship mani- 
 fested by both personalities for each other. 
 
 Miss Beauchamp, studied by Morton Prince, was 
 a serious minded person, fond of books and study, 
 very idealistic, "with a morbid New England con- 
 scientiousness" and a great deal of pride and re- 
 serve, very unwilling to expose herself or her life 
 to any one's scrutiny. 
 
 One day "owing to some nervous excitement" she 
 became an entirely different personality. She 
 called herself Sally, a creature full of fun, imable 
 to take anything seriously, scorning books and 
 churchgoing, eager for all forms of amusement, 
 lacking all the educational accomplishments of Miss 
 Beauchamp, such as a knowledge of foreign lan- 
 guages and stenography. 
 
 Miss Beauchamp was a neurasthenic, Sally was 
 always well, never fatigued and never seemed to 
 suffer pain. 
 
 During the first year, Miss Beauchamp and Sally 
 constantly alternated with one another. Whenever 
 Miss Beauchamp felt tired or upset, Sally used to 
 [132] 
 
Sally's Sense of Humor 
 
 appear, sometimes for a few minutes, sometim,es 
 for several hours. Later, Sally's appearances 
 lasted several days at a time. 
 
 Miss Beauchamp never knew Sally, but Sally 
 knew everything about Miss Beauchamp. Further- 
 more Sally hated her and said so very frankly. 
 
 She went as far as playing tricks on her to annoy 
 her. She would mail to Miss Beauchamp a box 
 full of spiders and snakes, she would ride to the 
 end of a trolley line without return carfare and 
 oblige her to walk miles or beg rides from passing 
 wagons; she would unravel her knitting, she wrote 
 her annoying letters, etc. 
 
 Alma Z., observed for ten years by Dr. Osigood 
 Mason, had been in robust health until her 18th 
 year, when "owing to overwork at school," she 
 underwent a curious change. She had been until 
 then an educated, thoughtful, dignified, feminine 
 type. She suddenly became a cheerful, sprightly, 
 childish person, ungrammatical, and using a pecu- 
 liarly limited vocabulary. 
 
 She called herself Twoey and referred to her first 
 personality as No. 1. Twoey would at first only 
 remain a few hours but later her stay was pro- 
 longed to several days. 
 
 While "1" and "2" were apparently in every 
 respect separate and distinct personalities, each 
 
 [133] 
 
Psychoanalysis and Behaviour 
 
 took up life and its occupations where the other had 
 left off. 
 
 Twoey knew "No. 1" well and "No. 1" became 
 acquainted with Twoey through the descriptions 
 given her by others. 
 
 The two personalities became great friends. 
 Twoey admired "No. 1" for her superior knowl- 
 edge, her patience in suffering and the lovely quali- 
 ties which she recognized and she willingly took her 
 place to give her rest. 
 
 "No. 1" also became fond of Twoey on account 
 of the loving care she bestowed upon her and her 
 affairs and for her witty sayings which she greatly 
 enjoyed. 
 
 As Alma Z.'s health improved, Twoey's visits 
 became scarce, and only coincided with conditions 
 of extreme fatigue or mental excitement. 
 
 Then Alma married and became an excellent 
 wife and an efficient mistress of the household. 
 
 One night, however, Twoey re-appeared but 
 merely to announce that she was to disappear and 
 that another personality, "The Boy," would take 
 her place. The Boy submitted to all the duties 
 which Alma had to discharge but when questioned 
 persisted in declaring her male and youthful char- 
 acter. Alma knew Latin, mathematics, and 
 philosophy, she had memorized entire poems by 
 [134] 
 
What Music Did 
 
 Tennyson, Browning and Scott. The Boy was 
 absolutely ignorant, although he had an intelligent 
 grasp of affairs and manifested a keen enjoyment 
 of theatrical and musical performances. 
 
 One evening at a concert in the Metropolitan 
 Opera House, the Boy suddenly disappeared and 
 Alma returned for a few minutes, but Alma soon 
 closed her eyes and assiuned the harsher, more 
 masculine countenance of her boyish personality. 
 
 The Boy knew Twoey and "No. 1" and liked 
 both of them. Like Twoey he expressed a constant 
 desire that "No. 1" should get well and not need 
 him any more. 
 
 Ansel Bourne had regressed to a lower intel- 
 lectual level, but remained on an adult level. Miss 
 Beauchamp and Ahna Z. regressed to childhood. 
 In the case of Mary Reynolds, we will observe a 
 regression to infancy and in that of the Rev. Thomas 
 Carson Hanna, to the condition of the newborn. 
 
 Mary Reynolds, treated by Dr. S. Weir Mitchell, 
 was a shy, morose, melancholy woman. She had 
 suffered frequently from convulsions, loss of con- 
 sciousness, loss of sight and hearing. 
 
 After having been greatly weakened by a severe 
 attack, she fell into a deep sleep from which she 
 could not at first be aroused. 
 
 On awaking she was found to have lost all her 
 
 [135] 
 
Psychoanalysis and Behaviour 
 
 former knowledge, to be unable to recognize her 
 environment or any of her friends. 
 
 She still knew how to eat, drink and walk, but 
 she could neither speak nor understand spoken 
 words. She was an infant, mumbling disconnected 
 words. In her second state she was gay, lively and 
 playful. 
 
 The transition from "1" to "2" always took place 
 at night, that from "2" to "1" during the day time. 
 
 No case has been more completely described than 
 that of Rev. Thomas Carson H'anna, treated by Dr. 
 Boris Sidis and Dr. S. P. Goodhart. 
 
 Rev. Hanna had never suffered from any illness 
 up to his twenty-fourth year when the slight acci- 
 dent, following which his personality changed, took 
 place. 
 
 He was a versatile man, endowed with not only 
 intellectual, but mechanical ability, showing artis- 
 tic taste in many directions; he had a strong will 
 and perfect self-control. He was not demonstrative 
 in his affections and was influenced more easily by 
 reason than by emotion. 
 
 One evening, returning home in his carriage, he 
 lost his footing while alighting, fell head foremost 
 and remained unconscious for two hours. When 
 he regained his consciousness he had become as 
 helpless as a newborn infant. He could neither 
 [136] 
 
Return to Infancy 
 
 speak nor understand what was said to him. He 
 did not know how to control his voluntary muscles, 
 he could not walk. He had no conception of dis- 
 tance or time. ^ 
 
 When food was offered to him he did not under- 
 stand the purpose of it; nor, when it was placed in 
 his mouth, did he know how to masticate and swal- 
 low it. It was only when food was forced upon 
 him and thrust far back into the pharynx and reflex 
 swallowing movements excited, that he realized the 
 purpose of food and learned the way of taking it. 
 
 Like an infant, he satisfied his natural needs 
 without regard to time or place. Like an infant, 
 he began to learn a few words by imitating definite 
 articulate sounds made in connection with certain 
 objects. The first word he learnt was "apple" 
 which to him meant all kinds of food. 
 
 His intelligence, however, was that of an adult. 
 His memory was excellent. A word once heard 
 seemed indelibly impressed on his mind and he 
 never again forgot it. 
 
 Like an infant, he was trying to grasp things be- 
 yond his reach, such as a tree he saw out of the win- 
 dow. Like an infant, he did not at first discrimi- 
 nate between his motions and those of other people. 
 Nor did he analyse complicated objects into their 
 component parts; a man, a man on a bicycle, and a 
 
 [137] 
 
Psychoanalysis and Behaviour 
 
 man sitting in a buggy were to him three different 
 kinds of men. Life and motion were at first 
 synonymous to him. 
 
 He gradually learnt to speak, to walk, to sing 
 and to play instruments but he only knew the things 
 he had studied since his change of personality had 
 taken place. Everything and everybody he had 
 known previous to that time was absolutely forgot- 
 ten. Once, the reading aloud to him of a Hebrew 
 passage with which he was familiar brought to con- 
 sciousness a flow of Hebrew quotations which he, 
 however, did not understand. 
 
 Seven weeks after the accident, about three 
 o'clock in the morning, he awoke to find himself 
 in a strange house in New York City. He de- 
 manded explanations from his brother who was 
 sharing his room. 
 
 When Dr. Goodhart, at whose house he was 
 staying, came into the room he took him for a per- 
 fect stranger. 
 
 All memory of the events intervening between 
 April 15 at seven o'clock in the evening and June 
 8 in the early morning had faded. 
 
 In fact he resumed his conscious life at the very 
 hour of the day when he had sunk into unconscious- 
 ness and insisted that it must be evening. On the 
 other hand, he recounted as a part of his actual 
 [138] 
 
The Final Crisis 
 
 life some of the incidents of which he had been 
 dreaming in hypnoidic states of his second person- 
 ality. 
 
 On June 9 about 4 p. M, he fell asleep and when 
 he awoke he had relapsed into his second person- 
 ality. This time, however, he merely continued 
 the life he had led before in that state and carried 
 on the memories of it. He had not regressed fur- 
 ther than that. 
 
 He gained much insight into his condition and, 
 when told by his brother of his various changes 
 of personality, appeared greatly depressed. He 
 asked anxiously whether there would not be a third 
 state in which he would not remember either his 
 normal or his second personalities. 
 
 All sorts of stimulation were resorted to, from 
 chemicals to a variety performance, in order to 
 arouse his mental activity. In his secondary state, 
 the young clergyman enjoyed keenly the antics of 
 the performers, drank beer with pleasure, etc. 
 
 After innumerable changes of personality, gener- 
 ally preceded by sleep, Hanna merged on June 14 
 into a curious state resembling mental stupor. To 
 questions put to him and bearing upon his two dif- 
 ferent personalities he answered very slowly and 
 with great difficulty as though he were in both states 
 at the same time. 
 
 [139] 
 
Psychoanalysis and Behaviour 
 
 For several days he remained in that condition; 
 gradually his mind became clear and he informed 
 the physicians treating him that he had passed 
 through an intense mental struggle. The two per- 
 sonalities, his normal and his second personalities, 
 arose simultaneously and confronted each other. 
 Each of them was Hanna and yet they were different 
 from each other. He could not choose one only 
 because both were of the same nature; and yet they 
 were too dissimilar to be joined. 
 
 Each personality rose and fell in turn. "The 
 struggle," he said to his physicians, "was not so 
 much to choose one as to forget the other. I was 
 trying to find out which I might most easily forget. 
 It seemed impossible to forget one; both tried to per- 
 sist in consciousness. It seemed as if each memory 
 was stronger than my will, and still I had to deter- 
 mine which to drive away. Just before lunch, 
 yesterday, in the psychological laboratory, I chose 
 the secondary life; it was strong and fresh and was 
 able to persist. ... At that time the question arose 
 whether I could not possibly take both. ... I 
 decided to accept both lives as mine, a condition 
 that could not be worse than the uncertainty I was 
 in. I then felt that the oft-repeated struggle would 
 ruin my mind. . . . / am sure both are mine. 
 They are separate and I cannot yet fit the two 
 [140] 
 
What Preceded the Change 
 
 well together. . . . Secondary and primary states 
 have breaks and intervals in them, as though there 
 were periods of sleep. The secondary state is 
 stronger and brighter, but not more stable." 
 
 Harmony gradxially re-entered Hanna's mind 
 and the two personalities were merged into a new 
 and healthy one, a compromise between the over- 
 worked, overcivilized, over-repressed man of yore 
 and the primitive, uncivilized and unadapted child 
 who for three months had tried to prevail. 
 
 In all but one of the cases I have reviewed and in 
 many others which can be found in the literature of 
 the subject, the change in personality was preceded 
 by some "crisis." The crisis is not mentioned in 
 Hanna's case but might have been found if the 
 psychiatrists treating the patient had inquired into 
 the events preceding the "accident." They prob- 
 ably, as was usual in those days (1897), considered 
 the accident as the primary factor in the mental 
 derangement. Hanna's fall may have been, how- 
 ever, what Freud calls a semi-intentional self- 
 inflicted injury. 
 
 Ansel Bourne was fleeing from "trouble back 
 there" and "wanted rest," Miss Beauchamp was 
 overcome by "some nervous excitement," Alma Z. 
 was a victim of "overwork," Mary Reynolds had 
 been weakened "by a severe attack." 
 
 [141] 
 
Psychoanalysis and Behaviour 
 
 In every case the subject, instead of evolving into 
 a more complex, more intelligent, more developed 
 personality, regressed to a more primitive one. 
 The change implied an easier mode of living, fewer 
 duties and responsibilities. 
 
 In the case of Alma Z,, "The Boy" was obviously 
 trying to save the normal personality from wifely 
 duties. A. Brown, fruit dealer, avoided much of 
 the mental exertion Rev. Bourne had to undergo. 
 Sallie did not have to live up to the intellectual 
 standard Miss Beauchamp had set for herself. 
 Mary Rejmolds and Hanna, becoming infants, let 
 the world minister to all their needs. 
 
 Every change of personality either took place 
 at night or after a period of sleep, the second per- 
 sonality appearing preferably at night, the normal 
 personality re-appearing preferably in the day time. 
 The second personality assumes the aspect of a pro- 
 tracted dream, and the fact that it appeared at 
 night in so many cases, lends credibility to that 
 view. 
 
 The second personality appears in every case as a 
 morbid wish-fulfilment, as a negative striving along 
 a fictitious life-line, along the line of least resist- 
 ance. Every one of the subjects observed was 
 probably a person harassed and worn out by either 
 monotonous tasks or an exaggerated sense of duty. 
 [142] 
 
Leading an Easier Life 
 
 The playful or infantile personalities into which 
 they merged temporarily, took abnormally the vaca- 
 tion they themselves should have taken normally. 
 
 They all had repressed, if not over-repressed, 
 the old Adam, and the old Adam avenged himself 
 by bursting forth and assuming the upper hand. 
 How many cases of so-called "insanity" are simply 
 due to the persistency of a second personality 
 which happens to be too violent or absurd to be 
 tolerable in its environment. A patient now con- 
 fined at Ward's Island became insane after being 
 hit on the head by a small tin can which did not 
 even abrase the skin. A journeyman before the 
 accident, he has become a famous opera singer 
 and holds frequent conversations with God. He, 
 too, has entered an easier life, doing no manual 
 labour, enjoying a prestige he could never aspire to 
 in his former occupation and unburdened of the 
 care of his family; the fulfilment of a dream which 
 may have originated in the unconscious moments 
 following the accident; another case in which the 
 accident seems to have been a "pretext" seized by 
 the unconscious rather than a positive cause. 
 
 The more things we lack in our waking states, 
 the more things we shall expect and receive from 
 our dreams, but many of our dream accomplish- 
 ments are archaic, regressive, infantile. Not in- 
 
 [143] 
 
Psychoanalysis and Behaviour 
 
 frequently when our conscious self deprives itself 
 of gratifications which human nature craves, our 
 unconscious self overpowers it and proceeds to lead 
 even in our waking states a more human, more 
 comfortable, sort of life. Like all the results of 
 violent upheavals, however, that life is likely to be 
 unbalanced and unadapted to our environment. 
 The ascetic saints who, in their scorn of the flesh, 
 fled into the desert, were a prey to horrible halluci- 
 nations in which they beheld all the obscenities 
 which consciously they had been avoiding but for 
 which they unconsciously had been craving. 
 
 Our archaic, unconscious self is a lusty caveman 
 whose cravings modem civilization can no longer 
 satisfy. He must, however, be appeased now and 
 then by being given a sop of some sort. Starving 
 him can only bring about his revolt; his attempts 
 to free himself may mean sick headaches, hysteria, 
 obsessions, phobias, "insanity" or the appearance 
 of a new man in the body of the old, the domination 
 of a second personality for a more or less extended 
 period of time. 
 
 BIBLIOGRAPHY 
 
 Sims and Goodhart, "Multiple Personality" (Apple- 
 ton) will supply the reader with a history of the best 
 known cases. Neither of the authors is a psychoanalyst, 
 [144] 
 
Bibliography 
 
 one of them, Dr. Sidis, being in fact, bitterly opposed 
 to that science. 
 
 Their observations, however, are very valuable and 
 do not in any way contradict those made by exponents of 
 psychoanalysis. 
 
 [145] 
 
CHAPTER V. HOW ONE WOMAN BECAME 
 
 INSANE 
 
 Psychoanalysts seldom have the opportunity of 
 treating any of the "great psychoses." The patient 
 who has lost all insight into his mental condition 
 is generally confined in an institution and few in- 
 sane asylums have analysts on their medical staff. 
 
 One case treated by Dr. Kempf at St. Elizabeth 
 Hospital, Washington, D. C, offers good evidence 
 that many apparently "desperate" cases could be 
 cured by the psychoanalytic technique. 
 
 If an abstract of that case is presented to the 
 reader, it is not merely owing to the success which 
 crowned Dr. Kempf's efforts, but because it offers, 
 besides, a striking and grewsome picture of the 
 process by which people are at times "driven to in- 
 sanity." 
 
 It shows how well-meaning associates, lacking in 
 sympathy and understanding, beset with many 
 prejudices and affected by complexes of their own, 
 may gradually make reality so unbearable for a 
 weaker individual that he xmconsciously seeks to 
 [146] 
 
A Puritanical Father 
 
 escape it by the door which leads to an insane 
 asylum. 
 
 The various relapses which Kempf's patient suf- 
 fered before she regained her normal balance il- 
 lustrate perhaps more impressively than any other 
 detail of the case that process of abnormal escape 
 from unpleasant situations. 
 
 The influence which education may have in de- 
 termining the content of psychopathic fancies 
 was made very clear by the analysis of Kempf's 
 patient. 
 
 The patient was a young woman of twenty-four, 
 married and the mother of a child. She was the 
 youngest of several children. 
 
 Her father was an engineer, a hard-worker, sav- 
 ing to the point of being stingy and obsessed by the 
 fear of being destitute in his old age. He loved 
 his children but tended to conflict with them owing 
 to his prudishness. All sexual topics were taboo 
 in his home. He berated his daughters when they 
 sat with their legs crossed, he objected to their wear- 
 ing kimonos. He owned some houses in a distant 
 city which were for a time, through no fault of his 
 own, converted into brothels. 
 
 In his later years he depended upon his oldest 
 daughter to manage his affairs and persistently in- 
 clined to treat the youngest as a child. At the 
 
 [147] 
 
Psychoanalysis and Behaviour 
 
 time of the patient's illness, he was about seventy 
 years old and suffering from chronic gastritis. 
 
 The mother was a "nervous," kind, home loving 
 woman, tall and heavy, and extremely fond of eat- 
 ing. She, like her husband, encouraged her oldest 
 daughter to be self-reliant and, on the other hand, 
 trained her youngest daughter to depend upon her 
 in every way, introducing her to visitors as the 
 baby. She never allowed the "baby" to have any 
 initiative and imposed her will upon her in all mat- 
 ters, telling her what style and material to select 
 for her clothes, what to wear for the day, how to 
 act, to whom to talk, etc. 
 
 Like her husband, she also excluded from her 
 conversation all matters pertaining to sex and never 
 tolerated any intimate confidence on the part of 
 her children. The patient was whipped at the age 
 of eleven for asking her mother about the meaning 
 of a word she read in a toilet and for relating to 
 her her fancies in connection with that word. 
 
 The patient's oldest sister was mentally and 
 physically very like the mother and she, too, de- 
 manded constant submission to her decisions and 
 opinions on the part of the patient. 
 
 In other words the patient's training had un- 
 fitted her for self-reliance and efficiency in real 
 life. She was perfectly satisfied with that arrange- 
 [148] 
 
Prurient Modesty 
 
 ment and even was inclined to treat her own in- 
 efficiency and irresponsibility as a joke. She was 
 a lazy and rather obese type of girl. Her educa- 
 tion was never planned systematically and she 
 missed many school days on whimsical pretexts. 
 
 Her early curiosity in regard to sexual problems 
 only met with rebuke and on several occasions with 
 punishment. 
 
 Her parents' prudishness only increased her in- 
 terest in all things pertaining to reproduction. 
 She watched excitedly^ cats, dogs, chickens, horses 
 and derived much secret enjoyment from her ob- 
 servation of their sexual behaviour. On the other 
 hand she would be morbidly embarrassed by the 
 sight of a woman nursing a child. 
 
 Her father considered it indecent for her to sit 
 on his lap. When her sister began to menstruate 
 and she tried to secure information as to that phe- 
 nomenon, her mother scolded her and sent her to 
 her room. She felt then that she lived on a plane 
 beneath her mother and her sister and she devel- 
 oped a distinct feeling of inferiority. 
 
 She trained herself never to ask questions be- 
 cause they might expose her thoughts and she would 
 have remained in absolute ignorance of sexual 
 facts but for the romantic stories told her by a 
 coloured maid who had been employed once in a 
 
 [149] 
 
Psychoanalysis and Behaviour 
 
 house of prostitution. Those stories simply set her 
 imagination on fire and far from enlightening her, 
 caused her to derive sexual suggestions from al- 
 most everything in her environment, the behaviour 
 of her father and mother, the sight of attractive 
 women, etc. 
 
 At twenty-one, she married a young man whose 
 family was in almost every respect quite the op- 
 posite of her own. 
 
 His father was also an engineer, but younger 
 than the patient's father, a free spender and fond 
 of gay parties. 
 
 The patient's mother-in-law was a handsome 
 woman with a girlish figure, small feet and ankles, 
 well dressed, who had travelled a good deal and 
 had a wide range of interests. She was proud of 
 her youthful appearance and dieted in order to 
 keep herself attractive looking. 
 
 The patient's husband was a slender man who 
 at thirty had the figure of a wiry, active boy of 
 twenty. He also was an engineer, ambitious, 
 earnest, spoiled by his mother, and at times irrita- 
 ble and impulsive. 
 
 During their engagement, the patient never al- 
 lowed her fiance to kiss her or to put his arm 
 around her. She was terribly upset and almost 
 gave him up when he confessed to her that he had 
 [150] 
 
The Husband's Plight 
 
 had a hard struggle with his desire to masturbate 
 and had consorted with other girls. She never 
 communicated her wish to desert him to any one 
 then but later in her psychose felt sure that their 
 marriage was not legal. 
 
 At that time she finally demanded that her 
 mother enlighten her as to the origin of children 
 and she felt extremely shocked by her mother's 
 explanation and always hated her in later life for 
 having deceived her so long. 
 
 After the novelty of their relation and the ex- 
 citement attendant upon the first months of mar- 
 ried life had worn away, her husband began to be 
 disturbed by what he called "asinine thoughts." 
 He could not understand why dainty feet, hairless 
 limbs, small firm breasts and a small abdomen 
 (his mother's characteristics) should prove so at- 
 tractive to him and why large soft breasts, a large 
 abdomen, heavy feet and ankles and hairy limbs 
 (his wife's characteristics) should prove sexually 
 depressing. 
 
 He was undoubtedly conscious of his mother- 
 fixation and in his more or less conscious endeavour 
 to escape incest had selected for his mate the op- 
 posite type of a woman. His mother-fixation was 
 clearly revealed by incestuous dreams which pur- 
 sued him even after his marriage. 
 
 [151] 
 
Psychoanalysis and Behaviour 
 
 He was greatly relieved later when told of the 
 simple biological significance of such dreams. 
 Realizing obscurely to what causes his growing sex- 
 ual indifference to his wife was due, he tried to in- 
 duce her to diet, to exercise (in order to reduce 
 her abdomen and breasts) and to remove the hair 
 from her ankles. After a while she gave up those 
 practices which would have made her a little more 
 similar to the mother-image and became careless 
 about her appearance. 
 
 The two families did not harmonize at all. Her 
 family appeared too coarse and bigoted to her hus- 
 band's family which in turn was scorned by her 
 family for its freer views and extravagance. The 
 two families naturally made the unfortunate young 
 woman their common battle ground because she 
 was weak and unsophisticated. 
 
 Her husband caused her much distress by threat- 
 ening to leave her if she lost her beauty, if she did 
 not take better care of her appearance, or did not 
 write to him daily when he was away. 
 
 Her sexual life was naturally very unsatisfac- 
 tory and she masturbated during her pregnancy, 
 after which she was overwhelmed with shame. To 
 make matters worse, her sister told her that mas- 
 turbation was a symptom of insanity. She was 
 obsessed by the fear that her child might inherit 
 [152] 
 
Dangerous Sex Books 
 
 her bad habits. When the child was bom and her 
 husband showed a good deal of indifference to it, 
 his threats to leave, her caused her more and more 
 anxiety. 
 
 Both families resumed their strife over the child. 
 Her mother-in-law insisted upon plenty of fresh 
 air for the infant and her own mother protested 
 that they were freezing it. The patient's-mother 
 finally assumed complete charge of the child and 
 treated it like her own. 
 
 When her husband was away, his mother berated 
 her for not travelling with him; her mother ob- 
 jected to this because she would neglect the baby 
 by going to meet her husband out of town. 
 
 She was made to regard herself as a failure, both 
 as a wife and as a mother. Her husband, thor- 
 oughly frightened but well-meaning, decided then 
 to educate her. For that purpose he gave her an 
 absurd book on "sexology" filled with moralizing 
 platitudes on masturbation and perversions. The 
 only conclusion she drew from reading that drivel 
 was that she was a pervert and a degenerate, abso- 
 lutely imfit to raise her child, and that her child was 
 doomed to become abnormal. 
 
 She had fits of crying and depression and often 
 told her family she wished she, her husband and 
 baby were dead. She spoke of her husband re- 
 
 [153] 
 
Psychoanalysis and Behaviour 
 
 marrying and asked her sister to take care of the 
 baby when she married her husband. She in- 
 dulged more and more in masturbation and began 
 to speak of it openly. Delusions appeared. She 
 thought people sneered at her "as if she was passing 
 disgusting odours." She insisted that she was not 
 her father's daughter but a prostitute in a house 
 kept by her father; she thought she saw a picture 
 of herself in tights in the Police Gazette; she was 
 afraid medicines might contain poison. Finally 
 she drank tincture of iodine in an attempt to kill 
 herself and thereupon was taken to a sanatorium. 
 
 In that institution which she, in her delusions, 
 considered as a house of prostitution, some stupid 
 nurses yielded to the temptation of playing upon 
 her sexual fears and told her many weird sadistic 
 stories of immorality. Pursued by erotic fancies 
 she tried hard to resist her cravings and adopted 
 no end of devices to save herself from masturba- 
 tion. She experienced a profound sense of her 
 sinfulness and her letters to her husband contained 
 many references to her worthlessness, to the fact 
 that she had ruined her baby, etc. 
 
 She was then removed from the sanatorium to 
 St. Elizabeth Hospital. 
 
 Her husband was deeply affected by his wife's 
 mental derangement and was conscious of his re- 
 [154] 
 
The Cause of Relapses 
 
 sponsibility for her depression and anxiety. His 
 first visits were very cautiously conducted and he 
 always sought advice as to what to say to her. She 
 reacted in a gratifying way to his kind attitude. 
 
 She gradually accorded Dr. Kempf her confi- 
 dence and learned to depend upon him for assur- 
 ance and encouragement. She became adjusted 
 to a higher level of interest. 
 
 Suddenly, however, she began to regress, revert- 
 ing to her prostitution fancies. The cause was 
 not far to seek. 
 
 One day her husband, losing his patience, had 
 in the course of a visit threatened again to leave 
 her if she did not get well. She learnt also that he 
 had been drinking. 
 
 Some time afterward she had another regression 
 which was traced again to some stupid statements 
 made by her husband. Her mother had died and 
 willed all her property to the patient's father which 
 necessitated the signature of all the heirs, including 
 the patient. Her husband had carried the will in 
 his pocket for several days trying to decide whether 
 or not he would sign it. He brought up the whole 
 family conflict again and told the patient that her 
 mother must have been insane when she made that 
 will. They were together at the patient's dance 
 when it occurred and she changed in a few minutes 
 
 [155] 
 
Psychoanalysis and Behaviour 
 
 from a state of hopefulness and promise to one of 
 serious confusion and inaccessibility. 
 
 This lasted nearly two weeks and then she be- 
 came more cheerful. 
 
 Then the family difficulties were once more de- 
 pressed upon her by her husband, sister and father 
 and this time she regressed almost completely to 
 a prenatal attitude. She was afraid of being 
 smothered in boxes, of being passed into the toilet 
 with feces, she had all sorts of terrifying hallucina- 
 tions. 
 
 Her dreams, however, showed affective treads 
 which suggested that a reconstruction was possible. 
 She developed more and more interest in her en- 
 vironment, her child, her husband. She gathered 
 much insight into her condition and could analyse 
 her delusions very skilfully. 
 
 About the twenty-third week she had rallied so 
 far that a nurse took her out to visit her people. 
 Then the old family quarrel about spending money 
 flared up again. The patient wished to change the 
 arrangement of the furniture and her sister, as 
 domineering as ever, prevented her from asserting 
 herself even during her brief stay at home. She 
 returned to the hospital angry and worried. 
 
 She had too much insight by that time, owing 
 to the psychoanalytic treatment she had been un- 
 [156] 
 
Her Re-education 
 
 dergoing, to regress very far. She recovered and 
 was finally discharged. 
 
 Two months afterward, a crisis confronted her 
 again. She was pregnant and some members of 
 her family were urging her to resort to an abortion. 
 She managed to assert herself, however, and bore 
 the child. 
 
 When she was discharged from the hospital, she 
 seemed to be uncomfortable about two things, her 
 inability to find a religion which was free from 
 dogma and hypocrisy and a feeling that her educa- 
 tion was not ample. Kempf gave her a rather in- 
 definite reply on the subject of religion but ac- 
 corded more serious consideration to her feelings of 
 inferiority about her education. 
 
 Her education had been badly supervised and 
 her conception of her fitness as a woman was not 
 commensurate with the magnificent affections of 
 a practical nature which were natural to her. She 
 had become more of a woman in her sympathies and 
 insight than the average social light. She had 
 a keen insight into the affective mechanism of people 
 surroimding her. 
 
 In order to free herself from her feeling of in- 
 feriority she read, upon Kempf's advice, biog- 
 raphies of famous women and gradually came to 
 the conclusion that much of her suffering had been 
 
 [157] 
 
Psychoanalysis and Behaviour 
 
 due to her repression of her affections. She de- 
 termined to join the movement for woman's eman- 
 cipation. 
 
 Her husband had to be educated too. Attentive 
 and kind to her, he was still too completely en- 
 thralled by his mother-fixation to co-operate with 
 Kempf very faithfully. Hie could not restrain his 
 tendency to criticize his wife and to show displeas- 
 ure over her diet, her careless way of dressing, etc. 
 Kempf told him explicitly that he should not sup- 
 press, among other things, her interest in feminism, 
 but frankly support it. He agreed to do so but 
 was not quite able to keep his word. 
 
 The patient, however, in spite of all the pressure 
 which both families tried again to bring to bear 
 upon her, asserted herself. 
 
 She met their arguments with the statements that 
 she must use her own judgment "because her physi- 
 cian had insisted upon it," and that she did not care 
 what they had to say. She could not please every- 
 body and no matter what happened she knew her 
 physician respected her personal integrity and sin- 
 cerity. 
 
 The way in which she managed her second preg- 
 nancy and the rearrangement of her household were 
 very encouraging. The only distressing note was 
 a statement she made that if any hopeless family 
 [158] 
 
A Complete Recovery 
 
 estrangement should arise she would kill herself. 
 
 Therein lurked the possibility of a fatfeful re- 
 gression to the lowest possible level, the fatal level, 
 for the committing of suicide is a regression to the 
 eternal mother, an effort to return to the ancient 
 state of intrauterine peace, comfort and depend- 
 ence. 
 
 Now, four years after her discharge from the 
 hospital, she is in excellent mental condition, work- 
 ing out most of her plans to her heart's desire and 
 taking good care of her two children. 
 
 Intelligent, sympathetic re-education, reducing 
 her feeling of inferiority; the reliance she could 
 place in a well known psychiatrist understanding 
 her better than any member of her family and 
 whose opinions had naturally more weight than 
 that of any one else in her environment have en- 
 abled her to become herself at last. 
 
 A perusal of this remarkable case furnishes the 
 reader with concrete applications of various state- 
 ments contained in the chapters on the Love Life 
 and the Sexual Enlightenment of Children. 
 
 The puritanical father and mother who in their 
 fear of facts allowed their daughters to remain 
 in ignorance of the sexual truth until a former in- 
 mate of a house of prostitution brought them the 
 most spurious and romantic form of enlightenment 
 
 [159] 
 
Psychoanalysis and Behaviour 
 
 are familiar figures. The baneful influence of a 
 prudish father continually throwing obscene sug- 
 gestions into the minds of his children by his very 
 efforts to instil "modesty" into them is graphically 
 illustrated. 
 
 This case also offers us a demonstration of the ef- 
 fects which a man's mother-fixation can have upon 
 that man's sexual partner, causing her to experi- 
 ence a sense of physical inferiority because to his 
 complex-beset mind, the mother type only can rep- 
 resent feminine attraction and arouse his desire. 
 
 The striking change which the crisis brought 
 about in the patient's personality and in her atti- 
 tude to life, makes good food for thought. It is 
 difficult to avoid the conclusions that after being 
 INSANE and recovering she was better fitted for life, 
 and had become a more interesting human type 
 than before the onset of her neurosis. 
 
 To one who realizes that recovery from a severe 
 neurosis means the acquisition of an enormous 
 amount of insight into, not only one's own thinking 
 functions and motives, but into the psychology of 
 one's associates as well, it will be evident that many 
 persons who lived through such a terrible experi- 
 ence may have developed a more robust mentality 
 than they ever had. 
 
 Unfortunately that view is not held by many peo- 
 [160] 
 
People Who Were Insane 
 
 pie and the individual who was unfortunate enough 
 to require treatment in an institution for the insane 
 comes back to his former environment bearing an 
 undefinable stigma. People are afraid of him and 
 expect him to "go crazy" again at some time or 
 other. And their fears are, if not justified, at 
 least often realized. The insane man who made 
 a recovery sometimes becomes insane again because 
 he has been discouraged in his fight for reality by 
 the very same people who once drove him into in- 
 sanity. 
 
 Kempf's patient having it dinned constantly in 
 her ears by two absolutely dissimilar groups of 
 people that she was crazy finally followed the line 
 of least resistance and yielded to their absurd pro- 
 nouncement. The pressure of such environmental 
 forces together with the fact that the patient was 
 actually insane once and may have a few linger- 
 ing doubts about his complete recovery, may suc- 
 ceed in sending him back to the institution from 
 which he was discharged. 
 
 As Kempf writes, "The thoughtless attitude *of 
 the people is to be changed by educating them to 
 have as much confidence in those who have recov- 
 ered from mental diseases as they have in those 
 who recover from other diseases, in order to help 
 the patient to be less fearful of being distrusted 
 
 [161] 
 
Psychoanalysis and Behaviour 
 
 and disrespected. Both sides of this procedure 
 have essentially a therapeutic value in that they 
 are conducive to an easier and more durable re- 
 covery for the patient as well as exerting a human- 
 izing influence on the people. Hence the pro- 
 cedure should be an important part of the thera- 
 peutic method, a permanent, outstanding feature 
 of the hospital life of the patient and the means of 
 maintaining social contact between the hospital and 
 the community." 
 
 Finally the method employed by Kempf in re- 
 storing his patient to a normal condition exposes 
 the absurdity of herding the insane by the thou- 
 sands in institutions where nature is mainly relied 
 upon to bring about a cure. Let the average man, 
 Kempf writes, imagine what distress he would suf- 
 fer and what changes of character he would undergo 
 if he were confined indefinitely in a hospital ward, 
 his judgment discredited, and forced to associate 
 constantly with twenty to fifty other worrying, un- 
 happy people, many of whom had lost control of 
 themselves and become sexually perverse either 
 overtly or in fancy. The universal answer would 
 be that the experience would soon become unen- 
 durable to die sane man or woman and cause noth- 
 ing less than prolonged misery and suffering. 
 [162] 
 
HospUals Versus Asylums 
 
 The hospital for mental diseases, he concludes, 
 should be a first class vocational university for the 
 practical re-education and rehabilitation of the 
 people who have become abnormal and unable to 
 adapt themselves to their social obligations and 
 the social laws, due to their incompatible cravings 
 and previous xmsuitable education and training. 
 
 Such a plan would require for its realization a 
 considerable increase in the number of physicians, 
 nurses, attendants, and vocational and athletic 
 trainers. This would at first appear very expen- 
 sive, but, as Kempf remarks, owing to the great re- 
 duction in the duration of the average patient's ill- 
 ness, and the increase in recoveries, the annual cost 
 would be greatly reduced after a few years. 
 
 Eighty per cent, of the mentally diseased, he 
 thinks, could be cured if properly treated. This 
 applies, of course, to cases in which there is no de- 
 struction of nervous tissues. 
 
 Furthermore, the asylum would lose its depress- 
 ing, ominous stigma and many patients in the in- 
 cipient stage would be influenced to come and seek 
 treatment before their condition had become 
 chronic or incurable. What with the many who 
 would not become insane owing to preventive meas- 
 ures, and the many insane who could be helped to 
 
 [163] 
 
Psychoanalysis and Behaviour 
 
 regain their mental balance, the population of in- 
 sane asylums would be greatly reduced by adopt- 
 ing Kempf's suggestions. 
 
 BIBLIOGRAPHY 
 
 A 6ompIete report of this interesting case will be 
 found in the Psychoanalytic Review for January, 1919, 
 under the title "The Psychoanalytic Treatment of De- 
 mentia Praecox" by Dr. Edward J. Kempf. 
 
 Dr. Kempf's theories are discussed in the last chapter 
 of the present book. His ideas on the management of 
 hospitals for the insane, which are very progressive, have 
 been published under the title "Important Needs of Hos- 
 pitals for Mental Disease," New York Medical Journal, 
 July 5, 1919. 
 
 [164] 
 
CHAPTER VI. THE NEUROTIC ASPECTS OF 
 WAR 
 
 Civilization eliminates many of nature's waste- 
 ful methods and reduces to a minimum the friction 
 between human beings. It modifies individual 
 habits and transforms them into clan or herd habits, 
 later into national habits. It teaches individuals 
 a certain measure of solidarity. 
 
 The herd bands together to repel aggressors of 
 a different species ; wolves hunt in packs and do not 
 attack one another; flocks of migrating birds wait 
 till a tired member of the flock is ready to resume 
 the voyage. The advantages of solidarity, how- 
 ever, are only obscurely realized by the majority 
 of animals and when no emergency compels them 
 to realize them, we see them often murdering one 
 another to secure one favourite female or a larger 
 allotment of the available food. 
 
 Man, likewise, seldom adapts himself perma- 
 nently to standards which are very superior socially 
 to the purely individual standard. His ego, sex 
 and safety urges can be repressed for a certain 
 length of time, mainly out of necessity, physical or 
 
 [165] 
 
Psychoanalysis and Behaviour 
 
 social, but they are constantly striving for direct 
 or indirect expression, sometimes through chance 
 actions, cruel or obscene wit, day and night dreams. 
 
 Not only does civilized community life compel 
 a repression of the urges which is contrary to primi- 
 tive human nature, but the demands it makes are 
 growing by leaps and bounds. Such demands are 
 growing faster than men, the world over, can make 
 their urge repression really efficient. 
 
 Thus a constantly increasing emotional strain 
 is created which manifests itself in abnormal ways 
 among the weaker members of the community. 
 The robust and well-fed generally manage to re- 
 main normal regardless of the physical and mental 
 risks they run. The inferior organisms either 
 break down under the strain or defy the customs of 
 the community and pay the penalty or they seek the 
 line of least resistance and submit in appearance. 
 
 The population of the world, for that reason, 
 consists of many more simulators than truly 
 adapted human beings. Restrictions are burden- 
 some to them but they either conceal the fact as a 
 matter of policy or in many cases are ashamed of 
 their own impatience and do not even confess it to 
 themselves. 
 
 In sudden crises, however, all the pent-up urges 
 [166] 
 
Display of Cruelty 
 
 are likely to break through with a violence which 
 astonishes us. 
 
 In times of war, we cannot help expressing our 
 surprise at the amount of savagery and cruelty dis- 
 played by the victorious armies, but that surprise 
 simply shows our ignorance of the actual state of 
 things. It is not, as Freud suggests, that people sink 
 very low in war times; they never were as high in 
 peace times as we imagined them to be. 
 
 We all spend one-half of our life regressing to 
 the archaic, individual, uncivilized level; for as 
 soon as we fall asleep, we discard our morality, 
 our ethics, and all our repressions even as we cast 
 off our clothes, and indulge in a riot of egotistical 
 and sexual gratification through our dreams. 
 
 The only thing which generally holds us back in 
 our waking time is, either the fear of punishment, 
 direct or indirect, the fear of jail or of social ostra- 
 cism, or a clear realization of the financial and so- 
 cial advantages vouchsafed by apparent conform- 
 ism. 
 
 As soon as war is declared, the terrible tension 
 is released and most of our animal instincts find 
 gratification; that gratification entails no loss of 
 caste, prestige or money; on the contrary. In 
 war, the whole commimity regresses to the animal 
 
 [167] 
 
Psychoanalysis and Behaviour 
 
 level and punishes the individual who refuses to 
 regress with the herd. 
 
 Every animal is bom with a craving for food, 
 which very soon evolves into a craving for power, 
 power being the shortest road to more plentiful 
 and better food secured with the least possible 
 amount of exertion. 
 
 Civilized man no longer starts out with a club 
 to dispute dangerous beasts of prey or other hunters 
 of a different clan their right to hunt, nor does he 
 send out his slaves to run down game. He has 
 covered the brutality of the quest under civilized 
 veneer and manages to give partial satisfaction to 
 his archaic instincts in ways which do not inflict 
 too much suffering upon his environment. 
 
 War removes the inhibitions introduced by 
 modem business methods. Every nation wishes to 
 conquer some piece of land for reasons which, at 
 times, can well masquerade as humanitarian ones, 
 as for instance the necessity of freeing some "en- 
 slaved" race which we hope to dominate, or in 
 order to "open up" markets, or to free men of 
 our race who, in a more or less dim past, were 
 submitted to forceful annexation by another race, 
 etc. 
 
 Whatever the pretence, the result is the same: 
 all the individuals of one community are exhilar- 
 [168] 
 
War the Adventure 
 
 ated by the prospect of starting out to plunder the 
 neighbour's land. 
 
 As a matter of fact, very few members of the 
 herd, not one out of ten thousand, will be bene- 
 fited in any way by the foray, and those few, bank- 
 ers and traders, never take part in the expedition, 
 but the masses of the fighters enjoy the fact that 
 they are engaged in an adventurous undertaking 
 of a primitive, archaic type, which in ordinary 
 times would be highly unethical but which now is 
 authorized, financed and idealized by the com- 
 munity. 
 
 The civilized nation has regressed to the level of 
 the robber herd of the caveman period. We may 
 point out that in legends and in the real life of 
 backward commimities, the successful robber is a 
 romantic, privileged character, to whom the usual 
 standards do not apply. 
 
 At such times, some members of the community 
 regress even lower than the herd levd. 
 
 The herd on the war path is himting for the herd. 
 No single member of the herd will profit by the 
 conquests achieved, and the sense of herd solidarity 
 is not abolished. The profiteer, on the other hand, 
 is entirely devoid of that sense. While the herd 
 is hunting, he does not hesitate to starve it if he 
 can only comer the herd's food supply and then 
 
 [169] 
 
Psychoanalysis and Behaviour 
 
 sell it at the price his power can dictate and thus 
 gratify his appetite. 
 
 Profiteering is individualism gone mad. Like 
 the herd's craving for hlood and spoils, it may as- 
 sume a righteous mask: supplies are difficult to se- 
 cure "on account of the war," those who protest 
 are branded as tmpatriotic for they lack the "spirit 
 of self-sacrifice," etc. 
 
 Lying and deceit, two neurotic devices of the 
 negative life, and universally tabooed in the in- 
 dividual's life, become praiseworthy in war times 
 and especially indulged in by the men who prepare 
 wars, the diplomats. Diplomacy's greatest ac- 
 complishment consists in attaining an object with- 
 out letting any outsider suspect it and preferably 
 convincing outsiders that an entirely different ob- 
 ject is being sought. 
 
 The greatest diplomats were those who not only 
 had the greatest capacity for deceiving the rulers 
 at whose court they were accredited but for cover- 
 ing up their traces so carefully that they actually 
 gained their confidence. 
 
 In war times, lying about the enemy is not un- 
 ethical. It is, on the contrary, highly commend- 
 able as it sustains the morale of fighters and civil- 
 ians alike. 
 
 Exhibitionism is another deeply ingrained and 
 [170] 
 
The Lure of the Uniform 
 
 infantile craving of all races, made up in equal 
 doses of sex and ego. The males of many species 
 parade around the females at mating time, trying 
 to arouse their sexuality and at the same time prob- 
 ably frightening away other males. 
 
 War offers many excellent excuses for a display 
 of exhibitionism. 
 
 The warrior is clothed in a uniform which once 
 presented a dazzling array of colours and in cer- 
 tain cases was enhanced by precious metals, and 
 which, drab as it has become today, for reasons 
 of safety, is sufficient to place those wearing it on a 
 higher plane than the "civilian. 
 
 The wearing of a uniform places all soldiers in 
 one category in which every individual is supposed 
 to be healthy and vigorous and hence fit for pur- 
 poses of reproduction. 
 
 The females respond properly and we see thou- 
 sands of service clubs in which young women, some 
 of them imitating the males and wearing uniforms, 
 foster the men's belief that they are privileged 
 characters; some of the women belonging to "so- 
 ciety" converse or dance with men whom they would 
 absolutely ignore if they cast off the distinguishing 
 regalia of the fighting male and donned civilian's 
 clothes. 
 
 In war times, the desire for promiscuous inter- 
 
 [171] 
 
Psychoanalysis and Behaviour 
 
 course which lurks in every human being can be 
 indulged in without calling forth undue criticism. 
 The most jealous husbands are compelled to ap- 
 prove of their wives' "war activities." 
 
 The war regression is a boon to all the weak 
 members of the community who are anxious to 
 regress to a childlike level but are compelled by 
 economic necessity to remain on the adult level. 
 The useless, the shiftless, who for lack of intelli- 
 gence or perseverance, never were able to accom- 
 plish anything positive, who have been a butt for 
 much scorn and contumely, are suddenly enabled 
 to play a striking part in their little world by en- 
 listing or being drafted. 
 
 Not only are their failures forgotten, but an 
 escape from stem reality is vouchsafed them. All 
 of life's responsibilities are now shifted to the state. 
 The state feeds, clothes and shelters them and as- 
 sumes the charge of their dependents. Nothing 
 that befalls the enlisted man's family can affect 
 him very deeply, for as soon as he joins the colours 
 his responsibility ceases. 
 
 As soon as he dons a uniform, the useless and 
 shiftless weakling becomes an object of attention 
 on the part of women, even as the worthier males. 
 That the sexual element plays a greater part in the 
 devotion women show to fighters than a spirit of 
 [172] 
 
Sexual License 
 
 self-sacrifice is well proved by the fact that while 
 social clubs had more volunteers at their disposal 
 than they could possibly employ, the hospitals of 
 New York City during the epidemic of influenza 
 of 1919 were unable to find nurses. Although by 
 that time the war emergency was over one nurse 
 in ward Bl at Bellevue Hospital had to take care 
 of as many as fifty patients for 12 hours at a time. 
 
 One of the features constantly reported in war 
 news are stories of sexual license and violence. 
 
 The sex instinct, submitted to a terrible repres- 
 sion in peace times, breaks through when so many 
 other inhibitions are removed. In all epochs of 
 history the fighting man's morality has been the sub- 
 ject of special allowances. In the past, one of 
 war's sequels was the seizing of the defeated 
 enemy's women by the victorious tribe, Moses 
 told his men to keep for themselves all the virgins 
 of the Midianite tribe which they had defeated. 
 The enemy's wife or sister has never been sacred. 
 Training camps and garrison towns have always 
 been known as centres of promiscuous sexual in- 
 tercourse. 
 
 Another one of the infantile activities which is 
 carefully regulated from an early age and whose 
 haphazard gratification is severely repressed is the 
 anal and vesical activity, the passing of feces and 
 
 [173] 
 
Psychoanalysis and Behaviour 
 
 urine. A regression to such activities in their in- 
 fantile form is reported quite frequently in war 
 times. The invading soldiers often defile in the 
 most nauseating way the quarters which they oc- 
 cupy, not respecting even at times religious vessels 
 or other paraphernalia of the enemy's cult. 
 
 The necessities of the national defence enable 
 any one with a neurotic strain of cruelty to satisfy 
 his craving even in his immediate environment, 
 without regard for the law of the herd. 
 
 Thousands of people spy on one another, listen 
 to conversations in public places and, whenever 
 hearing something suspicious, have the offender ar- 
 raigned, if not dragged in a spectacular way to the 
 police station. 
 
 This is a manifestation of the egotistical nega- 
 tivism which, unable to achieve anything, lowers 
 other people's level through disparagement and 
 destructive hostility. 
 
 War allows us to insult any one we dislike by 
 calling him a traitor or a seditious person and de- 
 nouncing him to the police authorities. If he is 
 higher than we are, we "get even" with him, if he 
 is our equal we make him our inferior, if he belongs 
 to a lower social rank, we can then express our 
 scorn without appearing snobbish. 
 
 Atrocities are being committed in every war by 
 [174] 
 
An Eye for an Eye 
 
 the victorious armies. Whether they assume the 
 form of cruel treatment of civilians or consist in 
 using trench gas,' liquid flame or other means of 
 torture, makes very little difference. Every one 
 pretends to experience a profound indignation on 
 reading about them, but no one ever suggests any- 
 thing but reprisals, retaliation. 
 
 In peace times, we do not disembowel Jack the 
 Ripper because he resorted to that frightful form 
 of violence, we do not bum alive the man who set 
 fire to a house. In war the path of regression to 
 primitive cruelty is wide open "for the sake of ex- 
 ample." 
 
 Primitive savages who wish something, represent 
 it dramatically, sprinkling the ground to bring rain 
 from the clouds, burning some one in effigy, etc. 
 
 In war times, the population is made to behold 
 at every step lurid posters representing the anni- 
 hilation of the foe. Rabid statements are made 
 vociferously as to what we shall do to the enemy, 
 how completely we are going to crush him, to hit 
 him so hard that he shall never rise again. In 
 other words the task which confronts the nation is 
 constantly represented as being successfully per- 
 formed and brought to a glorious ending. 
 
 There is also in the rage with which the commun- 
 ity destroys the things symbolical of the enemy a 
 
 [175] 
 
Psychoanalysis and Behaviour 
 
 regression to the period of infamy which Ferenczi 
 calls the period of belief in the omnipotence of 
 thought and magic gestures. 
 
 By forbidding the display of certain flags, by 
 placing a ban on books and publications printed 
 in the enemy's language, by interfering with mu- 
 sical performances in which an enemy performer 
 is taking part or at which the works of an enemy 
 would be given, certain neurotics think they can 
 destroy the enemy more completely. 
 
 Whatever symbolizes the «hemy and makes him 
 present symbolically is done away with. Here we 
 behold a process akin to the withdrawal from real- 
 ity in dementia praecox and to the ostrich's habit 
 of burying his head in the sand. 
 
 Such prohibitions show a regression to the belief 
 in magic, a decided evasion of reality and a flight 
 along the line of least resistance. 
 
 Intolerance is the most marked characteristic 
 phenomenon of war times. It also characterizes 
 severe cases of neurosis. 
 
 One cannot discuss with a neurotic. The psy- 
 chiatrist who tries to bring insight into his patient's 
 mind would lose the battle at once if he began by 
 telling him that his story is absurd. 
 
 The thing to do is to let the neurotic tell his 
 [176] 
 
Patriots and Traitors 
 
 ^story in his own way, to throw light gradually on 
 the spurious evidence on which he has built it and 
 thus to disintegrate it. But the more absurd the 
 obsession, the harder the neurotic will fight to 
 have his version accepted. The hopelessly insane 
 who knows he is a king or god easily resorts to 
 violence when some one betrays scepticism. 
 
 The neurotic may obscurely feel that his story is 
 wrong and cannot be defended. Hence his im- 
 potence is easily enraged and he avoids all discus- 
 sions in which he could not hold his own. 
 
 In war times, rabid neurotics who monopolize 
 the title of patriot do not allow any one to discuss 
 the war or any of its problems. If they were sure 
 of their ground they would gladly confute doubters, 
 but being thrall to their emotions they have to fol- 
 low the line of least resistance. "Only traitors," 
 they say quite finally, "discuss the merits of a war 
 after war has been started." 
 
 Intolerance is the last refuge of the loser. Hav- 
 ing no strong argument wherewith to silence you, 
 he hits you on the mouth. 
 
 The consequences of the wholesale regression 
 which takes place during war are interesting to ex- 
 amine. 
 
 The states engaged in war disregard all the eth- 
 
 [177] 
 
Psychoanalysis and Behaviour 
 
 ical rules which have established themselves as the 
 fundamentals of behaviour in all civilized commun- 
 ities. 
 
 They lie, they practise deceit at home and 
 abroad, they deprive people of their freedom of 
 speech, they sentence dissenters to incredibly long 
 jail terms, etc. 
 
 The masses of the population can only reach one 
 conclusion: that is that, while ethics, morality and 
 honesty are very fine in theory, they are non-ex- 
 istent when tried by the reality test. 
 
 Ethics, morality and honesty are valuable when 
 no emergency has to be cop^ with. As soon as 
 the great emergency of war arises, however, the 
 state sets them aside as useless or detrimental. 
 
 Hence ethics, morality and honesty seem to have 
 only a relative value, not an absolute one and the 
 danger is that, when the masses instilled with that 
 doctrine of relativity want something very badly, 
 they may also act as the state acts in emergencies. 
 
 An enormous amount of savagery lingers in peo- 
 ple's attitudes follo'wing a war. Men of a con- 
 servative type who, before a war, would boast of 
 their human feelings and deprecate all forms of 
 violence, are heard suggesting violence against their 
 opponents. "Shoot them at sunrise," "Get the 
 rope," "Shoot them first and try them next," are 
 [178] 
 
Neurotic Death Threats 
 
 the favourite expressions of neurotics brutalized by 
 the war spirit. 
 
 Their opponents, their enemies are transformed 
 through mental juggling into enemies of the coun- 
 try, and hence deserving death. This is a typically 
 infantile attitude. The child powerless against a 
 stronger boy throws in his face a desperate "I wish 
 you'd die." Here is again the line of least re- 
 sistance. Nothing will save us from our opponent 
 except his death. We then make that death a pub- 
 lic necessity. 
 
 The politician who goes about the country 
 preaching a summary execution for those who dis- 
 agree with him, is tmknowingly proclaiming their 
 absolute superiority and his absolute incapacity to 
 fight them fairly in a civilized way. 
 
 The constant charge of intended violence brought 
 by certain men against groups they intend to perse- 
 cute is, generally speaking, a projection of their 
 own murderous cravings upon their intended vic- 
 tims. Suspecting a man of violence is the sim- 
 plest excuse for submitting him to violence. By 
 pretending that we saw a man put his hand to his 
 hip pocket we can always plead self-defence when 
 we do him to death. 
 
 The description of many raids made upon the 
 locals of labour organizations in recent months re- 
 
 [179] 
 
Psychoanalysis and Behaviour 
 
 veals that the leaders of those raids were not bent 
 so much on preventing or punishing violence as 
 on indulging without danger to themselves in an 
 orgy of violence. 
 
 Raiders entering premises ostensibly to seek 
 damaging evidence have been known to smash 
 everything in the rooms from electric lamps to me- 
 chanical pianos and typewriting machines. 
 
 It will be noticed also that all great wars are fol- 
 lowed by epidemics. They are generally attri- 
 buted to unsanitary conditions induced by the de- 
 struction of hygienic appliances, the presence of 
 dead bodies, the weakening of the population by 
 famine, etc. 
 
 The importance of all these factors could not be 
 denied by any rational scientist. Another factor, 
 however, should be added to the list. When al- 
 most all the forms of approved regression made 
 available by the war emergency have been removed, 
 when active negativism has become impossible, 
 passive negativism enters into play. The neu- 
 rotic who could satisfy his ego through exhibition- 
 ism and sadism and become by the performance of 
 some simple standardized actions a centre of in- 
 terest has to find some other means of dominating 
 neurotically his environment. 
 
 This is easily done by assuming unconsciously, 
 [180] 
 
The Line of Least Effort 
 
 (not by any means consciously) the symptoms of 
 a simple, seasonable disease, whose description is 
 to be found in all the papers, and in that way re- 
 gress to a helpless level, into a privileged class 
 which enjoys every one's sympathy and help, re- 
 ceives medical care, is talked about, is never 
 touched by suspicion of malingering, owing to the 
 prevalence of the disturbance and is, for the time 
 being, removed from and protected against reality 
 into which it may fall back gradually. 
 
 BIBLIOGRAPHY 
 
 Freud, S. — "Reflections on War and Death" (Moffat, 
 Yard) and White, W. A. — "Thoughts of a Psychiatrist 
 on the War and After" (Hoeber) are two small and most 
 readable books which show one Austrian and one Ameri- 
 can psychiatrist reaching practically the same conclu- 
 sions from their observations of the world war. 
 
 [181] 
 
IV. SLEEP AND DREAMS 
 
CHAPTER I: SLEEP, SLEEPLESSNESS AND 
 NIGHTMARES 
 
 The most common explanation for the fact that 
 we go to sleep is that we are tired and need rest. 
 
 A close examination of the organism in its sleep- 
 ing condition fails to lend plausibility to that 
 theor)^ 
 
 The heart continues to beat and to send the blood 
 stream on its course through the body. The lungs 
 continue to gather in oxygen, the liver to apcumu- 
 late glycogen. The stomach and bowels keep on 
 digesting and eliminating, our beard keeps on grow- 
 ing, all our glands keep on producing various se- 
 cretions. Some, like our sweat glands, are in- 
 finitely more active in our sleep than in our wak- 
 ing state. Our mind does not rest by any means 
 for we probably dream every minute of every night. 
 
 Our vagotonic activities, that is, the autonomic 
 nervous activities which upbuild the body and tend 
 to perpetuate the race, are infinitely stronger in 
 sleep than the sympathicotonic activities which re- 
 strain them. 
 
 Our sense organs are as acutely sensitive in sleep 
 
 [185] 
 
Psychoanalysis and Behaviour 
 
 as in the waking state, for the slightest stimulus 
 brings about a reaction of some sort, mostly in the 
 form of a dream. 
 
 Besides the fact that we do not move our arms 
 and legs, or at least move them very little while 
 asleep, it is rather difficult to mention any part of 
 the body which actually "rests" in sleep. 
 
 The explanation that sleep enables us to elim- 
 inate from the organism the various fatigue prod- 
 ucts is not convincing, for inactivity not accom- 
 panied by unconsciousness would enable the blood 
 to carry off those products as completely as in- 
 activity does when accompanied by unconscious- 
 ness. 
 
 The same answer could be given to those who 
 claim that in sleep we store up again the substances 
 (for instance sugar) which waking activity has 
 spent lavishly. 
 
 It is not clear why unconsciousness would help 
 that process. 
 
 What is it, then, which a conscious state does 
 not give us and which we only find in unconscious- 
 ness? 
 
 Only by studying dreams will we find a satisfac- 
 tory answer to that question. 
 
 Dreams secure gratification for thousands of ex- 
 pressed or repressed desires; dreams find solutions, 
 [186] 
 
Dream Symbols 
 
 some of them absurd, some of them acceptable, to 
 problems which have puzzled us in our waking 
 hours; dreams, even though they seem frightening, 
 painful or humiliating, always fulfil some con- 
 scious or unconscious wish. The process is very 
 obvious in gross sexual dreams, less obvious in 
 dreams which cloak themselves with complicated 
 symbolism, and not at all obvious in nightmares. 
 
 When dreams transform the dreamer into an ir- 
 resistible Don Juan or a millionaire, he is quite 
 willing to accept the theory of wish fulfilment. 
 When a young girl dreams that she is pursued or 
 bitten by a dog she may feel rather sceptical as to 
 the universal application of that theory. 
 
 Most of our dreams, however, are symbolical, 
 that is, they say what they have to say in a lan- 
 guage which we ourselves do not understand, para- 
 doxical as it may seem. 
 
 We throw shoes and rice at newlyweds without 
 actually understanding the meaning of that act. 
 Yet we are expressing in that symbolical way a 
 wish which is quite appropriate to the occasion, 
 and which we would not dare to express in any 
 other way. 
 
 Shoes are a symbol of the female genitals, rice 
 the symbol of the male fecundating element. 
 Shoes and rice have that meeming not only in more 
 
 [187] 
 
Psychoanalysis and Behaviour 
 
 or less fantastic and in accurate dream books but 
 in all the folklore of all races (rice being in cer- 
 tain cases replaced by wheat or other local cereal) . 
 
 Thus Tve express symbolically the wish that the 
 newly married pair may be prolific, a wish which 
 the delicacy or hypocrisy of our modem civiliza 
 tion would not enable us to formulate too directly 
 
 And curiously enough the symbol which uncon 
 sciously we understand quite well, has been in 
 vested by many with a diflferent conscious meaning, 
 Many people whom I asked for their interpreta 
 tion of that custom answered, "Well, I suppose it 
 is meant to say: 'May the young couple always 
 have enough to eat and shoes to wear.' " 
 
 The orange blossoms which crown brides were 
 originally an allusion to the great fertility of the 
 orange tree which bears fruit twice a year. The 
 shyness which the modem mind shows in the pres- 
 ence of "brutal" sexual facts has gradually placed 
 the stress on the colour of those blossoms and has 
 caused them to symbolize maidenly purity, which 
 after all is only another sexual fact. 
 
 In both cases, the repression of sexual instincts 
 by the growing complexity of community life has 
 managed to add a conscious meaning to a ritual 
 which has an entirely different unconscious mean- 
 ing. 
 [188] 
 
Anxiety Dreamt 
 
 But it is the unconscious meaning which symbols 
 retain in our dream life, for then the repression is 
 infinitely less powerful. 
 
 Dreams aim at giving us absolute freedom of 
 action and expression but they do not always suc- 
 ceed completely in spite of the symbolical mask 
 which they assume in so many cases. 
 
 Life's repressions may be so severe that even in 
 sleep the pent-up urges encounter obstacles to their 
 gratification. The result is anxiety dreams, popu- 
 larly known as nightmares, which are at times the 
 source of a great deal of suffering, until the subject 
 understands their symbolic meaning. 
 
 The woman pursued in her dreams by snakes, 
 or trampled upon by horses, or bitten by dogs, etc., 
 is one sufi"ering from lack of s^uaj gratification 
 and attaining that satisfaction in her sleep in sym- 
 bolical ways. A subject obsessed by suicidal ideas 
 but who did not wish to leave his family unprovided 
 for, owing to the suicide clause in his insurance 
 policy, would dream night after night that he was 
 put to death for some crime, thus accomplishing 
 his object without causing his dependents any 
 financial loss. 
 
 While dreams of being trampled down by ani- 
 mals or being put to death are not to be considered 
 at first glance as constituting the fulfilment of 
 
 [189] 
 
Psychoanalysis and Behaviour 
 
 wishes, the first anxiety dream is clearly a symbolic 
 form of wish fulfilment, the second, when inter- 
 preted with the help of the subject, appears a simple 
 solution of a problem which at one time agitated 
 the subject's mind and hence is also a wish fulfil- 
 ment. 
 
 The fimction of sleep, then, is to compensate us 
 for all the things we must forego in our waking 
 life, for all the desires we must repress in order 
 to conform to civilized standards. Sleep is a 
 means of escape from reality and from the 
 monotony of existence. 
 
 The more complex civilization becomes the more 
 necessary sleep becomes and the more frequent are 
 mental disturbai|ces due to lack of sleep. At the 
 same time, il^mubt be noticed that certain people 
 whose lives are extremely strenuous do not require 
 as much sleep as others d<J who lead a much more 
 peaceful existence. Napoleon hardly ever slept 
 more than four hours before he reached the Island 
 of Saint Helena. He then slept much longer. Edi- 
 son does not require more sleep than Napoleon. 
 Many other famous men managed to live a healthy 
 life while taking very little rest. 
 
 But those men also led a life in which they ful- 
 filled almost all their wishes. Their work was not 
 drudgery. Napoleon's life was a continuous 
 [190] 
 
Sleepy Little Towns 
 
 romance of the most exciting sort. Edison's in- 
 ventive genius vouchsafes his ego innumerable 
 forms of satisfaction. 
 
 The Napoleon type and the Edison type are at 
 the opposite poles, the first being highly negative, 
 self-centred and destructive, the other highly posi- 
 tive, socially useful and constructive, and yet both 
 types lived their dreams in their waking hours. 
 
 The drudges, on the other hand, only realize 
 their desires in their sleep and hence need more 
 sleep. Every one knows how sleepy small towns 
 and their inhabitants always appear. People in 
 country towns sleep more than dwellers in large 
 cities although the latter lead a much more active 
 life and hence should require a longer period of 
 rest. 
 
 Large cities with their varied life, their exciting 
 bustle, their noise, their accidents, etc., make life, 
 even for the very poor, the overworked and the 
 stupid, a more stimulating set of experiences than 
 the well regulated existence one must lead in a 
 small, settled and uninteresting village. 
 
 Monotony seems to be after all the direct cause 
 of sleep. One falls asleetp yhile witnessing a 
 monotonous play, while listening to monotonous 
 music or a monotonous sermon. While noises are 
 supposed to prevent us from sleeping, a very mo- 
 
 [191] 
 
Psychoanalysis and Behaviour 
 
 notonous noise like the tic tac of a metronome or 
 the rumble of a train, can induce very profound 
 and "restful" sleep. In fact a subject who has 
 fallen asleep while concentrating on the beat of a 
 metronome is likely to wake up suddenly when the 
 instrument is stopped. I sleep well in Pullman 
 cars but I invariably wake up when the train stops 
 at a station, although the whispered conversation of 
 other travellers entering the sleeping car and their 
 footsteps muffled by heavy matting are incompar- 
 ably less noisy than the thundering of a speeding 
 train. 
 
 Likewise drunken stupor overtakes the weak and 
 inactive sooner than the strong and active who pro- 
 ceed to satisfy their cravings in their waking state 
 and grow jovial or coarse, if not violent. 
 
 Sensitive, dissatisfied people never seem to have 
 enough sleep and escape reality in their waking 
 hours through day dreams which are very similar 
 in every respect to night dreams and during which 
 the subject's anaesthesia is almost as complete as 
 in sleep, the subject being indifferent to many 
 sounds or light stimuli, being as we say, "absent- 
 minded," in a sort of hypnoidal state which does 
 not strike observers as sleep because his eyes re- 
 main open. 
 
 If we sleep mostly at night it is precisely because 
 [192] 
 
Animals Dream 
 
 night, on account of the lack of colbur, which makes 
 the world more uniform, and the lack of light, which 
 makes motions slower and more difficult, creates 
 the very monotony which induces sleep. 
 
 Many experiments have been made on dogs, 
 proving that as soon as their eyes have been closed 
 painlessly, their ears plugged and their legs 
 wrapped in soft nags, the animals fall asleep and 
 remain asleep until exterior stimuli are once more 
 allowed to strike their senses and supply them with 
 the "entertainment" which they probably seek in 
 sleep. For animals dream, as any one who has 
 watched hunting dogs asleep can testify. 
 
 That fatigue should enable us to sleep is not an 
 argument in favour of the rest theory but is due 
 to the fact that after over-exercise, our preceptions 
 are not as keen as they were and life is perceived 
 more dully and appears more monotonous. Hence 
 the escape from it through dreams. 
 
 The theory of rest through unconsciousness is 
 exploded by the fact that when overtired we can- 
 not sleep. The reason is not far to seek. 
 
 When the organism reaches the point of exhaus- 
 tion, the phenomenon of the second wind takes 
 place. An excessive amount of glycogen comes 
 out of the liver, filling all the muscles with new 
 energy, much as a motorist piloting a weak engine 
 
 [193] 
 
Psychoanalysis and Behaviour 
 
 up a hill would "step on the gas," and adrenin 
 creates a tension which seems to make all our sense 
 perceptions infinitely keener (hence the irritability 
 of the very tired person, contrasting strongly with 
 the apathy of the moderately fatigued individual). 
 
 In over-exertion the mind becomes unusually 
 alert and often obsessed by one apparently impor- 
 tant idea. Hence the lack of monotony and stimu- 
 lation which otherwise would induce sleep. 
 
 Fatigue, we say, is conducive to sleep, but in cer- 
 tain respects, fatigue is sleep. For fatigue in its 
 turn is easily induced by very monotonous tasks. 
 The limit of exhaustion is reached more slowly if 
 at all when the occupations are varied and work is 
 performed in a constantly changed environment. 
 
 Fatigue is often produced without any physical 
 or mental exertion by a monotonous stimulus. We 
 hear very often people complaining that some one's 
 droning voice "tired them out." Every one of us 
 has had the experience of feeling an uncontrollable 
 desire for sleep when in the company of some ex- 
 tremely dull person whose personality and intelli- 
 gence radiate absolutely no stimulation. 
 
 This view of sleep may throw a little light on the 
 nature and causes of sleeplessness. 
 
 Sleeplessness may have physical causes. Over- 
 indulgence in coffee, tea or cocoa creates a state of 
 [194] 
 
Common Sense and Sleep 
 
 anxiety which is not favourable to sound sleep as 
 it makes one more sensitive to stimuli, causes one 
 for instance "to jump" at slight noises and other 
 unexpected happenings. 
 
 Lack of physical exercise leaves the body 
 stocked up with energy-producing fuel which we 
 may finally eliminate by tossing about in our bed 
 more or less angrily (anger, by the way, is a good 
 fuel-producing factor leading to more sleepless- 
 ness). 
 
 Drinking too much water before retiring may 
 compel us to arise several times to urinate. Par- 
 taking of laxative fruit or drugs may initiate ab- 
 dominal activity likely to wake us up, even if no 
 movement is induced. 
 
 Overeating and hunger alike create great dis- 
 comfort unfavourable to peaceful sleep. Heat 
 and cold also can keep one awake. People suffer- 
 ing from cold feet should use a bed warmer; people 
 perspiring freely will perspire even more freely 
 at night and hence should avoid piling up too 
 many blankets on their beds. 
 
 In most households beds face a window, which 
 enables the first rays of light to awake the sleeper. 
 Too many husbands and wives share the same bed, 
 thereby disturbing each other's sleep by tossing 
 about or snoring. 
 
 [195] 
 
Psychoanalysis and Behaviour 
 
 All the physical causes should be removed first 
 and can easily be removed when one is troubled 
 with sleeplessness. 
 
 Of the so-called mental catises, worry is the most 
 common and the most distressing. It is perfectly 
 absurd to advise a patient not to worry. When 
 some person dear to us is in danger of death, when 
 one is threatened with a catastrophe of some kind, 
 when some terrible responsibility has to be borne 
 and some weighty problem involving one's future 
 or reputation has to be solved, such advice should 
 be, and generally is, resented. Sleeplessness in 
 such cases is unavoidable but should not be taken 
 tragically, the less so as it is hardly ever unbroken 
 by "cat naps" or spells of almost complete uncon- 
 sciousness. 
 
 People exaggerate greatly their sleeplessness. 
 Experiments made at a Western University when 
 several men were kept forcibly awake for 90 hours 
 showed that on several occasions, when the sub- 
 jects imagined themselves awake, they had been 
 actually dozing with their eyes open. Their in- 
 ability to notice certain stimuli showed that for 
 varying periods of time they had not been awake, 
 although they remained in a sitting or standing 
 position. On several occasions too, their answers 
 to questions showed that they bad been dreaming. 
 [196] 
 
Anger the Sleep Destroyer 
 
 Old people, in particular, tell very unreliable 
 stories about their inability to sleep. As a matter 
 of fact old people whose vagotonic activities are 
 at a very low ebb, need little dream-producing 
 sleep. 
 
 Repressed and ungratified desires do not tor- 
 ture the old as they do the young. 
 
 Resenting or fearing sleeplessness are undoubt- 
 edly the most insidious ways of inducing or pro- 
 longing it. As I mentioned before, anger creates 
 a nervous tension and causes the release of energy 
 producing secretions, and so does fear, although 
 to a different degree. 
 
 The person who works himself up into a rage be- 
 cause he cannot sleep, and he who retires with his 
 mind full of fear at the possibility of a sleepless 
 night are not likely to "rest" peacefully. 
 
 An obsession is easily created: "I am losing 
 my sleep," and it can be used neurotically in an 
 unconscious attempt at obtaining sympathy and 
 shirking some of life's duties. After which, it 
 establishes itself as one of the expedients of the 
 negative life. 
 
 Some subjects are unable to sleep on account of 
 their fear of nightmares. This amounts to a stub- 
 bom unconscious resistance against some craving 
 which expresses itself symbolically through an 
 
 [197] 
 
Psychoanalysis and Behaviour 
 
 anxiety dream. Some of the symbolic dreams I 
 mentioned at the beginning of» this chapter will 
 help the reader to understand what I mean. A very 
 puritanical woman might well remain awake to 
 avoid an anxiety dream satisfying her sexual crav- 
 ings in a symbolical and apparently painful way. 
 
 It is evident that when no physical cause can be 
 discovered which would induce sleeplessness, and 
 when no definite worry is keeping the mind (and 
 the liver and adrenals) in a state of activity, there 
 is some recurring dream, forgotten night after night, 
 which the sleepless one is trying to avoid be- 
 cause it expresses some craving subjected to a 
 strong repression. 
 
 In both cases, analysis is the only possible means 
 of dealing with the difficulty. The harrowing 
 anxiety dream must be interpreted and the craving 
 it satisfies abnormally, made clear to the sufferer. 
 
 In the second case, the unknown complex must 
 be unearthed and the unknown dream traced 
 through day dreams induced in the analyst's office. 
 
 Insight into nightmares is easily acquired which 
 soon divests them of their symbolic mask and trans- 
 forms them into simpler and grosser wish-fulfilment 
 dreams devoid of any anxiety element. A con- 
 scious search for the "unknown nightmare" starts 
 an unconscious activity which breaks down the re- 
 [198] 
 
Various Suggestions 
 
 sistance owing to which it is constantly forgotten; 
 after which it can be disintegrated or translated into 
 its actual meaning. 
 
 Thousands of recipes for curing sleeplessness 
 have been offered to sufferers, most of them in- 
 efficient when not dangerous. 
 
 It goes without saying that avoiding all the phys- 
 ical causes of sleeplessness which I listed above 
 should be the first step in any common-sense treat- 
 ment of that disturbance. But that alone cannot 
 be relied upon to effect a cure when some complex 
 is responsible for the insomnia. 
 
 :We have all met healthy individuals who man- 
 age to sleep like logs in spite of having committed 
 all the possible dietetic indiscretions and of lead- 
 ing the most unreasonable existence. Those are 
 not troubled by any conscious factors. 
 
 Staring at, or listening to, a monotonous stimulus 
 may help in many cases. Prayer, recommended 
 by Dr. Thomas Hyslop, by William James and by 
 Dr. Richard C. Cabot, can be considered as such 
 a stimulus; when repeated many times, without 
 emotion and with the automatism which character- 
 izes the delivery of pieces learnt early in childhood, 
 it naturally creates the monotony from which we 
 strive to escape through sleep. 
 
 Under no circumstances should narcotics be 
 
 [199] 
 
Psychoanalysis and Behaviour 
 
 serve our own attitudes, but as soon as we see our 
 reflection, we involuntarily modify our pose and 
 facial expression and assume others more in har- 
 mony with our idealized conception of ourselves. 
 We make infinite allowances for our shortcomings, 
 mental and physical. We refuse to see ourselves 
 as others would see us. 
 
 That refusal is simply one of the protective meas- 
 ures life has forced upon us, one of the repressions 
 which in certain cases create bad complexes. The 
 object and subject are too close to each other. 
 
 On many occasions we suspect that our uncon- 
 scious may be thwarting our views of others and 
 we may make an effort at being fair. But we are 
 seldom in doubt as to our opinion of ourselves. 
 And yet how many times do we surprise or grieve 
 ourselves by behaviour for which we can not ac- 
 count satisfactorily. 
 
 Some unconscious factor forces our hand at 
 times, we lose control of ourselves, we begin some- 
 thing and suddenly abandon it, we break our prom- 
 ises and suffer remorse and refer to the situation 
 by saying: I don't know what made me do that. 
 
 Knowledge of our autonomic tendencies throws 
 light upon the general direction of our unconscious 
 activities, but the information thus gathered is not 
 [202], 
 
CHAPTER II. SELF-KNOWLEDGE THROUGH 
 DREAM STUDY 
 
 Dream study enables us to unravel the mystery 
 of sleep. We sleep that we may dream and, while 
 dreaming, gratify the many cravings which in our 
 waking hours must remain unsatisfied if not se- 
 verely repressed. Dream study will likewise prove 
 helpful in acquiring that most elusive form of 
 knowledge, knowledge of ourselves. 
 
 It is comparatively easy to know others. Our un- 
 conscious imitation of their attitudes when we ob- 
 serve them makes us experience in an obscure way 
 the mental and chemical processes of which those at- 
 titudes are surface manifestations. 
 
 Only in very few cases are the conclusions we 
 draw from our observations of others or which we 
 derive from our unconscious imitation of them, 
 biased by friendship or hostility. In the majoirity 
 of cases we are probably impartial judges, as im- 
 partial at least as our complexes allow us to be. 
 
 How difficult it is for us, on the other hand, to 
 judge ourselves. 
 
 We may stand before a mirror and try to ob- 
 
 [201] 
 
Psychoanalysis and Behaviour 
 
 one and will be more or less completely gratified 
 in his sleep. 
 
 This statement will be met with incredulity by 
 many laymen who have not made the attempt. 
 Subject after subject, however, who concentrates on 
 that wish at the time of retiring reports the same ex- 
 perience in almost the same words: I had many 
 dreams that night and during those dreams I was 
 repeating to myself: this is something I must re- 
 member so as to tell my analyst. 
 
 The first attempts are not all successful. Many 
 subjects simply become conscious of the fact that 
 they dream but remember only scraps of dreams. 
 
 "Hiose scraps, however, are valuable and will 
 help in many cases to reconstruct the missing parts 
 of the story. 
 
 It may happen also that the subject has, when 
 awaking, a clear memory of several of the night's 
 dreams but proceeds to forget them by the time 
 his eyes are fully open and he is again conscious 
 of his surroundings. 
 
 A simple expedient can be used then which will 
 be found very effective. Set the alarm clock an 
 hour ahead of the time at which you usually 
 awaken. Have a pad and pencil ready near your 
 bed and when the alarm rings begin to jot down 
 [204] 
 
How to Remember Dreams 
 
 sufficient to enable us to devise plans for construc- 
 tive behaviour. 
 
 While the Aschner test merely warns us against 
 overdetermination by "nervous" factors, dreams 
 will furnish us with particulars of our unconscious 
 cravings and reveal them to us one after another. 
 
 The thing to do then is to collect our night 
 dreams and study them carefully, translating into 
 understandable stories the symbolic pictures which 
 often disguise our night thinking. 
 
 But a serious problem has to be solved first: 
 many people forget their dreams completely and 
 boldly assert that they never dream. All of us 
 dream all night long at a terrific speed. Wake up 
 at any time during the night the most "dreamless" 
 sleeper and he will awaken out of a dream. Wake 
 him up by means of some painful stimulus, like 
 a pin prick, and he will tell an extremely long 
 story built around that pin prick in perhaps a 
 couple of seconds. 
 
 How shall we then remember some of those num- 
 berless dreams? 
 
 We must first of all "wish" to remember them. 
 Every wish influences our dreams to a certain ex- 
 tent. Such a wish formulated by an ailing person 
 preoccupied with his health is likely to be a strong 
 
 [203] 
 
Psychoanalysis and Behaviour 
 
 played in his life a part more important than he 
 was willing to confess even to himself.- 
 
 The next step in the study of a dream is to take 
 every word of it and to determine, its associations. 
 Close your eyes and think of the word or sentence 
 and let your mind use it as a starting point for some 
 short "day dream." Note down whatever ideas are 
 brought forth by that word or sentence, without 
 exercising any critical censorship over the results. 
 The associations may be silly, shameful or merely 
 unpleasant. Honesty in recording them will be, 
 not only a scientific way of collecting material, but 
 a beginning in the training to face facts which every 
 normal or abnormal person, especially the latter, 
 must undergo in order to acquire insight. 
 
 Read over the list of associations brought forth 
 by all the words or ideas of the dream until they 
 begin to tell you a story. 
 
 Do not, however, expect the first dream or the 
 first ten or twenty dreams to tell you all you wish 
 to know. 
 
 This work, slow and tedious, must be kept up 
 day after day, week after week, until you are able 
 to classify your dreams and the various pictures 
 which they present. 
 
 Certain dreams will reappear frequently, certain 
 characters will take part in every action presented 
 [206] 
 
The Study of Discrepancies 
 
 without arising your dreams, which will then be 
 very fresh and graphic. 
 
 Any one, concentrating on dreams before retiring 
 and awaking himself suddenly in the early morn- 
 ing by means of an alarm clock, should within a 
 week train himself to remember very clearly at 
 least one of each night's dreams. 
 
 Dreams must be transcribed at once. Our un- 
 conscious is both anxious to express itself and 
 afraid of being detected. By five o'clock in the 
 afternoon, the dreams which were so vivid to us on 
 awaking have either dissipated or been "edited." 
 If you write down your dreams in the morning 
 and try to write them down again from memory 
 at night, the discrepancies between the two versions 
 will prove amusing if not distressing. 
 
 Those discrepancies should be the first point on 
 which your investigation should beat. "I w'as 
 walking in the woods with a blonde woman," a 
 patient wrote in his note book immediately on 
 awakening. "I was walking in the woods with 
 some people," he wrote the same night, when re- 
 writing the same dream in accordance with my in- 
 structions. 
 
 In the course of the day his unconscious had 
 attempted to blur the memory of a woman who 
 
 [205] 
 
Psychoanalysis and Behaviour 
 
 The dream, apparently indifferent and unemo- 
 tional, gratified all her cravings in die following 
 way: 
 
 She was seated in the balcony above her lover 
 and his wife. 
 
 They had come to attend the services in her 
 church; that is, they had adopted her point of view. 
 
 He looked bored, hence was not enjoying his 
 wife's company. 
 
 The character of the building precluded between 
 man and wife any of the intimacies to which my 
 patient objected so strongly. 
 
 Even as the patient remained unmoved through 
 the dream owing to her inability to understand its 
 meaning or her unconscious resistance to accepting 
 its meaning, others will be extremely agitated by 
 emotion connected with a dream whose horror is 
 not real but only symbolical. 
 
 Nightmares, as I stated in the preceding chapter, 
 often melodramatize very simple actions the desire 
 for which we have so repressed that they only break 
 through the repression after an intense struggle. 
 The struggle translates itself into a feeling of hor- 
 ror which is in no way justified or reasonable. 
 
 It may be stated that no nightmare has a purely 
 physical cause, such as overeating, bodily discom- 
 fort, etc. Thousands of people sleep peacefully 
 [208] 
 
Emotion in Dreams 
 
 on the dream stage, certain details of scenery will 
 recur night after night, and so will certain situa- 
 tions, emotions, etc. 
 
 According to whether the majority of dreams 
 refer to the past, the present or the future they may 
 reveal a regressive, a static or a positive tendency. 
 A neurotic has a tendency to regress to an easier, 
 more protected form of life, symbolized by his 
 childhood. When acquiring insight and improv- 
 ing, he will, in all likelihood, formulate solutions 
 for the problems of the present day in terms of 
 the present day. After recovering he will, in his 
 dreams as in his waking hours, make plans for the 
 future. 
 
 It will be found that the "purely obvious" dreams 
 are very scarce and that even those lend them- 
 selves to a symbolic interpretation. 
 
 The emotional nature of a dream is not a safe 
 guide as to its actual importance. A woman 
 patient dreamt that she was seated in the balcony 
 of an Episcopal church. A man she loved was 
 seated with his wife in one of the pews and looked 
 bored. 
 
 The woman was a Christian, the man a Jew 
 and she was extremely jealous of his attentions 
 to his wife. The egotistical desire for domination 
 was strong in her. 
 
 [207] 
 
Psychoanalysis and Behaviour 
 
 meaning, sometimes a twofold one. It reveals a 
 fierce struggle for freedom of something that should 
 be set free if possible and in this respect alone is 
 worthy of serious consideration. While visualiz- 
 ing itself, that struggle may take advantage of some 
 physical condition which in certain cases is un- 
 known to the sufferer and this, too, has to be at- 
 tended to without delay. 
 
 Whenever an organ plays a constant part in night- 
 mares, it should be investigated by a physician as 
 it may constitute in the organism a point of least 
 resistance. 
 
 In certain cases thorough examination may be 
 valuable in proving to the subject that certain fears 
 of his are ungrounded. A subject bothered by 
 many dreams of impotence was examined by a 
 specialist and pronoimced absolutely normal sexu- 
 ally. 
 
 His dreams of impotence which had always been 
 connected with great anxiety were soon after re- 
 placed by dreams of normal sexual gratification. 
 
 Careful study of a nightmare always causes it 
 to disappear or to lose its painful effect. A night- 
 mare, as I explained in the preceding chapter, is 
 simply a symbolic expression of a wish subjected 
 to a strong repression. When we face reality and 
 confess to ourselves certain cravings whose exist- 
 [210] 
 
Useful Nightmares 
 
 after a heavy dinner or in spite of great suffer- 
 ing. 
 
 There are many convenience nightmares which 
 endeavour to interpret physical stimuli in a plaus- 
 ible way so that the sleeper will not awake. They 
 spin a story about the pain or discomfort which 
 may be felt and explain it away, so to speak. 
 Others seem to use the actual pain or discomfort 
 as a basis for a horrible presentation which tortures 
 the sleeper and often wakes him up. 
 
 Certain nightmares have the value of a warning, 
 for instance in cases of incipient disease which has 
 escaped observation. Heart, stomach or lung dis- 
 turbances may be revealed by dreams in which 
 those organs play a prominent part, Silberer 
 dreamt several times that a black cat was clawing 
 his throat. Soon after, examination of his throat, 
 made necessary by a severe cold, brought to view a 
 small tumour which necessitated a surgical inter- 
 vention. 
 
 But even in such cases, the choice of dramatic 
 means employed by the unconscious to visualize 
 the cravings depends, not on the nature of the 
 physical stimulus, but on the nature of the cravings 
 and complexes seeking an outlet. 
 
 In other words, no nightmare should be dis- 
 missed as imimportant for it always has a deep 
 
 [209] 
 
Psychoanalysis and Behaviour 
 
 selves and a pernicious neurosis is a dream from 
 which we do not wish to free ourselves. 
 
 Insight into one's mental workings causes them 
 without any exception to become more normal. 
 
 When we are fully aware of the childish, regres- 
 sive character of some of our dreams, they begin 
 to change and to acquire a more positive tenor. A 
 change for the better as well as a change for the 
 worse always appears in the unconscious before it is 
 observable in our conscious states. Even as a 
 nightmare may warn the observer of an oncoming 
 neurotic attack, a positive dream of peaceful accom- 
 plishment generally heralds a return to normality. 
 
 The results of dream study have many applica- 
 tions to our conscious waking life. 
 
 Many family conflicts are due to perfectly un- 
 conscious father or mother fixations. A neurotic- 
 ally inclined boy, overattached to his mother, may 
 unconsciously hate his father and unconsciously 
 direct all his energies toward defeating all of his 
 father's plans. A neurotically inclined girl, over- 
 attached to her father, may also hate her mother 
 unconsciously and conduct unconsciously a constant 
 campaign of disparagement against her mother. 
 
 Dreams will reveal that situation very soon. 
 The subject, victim of a fixation, will often dream 
 of the favourite parent who appears in complicated 
 [212] 
 
Small Boys in Dreams 
 
 ence we have been trying to deny they no longer 
 assume a symbolic mask in our dreams. 
 
 The young woman attacked in dreams by various 
 animals and who forces herself to realize that she 
 is tortured by sexual desires, will in all likelihood 
 dream that her desires are gratified in a normal 
 way. The beasts may reappear but her insight will( 
 remain even in her sleep and she will not experience 
 any fear for she will know that "it is only a dream." 
 
 A subject of mine anxious to become a public 
 speaker but hampered by various circumstances in 
 the realization of his wishes, dreamt night after 
 night that he stood on the platform and tried to 
 speak but was interrupted by smaU boys creating 
 a disturbance and, at times, drowning his voice 
 with their shouts. 
 
 Analysis of that nightmare proved that his perse- 
 cutors were conjured up by his unconscious in an 
 egotistical effort to explain away certain deficien- 
 cies. Small boys appeared again in the subject's 
 dreams, but they were no longer hostile factors and 
 after a while they disappeared entirely. 
 
 Nightmares may be the precursors of a neurosis. 
 Unconscious habits of thought revealed by dreams 
 easily come to dominate our waking thought. A 
 benign neurosis is after all a dream (wish-fulfil- 
 ment) from which we are trying to awaken our- 
 
 [211] 
 
Psychoanalysis and Behaviour 
 
 is very different in his make up from the man who 
 places him in the back seat of an automobile and 
 ordfers him, about. 
 
 Also a knowledge, however superficial, of the 
 most common dream symbols may prevent us from 
 worrying about certain dreams of a primitive and 
 childish tj^e, such as the Oedipus dreams. 
 
 The man who commits incest or kills his father 
 in dream; is not by any means abnormal or perverse 
 and should not consider himself as such. He is 
 simply expressing in a very crude way his affection 
 for one parent and his indifference to the other. 
 
 The young mother who dreams of the death of 
 her children may be simply hankering for a little 
 more freedom from household cares and express- 
 ing it in the archaic fashion which our unconscious 
 often affects. 
 
 Dream murderers, however, can save themselves 
 from further dream guilt by acquiring insight into 
 the meaning of their sleeping fancies. 
 
 Our unconscious dominates our thinking by our 
 leave only. When we set to work to watch our un- 
 conscious it is soon shorn of its harmful power and 
 can become a great power for constructive work. 
 
 For almost every one of the cravings revealed 
 by dreams there is some form of positive satisfac- 
 tion. When we seek that satisfaction normally 
 [214] 
 
How We Think 
 
 situations, especially in nightmares, to solve all 
 difficulties. The hated parent will either never 
 appear or be placed in a situation of inferiority. 
 One subject with a father fixation saw her mother 
 in a dream as a drunken beggar. One man with a 
 mother fixation saw his father driving his automo- 
 bile from a back seat while he sat in the front seat 
 and gave his father directions. 
 
 Warned by their dreams of such absurd situa- 
 tions of which they are not conscious, students of 
 dreams can revise their attitudes to members of 
 the family circle. Knowing that certain complexes 
 of a childish character are prejudicing them against 
 some one they can effect a readjustment in their re- 
 lation to that person. 
 
 Dreams not only tell us what we unconsciously 
 think but how we think. The more normal and 
 independent we are, the more obvious our forms 
 of wish-fulfilment are likely to be. Complicated, 
 symbolic dreams should therefore be characteristic 
 of repressed, pent up personalities. 
 
 The man with a mother fixation who simply relies 
 upon his mother in dream emergencies is undoubt- 
 edly of a less assertive and less carnal type than 
 the one who has the typical Oedipus dream of incest 
 with his mother. The man who either kills his 
 father or attends his father's funeral in a dream 
 
 [213] 
 
Our Responsibility 
 
 our dream work no longer gives it to us in an 
 abnormal form. 
 
 Nietzsche spoke truly when he said that we must 
 not seek to dodge the responsibility for our dreams, 
 for nothing, he adds, is more completely the work 
 of our "mind." 
 
 BIBLIOGRAPHY 
 
 A small book by I. Coriat, "The Meaning of Dreams" 
 (Little, Brown), will prove of great assistance to begin- 
 ners attempting to analyse their own dreams. A list of 
 the most important symbols can be found in the chapter 
 on "Symbols" of my book on "Psychoanalysis, its His- 
 tory, Theory and Practice." 
 
 See also Smith Ely Jelliffe's "The Role of Animals 
 in the Unconscious," Psychoanalytic Retnew, No. 3, 1917. 
 
 A monograph by K. Abraham, "Dreams and Myths," 
 published by the Nervous and Mental Disease Pub. Co., 
 will reveal to the reader the rather puzzling relations 
 which have been discovered between myths and dream 
 formations. 
 
 [215] 
 
V. PROBLEMS OF SEX 
 
Psychoanalysis and Behaviour 
 
 who, to a third person, might seem infinitely more 
 desirable? 
 
 Many sentimental explamations have been 
 ventured by poets and psychologists, but they are, 
 at best, expressions of personal feelings of the most 
 deceptive sort. 
 
 Nietzsche, who has written an enormous amount 
 of nonsense on the subject of women but who, in 
 many respects, came "intuitively" to the same con- 
 clusions as the various analysts, wrote in 1878, 
 long before Freud began his investigations, this 
 Freudian statement: 
 
 "Every one bears vnthin himself an image of 
 woman, inherited from his mother; it determines 
 his attitude toward women, whether to honour them, 
 to despise them or to remain indifferent to them." 
 
 The study of the love life of neurotics has en- 
 abled psychoanalysts to give a positive answer often 
 formulated in a naive way: What can she see in 
 him, what can he see in her? 
 
 The neurotic only accentuates certain general 
 human traits and tendencies and he makes them, 
 thereby, easier to observe. It is an axiom of 
 psychoanalysis that normal people are labouring 
 under the same unconscious burdens which crush 
 neurotics. Most of us, however, bear ihe burden 
 without a visible strain; most of us, in other words, 
 [220] 
 
CHAPTER I: THE LOVE LIFE 
 
 It is not love in the sense of an affectionate rela- 
 tionship but in the sense of a physical attraction and 
 stimulation which shall be discussed in this chapter. 
 Affection is a very elastic term, in no way dependent 
 upon sexuality. It may exist between master and 
 dog; we may become attached to an old house," a 
 piece of furniture or a suit of clothes, out of habit; 
 for congenial people, we may experience, regard- 
 less of their age or sex, a profound feeling in which 
 interest, respect and confidence may blend. 
 
 Very different is the attraction which a human 
 being may feel for, or exert upon, another human 
 being of the opposite sex. I might suggest the 
 word erotropism to designate that relation, a word 
 coined on the model of heliotropisln, the force 
 which causes certain animals and plants to turn 
 irresistibly toward the sun. 
 
 What causes a male or a female to go forth 
 and seek a certain type with which to mate, a type 
 which to others might perhaps appear unattractive, 
 and to disregard entirely many other individuals 
 
 [219] 
 
Psychoanalysis and Behaviour 
 
 situations. An old maid with a father fixation said 
 to me once. "I have never married because I have 
 never fallen in love with any man Who was not 
 married." Her love-object had to have a wife, like 
 her father. 
 
 In certain cases the fixation bears rather on atti- 
 tudes than on physical traits, for it has been 
 observed that the child of a neurotic is likely to 
 seek as his or her mate a neurotic in preference to 
 a normal person. 
 
 Experimentation with animals has confirmed the 
 great importance of the mother image in the selec- 
 tion of a mate. 
 
 Passenger pigeons have never been known to 
 mate normally with ring doves. But let a ring 
 dove hatch the eggs of a passenger pigeon and the 
 young male passenger pigeons thus brought to life 
 will readily mate with ring doves who represent the 
 mother image; not only that, but they will refuse 
 to mate with female passenger pigeons to which 
 their "heredity" or their "instinct" should draw 
 them, but which are too unlike the mother image. 
 
 It is probable that all human beings, like all 
 animals brought up under normal conditions, are 
 guided in their choice of a mate by the father or 
 mother image which has obsessed their conscious- 
 ness in childhood. 
 [222] 
 
The Choice of a Mate 
 
 remain healthy "mentally" as most of us, in spite 
 of our indiscretion in matters of diet, of working 
 and housing conditions, manage to retain our 
 "physical" health. 
 
 The neurosis simply acts as a magnifying glass. 
 
 In the male neurotic, the choice of a mate is 
 absolutely conditioned by the mother-image, in the 
 female neurotic by the father-image. The neurotic 
 who is absolutely unconscious of his mother fixation, 
 is likely to develop very little interest in any woman, 
 until perhaps his mother dies, when he is likely 
 to marry a woman resembling in many respects 
 his mother as she was when he acquired his fixa- 
 tipn, that is between his fifth and his fifteenth 
 years. 
 
 If the male neurotic, on the other hand, is partly 
 conscious of his fixation, he may in extreme cases 
 avoid all women, whom he unconsciously identifies 
 with his mother, or in less serious cases, seek a 
 woman who in every possible respect is different 
 from the mother-image. 
 
 The same applies to female neurotics affected 
 by a father fixation. 
 
 The resemblance between the love-object and the 
 parent-image is at times complete in every respect. 
 It may bear upon one or several physical or mental 
 characteristics or emphasize certain complicated 
 
 [221] 
 
Psychoanalysis and Behaviour 
 
 Marriage being, not an ideal state, but a com- 
 promise between what the human, animal would like 
 to do and what it can actually do at the present 
 time, in a given state of civilization and culture, has 
 to take into account the reactions of the environment 
 to any phenomenon taking place in that environ- 
 ment. 
 
 Family and community peace are better served 
 by a union in which the intellectual agreement will 
 be perfect than by one in which the physical adap- 
 tation leaves nothing to be desired. Our associates 
 do not share our sexual life, but they expect to 
 share our social activities, and hence make more 
 demands as far as these are concerned. 
 
 It can be easily understood why unions in which 
 one of the mates is a neurotic are not likely to prove 
 very successful. The normal man is "guided" by 
 the mother image in his search for a mate, and he 
 realizes that marriage is a compromise. The 
 neurotic is absolutely "determined" in his selection 
 by an obsessional image and the neurotic tempera- 
 ment is essentially averse to compromises. 
 
 The neurotic who has married a woman solely 
 because she corresponded to the mother image, is 
 likely to annoy her whenever she deviates in her 
 speech or conduct from her prototype, 
 
 "Mother would do this thing differently," 
 [224] 
 
Love at First Sight 
 
 And this is probably a part of the great secret 
 of the permanency of the species. 
 
 This observation enables us to understand the 
 statement often made by laymen that propinquity 
 is the best preparation for love. People who asso- 
 ciate constantly and who are not, like brothers and 
 sisters, separated by the incest taboo, may gradually 
 discover in each other a likeness to the parent image 
 which may be too faint to be noticed at first glance. 
 This constitutes a rather good basis for a quiet form 
 of married relationship, for the mere fact that the 
 mates have shared the same environment predis- 
 poses them also to a more congenial relationship. 
 
 Love at first sight, on the other hand, is the result 
 of a sudden and striking discovery of the parent 
 type by one of the mates or both. This leads easily 
 to uncontrollable outbursts of desire and passion 
 but more rarely to a peaceful life in common. 
 
 The parent type may be found in a person who 
 socially, intellectually and morally is not adapted 
 to a certain ideal of family and community life. 
 Nature, however, only considers the race and makes 
 no preparations for intellectual achievements, be- 
 sides striving to produce the best possible organisms 
 and nervous systems. 
 
 The failure of many unions due to such outbursts 
 is not an argument against their biological value. 
 
 [2231 
 
Psychoanalysis and Behaviour 
 
 feeling of inferiority resents the fact that one 
 human being, heretofore subjected to his will, is 
 freeing himself from that bondage and subjecting 
 himself to some one else's will. Careful analysis 
 of the neurotic's jealousy shows that the painful 
 element in that emotion is not so much sex as ego. 
 The visualization of the love object in some one 
 else's embrace which, to the normal individual is 
 the most torturing thought, is in the neurotic's mind 
 secondary to the thought of the power which some 
 one else will yield upon the love object. 
 
 In fact several forms of pernicious neuroses are 
 characterized at their onset by attacks of absolutely 
 unjustified jealousy, whose absurd or exaggerated 
 form causes the patient to inquire into his own 
 sanity. A patient treated by a well known New 
 York psychiatrist imagined that his wife was deceiv- 
 ing him with a man who entered the house through 
 a door which he knew never existed and which was 
 suddenly opened in a wall which he knew to be 
 absolutely solid. 
 
 Apart from the sexual gratification vouchsafed 
 by love, lovers derive many non-sexual forms of 
 comfort from their relationship. 
 
 Some of those verge slightly upon a regression 
 to a primitive level. Ardent courtship admitting 
 no third party is a sort of introversion and with- 
 [226] 
 
Neurotic Jealousy 
 
 "You should see the way mother would manage 
 this," etc., and many other nagging phrases make 
 up the woof of the neurotic's conversation with his 
 wife. 
 
 The wife who has been selected on account of 
 her dissimilarity to the neurotic's mother is per- 
 haps in a worse plight yet. She will be daily 
 taunted for being so different from her husband's 
 mother and we have seen how this sort of treatment 
 accorded to an unfortunate young woman was one 
 of the contributing factors of her severe mental 
 upset. 
 
 The desire to dominate one's life partner, a 
 typically neurotic and negative trait, is found to 
 a certain extent in every normal human being. 
 Ardent love is seldom observed unaccompanied by 
 an effort to encroach upon the freedom and per- 
 sonality of the love object. 
 
 Jealousy is one of the most common manifesta- 
 tions of the will-to-power in the love life. In the 
 normal man, jealousy is an angry fear of losing 
 something which to the human organism is the 
 strongest stimulus known. The stronger and the 
 more pleasurable the stimulus was the more violent 
 jealousy may be. 
 
 In the neurotic type, jealousy contains more 
 anger than fear. The neurotic burdened with a 
 
 [225] 
 
Psychoanalysis and Behaviour 
 
 moulder of the species, has to be conservative if 
 the species is to retain the characters it has acquired 
 in the slow course of evolution. 
 
 Another form of pleasure which lovers derive 
 from each other's company may be understood when 
 we recall the experiments made on fishes. If the 
 environment of a living being can exert on that 
 living being such a thoroughgoing modification that 
 colours or objects seen by the eye can be repro- 
 duced on the surface of the body, the sight of a 
 loved environment is likply to produce a deep im- 
 pression on the lover. 
 
 And we must bear in mind that the discovery 
 relative to the influence of vision may be supple- 
 mented some day by other observations on the influ- 
 ence of our innumerable sense organs, of which 
 new ones are constantly being catalogued. 
 
 Herein we may find the explanation of a fact often 
 mentioned by laymen, that a man and a woman, 
 after years of constant association, may grow to 
 look alike; if a fish looking at a pattern on the 
 sides or bottom of its aquarium can, after a lapse 
 of time, reproduce its environment, look like that 
 environment, what difficulty is there in grasping 
 the reason why life mates, after looking at each 
 other for years, reproduce each other's appearance 
 and look alike? 
 [228] 
 
Baby Talk 
 
 drawal from the world, physically and sentimen- 
 tally, into privacy and romance. 
 
 The introversion is quite marked in the conver- 
 sations of lovers who derive an immense uncon- 
 scious satisfaction from the fact that they them- 
 selves are almost the exclusive topic of conversa- 
 tion. They never tire of telling each other what 
 they think of each other and of themselves and such 
 statements encounter little if any opposition. 
 
 The regression appears also in the holding of 
 hands, a childlike gesture symbolizing a craving 
 for reassurance and safety in the parent's keep, 
 and in the baby talk which is not infrequent among 
 lovers. 
 
 Infantile caresses and baby talk are quite sym- 
 bolical of a resiunption of life with the mother or 
 father represented by their image in our love mate, 
 of our searching for almost the same comfort we 
 derived as ipfants and children from our parents. 
 
 That apparent regression, however, is neither 
 neurotic nor negative. The constant search for 
 precedents to every action is a negative trait and a 
 factor of stagnation. Constant disregard of prec- 
 edents, on the other hand, would be- destructive 
 and in the field of science a cause for complete and 
 hopeless regression. 
 
 Love, being the origin and source of life and the 
 
 [227] 
 
Psychoanalysis and Behaviour 
 
 nations have some dainty or other which is called 
 "kisses." 
 
 The very gestures of the lover are vaguely 
 reminiscent of those made by some marine 
 creatures which throw their tentacles around their 
 victim and after inunobilizing it apply their mouths 
 to it and absorb it. 
 
 The part played by the parent image in the 
 genesis of love should be recalled when we wish 
 to answer the question: why does love die? 
 
 As the love object changes with age, its appear- 
 ance may not correspond any longer to the parent 
 image which was originally responsible for the 
 erotropism culminating in a permanent union. 
 The organic "reasons" the love subject had for 
 "loving" the love object no longer exist. The 
 white haired and stout wife no longer reminds her 
 husband's unconscious of his blonde and slender 
 mother, nor does the bald and portly husband repre- 
 sent any longer to his wife the father image which 
 captivated her. 
 
 And in this connection, I would suggest a more 
 systematic study of a phenomenon designated as 
 fetichism and which in certain cases is the basis 
 of a sexual perversion. 
 
 Certain parts of the body wield a stronger physi- 
 cal attraction than others on certain individuals. 
 [230] 
 
Love and Digestion 
 
 Scientific literature and fiction alike have empha- 
 sized the healthy and buoyant look of the happy 
 lover; fiction in particular has never tired of depict- 
 ing sympathetically the opposite type, the disap- 
 pointed lover, pale, feverish, depressed, bereft of 
 his appetite and of all ambition. 
 
 Those lists of symptoms are confirmed by a 
 glance, even superficial, at a map of the autonomic 
 nervous system. 
 
 Happiness in love means the perfect functioning 
 of the cranial and sacral divisions of the auto- 
 nomic system, which upbuild the individual and 
 the race, assure a good digestion, regular metabol- 
 ism, calm and powerful heart beats, the normal 
 elimination of waste matter. 
 
 Unhappiness in love or sorrow due to the loss 
 of the love object means a stoppage or reversion of 
 the gastric and intestinal peristalsis, palpitations, 
 constipation, etc. 
 
 Study of the autonomic system reveals how 
 closely ego, sex and nutrition activities are related 
 to one another and it is worth while mentioning 
 that the vocabulary of all races reveals that relation- 
 ship. 
 
 The girl we love is "sweet," so sweet we could 
 "eat her up" and "devour" her with kisses; we are 
 "hungry" for her caresses, and confectioners of all 
 
 [229] 
 
Psychoanalysis and Behaviour 
 
 enters into the make-up of every case of erotropism. 
 If each mate could determine accurately what parts 
 of his person determined the erotropism of his 
 partner, a conscious effort might be made to retain 
 as completely as possible the part made attractive 
 by fetichism, and thus to prolong the affective dura- 
 tion of the partner's love. 
 
 The discarded love object very imjustly charges 
 the lover who has grown indifferent with being 
 fickle, changing, faithless. 
 
 The truth is that the victim of that fickleness 
 is the one who has changed, who no longer recalls 
 to his or her mate's unconscious the parent image, 
 and hence cannot any longer determine his or her 
 erotropism. 
 
 I might compare the "victim" to a dead battery 
 which no longer produces any current. If the 
 fickle one fails to receive a "thrill" it is not because 
 he is no longer a good conductor but becausethere 
 is no longer any current he could conduct. 
 
 It goes without saying that there are men and 
 women of the so-called "indifferent" type,^ who are 
 never aroused very deeply because their autonomic 
 system, being perfectly poised, has a tendency to 
 re-establish constantly the balance of the secretions 
 of the vagus system and those of the sympathetic 
 system, together with the emotions and attitudes 
 [232] 
 
Fetichism 
 
 They create memory images of such compelling 
 power that inanimate objects symbolizing them are 
 often cherished greatly by lovers. (A lock of hair 
 may bring back the memory of beautiful tresses, 
 a glove, that of a loved hand.) 
 
 Every human being is unavoidably attracted by 
 some part of the love object's body and that part 
 varies with every human being. 
 
 Starting with the theory of parent fixation as a 
 basis for attraction we may assume that the part 
 or parts constituting the fixation played a special 
 role in the life and activities of the present image. 
 
 In its perverse form, fetichism shows the abso- 
 lute domination of one part of the body or of its 
 symbol, in acute cases being even more potent than 
 the part it represents. 
 
 In Mirbeau's novel, "Memoirs of a Chamber- 
 maid," we have a pervert, whose sexuality can only 
 be aroused by the sight or feel of women's foot- 
 wear. The case is taken from real life and is not 
 an unusual one. 
 
 All human beings are fetichists to a certain de- 
 gree and between Mirbeau's neurotic and the young 
 man who gazes fondly at his sweetheart's picture, 
 there is a difference of degree, not of kind. 
 
 As a matter of practical conduct it would be most 
 useful to determine the amount of fetichism which 
 
 [231] 
 
Psychoanalysis and Behaviour 
 
 their consequences, that assumption of a beneficial 
 attitude is not within every one's reach. And in 
 this case, as in many others, praise or vitupera- 
 tion is out of place. 
 
 This must be always remenibered when we deal 
 for instance with love's perversions. The word 
 perversion is generally fraught in the layman's 
 mind with loathsome connotations. 
 
 A perversion is, to many, due to "low," "ani- 
 mal," "filthy," "criminal" instincts. Perversions 
 may be filthy and appear low and animal, but 
 there is nothing "criminal" nor "instinctive" about 
 them. The pervert certainly does not wish to break 
 any law, nor is he impelled by an "instinct." He 
 is a pitiable type whose education and training has 
 made him the imperfect human specimen he is. 
 
 Psychoanalysts are all agreed on the genesis 
 of passive male homosexualism. The passive male 
 homosexual is in every case the son of a widow or 
 divorced mother, separated from her husband by 
 death, desertion or legal proceedings soon after the 
 boy's birth. 
 
 The boy, compelled to imitate some one in order 
 to have a standard of behaviour, copies his mother's 
 attitude of physical indifference to women and 
 physical interest in men. 
 
 In every respect but in the anatomical respect 
 [234] 
 
The Unfeeling Type 
 
 which correspond to them. That type is eminently 
 suited for the life struggle, as it "recovers" quickly, 
 never remains long under the sway of any emotion 
 and is ready to record new emotions, accurately but 
 briefly. Such people do not remain in love very 
 long and are likely to be berated soundly for their 
 coldness. 
 
 The reproaches addressed to them are both just 
 and unjust: they are built organically so as to resist 
 a too complete subjugation by any love object and 
 their attitude is unconsciously detenriined. On 
 the other hand in the case of a union which should 
 be permanent, they could, by using their will power, 
 place themselves in mental and physical attitudes 
 representing, dramatizing, so to speak, the feelings 
 they wish to experience. A good actor, represent- 
 ing a certain feeling on the stage, causes the audi- 
 ence to experience that feeling for a certain time. 
 We can, by acting certain feelings, produce in our- 
 selves the secretions which correspond to them. 
 
 Attitudes can be acquired and, in the case of 
 marriage relations, when complete submission to 
 our unconscious urges is asocial and cruel, a sim- 
 ple rule of behaviour can be offered. 
 
 As will power on the other hand is probably the 
 resultant effect of a keen awareness of the various 
 possible choices and of a perfect understanding of 
 
 [233] 
 
Psychoanalysis and Behaviour 
 
 course and merge into a neurosis are dangerous 
 patients to handle, for they suffer from many delu- 
 sions of invariably the same content: that is that, 
 they receive sexual advances from people of their 
 own sex. Those delusions are likely to apply to 
 the psychiatrist handling their case and unless they 
 are confined in an institution, may very easily start 
 a train of gossip likely to wreck their adviser's 
 reputation. 
 
 The perversions known as sadism and masochism, 
 the first being a craving to inflict suff'ering upon 
 human beings, the latter a craving to torture 
 ourselves or to suffer pain at the hands of another 
 person, may be due in their mild f oirm to the child's 
 lack of understanding of the relationship existing 
 between, for instance, a strong, athletic father and a 
 delicate, slight mother. The playful imitations 
 of violence, the playful and contented pretence at 
 suffering indulged in by the man and the woman 
 when fondling each other in their children's pres- 
 ence, may lead one child to commit in reality 
 cruelties which his father only shammed, another 
 child to seek suffering which his mother seemed 
 to feel. 
 
 Acute cases, when a man or a woman experiences 
 no sexual gratification unless they can inflict suf- 
 fering on their mate or be subjected by their mate 
 [236] 
 
Pigeons and Lovers 
 
 he becomes a woman, and later in life will con- 
 ceive of sexual gratification as woman would. Pos- 
 session by a man will become his love goal. 
 
 Experiments made on pigeons show that the 
 process is the same among those birds. A young 
 male pigeon raised among males in the absence of 
 any female will, when reaching adulthood, be at- 
 tracted by males only whom he will treat at mating 
 time as though they were females. A male pigeon 
 raised among females only will at mating time play 
 the part of a female. 
 
 A pigeon raised in complete isolation from any 
 males or females will try to mate with any inani- 
 mate object found in his cage, or with the hand of 
 the person feeding him, and if placed in a cage 
 with a female will pay absolutely no attention to 
 her at mating time. 
 
 Here as in the case of passenger pigeons mating 
 with ring doves, instinct proves to be at times 
 infinitely weaker than training. 
 
 The study and treatment of sexual perversions 
 are still in their infancy. Men and women prac- 
 tising their perversions are deriving therefrom a 
 minimum of gratification which generally saves 
 them from a well-marked form of neurosis and 
 hence they do not seek the advice of a psychologist. 
 Those who repress their desire for abnormal inter- 
 
 [235] 
 
Psychoanalysis and Behaviour 
 
 Loeb's remarks on Heliotropism in his "Forced Move- 
 ments, Tropism and Animal Conduct" will supply the 
 reader with several examples of chemical determinism. 
 Perversions are discussed fully in S. Ferenczi's "Con- 
 tributions to Psychoanalysis." 
 
 [238] 
 
What Is a Pervert? 
 
 to cruel treatment, are justly attributed by Freud to 
 the witnessing by young children of their parents' 
 embracing, who misunderstanding the nature of the 
 act identify themselves either with die apparently 
 cruel father or the apparently abused mother. 
 
 Like all other maladjustments, the various mal- 
 adjustments of the love life, perverse or not, call, 
 not for censure or punishment but for understand- 
 ing and psychological treatment. When for in- 
 stance the nature of homosexualism, its involuntary 
 character and the fact that it is forced on the "per- 
 vert" by his wrong training, and not acquired by 
 him for purposes of gratification, is better known 
 to the general public, psychiatrists and analysts 
 jnay be able to eifect many cures of that "perver- 
 sion" as well as of sadism and masochism. 
 
 BIBLIOGRAPHY 
 
 The basis for the theories of love advanced by the , 
 various analysts is Freud's "Three Contributions to the 
 Theory of Sex" (Nervous and Mental Disease Pub. Co.) 
 in which he discusses infantile sexuality, puberty and 
 sexual perversions. His discussion of homosexualism in 
 "Leonardo da Vinci" is the least scientific or convincing 
 work of his on the subject. Poul Bjerre, the Scandi- 
 navian analyst, presents in his "Theory and Practice of 
 Psychoanalysis" (Badger), several cases illustrating 
 forms of attachment with a morbid complexion. Jacques 
 
 [237] 
 
Psychoanalysis and Behaviour 
 
 lar, cannot be considered as synonymous and treated 
 as such. 
 
 The human body is, as Kempf has said, a bio- 
 logical machine, but biological machines and ordi- 
 nary machinery present one capital difference. 
 While some mechanical apparatus may be so con- 
 structed that it can be utilized in ten or twenty dif- 
 ferent ways at the same time, the use or non-use 
 of one or several of its parts does not affect the 
 other parts. In the human organism all the parts 
 are closely related and abuse or disuse of one of 
 them has a repercussion in all the organs of the 
 body. 
 
 A part of a machine may never be used and yet 
 remain in perfect condition if protected against 
 rust. Any part of the biological machine will 
 wither and degenerate unless it is allowed to per- 
 form its specific functions. Atrophied muscles and 
 ankylosed joints are the result of lack of normal 
 activity. 
 
 Cravings, some people will say, are not to be 
 compared to the play of muscles or joints. The 
 tendency of modem psychology, however, is to 
 identify more and more closely cravings with cer- 
 tain definite segments of the autonomic nervous 
 system, and when that identification has been com- 
 pleted it will be obvious that to the atrophy of a 
 [240] 
 
CHAPTER II: CAN WE SUBLIMATE OUR 
 CRAVINGS? 
 
 None of the words created by Freud has lent 
 itself to more misinterpretation than the word 
 sublimation. Sublimation is an unfortunate ex- 
 pression. It is not related in its analytic meaning 
 to sublimation as imderstood by chemists. It be- 
 comes involuntarily associated with the adjective 
 sublime and this association is the cause of a good 
 deal of mischief. 
 
 By sublimation, Freud understands a process 
 which seeks to utilize the sexual energy, immobi- 
 lized by repressions and set free by analysis, for 
 higher purposes of a non-sexual nature. 
 
 This is of course extremely vague and slightly 
 fantastic and reminds us of the attempts made by 
 alchemists in the middle ages to transmute "base 
 metals" into gold. 
 
 We must beware of false analogies: heat can be 
 transformed into power, power into heat and both 
 into light, which in its turn can be transformed 
 into power or heat, but human energy and energy 
 as defined by physicists, while probably very simi- 
 
 [239] 
 
Psychoanalysis and Behaviour 
 
 sublimation of sexual cravings is contradicted by 
 the biography of many famous men; let us only 
 mention Goethe and Rodin, who displayed a fever- 
 ish creative activity while indulging freely and 
 openly their sexual desires. Freud attempts to tell 
 us that Leonardo da Vinci's creative powers may 
 have been enhanced by his lack of desire for 
 women's love. But Leonardo was a homosexual 
 and satisfied his cravings abnormally, which used 
 up at least as much energy as though he had satis- 
 fied them normally. 
 
 While guilty of vagueness when propounding his 
 theory of sublimation, Freud should not be held 
 responsible for some of the vagaries which some of 
 his followers and some of the Swiss analysts have 
 indulged in regarding the desirability and possi- 
 bility of sublimating sexual cravings. 
 
 "We must not forget," Freud said in one of his 
 lectures, "that a part of the suppressed sexual crav- 
 ings has a right to direct satisfaction and should 
 find it in life. Exaggerated sexual repression 
 simply hastens our flight from reality and into a 
 neurosis without assuring any cultural gain. 
 
 "We must not neglect the animal part of our 
 nature. The elasticity of sex may lure some of us 
 to attempt a more and more complete sublimation 
 destined to promote high cultural aims. But even 
 [2421 
 
Holy Men and Their Trials 
 
 certain nerve there must correspond the atrophy of 
 the craving that nerve carries. 
 
 While sublimation is a ndw word, attempts at 
 sublimation are nothing new. The ascetics who 
 scourged their flesh to kill their "animal" desires, 
 who withdrew into the desert to shun all tempta- 
 tions, were attempting to sublimate their cravings. 
 
 In too many cases, the result was not especially 
 gratifying. The repression of a normal craving 
 often meant the appearance of an abnormal symp- 
 tom. The devil tempted sorely the holy men and 
 women who were fighting the flesh, which meant 
 that they exchanged normal reality for hallucina- 
 tions, normal desires for perverse desires. 
 
 No normal craving can be normally repressed. 
 Nor can it be normally sublimated. Sexual desire 
 cannot be transformed into artistic achievement, 
 philanthropy, social usefulness. 
 
 Sexual desire may be killed by castration, after 
 which it may be that more energy can be expended 
 by the subject on attaining other goals of a "higher, 
 non-sexual character." Even this is rather dubious, 
 as sexual activity is always linked and almost 
 synonymous with many other organic activities. 
 
 The desirability of sublimation, except as a social 
 convenience, remains to be proved. Freud's asser- 
 tion that culture owes many of its conquests to the 
 
 [241] 
 
Psychoanalysis and Behaviour 
 
 as understood by Freud or a convenient assertion 
 of its possibility by well meaning, though irre- 
 sponsible moral zealots, will not solve the problem. 
 
 The problem, however, has not been formulated 
 properly. 
 
 The question is not as to whether we can subli- 
 mate the sexual craving as understood biologically, 
 but as to whether we can sublimate the sexual crav- 
 ing as complicated by modem civilization. 
 
 Sexual desire at the present day has been com- 
 pletely exiled from polite society, from conversa- 
 tion, from literature, from pictorial representation, 
 and relegated to the bedroom. 
 
 Many of its more or less imavoidable conse- 
 quences, love, affection, tenderness, admiration, 
 etc., have been given an undue prominence for the 
 purpose of drawing a veil over the gross physical 
 phenomena of sex. 
 
 As we are too often the victims of the vocabulary 
 we use, many rely upon the vocabulary of polite 
 society to assist them in their flight from gross 
 reality. 
 
 A woman unable to voice publicly her desire 
 for sexual gratification declares that she seeks a 
 companion. And she probably means that, too. 
 And if her lack of gratification should be the cause 
 of a neurosis, it would be most important to know 
 [244] 
 
The Education of a Horse 
 
 as our modem machines can only transform a part 
 of the heat applied to them into useful mechanical 
 work, sublimation can only use for other aims a 
 part of the sexual energy. 
 
 "If the repression of sexuality is pushed too 
 far it amounts to a robbery committed against the 
 organism." 
 
 And he concluded his lecture with a story which 
 left no doubt as to his opinion in the matter. 
 
 A village community kept a horse that could do 
 an enormous amount of work. The wiseacres of 
 the community thought, however, that he consumed 
 too much fodder. They decided, therefore, to train 
 him to subsist on smaller and smaller rations of 
 fodder. The horse was apparently none the worse 
 for his scanty diet. He finally was able to subsist 
 pn one stalk of hay a day. The next day, he was 
 to be put to work without any fodder at all. On 
 the morning of that day, however, he was found 
 dead in his stall. The suhlimOtion of his craving 
 for food was complete. 
 
 The constantly increasing repression to which 
 sexual cravings are submitted, owing to the grow- 
 ing complexity of community life, compel every 
 thinking human being to give the subject the earnest 
 consideration it deserves. 
 
 A mere denial of the possibility of sublimation 
 
 [243] 
 
Psychoanalysis and Behaviour 
 
 read or memorized, mysterious trysts, perilous situ- 
 ations, obstacles successfully surmoimted, the 
 breaking away from conventionality and monotony, 
 an opportunity to give vent to the trashy lyricism 
 which filled her day dreams, etc. Those were 
 really the things she craved but her lack of intelli- 
 gence, of ability in any direction, of psychological 
 insight, of altruistic guidance, conspired to convince 
 her that in love only could she attain the gratifica- 
 tion of all her desires. 
 
 When reality proved cruelly deceptive and she 
 saw all her dreams shattered, she fled from reality 
 by the path of suicide. 
 
 Others adopt the path of the neurosis, seeking an 
 abnormal gratification of a sometimes very painful 
 type or imagining that all their wishes have been 
 fulfilled and living the unreal life of the insane. 
 
 It goes without saying that even a moderate 
 sexuality reinforced and complicated by so many 
 sentimental associations becomes a tyrant against 
 whose domination the subject's will can hardly pre- 
 vail. 
 
 The task of the analyst in such cases is easily 
 defined, although difficult of execution, for the truth 
 in such matters is not always readily ascertained. 
 
 While a subject may deny vehemently to his asso- 
 ciates that he is obsessed by sexual thoughts, he 
 [246] 
 
Madame Bovary 
 
 that her sexual craving is complicated by a craving 
 for companionship. 
 
 Almost any craving can be easily gratified in our 
 modem world so long as it remains dissociated from 
 other cravings. The sexual craving being frowned 
 upon by our hypocritical civilization, is constantly 
 associated with many other cravings which the 
 normal man, as well as the neurotic, imagine to be 
 inseparable components of "love." 
 
 The love of an individual for an individual of 
 the opposite sex may, according to temperaments, 
 include one or all of the following cravings: domi- 
 nation, companionship, protection, pride, boastful- 
 ness, submission, praise, possession of beauty, 
 active or passive tenderness, wealth, romance, ex- 
 citement. 
 
 While every one of these non-sexual cravings 
 may be invoked by men and women to justify sexual 
 indiscretions to which their gratification has led, 
 it may be also stated that in thousands of cases, the 
 sexual gratification was an incident of the gratifica- 
 tion of one or several of these cravings. 
 
 Flaubert's silly and touching heroine, Madame 
 Bovary, was anything but an oversexed woman car- 
 ried away by her sensuality. Love, to her, meant 
 romance, sentimental companionship, the transla- 
 tion into real life of the fiction and poetry she had 
 
 [245] 
 
Psychoanalysis and Behaviour 
 
 a normal nature it will proceed to satisfy itself in 
 more or less abnormal ways, the least abnormal of 
 which will be, according to the subject's repres- 
 sions, gross sexual dreams or symbolical anxiety 
 dreams. Further analysis should endeavour to 
 transform such anxiety dreams into obvious dreams 
 so as to avoid the organic waste corresponding to 
 anxiety. 
 
 No "ethical" solution, however, can be offered 
 by any honest analyst for the subject who, owing to 
 certain complications of modem life, cannot secure 
 normal sexual gratification. 
 
 Religious meditation may satisfy the mystical 
 cravings which are often associated with sex- 
 ual desire, but it does not satisfy that desire ex- 
 cept in abnormal ways, as in the case of Zinzendorf , 
 who imagined himself a woman in the arms of the 
 Heavenly Bridegroom. 
 
 Charitable or social work of the philanthropic 
 type will use up the masochistic love components 
 which cause the subject to expend care or tender- 
 ness upon others. 
 
 Artistic endeavour would gratify egotistical crav- 
 ings, and so would public speaking, acting, and 
 other activities more or less exhibitionistic in their 
 character. 
 
 Joining clubs, societies, etc. is the best way to 
 [248] 
 
Parasitic Cravings 
 
 may in the seclusion of a physician's or an analyst's 
 office, greatly exaggerate those cravings which he 
 aims to make responsible for his condition. 
 
 The analyst must then determine all the parasitic 
 elements which have attached themselves to the 
 sexual cravings as barnacles attach themselves to 
 a ship and endeavour to make the subject see them, 
 not as essential details of his obsession, but as 
 separate entities. 
 
 Every one of Emma Bovary's cravings could 
 have been satisfied separately in non-sexual ways if 
 she had not relied upon an ideal lover to bring to 
 her all the elements of happiness, if she had entered 
 the road of positive personal achievement. 
 
 Likewise many a woman suffering from sick 
 headaches because her husband or lover neglects 
 her and fails to help her carry out her dreams of 
 domination, could be relieved of her symptoms if 
 she could be made to see in how many other direc- 
 tions her will-to-power could exert itself. 
 
 After positive means have been agreed upon 
 between the subject and the analyst for the gratifica- 
 tion of the various parasitic cravings which have 
 been separated from his sexual craving, there will 
 be a residuum of pure sexuality for which no sub- 
 limation can be suggested. ' 
 
 If that Graying does not receive satisfaction of 
 
 [247] 
 
Psychoanalysis and Behaviqur 
 
 discomfort. In this case we have a parasitic crav- 
 ing attaching itself to a physical function and 
 making the performance of that function a con- 
 stantly reappearing need. 
 
 Cravings for certain foods disappear, leaving 
 simply a healthy appetite for those foods, when 
 the associations which make such foods absolutely 
 necessary for the subject's peace of mind or hap- 
 piness have been made conscious. A patient un- 
 able to digest anything but milk and hard brown 
 rolls which he carried in his pocket and constantly 
 toyed with, began to assimilate easily other ali- 
 ments when he realized his regression to an infan- 
 tile diet and to a symbolic form: of coprophilism. 
 
 His liking for milk and rolls did not pass away 
 when he gained insight into the unconscious reasons 
 for his abnormal craving for them. He still consid- 
 ered them as pleasant forms of nourishment but 
 he was no longer obsessed by the thought of them. 
 
 Whether the sexual craving is conscious or un- 
 conscious, it should be submitted to a careful analy- 
 sis leading to its disintegration into a genuine sexual 
 need and various parasitic cravings. 
 
 Finally a word should be said about subjects 
 who, owing to certain fears, fear of disease, fear 
 of impotence, fear of "injuring their brain," shun 
 sexual gratification. 
 [250] 
 
Positive Suggestions 
 
 satisfy the desire for companionship; organizing 
 new groups and assuming their Ifeadership would 
 relieve the feeling of inferiority which drives one 
 to secure some form of domination. 
 
 A thousand other suggestions for craving-grati- 
 fication of a positive, socially useful and beneficial 
 type can be suggested by the analyst to his subject 
 and should be suggested, but I repeat, none of tiiem 
 will reduce the power of the sexual craving itself. 
 
 The sexual craving, however, after being freed 
 of all parasitical cravings, will appear infinitely 
 less insistent. 
 
 A comparison with another physical craving will 
 make the point clearer. Certain neurotics are tor- 
 tured by a constant need to urinate which may be 
 designated as "nervous," for its satisfaction reveals 
 that an insignificant amount of urine has accumu- 
 lated and that the pressure exerted by it is not suf- 
 ficient to demand the voiding of the bladder. 
 
 It is not the quantity of urine present in the blad- 
 der, nor the condition of the bladder or of the 
 urinary passages which creates the need, but some 
 compulsion which uses the urinary organs as a con- 
 venient means of self-expression. 
 
 When the obsessive ideas connected with urina- 
 tion are removed by analysis, urine can be retained 
 in the bladder for several hours without causing any 
 
 [249] 
 
CHAPTER III. PURITANISM A DIGNIFIED 
 NEUROSIS 
 
 Humorists very often express in a few lines what 
 long-drawn psychological treatises based on many 
 tests and experiments do not always make very 
 clear. No better analysis of puritanism could be 
 found than that contained in this rather ancient but 
 very pointed story: 
 
 A puritanical woman telephoned to the police 
 asking that small boys who were bathing naked in 
 front of her house be arrested. An officer was sent 
 to drive them a mile or so farther down the river. 
 
 A few minutes later she called up again: "I 
 can still see them; from the roof of the house." 
 Once more a policeman went forth to frighten the 
 Urchins away. 
 
 Half an hour later, the police station phone rang 
 again: "I can still see them," the puritanical 
 woman said, "through my field glasses." 
 
 In other words, a subject, sexually hypersensi- 
 tive, discovers a sexual stimulus in an object 
 which in a normal subject would not produce any 
 stimulation of a sexual type. The subject resents 
 [252] 
 
Convenient Excuses 
 
 Their case is generally rather complicated, for 
 their fear itself is a neurotic fancy which leads 
 them to submit to a deprivation likely, in its turn, to 
 cause more neurotic complications. 
 
 After their phobia has been analysed and re- 
 moved, they should be enlightened sexually and 
 freed from the various superstitious beliefs rela- 
 tive to sexual activities which are being spread 
 abroad by quacks or ignorant puritans and upon 
 which the neurotic imagination seizes as a conven- 
 ient excuse for certain forms of negativism. 
 
 BIBLIOGRAPHY 
 
 Very little has been published on the subject of subli- 
 mation besides Freud's remarks in his lectures on the 
 "Origin and Development of Psychoanalysis," delivered 
 at Clark University. 0. Pfister, a lay analyst, of Switzer- 
 land, has devoted to it several pages of his book "The 
 Psychoanalytic Method" (MofFat, Yard). "Sanity in 
 Sex" by W. J. Fielding (Dodd, Mead) will ofifer valu- 
 able suggestions to the student of sex problems. 
 
 [251] 
 
Psychoanalysis and Behaviour 
 
 functions and for reasons of delicacy avoids any 
 mention of them. 
 
 Such people lead what is generally considered 
 as a "pure" life; suggestive literature, theatrical 
 performances, pictorial art, etc., do not appeal to 
 them, and they are likely to regard any one in- 
 dulging in sexual pleasure <as "low" or "animal." 
 
 They have their counterpart in every walk of 
 life, where we meet people who do not care for 
 cabbage, who do not siOtoke, -who do not like to 
 climb mountains and never go fishing, but who at 
 the same time let others eat cabbage, smoke, climb 
 mountains and go fishing. 
 
 The hyperaesthetic puritan, on the other hand, 
 is not satisfied with abstaining from cabbage. He 
 wishes to suppress cabbage wherever found and 
 to jail those selling it and eating it. 
 
 Oversexed neurotics not only are profoundly 
 disturbed by sexual thoughts and facts but place 
 a sexual complexion on almost everything. 
 
 It was only last summer that a Massachusetts 
 woman had her neighbour arrested for allowing 
 his two infants to bathe in the sea without bathing 
 suits. Every summer the sight of one-piece bath- 
 ing suits for men produces a "brainstorm" in some 
 oversensitive neurotic and bathers are fined by 
 stupid judges. A few months ago a society was 
 [254] 
 
The Puritan Is Abnormal 
 
 the disturbance thus produced in his sexual life 
 and, unable to resist the attraction of the stimulus, 
 demands that the stimulus be removed by legal in- 
 tervention. 
 
 The records of the New Haven courts dating back 
 to the early days of the New England colonies pre- 
 sent that picture over and over again. Many are 
 the cases in which a whole community spied day 
 and night for weeks or months upon some indis- 
 crete pair of lovers and, after satisfying its voyeur 
 instincts, finally delivered them to justice to be 
 whipped for their sins. 
 
 The normal indignation of the witnesses was in- 
 extricably mixed with a sense of perverse grati- 
 fication and resentment not entirely devoid of 
 envy. 
 
 The puritan, taking the word in its modem ac- 
 ception, is a sexually abnormal person. Accord- 
 ing to whether its abnormality is anaesthesia or 
 hyperaesthesia, we have two types, both negative 
 socially, one of which, however, is seldom objec- 
 tionable. 
 
 The sexually frigid person whose frigidity is 
 organic, being due to undeveloped genitals or low 
 vitality, cannot imderstand the influence exerted 
 on normal individuals by sexual stimuli. That 
 type links sexual activities with urinary or anal 
 
 [253] 
 
Psychoanalysis and Behaviour 
 
 amount of sexual repression unayoidable and chil- 
 dren, for instance, reaching the age of puberty 
 must be protected against certain dangers. Sexual 
 truths, however, would be a better protection for 
 them than sexual lies, and while puritans usually 
 harp on the protection needed by immature minds, 
 they never make any positive suggestion for mak- 
 ing minds nnore mature. 
 
 The puritan himself is extremely immature and 
 romantic. In all puritanical ways of thought-ex- 
 pression we find a large measure of sexual romance. 
 
 Scientific terms place upon human intelligence 
 limits beyond which it must not go if it wishes to 
 remain accurate. The words syphilis and gonor- 
 rhea not only present definite clinical pictures but 
 strip the diseases they indicate of any romance. 
 
 The puritan, on the other hand, who designates 
 them as "social diseases" or "diseases of vice" and 
 fails to describe any of their symptoms, makes them 
 mysterious and hence to certain minds infinitely 
 attractive. 
 
 The word pregnancy is generally heard in re- 
 spectful silence. The expression "an interesting 
 condition" generally elicits a smile. 
 
 Likewise, the puritan shims the words brothel, 
 prostitute, sex, and prefers the more elastic and 
 more suggestive expressions: house of ill fame, 
 [256] 
 
Outlawing the Bible 
 
 formed in New York City to prevent owners of de- 
 partment stores from showing "suggestive" lingerie 
 in their windows. 
 
 When we remember that ten years ago or so, the 
 New York Society for the Suppression of Vice 
 raided a perfectly legitimate art school and seized 
 a catalogue containing reproductions of nude draw- 
 ings made by the pupils of that school, that the same 
 society has caused purely medical books to be ex- 
 cluded from the mails and is at present trying to 
 censor articles appearing in medical publications, 
 we must come to the conclusion that "organized 
 puritanism" is not a constructive force but a 
 neurotic symptom unjustly dignified by the police 
 and the courts, a mere form of sexual hyperaes- 
 thesia. 
 
 Even the sacred books can furnish those neurotics 
 with sexual stimulation. George Francis Train 
 was jailed in the eighties for piiblishing the Bible 
 serially in the Citizen and thus "debauching the 
 young." ... A group of puritans investigated 
 Chicago's "vice" a few years ago and drew a sen- 
 sational report of their findings. Thereupon an- 
 other group of puritans found that report too fas- 
 cinating and managed to have it excluded from the 
 rtiails on the ground of obscenity. 
 
 The complexity of modem society makes a great 
 
 [255] 
 
Psychoanalysis and Behaviour 
 
 ism stated that women are the associates of the 
 devil, constantly in league with him to lead men 
 to perdition and adduced as evidence the fact that 
 the majority of mediums are women. 
 
 The puritan is not satisfied with suppressing ob- 
 vious "evils"; he must uncover hidden evils and, 
 at times, his eagerness to catch sinners gives the 
 impression that he is someiwhat of a voyeur. 
 
 Clergymen who could not as such attend "sug- 
 gestive" shows, drink in "gin mills," consort with 
 cabaret dancers or enter "houses of ill repute," 
 can indulge in all those diversions provided they 
 assume the character of moral crusaders. 
 
 The next day they gratify their sadism by de- 
 nouncing and hauling into court the sinners they 
 previously befriended. 
 
 In all sexual relations there is a survival of a 
 primitive craving which drives one of the sexual 
 partners to overpower the other. In mammals it 
 is generally the male who overpowers the female. 
 Civilization has repressed that craving in a large 
 degree. 
 
 In neurotics, however, a regression takes place 
 which enables the male to avenge himself, so to 
 speak, upon the female, for her domination, by 
 brutalizing her. It generally stops at disparage- 
 ment, nagging or hatred, but in certain pervert 
 [258] 
 
Woman's Immature Mind 
 
 woman of questionable reputation, animal in- 
 stincts. 
 
 Not only do we find in the puritan vocabulary 
 the vagueness which promotes sexual dreaming but 
 we observe also the inaccuracy and displacement 
 which are characteristic of the neurotic escape from 
 reality. Arms, even bare, are decent, but legs are 
 tolerable only when renamed limbs, the belly be- 
 comes the stomadi and a woman carries her unborn 
 child "imder her heart." 
 
 The puritan continually indulges in the dispar- 
 agement of woman which is one of the most char- 
 acteristic neurotic and negativist traits. The fear 
 of the sexual partner is intense in the anaesthetic 
 and hyperaesthetic alike. The undersexed is made 
 through intercourse to realize his inferiority, the 
 oversexed is loath to be dominated by his desire. 
 Hence both resent woman and her attraction. The 
 fear of womjan, the impure, the temptress, fills the 
 literature of puritanism. 
 
 A puritanical judge defined obscenity as "what- 
 ever might arouse a libidinous passion in the mind 
 of a modest woman." John S. Sumner said of 
 Dreiser's "The Genius," that he looked at it "from 
 the standpoint of its harmful effects on female read- 
 ers of immature minds." 
 
 The Rev. John Roach Straton discussing spiritual- 
 
 [257] 
 
Psychoanalysis and Behaviour 
 
 Anthony was in the habit of nicking those switches 
 so that they would break when his torturer applied 
 them too energetically. The reasons for those 
 beatings are not mentioned but another paragraph 
 of the official biography enables us to venture a 
 guess. 
 
 "Certain things that were brought into his life 
 in those boyhood days started memories and lines 
 of temptation that were harder for him to overcome 
 than anything that ever came into his life in later 
 years." 
 
 "He knows what an awful and lasting poison 
 is the poison of impurity. Once gaining entry 
 into a life, through book or story or picture, it 
 stays- . . . There the images stay to be called up 
 freely and used at will by the Devil." 
 
 In other words he probably remained all his life 
 the inflammable boy every human being is at the 
 time of puberty and having lingered at that child- 
 like level, was convinced that all mankind was as 
 undeveloped, as easily tortured by temptation as he 
 was, and exposed to all the dangers which frighten 
 the hypererotic. 
 
 Fanaticism appeared in his behaviour at an early 
 age. At ei^teen he broke into a saloon and 
 spilled all the "liquor" in the place. When he en- 
 listed he would not only refuse to drink his ration 
 [260] 
 
The Puritan's Egotism 
 
 cases there is actual violence offered. The sav- 
 age persecution of prostitutes by vice-fighters (on 
 one occasion driving them out of their houses and 
 on the streets, without providing any shelter or 
 planning any measures of rescue), points to primi- 
 tive, barbaric savagery gratifying itself in a cow- 
 ardly, neurotic way. 
 
 I say cowardly because such exhibitions of vio- 
 lence are always countenanced by the mob. Mil- 
 lions of inferior persons without any ability in any 
 direction, lacking in the self-assertion which wealth 
 might give them, unable to force their way into 
 "exclusive circles," are prone to don the mantle 
 of moral righteousness in order to acquire without 
 physical or mjental exertion some form of supe- 
 riority. 
 
 Neurotic egotism is strong in puritans who are 
 not satisfied with saving the world from a thousand 
 imaginary dangers but use all the channels of pub- 
 licity to proclaim their achievements. 
 
 Many of those traits were exemplified by An- 
 thony Comstock's life and activities, as described 
 by his official biographer C. G. TrtimbuU. He 
 was the son of a rather brutal father who added to 
 his cruelty a decided refinement of the perverse 
 sort, sending the lad into the woods to cut the 
 switches with which he was to beat him. Little 
 
 [259} 
 
Psychoanalysis and Behaviour 
 
 hallucinations in which a voice told him where to 
 go to find obscene objects. 
 
 In other words, a pitiable type, fit to be treated 
 by psychiatrists and not to be entrusted with the cen- 
 sorship of a nation's morals. 
 
 The society he founded displays on every occa- 
 sion the neurotic craving for power which only an- 
 noys but never helps, which punishes but never 
 offers a constructive suggestion for reclaiming cul- 
 prits. 
 
 The desire for suprahuman powers, for the ac- 
 quisition of a privileged situation in the community 
 has always characterized sexual puritanism from 
 its beginnings. In ancient religions, men or 
 women mentally upset by sexual privation, priests 
 and priestesses of various cults, were credited with 
 superhuntan wisdom and their hysterical ravings 
 called oracles. 
 
 Several religions have imposed celibacy upon 
 their priests in the belief that such a condition 
 would enable them to rise to a higher spiritual 
 plane. When certain churches began to lose their 
 intellectual leadership they established puritanical 
 restrictions in order to conquer some form of moral 
 leadership. 
 
 In our days this procedure is very evident in the 
 antics of a Billy Sunday or a John Roach Straton 
 [262] 
 
Comstock's Delusions 
 
 of whiskey but throw it out on the groimd in the 
 presence of his fellow soldiers. 
 
 Mustered out from the army he became a dry 
 goods clerk in New York City. He seems to have 
 suffered at that time from the delusions and hal- 
 lucinations which are frequently observed in the 
 sexually abnormal who repress their cravings 
 through a severe struggle. 
 
 "During those six years of varied business ex- 
 perience," his biographer writes, "'he had come to 
 know young business men, over and over again, 
 whose lives were plainly ruined by their interest 
 in the obscene pictures and literature and other 
 devilish things that they had easy access to. . . . 
 In his close contact with the young business men of 
 the city, he saw them falling about him almost like 
 autumn leaves, withered at the blighting touch of 
 the obscenities that were the staple of so much 
 commercialized traffic." 
 
 Every analyst has met the syphilophobiac who 
 attributes everybody's sickness, misfortune or 
 death to venereal disease, or the unconscious homo- 
 sexual who in every gesture which another man 
 makes, sees an improper advance. 
 
 Comstock's megalomania revealed itself in his 
 constant reiteration of his belief that God was guid- 
 ing every one of his actions; he even had auditory 
 
 [261] 
 
Psychoanalysis and Behaviour 
 
 it impossible for family men to retain their homes, 
 Mr. Sumner boasts of protecting them against 
 vicious publications, lewd shows and movies. Sex- 
 ual obsession could not be confessed more frankly. 
 
 Puritanism, be it of the undersexed or of the 
 oversexed sort, kills all art manifestations. Art is 
 expression, not repression, and curiously enough, 
 even some of the freer minds among the art critics 
 are yielding to the puritanical pressure and, now 
 and then, praise an actor, a painter or a sculptor 
 for his "power of repression." 
 
 Not only the pictorial arts and literature have 
 been stifled in puritan-ridden lands but music even 
 has been neglected. 
 
 Remember the absurd statements may by Tolstoy, 
 who was tortured by sexual obsessions and dis- 
 covered lewdness even in Beethoven's compositions. 
 Few conductors and even fewer orchestra musicians 
 hail from puritan lands. Whatever symphonic 
 compositions such lands have produced could be 
 all ignored in a survey of the world's musical 
 achievements. 
 
 Puritans, however, are looking forward to con- 
 quests in new territories, some of which had never 
 before been invaded by lay authorities. 
 
 The March, 1920, issue of the report of the New 
 York Society for the Suppression of Vice contains 
 [264] 
 
Puritans and Exploiters 
 
 who, lacking totally in any ideas, resort to vitupera- 
 tion and lavish anathemas on "sinners." If those 
 neurotics could not rise in indignation at the thought 
 of the low gowns and silk stockings worn by young 
 women they would have to remain silent. 
 
 It goes without saying that the alliance of puri- 
 tanism with religion is looked on favourably by 
 those who prefer to see the masses interest them- 
 selves in a future life. The exploiter of labour 
 and the profiteer approve of Christianlike resigna- 
 tion and of the acceptance of our trials on this 
 earth. 
 
 Thus Puritanism secures the support of all the 
 large business interests and becomes well nigh ir- 
 resistible. 
 
 The shallow point of view of organized puritan- 
 ism is revealed clearly in a letter from John S. 
 Sumner to the writer, dated April 9, 1920. "The 
 influence exerted by such publications, mlany mov- 
 ing pictures and many dramatic productions, di- 
 rectly harmfully affects family relations and the 
 home which is the basis of our social order. We 
 feel, therefore, that we are doing a fundamental 
 service in seeking to suppress those things which 
 would destroy the basis of our social order." 
 
 At a time when xmpardonable increases in 
 rentals, in the cost of food and clothing are making 
 
 [263] 
 
Psychoanalysis and Behaviour 
 
 BIBLIOGRAPHY 
 
 The official biography of Anthony Comstock "An- 
 thony Comstock, Fighter," by C. G. Trumbull (Flem- 
 ing, Revell) is the best source of information as to the 
 workings of the puritanical mind. T. Schroeder in his 
 "Free Press Anthology," C. Pollock in the Bulletin of the 
 Authors' League of America for March, 1917, H. L. 
 Mencken in his "A Book of Prefaces" (Alfred A. Knoff), 
 and Frank Harris in Pearson's Magazine for June, 1917, 
 cite innumerable cases of puritanical suppression of free 
 thougbt and free expression in literature and art. Also 
 consult the Monthly Report of the New York Society 
 for the Suppression of Vice which is a record of the 
 "lawful" activities of the organized puritans. 
 
 [266] 
 
Destructive Persecution 
 
 two especially distressing items: an announcement 
 that a medical publication has submitted an article 
 for revision by the society; this would indicate 
 that unless powerful opposition is raised against 
 such attempts, science is to become "bowdlerized," 
 which probably means that at some future time 
 venereal clinics will be abolished and operations 
 on the abdohien re-christened operations on the 
 stomach. 
 
 Finally the society having hauled into court some 
 offender who was let off with a suspended sen- 
 tence, "warned the offender to leave town." 
 
 This is destructive persecution of the worst type, 
 lacking in social intelligence, dumping perverts 
 or criminals upon other communities, getting rid 
 of a disease by trying to let the neighbour catch 
 it, £is savages, with the help of witches, are wont to 
 do. 
 
 The puritan neurosis will probably pass away 
 when the forces which support it have been fettered 
 and made harmless and when the forces which 
 carry out its decrees, courts and police, having been 
 reformed, will no longer need to hide their moral 
 and ethical inferiority under the mask of sexual 
 austerity. 
 
 [265] 
 
VI. THE PSYCHOANALYTIC TREATMENT 
 
Psychoanalysis and Behaviour 
 
 analysis, reveals a profound ignorance of the psy- 
 choanalytic procedure. 
 
 The Freudian school is the only one to lay much 
 emphasis on the sexual element, but the orthodox 
 Freudian is an almost extinct species. Even he, 
 however, should be cleared of every suspicion of 
 sexual suggestion. The sexual material is present 
 in every subject, normal or abnormal, and comes 
 to the surface very easily. No suggestion is neces- 
 sary to bring it forth. 
 
 The Freudians consider sex as the all-important 
 factor in the neurosis. The other schools are in- 
 clined to seek, behind the sexual mask, other fac- 
 tors assuming a sexual complexion for abnormal 
 reasons. Adler has stated many times that imag- 
 inary sexuality deceives the subject but should 
 not deceive the analyst. If an analyst of the Ad- 
 lerian school ever tried to suggest anything to his 
 subjects it would be the belief that sex is not al- 
 ways sex. 
 
 But no analyst ever suggests anything. As we 
 shall see at the end of this chapter, as soon as the 
 rapport between analyst and subject is such that 
 the subject is too easily influenced by the analyst, 
 the analysis is likely to prove a failure. 
 
 One of the reasons for the widely spread belief 
 that hypnotism and psychoanalysis are related 
 [270] 
 
CHAPTER I. HYPNOTIST AND ANALYST 
 
 "I suppose suggestion plays a great part in the 
 psychoanalytic treatment," is a statement which 
 every analyst hears frequently and has to deny em- 
 phatically. Hypnotism and psychoanalysis not 
 only have nothing in common but are in fact the ex- 
 act opposite of each other: hypnotism introduces 
 something into the subject's mind, psychoanalysis 
 takes something out of it. 
 
 The hypnotist takes certain ready-made ideas, 
 generally considered as ethical or practical, and, 
 taking chances with their acceptability, tries to 
 miake the subject accept them because they are 
 likely to be beneficial to him. 
 
 The psychoanalyst, having slowly and carefully 
 amassed evidence as to certain ideas which are ob- 
 sessing the subject and are likely to wreck his 
 health, proceeds to disintegrate them and helps the 
 subject to eliminate them. 
 
 The charge often made by ill-informed oppo- 
 nents of psychoanalysis, among them Boris Sidis, 
 that people may be wrecked and perverted by the 
 sexual thoughts suggested in the course of an 
 
 [269] 
 
Psychoanalysis and Behaviour 
 
 a few books on hypnotism for that very reason. 
 It would enable them to convince themselves of 
 the neurotic character of that practice. 
 
 There are, briefly speaking, three methods of 
 hypnotizing people: A man of powerful physique 
 and of impressive appearance often succeeds in 
 hypnotizing subjects by ordering them in a stem 
 voice to fall asleep. This method is especially ef- 
 fective with weak, timid, feminine subjects. Some 
 memory of the father's authority is evidently at 
 work in such cases and compels obedience. 
 
 Other subjects can only be prevailed to enter 
 the hypnotic state in a quiet, dimly lighted room, 
 when the hypnotist keeps up a flow of soothing, 
 monotonous, often senseless words, spoken in a 
 low, crooning voice and strokes the face and hands 
 of the subject. This is the 'method employed by 
 every mother singing her infant to sleep and sur- 
 rounding him with a peace and monotony symbol- 
 ical of absolute security. 
 
 Nervous fatigue is relied upon in other cases to 
 induce artificial sleep, the subject being asked to 
 concentrate his gaze on a brilliant object, such as 
 a diamond held in one position or moved about, or 
 to listen to the ticking of a watch, etc. 
 
 Between ten and twenty per cent, of all the sub- 
 jects examined have been found impossible to hyp- 
 [272] 
 
What Discouraged Jung 
 
 methods of treatment is the fact that several of the 
 best-known analysts originally practised hypno- 
 tism. 
 
 It was while studying a patient in hypnotic 
 "trances" that Freud suspected the possibility of 
 a study of the unconscious in the waking state. 
 Freud made a deep study of hypnotism under men 
 like Charcot of the Salpetriere and Bemheim and 
 Liebault of Nancy. He soon realized, however, 
 the shortcomings of the hypnotic method and dis- 
 carded it entirely. 
 
 Jung, of Zurich, was discouraged from using 
 hynotism by the brilliant and spurious successes 
 he achieved through it. An old woman among 
 others who would call at his office complaining of 
 some excruciating pains, fall asleep in three sec- 
 onds and before he had time to even suggest any- 
 thing, wake up, thank him and go awa;y, convinced 
 him that the hypnotist is simply aiding and abetting 
 an unconscious fraud. 
 
 It may be, however, that if Freud, Jung, Fer- 
 enczi and the ma'ny others who started in life as 
 hypnotists and, after a while, became psychoana- 
 lysts, had not become familiar with the psychology 
 of suggested sleep, they would have been at pains 
 to understand the mechanism of certain neuroses. 
 
 All students of psychoanalysis should glance at 
 
 [271] 
 
Psychoanalysis and Behaviour 
 
 The majority of hypnotized subjects have a feel- 
 ing of pressure all over their body which is a source 
 of most pleasurable feelings. 
 
 The Freudians have come to the plausible con- 
 clusion that this is a memory from the pre- 
 natal days when the fetus was submitted in the 
 mother's womb to an even pressure of similar 
 character. 
 
 Many more points of similarity between neu- 
 rotic and hypnotic states could be mentioned. 
 Every neurose is a form of auto-suggestion. The 
 subject imagines he has a large amount of evidence 
 for certain obsessive thoughts and beliefs. At the 
 end of an analysis, the evidence has been disin- 
 tegrated and destroyed. The hypnotized subject 
 who carries out some command given by the hyp- 
 notist will, if questioned, present excellent and 
 plausible reasons for performing actions he cannot 
 help performing. After being assisted in remem- 
 bering the beginnings of the hypnotic scene, how- 
 ever, he will gradually regain his consciousness of 
 all that transpired and realize that his "reasons" 
 were an unconscious fabrication. 
 
 Just as a neurose creates physical symptoms 
 through auto-suggestion, Charcot and the Nancy 
 hypnotists have shown that almost any hysterical 
 symptom can be induced under hypnose and a com- 
 [274] 
 
Regression in Hypnose 
 
 notize. No conclusion should be drawn from that 
 condition as to their normality. They may be so 
 normlal and independent that the idea of submitting 
 to any one else's will is repellent to them. They 
 may be so abnormal that their refusal to be hypno- 
 tized is a desperate resistance against the prac- 
 titioner endeavouring to cure their neurotic symp- 
 toms. 
 
 That the hypnotic condition verges on a neurose 
 is made evident by several of its characteristics. 
 
 The fact that it can be best indiiced in certain 
 cases by a man of the Svengali type and that fakers 
 have better percentages of success than scientific 
 experimenters points to a childish regression and 
 a father fixation. The mother fixation may explain 
 satisfactorily the second method. 
 
 The regression is shown in many cases by the 
 childhood memories which constitute the woof of 
 the subject's talk unless the hypnotist imposes by 
 suggestion a different topic. 
 
 All consciousness of time generally disappears 
 in hypnosis and the abolition of time seemb to 
 cause the subject a great deal of satisfaction. This 
 reminds us of the epileptic fits so well described 
 by Dostoyevsky and in the course of which Mishkin, 
 the Idiot, exulted in the thought that there would 
 be no more time limitations. 
 
 [273] 
 
Psychoanalysis and Behaviour 
 
 least effort. Too often an analyst has the impres 
 sion brought to bear forcibly on him that the sul 
 ject places himself in his hands and will hold hiii 
 responsible henceforth for all the acts of his life 
 
 Unable to lean upon his parents any longer th 
 neurotic seeks a substituite for thenl. 
 
 Physician and analyst must see at once througl 
 the threadbare schelmes of the subject and not er 
 courage that attitude. They must bend all thei 
 energies to one end, to making the patient entirel; 
 independent from them. 
 
 Take one subject who feels weak and easily tire( 
 and hence unable to perform certain necessary am 
 unpleasant tasks. 
 
 The hypnotist will repeal to him during eacl 
 "trance" that he is strong, strong enough to do hi 
 work. 
 
 But the weak patient is weakened by complexe 
 which hypnosis does not remove. Hence the prob 
 ability is that after that form of treatment the pa 
 tient, unable to really feel strong, because he is no 
 strong, will adopt one of the negative attitudes 
 have described in a previous chapter, "I will ac 
 as though I were strong," after which he will en 
 gage, according to his temperament, in boasting o 
 disparaging, bullying or scheming, to prove his in 
 existent strength to himself and others. He ma' 
 [276] 
 
Another Escape from Reality 
 
 parison of the two processes is extremely illum- 
 inating. 
 
 In acute neurotic cases there is even a form of 
 refusal to be analysed which can be compared to 
 the refusal to be hypnotized. 
 
 It happens sometimes, in the course of an analy- 
 sis, that when the examination reaches a crucial 
 point, the subject develops a physical ailment which 
 for the time being or for a more or less extended 
 period of time places him beyond the analyst's 
 reach. 
 
 A subject may feel suddenly distressed and ask 
 for permission to leave the room, or the appoint- 
 ments are postponed on accoimt of some gastric or 
 abdominal disturbance unconsciously improvised 
 for the occasion. 
 
 Shall we then attempt to relieve neurotic symp- 
 toms through a procedure which affects so many 
 neurotic traits? 
 
 The neurotic who consults a hypnotist is, after 
 all, seeking a quick escape from reality, from 
 effort, from responsibilities. 
 
 He sees in the practitioner treating him the parent 
 image and "runs back to father or mother" re- 
 gressing to the age at which he had all his problems 
 solved and the responsibility never weighed very 
 heavily on his shoulders. He seeks the line of 
 
 [275] 
 
Psychoanalysis and Behaviour 
 
 which implies suggestions from hypnotist to sul 
 ject but to the hypnotic rest cure devised by Wette 
 strand of Upsal. Wetterstrand simply put his pi 
 tients asleep and kept them in that condition, somi 
 times for days and weeks, in a house especial! 
 fitted for that purpose. 
 
 Sleepless subjects must have derived some con 
 fort from that treatment, granted, however, that the 
 were not, in the course of that hypnotic sleep, to; 
 tured and weakened by anxiety dreams, one thin 
 which could not be prevented or checked. To th 
 average neurotic, on the other hand, that protracte 
 drowsiness must have offered a dangerous means c 
 escape from the reality which they should have bee 
 trained to face. 
 
 In the course of an analysis, the analyst, as I sai 
 before, is most careful not to offer any suggestion: 
 for suggestions would be accepted by friendly sul 
 jects in order to please the analyst, and by hostil 
 subjects to get rid of the analyst. 
 
 When asking the subject for his reactions to th 
 various stimulus words used for that purpose, th 
 analyst simply asks the impersonal question: wha 
 comes to your mind when you hear this word? 
 
 He avoids forms of examination which woul 
 practically dictate the proper answer to the patien' 
 such as: Does not this remind you of ... ? 
 [278] 
 
A Waste of Energy 
 
 enter a slightly agitated maniac state, followed by 
 the inevitable reaction, depression. 
 
 Many serious experimenters have come to the 
 conclusion that we cannot suggest anything to a 
 subject unless he unconsciously craves to do that 
 very thing. Suggestions of unpleasant actions are 
 either rejected or very ephemeral. Suggesting 
 murder or suicide proves effective mainly in the 
 movies. Lombroso saw his subjects wake up every 
 time he ordered them to perform humiliating tasks 
 or to assume degrading roles. 
 
 Our ethical and social notions, our prejudices 
 and fears dominate the hypnotic state as they do the 
 waking state. 
 
 Not only is the hypnotic method dangerous for 
 it encourages formis of regression which are the 
 basis of the neuroses, but it is an inefficient and 
 haphazard procedure. 
 
 How can we know what suggestion will be ac- 
 ceptable to the subject because unconsciously he has 
 already accustomed himself to it and is expecting 
 it? Must we make hundreds of experiments, each 
 of which weakens the patient's will a little more, in 
 order to strike by mere chance a suggestion which 
 will be both beneficial and acceptable, hence dur- 
 able? 
 
 This applies not only to the form of hypnotism 
 
 [277] 
 
Psychoanalysis and Behaviour 
 
 which implies suggestions from hypnotist to sub- 
 ject but to the hypnotic rest cure devised by Wetter- 
 strand of Upsal. Wetterstrand simply put his pa- 
 tients asleep and kept them in that condition, some- 
 times for days and weeks, in a house especially 
 fitted for that purpose. 
 
 Sleepless subjects must have derived some conv 
 fort from that treatment, granted, however, that they 
 were not, in the course of that hypnotic sleep, tor- 
 tured and weakened by anxiety dreams, one thing 
 which could not be prevented or checked. To the 
 average neurotic, on the other hand, that protracted 
 drowsiness must have offered a dangerous means of 
 escape from the reality which they should have been 
 trained to face. 
 
 In the course of an analysis, the analyst, as I said 
 before, is most careful not to offer any suggestions, 
 for suggestions would be accepted by friendly sub- 
 jects in order to please the analyst, and by hostile 
 subjects to get rid of the analyst. 
 
 When asking the subject for his reactions to the 
 various stimulus words used for that purpose, the 
 analyst simply asks the impersonal question: what 
 comes to your mind when you hear this word? 
 
 He avoids forms of examination which would 
 practically dictate the proper answer to the patient, 
 such as: Does not this remind you of . . . ? 
 [278] 
 
The Bald Hair Specialist 
 
 He listens carefully, patiently, uncritically 
 though sympathetically. 
 
 He may have certain theories as to the subject's 
 trouble, its cause, origin, character, etc., but he 
 never airs them before the subject. 
 
 It may be objected that a certain amount of in- 
 voluntary suggestion is quite unavoidable. The 
 element designed unscientifically as personal mag- 
 netism plays in all human relations a part which 
 cannot be minimized. 
 
 A letter to a daily paper which publishes health 
 advice by a very bald physician revealed in an 
 amusing way the illogical effects of personal im- 
 pressions. The correspondent was anxious to find 
 a tonic for his rapidly thinning hair, but wished to 
 have his inquiry referred to another physician than 
 Dr. X, for the latter's denuded skull made him in 
 his estimation unfit to prescribe for his trouble. 
 
 As a matter of fact, a man affected by calvities 
 is more likely to have investigated hair restorers 
 than a man with a healthy shock of hair, but the 
 person who wrote the letter I mentioned felt that 
 in such matters he could not trust a bald phy- 
 sician. 
 
 An athletic physical instructor will easily im- 
 press his pupils with the probable excellence of his 
 method and an analyst who seems unlikely to ever 
 
 [279] 
 
Psychoanalysis and Behaviour 
 
 be affected by any nervous ailments will create in 
 his subject's mind a confidence which facilitates his 
 work. 
 
 Jung says very frankly somewhere that practi- 
 tioners who manage to invest themselves with the 
 halo of the medicine man are wise in every respect. 
 Not only do they have a large practice but they 
 also obtain the best results. Dealing with neu- 
 rotics, the medical exorcist shows to his subjects his 
 full valuation of the "psychic" element when he 
 gives them an opportunity to fasten their faith to 
 his mysterious personality. 
 
 That type of healer generally has a large prac- 
 tice but I disagree with Jung as to the final, not 
 the temporary, results of such cures. 
 
 Emotional cures have been observed in thou- 
 sands of cases, but they are seldom lasting, for they 
 eliminate the symptoms, not the deeper factors 
 causing the symptoms to appear. 
 
 Powdering up a red nose will have strikingly 
 good temporary effects but the only way to deal 
 with that sympton is to cure the gastric disturbance 
 which is responsible for it. 
 
 Analysis does not powder up red noses. It seeks 
 to determine the line of least resistance for the de- 
 velopment of a harmonious personality. It tries 
 to find out what the neurotic's unconscious is striv- 
 
 [280] 
 
Talking Cures 
 
 ing for and actually doing in an abnormal way. 
 After destroying the absurd reasons which the 
 neurotic advances for his abnormal behaviour, it 
 tries to detemune in collaboration with the subject 
 himself a positive, vital, socially beneficial guid- 
 ing line. 
 
 But it does not begin to seek that guiding line 
 until the subject has been made entirely free from 
 his complexes. 
 
 And here again we must establish a sharp dis- 
 tinction between psychoanalysis and the talking 
 cures made popular, especially in Europe, by the 
 late Dr. Dubois, and which is little more than an at- 
 tempt at suggestion in the waking state. 
 
 Dubois' system of therapy, which consists in giv- 
 ing to the subject moral reasons for his recovery 
 and in discussing rationally his case, is temporarily 
 efficient if the subject is deeply impressed with the 
 practitioner's personality and is ready to yield to 
 his arguments. 
 
 The Dubois method bans all conversation about 
 the past and tries on every occasion to turn the sub- 
 ject's glance toward the future, which psycho- 
 logically is correct, for the neurosis is a regression 
 to the past and to outworn solutions. 
 
 That procedure is really the second part of the 
 psychoanalytic treatment. But the first part of it 
 
 [281] 
 
Psychoanalysis and Behaviour 
 
 cannot be skipped. Before erecting a building one 
 must clear the ground of all obstructions and blast 
 the rocks which stand in the way. 
 
 Conscious advice is very weak against the posi- 
 tive orders which come from our unconscious, and 
 here again, as in the case of hypnotic commands, 
 only that sort of advice for which the unconscious 
 is prepared will find ready acceptance and be per- 
 manently followed. 
 
 Complex after complex must be disintegrated 
 and the subject must first be made conscious that 
 most of his unconscious cravings are not repre- 
 sentative of the intellectual, social and ethical level 
 on which he should stand but survivals of, or re- 
 gressions to, conditions obtaining at lower, that is, 
 more archaic levels. 
 
 Some of his unconscious cravings will be found 
 to lead him along a straight, positive, path. His 
 dreams prove especially valuable in determining 
 what his aptitudes are as well as his abnormal modes 
 of wishfulfilment. 
 
 The task of the analyst, after he has freed the 
 subject from his thraldom to an archaic uncon- 
 scious, is to select in an unprejudiced way from 
 all the unconscious material brought to the surface 
 that which is positive, which shows beneficial adap- 
 tability to the subject's environment, which is cap- 
 [282] 
 
Latent Ability 
 
 able of gratifying in a socially useful way the 
 various urges struggling for expression. 
 
 Both in the clearing of the ground and in the 
 building of the new structure, the analyst proceeds 
 scientifically, according to convincing evidential 
 data. 
 
 Both reactions and dreams show him what the 
 subject can actually do and is predisposed to do, 
 what actual help and hindrance the subject may 
 derive from his unconscious; dreams, in par- 
 ticular, registering minutely as they do, the sub- 
 ject's progress in regaining his freedom, reveal ac- 
 curately the time when advice touching a positive 
 guiding line can be given openly. 
 
 If you have to deal for instance with a subject in 
 whom the egotistical trend is strongly miarked, you 
 must at first disintegrate the false growths whereby 
 his craving expresses itself indirectly and ab- 
 normally. After which, when the subject has ac- 
 quired full insight into his conduct and is re-shap- 
 ing his attitudes accordingly, the analyst can en- 
 courage certain forms of activity offering positive 
 gratification to the subject's egotism and yet fitting 
 perfectly in the environment in which he must live. 
 
 A neurotic with a decided talent in some direc- 
 tion can be led from a negative life of disparage- 
 ment, slander, bitterness, in which he is only re- 
 
 [283] 
 
Psychoanalysis and Behaviour 
 
 ducing others to a lower level, to a positive life of 
 accomplishment, in which a development of his 
 abilities will gain him fame and power. 
 
 In other words, hypnotism only offers to sufferers 
 a negative escape from) reality, psychoanalysis a 
 permanent formula for exchanging a negative life 
 for a positive one; hypnotism makes sufferers de- 
 pendent upon the hypnotist, psychoanalysis makes 
 them independent from the analyst. 
 
 And yet, there linay be exceptional cases in which 
 hypnotism may be used legitimately. While no 
 physician believes in administering strong narcotics, 
 no physician will hesitate to inject large doses 
 of morphine into an unfortunate person who is, let 
 us say, being crushed to death under a railroad 
 train and cannot be lifted from under the wheels 
 until emergency apparatus has come. 
 
 In a case, for instance, when a neurotic is in- 
 capacitated by some of his symptoms, such as 
 a sick headache, from performing some im- 
 portant task upon which his livelihood or reputa- 
 tion depends, an analyst would have a sufficient ex- 
 cuse for saving his subject froim the added strain 
 which might be caused by failure. But that form 
 of treatment should only be resorted to in a grave 
 emergency with the understanding that the pro- 
 cedure shall not be repeated. For the majority of 
 [284] 
 
Sleep or Talk 
 
 neurotics would rather sleep than talk and would 
 rather regress to their abnormal ideas than to sub- 
 mit tihem to the destructive fire of psychoanalytic 
 conversation. 
 
 BIBLIOGRAPHY 
 
 The most authoritative book on the subject is Smith 
 Ely JellifFe's "The Technique of Psychoanalysis" (Nerv- 
 ous and Mental Disease Pub. Co.), a volume of 160 pages 
 covering the following points: Material to be analysed; 
 whom to analyse; the literature, sources and history of 
 psychoanalysis; the analytic procedure; the Oedipus 
 complex as a psychological measuring unit; the trans- 
 ference; the resistances; the overcoming of the conflicts; 
 the socialization of the personality; the practical use 
 of the patients' dreams in analysis, etc. 
 
 Poul Bjerre's 'The Theory and Practice of Psycho- 
 analysis" contains many practical suggestions and illus- 
 trations of the analytical procedure. 
 
 [285] 
 
VII. THE FOUR SCHOOLS OF 
 PSYCHOANALYSIS 
 
CHAPTER 1: FREUD. THE PIONEER 
 
 There are few orthodox Freudians at the present 
 day. Few analysts accept all the conclusions which 
 the creator of psychoanalysis reached, but all of 
 them without any exception accept his premises. 
 There is a psychoanalytic point of view which is 
 common to the four principal exponents of the sci- 
 ence, Freud, Jung, Adler and Kempf . 
 
 I have told elsewhere how Freud gradually came 
 to that point of view, discarding many of his earlier 
 theories as new evidence compelled this most con- 
 scious and modest of scientists to revise his own 
 findings. 
 
 This chapter will be devoted to a brief exposition 
 of the Freudian theories. In the chapters devoted 
 to, Jung, Adler and Kempf, I shall endeavour to 
 bring out further details of it by showing to what 
 extent these scientists disagree with the great 
 pioneer. 
 
 The Freudian point of view is presented prin- 
 cipally in three of Freud's books, the "Three Con- 
 tributions to the Sexual Theory," the "Psycho- 
 pathology of Every Day Life" and the "Interpre- 
 
 [289] 
 
Psychoanalysis and Behaviour 
 
 tation of Dreams." The lectures he delivered at 
 Clark Univei'sity when he visited the United States 
 and his "Introduction* to Psychoanalysis" supply 
 laymen with a clear and intelligible summary of his 
 theories. 
 
 Freud considers that a study of dteams is ihe 
 surest way to penetrate man's unconscious. The 
 dreams of children are very easily understood: 
 they are invariably the fulfilment of wishes -which 
 were aroused in children during the day and were 
 not satisfied. The dreams of adults present more 
 difficulties. They undergo a process of distortion, 
 of disguise. The idea which underlies them was 
 meant for a quite different verbal expression. 
 
 The manifest dream content is a disguised sub- 
 stitute for the unconscious dream thoughts, and this 
 disguise is the work of the defensive forces of the 
 ego, of the resistances. 
 
 These prevent the repressed wishes from enter- 
 ing the consciousness in our waking hours, and even 
 in the relaxation of sleep, they are still strong 
 enough to force them to hide themselves under a 
 mask, to don a symbolical disguise. 
 
 By studying the irruptive ideas which arise 
 through free association, we can discover the ac- 
 tual dream thoughts. 
 
 They are no longer incomprehensible; they are 
 [290] 
 
Wish Fulfilment in Dreams 
 
 associated with the impressions of the day preced- 
 ing the dream and appear as the fulfilment of un- 
 gratified wishes. 
 
 The manifest dream which we remember after 
 waking may then be described as the disguised ful- 
 filment of repressed wishes. 
 
 The analysis of dreams reveals, according to 
 Freud, the unsuspected importance which impres- 
 sions and experiences from early childhood exert 
 on human beings. In the dream life of the adult, 
 the child continues to live and retain all the traits 
 and wishes he ever had, even those which he was 
 obliged to abandon in later years. Dream study- 
 enables one to realize through what complicated 
 processes of development, repression, sublimation 
 and reaction the normal adult has gradually grown 
 out of the child. 
 
 Anxiety dreams do not invalidate the theory of 
 wish fulfilment, for anxiety is one of the ways in 
 which the ego relieves itself of repressed wishes 
 which have become too strong and, therefore, anx- 
 iety can easily be experienced if the dream has 
 gone too far toward the fulfilment of an objection- 
 able wish. 
 
 Faulty actions are another class of phenomena 
 which throw much light upon the workings of our 
 unconscious. The forgetting of things which one 
 
 [291] 
 
Psychoanalysis and Behaviour 
 
 is supposed to know, like proper names, in 
 certain cases, slips of the tongue, mistakes iii 
 writing or reading, the automatic execution of pur- 
 posive acts in wrong situations, the loss or break- 
 ing of certain objects, all these are trifles for which 
 no one before Freud had sought a psychological 
 explanation and which had always been considered 
 as the consequences of absent-mindedness, inatten- 
 tion, etc. 
 
 This should also include actions and gestures 
 which the subject performs unknowingly, such as 
 playing with objects (buttons, pencils), humming 
 melodies, handling one's person or clothing and the 
 like. 
 
 These insignificant actions are not without mean- 
 ing. They spring from the same sort of repressed 
 wishes which are at the bottom of our dreams. 
 
 Such investigation, Freud states, trace back the 
 symptoms of mental disease with surprising regular- 
 ity to impressions from the sexual life. They show 
 that the pathogenic wishes are erotic cravings and 
 that disturbances of the erotic sphere are the most 
 important factors of mental disease. 
 
 Psychoanalysis may at first trace the symptoms, 
 not to sexual happenings but to banal traumatic 
 experiences. This distinction, however, loses its 
 significance through other circumstances. The 
 [292] 
 
Childish Sexuality 
 
 analytic research work which is necessary for the 
 thorough explanation and the complete cure of 
 mental disease does not stop in any case with the 
 experiences which coincided with the onset of the 
 disease. It goes back in every case to the ado- 
 lescence and childhood of the patient. Here only 
 does Freud find the impressions and experiences 
 which determine the later sickness. It is the in- 
 compatible, repressed wishes of childhood which 
 lend their power to the creation of symptoms. 
 
 These mighty wishes of childhood are very gen- 
 erally sexual in their nature, i/i 
 
 Sexual impailses do not enter* the child's life at 
 puberty; the child brings them with him into the 
 world and from these, what we call the "normal" 
 sexuality of the adult gradually develops. 
 
 The sexual impulse of the child is very complex 
 and can be analysed into many components arising 
 from different sources. It is not at first related 
 to the function of reproduction. It enables the 
 child to secure various forms of pleasurable sensa- 
 tions such as the auto-excitation of certain particu- 
 larly sensitive parts of the body, genitals, rectum, 
 skin and other surfaces. Thumb sucking is a good 
 example of this form of gratification. 
 
 As in this first phase of the child's sexual life 
 the child find? the gratification he seeks in his own 
 
 1293a 
 
Psychoanalysis and Behaviour 
 
 body, Freud calls this period the period of auto- 
 erotism. 
 
 Besides auto-erotic manifestations, Freud finds 
 in the early life of the child impulse components 
 of the libido which presuppose a second person as 
 their object. 
 
 These impulses appear in opposed pairs, active 
 and passive. The most important pairs of this 
 group are sadism and masochism, the pleasure of 
 inflicting pain and the pleasure of suffering pain, 
 and the active and passive forms of exhibitionism, 
 
 From the passive form of exhibitionism is de 
 rived the impulsb toward artistic or histrionic rep' 
 resentation. From the active form, scientific curi 
 osity. 
 
 The differences between the sexes play no very 
 important part in the child's life and there is in 
 every child a homosexual tendency. 
 
 The sexual life of the child, varied but inorgan- 
 ized, in which each single craving goes about seek- 
 ing its satisfaction independently from the others, 
 becomes gradually organized in two directions and, 
 at the time of puberty, the definite sex of the in- 
 dividual is clearly determined. 
 
 The various cravings submit themselves to the 
 primacy of the genital zone and the entire sexual 
 life is taken over into the service of procreation. 
 [294] 
 
Morbid Predispositions 
 
 Object choice prevails over auto-erotism and the 
 love object satisfies all the separate cravings of the 
 sex urge. 
 
 But many of the original components of that urge 
 are given no share in the final shaping of the sex- 
 ual life. Even before the advent of puberty, cer- 
 tain cravings had been submitted to the strongest 
 repression by education. Shame, disgust, morality 
 prevent the repressed cravings from asserting them- 
 selves. 
 
 Every process of development brings with itself 
 the germ of pathological predispositions whenever it 
 is inhibited, delayed or incompletely carried out. 
 This is true of the sexual development. In some 
 individuals it may not be completed and it may 
 leave in its wake abnormalities or a predisposition 
 to later diseases by the way of regressiori. Some 
 cravings which have not fallen imder the domina- 
 tion of the genital zone may cause a perversion. 
 The original equality of the sexes may be main- 
 tained and homosexualism is the result. 
 
 The neuroses contain the same cravings found in 
 perversions but in a negative form. Those crav- 
 ings have undergone a repression but maintain 
 themselves as complexes in the unconscious. 
 
 Exaggerated expression of a craving in very 
 early life leads to a fixation. 
 
 [295] 
 
Psychoanalysis and Behaviour 
 
 The child takes both parents as an object of his 
 erotic wishes but soon singles out one of them, fol- 
 lowing in that respect the example set by his par- 
 ents, the father preferring his daughter, the mother, 
 her son. The child reacts to that choice and if a 
 son, wishes himself in the place of his father, if a 
 daughter in the place of her toother. 
 
 The feelings aroused by such relations between 
 parents and offspring are not only of a positive and 
 affectionate nature but of a hostile and negative 
 nature as well. 
 
 A situation ensues which can be roughly repre- 
 sented by the myth of Oedipus, who killed his father 
 and married his mother. 
 
 This fixation which is submitted at an early age 
 to a strong repression is to Freud's mind the cen- 
 tral complex of every neurosis. 
 
 About the time when the child is still obsessed 
 by this complex his attention is drawn towards the 
 processes of reproduction and he begins to seek 
 solutions for the question: where do children come 
 from? Children build up at that time a number 
 of pregnancy and birth theories which reappear in 
 later life in many neuroses. 
 
 The neurotic disturbance is simply the in- 
 dividual's flight from a reality in which his re- 
 pressed cravings cannot be gratified. The resist- 
 [296] 
 
The Modem Cloister 
 
 ance of the neurotic against any cure is due to the 
 fact that he is not certain that the substitute grati- 
 fication offered him by his sickness can be replaced 
 in reality by something better. 
 
 The neurotic flight from reality takes place over 
 the path of regression, through a return to earlier 
 stages of life in which gratification was not lacking. 
 The regression is a twofold one, for the libido re- 
 gresses not only to an earlier stage of development, 
 but also adopts primitive, archaic forms of ex- 
 pression. 
 
 We are all, whether we are normal or abnormal, 
 seeking an escape from; reality. The strong, en- 
 ergetic man tries by dint of labour to make his 
 wishes come true and generally succeeds. If the 
 individual displeased with reality possesses artistic 
 talent he can transform his fancies into artistic 
 creations. The neurosis takes in our days the place 
 of the cloister in which the weak and disappointed 
 took refuge. 
 
 The neurosis has no psychic content of its own 
 which cannot be foimd in healthy minds. The 
 struggle for life leads either to success and health, 
 or to compensatory activities or to the neurosis. 
 
 Freud has divided mental disturbances into 
 neuroses, psychoneuroses and psydhoses. 
 
 The true neuroses are anxiety neurosis and 
 
 [297] 
 
Psychoanalysis and Behaviour 
 
 neurasthenia. Their cause lies in the present and 
 in the abnormal condition of the sexual function. 
 
 The psycho-neuroses are hysteria and the ob- 
 session neurosis, in which the real causative fac- 
 tors belong to the patients' early childhood. 
 
 In psychoneuroses as well as in neuroses the 
 factors of the disturbance are sexual, but in the 
 psychoneuroses the influence of heredity is more 
 important. 
 
 Heredity finds its expression in a peculiar psy- 
 chosexual constitution which asserts itself in an 
 abnormally strong and many-sided instinctive life 
 and a resultant sexual precocity. 
 
 Between the compelling instinct and the opposing 
 force of sexual denial, the way is prepared for some 
 disturbance which does not solve the conflict but 
 seeks to escape it by changing the libidinous crav- 
 ings into symptoms of disease. 
 
 Besides actual heredity, however, there is a 
 pseudo-heredity which is after all the influence of 
 the enviromnjent. Neurotic parents may not pro- 
 create neurotic children but they bring up their 
 children to be neurotics. 
 
 Freud does not classify the psychoses accord- 
 ing to their clinical picture but according to their 
 mechanism, into overpowering psychoses and de- 
 fence psychoses. In the former, the unconscious 
 [298] 
 
Insanity an Asset 
 
 has completely overcome the conscious and the ego 
 has torn itself loose from some unbearable idea. 
 For instance a girl disappointed in love imagined 
 for two months that she was living with her lover 
 and in that abnormal way had her wishes ful- 
 fiUed. 
 
 The defence psychoses are characterized by the 
 violent repression of an idea. In dementia prae- 
 cox there is a withdrawal of the libido from the 
 objects of the external world. Freud observed a 
 group of paranoia cases arising from repression of 
 painful memories. The libido fastening itself to 
 the ego complex mjay lead to ideas of grandeur, 
 which explains the connection between persecution 
 mania and grandiose delusions. As far as the 
 periodic melancholia is concerned, Freud asserts 
 that it dissolves itself with unexpected frequency 
 into obsessional ideas and obsessional affects. 
 
 In other words, insanity is no longer considered 
 as a brain disease or as a set of absurd symptoms 
 grouped in varying clinical pictures. Insanity is 
 an abnormal asset for the insane, a dream from 
 which he does not awaken and which supplies him 
 with an abnormal form of wish-fulfilment. 
 
 The analytic treatment as outlined by Freud con- 
 sists in letting the patient talk on any subject he 
 pleases, since nothing can occur to him which does 
 
 [299] 
 
Psychoanalysis and Behaviour 
 
 not bear on the complex which the analyst is seek- 
 ing. The patient often stops and pretends that he 
 has nothing m'ore to say. This indicates that the 
 patient is holding back or rejecting certain ideas 
 because his unconscious resistance masquerades 
 as a critical judgment of the value of the ideas. 
 The patient can avoid that if he is warned in ad- 
 vance and told not to pass any judgment on the 
 ideas that come to his mind, however unessential, 
 irrelevant, nonsensical or personally unpleasant 
 they may be. 
 
 These irruptive ideas which the patient values 
 little, "are to the analyst like the ore which can be 
 transformed through simple processes into valu- 
 able tmetal." If one desires to gain in a short time 
 a preliminary knowledge of the patient's repressed 
 complexes, the examination can be conducted with 
 the help of association experiments. 
 
 This procedure is to the analyst what qualitative 
 analysis is to the chemist. It may be dispensed 
 with in the therapy of neurotic patients, but it is 
 indispensable in the study of the psychoses. 
 
 This is followed by dream study and the close 
 observation of the patient's involuntary, faulty ac- 
 tions, etc. 
 
 Freud attaches a great importance to the phe- 
 nomenon known as the transference which he con- 
 [300] 
 
The Transference 
 
 siders as further evidence of the sexual forces which 
 are at the bottom of the neurosis. 
 
 The patient, he says, directs toward the person 
 of the physician a great amount of tender emotion, 
 often mixed with enmity, which has no foundation 
 in any real relation, and must be derived in every 
 respect from the old wish-fancies of the patient 
 which have become unconscious. 
 
 Every fragment of his emotional life, which can 
 no longer be called back into memory, is accord- 
 ingly lived over by the patient in his relation to 
 the physician, and only by living it over in the 
 transference is he convinced of the power of those 
 unconscious sexual stimuli. The symptoms 
 which, to use a chemical expression, are the precipi- 
 tates of earlier love experiences, using the word 
 love in its broadest sense, can only be dissolved in 
 the high temperature of the experience of trans- 
 ference and transformed into other psychic prod- 
 ucts. 
 
 The phenomenon of transference is not created 
 by the psychoanalytic treatment. It arises spon- 
 taneously in all human relations and in the rela- 
 tions of, the patient to the physician. It is every- 
 where the bearer of therapeutic influences and the 
 stronger it is the less one is aware of its presence. 
 
 Psychoanalysis does not create it but simply 
 
 [301] 
 
Psychoanalysis and Behaviour 
 
 reveals it to consciousness and avails itself of it 
 to direct the psychic processes toward a certain 
 goal. 
 
 People ignorant of the analytic technique often 
 express the fear that by causing certain unconscious 
 cravings to rise to consciousness those cravings may 
 overpower the patient's ethical strivings and rob 
 him of his cultural acquisitions. 
 
 Experience teaches, Freud states, that the physi- 
 cal and mental power of a wish whose repression 
 has failed, is incomparably stronger when it re- 
 mains unconscious than when it is made conscious. 
 The unconscious wish cannot be influenced and is 
 not hindered by strivings in the opposite direction, 
 while the conscious wish is inhibited by other con- 
 scious wishes of an opposite nature. 
 
 What then becomes of the cravings which were 
 set free by analysis? How can they be made harm- 
 less for the individual? 
 
 The craving is generally "consumed" during the 
 analysis by the correct mental activity of opposite 
 wishes which are conscious and more valuable 
 socially. Repression is replaced by condemnation. 
 This is easy, Freud thinks, as we have only in the 
 majority of the cases, to efface the effects of earlier 
 developmental stages of the ego. 
 
 Analysis may also reveal that some unconscious 
 [302] 
 
Sublimation 
 
 cravings can be gratified in ways which would have 
 been found earlier if the development of the indi- 
 vidual had i;iot been disturbed. The mere extirpa- 
 tion of infantile wishes is not the ideal aim of 
 development, for the neurotic loses, through his 
 repressions, many sources of mental energy which 
 could have been utilized for his character building 
 and his life activities. 
 
 Sublimation is a process which directs the energy 
 of the infantile wish-stimuli toward a higher goal, 
 eventually no longer sexual. The components of 
 the sexual urge have a great capacity for sublima- 
 tion and can exchange their sexual goal for one 
 more remote and socially valuable. "To the 
 utilization of the energy reclaimed in such a way, 
 in the activities of our mental life, we probably owe 
 the highest cultural achievdments. As long as an 
 impulse is repressed, it cannot be sublimated. 
 After the removal of the repression, the way to 
 sublim!ation is open." 
 
 BIBLIOGRAPHY 
 
 The following books by the founder of the psycho- 
 analytic science must be read before one can acquire a 
 clear understanding of Freud's doctrines: 
 Freud, S. — "Three Contributions to the Theory of Sex" 
 (Nervous and Mental Disease Pub. Co.) 
 
 [303] 
 
Psychoanalysis and Behaviour 
 
 Freud-, S. — "The Interpretation of Dreams" (Macmillan). 
 
 Freud, S. — "The Psychopathology of Everyday Life" 
 (MacmillaTi). 
 
 Freud, S. — "Wit and the Unconscious" (Moffat, Yard) . 
 
 Freud, S. — "The Origin and Development of Psycho- 
 analysis" (Clark University). 
 
 Freud, S. — "The History of the Psychoanalytic Move- 
 ment" (Nervous and Mental Disease Pub. Co.). 
 
 Freud, S. — "Introduction to Psychoanalysis" (Boni and 
 Liveright) . 
 To imderstand the application of Freud's theories to 
 
 purely morbid states one should consult Hitschmann's 
 
 "Freud's Theories of the Neuroses" (Moffat, Yard), a 
 
 most reliable book of reference. 
 
 [304] 
 
CHAPTER II: JUNG. THE ZURICH SCHOOL 
 
 Dr. Carl G. Jung of Zurich, Switzerland, one of 
 Freud's disciples, has developed his master's views, 
 broadening them out in certain respects but impart- 
 ing to them in other respects a great deal of vague- 
 ness. 
 
 Freud's conception of the libido does not satisfy 
 Jung. He conceived that urge as a force reaching 
 far beyond the confines of sexuality or love even 
 in their broadest sense. To him this force is a 
 mysterious thing, similar to Bergson's Vital Urge, 
 and which manifests itself not merely through sex 
 and other hedonist activities, but through organic 
 growth and development, and through all mental 
 and intellectual activities. 
 
 He agrees with Freud that the instinct of repro- 
 duction is at the basis of hundreds of manifestations 
 which at the present day seem to have completely 
 lost all the sexual significance they once had, but 
 he refuses, on account of their present character, to 
 designate them as sexual. 
 
 In place of a sexual viewpoint, Jung introduces 
 into abnormal psychology an energic viewpoint. 
 
 [305] 
 
Psychoanalysis and Behaviour 
 
 The first manifestation of the libido or vital 
 energy is the instinct of nutrition. From this stage 
 the libido slowly develops through the many activi- 
 ties of the act of sucking into the sexual function. 
 Hence he does not consider the act of sucking as a 
 sexual act. The pleasure derived from sudsing 
 the mother's nipple cannot be considered as a 
 sexual pleasure but as a nutritional pleasure, for 
 Jung does not see anywhere any evidence that 
 pleasure in itself is sexual. 
 
 It is because the libido attaches itself to an object 
 or withdraws itself from it that the object interests 
 us or appeals to us. The object itself is indifferent. 
 The neurotic has no conscious reason for the outflow 
 or the withdrawal of his libido, but when there is 
 an exaggerated interest for one object, there is a 
 consequent lack of energy elsewhere. 
 
 The second point on which Jung disagrees with 
 Freud is the meaning of the childish manifestations 
 of sexuality which Freud calls "polymorphous per- 
 verse" because of their similarity to the abnormal 
 phenomena of adult life known as perversions, 
 
 Jung refuses to use the word perverse in connec- 
 tion with those infantile activities. They are to his 
 mind the gradual enfoldment of sexuality. He 
 divides life into three periods : the presexual period 
 extending to the third or fourth year, in which the 
 [306] 
 
The Polymorphous Perverse 
 
 libido is mainly occupied with nutrition and growth, 
 and corresponds roughly to the caterpillar stage of 
 the butterfly. 
 
 Then comes the prepubertal stage, from the 
 fourth year to the age of puberty, followed by the 
 period of maturity. 
 
 In the presexual stage, the "polymorphous per- 
 verse" activities arise from the general broadening 
 of. the libido which is no longer at the exclusive 
 service of nutrition and begins to flow through many 
 other channels. The childish habits are abandoned 
 gradually, which means that a large amount of 
 libido is withdrawn from them. 
 
 If on the other hand the libido in its extension 
 from nutrition to sex is arrested or retarded, a 
 fixation may result, creating a disharmony, for the 
 physical growth of the child cannot wait and never 
 stops. A discrepancy arises between the infantile 
 character of the child's emotional life and the needs 
 of the more mature individual and the seed is sown 
 for some maladaptation of the neurotic type. 
 
 The child uses up a great amount of energy in 
 day dreaming which compensates him for the thou- 
 sand things which the world is denying him or 
 rather taking away from him. 
 
 As the human being passes from childhood into 
 adulthood, the increasing demands which life 
 
 [307] 
 
Psychoanalysis and Behaviour 
 
 makes upon him compel him to abandon the world 
 of fancies in which he spent so many hours. There 
 again there may be a lingering of the libido 
 in the phantasy stage and this leads to a 
 condition called introversion. The introvert is 
 characterized by the fact that his libido is turned 
 toward his own personality and that he regards 
 everything from the point of view of his person- 
 ality. The introvert lingers on situations and ex- 
 periences which are a thing of the past, which are 
 no longer of any import and which obscure to him 
 the actual situation he should face. 
 
 This constitutes another form of maladaptation 
 to practical life with its various social aspects. 
 
 The dominant factor in the child's life are the 
 parents. 
 
 At this point, Jung again disagrees with Freud. 
 Jung admits that there are many neurotic persons, 
 who, in their infancy and childhood, showed im- 
 mistakable neurotic traits which in later life became 
 more deeply marked. And he realizes also that 
 the parents wield on the child's destiny, by their 
 affection or lack of affection, wrong example, etc., 
 an influence which is decisive for the child's future. 
 
 The child's mentality may be so moulded by 
 early influences that in later life he will constantly 
 seek in the actual world conditions which domi- 
 [308] 
 
The Parent Image 
 
 nated in the family circle and will never be satisfied 
 until he thinks he has drawn near that goal. 
 
 But the adult is not conscious of those influences 
 and may actually consider himself absolutely free 
 from such tyranny, the more so as he often realizes 
 the profound outward difference between present 
 and past conditions and fails to notice their essential 
 similarity. 
 
 Therefore, Jung does not consider that the actual 
 parents are the actual factors in a subject's attitude 
 to life and its problems, but rather the distorted, 
 often idealized, images of the parents, the father 
 imago and the mother imago. 
 
 To Jung, the Oedipus Complex is a purely sym- 
 bolic situation in which the mjother has absolutely 
 no sexual significance for the child. 
 
 It is not the mere existence of this complex, Jung 
 writes, which characterizes the neurotic, for every- 
 body has it in his unconscious, but the neurotic's 
 strong attachment to it. This so-called fixation is 
 probably a normal phenomenon. The fact that 
 the neurotic seems markedly influenced by it shows 
 that it is less a matter of fixation than of a peculiar 
 use which he makes of his infantile past. He 
 exaggerates its importance and attributes to it a 
 great artificial value. 
 
 The jealousy which even very young children 
 
 [309] 
 
Psychoanalysis and Behaviour 
 
 may show toward their father more or less corre- 
 sponds to the displeasure which certain animals, 
 dogs, for example, show in regard to strangers ap- 
 proaching their masters or the caresses their masters 
 may lavish on other dogs, cats, etc. Children prob- 
 ably appreciate their mother most as a source of 
 food, protection and physical comfort. Later, 
 when eroticism begins to develop, the male child 
 tends to prefer the mother, the female child the 
 father, the male dhild experiencing something akin 
 to sexual jealousy toward his father, the female 
 child toward her mother. 
 
 As puberty is attained, male and fetmale child 
 free themselves from their too exclusive attachment 
 for their parents and upon the extent of their detach- 
 ment depends their future well being. 
 
 This disentanglement is often accompanied by a 
 severe struggle and a mental and physical crisis 
 which Jung designates as the stage of self-sacrifice. 
 In that period the childish tendencies and forms of 
 love are sacrificed in order that the energy they 
 consume may be freed and turned toward self- 
 fulfilment aims. 
 
 We now reach another important point whereon 
 Jung separates himself from Freud. 
 
 To Freud the many repressions which take place 
 before and during the stage characterized by Jung 
 [310] 
 
Adapuaion to Life 
 
 as the stage of self-sacrifice result in the accumula- 
 tion of unconscious material constantly seeking an 
 outlet. Hence to Freud, dreams are in their es- 
 sence a symbolic veil for repressed desires which 
 are in conflict with the ideals of the personality. 
 
 To Jung the dream is a subliminal picture of the 
 psychological condition of the individual in his 
 waking state. It represents a resume of the sub- 
 liminal association material which is brought 
 together by the momentary psychological situation. 
 The volitional meaning of the dream which Freud 
 calls the repressed desire is to Jung a means of 
 expression. 
 
 The activity of the consciousness, speaking bio- 
 logically, represents the psychological effort which 
 the individual makes in adapting himself to the con- 
 ditions of life. His consciousness endeavours to 
 adjust itself to the necessities of the moment. In 
 other words, there are tasks that the individual must 
 perform, obstacles he must overcome. In many 
 cases he is at a loss to find a solution and hence 
 tends to refer to previous experiences of a more or 
 less similar nature. We always try to understand 
 the imknown which lies in the future in terms of 
 the known which happened in the past. 
 
 As Jung sees no reasons for supposing that the 
 unconscious follows laws different from those rul- 
 
 [311] 
 
Psychoanalysis and Behaviour 
 
 ing conscious thought, he believes that the uncon- 
 scious arrives at an understanding of the unknown 
 by assimilating it to something which is known. 
 When America was first discovered by the 
 Spaniards, the Indians took the horses of the con- 
 querors for huge pigs, for they were familiar with 
 the appearance of pigs, had never seen horses and 
 hence drew comparisons between the unknown 
 horses and the well known pigs. 
 
 Hence the wealth of symbols used in dreams. 
 
 It is then the present conflict which, according 
 to Jung, dominates our dream states and supplies 
 their content. 
 
 And it is the present conflict, too, Jung thinks, 
 which causes the onset of the neurosis. Jung re- 
 jects the Freudian view according to which the in- 
 fantile past is the direct causes of the neurosis. 
 
 Jung thinks that the regression to infantile or 
 childish forms of thought or action is prompted by 
 the patient's desire to withdraw as far as possible 
 from the present. 
 
 The conflict is produced by some important task 
 which is essential for the fulfilment of the indi- 
 vidual's destiny and which the subject refuses to 
 perform. 
 
 A sensitive and somewhat inharmonious char- 
 acter will always meet with special difficulties and 
 [312] 
 
The Neurotic's Individualism 
 
 with greater obstacles than a perfectly normal and 
 more resistant individual. For the neurotic, there 
 are no established ways, as his aims and tasks are 
 apt to be of a highly individual character. He 
 tries to follow the more uncontrolled half-conscious 
 ways of normal people, not fully realizing his own 
 critical nature which imposes upon him more effort 
 than the normal person is required to exert. There 
 are children who show their increased sensitiveness 
 and inadaptability in the very first weeks of their 
 life by their difficulty in taking the breast, by their 
 exaggerated nervous reactions. 
 
 This predisposition is the cause of the first resist- 
 ances against adaptation. In such cases the libido 
 does not find its appropriate outlet and replaces 
 modem and acceptable forms of adaptation by 
 some abnormal, primitive forms. 
 
 Infantile fantasies determine the form and fur- 
 ther development of a neurosis but they do not 
 constitute the origin of the neurosis. The fact that 
 the patient himself may consider infantile fancies 
 as the cause of his neurosis does not prove that he 
 is right in his belief or that a theory. following the 
 same belief is right either. The fact that infantile 
 fancies are exaggerated and put into the foreground 
 is simply a consequence of the stored-up energy or 
 libido. 
 
 [313] 
 
Psychoanalysis and Behaviour 
 
 The psychological trouble in neurosis and neu- 
 rosis itself can be considered as an act of adaptation 
 that has failed. A neurosis is, from a certain point 
 of view, an attempt at self-cure. 
 
 Jung's view of the neurosis does not prevent him 
 from adhering to the Freudian mode of analysis. 
 The analyst, according to Jung, must not imagine 
 that, by unravelling the infantile fancies he is im- 
 earthing the end roots of the disease. But he must 
 uproot those fancies because the energy which the 
 patient needs for his health, that is, for his adapta- 
 tion, is attached to them. 
 
 By means of psychoanalysis the connection be- 
 tween the conscious life and the libido in the un- 
 conscious is re-established. Thus this unconscious 
 libido is placed anew at the service of conscious 
 activity. Only in this way can split-off energy 
 become again available for the accomplishment of 
 the necessary tasks of life. 
 
 To Jung, psychoanalysis is no longer a mere 
 reduction of the individual to his primitive sexual 
 wishes but "a high moral task of immense educa- 
 tional value." It should not occupy itself with 
 conflicts for which an external solution can be 
 found unless it can adjust them through an internal 
 solution. For example, some man dissatisfied with 
 [314] 
 
Solving Conflicts 
 
 his home life may think that all his difficulties 
 would disappear if he married another woman. 
 But the old Adam would probably bungle the new 
 union as it bungled the old one. A real solution 
 for many such conflicts only comes from within, 
 and only then because the patient has been brought 
 to a new standpoint. 
 
 For example, the conflict between love and duty 
 must be solved upon that particular plane of char- 
 acter where love and duty are no longer in opposi- 
 tion. The familiar conflict between instinct and 
 conventional morality must be solved in such a way 
 that both factors are taken into account and this is 
 only possible through a change of character. 
 
 Jung regards the question of the doctor's remain- 
 ing true to his scientific convictions as rather unim- 
 portant in comparison with the question as to how 
 he can best help his patient. 
 
 The analyst must be a teacher of ethics. Young 
 neurotics must be niade to realize that their search 
 for a more valuable personality is often a cloak 
 for the evasion of biological duty. Older patients 
 looking back too obstinately toward the sexual valu- 
 ation of youth may be simply retreating from a 
 duty which demands the recognition of social 
 values. In most cases the "canalization of the 
 
 [315] 
 
Psychoanalysis and Behaviour 
 
 libido" for the fulfilment of life's simple duties 
 suffices to reduce to nothing many exaggerated de- 
 sires. 
 
 At the same time, Jung calls our attention to the 
 fact that the question is not as simple as that and 
 cannot always be solved in terms of "morality." 
 "Immoral" tendencies cannot always be removed 
 by analysis. On the contrary, some of them 
 appear often m.ore clearly and hence one must come 
 to the conclusion that they belong to the individual's 
 biological duties. This is no longer a problem for 
 pathologists but for sociologists. This is especially 
 true of certain sexual claims. Nature does not 
 content herself with theories. At the present day 
 we have no real sexual morality, only a legal atti- 
 tude toward sexuality. Just as the early Middle 
 Ages had no business ethics but only certain preju- 
 dices and a legal standpoint. 
 
 This obscure feeling that a new, more progres- 
 sive world is needed constitutes, at times, a part of 
 the neurotic complication. We must not forget 
 that the moral law of today will be cast tomorrow 
 into the melting pot to the end that it may serve 
 at some future time as the basis of some new 
 ethical structure. 
 
 So it comes that there are many neurotics who^e 
 delicacy of feeling prevents them from being in 
 [316] 
 
Finding Our Life Work 
 
 agreement with present-day morality and who can- 
 not adapt themselves to civilization as long as their 
 moral code has gaps, the filling of which is the 
 crying need of the age. 
 
 Jung thinks that in 'many cases neurotics are neu- 
 rotics, not because they are unsatisfied sexually or 
 have not found the right mate or because they still 
 are suffering from a fixation on their infantile sexu- 
 ality: the real cause for their neurosis is, in many 
 cases, their inability to recognize the work that is 
 waiting for them„ of helping to build up a new 
 civilization. 
 
 In the past nothing can be altered, and in the 
 present very little, but the future is ours. The 
 neurotic is ill not because he has lost his old faith 
 but because he has not as yet found a new form for 
 his finest aspirations. 
 
 BIBLIOGRAPHY 
 
 Beginners will find Jung's theories presented in a very 
 lucid way in Beatrice M. Hinckle's introduction to Jung's 
 "Psychology of the Unconscious" (Moffat, Yard). For 
 more detail, consult C. G. Jung's "Analytical Psychology" 
 (Moffat, Yard) in which the Swiss analyst not only dis- 
 cusses his position in regard to the various problems of 
 psychoanalysis but brings out the main points on which 
 he disagrees with Freud and Adier. His correspondence 
 with Dr. Loy, which is included in this volume, will 
 
 [317] 
 
Psychoanalysis and Behaviour 
 
 prove most interesting, as it reveals to the reader the 
 mental evolution which led Jmig from the practice of 
 hypnotism to that of psychoanalysis. C. J. Jung's "The 
 Association Method" (Clark University) explains very 
 clearly some of the methods of analytical examination. 
 Advanced students will find the development of his 
 thought and its applications to religion and folk lore in 
 his "Psychology of the Unconscious" and in his "Studies 
 in Word-Association" (Moffat, Yard). 
 
 [318] 
 
CHAPTER III: ADLER. INDIVIDUAL 
 PSYCHOLOGY 
 
 Adler does not call himself a psychoanalyst. 
 After breaking away from the Freudian camp he 
 designated his research work and his methods of 
 psychiatry as Individual Psychology. The term 
 has merits, for there are no cut-and-dried rules in 
 the study and treatment of mental disturbances and 
 every case must be approached from a different 
 angle. It has not, however, been used by any one 
 else in the literature of psychoanalysis. 
 
 Freud considers human life as the result of the 
 play of unconscious forces which drive us blindly 
 and which we are in no way capable of leading or 
 regulating. The repressed desires which are con- 
 stantly seeking an outlet and which by creating an 
 abnormal outlet for themselves upset at times our 
 mental balance, serve no definite purpose. 
 
 Jung, dissatisfied with this form of psychological 
 fatalism, contended that the neurosis was an unsuc- 
 cessful attempt at adjusting one's conduct to the 
 problems of the present. 
 
 Adler thinks that all the forces of the individual 
 
 [319] 
 
Psychoanalysis and Behaviour 
 
 are tending toward a definite goal and that in every 
 manifestation of life we can find traces of a domi- 
 nating or guiding idea. 
 
 In other words, Freud emphasized the importance 
 of the past, Jung that of the present, Adler that of 
 the future. 
 
 To Adler the most minute trait of psychic life is 
 permeated with a purpose-force. Every psychic 
 event bears the impress, or in other words is a 
 sy|mbol of a uniformly directed plan of life which 
 only comes to light more clearly in the neurosis. 
 But none of the neurotic traits are characteristic of 
 the neurotic exclusively. The neurotic shows no 
 single idiosyncrasy which cannot be proved to exist 
 in the healthy individual, although it may only be 
 revealed to the subject or the analyst through 
 analysis. 
 
 Adler reached his psychological viewpoint after 
 studying the effect which somie organic inferiority 
 has on the mental and physical health of the indi- 
 vidual. While Freud started in life as a hypnotist 
 and under the influence of Charcot and Bemheim, 
 Adler's first work was a monograph on Organ In- 
 feriority. 
 
 Nature is constantly at work to compensate for 
 all the deficiencies found in the organism. If one 
 kidney is removed the other grows larger and does 
 [320] 
 
The Feeling of Incompleteness 
 
 as much work as two did. If some of the heart 
 valves are destroyed the muscular activity of the 
 heart increases and thus the blood stream is kept in 
 motion at the proper rate. But nature does more 
 than that. An organ's capacity for work depends 
 not only upon its physical condition but on the nerve 
 impulses sent to it by the central nervous system. 
 A defective organ may be made to function prop- 
 erly through a vigorous exercise of the will. The 
 weakened organ is likely to becomte, on that ac- 
 count, unduly sensitive and in this peculiarity we 
 can find the roots of nervous suffering. 
 
 A patient suffering from nervous gastric or intes- 
 tinal trouble, for instance, is often one who once 
 suffered from such a disturbance and was cured. 
 The ailment may have affected him in his early 
 childhood, but the memory of it has been retained 
 unconsciously and is Recalled when the occasion 
 arises. 
 
 The neurotic, Adler says, suffers from a feeling 
 of incompleteness for which he seeks compensation. 
 The entire picture of the neurosis and all its symp- 
 toms are influenced if not provoked by an imagi- 
 nary fictitious goal. It is not the "libido" which 
 is the 'motive force behind the phenomena of the 
 neurosis, but the wish to be a complete man. The 
 libido, the sex cravings and the tendencies to per- 
 
 [321] 
 
Psychoanalysis and Behaviour 
 
 versions become subjugated by this power. Adler 
 in this respect agrees with Nietzsche's theory of the 
 will-to-power and will-to-seem and also with some 
 of the older writers who held that the feeling of 
 pleasure originates in a sense of power and the 
 feeling of pain in a sense of weakness. 
 
 Adler objects to Freud's contention that the neu- 
 rosis has a sexual origin. The sexual picture, he 
 says, deceives easily the normal person and more 
 easily yet the neurotic, but it must not deceive the 
 psychologist. The neurotic phenomenon is given 
 a sexual tinge by the antithesis "masculine-femi- 
 nine" which has gradually imposed itself upon hu- 
 man thinking and which obsesses neurotic thinking. 
 The assumption (now less generally spread, but uni- 
 versal before the feminist movetment began to check 
 it), that masculine meant also superior and strong, 
 and that feminine meant inferior and weak, is 
 gospel truth to the neurotic and a source of great 
 suffering. 
 
 The sexual trend in the neurotic's fancies and 
 in his life leads toward the masculine goal. The 
 whole picture of the sexual neurosis is simply a 
 graphic presentation of die distance separating the 
 patient from the imaginary masculine goal which 
 he is trying to reach. 
 
 The neurotic is not, as Freud thought, obsessed 
 [322] 
 
A Sick Girl's Fancies 
 
 by infantile wishes which come to life nightly 
 through his dreams. For those infantile wishes are 
 themselves subordinated to the fictitious goal, and 
 adapt themselves to symbolic expression for the 
 sake of convenience. 
 
 A sickly girl who, during her childhood, was 
 conscious of her insecurity and who has to rely 
 entirely on her father as far as her present and 
 future security is concerned, tends to usurp some 
 of her mother's privileges and may imagine the en- 
 tire situation in the form of an incest; she is taking 
 the place of her mother in her father's affections; 
 she is almost as important to her father as though 
 she were her father's wife. She may never marry, 
 for marriage with a stranger would not mean the 
 security she finds with her father, who is stronger, 
 wiser, and makes no physical, demands likely to 
 humiliate her ego. With a little imagination she 
 may easily conjure up the symbolic picture of an 
 incestuous relation. 
 
 Freud saw in this fantasy a re-birth of infantile 
 wishes. Adler sees in this attempt to reach into 
 the remote past, in that tendency of the neurotic 
 to abstraction and symbolization, a clever uncon- 
 scious scheme to attain security, to vouchsafe to the 
 ego the greatest amount of gratification and to reach 
 
 the masculine goal. 
 
 [323] 
 
Psychoanalysis and Behaviour 
 
 How do neurotic symptoms originate? Why 
 does the patient wish to be a man and constantly 
 seek to prove to himself his virility? Why does 
 he need so many egotistical forms of gratifica- 
 tion? 
 
 Because, Adler answers, there stands at the 
 threshold of the neurosis a threatening feeling of 
 inferiority and life becomes unbearable unless the 
 neurotic can look forward to a situation which as- 
 sures him, noitmally or abnormally, safety and 
 superiority. 
 
 The neurotic individual, aside from his purely 
 neurotic symptoms, will easily become conspicuous 
 owing to his evident inability to adapt himself to 
 his environment. The consciousness of his weak 
 point obsesses him to such a degree that often with- 
 out knowing it, he begins to build over it a pro- 
 tective structure. 
 
 His sensitiveness becomes more acute; he learns 
 to discern relationships which escape others, he 
 exaggerates his cautiousness, anticipates all sorts 
 of unpleasant consequences when he starts out to do 
 something or suffers some injury; he endeavours to 
 hear and to see more than others can hear or see; 
 he belittles himself; he becomes insatiable, econom- 
 ical, constantly strives to extend the boundaries 
 of his influence and power over space and time and 
 [324] 
 
Life a Constant Danger 
 
 soon loses the peace of mind and the freedom from 
 prejudice which guarantee mental health. 
 
 His distrust of himself and others, his envy and 
 maliciousness become more and more pronounced. 
 He either tries to gain the upper hand in cruel, 
 aggressive ways or he endeavours to dominate his 
 environment by his very humility and submissive- 
 ness. 
 
 Freud points out that the neurosis is a means of 
 escape from reality. Adler stresses the fact that 
 to the neurotic, life is nothing but a dangerous 
 adventure. Not only must he escape that danger 
 but he must construct a strong system of defence 
 that will protect him against it. The man for whom 
 every woman constitutes a temptation may develop 
 in his mind an obsessive fear of syphilis, after 
 which he thinks himself secure behind that protec- 
 tive wall; the unhappily mated wife escapes inter- 
 course which is odious to her by developing vague 
 pains in her sexual organs; an overwoi'ked country 
 preacher runs away and becomes for a period of 
 time a fruit seller; the bed-ridden neurotic who finds 
 life too monotonous has peculiar attacks, rushes to 
 a window, threatens to commit suicide and hence 
 secures the constant company of a nurse. 
 
 All these neurotic symptoms are ready-for-use 
 attitudes. The patient is not shaniming. He un- 
 
 [325] 
 
Psychoanalysis and Behaviour 
 
 consciously remembers earlier defects, earlier 
 sieges of sickness and reproduces them when an 
 em,ergency arises. He unconsciously produces the 
 required symptom as the fingers of a pianist repro- 
 duce without any conscious effort a certain combi- 
 nation of notes which has been carefully memo- 
 rized. 
 
 Adler foresees the objections which such a theory 
 is bound to bring forth. How can trigeminal 
 neuralgia, insomnia, paralysis, sick headaches, etc., 
 afford the neurotic any form of gratification? Be- 
 cause neurotic symptoms are in the majority of 
 cases sure means for obtaining mastery over another 
 person. And to that craving for power and su- 
 periority the neurotic is as ready to sacrifice his 
 comfort as normal human beings are to undergo, 
 hardships in order to attain some of their ideals. 
 The neurotic's absurd goal is an abnormal ideal, 
 but to him an ideal just the same. 
 
 To Adler, dreams only acquire a meaning when 
 we consider them as a symbol of life. The dream 
 is a sketchlike reflection of psychic attitudes and 
 reveals to the investigator the manner in which the 
 dreamer regards certain problems. 
 
 The dream is not the fulfilment of some infantile 
 wishes, but a neurotic way of securing for the ego 
 an easy form of gratification, and of solving prob- 
 [326] 
 
Incestuous Dreams 
 
 lems which to the neurotic appear too complicated. 
 Repeated dreams of the same type reveal the course 
 followed by the fictitious guiding line. They indi- 
 cate various attempts at solving one problem and 
 hence betray a characteristic feeling of uncertainty. 
 
 The analysis of dreatais appears as essential to 
 Adler as to Freud as a part of the analytic treat- 
 ment. Adler, however, rejects entirely the literal 
 Freudian interpretation and shares some of Jung's 
 Symbolistic views. 
 
 The incest motive he thinks is as little real in 
 dreams as it is in the waking life of the individual. 
 When man dreams for instance of intercourse with 
 his mother, he is just running back to her for pro- 
 tection as he did when a child. The fact that near 
 relations appear so often in our dreams in sexual 
 situations is due to the very make up of our uncon- 
 scious. 
 
 There are in our unconscious several layers of 
 memory pictures and the deeper we go, the fewer 
 pictures we find, until arriving at the bottom we 
 only find the parents, the first pictures the indi- 
 vidual ever beheld. That those are more likely to 
 recur than any others and to be used symbolically 
 whenever our archaic, primitive unconscious needs 
 human types to symbolize men or women, is easily 
 
 understood. 
 
 [327] 
 
Psychoanalysis and Behaviour 
 
 While Freud stressed the love motive, Adler 
 stresses the power miotive and thus explains the 
 neurotic's strange inability to love, his strange 
 tendency to become self-centred. 
 
 Intent on protecting himself against all the perils 
 of life, the neurotic is constantly on his guard. 
 To surrender to any tender feeling would mean to 
 him to submit to some other ego. 
 
 Love to him is only another danger to be warded 
 off, a weak spot in his defence system through which 
 the enemy, life, might enter to defeat him. The 
 neurotic will either try to be an ascetic or a Don 
 Juan. As a mysogynist he will proclaim his su- 
 periority over every woman, as a Don Juan he will 
 proclaim woman's frailty and his irresistible viril- 
 ity. In either direction he will be found totally 
 lacking in measure. 
 
 Artistic creation, to Adler, is simply another 
 form of compensation for the individual's organic 
 shortcomings. Organs of slight inferiority may 
 develop, he says, greater functional capacities than 
 normal organs. 
 
 All mental operations have a tendency to concen- 
 trate on the weak organ in order to protect it from 
 harm. Singers, speakers, actors, he says, have 
 generally recovered from some organic defect 
 which in their infancy and childhood prompted 
 [328] 
 
Genius a Compensation 
 
 them to exercise their defective throat, tongue or 
 lips. Musicians may have been overexercising a 
 defective ear. Painters became interested in 
 colours and nuances owing to their originally weak 
 eyes. Adler calls our attention to the fact that 
 Demosthenes, who became Greece's greatest orator, 
 struggled for many years with an impediment in 
 his speech, that Mozart and Beethoven suffered 
 from severe ear trouble, that Bruckner's ears were 
 stigmatized by moles, and that there are more cases 
 of defective vision among pupils of art schools than 
 among any other classes of the population. 
 
 He even holds that our sense of inferiority deter- 
 mines the profession we embrace in real life and 
 mentions that many excellent chefs he examined 
 were suffering or had recovered from acute gas- 
 tric trouble. Their inferiority caused them to 
 pay special attention to food and its preparation, 
 etc. 
 
 The social bearing of Adler's doctrines is briefly 
 indicated in the preface to the second edition of 
 his Neurotic Constitution: "Our Individual Psy- 
 chology has gone far beyond the dead line of de- 
 scriptive psychology; to understand a man means 
 to save him from the errors into which he is led 
 by his sore, frantic but futile craving to be like 
 unto God and to make him amenable to the unshak- 
 
 [329] 
 
Psychoanalysis and Behaviour 
 
 able logic of human community life, to instil into 
 hinl the community sense." 
 
 BIBLIOGRAPHY 
 
 The best resume of Adier's theories will be found in 
 Poul Bjerre's "Theory and Practice of Psychoanalysis." 
 The only works of Adier's which are accessible to English 
 readers are his monograph on "Organ Inferiority and 
 its Psychic Compensation" (Nervous and Mental Disease 
 Pub. Co.) which contains many case histories upon which 
 he was to build his later theories. His "Neurotic Con- 
 stitution" (Moffat, Yard) is less a book than a series of 
 studies of the neurotic life from several points of view. 
 
 [330] 
 
CHAPTER IV: KEMPF. DYNAMIC 
 MECHANISM 
 
 Valuable as their theories are, one cannot help 
 feeling that Freud's and Jung's mode of thinking is 
 still closely related to that of the academic psycholo- 
 gists. They give the impression that the mental 
 and the physical are two separate entities. The 
 term conversion used by Freud to designate the 
 physical sjmiptoms accompanying certain emotions 
 seems to ifmply a duality in organic manifestations 
 which, to modem scientists, appears totally un- 
 founded. 
 
 When Freud and Jung speak of libido, cravings, 
 censor, etc., they are almost as vague and uncon- 
 vincing as Bergson when he speaks of the vital 
 urge. 
 
 Adler felt the necessity of establishing a more 
 intimate connection between physical and mental 
 manifestations, but he did not make the mechanism 
 of compensation clearer to his readers than Freud 
 did the mechanism of conversion. 
 
 It will be only when we know what part of 
 
 [331] 
 
Psychoanalysis and Behaviour 
 
 the organism "produces" an emotion and, re- 
 ciprocally, what part of the organism is af- 
 fected by a given emotion, that we shall vis- 
 ualize clearly the relations between "mind" and 
 "body." Then we shall understand the mean- 
 ing of the vital urge and of the libido; then, the so- 
 called "nervous" disturbances as well as conscious- 
 ness and its content (thought) shall lose their mys- 
 tery. 
 
 Edward J. Kempf, of Saint Elizabeth Hospital, 
 Washington, D. C, attacks the problem from a new 
 and original point of view. 
 
 Kempf states frankly his dislike of the term 
 libido. Although that term attempts to represent 
 graphically the energic constitution of man and his 
 love of life, it lacks clearness, for the human mind 
 cannot very well conceive of a process as such, un- 
 less there is some thing that proceeds. 
 
 The concept of electricity would be hazy indeed, 
 were it not that we can visualize dynamos, wires, 
 sparks, bulbs and mahy other visible, tangible, etc., 
 means of production or manifestation of the force 
 called electricity. 
 
 In order to explain the great physiological 
 changes which influence human thought and be- 
 haviour and the biological nature of man, Kempf 
 has developed a conception of the personality based 
 [332] 
 
The Importance of the Brain 
 
 on the reflex actions of the autonomic nervous sys- 
 tem. 
 
 To him the human organism is a biological ma- 
 chine which assimilates, conserves, transforms and 
 expends energy. All those operations are regu- 
 lated by the autonomic apparatus which keeps in 
 touch with the environment through the projicient 
 sensori-motor nervous system. 
 
 As the autonomic apparatus becomes con- 
 ditioned (trained) to have acquisitive and avertive 
 tendencies toward its environment, according to 
 which cravings are active in a given situation, the 
 organism's behaviour is the resultant of a com- 
 promise between the opposed cravings. 
 
 The importance of the brain is greatly minimized 
 by this conception. Experiments have proved that 
 the same form of behaviour is not always due to the 
 activity of the same brain cells and the theories 
 which localize in certain regions of the brain the 
 controlling forces of all human conduct must be 
 abandoned. 
 
 According to Kempf, brain and personality, so 
 long associated in popular parlance, must no longer 
 be considered as interchangeable terms. In fact, 
 every part of the body contributes something to the 
 personality and to its consciousness of itself. 
 
 Should some one lose a limb or a group of 
 
 [333] 
 
Psychoanalysis and Behaviour 
 
 muscles, he would lose at the same time an im- 
 portant part of his personality. This would mani- 
 fest itself in the manner in which he would adjust 
 himself to the stresses of daily life, what he would 
 try to do and feel compelled to avoid, etc. 
 
 Analysis alone would reveal that fact; the natural 
 readjustment of the remaining muscles would pre- 
 vent any gross change from being observable. 
 
 For instance, the loss of the eyes and arms would 
 greatly reduce the ability to understand new ma- 
 chinery, new situations and probably reduce to an 
 enormous extent the power of recalling experiences 
 in which the eyes and hands played a predominant 
 part, such as writing, etc. 
 
 Because most of our thoughts are dependent 
 upon our miiscle sense, it may be said that we ac- 
 tually think with our muscles. If we allow our- 
 selves to become aware of the visual image of an 
 automobile, we are aware that it is moving, because 
 the muscles of the eyeball shift the image by modi- 
 fying their postural tensions. 
 
 Sometimes the muscles of the neck may con- 
 tribute more information by moving the head. 
 
 If we are pushing the automobile ourselves, the 
 muscles of the body come into play to furnish other 
 images and if we are pushing it along a cold, wet, 
 muddy road, the sensations of cold, wetness and 
 [334] 
 
The Social Herd 
 
 mud arise from the tactile receptors of our legs. 
 
 But such a perfect correlation between our 
 autonomic apparatus and the sensori-motor system 
 is a gradual acquisition of the human being in the 
 course of it development. 
 
 At birth, we have a well-developed, well-bal- 
 anced, autonomic apparatus and a poorly co- 
 ordinated sensori-motor system. The autonomic 
 apparatus, however, begins immediately to co- 
 ordinate and control the sensori-motor system in 
 order to master its environment. 
 
 A most important factor begins to exert pressure 
 upon the infant from the very- minute of its birth 
 and exerts it throughout life. It is the incessant 
 pressure of the social herd, which modifies the 
 autonomic apparatus and compels it to adopt less 
 and less primitive, more and more civilized and in- 
 direct methods of satisfying the various human 
 cravings. 
 
 The tone or tension produced by the autonomic 
 apparatus in the m,uscles which move our body and 
 limbs determines largely the content of our con- 
 sciousness or thoughts. 
 
 This leads us to a complete reversal of the view 
 held by the academic philosophers and psycho- 
 logical laboratory observers. 
 
 According to them the emotions are one of the re- 
 
 [335] 
 
Psychoanalysis and Behaviour 
 
 suits of the mind's contemplation of phenomena 
 taking place within or without the organism. 
 "Bodily" reactions and "mental" reactions take 
 place after the emotion has been experienced. 
 
 James and Lange advanced the theory that our 
 feeling of bodily changes, following the perception 
 of a stimulus, is the emotion. Kempf goes furdier 
 and states that if we experience an emotion, it is 
 because some parts of the autonomic apparatus 
 have assumed a certain tension which produces the 
 emotion. As evidence, he cites the fact that we 
 are at times awakened at night by fearful tensions 
 whose cause is unknown and then awaken to find 
 that there is some one in our room. Nursing 
 mothers experience vigorous disturbances in their 
 sleep long before they become aware that their child 
 is in distress. We become conscious of images of 
 urinating in our dreams and find upon awakening, 
 that uncomfortable tensions of the bladder have 
 been active for some time owing to the accumula- 
 tion of urine. 
 
 Kempf's theory of the dynamic mechanism is 
 worded as follows: 
 
 "Whenever any segment of the autonomic-affec- 
 tive apparatus is forced into a state of hypertension 
 through the necessities of metabolism or endo- 
 genous or exogenous stimuli, the hypertense seg- 
 [336] 
 
The Basis of Behaviour 
 
 ment gives off a stream of emotion or affective crav- 
 ing which compels the proficient apparatus to so 
 adjust the exteroceptors in the environment as to 
 acquire stimuli which have the capacity to produce 
 comfortable postural readjustments in those au- 
 tonomic segments." 
 
 In other words, whenever autonomic nerves, for 
 instance, the nerves causing the contractibns of the 
 stomach known as hunger, are made extremely tense 
 by the sight or smell of food, they produce a strong 
 emotion or desire which compels the sensori-motor 
 nerves to apply the mouth to food, after which the 
 tension of the autonomic nerves is relieved. 
 
 Kempf maintains that this biologic principle or 
 law is the foundation of all human and animal be- 
 haviour, to be seen throughout all its workings, 
 whether brief and trivial or prolonged and elabor- 
 ate. "The seeking and creating follows the co- 
 rollary 'to obtain a maximum of autonomic grati- 
 fication with a minimum expenditure of energy,' 
 thus developing increasing skill and power, exten- 
 sion of influence and assurance of comfort and an 
 increasing margin of safety from liability to 
 failure." 
 
 Most of the nervous tensions originating in the 
 autonomic apparatus have as their biological aim 
 the acquisition of appropriate pleasant stimulations 
 
 [337] 
 
Psychoanalysis and Behaviour 
 
 and the avoidance of destructive unpleasant ones; 
 for instance, they direct us toward food and away 
 from some danger. They are relieved only when 
 their objective stimulus is attained. 
 
 In certain cases the object is unattainable, being 
 socially tobooed or having passed beyond our 
 reach, as for example when a loved person dies. 
 In such cases, tensions will remain unrelieved and 
 become seriously distressing as well as dangerous 
 for our mental and physical health. Among other 
 things, they disturb the blood supply to certain 
 organs and hence weaken them in their struggle 
 against the bacteria of infectious diseases. ' 
 
 In case of tuberculosis, pneumonia, typhoid, ex- 
 cessive fatigue, an exaggerated emotional tension 
 may be fatal. In other words, the individual who 
 represses certain cravings because they are ungrati- 
 fiable or for fear of the influence their gratification 
 may have on his social standing, tends to have 
 organs which are more liable to disease. 
 
 The struggle between conflicting cravings was 
 considered by psychologists of the old school as 
 taking place in our "mind." Kempf shows us that 
 it takes place in our autonomic apparatus. The 
 sacral division may be conditioned to need stimuli 
 that are perverse or tabooed and cause irritability 
 and depression until gratified, whereas their un- 
 [338] 
 
The Fight for Nervous Control 
 
 restrained indulgence may greatly jeopardize the 
 love for social esteem and the feeling of social fit- 
 ness. The secret sense of social inferiority, due 
 to some one's awareness of tabooed pelvic cravings, 
 makes life in human society a fearful ordeal, which 
 in turn, disturbs the respiratory, circulatory and 
 gastronomic functions. Hence the needs or crav- 
 ings of the different autonomic segments converge 
 upon the projicient apparatus and behaviour is the 
 physical or mechanical resultant. This compels 
 the different autonomic segments to wage fierce 
 conflict for control of our conduct and our conduct 
 reveals the conflict. 
 
 That struggle grows fiercer as the civilization 
 in which we live grows more complex. At birth, 
 the autonomic apparatus works smoothly, because 
 the infant is dependent upon the mother and hence 
 irresponsible. But when the mother begins to train 
 the infant to nurse, urinate and defecate under 
 certain specific conditions, the autonomic apparatus 
 for the first time clashes with society which insists 
 on self-restraint, self-control and self -refinement. 
 
 Heedless indulgence by an individual of any age 
 causes uncomfortable tensions in his associates, 
 (disgust, fear, anger), and therefore they are com- 
 pelled to control social tendencies in every in- 
 dividual from his earliest childhood. 
 
 [339] 
 
Psychoanalysis and Behaviour 
 
 Acquisitive cravings know no social law, how- 
 ever, and often threaten to jeopardize the person- 
 ality by impelling it to do something which is 
 illegal or immoral. For, after all, man is simply 
 an ape that has learnt to wear clothes, to use words 
 and signs and that can foresee in a general sense 
 the possible biological and social results of certain 
 indulgences. 
 
 Autonomic segments of the infant are then 
 trained (conditioned) to react to certain stimuli, 
 for instance, to certain vocal sounds and touches 
 indicating the time for nursing, to signs and touches 
 indicating disapproval of certain acts; the fear of 
 losing certain agreeable stimuli gradually develops 
 in him a certain degree of self-control. 
 
 Many cravings of an ungratifiable or unjustifi- 
 able nature, however, resist all attempts on the part 
 of our environment to curb them. Compensatory 
 strivings are then set in motion to prevent them, 
 either from manifesting themselves or from being 
 recognized in order that the organism may fiscape 
 the concomitant fear. A state of fear induces 
 malnutrition and impotence and hence would be 
 destructive for the individual and the race. 
 
 When a craving is allowed to make the organ- 
 ism aware of its needs, but is not allowed to cause 
 overt acts, it is said to be suppressed. When it is 
 [340] 
 
The Sane and the Insane 
 
 not allowed to cause the organism to become aware 
 of its needs, it may be said to have been repressed. 
 
 But neither suppression nor repression is synony- 
 mous with annihilation. Whether we remain in 
 ignorance of the fact that a boiler is full of steam 
 or simply disregard that fact, the steam is there, 
 seeking an outlet and likely to create an abnormal 
 one, unless a normal outlet is provided. 
 
 Repressed autonomic segments, like steam in a 
 boiler, need but the slightest opportunity offered 
 by the environment, x>r the slightest relaxation of 
 the repressing forces to obtain control of the sen- 
 sori-motor nervous system. We may suppress our 
 disgust or anger to save appearances but we will 
 at the same time, by remarks, by our very tone of 
 voice or gestures, betray our real feelings; we will 
 have dreams which picture the attempted or suc- 
 cessful gratification of suppressed cravings. 
 
 The essential difference between most sane and 
 insane people is that insane people cannot control 
 their repressed cravings while sane people can. 
 That is to say, when people become fatigued, toxic, 
 dazed and can no longer control their repressed 
 cravings, those cravings cause a form of behaviour 
 which is termed insane. 
 
 As the human individual grows and develops, he 
 gradually becomes able to control the activities of 
 
 [341] 
 
Psychoanalysis and Behaviour 
 
 the various cravings with the exception, however, 
 of the sexual cravings. When sexual cravings are 
 normal, they are naturally justified and, imder cer- 
 tain conditions, they are permitted socially to 
 dominate our behaviour. 
 
 When the personality, on the other hand, con- 
 siders sexual cravings as shameful inferiorities, 
 either because they are perverse or because the per- 
 sonality has been educated in a prudish way, the 
 individual becomes forced into a form of adjust- 
 ment which is abnormal on account of the auto- 
 nomic conflict it entails. 
 
 Whenever a violent conflict rages in our 
 autonomic apparatus between acquisitive and aver- 
 tive cravings, a neurosis ensues, or rather, the 
 neurosis is the conflict. No constitutional predis- 
 position is needed to bring about its onset. Life's 
 experiences and the influence of our environment 
 and associates are sufficient as determining factors. 
 
 Kempf does not accept Freud's theory as to the 
 importance of sex (love) in the causation of 
 neurotic disturbances. Any of the primary crav- 
 ings, love, hate, hunger, shame, sorrow, fear or 
 disgust may cause a neurosis under appropriate 
 conditions. 
 
 The neurotic is suff"ering from cravings which 
 he cannot allow to dominate his personality. 
 [342] 
 
Reclassifying the Neuroses 
 
 Those cravings are so often located in postural ten- 
 sions of certain organs that they are probably con- 
 sistent things even if they are not always discover- 
 able, 
 
 A strong craving like the famishing influence of 
 protracted hunger, which originates in the stomach, 
 or the severe itching of an area of the skin, may 
 finally determine all the adjustments of the entire 
 personality and be felt over the entire body. 
 
 The result may be a severe struggle to eliminate 
 the craving from the personality. Or the person- 
 ality may resign itself to the domination of the 
 craving and to a regression in which the individual 
 enjoys tensions and images, fancies, delusions, hal- 
 lucinations which simulate the craved reality. 
 
 On the basis of this conception of the personality, 
 Kempf rejects entirely the usual classification of 
 mental disturbances into neuroses, psycho-neuroses 
 and psychoses. That classification is very unscien- 
 tific and unbiological for il! is based upon symptoms 
 which may change under different conditions or un- 
 der the care of different physicians. In many in- 
 stitutions, for example, the diagnosis "manic-de- 
 pressive" tacitly means recoverable, while "de- 
 mentia praecox" means incurable, so that if a 
 dementia praecox patient shows a tendency to re- 
 covery he is reclassified as "manic-depressive." 
 
 [343] 
 
Psychoanalysis and Behaviour 
 
 Kempf's classification takes into account the na- 
 ture of the patient's autonomic cravings and his at- 
 titude toward them, ilt is, therefore, essentially 
 mechanistic and truly biological. 
 
 Every nervous disturbance is designated as a 
 neurosis. 
 
 The neurosis is then, according to its duration, 
 termed acute, chronic or periodic. The term acute 
 is reserved for cases of less than a year's duration. 
 Chronic is applied to cases having had more than a 
 year's duration or which have had an insidious 
 course for more than a year before the consultation. 
 Periodic is applied to cases which have periodic or 
 intermittent episodes or recurrences accompanying 
 natural phenomena such as menstruation, preg- 
 nancy, marriage, death of a child, etc. 
 
 The neurosis is further qualified with regard 
 to its mechanism, that is, the insight the patient 
 has retained. The neurosis is benign when the pa- 
 tient recognizes that his distress or disease is due 
 to the suppression of unjustifiable or ungratifiable 
 cravings which are a part of his personality. The 
 neurosis is pernicious when the patient refuses to 
 attribute his trouble to a personal cause or wish, in- 
 sists that it is due to an impersonal cause or a mali- 
 cious influence and tends to hate any one who would 
 attribute it to a personal source. 
 [344] 
 
Reclassifying the Neuroses 
 
 According to the mechanism of the autonomic 
 conflict involved, neuroses are differentiated into 
 five types : 
 
 The suppression neuroses are characterized by 
 the fact that the patient is more or less conscious of 
 the nature and effect upon himself of his ungrati- 
 fiable cravings. For instance, a man niay be af- 
 fected by his love for a faithless, indifferent or dead 
 woman ; a soldier may be caught between two fears, 
 that of death and that of a court martial, etc., and 
 know that it causes him insomnia, headache, cardiac 
 anxiety, diarrhoea, etc. 
 
 In repression neuroses, the individual tries to 
 prevent the autonomic cravings from making them- 
 selves known and influencing his personality. A 
 repressed fear may make a man blind or lame and 
 he may feel convinced that an actual fall, bruise 
 or wrench is responsible for his condition, because 
 he has succeeded in making himself forget the 
 cravings that are relieved by being blind or 
 lame. 
 
 Compensation neuroses are characterized by a 
 reflex effort to develop functions which will com- 
 pensate for some organic or functional inferiority 
 or keep an undesirable craving repressed, which 
 is unconsciously causing fear. Very often the ef- 
 fort is adapted or designed to destroy or defeat en- 
 
 [345] 
 
Psychoanalysis and Behaviour 
 
 vironment factors which arouse the intolerable 
 craving or oppose the compensation. Egotism, in- 
 tolerance and exaggerated claims are typical of 
 compensation neuroses. 
 
 Regression neuroses are just the opposite. The 
 individual makes no effort to win or retain social 
 esteem and regresses to a lower, childlike or in- 
 fantile level, becoming apathetic, slovenly, irre- 
 sponsible, often showing suicidal tendencies, and 
 allowing the cravings to do as they please. 
 
 The regression may be a relatively benign epi- 
 sode of a few months' duration. It may in other 
 cases be followed by a feeling of having died and 
 passed through a rebirth, and also of having 
 eliminated all the sinful cravings in order to begin 
 life anew. This form of adjustment may work as 
 long as the subject lives in a protected, non-com- 
 petitive environment. Later, an eccentric over- 
 compensation often takes place which eventually 
 leads to another neurosis or a permanent deteriora- 
 tion of the personality. 
 
 In dissociation neuroses, the patient succeeds in 
 keeping his undesirable cravings repressed until 
 they finally become dissociated. The individual 
 is then conscious of weird, distorted images, hallu- 
 cinations of past sensations and experiences which 
 seem to gratify the dissociated effect although they 
 [346] 
 
The Analytic Treatment 
 
 horrify the individual. The individual is also 
 dominated by unacceptable, mysterious obsessions, 
 fears, compulsions and inspirations. There may 
 be also severe visceral distress, motor disturbances, 
 amnesia, etc. 
 
 The analytic treatment as mapped out by Kempf , 
 consists in developing a transference, that is, giving 
 the subject an apportunity to rely upon the al- 
 truistic judgment of some authoritative practitioner 
 and enabling him to allow his repressions to make 
 themselves conscious. 
 
 Kempf disagrees with Jung on the extent to which 
 the transference should be used and he considers 
 it essential in order to help the neurotic to become 
 socially constructive. Only in that way can the 
 analyst fulfil the mission in which the neurotic's 
 parents failed. 
 
 After the subject succeeds in giving full expres- 
 sion to his repressed affects, those affects become 
 assimilated with the personality and form an inti- 
 mate part of it, instead of remaining uncontrol- 
 lable, unconscious or mysterious factors. In that 
 way the dissociated cravings which cause obses- 
 sions, phobias, mannerisms, compulsions, delu- 
 sions, hallucinations, regressions, eccentric com- 
 pensations and prejudices, are once more merged 
 with the organism from which they had been ab- 
 
 [347] 
 
Psychoanalysis and Behaviour 
 
 normally separated and the functional distortion 
 disappears. 
 
 The subject having acquired insight and being 
 free from the fear of something within himself, 
 becomes capable of making a sensible, practical 
 adjustment. 
 
 \^%en that readjustment is effected an intelligent 
 use of the reconstructive, suggestive method seems 
 to be most effective in giving the neurotic new in- 
 terests for which to live and work, without seeking 
 abnormal compensations for prudish or fearful re- 
 pressions or yielding to perverse cravings. 
 
 The choice of a method, Kempf thinks, should be 
 left to the patient but he should not be allowed to 
 avoid the work of reconstruction. Furthermore, 
 the analysis should be accompanied by vigorous 
 indulgence in social play requiring exposure of 
 functional or organic inferiorities to more or less 
 critical evaluation by competitors. Thus the sub- 
 ject will become immune to the fear of failure or 
 inferiority and will avoid eccentric compensation 
 and a seclusive mode of life. 
 
 BIBLIOGRAPHY 
 
 To understand Kempf's works one must have acquired 
 a good working knowledge of the autonomic system and 
 of endocrinology. See the bibliography following the 
 [348] 
 
Bibliography 
 
 chapter on Nerves and Nervousness. Kempf's style is 
 extremely technical and remarkable for its accuracy but 
 not easily understood by the layman. The body of his 
 doctrines is contained in his book "Psychopathology," 
 published by C. V. Mosby, in which he discusses the 
 physical basis of the personality, the psychology of 
 the family, the universal struggle for virility, organic 
 and functional inferiorities and their influence on the 
 personality, the various forms of neuroses, etc. 
 
 Also consult the following monographs and articles : 
 Kempf, Edward J. — "The Mechanistic Classification of 
 Neuroses and Psychoses Produced by Distortion of 
 the Autonomic-affective Functions," Journal of Nerv- 
 ous and Mental Disease, August, 1919. 
 Kempf, Edward J. — "The Tonus of Autonomic Segments 
 as Causes of Abnormal Behaviour,"/ournaZ of Nerv- 
 ous and Mental Disease, January, 1920. 
 Kempf, Edward J. — "The Autonomic Functions and the 
 Personality," Nervous and Mental Disease Mono- 
 graph Series No. 28. 
 
 [349] 
 
INDEX 
 
 Absent-minded, 192 
 
 Actors, 328 
 
 Adler, 53, 54, 92, 106, 319 sqq 
 
 Adrenals, 89 
 
 Adrenin, 26, 38 
 
 Advice (to patients), 283 
 
 Alma Z. (case), 133 sqq. 
 
 Anna (little Anna), 73 sqq. 
 
 Anxiety (dreams), 189 
 
 Anxiety (neurosis), 297 
 
 Aphasia, 107 
 
 Aphonia, 107 
 
 Appelt (A), 114 
 
 Arpad (case), 69 sqq. 
 
 Arterial (tension), 89 
 
 Artistic (creation), 328, 329 
 
 Ascetics, 241 
 
 Aschner Test, 40, 41, 203 
 
 Attitudes, 233 
 
 Attitudes (ready for use) , 325 
 
 Autoerotism, 294 
 
 Autonomic (system), 35 
 
 Baby talk, 227 
 
 Baldness, 279 
 
 Beauchamp (case), 132 sqq. 
 
 Bees (mating), 29 
 
 Beethoven, 264, 329 
 
 Bergson, 305 
 
 Bemheim, 271 
 
 Bleuler, 75 
 
 Bourne (Rev. Ansel), 130 sqq. 
 
 Bo vary (Madame), 245 sqq. 
 
 Brain, 333 
 
 Bruckner, 329 
 
 Calvities, 279 
 
 Canalization (of the libido), 
 
 315 
 Cannon (W. B.), 33 
 Castration, 241 
 Caterpillars, 28 
 Charcot, 271 
 Charity, 248 
 
 Chicago (vice report), 255 
 Circus freaks, 56 
 Clergymen, 258 
 
 Compensation (neuroses) , 345 
 Complex, 17, 18 
 Comstock (Anthony), 259 sqq. 
 Conflicts, 315 
 Conversion, 331 
 Copepods, 27 
 Coriat (I. H.), 114 
 Courtship, 226 
 Cowards, 42, 43 
 Cranio-sacral division, 36, 37 
 Cranks, 92 
 
 Craving (for power), 326 
 Cravings, 240 
 Cravings (parasitic), 247 
 Crile (G. W.), 33 
 Criminals (way of dealing 
 
 with), 32 
 Crowd psychology, 26 
 
 Dementia piaecox, 95 
 Demosthenes, 329 
 Dog (electric), 29, 30 
 Dogs (experiments on), 25, 41, 
 42, 45, 193 
 
 [351] 
 
Index 
 
 Don Juan, 328 
 
 Dostoyevsky, 273 
 
 Dreams, 185, 201 sqq., 219, 
 
 290, 291, 311, 326 
 Dual (personalities), 129-145 
 Dubois, 281 
 Diplomats, 170 
 Disparagement, 94 
 Dissociation (neuroses), 346 
 
 Kder (M. D.), 114 
 
 Edison, 190 
 
 Energic (viewpoint), 305 
 
 Enlightenment (sexual), 66-86 
 
 Epidemics, 180 
 
 Epileptics, 102 
 
 Eroticism, 310 
 
 Erotropism, 219 
 
 Exhibitionism, 170, 171, 180, 
 
 294 
 Extroversion, 104 
 
 Father (fixation), 61, 62, 63, 
 
 221 sqq. 
 Fatigue, 194 
 Father (image), 221 
 Ferenczi, 69, 101, 176 
 Fetichism, 230 sqq. 
 Fielding (W. J.), 251 
 Fishes (observations on), 120, 
 
 228 
 Fixations (childhood), 53-65, 
 , 295, 296 
 
 Food-Ego-Power Urge, 39 
 Frazer (J. G.), 115 
 Free-will, 27 
 Freud, 53, 54, 56, 66, 167, 181, 
 
 200, 239, 271, 289 sqq. 
 Freudians, 270, 274 
 Frigidity, 253 
 Frogs (experiments on), 24 
 
 [352] 
 
 Gastric fistula, 46 
 
 Glycogen, 38 
 
 Goal (fictitious), 322, 323 
 
 Goethe, 242 
 
 Golden Bough, 115 
 
 Goodhart (Dr. S. P.), 136, 138 
 
 Hanna (Rev. T. C.) 136 sqq. 
 Hans (Little Hans), 69 
 Heliotropism, 219 
 Holding hands, 22/ 
 Homosexualism, 234 
 Hyperaesthetic, 254 
 Hypnotic (technique), 272 
 Hypnotism, 269 sqq. 
 
 Imago, 309 
 
 Imitation, 55, 57 
 
 Impotence (dreams), 210 
 
 Inbreeding, 123, 124 
 
 Incest (fancy), 323 
 
 Incest (in dreams), 214, 327 
 
 Individual psychology, 319 
 
 Individualism (neurotic), 313 
 
 Inferiority (feeling of), 324 
 
 Inferiority (organic), 320 
 
 Insane (care of the), 160, 161, 
 
 162, 163 
 Insane (who were cured), 160, 
 
 161 
 Insanity, 299 
 Intolerance, 177 
 Introversion, 95, 226, 227 
 Introverts, 308 
 
 James (William), 131 
 Jealousy, 225 
 Jelliffe (Dr. S. E.), 285 
 Juke family, 124 
 Jung, 73 sqq., 271, 280, 305 
 sqq. 
 
Index 
 
 Kempf (E. J.), 126, 127, 146 Normal (type), 39 
 sqq., 240, 331 sqq. Noses (red) , 280 
 
 Lay, William, 22 
 
 Libido, 294, 299, 305, 331 
 
 Liebeault, 271 
 
 Loeb, Jacques, 22, 237 
 
 Lombroso, 277 
 
 Love, 219-238 
 
 Love (at first sight), 223 
 
 Love (unhappy), 229 
 
 Manaceine (Mme. de), 200 
 
 Marriage, 223 sqq. 
 
 Masochism, 236 
 
 Memory, 107 sqq. 
 
 Mendel, 117 
 
 Midianites, 173 
 
 Mirbeau, 231 
 
 Mitchell (Dr. S. Weir), 135 
 
 Mnemotechnic methods, 110 
 
 Monotony, 191 
 
 Morality, 316 
 
 Morphine, 284 
 
 Moses, 173 
 
 Mother (fixation) 58 sqq., 151, 
 
 160, 213, 221 sqq. 
 Mother (image), 221 
 Mozart, 329 
 Musicians, 329 
 Mysogynist, 328 
 
 Nagging, 100 
 
 Napoleon, 190 
 
 Narcotics, 200 
 
 Neurasthenia, 298 
 
 Neurosis, 297, 298, 343; classi- 
 fication of neuroses, 344 
 
 Nietzsche, 220 
 
 Nightmares, 197, 198, 208, 209, 
 210, 211 
 
 Oedipus Complex, 54 
 Onanism, 67 
 Orange (blossoms), 188 
 Orphans, 64 
 Oversexed, 254 
 
 Painters, 329 
 
 Parents (image) , 221 sqq. 
 Parents (role of), 308 
 Pathogenic (wishes), 292 
 Pavlof, 45 
 Perversions, 234 
 Pfister, 251 
 Philanthropy, 248 
 , Pigeons, 222, 235 
 Polymorphous Perverse, 306 
 Pouchet, 120 
 
 Prayer (in. sleeplessness), 199 
 Prepubertal (period), 307 
 Presexual (period), 306 
 Prince (Morton), 132 
 Psychoanalytic (point of view), 
 
 289 
 Psycho-neuroses, 298 
 Psychoses, 298, 299 
 Puritanism, 252-268 
 
 Quacks, 251 
 Quarrels, 46 
 
 Raids, 179, 180 
 Regression, 88, 273 
 Regression (neuroses), 346 
 Religious meditation, 248 
 Repression (neuroses), 345 
 Retaliation, 175 
 Reynolds (Mary), 135, 136 
 Ring Doves, 222 
 
 [353] 
 
Index 
 
 Ripper (Jack the), 175 
 Rodin, 242 
 
 Sadism, 236 
 Safety Urge, 39 
 Scapegoats, 115-128 
 Second (wind), 193 
 Seditious persons, 174 
 Selenium, 29 
 Self-sacrifice, 310 
 Sensori-motor nerves, 34-35 
 Sex Books, 153 
 Sex Urge, 39 
 Shoes and Rice, 187, 188 
 Sick (headache) , 102 
 Sidis (Boris), 269 
 Singers, 328 
 Sleep, 185-200 
 Sleeplessness, 185-200 
 Snakes (in dreams), 189 
 Social Diseases, 256 
 Social (herd), 335 
 Speakers, 328 
 Stammering, 107 sqq. 
 Stork (stories), 74, 75 
 Straton (Rev. J. R.), 257 
 Sublimation, 239 sqq. 
 Suggestion, 269 
 Sumner (J. S.), 257, 263 
 Sunday (BiUy), 262 
 Superstitions, 251 
 Suppression (neuroses), 345 
 Svengali, 273 
 
 Sweat (glands), 185 
 Symbols, 312 
 Sympathetic system, 35 
 Sympathicotonic, 40, 45, 47 
 
 Talking (cures) 281 
 Thoracico-lumbar division, 36, 
 
 37 
 Thumb-sucking, 293 
 Tolstoy, 264 
 Train (G. F.), 255 
 Trance, 276 
 Transference, 300-301 
 Traumas, 292 
 Typhoid vaccine, 43 
 
 Unconscious, 13 sqq. 
 Uniforms (military), 171, 172 
 Urination (nervous) , 249 
 
 Vagotonic, 40, 45, 47, 185 
 
 Vegetative system, 35 
 
 Vice (N. Y. Society for the 
 
 Suppression of), 255 sqq. 
 Vinci (Leonardo da), 242 
 
 Western University 
 
 ments), 196 
 Wetterstrand, 278 
 Will-to-Power, 100 
 Worry, 196 
 
 Zinzendorf, 248 
 
 (experi- 
 
 [354]